| { | |
| "paper_id": "C92-1012", | |
| "header": { | |
| "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0", | |
| "date_generated": "2023-01-19T12:34:54.679981Z" | |
| }, | |
| "title": "Towards Developing Reusable NLP Dictionaries", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Pim", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Van Der Eijk", | |
| "suffix": "", | |
| "affiliation": { | |
| "laboratory": "Research lllstitutc for l", | |
| "institution": "anguage Technology State University of Utrecht", | |
| "location": { | |
| "country": "The Netherlands" | |
| } | |
| }, | |
| "email": "" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "Laura", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Bloksma", | |
| "suffix": "", | |
| "affiliation": { | |
| "laboratory": "Research lllstitutc for l", | |
| "institution": "anguage Technology State University of Utrecht", | |
| "location": { | |
| "country": "The Netherlands" | |
| } | |
| }, | |
| "email": "" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "Mark", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Van Der Kraan", | |
| "suffix": "", | |
| "affiliation": { | |
| "laboratory": "Research lllstitutc for l", | |
| "institution": "anguage Technology State University of Utrecht", | |
| "location": { | |
| "country": "The Netherlands" | |
| } | |
| }, | |
| "email": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": "", | |
| "venue": null, | |
| "identifiers": {}, | |
| "abstract": "Development of reusahle dictionaries for NI,P applications requires a carefully designed lexicological framework, a lexical acquisition strategy, an integrated development toolbox, and facilities to generate dictionaries for client applications. This paper presents results of tile LEXlC projecO, which was set up to prepare the development of large multilingual lexieal resources.", | |
| "pdf_parse": { | |
| "paper_id": "C92-1012", | |
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| "abstract": [ | |
| { | |
| "text": "Development of reusahle dictionaries for NI,P applications requires a carefully designed lexicological framework, a lexical acquisition strategy, an integrated development toolbox, and facilities to generate dictionaries for client applications. This paper presents results of tile LEXlC projecO, which was set up to prepare the development of large multilingual lexieal resources.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Abstract", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "body_text": [ | |
| { | |
| "text": "1 Introduction", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "text": "A large amount of the investments in the development of any NLP application is spent on the construction of what one might call \"large databases of lexieal and grammatical resources\". These resources could in principle he useful for many applications although they hardly ever are: due to the lack of agreement on the definition of basic notions and of consensus on the analysis of linguistic phenomena they are often linked too closely to specific applications. Moreover, given the generally limited size and duration of NLP projects both quantity and quality of such project-specific databases are disappointing.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Common Linguistic Resources", | |
| "sec_num": "1.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "In this paper we will discuss results from the LExlc project, a feasibility study preparing large-scale develop-1The Lexic project wan financed and supported by the three project partners: Philips Research, developing tile Rosetta machine translation system, the Foundation for Language Technology, participating in tile Eurotra project, and Van Dale, one of the lnaln dictionary publishers in the Netherlands, as well as by tile the European Commission, and the l)utch ministries of Education and l\"coaomic Affairs. Details of the project are discussed in [van tier Eijk ct al., 1991) .", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 557, | |
| "end": 585, | |
| "text": "[van tier Eijk ct al., 1991)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Common Linguistic Resources", | |
| "sec_num": "1.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The ~tuthors want to thattk Anne van Bolhuis, Joy lIcrklotz, Jeroen Fokker and Tim Dumas for contribution to the activities discussed in this paper. irleut of s. reusabh! lexical database, started hy a consortium ef industrial and university partners. The lexica[ database is designed to consist of an integrated package of two monolingual dictionaries for I)utch and Spaaish and the bilingual dictionaries relating the~ languages. The consortium comprised a dictionary publisher as well as NLP application developers, giving it the unique opportunity of confronting the large body of exl)erience, infrastructure and existing data of publishers with the requirements of a new class of profe~qional users.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Common Linguistic Resources", | |
| "sec_num": "1.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Another interesting aspect of the projcct was that it addressed the whole spectrum of issues in lexieal database development, from lexical acquisition to serving heterogeneous client applications. In the current absence of arty standard for tile (grammatical) content of the dictionary (e.g. standardized sets of grammaticM features) the reusability of a dictionary can only be evaluated in terms of usability for some target applications.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Common Linguistic Resources", | |
| "sec_num": "1.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Section 2 discusses the issue of acquisition of lexical data. Section 3 introduces the implementation formalism and tools. The lexicon architecture is discussed in section 4. Conversion of data to client applications of the database is discussed in section 5.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Structure of the paper", | |
| "sec_num": "1.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "There are three potentially useful strategies to develop large lexical resources, which are not ill principle mutually exclusive.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Strategies", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
