| { | |
| "paper_id": "E06-1043", | |
| "header": { | |
| "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0", | |
| "date_generated": "2023-01-19T10:35:04.197712Z" | |
| }, | |
| "title": "Automatically Constructing a Lexicon of Verb Phrase Idiomatic Combinations", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Afsaneh", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Fazly", | |
| "suffix": "", | |
| "affiliation": { | |
| "laboratory": "", | |
| "institution": "University of Toronto Toronto", | |
| "location": { | |
| "postCode": "M5S 3H5", | |
| "region": "ON", | |
| "country": "Canada" | |
| } | |
| }, | |
| "email": "[email protected]" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "Suzanne", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Stevenson", | |
| "suffix": "", | |
| "affiliation": { | |
| "laboratory": "", | |
| "institution": "University of Toronto Toronto", | |
| "location": { | |
| "postCode": "M5S 3H5", | |
| "region": "ON", | |
| "country": "Canada" | |
| } | |
| }, | |
| "email": "[email protected]" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": "", | |
| "venue": null, | |
| "identifiers": {}, | |
| "abstract": "We investigate the lexical and syntactic flexibility of a class of idiomatic expressions. We develop measures that draw on such linguistic properties, and demonstrate that these statistical, corpus-based measures can be successfully used for distinguishing idiomatic combinations from non-idiomatic ones. We also propose a means for automatically determining which syntactic forms a particular idiom can appear in, and hence should be included in its lexical representation.", | |
| "pdf_parse": { | |
| "paper_id": "E06-1043", | |
| "_pdf_hash": "", | |
| "abstract": [ | |
| { | |
| "text": "We investigate the lexical and syntactic flexibility of a class of idiomatic expressions. We develop measures that draw on such linguistic properties, and demonstrate that these statistical, corpus-based measures can be successfully used for distinguishing idiomatic combinations from non-idiomatic ones. We also propose a means for automatically determining which syntactic forms a particular idiom can appear in, and hence should be included in its lexical representation.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Abstract", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "body_text": [ | |
| { | |
| "text": "The term idiom has been applied to a fuzzy category with prototypical examples such as by and large, kick the bucket, and let the cat out of the bag. Providing a definitive answer for what idioms are, and determining how they are learned and understood, are still subject to debate (Glucksberg, 1993; Nunberg et al., 1994) . Nonetheless, they are often defined as phrases or sentences that involve some degree of lexical, syntactic, and/or semantic idiosyncrasy.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 282, | |
| "end": 300, | |
| "text": "(Glucksberg, 1993;", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF11" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 301, | |
| "end": 322, | |
| "text": "Nunberg et al., 1994)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Introduction", | |
| "sec_num": "1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Idiomatic expressions, as a part of the vast family of figurative language, are widely used both in colloquial speech and in written language. Moreover, a phrase develops its idiomaticity over time (Cacciari, 1993) ; consequently, new idioms come into existence on a daily basis (Cowie et al., 1983; Seaton and Macaulay, 2002) . Idioms thus pose a serious challenge, both for the creation of widecoverage computational lexicons, and for the development of large-scale, linguistically plausible natural language processing (NLP) systems (Sag et al., 2002) .", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 198, | |
| "end": 214, | |
| "text": "(Cacciari, 1993)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 279, | |
| "end": 299, | |
| "text": "(Cowie et al., 1983;", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF6" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 300, | |
| "end": 326, | |
| "text": "Seaton and Macaulay, 2002)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 536, | |
| "end": 554, | |
| "text": "(Sag et al., 2002)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF21" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Introduction", | |
| "sec_num": "1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "One problem is due to the range of syntactic idiosyncrasy of idiomatic expressions. Some idioms, such as by and large, contain syntactic violations; these are often completely fixed and hence can be listed in a lexicon as \"words with spaces\" (Sag et al., 2002) . However, among those idioms that are syntactically well-formed, some exhibit limited morphosyntactic flexibility, while others may be more syntactically flexible. For example, the idiom shoot the breeze undergoes verbal inflection (shot the breeze), but not internal modification or passivization (?shoot the fun breeze, ?the breeze was shot). In contrast, the idiom spill the beans undergoes verbal inflection, internal modification, and even passivization. Clearly, a words-withspaces approach does not capture the full range of behaviour of such idiomatic expressions.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 242, | |
| "end": 260, | |
| "text": "(Sag et al., 2002)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF21" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Introduction", | |
