| { | |
| "paper_id": "C94-1010", | |
| "header": { | |
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| "date_generated": "2023-01-19T12:48:22.225073Z" | |
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| "paper_id": "C94-1010", | |
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| "abstract": [], | |
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| { | |
| "text": "Dilemma is intended to enhance quality and increase productivity of expert human translators by prese,,ti,,g to the writer relewmt lexical information ,necha,dcally extracted from comparable existing translations, thus replacing -or compensating for the ahsence of-a lexicographer and stand-by terminologist rather than the translator. Using statistics and crude surface analysis and a minimum of prior information, Dihnn,,,a identities instances and suggests their counterparts in I)aralh!l source and target texts, on all levels down to individual words.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Introduction", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Dilemma forms part of a tool kit for t,'anslation where focus is on text structure and over-all consistency in large text volumes rather than on framing sentences, on interaction between many actors in a large project rather than on retriewd of machine-stored data and on decision making rather than on application of give,) rules.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Introduction", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "In particular, the system has been tuned to the needs of the ongoing translation of European Con,n,unity legislation into the languages of candidate me,,,her countries. '/'he system has been demonstrated to and used by professional translators with promising results.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Introduction", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The design of translation aids beyond ordinary texl. processing and database accession and maintenance tools is mostly based on the same sinai)lifted view which .... for compelling reasons --has been the worki,,g hyl>othesis of machine translation: that the source text. has a well-determined meaning and that there exists in the target language at least one correct and adequate ways of expressing that meaning. When these assumptions are reasonably well justifled, translation is relatively easy, fast and cheap with traditional methods and mechanization not rarely feasible with methods now known or envisaged. Typically, however, the translator must do more tha.n retrieve and operate on we-established a,,d in principle pre-storable correspondences. Thus, lexical correspondences do not exist for all items; it is an essential part of translation to establish them. Legal texts, factual and stereotype though they may see,n, re.gularly represent thoughts, attitudes and arguments which do not haw'. any counterparts in the. target language prior to translation. This is particulary true in the huge project to translate the European Community legislation into the languages of countries which are not yet members of tile (]omnmnity and which currently have a partly different legal conceptual framework.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Instant Lexicographer", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "What human translators need is decision supl)ort. The most imlmrtant tools are telelfl,ones , electronical \u00a2'onfi.'rencing systems and good and relevant dictiol,aries. Unfortunately, there are not always at ew~'ry point of time ltnowledgalAe and cooperative colleagues or othe.r experts to call, eh.'ctronical networks ~tre only recently being established in some domMns, and the intelligent and comprehensive dictionaries, which can serve as a writer's digest to the cumulative literature it, a fiehl are few and far between. Answers are ofl.en to be found in a text translated late at night the day beR)re -or in the preceding sections of the text at hand. R.ather than all autolnated writer, we need an instant h!xicographer.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Instant Lexicographer", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "In practh:e, existing translations are being used as a major source (Shgvall llein et at, 1990; Merkel 1993). Often in the hope to be able to avoid duplication of costs -or of getting paid twice for the same ellbrtby findirlg identical or near-identical texts or passages, hut, more hnportantly, to ensure consistency or getting good suggestions, to follow or argue against. Synonymy wu'ial.iou for the salne concept is not al)lU'eclated in technical and legal prose and avoided as anxiously :m ilOlllOnyllly, The ideal is I: I corresllondeltces ])etweell expressions at least within one pair of documents and to eliminate \"forks\", i.e.., one expression being translated hlto or beil,g the trm,slation of more than one counte.rpart in the other language (Karlgren, 1988) .", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 754, | |
| "end": 770, | |