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| "text": "MRDs The extraction of data from machine-readable dictionaries has received nmch attention ill the past decade. In our view tile usefulness of existing material for NLP application has been somewhat overestimated. Traditional dictionaries are oriented towards a market of hlll/lau constlu3ers~ who coustllt the dictionary for entirely different reasons than N LP applications. For instance, most of the information in NhP dictio. uaries is concerned with the grammatical description of Ac:rf!s DI! COLING-92, NAh'H~S, 23-28 AOt'rr 1992 5 3 l'l~oc, o1: COLING-92, NANTI!S, AU(;. 23-28, 1992", | |
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| "section": "Strategies", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
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| "text": "words, which in many dictionaries is only rudimentarily available ~. Furthermore, given that humans can use their intelligence and knowledge of the language(s), much information is only present in unformalized definitions and examples. As discussed in e.g. [MeNaught, 1988] , it is often feasible to extract (relatively) formalized information, but the cost-effectiveness of autmnatic extraction of information from less formalized data is highly questionable.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 257, | |
| "end": 273, | |
| "text": "[MeNaught, 1988]", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
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| "section": "Strategies", | |
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| "text": "From this discussion it follows that MRDs atone cannot be the source for NLP dictionaries. In section 2.2 we will discuss in more detail the evaluation of the potential sources of data for our specific purposes.", | |
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| "section": "Strategies", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
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| "text": "Corpora Automatic extraction of lexical features by applying various pattern recognition techniques to large bodies of text has received some attention recently (cf. e.g. [Zernik and Jaeobs, 1990] ). tlowever, the information needed for our applications cannot be extracted from corpora yet, although important improvements can bc expected in the following years.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 171, | |
| "end": 196, | |
| "text": "[Zernik and Jaeobs, 1990]", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
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| "section": "Strategies", | |
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| { | |
| "text": "Lexicography Given the present inadequacy of MRDs and corpus-related tools, manual labour is indispensable for lexicon development. The tools described in section 3 have been developed as a 'workbench' to support these lexieographical activities. We will show that this tool allows for easy integration of information extracted from MRDs with lexicographic editing.", | |
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| "section": "Strategies", | |
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| "text": "Evaluation Measure It is difficult to assess the \"reusability\" of existing data without an evaluation mea~ snre, i.e. without knowing .for what purpose the data shonld be usable. This is especially difficult in the case of grammatical features. We developed a lexicon fragment (implemented as TFS type hierarchy, cf. section 3) defining the classification scheme for the monolingual dictionaries. This fragment is inspired by IfPSG and GB, and incorporates many of the (innovative) distinctions developed by ttm client applications Eun.OTItA and ROSETTA. It is, however, much more lezicalistthan these systems.", | |
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| "section": "Sources", | |
| "sec_num": "2.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Eventually, all lexical entries in the two languages should be described using this scheme, so that they can be readily converted to client applications. The data that can be extracted from a potential source has been interpreted with respect to this classification scheme to assess the amount of information contained in it.", | |
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| "section": "Sources", | |
| "sec_num": "2.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Data Analysis The machine-readable sources we considcred are the existing Van Dale Dutch monolingual and bilingual Dutch-Spanish machine-readable dictionary and the CELEX lexical database. From our evaluation it followed that existing MRDs for Dutch (as for almost all other languages) contain only a small part of the information needed by NLP applications.", | |
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| "section": "Sources", | |
| "sec_num": "2.2" | |
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| "text": "~Well-structured dictionaries like [Longman, 1987] are an important exception to this, cf. [Boguraev and Briscoe, t989], Fortunately, the CELEX lexical database has enriched a selection of 30000 entries of the \"Van Dale Dictionary of Contemporary Dutch\" with grammatical information, taking into account the requirements of a number of (prototype) NLP applications under development in the Netherlands. A large amount of information needed for our target applications can be converted automatically from this database. The entries, stored in a relational database, can be imported into the Dutch lexicon using the TFS constraint solver similarly to the conversion to client applications (see section 5). The C\u2022r.gx dictionary has historic links to tile Van Dale dictionaries (especially with respect to reading distinction), which greatly simplifies integration of these sources.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 35, | |
| "end": 50, | |
| "text": "[Longman, 1987]", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
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| "section": "Sources", | |
| "sec_num": "2.2" | |
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| "text": "With respect to translation information we found that the \"raw\" translational data could be extracted easily from the Vail Dale bilingual dictionaries. The original Vail Dale concept is especially interesting for multilingum applications, as the Dutch part is the same (at least in principle) in all bilingual dictionaries with Dutch as source language (cf. [van Sterkenburg el al., 1982] ).", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 358, | |
| "end": 388, | |
| "text": "[van Sterkenburg el al., 1982]", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF4" | |
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| "section": "Sources", | |
| "sec_num": "2.2" | |
