| { | |
| "paper_id": "C90-1016", | |
| "header": { | |
| "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0", | |
| "date_generated": "2023-01-19T12:36:10.428513Z" | |
| }, | |
| "title": "Discourse Processing in MT", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "In", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Problems", | |
| "suffix": "", | |
| "affiliation": { | |
| "laboratory": "", | |
| "institution": "455 North University", | |
| "location": { | |
| "addrLine": "Suite 202", | |
| "postCode": "84601", | |
| "settlement": "Provo", | |
| "region": "UT", | |
| "country": "U.S.A" | |
| } | |
| }, | |
| "email": "" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Pronominal", | |
| "suffix": "", | |
| "affiliation": { | |
| "laboratory": "", | |
| "institution": "455 North University", | |
| "location": { | |
| "addrLine": "Suite 202", | |
| "postCode": "84601", | |
| "settlement": "Provo", | |
| "region": "UT", | |
| "country": "U.S.A" | |
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| "abstract": "Intrcnluction Translation of anaphoric expressions has been problematic in most of the MT systems (Key 1986). One ot' the main reasons for the difficulties lies in the lack of discourse information representation in the MT systems. In this paper, we report an implementation of the Discourse Representation Theory in an LFG-based English-to-Japanese MT program, and discuss problems in translating anaphoric expressions in this system. 2. Problems in Translating Anaplmra Problems in translation of anaphoric expressions can be seen on three different but interactive levels of linguistic information: lexical, syntactic and pragmatic. The main problem on the lexical level is due to a difference in the language specific parameters in the pronominal system such as F features (person, gender, number, etc.). Surface forms of pronominals depend on the F features of their antecedents, so that the translation of a particular pronominal form cannot be determined sorely by the pronominal itself. For example, 'ship' in English is feminine, but its translation, 'hune', is neutral in Japanese. Thus, a preform 'she' for 'ship' should not be translated as 'kanojo' (3rd, sing, fem), but as 'sore' (3rd, sing, neut). Problems on the syntactic level are mainly due to a difference in the distribution of anaphoric expressions. Mapping relations between English pronominals and their Japanese counterparts are shown below:", | |
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| "paper_id": "C90-1016", | |
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| "abstract": [ | |
| { | |
| "text": "Intrcnluction Translation of anaphoric expressions has been problematic in most of the MT systems (Key 1986). One ot' the main reasons for the difficulties lies in the lack of discourse information representation in the MT systems. In this paper, we report an implementation of the Discourse Representation Theory in an LFG-based English-to-Japanese MT program, and discuss problems in translating anaphoric expressions in this system. 2. Problems in Translating Anaplmra Problems in translation of anaphoric expressions can be seen on three different but interactive levels of linguistic information: lexical, syntactic and pragmatic. The main problem on the lexical level is due to a difference in the language specific parameters in the pronominal system such as F features (person, gender, number, etc.). Surface forms of pronominals depend on the F features of their antecedents, so that the translation of a particular pronominal form cannot be determined sorely by the pronominal itself. For example, 'ship' in English is feminine, but its translation, 'hune', is neutral in Japanese. Thus, a preform 'she' for 'ship' should not be translated as 'kanojo' (3rd, sing, fem), but as 'sore' (3rd, sing, neut). Problems on the syntactic level are mainly due to a difference in the distribution of anaphoric expressions. Mapping relations between English pronominals and their Japanese counterparts are shown below:", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Abstract", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "body_text": [ | |
| { | |
| "text": "The most crucial case is English overt pronouns. As Kuroda noted (1965:107) , overt pronouns are not repeatable in Japanese, while they are in English.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 52, | |
| "end": 75, | |
| "text": "Kuroda noted (1965:107)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Topic-Zero", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "(1) a. He does Iris work when he feels like doing it. b. *Kare-wa kare-ga sitai toki-ni kare-no he 'FOP he NOM like to do when his GEN sigoto-wo suru. work ACC do Instead of repeating overt pronouns, zero pronominals and 'zibun' should be used though there are some variations in their use. c. Kare-wa 0 sitai toki-ni ~ sigoto-wo suru. d. Kare-wa zibun-ga sitai toki-ni 0 sigoto-wo sum. e. Kare-wa 0 sitai toki-ni zil)un-no sigoto-wo suru.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Topic-Zero", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Resumptive pronouns are also problematic. Possessive relative pronoun 'whose' in English must be translated as a resumptive pronoun whose antecedent is the head NP of a relative clause in Japanese.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Topic-Zero", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The last set of problems is on the level o1' pragmatics. It has been known that in many languages certain types of pronominal expressions represent a focus in a discourse. For example, in English, overt pronouns play this role while zero pronouns (topiczero) do the job in Japanese. In a certain discourse context, a discourse focus should be translated as a reflexive 'zibun' instead of a zero pronoun.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Topic-Zero", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Some cases may be induced to lexical properties of predicates and pronominals such as functional and psuedo-functional control cases and reflexivity. Nonetheless, most of the above problems are not easily separable; they should better be solved in a unified model.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Topic-Zero", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "In this paper, we will focus on the problems of translating English overt non-reflexive pronominals into Japanese. These l)ronominals must be mapped into 1) overt l)ronominals, 2) 'zibun', 3) pro, or 4) discourse pro in Japanese.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Treatment of Pronominal Translation", | |