| "sec_num": "1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Another barrier to the appropriate handling of idioms in a computational system is their semantic idiosyncrasy. This is a particular issue for those idioms that conform to the grammar rules of the language. Such idiomatic expressions are indistinguishable on the surface from compositional (nonidiomatic) phrases, but a computational system must be capable of distinguishing the two. For example, a machine translation system should translate the idiom shoot the breeze as a single unit of meaning (\"to chat\"), whereas this is not the case for the literal phrase shoot the bird.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Introduction", | |
| "sec_num": "1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "In this study, we focus on a particular class of English phrasal idioms, i.e., those that involve the combination of a verb plus a noun in its direct object position. Examples include shoot the breeze, pull strings, and push one's luck. We refer to these as verb+noun idiomatic combinations (VNICs). The class of VNICs accommodates a large number of idiomatic expressions (Cowie et al., 1983; Nunberg et al., 1994) . Moreover, their peculiar be-haviour signifies the need for a distinct treatment in a computational lexicon (Fellbaum, 2005) . Despite this, VNICs have been granted relatively little attention within the computational linguistics community.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 372, | |
| "end": 392, | |
| "text": "(Cowie et al., 1983;", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF6" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 393, | |
| "end": 414, | |
| "text": "Nunberg et al., 1994)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 524, | |
| "end": 540, | |
| "text": "(Fellbaum, 2005)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF10" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Introduction", | |
| "sec_num": "1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We look into two closely related problems confronting the appropriate treatment of VNICs: (i) the problem of determining their degree of flexibility; and (ii) the problem of determining their level of idiomaticity. Section 2 elaborates on the lexicosyntactic flexibility of VNICs, and how this relates to their idiomaticity. In Section 3, we propose two linguistically-motivated statistical measures for quantifying the degree of lexical and syntactic inflexibility (or fixedness) of verb+noun combinations. Section 4 presents an evaluation of the proposed measures. In Section 5, we put forward a technique for determining the syntactic variations that a VNIC can undergo, and that should be included in its lexical representation. Section 6 summarizes our contributions.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Introduction", | |
| "sec_num": "1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Although syntactically well-formed, VNICs involve a certain degree of semantic idiosyncrasy. Unlike compositional verb+noun combinations, the meaning of VNICs cannot be solely predicted from the meaning of their parts. There is much evidence in the linguistic literature that the semantic idiosyncrasy of idiomatic combinations is reflected in their lexical and/or syntactic behaviour.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Flexibility and Idiomaticity of VNICs", | |
| "sec_num": "2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "A limited number of idioms have one (or more) lexical variants, e.g., blow one's own trumpet and toot one's own horn (examples from Cowie et al. 1983) . However, most are lexically fixed (nonproductive) to a large extent. Neither shoot the wind nor fling the breeze are typically recognized as variations of the idiom shoot the breeze. Similarly, spill the beans has an idiomatic meaning (\"to reveal a secret\"), while spill the peas and spread the beans have only literal interpretations.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 132, | |
| "end": 150, | |
| "text": "Cowie et al. 1983)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF6" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Lexical and Syntactic Flexibility", | |
| "sec_num": "2.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Idiomatic combinations are also syntactically peculiar: most VNICs cannot undergo syntactic variations and at the same time retain their idiomatic interpretations. It is important, however, to note that VNICs differ with respect to the degree of syntactic flexibility they exhibit. Some are syntactically inflexible for the most part, while others are more versatile; as illustrated in 1 and 2: Linguists have explained the lexical and syntactic flexibility of idiomatic combinations in terms of their semantic analyzability (e.g., Glucksberg 1993; Fellbaum 1993; Nunberg et al. 1994) . Semantic analyzability is inversely related to idiomaticity. For example, the meaning of shoot the breeze, a highly idiomatic expression, has nothing to do with either shoot or breeze. In contrast, a less idiomatic expression, such as spill the beans, can be analyzed as spill corresponding to \"reveal\" and beans referring to \"secret(s)\". Generally, the constituents of a semantically analyzable idiom can be mapped onto their corresponding referents in the idiomatic interpretation. Hence analyzable (less idiomatic) expressions are often more open to lexical substitution and syntactic variation.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 532, | |
| "end": 548, | |
| "text": "Glucksberg 1993;", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF11" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 549, | |
| "end": 563, | |