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| "text": "Extraction of information about phrasal translation, such as the choice of the support verb of a noun in the target language, is unfortunately hidden in unrestricted text (example sentences etc.), from which it is difficult to extract. Phrasal information also snffers greatly from incompleteness.", | |
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| "section": "Sources", | |
| "sec_num": "2.2" | |
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| { | |
| "text": "Before discussing the proposed lexicon architecture we will introduce the computational framework in which it has been formalized and ilnplemented, the formalism of typed feature structures.", | |
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| "section": "The TFS Formalism", | |
| "sec_num": "3" | |
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| { | |
| "text": "Currently the family of unification-based formafis:rLq is an emerging standard as the implementation formalism of natural language processing systems. A variant called typed feature structures, discussed a.o. in [Carpenter, 1990] , [Emele and Zajac, 1990] and [Zajac, 1990] , ha.s been adopted in a number of European lexicon projects, including ACQUILEX, Euito'raA 7 and MULTILEX. In the course of our project, a TFS database, user interface and a constraint solver have been implemented.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 212, | |
| "end": 229, | |
| "text": "[Carpenter, 1990]", | |
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| "start": 232, | |
| "end": 255, | |
| "text": "[Emele and Zajac, 1990]", | |
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| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 260, | |
| "end": 273, | |
| "text": "[Zajac, 1990]", | |
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| "section": "The TFS Formalism", | |
| "sec_num": "3" | |
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| "text": "TFS is an excellent formalism for computational lexicons, as it enables a definition of types, or classes, of linguistic objects, arranged in a multiple inheritance hierarchy, where types are associated with an appropriatehess specification defining their features and the types of those features and with (possibly disjunctive and complex) constraints. The object-oriented character of the system allows for minimization of redundancy, whereas the type system maximizes integrity of data.", | |
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| "section": "The TFS Formalism", | |
| "sec_num": "3" | |
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| { | |
| "text": "Three TFS-based tools have been developed:", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "The TFS Formalism", | |
| "sec_num": "3" | |
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| "text": "\u2022 a tool for interactive definition ~, entry and modification of data (cf. section 3.1).", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "The TFS Formalism", | |
| "sec_num": "3" | |
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| { | |
| "text": "* a TFS database which can be accessed from the user interface and the constraint solver.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "The TFS Formalism", | |
| "sec_num": "3" | |
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| "text": "3The TFS-editor can bc used to interactively define a type hierarchy, as such a hierarchy can be viewed itself a.u a typed feature structure, ef. [Fnkker, 1992] .", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 146, | |
| "end": 160, | |
| "text": "[Fnkker, 1992]", | |
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| "section": "The TFS Formalism", | |
| "sec_num": "3" | |
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| { | |
| "text": "\u2022 a TFS-compiler for data manipulation, e.g. selections and conversion.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "The TFS Formalism", | |
| "sec_num": "3" | |
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| "text": "The TFS-compiler is similar to the systems described by [Carpenter, 1990] , [Emele and Zajac, 1990] , and [I,'ranz, 1990] , and like these it constitutes a generalpurpose constraint-based formalism which can be used for a wide variety of tasks, including parsing, translation and generation. Our prototype is implemented on top of Sicstus Prolog, and is used primarily for selection and conversion of data. It offers a number of tracing and debugging facilities to assist in the design of typehierarchies and during query-evaluation.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 56, | |
| "end": 73, | |
| "text": "[Carpenter, 1990]", | |
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| "start": 76, | |
| "end": 99, | |
| "text": "[Emele and Zajac, 1990]", | |
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| "start": 106, | |
| "end": 121, | |
| "text": "[I,'ranz, 1990]", | |
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| "section": "The TFS Formalism", | |
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| "text": "These three tools can import and export data in a special-pnrpo~ text format, whictl is useful for interchange and further processing. The acquisition tools for the Van Dale dictionaries and Celex can also generate their output in this format.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "The TFS Formalism", | |
| "sec_num": "3" | |
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| "text": "User Interface The hierarchical definition of the grammatical types in TFS corresponds closely to a \"decision tree\" which the lexicographer traverses while editing a lemma. A graph~ teal user interface has been developed by the computer science department of the State University of Utrecht ([Fokker, 1992] ) which allows the user to narrow down the main type of the lenrma (s)he is editing to a specific subtype and to subsequently edit the associated feature structure. For example, a lemma is refined li'om ENTRY to VERB to DATIVE_VERB, then constraints for this type are retrieved and the features and their substructures can be edited recursively.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 291, | |
| "end": 306, | |
| "text": "([Fokker, 1992]", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF3" | |
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| ], | |
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| "section": "3.1", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
