| { | |
| "paper_id": "C94-1037", | |
| "header": { | |
| "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0", | |
| "date_generated": "2023-01-19T12:47:58.001530Z" | |
| }, | |
| "title": "\"DERIVATIONA12' PARADIGMS IN MORPHONOLOGY", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Vito", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Pirrelli", | |
| "suffix": "", | |
| "affiliation": { | |
| "laboratory": "", | |
| "institution": "ILC-CNR", | |
| "location": { | |
| "settlement": "Par.O.La sas -Pisa", | |
| "country": "Italy" | |
| } | |
| }, | |
| "email": "" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "Stefano", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Federici", | |
| "suffix": "", | |
| "affiliation": { | |
| "laboratory": "", | |
| "institution": "ILC-CNR", | |
| "location": { | |
| "settlement": "Par.O.La sas -Pisa", | |
| "country": "Italy" | |
| } | |
| }, | |
| "email": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": "", | |
| "venue": null, | |
| "identifiers": {}, | |
| "abstract": "", | |
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| "paper_id": "C94-1037", | |
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| "abstract": [], | |
| "body_text": [ | |
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| "text": "Traditionally, paradigms were used to deal with inflection in inflectionally rich hlnguages. Only recently (Calder, 1989; Carstairs-McCarthy, I988, 1992) paradigms have been the object or a far-reaching investigaticm covering their formal and conlputational properties. This investigation has higbligthed the significance of a paradigm-based treatment of morphonological phenonlena and its theoretical implications. In this paper, we show how derivational processes in Morphology can be treated paradigmatically by using a mtn'llhonological network. The approach is not only theoretical speculation but has been subjected to the practical test of a computer implementation. This implementation leads, in our opinion, to a conceptually and conqJutationally eleane, treatment of Morphonology.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 107, | |
| "end": 121, | |
| "text": "(Calder, 1989;", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 122, | |
| "end": 153, | |
| "text": "Carstairs-McCarthy, I988, 1992)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "1 TIlE PROBI~EM.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
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| "text": "There are two basic ways to relate a pair of nlorpllouological representations deriwitlonMly: 1) to take either o1' them as bslsic, arid derive tile other rronl it via a llrocess of rule-governed phonological change ( Fig. I below) ; 2) to asstune a third representation (somewhat intermediate between the two) as underlying, and make tile other two derive I'rt)ln it either by substitution of some phonological segments, or by filling in an underspecified phonological representation (Fig.2 below) .", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 218, | |
| "end": 231, | |
| "text": "Fig. I below)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 485, | |
| "end": 498, | |
| "text": "(Fig.2 below)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "pro 'fawnd c/ 1 pro'f ^ nditi", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "b)", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Hereafter, we will refer to both I) arm 2) as derivational accounts of morphonological relations. Usually, sohition 1 stores the basic form only in the lexicon, while tile derivative is, sis it were, cranked out on demand by rule application I. On the other hand, sohttion 2 requires that only one underlying, abstract representation be stored in the lexicon: the two related tbrms are yielded from their common lexical source by rules. If b and c sire the nlorphonological representations to relate, the two approaches can be illustrated as shown in Figg. 1 arid 2.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Fig. I base-derivative relation in Morphonology", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "hi Fig. I , b arid c are taken tn be on a different footing: the form al the top is more basic than tile one tit the bottom, the arrow indicating a derivational relation. The IMIowing assumption is made: given two forms to relate, it is always possible to specify the direction of the arrow. This assumption stumbles upon a nmnber of difficulties. Let us consider a small but crucial portion of English segmental Phonology as classically analysed since Clmmsky ,'lnd llalle (1968) . First, schwa is well known to alternate with full vowels within the Pllonology of English. l)erivational series such sis in I:ig.3 below show tllat full vowels under stress corresp(md to schwas in unstressed llOSilions. which strongly suggest a derivational rule like ej -> m. Ilowever, other alternations appear to go in Ihe opposite direction. For example in a triple like morginsl 1Alternatively, both representations can be stored in {he Lexicon, and related through tile slatemcnt of some rcchmdancy Icxical rule (lstckendoff, 1975) .", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 474, | |
| "end": 480, | |
| "text": "(1968)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 1001, | |
| "end": 1020, | |