| "text": "Fellbaum 1993;", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF9" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 564, | |
| "end": 584, | |
| "text": "Nunberg et al. 1994)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Lexical and Syntactic Flexibility", | |
| "sec_num": "2.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We use the observed connection between idiomaticity and (in)flexibility to devise statistical measures for automatically distinguishing idiomatic from literal verb+noun combinations. While VNICs vary in their degree of flexibility (cf. 1 and 2 above; see also Moon 1998), on the whole they contrast with compositional phrases, which are more lexically productive and appear in a wider range of syntactic forms. We thus propose to use the degree of lexical and syntactic flexibility of a given verb+noun combination to determine the level of idiomaticity of the expression.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Our Proposal", | |
| "sec_num": "2.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "It is important to note that semantic analyzability is neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for an idiomatic combination to be lexically or syntactically flexible. Other factors, such as the communicative intentions and pragmatic constraints, can motivate a speaker to use a variant in place of a canonical form (Glucksberg, 1993) . Nevertheless, lexical and syntactic flexibility may well be used as partial indicators of semantic analyzability, and hence idiomaticity.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 322, | |
| "end": 340, | |
| "text": "(Glucksberg, 1993)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF11" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Our Proposal", | |
| "sec_num": "2.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Here we describe our measures for idiomaticity, which quantify the degree of lexical, syntactic, and overall fixedness of a given verb+noun combination, represented as a verb-noun pair. (Note that our measures quantify fixedness, not flexibility.)", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Automatic Recognition of VNICs", | |
| "sec_num": "3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "A VNIC is lexically fixed if the replacement of any of its constituents by a semantically (and syntactically) similar word generally does not result in another VNIC, but in an invalid or a literal expression. One way of measuring lexical fixedness of a given verb+noun combination is thus to examine the idiomaticity of its variants, i.e., expressions generated by replacing one of the constituents by a similar word. This approach has two main challenges: (i) it requires prior knowledge about the idiomaticity of expressions (which is what we are developing our measure to determine); (ii) it needs information on \"similarity\" among words.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Measuring Lexical Fixedness", | |
| "sec_num": "3.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Inspired by Lin (1999) , we examine the strength of association between the verb and noun constituents of the target combination and its variants, as an indirect cue to their idiomaticity. We use the automatically-built thesaurus of Lin (1998) to find similar words to the noun of the target expression, in order to automatically generate variants. Only the noun constituent is varied, since replacing the verb constituent of a VNIC with a semantically related verb is more likely to yield another VNIC, as in keep/lose one's cool (Nunberg et al., 1994) .", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 12, | |
| "end": 22, | |
| "text": "Lin (1999)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF13" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 233, | |
| "end": 243, | |
| "text": "Lin (1998)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF12" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 531, | |
| "end": 553, | |
| "text": "(Nunberg et al., 1994)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Measuring Lexical Fixedness", | |
| "sec_num": "3.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Let . We calculate the association strength for the target pair, and for each of its variants, 2 9 3 6 5 \u00a9 \u00a5 7", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Measuring Lexical Fixedness", | |
| "sec_num": "3.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "EQUATION", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 0, | |
| "end": 8, | |
| "text": "EQUATION", | |
| "ref_id": "EQREF", | |
| "raw_str": "\u00a2 \u00a1 \u00a4 \u00a3 \u00a6 \u00a5 \u00a7 \u00a9 \u00a9 \u00a5 \" ! $ # & % ' # )", | |
| "eq_num": "( 1" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "section": "Measuring Lexical Fixedness", | |
| "sec_num": "3.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": ", using pointwise mutual information (PMI) (Church et al., 1991) : ", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 43, | |
| "end": 64, | |
| "text": "(Church et al., 1991)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF4" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Measuring Lexical Fixedness", | |
| "sec_num": "3.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "@ B A D C \u00a7 3 6 5 \u00a9 F E G H I Q P S R U T \u00a7 3 6 5 \u00a9 E T \u00a7 3 T \u00a7 \u00a9 E I Q P S R V & W 4 X Y \u00e0 b \u00a7 3 6 5 \u00a9 F E G ` b \u00a7 3 6 5 d c b e \u00a7 c f 5 \u00a9 E (1) where g # i h p # 1 ( and \u00a9 6 q", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Measuring Lexical Fixedness", | |
