| { | |
| "paper_id": "2020", | |
| "header": { | |
| "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0", | |
| "date_generated": "2023-01-19T13:05:04.825196Z" | |
| }, | |
| "title": "A study of semantic projection from single word terms to multi-word terms in the environment domain", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Yizhe", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Wang", | |
| "suffix": "", | |
| "affiliation": { | |
| "laboratory": "", | |
| "institution": "CNRS & University of Nantes", | |
| "location": { | |
| "postCode": "LN2S" | |
| } | |
| }, | |
| "email": "[email protected]" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "B\u00e9atrice", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Daille", | |
| "suffix": "", | |
| "affiliation": { | |
| "laboratory": "", | |
| "institution": "CNRS & University of Nantes", | |
| "location": { | |
| "postCode": "LN2S" | |
| } | |
| }, | |
| "email": "[email protected]" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "Nabil", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Hathout", | |
| "suffix": "", | |
| "affiliation": { | |
| "laboratory": "", | |
| "institution": "CNRS & University of Nantes", | |
| "location": { | |
| "postCode": "LN2S" | |
| } | |
| }, | |
| "email": "[email protected]" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": "", | |
| "venue": null, | |
| "identifiers": {}, | |
| "abstract": "The semantic projection method is often used in terminology structuring to infer semantic relations between terms. Semantic projection relies upon the assumption of semantic compositionality: the relation that links simple term pairs remains valid in pairs of complex terms built from these simple terms. This paper proposes to investigate whether this assumption commonly adopted in natural language processing is actually valid. First, we describe the process of constructing a list of semantically linked multi-word terms (MWTs) related to the environmental field through the extraction of semantic variants. Second, we present our analysis of the results from the semantic projection. We find that contexts play an essential role in defining the relations between MWTs.", | |
| "pdf_parse": { | |
| "paper_id": "2020", | |
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| "abstract": [ | |
| { | |
| "text": "The semantic projection method is often used in terminology structuring to infer semantic relations between terms. Semantic projection relies upon the assumption of semantic compositionality: the relation that links simple term pairs remains valid in pairs of complex terms built from these simple terms. This paper proposes to investigate whether this assumption commonly adopted in natural language processing is actually valid. First, we describe the process of constructing a list of semantically linked multi-word terms (MWTs) related to the environmental field through the extraction of semantic variants. Second, we present our analysis of the results from the semantic projection. We find that contexts play an essential role in defining the relations between MWTs.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "Abstract", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
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| ], | |
| "body_text": [ | |
| { | |
| "text": "Terminology is structured by semantic relations between terms. The relations may be identified by experts, obtained from existing resources or extracted from corpora. They include synonymy, quasi-synonymy, hypernymy, hyponymy, etc. In this study, we focus on the identification of terminological relations between multi-word terms (MWTs) using the semantic projection method. We built a set of French MWT candidates related to the environment domain and containing two lexical words such as r\u00e9chauffement climatique 'global warming'. Three relation categories (antonymy, quasi-synonym, and hypernymy) between single word terms (SWTs) are extended to these candidates. A subset of these MWT pairs has been validated by three judges to assess the preservation and the validity of the inferred relations between MWTs. The main finding of the evaluation is that the context is crucial for the assessment because they determine the actual meaning of the MWTs. The remaining of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2. presents the related work. Section 3. outlines the projection of the semantic relations on the MWT pairs. Section 4. describes the data and resources used for the generation of semantically linked MWTs (Section 5.). The manual evaluation and an analysis of the projection results are presented in Section 6.. A short conclusion is then given in Section 7..", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "Introduction", | |