| "text": "(lstckendoff, 1975)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 3, | |
| "end": 9, | |
| "text": "Fig. I", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Fig. I base-derivative relation in Morphonology", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "hnar\u00a3inalily/marginGlia, the following alternation in the underlined vowel emerges: schwa/~e/ej. If we posit /~e/as underlying, then we end up having to set up an lie/ -> /ej/ change, which is tile mirro,+-image of the /ej/->ke/ relation posited for tim derivational l)air ['sejn]/l'smniti] (more on this ill l)urand, 1990).", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "['fowtagrgef] / [fowtffgra3fik] / [fo'ta grofi]", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The sohttion illustrated in Fig.2 above is a way to solve this apparent paradox. A third abstract segment /,'e:/ is assulned to be basic rehltive to /schwa/``e/ejt. This means that/schwa/m/ej/can be derived from/m:/ through application of some phonohigieal rules. A derivational chain of this sort can be ralher conlplex, since I',e:/and lej/are, phonokigically, far removed from each other, and ninny intermediate changes can he needed (as ill I'me:nl -> I'se:nl -> I'se:inl -> I'sejnl; sue tlalle and Mohanan, (1985) for more examples). More reservations on chains of lifts sort have been expressed recently in a series of psycholinguistic experintents, aimed ill probing the reality of tile derivational asstunptions (Jaeger, 1986; Wang and Derwing, 1986) .", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 512, | |
| "end": 518, | |
| "text": "(1985)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 720, | |
| "end": 734, | |
| "text": "(Jaeger, 1986;", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF7" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 735, | |
| "end": 758, | |
| "text": "Wang and Derwing, 1986)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF12" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 28, | |
| "end": 33, | |
| "text": "Fig.2", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "['fowtagrgef] / [fowtffgra3fik] / [fo'ta grofi]", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "ht the literature, an allogether different ai)proach froiI1 both derivational accounls I) and 2) al)ove has been suggested (Vennemann, 1974) : b and e should simply be lisled in the Lexicon, one beside the other, On :l par:", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 123, | |
| "end": 140, | |
| "text": "(Vennemann, 1974)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "['fowtagrgef] / [fowtffgra3fik] / [fo'ta grofi]", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "pro 'fawnd -..91 I-,.-pr o'f ^ nditi Fig. 4", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "['fowtagrgef] / [fowtffgra3fik] / [fo'ta grofi]", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Formulated in this wily, tile relation in l:igA is always \"true on the surface\", shlce there is no abstract representation involved ill this account. Moreover, no rule ordering ploblems arise (i.e., concerning tilt direction of the arrow). If the sohltion in Fig.4 is adopted, however, it is not at all clear what type of lexical architecture one is suggesting: i.e., it is moot whether b and c are sontehow related in Ihe lexicon, or they are simply listed together. More worringly, tilt notion \"true on tile surface\" is of little theoretical help for explaining sotne well-known eases of alternalion. Take, for example, the opposition between tile American English pronunciation of writer and rider, respectively h'ajVerl and/ra:jV'er/, where hoth /t/ and /d/ have been turned into aflap ([l']) . If lhe only difference between the two phonological realizations is the surface-true lengthening of ~ill in /ra:jVel'/, then one is nlissing the relation between vowel length and tile verbal b,'tses of the two derivatives, a relation liutt represents an important, productive generalization within the American English phonological system (l)urand, 1990). An American English speaker, when asked to derive a new agentive in -er from verbs ending in /t/, will produce flapping with no lengthening. In contrast, (s)he will produce both a lengthened vowel and a flap if tile base is a verb ending in /d/. Derivational acct:,tmts capture this generalization in an elegant way, through rule ordering: vowel lengthening takes place before flapping does, in the context \"vowel followed by a voiced consonant\", so that when either /t/ or /d/ disappears, lengthening has idready applied (OF failed to). ht contrast, accounts based on lexical lisling al+e cleaHy incapable of grasping this significant hidden relation, since the opposition between/I/and/d/is no longer true on the surface in pairs such as /rail 'er/ vs /ra:il 'er/, where the opposition is neutralized by a flalx To sum up, derivational accotlnts of nmrphonological alternations [','Ice a ntunber of theoretical and practical pl'olflenm. Ill what follows, we will illustrate the working of a set of analogy-based principles and tile design of a general parallel architecture for their implementation. These principles dispense with both I'Ule ordering and Stlrfilce tllltl'tle representations hy using l)aradigms of alternations instead of derivational chains. The intplemented architecture proves to be accurate and COml)utationally eflicienl.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 790, | |