| "sec_num": "3.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "X ;`\u00a2 \u00a7 c f 5 \u00a9 E", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Measuring Lexical Fixedness", | |
| "sec_num": "3.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "is the total frequency of the noun", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Measuring Lexical Fixedness", | |
| "sec_num": "3.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "in the direct object position of any verb in V . Lin (1999) assumes that a target expression is non-compositional if and only if its @ s A t C value is significantly different from that of any of the variants. Instead, we propose a novel technique that brings together the association strengths ( @ B A D C values) of the target and the variant expressions into a single measure reflecting the degree of lexical fixedness for the target pair. We assume that the target pair is lexically fixed to the extent that its @ B A D C", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 49, | |
| "end": 59, | |
| "text": "Lin (1999)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF13" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "\u00a9 E", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "deviates from the average @ B A D C of its variants. Our measure calculates this deviation, normalized using the sample's standard deviation:", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "\u00a9 E", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "u b v Q w y x x \u00a7 3 6 5 \u00a9 H @ B A D C \u00a7 3 6 5 \u00a9 b @ B A D C (2) @ s A t C", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "\u00a9 E", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "is the mean and the standard deviation of the sample;", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "\u00a9 E", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "u \u00a2 v w x x \u00a7 3 r 5 \u00a9 8 d f e 5 h g e j i .", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "\u00a9 E", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Compared to compositional verb+noun combinations, VNICs are expected to appear in more restricted syntactic forms. To quantify the syntactic fixedness of a target verb-noun pair, we thus need to: (i) identify relevant syntactic patterns, i.e., those that help distinguish VNICs from literal verb+noun combinations; (ii) translate the frequency distribution of the target pair in the identified patterns into a measure of syntactic fixedness.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Measuring Syntactic Fixedness", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Determining a unique set of syntactic patterns appropriate for the recognition of all idiomatic combinations is difficult indeed: exactly which forms an idiomatic combination can occur in is not entirely predictable (Sag et al., 2002) . Nonetheless, there are hypotheses about the difference in behaviour of VNICs and literal verb+noun combinations with respect to particular syntactic variations (Nunberg et al., 1994) . Linguists note that semantic analyzability is related to the referential status of the noun constituent, which is in turn related to participation in certain morphosyntactic forms. In what follows, we describe three types of variation that are tolerated by literal combinations, but are prohibited by many VNICs.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 216, | |
| "end": 234, | |
| "text": "(Sag et al., 2002)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF21" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 397, | |
| "end": 419, | |
| "text": "(Nunberg et al., 1994)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Identifying Relevant Patterns", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Passivization There is much evidence in the linguistic literature that VNICs often do not undergo passivization. 1 Linguists mainly attribute this to the fact that only a referential noun can appear as the surface subject of a passive construction.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Identifying Relevant Patterns", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Determiner Type A strong correlation exists between the flexibility of the determiner preceding the noun in a verb+noun combination and the overall flexibility of the phrase (Fellbaum, 1993) . It is however important to note that the nature of the determiner is also affected by other factors, such as the semantic properties of the noun.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 174, | |
| "end": 190, | |
| "text": "(Fellbaum, 1993)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF9" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Identifying Relevant Patterns", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Pluralization While the verb constituent of a VNIC is morphologically flexible, the morphological flexibility of the noun relates to its referential status. A non-referential noun constituent is expected to mainly appear in just one of the singular or plural forms. The pluralization of the noun is of course also affected by its semantic properties.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Identifying Relevant Patterns", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Merging the three variation types results in a pattern set, , of \u00a1 \u00a2 \u00a1 distinct syntactic patterns, given in Table 1 . 2", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 109, | |
| "end": 116, | |
| "text": "Table 1", | |