| "text": "(Karlgren, 1988)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Recycling Translations", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We slmll call a c.o,,pled pair of source and target text a bitc~'Z (Isabelle, 1992) . Wlmt is said here abou't bitexts ca,, be generalized to n-tnples of parallel texts, claimed to dilfer \"only\" in hmguage. Such n-tuph.'s exist: in the l!htropean Comnn,nity, a major part of the legislatiou is available in 9 \"authenth:\" versions, which in (legal and political) theory are equivalent, and according to plans the number of \"authentic\" will soon rise to 12 or more. l,ittle efforts have previously been made to systematically exploit this redunda,,cy by means of po-tent multi-lingual procedures for retrieving faet.s or exl)ressions, even when surprisingly simple methods show l)romise of surprisingly useful results (l)ahlqvist, 1994).", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 67, | |
| "end": 83, | |
| "text": "(Isabelle, 1992)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Recycling Translations", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "l'roducing target language text is only a small l)roporlion of the translation l)rocess. Eml)irically, good economy is achieved if about the same proportion of work is put into each of the stages Preparation, Text pro ductiou and Verification, a trichotomy reminiscent of tile classical person-time breakdown of software devel opment (Brooks, 1975) . The Dilemma tool is usct'ul for some t~usks in each of the three stages.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 334, | |
| "end": 348, | |
| "text": "(Brooks, 1975)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF0" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Steps in the ']h-anslation Process", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "A typical question for translators while actually wt'it.inu, is how a word or phrase has been used or translated in l)reviously processed texts. Conversely, they may ask for the source languages counl.erl)art:; of given target language expression, to lnal\u00a2.e sure that homonyn,y is not introduced. Similarly, during the I)reparation and verification phases, a translator or editor scans through the text for words and phrases that need to be resolw>d or treated specially.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Funct;ionality", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The first service is to enM)le the translator to I)rowse through the bitext and look at text elements pairwise, to cheek |br conventions of usage that are unfamiliar or unexpected.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Navigating in Bitexts", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Pointing at a shorter or longer string ill eitl,cr language the user can film successively larger contexts and their counterparts or covnlerlezls in the other l;mguage version. This service is available to the user from within a word processor, tile allsWeF pres(.qlted ill a selmi'ate wiudow.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Navigating in Bitexts", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "COllllt i!l'IVor(|s The second service is to assess the word-lcwq COlllltol'parts or \"eounterwords\" so far used for a given word. llere the system performs, crudely but instantly, the job of a terminologist or lexic.ographer. It uses a statistical matching process which offers the translator a list, of candidate counterl)arts.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Navigating in Bitexts", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Translation Vm'illeatlon In this l)hasc a revisor reads the text to detect inadequacies and inconsistencies. Often, there is no (.rue answer to a terminological question: either one of a fe.w options may be equally good i)er se but unintelMed variation is disturbing and lnay be misleading. Verification, therefore, is not a matter of local eorrecl.ll(?ss or of compliance with a given dictionary or otll~r norm, and reading one passage at ;~ Lime ,,v}[} not reve;d the dc(iehmcy of the translation (Karlgrenl 1988).", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Verification phase", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "One way of resolving or detecting dubious cases is to compare how a word or phrase has been used in a multitude of previous contexts aim how it was remlered in their respective countertcxts.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Verification phase", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Text-and Domain-specilh'. 1)hrase Lists in the preparation phase the translator or editor has to estal)lish text lind domai,l-spccilic word and phrase lists. In a batch mode, l)ile.mma produces draft lists on the basis of previously translated material ill the same domain.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Preparation phase", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Structuring Bitexts l,'or bltexts to be exploitable as information sources, text constituents in t.lm two versions must I)e paired Oil SOtll(! hicrarchicM levels -l)hl'aSC., ClallSg~, Selll,(?llce, paragraph, etc. ~Ve lllllst creat.e a structured bitext, with links fro,n eacl~ constituent not only to its prede-Ce,qSOl' illld SllCCessor bill also tO its (;Otlllterl)itrt ill the other language version. This cross-latlglla,gc slA'llCtllre (:;Ul I)e rather easily captured when the translation is lining typed, but we ueed to be al)le to derive the pairs from two given coluplete texts. I)ilemma does so automaritally. We Inake three linguistic assumptions: 1. 'l'he two texts c~m I)e segmented into hierarchical cons(.ituenl.s so Ilia| most constituents in one (.cxt hltve a COllllterl)art ill I, he other.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Preparation phase", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "2. For all levels, except the lowest level, co,mterparts occur in the sa.me mutual order.