| "end": 796, | |
| "text": "([l'])", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 259, | |
| "end": 264, | |
| "text": "Fig.4", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "mo,phonological relations and lexical listing", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "2 TIlE GI,:NI,:RAI, MOI)i~L.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "mo,phonological relations and lexical listing", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
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| "text": "In this section tile idea is illustrated that redundancies among linguistic data can he used to convey interesting linguistic generalizations if (.lain lll'e slored ill an incremental network, l.et us consider the general case first, exemplified by the following list of abstract cases and their categorial classification: 137", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "mo,phonological relations and lexical listing", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "x 037", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "mo,phonological relations and lexical listing", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "x 33\"/ x SUl)lmSe that tile sequence of nunterals 137", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "mo,phonological relations and lexical listing", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
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| { | |
| "text": "represents tile Iorm of a linguistic ot:iect (say a word); x is its category. We can represent these dala by exploiting tile redundancies that they show at both tile lbrnml and categorial level of description as follows:", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "mo,phonological relations and lexical listing", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "3 <=> X", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "mo,phonological relations and lexical listing", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
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| "text": "The idea is to inlerconnect all forms chtssified the same w'ty by lelting Ihent share a cmnmon I'ornml core if there is any (for a rigorous definition of tile notion of fornml core, see Pirrelli, 1993) . In Fig.5 , -37 is Ihe linmal core. A core with its category (x in the example at h:md) is called a nucleus. The graph it/ Fig.5 can be seen as a nelwork of nodes. N,::,des which are linked through a solid line have been wilnessed ill input as to.occurring in tilt same form. Nodes which are not linked do nol co-oeclll'. MtHeover, if two nodes allernale, that is if they are it/ complententary dislrilmlion with respect to a shared core, they occupy the same coltllnll ill tire figure, ht other words, nodes on tile same column in Fig.5 arc mutually exclusive, paradigm.'dically relaled alternations.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 186, | |
| "end": 201, | |
| "text": "Pirrelli, 1993)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 207, | |
| "end": 212, | |
| "text": "Fig.5", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 326, | |
| "end": 331, | |
| "text": "Fig.5", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 735, | |
| "end": 740, | |
| "text": "Fig.5", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Fig. 5 a formal core and its ealegory", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
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| { | |
| "text": "l+et tlS considcF now ht)w lhis network e;.In be used to associate forms with categories. Asstmle that more data have heen stored in the network so that the configuration shown in Fig.6 overleaf is built up. In Fig.6 o is another possible cutegory (different from x), and 38 <=> o aYiotl)er nucleus. Given a network like this, network cores are activated hy an input string if they are contained by it. The nelwork output will then be the calcgory associated with the actiwltcd core.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 180, | |
| "end": 185, | |
| "text": "Fig.6", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 211, | |
| "end": 216, | |
| "text": "Fig.6", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Fig. 5 a formal core and its ealegory", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "3 <=> X 4 <=> 0", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "Fig. 5 a formal core and its ealegory", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