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| "text": "Of course, only appropriate features are presented and can be edited, e.g. it is impossible to edit a feature arg3 of an intransitive verb. While editing tile value of a fewture the editor creates a subwindow already positioned at the minimal type of this feature. E.g. while editing a verb, the feature semantics will already be positioned at the type EVENT, as this is the minimal type of this feature for verbs.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "text": "The editor includes a useful help facility which can be viewed as an on-line instruction manual: a hell) function exists for each choice point which describes a number of criteria and examples to help making the decision.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "3.1", | |
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| "text": "It will now be clear how lexicographic work using the decision tree model relates to importation of lcxical data from existing sources, such ms MRDs. These can he converted to partially edited lexical entries, so that the lexicographer doesn't have to start at the 'root' level (e.g. the choice point El/TRY in tile example), but at an intermediate level (e.g. VERB). Further choices lea([ to more refined descriptions of the word. Like all errors, errors iu the source dictionary can be corrected by moving back to a higher-level choice point in the hierarct~y.", | |
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| "text": "Completed entries, and also arbitrary substructures, can be named and stored iu a database for future use as shared (sub)structures in other entries. Useful applications of this cross-reference mecbanism are iu morphology and for the implementation of synonymy (see 4.2).", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "3.1", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
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| { | |
| "text": "Compounds can be assigned a feature tree with features left_daughter and right_daughter, whose values are pointers in the database to their constitnting parts.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "3.1", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
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| "text": "Tile editor has been implemented in C using tile Microsoft Windows 3.0 graphical interface. Tile progranr is designed to he e~mily portable, e.g. to X windows. The underlying database can be shared via a LAN. As the other tools, the database allows for import and export of feature structures in tile interchange format.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "3.1", | |
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| { | |
| "text": "The editor is designed specitically for the TFS forraalism. However it can tie used for any specific type hierarci~y, as tile definition of the type hierarchy is simply defined in a separate text file which is read by the program during start np. IIence, it is potentially interestillg for tile devch)pment of many other (NLP) dictionaries.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "3.1", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
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| { | |
| "text": "An interesting elaboration of the editor would he to add extra functionality for the lexicographer besides editing attd viewing feature structures, such &~ facilities to consult wtrious on-line dictionaries or text corpora.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "3.1", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
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| { | |
| "text": "Dictionary organization llaving introduced the computational framework wc will proceed with tile diseussion of the organization of the dictionary 4. The emph~asis has been on two types of modularity:", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "4", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
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| "text": "I. Modularity of dictionaries and thesaurus. The general approach is to define clearly a munher of ahstractiou levels (cf. section 4,1) in order to achieve ccLsy conncctability of the monolingua[ dictionaries via bilingual dictionaries. By geueraliz~ lug bilingual translation to bilingual synonymy (or equivalence, cf. section 4.2) wc can even separate se~ mantic descriptions (\"concepts\") from the elements in which they arc realized in languages. Wc will show how such concel)tual dictionaries can bc generated from bilingual (fictionarics (4.3).", | |
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| "section": "4", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
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| "text": "2. Modularity of grammatical description (cf. section ~). With respect to the linguistic content of tile mono lingual dicLiouaries (i.e. the grammatical description) we will diseuss the use of typed feature structure constraints expressing relations bctwcen gram\u00b0 matical descriptions in various linguistic theories. This allows fi)r a very llexihle relation between var ions grammatical descriptions.", | |
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| "section": "4", | |
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| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Word forms in a language, ~Ls found in text corpora, arc associated with canonical forms according to [exicological conventions. In particular contexts they are associated with c\u00d7act]y one of a tixed finite number of designations ~. In [Zgusta, 1971] , two other \"compo neuts\" of meaning are distinguished besides designation, viz. connotation and range of application. Our (somewhat poor) working definition of synonymy is a relation hctween readings sharing designation only, both within a language and across languages (where it is traditionally called equivalence).", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 236, | |
| "end": 250, | |
| "text": "[Zgusta, 1971]", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Tim m(~nollngual dictionary", | |
| "sec_num": "4.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "~Thi.s is a condensed summary of [van dcr Eijk, 1992a] .", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 33, | |
| "end": 54, | |
| "text": "[van dcr Eijk, 1992a]", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Tim m(~nollngual dictionary", | |
| "sec_num": "4.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "5 Note that we ad(q~t the approach of discrete readings, el.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Tim m(~nollngual dictionary", | |
| "sec_num": "4.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "[tca Itltckcn, 199(}].", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Tim m(~nollngual dictionary", | |