| "ref_id": "TABREF2" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Identifying Relevant Patterns", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The second step is to devise a statistical measure that quantifies the degree of syntactic fixedness of a verb-noun pair, with respect to the selected set of patterns,", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Devising a Statistical Measure", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": ". We propose a measure that compares the \"syntactic behaviour\" of the target pair with that of a \"typical\" verb-noun pair. Syntactic behaviour of a typical pair is defined as the prior probability distribution over the patterns in . The prior probability of an individual pattern \u00a3 \u00a5 \u00a4 is estimated as:", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Devising a Statistical Measure", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "T \u00a7 \u00a7 \u00a6 \u00a9 H ! # \" \u00a2 \u00a7 3 \u00a3 5 \u00a9 F E 5 \u00a3 \u00a5 \u00a4 $ % ! & \" ' ) ( 1 0 & 3 2 5 4 \u00a2 \u00a7 3 \u00a3 5 \u00a9 E 5 \u00a3 \u00a5 \u00a4 7 6", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Devising a Statistical Measure", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The syntactic behaviour of the target verb-noun pair 2 4 3 r 5 \u00a9 7", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Devising a Statistical Measure", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "is defined as the posterior probability distribution over the patterns, given the particular pair. The posterior probability of an individual pattern \u00a3 \u00a5 \u00a4 is estimated as:", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Devising a Statistical Measure", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "T \u00a7 \u00a7 \u00a6 \u00a9 8 5 @ 9 H T \u00a7 3 6 5 \u00a9 5 \u00a3 \u00a5 \u00a4 T \u00a7 3 r 5 \u00a9 b \u00a7 3 6 5 \u00a9 5 \u00a3 \u00a5 \u00a4 ' ) ( 1 0 A 2 5 4 b \u00a7 3 r 5 \u00a9 5 \u00a3 \u00a5 \u00a4 7 6", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Devising a Statistical Measure", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The degree of syntactic fixedness of the target verb-noun pair is estimated as the divergence of its syntactic behaviour (the posterior distribution over the patterns), from the typical syntactic behaviour (the prior distribution). The divergence of the two probability distributions is calculated using a standard information-theoretic measure, the Kullback Leibler (KL-)divergence:", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Devising a Statistical Measure", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Patterns v det:NULL nB D C v det:NULL nE F v det:a/an nB D C v det:the nB D C v det:the nE F v det:DEM nB D C v det:DEM nE F v det:POSS nB D C v det:POSS nE F v det:OTHER [ nB D C H GE F ] det:ANY [ nB D C H GE F ] be vE I B D B P % Q", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Devising a Statistical Measure", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "u \u00a2 v w x x S R 7 T & U \u00a7 3 6 5 \u00a9 V D \u00a7 T \u00a7 \u00a3 \u00a5 \u00a4 3 r 5 \u00a9 Q T \u00a7 \u00a3 \u00a5 \u00a4 ' ) ( 1 0 # 3 2 5 4 T \u00a7 \u00a3 \u00a5 \u00a4 7 6 3 6 5 \u00a9 y I Q P S R T \u00a7 \u00a3 W \u00a4 7 6 3 r 5 \u00a9 T \u00a7 \u00a3 \u00a5 \u00a4 7 6", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Devising a Statistical Measure", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "(3) KL-divergence is always non-negative and is zero if and only if the two distributions are exactly the same. Thus,", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Devising a Statistical Measure", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "u \u00a2 v w x x X R 7 T & U \u00a7 3 r 5 \u00a9 s d g 5 h g e j i", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Devising a Statistical Measure", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": ". KL-divergence is argued to be problematic because it is not a symmetric measure. Nonetheless, it has proven useful in many NLP applications (Resnik, 1999; Dagan et al., 1994) . Moreover, the asymmetry is not an issue here since we are concerned with the relative distance of several posterior distributions from the same prior.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 142, | |
| "end": 156, | |
| "text": "(Resnik, 1999;", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF19" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 157, | |
| "end": 176, | |
| "text": "Dagan et al., 1994)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF7" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Devising a Statistical Measure", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "VNICs are hypothesized to be, in most cases, both lexically and syntactically more fixed than literal verb+noun combinations (see Section 2). We thus propose a new measure of idiomaticity to be a measure of the overall fixedness of a given pair. We define", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "A Hybrid Measure of Fixedness", | |
| "sec_num": "3.3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "EQUATION", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 0, | |
| "end": 8, | |
| "text": "EQUATION", | |
| "ref_id": "EQREF", | |
| "raw_str": "u b v Q w y x x \u1ef2 a b c \u00a7 3 r 5 \u00a9 as: u b v Q w y x x S Y a $ b c \u00a7 3 6 5 \u00a9 d u \u00a2 v w y x r x S R e T ! U \u00a7 3 r 5 \u00a9 g \u00a7 \u00a1 f d b u \u00a2 v w x x \u00a7 3 6 5 \u00a9", | |
| "eq_num": "(4)" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "section": "A Hybrid Measure of Fixedness", | |
| "sec_num": "3.3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "where d weights the relative contribution of the measures in predicting idiomaticity.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "A Hybrid Measure of Fixedness", | |