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| "text": "More concretely, if a certain lbrm, say 437, ix given as input to the network, the system tries to guess the right category on the basis of the analogy of 437 (called the target string) with already stored items (called base strings). This is carried out through the lbllowing steps. Network cores are activalcd by 437: this is done through a simple string-matching routine 2. For example, 37 will be actiwtted, and its category x ix a candidate response of the system for the input 437. What happens when more than one core gets activated by the same input token? If the activated cores have the same category, the corresponding mtdtiple responses would reinforce each other: the only category activated is given as OUtl~Ut. The case of multiple responses with different categories (and thus potentially different outputs) is more complex. We can dislinguish two cases: I) there is no core which is fully activated 2) there ix at least one fully activated core.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Fig. 6 riwfl cores in a multicategory network", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "A core is fully activated when it is entirely contained by the input string: in the example above 437 fully actiwttes the core -37. This contrasts with partial activation, when the core is only partially contained by the input string: for example, 437 partMly activates the core -38 of Fig.6 above, since it contains 3 in the second position, but not 8 in the third. Let ns consider case 1) above first, l[' there is no core which is fully activated, then the system goes through the following two steps: la) for each candidate response, the system gauges an Activation Ratio: number of numerals (+1 the activated core contained in input total number of numerals in the actNated core", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 286, | |
| "end": 291, | |
| "text": "Fig.6", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Fig. 6 riwfl cores in a multicategory network", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The actiwttion ratio (AcR) is then 0 < AcR _< I. The case of full actiwttion (AcR= 1) is dealt with in 2); lb) the core with the highest AcR wins out over the others.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Fig. 6 riwfl cores in a multicategory network", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
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| "text": "Let us consider now case 2). If there exists at least one fully activated core, then two I'urfl~er subcases need be distinguished: 2a) there is only one core which is fully activated: the category borne out by that core is 2 More on string-matching will be said in section 4 of this papcr. then picked up; 2b) there are at least two cores which are fully activated. 2a) can be seen as a degenerate case of 1) above, when AcR = I. As to 2b), in this case the activation ratio is clearly no longer conclusive. One needs to gauge :t further ratio, called Analogy Ratio, whose definition follows: total number of numerals in the activated core total number of numerals in input &gain, the analogy ratio (AnR) is 0 < AnR _< 13.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "Fig. 6 riwfl cores in a multicategory network", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
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| "text": "To stnn up, a certain pattern is analogic,'dly activated if the following conditions are met in tiffs order: I) it is activated by an input pair 2) it has got the highest activation ratio 3) it has got the highest analogy ratio So far, we have been assenting that the network produces cores incrementally as more data .'n'o input. In fact, the nclwork pfogressively exlracts retlnced cores.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Fig. 6 riwfl cores in a multicategory network", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Each full form is aheady a core in its own right, otherwise it would never get activated. The exmtction of smaller cores represents the process of acquiring generalizations on the basis of the analogy between data (redundancies). In the network, an exception is simply an isolated case, that is a nucleus which is fully actiwtted only when it is witnessed in input in its enlircty (AnR = I).", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Fig. 6 riwfl cores in a multicategory network", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "OF MORPIION-OLOGICAL ALTERNATIONS.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "AN ANAI~OGY-BASH) NETWORK FOIl. Titl,] SYNTIIES1S", | |
| "sec_num": "3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Ilow is it possible to model the synthesis of the set of systematic alternations illustrated in section I by means of a network such as the one in Fig.6? Fig.7-a [i'nieniti[ (inanity) , phls an (abstracl) catcgorlal feature string (instead of an atom) for each of them: respectively xo, yo, .~i and zj. tiacb catcgorial feature string is supposed to contain lexico-semanlie information (c+g., a capsule representation of the ineanitlg of the relevant Icmn-a 0 and morfJhosyntactie inR+rmation (such as grammatical category, gender, number, tense etc.): the content of thc feature string, however, will be relatively neglected here. The machinery of core reduction outlined above obtains Ibr categorial feature strings as well as for their forms.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 162, | |
| "end": 183, | |
| "text": "[i'nieniti[ (inanity)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 147, | |
| "end": 161, | |
| "text": "Fig.6? Fig.7-a", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "AN ANAI~OGY-BASH) NETWORK FOIl. Titl,] SYNTIIES1S", | |
| "sec_num": "3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "[,~nitil and lejnl are forrnal cores; x, i and o arc categorial cores.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "AN ANAI~OGY-BASH) NETWORK FOIl. Titl,] SYNTIIES1S", | |