| "sec_num": "4.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "AcrEs I)E COLING-92, NANqES, 23~28 Ao(rr 1997. 5 5 }'R~)C. OF COI.ING 92, NAN-rEs, AU(I. [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] 1992 The relation between word forms aml canonical forms is many-to-many: ortimgrapllic variants are mapped onto a single canonical form, and a single word form call be related to ~veral lexical entries via inflectional rule* s. The monolingual dictionary is a net of lexical entries, which are pairings of canonical word forms of a language and their designations, and in addition describe their grarnrnatical properties.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 89, | |
| "end": 93, | |
| "text": "[23]", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 94, | |
| "end": 98, | |
| "text": "[24]", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 99, | |
| "end": 103, | |
| "text": "[25]", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 104, | |
| "end": 108, | |
| "text": "[26]", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 109, | |
| "end": 113, | |
| "text": "[27]", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 114, | |
| "end": 118, | |
| "text": "[28]", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 119, | |
| "end": 123, | |
| "text": "1992", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Tim m(~nollngual dictionary", | |
| "sec_num": "4.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "As a result, a lexical entry dmuld minimally have the two features canonical~form and semantics. The former feature has the simple type STRIM6, the latter, the description of the designation, has a complex value, po&'fibly including ~nrantic features, but minimally containing an identifying feature v, as we want to make sure it will always be possihle to interconnect tile monolingnal dictionaries via bilingual dictionaries. Apart from these two features, there will he other features for the d~criplion of the grammatical properties of the word.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Tim m(~nollngual dictionary", | |
| "sec_num": "4.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The combination of canonicalJ'orm and grammatical description should allow for the complete and correct generation of all word forms and their a.,mociated feature strnctures. As our intended client applications have front ends for this purpose the database was not designed to be a full form dictionary; tiffs could change, depending on the needs of future client applications.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Tim m(~nollngual dictionary", | |
| "sec_num": "4.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The ~t of designations can be viewed as a thesaurus or \"knowledge base\"; the lexical entries are \"pointers\" from words into this knowledge base, and can be implemented as sudl in TFS.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Tim m(~nollngual dictionary", | |
| "sec_num": "4.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The relation between canonical word forms and designations is also many-to-many, due to synonymy (several word forms related to the same designation) and lexical ambigality (one word form related to several designations). In addition to this there will be alternations in the description because of alternative grammatical patterns. These alternations are implemented as TFS disjunctions.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Tim m(~nollngual dictionary", | |
| "sec_num": "4.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Bilingual dictionaries can be viewed as a relation between words in two languages. The levels \"word form\", \"lexical entry\" and \"reading\" correspond to various degrees of granularity in bilingual dictionaries. Ideally, the bilingnal dictionary relates lexical items between languages at the level of readings, though in practice most existing dictionaries refer to canonical forms or even to word forum in the target language. Furthermore, the source language side in bilingual dictionaries usually refers to readings different from the monolingually motivated ones, because they are tuned to tile target language: two readings are not distinguished if they translate to the same word, or an additional reading is created for an additional translation. An exception is the original concept of the bilingual Van Dale dictionaries, where the source language reading structure of the bilingual 6g.g. the Dutch word form bekcnd is associated with the adjective bekcnd (meaning well-known)and (by participle formation) to the verb bekennen (to conJess).", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "The bilingual dictionary", | |
| "sec_num": "4.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "r'I'he name of t, tored semantic substructures in the TI:S database serves this purpose. dictionaries is hased directly on the moaolingual reading structure (of, [van Sterkenhurg ef at., 1982] ).", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 162, | |
| "end": 192, | |
| "text": "[van Sterkenhurg ef at., 1982]", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "The bilingual dictionary", | |
| "sec_num": "4.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "An interesting approach to the hilingual dictionary would be to view it ~.s describing pairings of bilingual synonyms. Tile advantage of this would be that 1. the dictionary supl)orts preservation of meaning in translation.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "The bilingual dictionary", | |
| "sec_num": "4.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "2. formal properties of equivalence relations (e.g. transitive closure) can be exploited to automatically expaml the dictionary.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "The bilingual dictionary", | |
| "sec_num": "4.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "3. coding efforts call be reduced: tile detinition of the designation can be shared between monolingual and bilingual synonyms.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "The bilingual dictionary", | |
| "sec_num": "4.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Tile main difference hetween traditional dictionaries and our approach is therefore that tile indirect translational description of hilmgual synonymy is replaced by a direct relation between lexical entries in the nmnolingual dictionaries to all independent \"knowledge hase\" of synonym clusters. This approach is conamon ill e.g. multilingual terminology (cf. [Picht and 1)raskau, 1985]), but less common in lexicology.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "The bilingual dictionary", | |