| "sec_num": "3." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "To explain some exceptions on locality conditions and ambiguous cases in anaphora resolution, recent studies have focused on the role of discourse (Grosz 1981; Sidner 1983; Joshi & Weinstein 1981; Kameyama 1985; Roberts 1986 ) and world knowledge. Discourse factors affecting anaphora resolution are discourse structure and discourse focus/center. This report concerns only the latter; in particular, the selection of focus and its maintenance.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 147, | |
| "end": 159, | |
| "text": "(Grosz 1981;", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF4" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 160, | |
| "end": 172, | |
| "text": "Sidner 1983;", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF13" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 173, | |
| "end": 196, | |
| "text": "Joshi & Weinstein 1981;", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF5" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 197, | |
| "end": 211, | |
| "text": "Kameyama 1985;", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 212, | |
| "end": 224, | |
| "text": "Roberts 1986", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF11" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Role of Discourse", | |
| "sec_num": "3.1." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Following Grosz, we assume that a focus is the most salient NP in a sentence, and every sentence has one and only one focus 1. Often a focus is marked by the use of pronominal, stress, thematic role and particular syntactic constructions such as clefting, question, passivization, etc. However, there seems no clear generalization on the organization of the focus marking factors. We simply assume the most marked NP with respect to die number of found factors (asher & Wada 1989; Alshawi 1987) .", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 461, | |
| "end": 480, | |
| "text": "(asher & Wada 1989;", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 481, | |
| "end": 494, | |
| "text": "Alshawi 1987)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF0" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Role of Discourse", | |
| "sec_num": "3.1." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We have adopted the Discourse Representation Structure (Kamp 1981) to represent a current discourse structure which will be appended to an fstructure representing a sentence. DRS+f-structure gives a ground for examining logical conditions based on the accessibility condition, and locality conditions such as disjoint reference on each anaphoric expression (cf. Roberts 1986) . Now consider 4) discourse pro. Its characteristic is that it may not be bound in the current sentence, but must be bound by the focus in the previous discourse. In other words, when a pronominal cannot find its antecedent in the current DRS, we assume that it must be bound by the previous discourse focus unless the focus has been shifted, and in such a case we translate it as ~, a lexical zero pronominal.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 55, | |
| "end": 66, | |
| "text": "(Kamp 1981)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 362, | |
| "end": 375, | |
| "text": "Roberts 1986)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF11" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Role of Discourse", | |
| "sec_num": "3.1." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "On the other hand, when an antecedent is found in the DRS, the anaphoric link will be noted not only in DRS, but also in relevant f-structures via features such as Ant(ecedent) and Desc(endent) with a common index. However, we still need to determine which form should be used: pro, 'zibun', or overt pronominals. The selection should be syntactically made on the Japanese side since no additional information is available for the selection in the English f-structures.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Proform Selection by FU", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Let us discuss the syntactic mechanism for the proforrn selection. Suppose that a proform be lexically presented in each noun in the lexicon such as follows2:", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Proform Selection by FU", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "I ~ENDER msc GENDER msc )ROFORI'I 'he' PROFORid 'he'", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Proform Selection by FU", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "When the two shown above are anaphorically linked in a sentence, LFG offers a syntactic solution, namely, the Functional Uncertainty (Kaplan & Maxwell 1988) 3. The link is represented by a functional-application equation (FU) such as follows: (2) < ^/GF* \\GF PREFORM > = < ^ PREFORM > In the above FU, the second GF after the right slash represents an f-structure that dominates a possible antecedent, and the first GF* after the left slash, fcommanding path to the antecedent from the current fstructure 4. That is, the FU imposes a constraint such that the right-hand side of the equation in (2) represents an f-structure containing a pronominal, and if there is an f-structure within the path represented by the left-hand side of the equation, then it must be the case that their PROFORMs are unifiable 5.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 133, | |