| "sec_num": "1." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Several approaches to semantic relation recognition have been proposed in the literature. They may be classified into three types: lexicon-based approaches (Senellart and Blondel, 2008) ; pattern-based approaches (Wang et al., 2010; Ravichandran and Hovy, 2002) ; distributional approaches (Rajana et al., 2017; Shwartz and Dagan, 2019) . Since MWTs are compositional or at least weakly compositional (L'homme, 2004) , the semantic projection method, also known as semantic variation and often referred to as a compositional method, is widely used to generate MWTs and predict relations between them from semantically related SWTs.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 156, | |
| "end": 185, | |
| "text": "(Senellart and Blondel, 2008)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF13" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 213, | |
| "end": 232, | |
| "text": "(Wang et al., 2010;", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF15" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 233, | |
| "end": 261, | |
| "text": "Ravichandran and Hovy, 2002)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF11" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 290, | |
| "end": 311, | |
| "text": "(Rajana et al., 2017;", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF10" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 312, | |
| "end": 336, | |
| "text": "Shwartz and Dagan, 2019)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF14" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 401, | |
| "end": 416, | |
| "text": "(L'homme, 2004)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
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| "section": "Related work", | |
| "sec_num": "2." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Synonymy is an important relation in terminology and is addressed in several studies, like Hamon et al. (1998) who identify synonymous term candidates through inference rules. The authors extract MWT candidates from a corpus on electric power plants and analyze the candidate terms (ligne d'alimentation 'supply line') as being made up of a head (ligne 'line') and an expansion (alimentation 'supply'). They then replace the head or the expansion (or both) by their synonyms obtained from a general dictionary. They assume that the substitution preserves the synonymy relation. In their study, 396 MWT pairs have been validated by an expert; 37% are real synonyms. The same method is used by Hamon and Nazarenko (2001) in order to detect synonymous MWTs in specialized corpora on nuclear power plants and coronary diseases. Their results show that general language dictionaries complement specialized hand-built lexical resources for the detection of semantic variants.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 91, | |
| "end": 110, | |
| "text": "Hamon et al. (1998)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF5" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 692, | |
| "end": 718, | |
| "text": "Hamon and Nazarenko (2001)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF4" | |
| } | |
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| "ref_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "Related work", | |
| "sec_num": "2." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "In a similar study, Morin (1999) uses inference rules to identify hierarchical relations (hypernymy) between MWTs. Instead of using relations from the general dictionary, they take as reference semantically linked SWTs extracted from the AGROVOC terminology. They not only add syntactic and semantic constraints on the reference rules but also use the semantic relations with morphological relations to detect the semantic variants. They then compare the relations generated from AGROVOC with relations generated from a general language dictionary and show that the latter has a significantly lower precision. More recently, Daille and Hazem (2014) have generalized the projection method to all types of lexical relations while Hazem and Daille (2018) use it to extract synonymous MWTs with variable lengths.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 20, | |
| "end": 32, | |
| "text": "Morin (1999)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF9" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 625, | |
| "end": 648, | |
| "text": "Daille and Hazem (2014)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 728, | |
| "end": 751, | |
| "text": "Hazem and Daille (2018)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF6" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Related work", | |