| "sec_num": "3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "In l:ig.7-b) the arrows between [s-] and [-~eniti] , and y and j, pictures an instance of paradigm extension.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 41, | |
| "end": 50, | |
| "text": "[-~eniti]", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
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| "section": "AN ANAI~OGY-BASH) NETWORK FOIl. Titl,] SYNTIIES1S", | |
| "sec_num": "3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "3We assume that AnR is caletdated only for those cores which have been fulIy actiwtled (AcR=I). Thus, activated cores cannot contain more numerals than the input does. Fig.2 above) .", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [ | |
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| "start": 168, | |
| "end": 180, | |
| "text": "Fig.2 above)", | |
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| "text": "To Illzlke the lilsl Iwo points cIcarel', let tls turn Io a concrete instance of word synthesis by analogy. A typical objection levelled at representations which hcat alternations by listing Ihctll, is that crude lists of stored [I]~> <~~ it) z < Fig. 9 wc, rd synthesis through mc, rF, honoh:,gical paradiDns However, paradigrnatic extension accounts for tile fact that flapping is a productive alternation in American English.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| { | |
| "start": 247, | |
| "end": 253, | |
| "text": "Fig. 9", | |
| "ref_id": "FIGREF3" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
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| "text": "Let us suppose that the system has to produce the agentive nominalization (lighter) of ['lajtl , whose surface form and lexicaI content bas been already stored in the network (Fig.9-i above) . A flap (will] no lengthening) would then automatically appear ill the place of surface [-t], according to tile following steps: a) the input conditions are represented by the lexical content o1' the verb light (w in Fig.9-i) , and the categorial information \"agentive nominalization\" (o in It should be noted that only (semi)regular alternations share some (sub)core(s) in common. Suppletions such as go/went simply do not. Nevertheless, no clear-cut distinction is drawn here between minor alternations and irregular forms, since all of them m'e simply stored in an analogy-based network. Their difference is accounted for in terms of a gradation, defined by the fact that regular ahernations overlap with other lorms more extensively titan do snppletions. We believe that this solution is empirically superior to tile Anaximander's principle invoked by [ludson (1974) , to the effect that, since there exists no clear-cut distinction between suppletions and systematic alternations, all of them should be listed in the lexicon.", | |
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| "end": 1062, | |
| "text": "[ludson (1974)", | |
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| { | |
| "start": 175, | |
| "end": 190, | |
| "text": "(Fig.9-i above)", | |
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| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 409, | |
| "end": 417, | |
| "text": "Fig.9-i)", | |
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| } | |
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| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "IMPROVEMENTS.", | |
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| "sec_num": "4" | |
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| { | |
| "text": "The network has been implemented in C, and proved to be 95% accurate in analysis after a training on 20,000 Italian word forms, and 75% accurate ill synthesi s, as reported in Pirrelli and Federici (1991) . These performances have been obtained hy using tile simplified model illusm~ted here.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 189, | |
| "end": 204, | |
| "text": "Federici (1991)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF10" | |
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| "text": "It should he noted, however, that this model works well for the Morphology of Ihose hmguages (such as Italian and English) where affixation is commonly realized through a concatenative operation (surfixation or prel'ixation). In these cases, string-matching is a fairly simple head-and-tail operation. Clearly, this model is far from having a universal, cross-linguistic wdidity though. For example, it does not work well with cases of circumfixation (known also as parasynthesis), let alone tile Morphology of nonconcatenative l'mguages. Nevertheless, we contend that the set of analogy-based principles illustrated here hold Ibr a wider spectrum or hmguages than purely concatenative ones: by making string-nmtehing a more flexible and powerful operation, we can successfully adapt our model to the requirenaents of noncatenative languages such as Arabic, or Io the treatment of discontinuous affixation. What rollows sketchily illustrates this line of develoI-m/ent. (liven two strings of characters/phonemes to match (called tbe base and tile target string), the new stringmatching algorithm (discontinuous stringmatching) we are currently expe,'inaenting on is, informally: smrt fi'om the h'ft corner of both the target and base string and scan them rightwards; extract, down the way, all characterdphonemes which appear in both, and in the same order.", | |