| "end": 156, | |
| "text": "(Kaplan & Maxwell 1988)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Proform Selection by FU", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "For the generation of surface PROFORMs, we assume that a pronominal element possesses a lexically unspecified PREFORM, and it will be specified by its antecedent. In other words, given that a pronominal and its antecedent are coindexed, an FU such as follows should be satisfied.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Proform Selection by FU", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "(3) < ^ / GF* \\ GF* Ant > =c < ^ Desc > 2plural PROFORMs should be assigned to NPs syntactically. 3The stone mechanism has been used in other cases such as the noun classifier selection for numeral expressions and negative scope domain setting by 'wa' in Japanese (Wada forthcoming) .", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 264, | |
| "end": 282, | |
| "text": "(Wada forthcoming)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Proform Selection by FU", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "This equation can be solved only when the indices are identical. Once the equation 3is solved, PREFORM will be unified between the antecedent and the pronominal 6 Selection on pro and 'zibun' can be considered as solving particularly restricted FU equations. For example, 'zibun' will be selected when the following FU equation is satisfied 7. (4) <^/GF(ADJUNCT)GF* ',SUBJ Ant> =c <A Desc > This equation says that if there exists a SUBJ that fcommands GF(s) that may contain an adjunct which includes an f-structure in which the current pro resides, then it must be the case that the Ant value of that SUBJ and Desc value of the pro are identical. Each unspecified 'pro' will carry a set of equations, each of which selects a particular PREFORM disjunctively. ", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Proform Selection by FU", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The anaphora resolution mechanism in our program consists of three functional units: the DRS construction (DRSCONS), the salient element storing (SLSTOR), and the antecedent searching (ANSR).", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Implementation of the Treatment", | |
| "sec_num": "4." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "This module constructs DRSs compositionally, following Montagovian tradition (Wada 8,: Asher 1986 , Reyle 1988 ). Thus, we assume that a semantic representation, SMS, is appended to each F-structure. SMS is a pair < SemType, DRS >, where SemType is a semantic type.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 77, | |
| "end": 97, | |
| "text": "(Wada 8,: Asher 1986", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 98, | |
| "end": 110, | |
| "text": ", Reyle 1988", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF12" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "DRSCONS", | |
| "sec_num": "4.1." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "SLSTOR's main function is to store the most salient, focused element in the current discourse for the next sentence processing (Alshawi 1987; Asher & Wada 1989) . In order to find the most salient NP, SLSTOR sets three kinds of filters among others such as grammatical function, use of pronominal, and syntactic construction (See Asher & Wada 1989) , and check all of the NPs appeared in the current sentence with respect to the three filters.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 127, | |
| "end": 141, | |
| "text": "(Alshawi 1987;", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF0" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 142, | |
| "end": 160, | |
| "text": "Asher & Wada 1989)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 330, | |
| "end": 348, | |
| "text": "Asher & Wada 1989)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF2" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "2. SLSTOR", | |
| "sec_num": "4." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "After the most salient element has been selected, SLSTOR checks whether the current focus has been shifted or retained by comparing the current SLSTOR value and the newly selected one. If their gender, number, person, etc. are unifiable, the discourse focus is considered to retain and SLSTOR keeps the previous NP in the storage. If they are not unifiable, the focus has been shifted, and SLSTOR stores the newly selected element as a current focus. 4.3. ANSR 6Resumptive pronouns are treated in the same way shown above, except for the co-indexation. Since an antecedent for a resumptive pronoun is always the head NP of the relative clause and therefore, the co-indexation is not necessary. 7This is the condition that Kuroda (1965) proposed, and still has been a basically correct generalization. This module consists of three functions. The first function is SEARCH. SEARCH searches antecedents by testing the accessibility on the DRS and morphosyntactic constraints such as gender, number, and binding features (sub, nuclear, etc) on the current fstructure. If a search in the DRS fails, SEARCH further searches in SLSTOR, and check a focused element in SLSTOR. In effect, we distinguish pronominals into three classes according SEARCH's result; 1) an antecedent found in the current DRS, 2) an antecedent not found in the current DRS, but controlled by a discourse focus, and 3) an antecedent not found in either in the current DRS or in the previous focus.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 722, | |