| "sec_num": "2." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The main difference between our study and the ones presented above is that we use the context to validate the inferred relations. In our experiment, we have extracted from the corpus 5 contexts for each candidate in the validation dataset. We consider that the projection is valid if the meaning of two MTWs in at least two of their contexts is in the relation stated between the two SWTs that yielded them. The above studies do not use the context except (Hamon and Nazarenko, 2001 ) who checks whether the two MWT candidates can be substituted one for the other in one context. In other words, one contribution of our study is to take into account the possible ambiguity of the MWTs, and the way contexts determine their meanings.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 456, | |
| "end": 482, | |
| "text": "(Hamon and Nazarenko, 2001", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF4" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Related work", | |
| "sec_num": "2." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Our method is based on the assumption that MWT meaning is compositional. One consequence of this hypothesis is that when two MWTs t 1 and t 2 only differ by one of their components c 1 and c 2 , the semantic relation between c 1 and c 2 is identical to the one between t 1 and t 2 because c 1 and c 2 contribute in the same way to the meanings of t 1 and t 2 . For instance, the relation between the MWTs croissance de la population 'population growth' and diminution de la population 'population decline' is the same as the one between the SWTs croissance 'growth' and diminution 'decline', that is antonymy. Our hypothesis is actually a bit stronger because we consider that the equivalence holds even when t 1 and t 2 do not have the same (syntactic) structure. More formally, let t 1 and t 2 be two MWTs such as", | |
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| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Composition method", | |
| "sec_num": "3." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "voc(t 1 ) = {u 1 , v 1 } and voc(t 2 ) = {u 2 , v 2 } where voc(x)", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Composition method", | |
| "sec_num": "3." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "is the set of the content words of x. If u 1 and u 2 are SWTs, if v 1 = v 2 and if there is a semantic relation R between u 1 and u 2 , then R also holds between t 1 and t 2 . In other words, if M is a set of MWTs of a domain and S is a set of SWTs, the hypothesis can be stated as follows:", | |
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| "section": "Composition method", | |
| "sec_num": "3." | |
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| "text": "\u2200t 1 \u2208 M, \u2200t 2 \u2208 M such as \u2203u 1 , v 1 , u 2 , v 2 / voc(t 1 ) = {u 1 , v 1 } \u2227 voc(t 2 ) = {u 2 , v 2 } \u2227u 1 \u2208 S \u2227 u 2 \u2208 S, [v 1 = v2 \u2227 \u2203R, R(u 1 , u 2 ) \u21d2 R(t 1 , t 2 )]", | |
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| "section": "Composition method", | |
| "sec_num": "3." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "4. Data and resources", | |
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| "section": "Composition method", | |
| "sec_num": "3." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The corpus used for extracting MWT candidates is a specialized monolingual French corpus in the environment domain (ELRA-W0065) created in the framework of the PANACEA project 1 . The corpus contains 35453 documents (about 50 million words) with different levels of specialization. The corpus has been preprocessed: extraction of the text, normalization of the characters, lemmatization with TreeTagger (Schmid, 1994) .", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 403, | |
| "end": 417, | |
| "text": "(Schmid, 1994)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF12" | |
| } | |
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| "section": "Corpus", | |
| "sec_num": "4.1." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The MWT candidates were extracted from the PANACEA corpus through TermSuit, a terminology extraction tool developed at LS2N 2 (Cram and Daille, 2016) . TermSuit only extracts noun phrases; the candidates are provided with their part of speech, specificity, and frequency. 1. Quasi-synonyms (QSYN): synonyms (diesel 'diesel' \u2194 gazole 'diesel'); quasi-synonyms (conserver 'preserve' \u2194 prot\u00e9ger 'protect'); close meanings (\u00e9lectricit\u00e9 'electricity' \u2194 \u00e9nergie 'energy'); variants (autopartage 'car sharing' \u2194 auto-partage 'car sharing').", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 126, | |
| "end": 149, | |
| "text": "(Cram and Daille, 2016)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF1" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "TermSuite", | |
| "sec_num": "4.2." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "2. Hierarchical relations (HYP): hyponyms (autoroute 'highway' \u2192 route 'road'); hypernyms (combustible 'fuel' \u2192 p\u00e9trole 'oil'). Because HYP mixes hyponyms and hypernyms, the pairs it connects are not in order.", | |