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| "sec_num": "4" | |
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| { | |
| "text": "Take tile Italian word forms [inve'k:jarel (inveechiare, English 'to age' a parasynthelic verbal derivative of the adjective vecchio, 'old '4) and [intimi'direl (intimidire, English ' to make shy, intinaid:ltc', a parasynthetic derivative of timido, 'timid, shy'), or the Arabic pair [knlaybl ('little dog') and [kalbl ('dog') ill the diagrams ill Fig. 10 . Ill the Alabic exmnple, tile shared portion of meaning (DOG) triggers tile extraction of a tentative core (a stem). By using a discontinuons string-matching, Ihe meaning I)OG is associaled with tile match k_lb. 'File remaining portions of mOlllholexical reaturcs of tile Iwo wond forms are respectively associated with tile substrings left out of the nlatcb. Note that tile two a's which are linked by a dotted line will no! be extracted ill Ille same pallern as k_lb, since they are ordered differently relative to the position of l (in tile top string, a [bllows l, while in the bottom string, a precedes it). In the Italian example, the shared nmrl~hological feature i,~finitive triggers the extraction l)iscontinuous string-matching captures an important range of phenonmna which would be treated clumsily by using a simple head-and-tail matching. A fnrtber advant:tgo of tiffs routine over even more llnconstrahled conceivable routines is thai it rcdtlces considerably tile number of c.tmdidatc nmlches. Oil tIle nlorc negative side, wc are not able to find matches whose order in the base siring is interchanged relative to the order in Ihe target, as in English un-re-do and re-un-pack in lVig. ll-a) overleaf. This by no means itnplics that plmnonmna such its so-called inversion or metathesis, as ill the Rotuman example of Fig. I I-b) overleaf, are beyond lhe reach oF oHr approach. The idea is that a matcl~ is extracted only when ,' 1 base and a target string show the same order of interchangeable characters, as in lgg. I I-c) overleaf. Tim productive morphological relation between, say, /.,a and ap in the word 'pigeon' in l,~.otuman is acconnted for paradigmatically, as explained ill section 3 of this paper. Intuitively, we do not say that a sequence pa is transformed into ap nnder particular circumstances. Rather, the sequence pa alternates with the sequence ap within a cerlahl paradigm. a) n r i d u:", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 147, | |
| "end": 183, | |
| "text": "[intimi'direl (intimidire, English '", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 312, | |
| "end": 326, | |
| "text": "[kalbl ('dog')", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 348, | |
| "end": 355, | |
| "text": "Fig. 10", | |
| "ref_id": "FIGREF5" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 1691, | |
| "end": 1702, | |
| "text": "Fig. I I-b)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
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| "sec_num": "4" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Z ri Anpm k b) c)", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "LIMITS OF TIlE MOI)EL AND FURTIIER", | |
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| { | |
| "text": "][P~ ('a pige\u00b0n') i611 ('a pigeon') ?iap {'the pigeon') ?(pa ('amat') The architecture illustrated here can be looked at as a model of the morphonok~gical competence of a native speaker, and functions both in analysis and generation. At this point, a question naturally arises: is it a lexicon or a gran/nlar? In our opinion, it is both: a selfmodelling lexicon which extracts generalizations on tile basis of tile anak)gies between :lheady slored items, and uses these generalizations as repair strategies for hick of direct evidence provided hy an aheady stored item. This -alternations vs deletions a,ld inversions: changes ill the l)honologic:ll structure of at given entry are always expressed :is alterlultions, never as delelions; Ihis has the obvious implicalion that all alternating segments are encoded in the network and can be retrieved at any time: e.g., one does not say that flapping makes a dental disappear, bUl that IlaPlfing can appear only in those paradigmatic contexts where a dental is also present; this limits the computational power of the required rule set considerably, since deletive rules are eolnputationally most costly; moreover, by Ireating eases of metathesis paradigmatically, the system further spares tim computational price of' a tlanslornmtiona[ operation such as inversion.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "LIMITS OF TIlE MOI)EL AND FURTIIER", | |
| "sec_num": "4" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "-unordered rules: the context Ik~r a given phonological change to take place can be specified in terms of It whole paradigm; this formulation has lira irrunediate advantage of awfiding the need for ruleordering: Ibr example, the fact that writer in the American-lblglish prontmciation has tat)lenglhened lajl is traditionally accounted for by ordering vowel lengthenirig before flapping; this move is no longer needed as long as one can restrict the applicatiou of vowel lengthening to tile paradignl of those nuclei which present [a:jl ill the base Ibm) of a verb, as we showed above;", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "LIMITS OF TIlE MOI)EL AND FURTIIER", | |