| "end": 735, | |
| "text": "Kuroda (1965)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF10" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "2. SLSTOR", | |
| "sec_num": "4." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The second function is LINK. In the case in 1) above, ]LINK will set a unique anaphoric index in both F-structm'es of the antecedent and its pronominal and assigns an unspecified 'pro' to the pronominal.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "2. SLSTOR", | |
| "sec_num": "4." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The last function is SETPRO, which assigns 0 to the pronominal in the case of 2), and assigns a default word-for-word translation in the case of 3).", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "2. SLSTOR", | |
| "sec_num": "4." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Let us take some examples. First, consider the following donkey sentence. (6-a)", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Examples", | |
| "sec_num": "5." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Every man who loves a ship treats her tenderly. 'Her' will be linked with 'a ship' by SEARCH due to the accessibility of 'a ship' to 'her' on the DRS. Then, the same anaphoric index is assigned to the transfer fstructure of 'a ship' and of 'her' by LINK. 'Her' is translated as an unspecified 'pro' as shown below. (6-b) Hune we aisuru otoko wa mina sore we itukushimu. ship ACC love man TOP every it ACC treat-tender In this result, an overt pronominal, 'sore', is selected for 'pro' since the f-structure for 'hune' and 'pro' share an anphoric index, and the last clause in the FU equation in (5) is satisfied.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Examples", | |
| "sec_num": "5." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Suppose that the next sentence appeared discourseinitially. (7-a) John believes that she is a genius. Since there is neither a sentence-internal antecedent nor a previous focus, 'she' gets a default translation, 'kanojo'. However, if the following sentence precedes the sentence in (7-a), a lexical ~ will be selected as the target for 'she' because 'Mary' is the focus of (7-b) since it is a SUBJ and appears in a passive construction. (7-b)", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Examples", | |
| "sec_num": "5." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Mary was aw,'uded as a distinguished artist. Now, consider the next example. (8-a) John works when he wants to do his work. In the above example, 'his' should be linked to 'he' and 'he' to 'John'. Each anaphoric index has a different value, but both of the pronominals will be translated as unspecified 'pro's. However, the equation (5) gives them different PROFORMs, 'his' 'zibun' and 'he' ~. This is indeed a desired result as shown below. (8-b) John-wa 0 zibun-no sigoto-wo sitai-toki-ni hataraku. John TOP POSS work ACC want-to-do when work", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "Examples", | |
| "sec_num": "5." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "A note on defects and shortcomings is in order. It is no doubt that world knowledge plays an important role in anaphora resolution. We assume that in the near future, a world knowledge inferencing module should become available, and that it will be incorporated into our system.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Remaining Problems", | |
| "sec_num": "6." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We assumed that an input text as a whole consists a discourse segment; however, this is due to the lack of a treatment in discourse segmentation in our program. One related problem is on tim distinction of the global focus and local loci. Since our program considers only one segment at a time, there is no way to handle complex foci.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Remaining Problems", | |
| "sec_num": "6." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Another ,area which we need to handle but has been neglecting is number related expressions such as plural antecedents and split antecedents.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Remaining Problems", | |
| "sec_num": "6." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Also, the salient element selection mechanism in our program is still based on a crude stipulation. We need to conduct further research on this topic.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Remaining Problems", | |
| "sec_num": "6." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Finally, it is desirable to map a source DRS to the target DRS and handle language-specific discoursebased expressions. These will be our next task.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Remaining Problems", | |
| "sec_num": "6." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We concern a local focus only, and multiple foci cases are excluded from our discussion.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
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| "text": "This has been done by pointing the antecedent from the current l'-structure. 5 Note that the equation is far more powerful than this description.", | |
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| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
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| "title": "Memory and Context for Language Interpretation", | |
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