| "sec_num": "4.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We will show that the two representations can be translated into each other. Section 4.3 describes how a knowledge base is generated from monolingual and bilingual dictionaries. A bilingual dictionary can be generated automatically from a set of monolingual dictionaries and a klmwledge base by enumerating the pairs of lexical entries in two monolingual dictionaries pointing to the same synonym cluster.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "The bilingual dictionary", | |
| "sec_num": "4.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Existing machine-readable trilingual dictionaries s can be converted to a representation based on bilingual synonymy, by \"extracting\" the underlying concepts. The process consists of tile following steps:", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Gcneratlng Synonym Clusters", | |
| "sec_num": "4.3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "First, the dictionaries are parsed and transformed to a table synoaym of the relation between a reading Rz in a language LZ and a reading R2 in L=. Two versions of this program have been developed and tested: one for the Van Dale Dutch-Spanish dictionary and one for bilingual entries in the EUROTRA transfer rule format. A version for dictionaries in a standard interchange format would be a possible future extension.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Gcneratlng Synonym Clusters", | |
| "sec_num": "4.3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Second, reflexive, symmetric, and transitive closure is applied to the synonyM/4 relation s. For each reading the generated synonym cluster can be viewed. E.g. according to tile Van Dale Dutch-Spanish dictionary, reading 0.1 of Dutch eerbetoon (English Onark of) honour) has one synonymous reading in Dutch and three synonyms in Spanish. SActually, there is no restriction to it b=lingual dk'tionary: severe.l bi-or multilinguM dictionaries, and even monolingual diction;tries of synonyms, can be processed similarly, resulting in a mulldingual dictionary. This has been checked using several Eurotra transfer dictionaries. 9'I'hl8 program was first hnplentented in Prolog for the Ndict system ([Bloksma et el., 1990] ) itnd modified for a Frotetra research group on \"ll.cversibie Transfer\". The current implementation is not yet fully satisfying. l|ecauea: there is no reading distinction on the ,ql)rmish side in the Van Dale N-S (only the Dutch words in the example are marked with a reading nmnber, e.g. 0.1), some cltinters will get mixed up Is E.g. Spanish fresco as adjective means fresh and a~ noun fresco, though the program will currently not slake this distinction. The program couhl of course be modified to ~Lse the grummatical information about the target word in tbc dictionary as reading distinguisher; the noun fresco would then never be confimed with the adjective. This is ullde~iral)le ill l)rincil)lc, bowcver, at; we do not WKllt syntactic criteria to guide readiug distinction, l\"or in stance, many adjectives in I~x)mance languages have he mol)honous uominal counterparts, with identical morphology and ~manties. We don't want to be forced a priori to distinguish separate readings for the~e two cases. Furthermore, well-known examples of category shift iu translation re.g. adverbs translating to verbs etc.) show it is impossible to attach a unique syntactic category to an equivalence class.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 694, | |
| "end": 717, | |
| "text": "([Bloksma et el., 1990]", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Gcneratlng Synonym Clusters", | |
| "sec_num": "4.3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "These presentations of synonym clusters can be very helpful to interaetively improve transfer dictionaries: errors of this type can easily he detected by native speakers of the languages (who need not know the other language) and corrected by creating appropriate reading distinction in Spanish.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Gcneratlng Synonym Clusters", | |
| "sec_num": "4.3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We cbecked the quality of tbe synonym clusters gener. ated from from both Van Dale and a EUItO'rRA Spanish Dutch dictionary. The Eurotra dictionary, where both source and target language items are referred to at the reading level, was converted to over 2187 chtsters, 315 of whicb contained more than one Spanish reading. Native speakers agreed with more than 95% of these synonym sets gcuerated via the bilingual elomlre step. The interpretation of bilingual translation as synonymy is therefore correct in the vast majority of eases. llowever, exceptions exist, such as tbe translation of the Spanish reloj, which, even though a true (aud infre quest) l)utch synonym exists (viz. uurwerk (el. English limepiece)), more commolfiy trauslate~ to one of its hy-pouyn~ besiege (Eng watch) or klok (Eng clock).", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Gcneratlng Synonym Clusters", | |
| "sec_num": "4.3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "An interesting e[ahoration of our approach would be to extend the k*mwledge base by ordering the synouym clusters themselves via hypono,ny It (cf. [Cruse, 1986] , l\u00b0'l'he problem of c'annecting word forms to their readings ha* lu'en called the mappin 9 t~roblem. Gf. [llyrd cl al., 1987] for discussion of a method to map word forms to readings by comparing a.o. t~enlastic featnres like human of the source re~ling and potentiM target reaAings. l*'I'his idea is simil~tr to Wordnet, a collection of synonynl sets linked via a variety of Icxical relations ([Bcckwirth et al., 1989] ). Our &pproadl extends this idea by adding a multilin gtlaJ dimension. Wordset's sylloltym t~tt~ are ~.lsO related by relations with leas oh:as translational contu:qu(mt:cn. [Lyous, 1977] ). Client applications could then extract Irauslati(mal data based not only on synonymy but also on hyp(er)onymy. However. this is a dillicult area, where no obvious solutions exist. It is not clear at all which translatiou solution automatic translators should select in c~mes like this anyway.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 147, | |
| "end": 160, | |
| "text": "[Cruse, 1986]", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 267, | |
| "end": 287, | |
| "text": "[llyrd cl al., 1987]", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 556, | |
| "end": 581, | |
| "text": "([Bcckwirth et al., 1989]", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 757, | |
| "end": 770, | |
| "text": "[Lyous, 1977]", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Gcneratlng Synonym Clusters", | |