| "sec_num": "3.3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "To evaluate our proposed fixedness measures, we determine their appropriateness as indicators of idiomaticity. We pose a classification task in which idiomatic verb-noun pairs are distinguished from literal ones. We use each measure to assign scores to the experimental pairs (see Section 4.2 below). We then classify the pairs by setting a threshold, here the median score, where all expressions with scores higher than the threshold are labeled as idiomatic and the rest as literal.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Evaluation of the Fixedness Measures", | |
| "sec_num": "4" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We assess the overall goodness of a measure by looking at its accuracy (Acc) and the relative reduction in error rate (RER) on the classification task described above. The RER of a measure reflects the improvement in its accuracy relative to another measure (often a baseline).", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Evaluation of the Fixedness Measures", | |
| "sec_num": "4" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We consider two baselines: (i) a random baseline,", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Evaluation of the Fixedness Measures", | |
| "sec_num": "4" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": ", that randomly assigns a label (literal or idiomatic) to each verb-noun pair; (ii) a more informed baseline,", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "\u00a2 \u00a1", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": ", an information-theoretic measure widely used for extracting statistically significant collocations. 3", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "@ B A D C", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We use the British National Corpus (BNC; \"http://www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk/\") to extract verbnoun pairs, along with information on the syntactic patterns they appear in. We automatically parse the corpus using the Collins parser (Collins, 1999) , and further process it using TGrep2 (Rohde, 2004). For each instance of a transitive verb, we use heuristics to extract the noun phrase (NP) in either the direct object position (if the sentence is active), or the subject position (if the sentence is passive). We then use NP-head extraction software 4 to get the head noun of the extracted NP, its number (singular or plural), and the determiner introducing it.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 224, | |
| "end": 239, | |
| "text": "(Collins, 1999)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF5" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Corpus and Data Extraction", | |
| "sec_num": "4.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We select our development and test expressions from verb-noun pairs that involve a member of a predefined list of (transitive) \"basic\" verbs. Basic verbs, in their literal use, refer to states or acts that are central to human experience. They are thus frequent, highly polysemous, and tend to combine with other words to form idiomatic combinations (Nunberg et al., 1994 ). An initial list of such verbs was selected from several linguistic and psycholinguistic studies on basic vocabulary (e.g., Pauwels 2000; Newman and Rice 2004) . We further augmented this initial list with verbs that are semantically related to another verb already in the 3 As in Eqn. (1), our calculation of PMI here restricts the verb-noun pair to the direct object relation. 4 We use a modified version of the software provided by Eric Joanis based on heuristics from (Collins, 1999). list; e.g., lose is added in analogy with find. The final list of 28 verbs is: blow, bring, catch, cut, find, get, give, have, hear, hit, hold, keep, kick, lay, lose, make, move, place, pull, push, put, see, set, shoot, smell, take, throw, touch From the corpus, we extract all verb-noun pairs with minimum frequency of \u00a1 g that contain a basic verb. From these, we semi-randomly select an idiomatic and a literal subset. 5 A pair is considered idiomatic if it appears in a credible idiom dictionary, such as the Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English (ODCIE) (Cowie et al., 1983) , or the Collins COBUILD Idioms Dictionary (CCID) (Seaton and Macaulay, 2002) . Otherwise, the pair is considered literal. We then randomly pull out (giving more weight to the syntactic fixedness measure).", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 350, | |
| "end": 371, | |
| "text": "(Nunberg et al., 1994", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 498, | |
| "end": 511, | |
| "text": "Pauwels 2000;", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF18" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 512, | |
| "end": 533, | |
| "text": "Newman and Rice 2004)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF16" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 753, | |
| "end": 754, | |
| "text": "4", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 846, | |
| "end": 862, | |
| "text": "(Collins, 1999).", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF5" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 942, | |
| "end": 1108, | |
| "text": "blow, bring, catch, cut, find, get, give, have, hear, hit, hold, keep, kick, lay, lose, make, move, place, pull, push, put, see, set, shoot, smell, take, throw, touch", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 1431, | |
| "end": 1451, | |