| "sec_num": "4" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "phonological concreteness of extracled lteneralizations: phonological generalizations are expressed ira terms of extracted nuclei; nuclei represent what is shared by two (or more) sit)red items; it Ibllows Ihat no phonological features appenr in extracted nuclei other Ihan those which occtn' in the surface representations from which nuclei are derived;", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "LIMITS OF TIlE MOI)EL AND FURTIIER", | |
| "sec_num": "4" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "-use cfl' direct evidence: as we saw, snlaller nuclei (morphemes) c()ia/e into play as repair strategies only; Ihat is, if and only if there exists no whole lcxical reprcsenlaticm (an already known word) which matches (rather Ihe inl>Ut (in analysis) or the output (in generation) in its entirety; otherwise, bigger nuclei always override smaller ()ties; this accounts for phenomena of Icxical blocking (Aronoff, 1976) , whensay -the word business is never interpreled ns the 'quality of being busy'.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 403, | |
| "end": 418, | |
| "text": "(Aronoff, 1976)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF0" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
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| { | |
| "text": "[:rom a more dynau/ic perspective tile network illustrated above can be seen [is till abstract model of the gradual learning of nlorphonoh)gical phemmmna by a speaker. In fact, the principles illustrated ahove wele originally developed ,'is principles inforndng machine language letlrning as such (Fcderici, 1990) , and tested in dealing with some complex cases el tmsupervised acquisition o[\" particular linguislic capabilities (e.g., in [asks o1' biqingual translation). Research carried ou[ ill this paper proves that I/lorpholloh)gical phenomena llle within tile grasp of these learning principles. This represents an imporhnit wposteriori confirmation of file validity of the integration between models of machine learning and computational models of linguistic competence, an integration that has already shown its merits in cognitive approaches to language learning and linguistic theorizing (Pinker, 1989; Carstairs-Mc('arthy and Sicmherger, 198g) .", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 297, | |
| "end": 313, | |
| "text": "(Fcderici, 1990)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
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| { | |
| "start": 899, | |
| "end": 913, | |
| "text": "(Pinker, 1989;", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF9" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 914, | |
| "end": 955, | |
| "text": "Carstairs-Mc('arthy and Sicmherger, 198g)", | |
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| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We depart, here, from Scalise's analysis of invecchiare as tile product of tile sequential application of a suffix Iarel and a prefix lin-[ in this order(Scalise, 19B3).", | |
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| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Derwing", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": 1986, | |
| "venue": "Phonology Yearbook", | |
| "volume": "3", | |
| "issue": "", | |
| "pages": "99--116", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Wang, H. S. and B. Derwing (1986). More on English vowel shift: the back vowel qncstion. Phonology Yearbook 3, pp. 99-116.", | |
| "links": null | |
| } | |
| }, | |
| "ref_entries": { | |
| "FIGREF1": { | |
| "num": null, | |
| "uris": null, | |
| "type_str": "figure", | |
| "text": "derivational alternations This alternation is captured by a rule of vowel reduction: full vowels are reduced to schwa in unstressed position (e.g., I',el -> schwa in photography). Another systematic l~honological alternation in English involves derivational pairs such as sane-xmfity (l'sejnl/l's,'eniti])," | |
| }, | |
| "FIGREF2": { | |
| "num": null, | |
| "uris": null, | |
| "type_str": "figure", | |
| "text": "JtClllS (IO not lilakc it clclii\" distinction boikVCCll rcgi.llar altcrnati(lns illl(I irregular OlleS. (liven ti raw list of cases, it is olyjoclcd, nolhing cnn he predicted fiom such a list, in llltich Ill(; SalilO way as nothing Clill I)o prodicted troll1 -say .-the supt)lelivc allcrnation fu)lwctll." | |
| }, | |
| "FIGREF3": { | |
| "num": null, | |
| "uris": null, | |
| "type_str": "figure", | |
| "text": "; b) w actiw~tes the [1] of [lajtl ill the paradignl i) of Fig.9 above; e) tim activated core o triggers the flap alternation [-aj F'er] of word-final [-ajt] in Fig.9-i, and the alte,'nation [a:jF'er] of word final [-a:jd] inFig.9-ii; d) the form ['lajFer] is thus produced, since there is a palh of pradigmatic links between [ll .'rod [aj Ver], while there being no such a path linking [11 and the alternation [a:j Fed by paradigm extension." | |
| }, | |
| "FIGREF4": { | |
| "num": null, | |
| "uris": null, | |
| "type_str": "figure", | |
| "text": "tile use of discontinuous string-matching in Italian and Arabic." | |
| }, | |
| "FIGREF5": { | |
| "num": null, | |
| "uris": null, | |