| "sec_num": "4.3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "After thls correction process the synonyln clnsters can be couverted to TFS format and stored in the database, The a.~sociated monolingunl dictk)nnries are then modi fled automatically by adding cross-reference informatiott (via the feature se mastics) from the lcxicnl entries to the synonym dustcrs they use a~uociated with.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Gcneratlng Synonym Clusters", | |
| "sec_num": "4.3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "4.4 Creating a knowledge I)ase.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Gcneratlng Synonym Clusters", | |
| "sec_num": "4.3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Synonym clusters reMly become descriptions of designations once semautlc information is added to the syn onym dusters, which is then, in a truly interlingual way, shared between synonyms. Much mmlaxltic information froul the (~ELEX 1)utch dictionary can I>e moved to the synonym clusters, as well as Van Dale defiuitious of concepts in natural language. Tbc latter arc useful for semiautomntic interactive applications Is.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Gcneratlng Synonym Clusters", | |
| "sec_num": "4.3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The current approach can be said to inlpiement the apo proach of possible bilingual lexlcal translalioa, Tiffs al> preach should he developed in a uumber of ways. Apart from the problem of translation to non-synouyms we mentioned, it is desirable to inchLde information in the dictionary to guide the choice among possible translations, iu cases where there are several syuonyms in the target language. Stylistic, eolloeational and frequency infl)rmation can be of use for this purpose. This infer motion is partly available from existing sources (sucb as CF, I,EX attd Van Dale), and large text corpora are also obviously relevant sources of this information.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Gcneratlng Synonym Clusters", | |
| "sec_num": "4.3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Conversion or exchange of lexical data presupposes a detailed comparison of the various dictiouaries, which in turn requires a careful description of the various dictionaries. Given the purpose of Comparison, the descriptions shouM be cast in a uniform, preferably high-level data descriptiou lauguage. Several such languages exist, such as the Entity-Relationship model, a tool in database design. We will use the TFS formalism introduced in ~ction 3 for this purpose. A lirst step in tiffs comparison is to convcrt various dictionaries to the uniforln TFS format. In [n~xqt NI,P formalisms lexical entries are records or feature structures, so this syntactic transformation is generally unproblematic. In passing, implicit semantic structure in the wtr. ious dictionaries (e.g. feature cooeeurrence r~trictions) can be re,Meted explicit hy constructing a type hierarchy for the~ uystcms, ()n the hasis of these descril)tions, constraints on the rehttion hetwc~m lexical entries in the dilt~rent dictio naries cau be detined, These constraints can be called Also see [Calzolari, 1990] for a i)roposM aimil~,r to ours to integrate the dictionary and the thesaurus. la l\"or exautple, l{o.uetta illcorl)tltate~..3.11 interactive rea(Ihtg selection [acillty.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 1068, | |
| "end": 1085, | |
| "text": "[Calzolari, 1990]", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF1" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "A model for conversion", | |
| "sec_num": "5" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "semantic, as they relate the content of the various dictionaries, and neutral as they merely pinpoint correspondences between dictionaries; they define the way dictionaries (which may be unrelated in other respects) are similar.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "A model for conversion", | |
| "sec_num": "5" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Constraints can be viewed as implicational and biconditional constraints (as in [van der Eijk, 1992b] ), and it is possible to implement them as a complex TFS type. This type serves both as documentation of the dictionary and as conversion specification.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 80, | |
| "end": 101, | |
| "text": "[van der Eijk, 1992b]", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF4" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "A model for conversion", | |
| "sec_num": "5" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "A conversion specification is a TFS type CONVERT having features for each of the dictionaries (e.g. lezic, eurotra and rosetta), and establishes the basic conversion relation between entries in the LEXIC dictionary (as derived from the sources and augmented by lexicographers) and entries in the EtrROTRA and ROSETTA dictionaries. This conversion type is structured hierarchically as well: the high-level type CONVERT has many subtypes specifying how specific subtypes (and hence subsets of the respective lexicons) of the various dictionaries are related. Disjuncts in the constraints of these types enumerate corresponding patterns described as feature structures.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "A model for conversion", | |
| "sec_num": "5" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "An advantage is that these conversion constraints can be defined at the appropriate level of abstraction. It is in principle possible to establish relations holding for all entries as well as for an individual entry. As the conversion types are also ordered in an inheritance hierarchy, subtypes will inherit the constraints of their supertype(s).", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "A model for conversion", | |
| "sec_num": "5" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Note the inherent declarative character of the conversion constraints: there is no notion of 'input' and 'output'. One advantage of this is that a single formalism can be nsed for importation, generation as well as integration of lexicons. A second advantage is that the conversion constraints can also be used to test whethcr two existing dictionaries are related as postulated in the conversion constraints.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "A model for conversion", | |