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| "section": "TermSuite", | |
| "sec_num": "4.2." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "3. Opposites (ANTI): antonyms (acc\u00e9l\u00e9rer 'accelerate' \u2194 ralentir 'slow down'); contrastives (flore 'flora' \u2194 faune 'fona').", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "TermSuite", | |
| "sec_num": "4.2." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "4. Derivatives (DRV): terms with the same meaning but different parts of speech (sensibilit\u00e9 'sensitivity' \u2194 sensible 'sensible').", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "TermSuite", | |
| "sec_num": "4.2." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Because we are focusing on the projection of lexicalsemantic relations, we did not use the 259 DRV pairs and excluded them from RefCD. We also excluded the 225 pairs of verbs because TermSuite only extracts noun phrases.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "TermSuite", | |
| "sec_num": "4.2." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Since RefCD does not contain information between simple terms describing other relations, like co-hyponyms, our study on semantic relations between MWTs concentrates on QSYN, HYP, and ANTI. We extracted all the MWT candidates which contain two content words and formed all the MWTs pairs that share a common word and where the two other words are a pair of SWTs connected in RefCD. We did not impose any other restriction on PoS, the order of the constituents, nor the patterns of the MWT candidates. 18,382 pairs of MWT candidates have been created. ", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "TermSuite", | |
| "sec_num": "4.2." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The raw projection yields symmetrical pairs of MWT candidates because some of the SWT pairs in RefCD are in random order. For instance, the projection produced the couple climat r\u00e9gional : climat local 'regional climate : local climate' and the couple climat local : climat r\u00e9gional. Therefore, we deleted the symmetries of hierarchical relationships. Table 4 shows the number of pairs that remained after the data filtering. ", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 352, | |
| "end": 359, | |
| "text": "Table 4", | |
| "ref_id": "TABREF7" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Data filtering", | |
| "sec_num": "5.2." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "In order to assess the hypothesis that MWT meaning is compositional and that semantic relations between SWTs are preserved when they are projected on MWTs, we performed a manual validation on a subset of the MWT candidate pairs we have extracted. Since our study focuses on the preservation and the validity of the semantic relations, we do not want to include the quality of candidates in the validation (are they terms of the environmental field?). For instance, a candidate like lutte contre le changement 'fight against the change' is not a term because it is syntactically incomplete, and the actual term is lutte contre le changement climatique 'fight against climate change'. Additionally, a candidate like cadre r\u00e9gional 'regional framework' does not belong to the environment domain. Therefore, we choose to check the term status of the MWT candidates through three online terminological dictionaries, namely TERMIUM Plus 3 , Le Grand Dictionnaire 4 and IATE 5 (Interactive Terminology for Europe). We consider any candidate present in any of these resources is a term of the environmental field since it was extracted from a specialized corpus of this domain. Since many of the extracted terms are specific, such as conservation du papillon 'butterfly conservation', only a fraction of the pairs have both of their MWT candidates present in one of the resources. As shown in The meaning of a word strongly depends on the contexts where it is used. In this study, we show that the context also determines the meaning of MWTS and the relations that connect them. The annotation of the MWT pairs is based on the relation between the two SWTs they contain and five contexts (i.e., sentences) extracted from the corpus for each MWT. The validity of the projected relation is decided based on the meanings of the MWT occurrences in the extracted contexts. The relation is valid if it holds between the meanings of at least one occurrence of each of the MWTs. The context may help the judges understand the meaning of a MWT like zone de recharge 'recharge zone' which refers to a free aquifer where water collects. It can be used to disambiguate a term like air frais 'fresh air' which does not mean cool air but air from the outside (1). Contexts may also highlight the polysemy of MWTs like changement du climat 'climate change' which has two meanings: 'global warming' in (2a) and 'climate variability' in (2b).", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Selection of a validation subset", | |