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Preparation phase", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "3. The counterp~rt.s on the lowest level, \"counter-. words\", appear apl)roxinmtely in the saIlle tl-ltlt, ll&l ord(w.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Preparation phase", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We do not assume every (:onstil.u(ml. on any level to llavc it ('OUllt,~'rl)al't , ilor collstitlletlts 1,o I)e sel);wate(I by uniqlm delhlliters. Thus, i[' I)aragral)hs are separated })y a blank line and sentences I)y a full stop folh)wed by a sl)aee , we do lie| exchlde that, say, ~ paragral)h in ()lie lallgllage is SOilletilll(}S i'ell(ler{}(I as all enlll-flcration, separated by blank lines and that \"i,[')\" is Ilow and |hell typed as \"1. 5\". The procedure is robust in that it, tolerates gaps all(l llOllC too ['rC(lllCllt deviations from the prevalellt lmttern. We al)l)ly two statistical procedures, ore.' of alignmmfl. for higher levels :rod one of assignllmnt for the lowest, \"ph rasc\", level.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Preparation phase", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The general i)robleln of order-i)reserving alignment on (me linguistic level reduces to the string correction l)robhnn (Wagner and l,'ischer, 1974) . The l)ractical solutio,i is not trivial, however, duc to the extremely large sere'oh space ew'n for small texts. We use. :m algorithm with search space constraining heuristics not entirely unlike the one published by Church and Gale (1990) but using linguistic information on more levels. Using a minimum of prior information, texts are aligned down to phrase level. Recognizing identity or similarity of a few pnnetuation marks, mlmerals and tile nmnber of words between these suffices for a crude alignment.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 119, | |
| "end": 147, | |
| "text": "(Wagner and l,'ischer, 1974)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 378, | |
| "end": 389, | |
| "text": "Gale (1990)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Alignment;", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "When the two texts have been aligned on higher levels, correspondences are established between counterwor<ls, which do not necessarily appear in the same order in the;\" two language versions. For this purpose Dilemma use.~ an association function which is a weighte<l sum of measures of agreement of word position within the phrase, relative frequency of occnrrence, al,d, optionally, some other properties. The weighting of the parameters is set after text genre specific experimental.ion. />airs of terrns with a high association value are candidate counterwords (NordstriSm and Petterson, 19!t:1).", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Word Assignment", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The procedure is self-evaluating since uncertainty is reflected by a low maxinmm association wtlue. Only items which have a score above a cut-off threshold are presented to the user. The proeednre yields sonre 90 per cent successfifl assignments among those presented on the basis of as little material as a single 10 page document, but for rare words the assignment becomes less certain. In a material of 10 000 pages of legal documents related to the European Economic Space as much as 50 per cent of the word tokens were hapax legomena and 75 per cent occurred less than 5 times, providing a meagre basis for statistical analysis. These. results can be improved if other properties are taken into account. When a word length was included as a parameter in the association evaluation, the results became marginally more adequate. Syntactical tagging, vide infra, is expected to affect assignment more.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Word Assignment", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "In tim llrst release of l)ilemma, alignment and assignment was perfornled on umnodified tyI)ogr;q)hie;d strings but naturally tim procedures were intended to be applied after monolingual preproressing. Trivially, results become l)ractically much more ade(luat(' and the statistical analysis more effective if, say, making and made and the infinitive make are subsumed under one item and the infinitive and the noun make are kel>t sei>arate. Without any change of method, the p,'ocedure can be applied to strings of words tagged morphologically and syntactically. The tools chosen for this l>urpose are the parsers for English, French and Swedish develol>ed at Ilelsinki University (Voutilainen el al, 1993).", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Tagging", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Dilemma has been iml>lernented in C-I--I-aim runs ira-de,' Microsoft Windows on a regular-size personal C(mlputer. Dilemma is currently being ewduated and tested by translators currently involve(1 in the translation of large amounts of legal docnments info Scandinavian languages in tile context of the proposed accession to the l';nr(>pean Economic Commu,fity.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "hnplementational Status", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "back_matter": [], | |
| "bib_entries": { | |
| "BIBREF0": { | |
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