| "sec_num": "5" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Full derivability of a particular dictionary can be viewed as a special case of the general (in principle relational) scheme, where the substructure of a feature like rosetta is fully (and functionally) derivable from the substructure of another (lezic). Informally, all primitive distinctions in the target dictionary can be computed given the information in the source dictionary, i.e. the constraints define a homomorphism from the serving dictionary to the client application.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "A model for conversion", | |
| "sec_num": "5" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "It is an empirical issue whether this derivability relation can actually he defined between two dictionaries. For newly to be created \"generic\" lexicons, this derivability is a design requirement. For the client dictionaries we have had to look at, creation of a generic source appeared to be a complex, but feasible, task.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "A model for conversion", | |
| "sec_num": "5" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Operationally, conversion proceeds as query-evaluation. Givcn an appropriate dcfinition of the CONVERT type, the solutions to the following query will find all lexieal entries whose canonical form is tiers in the LExIc database and return all corresponding further instantiations of the ROSETrA type.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "A model for conversion", | |
| "sec_num": "5" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "These instantiations correspond to the I~.OSETTA descriptions for this lexical entry.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "A model for conversion", | |
| "sec_num": "5" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Ic\u00b0'\"'i ENTRY lexic : canonical_form :fiets rosetta : ROSETTA", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "A model for conversion", | |
| "sec_num": "5" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We will illustrate conversion using the example in [van der Eijk, 1992a] relating two familiar linguistic theories, GPSG and a unification variant of Categoria] Grammar, rather than the LEXIC fragment and ROSETTA, which we actually implemented. The categorial lexical entries have a feature subcat whose value is either a CATEGORY or a FUNCTION. The type FUNCTION has appropriate features argument, (with two features direction and category), and result, where the result can be either a function again or a CATEGORY. Individual Icxical entries are simply instances of this highly general recursive scheme. E.g. the subcat feature of a transitive verb (i.e. (NP\\S)/NP) has type FUNCTION, with an NP argument to the right and, recursively, a FUNCTION from a subject NP to an S as result.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 51, | |
| "end": 72, | |
| "text": "[van der Eijk, 1992a]", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF4" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Illustration", | |
| "sec_num": "6" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "In GPSG individual lexical entries also have a feature subcat, but its value, an intcgcr, is used to select the corresponding context-free grammar rule for this complcmentation pattern.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Illustration", | |
| "sec_num": "6" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "One of the disjuncts of the constrain ts for the CONVERT type will then be the following. Unifying specific categorial entries into the cg substructure will cause the curresponding gpsg feature to become instantiated. Due to the declarative character of TFS constraint evaluation, the above constraint will yield the same result whether the cg, tbe gpsg or both features are instantiated.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Illustration", | |
| "sec_num": "6" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Evidently, the example is very simplistic. The prototype conversion module we developed in our project to translate LEXIC feature structures to I~OSETTA feature structures contained over 500 disjuncts Is, and this module only covered conversion of a subset of the verbs. This number is caused by the fact that conversion rules laThis number results from expansion to disjunctive norreal form. Tile actual notation for conversion rules allows for embedded disjunctions and is, hence, much more concise.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Illustration", | |
| "sec_num": "6" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "AcrEs DE COLING-92, NAr,'fES, 23-28 AOI~T 1992 tend to become very idiosyncratic once the underlying theories of two dictionaries diverge.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Illustration", | |
| "sec_num": "6" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We discussed how a multilingual lexical database can be coustructed using a nmnber of existing lexical resources and lexicography. The TFS formalism is very appropriate for the design and implementation of NLP lexicons. We showed that its hierarchical structure can be n~d profitably in a data entry tool which allows the lexicographer to manipulate feature structures graphically. Lexical acquisition from existing lexical resources can be combined seamlessly with lexicographie work.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Conclusion", | |
| "sec_num": "7" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The lexicon architecture we designed is an important improvement over earlier approaches: various abstraction levels and the mappings between them are defined more precisely, and the modularity is increased significantly by the ~paration of the knowledge base from language-specific dictionaries.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Conclusion", | |
| "sec_num": "7" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "With respect to the issue of reusability, we outlined a framework for the specification of comparative description of linguistic encoding schemes. This specification can be used operationally as translation rules to convert lexical data.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Conclusion", | |
| "sec_num": "7" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Acra~s DE COLING-92, N^N'rI!S, 23-28 Ao']r 1992", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Pgoc. OF COLING-92. NAN'fES, AUC;. 23-28, 1992", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "PRec. o1: COl,IN(; 92. NANTES. AUG, 23 28. 1992", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Pltoc. OF COLING-92, NANTES, AUG. 23-28, 1992", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "back_matter": [], | |
| "bib_entries": { | |
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