| "sec_num": "5.3." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "(1) la ventilation est \u00e0 double flux (l'air vici\u00e9 int\u00e9rieur r\u00e9chauffe l'air frais entrant)", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Selection of a validation subset", | |
| "sec_num": "5.3." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "'the ventilation is double flow (the inside stale air heats the incoming fresh air)'", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Selection of a validation subset", | |
| "sec_num": "5.3." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "(2) a. il a \u00e9tabli que le changement du climat \u00e9tait \u00ab sans \u00e9quivoque \u00bb et que les \u00e9missions de gaz \u00e0 effet de serre provenant des activit\u00e9s humaines \u00e9taient responsables (avec 90% de certitude) de l'augmentation des temp\u00e9ratures depuis cent ans 'it established that the climate change was \"unequivocal\" and that greenhouse gas emissions from human activities were responsible (with 90% certainty) for the increase in temperatures over the past hundred years' b. \u00e0 quelle vitesse la r\u00e9duction des concentrations atmosph\u00e9riques de GES de courte dur\u00e9e entra\u00eenerait un changement du climat 'how quickly reducing short-lived atmospheric GHG concentrations would cause climate change'", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Selection of a validation subset", | |
| "sec_num": "5.3." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The selected pairs have been annotated according to two criteria: the preservation of semantic relations and their validity in the environment domain. Both criteria are based on the expert knowledge of judges on semantic relations and the contexts in which the MWT candidates appear.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "Criteria", | |
| "sec_num": "6.2." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "1. We consider that a relation is preserved when the relation that holds between two SWTs also holds between two MWT candidates generated from these two SWTs, regardless of its validity as an instance of its category. In other words, the relation is preserved when SWT 1 :SWT 2 ::MWT 1 :MWT 2 form an analogy.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "Criteria", | |
| "sec_num": "6.2." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "2. We consider that a relation between two MWT candidates is valid in the domain when it actually belongs to the category to which it is assigned.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Criteria", | |
| "sec_num": "6.2." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We assessed the preservation of the relation and its validity separately because we have slightly changed the scope of the relation categories. We consider that co-hyponyms are not quasi-synonyms and cannot belong to QSYN. Furthermore, we consider the relationship between a pair of contrastive co-hyponym terms as an instance of ANTI.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "Criteria", | |
| "sec_num": "6.2." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The preservation of the relation only depends on the relations between the two SWTs and the two MWTs. If the relations are identical, the relation is considered as being preserved as in the case of temps froid : temps chaud 'cold weather : warm weather' (3) with respect to froid : chaud 'cold' : 'warm'.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Preservation", | |
| "sec_num": "6.3." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "(3) a. par temps froid, cette technique consiste \u00e0 ne pas laisser tourner son moteur au ralenti plus de 30 secondes 'by cold weather, this technique consists in not leaving the engine idling for more than 30 seconds' b. par temps chaud, le compromis entre confort et pratique est difficile \u00e0 trouver 'by warm weather, the compromise between comfort and practicality is difficult to find'", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "Preservation", | |
| "sec_num": "6.3." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "On the other hand, diversit\u00e9 is a hypernym biodiversit\u00e9 in RefCD, but the contexts in (4) show that the relation between the MWTs gestion de la diversit\u00e9 'management of diversity' and gestion de la biodiversit\u00e9 'management of biodiversity' is different since they are used with the same meaning.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "Preservation", | |