| "type_str": "figure", | |
| "text": "discontinuous string-matching does not allow tk)l\" ClOSS-lllaletaes. 5 CONCIAJSIONS." | |
| }, | |
| "FIGREF6": { | |
| "num": null, | |
| "uris": null, | |
| "type_str": "figure", | |
| "text": "interpenetration of lexicon aild graillnl,:lr ofl',ais a ['cw advantages i,i dealing wilh tile problenl lit hand: lexieal items are given a full surface phonological representation in the lexical network: no abstract phonological segments such as [m:[ in the phonological representation of prqfin.ld i. Fig.2 are needed ;" | |
| }, | |
| "TABREF1": { | |
| "html": null, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "text": "Paradigm extension is based on an int(iitive idea: if mane shares with vane one nucleus, then it is expected to shm'e all other paradigmatically-relatcd nuclei. ['orlll sl.ich lls obsoleto (F, nglish 'obsolete'), ,till Italian speaker would also predict that obsolera is fenlinino singuhu, obsoleti illasctllitlc iflural, oh.volete |'enliniilo llhii'al, according to the paradigm of ['otir-way ~ , and Icngfllcning, in the Ame.rican English pronunciation of writer aild rider, can be represented in analogical terms hy the two diagrams in l:ig.8. There, we have represented the immunciation of writer and rider in two separate analogical patterns, respectively i) (without lengthening), and it) (with lengthening).", | |
| "content": "<table><tr><td>tO ['</td><td><~></td><td>Z</td><td/><td>I;laplfin,~ In</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>fact, i) and it) should be merged into the same larger</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>lXittcrn, llowevcr, it quickly becomes impossible to</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>lficture multidinlensional links on a page. l:ig.8-i is the</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>result of the exposure of the network to the following</td></tr><tr><td>Is]</td><td>.,</td><td/><td/><td>fotu word forms: lrajtl (write), lrajl 'crl (writer), I fajl~cl'l (]'i@ter) and Ihtitl (light). l~ach word form is given with its catcgorial I'\u00a2tittlre string: xk I'or [r@], xo for trail 'erl,</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>yo for [fajl'crl and wk for [htjt I. Fig.8-ii is what the</td></tr><tr><td>b) [in]_</td><td><=></td><td>Z</td><td/><td>system yields when it conics across the folk~wing three</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>word forms: I ga:jI-erl (guider), Iga:jdl (guide)and Ira:jd]</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>(ride). Again, forms arc given with their catel;orial</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>string: jo for [ga:j[ \"erl, jk for Iga:jdl and zk for Ira:jdl.</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>The reader will note Ihat formal cores tire parasitic</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>on phonological redundancies, sitlce c(:,l'eS tire</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>extracted on the basis of systematic stirJ'acc-lrtlc</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>analogies between morl~honological represenlati~ms. Tim</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">Fig. 7 illorphor/ollagical alicrnalions and paradignl cxtcllsi()ll</td><td>difference between supplciion and (semi)regular altcrtmtions is easily captured: (semi)regular alternations exploit c(ncs more systematically than do SUlDlctivc</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">This may not always he true, but is certainly a governing principle irl tile theory or l)artl(tign/s. For example, when faced with an unknown o. cnding</td><td>alternations. IVlorcovcr, the structure of the analogical network makes it possible to express hidden phonological constraints as paradigms nf phonological alternations. This allows the system to avoid the</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>questionable use of surface tllltruo., underlying</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>ldlonological representations, typical of dcriwuional</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>:iccotlnts (as in</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">adjectives in Italian (Mallhcws, 1992). I/y Ihe silillC</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">token, tile extension in ltig.'/-b) above represents the</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">expectation that the nominalization of sane is ['s:cnitil,</td></tr><tr><td>by paradigmatic</td><td>analogy</td><td>wilh</td><td>['va'niti J.</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">(]onlputalionally, this c\u00d7tonsioii is hnplonlonled as a</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">COlitiiltiotis path of hilcr-n()dc c(lllilcclions (say [r()i/i isl</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">to [~nitil, through [ojnl and Iv] in lqg.7--b).</td><td/></tr><tr><td>[I]~></td><td/><td><=~</td><td/></tr><tr><td>it)</td><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td>[r</td><td><.~></td><td>Z</td><td/></tr><tr><td>[g]~=></td><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">Fig. 8 rival paradigms in a n/orl)hollotol, ical</td></tr><tr><td/><td>notwork</td><td/><td/></tr></table>", | |
| "type_str": "table" | |
| } | |
| } | |
| } | |
| } |