| "sec_num": "6.3." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "(4) a. les vari\u00e9t\u00e9s paysannes, issues de mill\u00e9naires de gestion de la diversit\u00e9 par les agriculteurs sont trop vivantes pour se plier aux crit\u00e8res d'inscription 'peasant varieties, coming from millennia of diversity management by farmers are too alive to comply with the criteria for registration' b. elle m\u00eame distincte de l'utilisation (par les agriculteurs) des semences, la gestion de la biodiversit\u00e9 cultiv\u00e9e r\u00e9unit dans un processus continu 'itself distinct from the use (by farmers) of seeds, the cultivated management of biodiversity unites in a continuous process'", | |
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| "section": "Preservation", | |
| "sec_num": "6.3." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Relations that are not preserved are considered as invalid. However, not all preserved relations are valid in the domain. For instance, agriculture 'agriculture' is a hypernym of \u00e9levage 'lifestock farming' in RefCD, and the relation holding between these SWTs is preserved in the MWTs agriculture biologique 'organic agriculture' and \u00e9levage biologique 'organic lifestock farming'. However, a context like (5) shows that these MWTs are actually co-hyponyms because hypernyms cannot be coordinated in this way. The reason is that agriculture is polysemous and may also mean cultivation. In this context, agriculture and \u00e9levage are cohyponyms, and the inferred relation is not valid because it is not a relation of hypernymy.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Domain validity", | |
| "sec_num": "6.4." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "(5) ... exp\u00e9rience avec une matrice agricole \"sans pesticides ni intrants chimiques\" (agriculture ou \u00e9levage biologique ou de prairies ... '... experience with an agricultural matrix \"without pesticides or chemical inputs\" (agriculture or organic farming or meadows ...'", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Domain validity", | |
| "sec_num": "6.4." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Three judges have annotated the pairs of the validation subset. Table 7 shows that the inter-annotator agreement measured by Fleiss' kappa is substantial. The cases where the judges disagreed were then resolved. ANTI HYP QSYN 0.77 0.68 0.61 Table 7 : Fleiss' kappa", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 64, | |
| "end": 71, | |
| "text": "Table 7", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 241, | |
| "end": 248, | |
| "text": "Table 7", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Analysis of the inferred relations", | |
| "sec_num": "6.5." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The results (Table 8) show that most of MWTs have compositional meaning, which confirms the claim of (L'homme, 2004). They also show that the preservation and the validity of the projected relations vary with their category. Even if no restriction on the patterns was used for the generation of the MWT pairs, we observed that in all of the valid pairs, the MWTs have the same patterns and the SWTs that they contain appear in the same positions. 51 out of 231 pairs of MWTs are not preserved. They fall into three groups. (i) The MWTs do not have the same structure like eau de surface 'surface water' and surface de la terre 'Earth's surface'. eau 'water' and terre 'land' are linked by ANTI relation but the MWTs are not because eau and terre do not appear in the same position. (ii) The meaning of the SWTs is not preserved in the MWTs as in route maritime : autoroute maritime 'shipping route : marine highway'. route 'road' is a hypernym of autoroute 'highway', but route maritime and autoroute maritime are synonyms in the contexts extracted for these two MWTs. (iii) The change in meaning may also come from the content word shared by two MWTs as in air libre : eau libre 'outdoor : open water'. The 62 pairs where the relation has been considered invalid are mainly co-hyponyms formed by SWTs linked by a QSYN relation like trafic ferroviaire : trafic routier 'rail traffic : road traffic'.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 12, | |
| "end": 21, | |
| "text": "(Table 8)", | |
| "ref_id": "TABREF12" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Analysis of the inferred relations", | |
| "sec_num": "6.5." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "In this study, we have created a dataset of MWT pairs linked by semantic relations. These relations are projected from a reference list of SWTs connected by the same relations. The annotation of a subset of the data highlighted the importance of the contexts because they determine the real meaning of MWTs and subsequently, the semantic relation that holds between them. The following step in this research is to design a method to automate the annotation on the basis of the semantic relations between SWTs and contextual semantic model like BERT (Devlin et al., 2019) .", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 549, | |
| "end": 570, | |
| "text": "(Devlin et al., 2019)", | |
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| "ref_spans": [], | |
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| "section": "Conclusion and Future Works", | |
| "sec_num": "7." | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "http://www.panacea-lr.eu/en/info-for-researchers/datasets/monolingual-corpora 2 https://www.ls2n.fr", | |
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| "ref_spans": [], | |
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| "text": "https://www.btb.termiumplus.gc.ca/tpv2alpha/alphafra.html?lang=fra 4 http://www.granddictionnaire.com/ 5 https://iate.europa.eu/", | |
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| "content": "<table><tr><td colspan=\"3\"># type pattern pilot</td><td>freq spec</td></tr><tr><td>3 T</td><td>N A</td><td>parc national</td><td>10198 4.17</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">3 V[s] N A A parc naturel national</td><td>59 1.94</td></tr><tr><td>4 T</td><td>A</td><td>communautaire</td><td>8864 4.11</td></tr><tr><td>13 T</td><td>T</td><td>biomasse</td><td>6239 3.96</td></tr><tr><td>17 T</td><td>N A</td><td>diversit\u00e9 biologique</td><td>5412 3.90</td></tr><tr><td>21 T</td><td>N A</td><td>milieu naturel</td><td>4328 3.80</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">21 V[s] N A A milieu naturel aquatique</td><td>23 1.54</td></tr></table>", | |
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| "content": "<table><tr><td>The semantic relations between MWT candidates are pre-</td></tr><tr><td>dicted from relations between SWTs. These semantically</td></tr><tr><td>linked SWTs are taken from a dataset made available by</td></tr><tr><td>Bernier-Colborne and Drouin (2016). This reference list</td></tr><tr><td>(RefCD) is extracted from DiCoEnviro (L'Homme and</td></tr><tr><td>Lanneville, 2014), a specialized dictionary of the environ-</td></tr><tr><td>ment field which describes the meaning of 1382 entry terms</td></tr><tr><td>of various sub-fields: energy, climate change, transporta-</td></tr><tr><td>tion, etc. RefCD is composed of 1314 term pairs, mainly</td></tr><tr><td>SWTs, connected by four relation categories:</td></tr></table>", | |
| "text": "Excerpt of the TermSuite output 4.3. Reference list of linked terms", | |
| "type_str": "table" | |
| }, | |
| "TABREF2": { | |
| "num": null, | |
| "html": null, | |
| "content": "<table><tr><td/><td>ANTI</td><td>HYP</td><td>QSYN</td><td>total</td></tr><tr><td>Pairs</td><td colspan=\"2\">116 191</td><td>523</td><td>830</td></tr><tr><td>Terms</td><td colspan=\"2\">107 122</td><td>415</td><td>429</td></tr></table>", | |
| "text": "The distribution of the three relation categories is imbalanced, as shown in table 2.", | |
| "type_str": "table" | |
| }, | |
| "TABREF3": { | |
| "num": null, | |
| "html": null, | |
| "content": "<table/>", | |
| "text": "", | |
| "type_str": "table" | |
| }, | |
| "TABREF4": { | |
| "num": null, | |
| "html": null, | |
| "content": "<table><tr><td>ANTI</td><td>HYP</td><td>QSYN</td><td>total</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">3414 3696 11,272 18,382</td></tr></table>", | |
| "text": "presents their distribution over the three relation categories.", | |
| "type_str": "table" | |
| }, | |
| "TABREF5": { | |
| "num": null, | |
| "html": null, | |
| "content": "<table/>", | |
| "text": "MWTs yielded by the semantic projection", | |
| "type_str": "table" | |
| }, | |
| "TABREF7": { | |
| "num": null, | |
| "html": null, | |
| "content": "<table/>", | |
| "text": "", | |
| "type_str": "table" | |
| }, | |
| "TABREF8": { | |
| "num": null, | |
| "html": null, | |
| "content": "<table><tr><td>ANTI</td><td>HYP</td><td>QSYN</td><td>total</td></tr><tr><td>80</td><td>51</td><td>100</td><td>231</td></tr></table>", | |
| "text": "", | |
| "type_str": "table" | |
| }, | |
| "TABREF9": { | |
| "num": null, | |
| "html": null, | |
| "content": "<table><tr><td>NA-NA</td><td>NA-NPN</td><td>NN-NN</td><td>NN-NPN</td><td>NPN-NPN</td></tr><tr><td>123</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td>2</td><td>104</td></tr></table>", | |
| "text": "Validation subsetphrases. In addition, most of the valid pairs are composed of two candidates having the same patterns, NA or NPN.", | |
| "type_str": "table" | |
| }, | |
| "TABREF10": { | |
| "num": null, | |
| "html": null, | |
| "content": "<table><tr><td>: Distribution of pattern pairs of the validation sub-</td></tr><tr><td>set</td></tr><tr><td>6. Evaluation of semantic projection</td></tr><tr><td>6.1. Contexts</td></tr></table>", | |
| "text": "", | |
| "type_str": "table" | |
| }, | |
| "TABREF12": { | |
| "num": null, | |
| "html": null, | |
| "content": "<table/>", | |
| "text": "Results of the validation", | |
| "type_str": "table" | |
| } | |
| } | |
| } | |
| } |