| "text": "(Cowie et al., 1983)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF6" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 1502, | |
| "end": 1529, | |
| "text": "(Seaton and Macaulay, 2002)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Experimental Expressions", | |
| "sec_num": "4.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Test expressions are saved as unseen data for the final evaluation. We further divide the set of all test expressions, TEST ). All frequency counts are over the entire BNC.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Experimental Expressions", | |
| "sec_num": "4.2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We first examine the performance of the individual fixedness measures, u \u00a2 v w y x r x h and improves quite a bit when it is applied to high frequency items, while it improves only slightly on the low frequency items. These results show that both Fixedness measures . Hence they can be used with a higher degree of confidence, especially when applied to data that is heterogeneous with regard to frequency. This is important because while some VNICs are very common, others have very low frequency. . Each of the lexical and syntactic fixedness measures is a good indicator of idiomaticity on its own, with syntactic fixedness being a better predictor. Here we demonstrate that combining them into a single measure of fixedness, while giving more weight to the better measure, results in a more effective predictor of idiomaticity.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Results", | |
| "sec_num": "4.4" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "TEST %Acc %RER R \" \u00a6 R \u00a4 \u00a7 Q ! # ! $ S % 65 30 R \" \u00a6 R \u00a4 \u00a7 Q ! # !' 0 ) Q 1 70 40 R \" \u00a6 R \u00a4 \u00a7 Q ! # ! @ T ( $ & U 74 48", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Results", | |
| "sec_num": "4.4" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Our evaluation of the fixedness measures demonstrates their usefulness for the automatic recognition of idiomatic verb-noun pairs. To represent such pairs in a lexicon, however, we must determine their canonical form(s)-Cforms henceforth. For example, the lexical representation of 2 shoot, breeze 7 should include shoot the breeze as a Cform.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Determining the Canonical Forms", | |
| "sec_num": "5" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Since VNICs are syntactically fixed, they are mostly expected to have a single Cform. Nonetheless, there are idioms with two or more accept-able forms. For example, hold fire and hold one's fire are both listed in CCID as variations of the same idiom. Our approach should thus be capable of predicting all allowable forms for a given idiomatic verb-noun pair.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Determining the Canonical Forms", | |
| "sec_num": "5" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We expect a VNIC to occur in its Cform(s) more frequently than it occurs in any other syntactic patterns. To discover the Cform(s) for a given idiomatic verb-noun pair, we thus examine its frequency of occurrence in each syntactic pattern in . Since it is possible for an idiom to have more than one Cform, we cannot simply take the most dominant pattern as the canonical one. Instead, we calculate a -score for the target pair is a canonical pattern for the target pair, we check whether", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Determining the Canonical Forms", | |
| "sec_num": "5" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "6 \u00a7 3 6 5 \u00a9 \u00a4 \u00a3 \u00a6 \u00a5 \u00a7 , where \u00a5 \u00a9 \u00a7", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Determining the Canonical Forms", | |
| "sec_num": "5" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "is a threshold. For evaluation, we set ), compared to the Cforms listed in the two dictionaries. The average precision across the 100 test pairs is 81.7%, and the average recall is 88.0% (with 69 of the pairs having 100% precision and 100% recall). Moreover, we find that for the overwhelming majority of the pairs,\u00a8\u00a3 ! , the predicted Cform with the highest -score appears in the dictionary entry of the pair. Thus, our method of detecting Cforms performs quite well.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Determining the Canonical Forms", | |
| "sec_num": "5" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The significance of the role idioms play in language has long been recognized. However, due to their peculiar behaviour, idioms have been mostly overlooked by the NLP community. Recently, there has been growing awareness of the importance of identifying non-compositional multiword expressions (MWEs). Nonetheless, most research on the topic has focused on compound nouns and verb particle constructions. Earlier work on idioms have only touched the surface of the problem, failing to propose explicit mechanisms for appropriately handling them. Here, we provide effective mechanisms for the treatment of a broadly documented and crosslinguistically frequent class of idioms, i.e., VNICs.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Discussion and Conclusions", | |
| "sec_num": "6" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Earlier research on the lexical encoding of idioms mainly relied on the existence of human annotations, especially for detecting which syntactic variations (e.g., passivization) an idiom can undergo (Villavicencio et al., 2004) . We propose techniques for the automatic acquisition and encoding of knowledge about the lexicosyntactic behaviour of idiomatic combinations. We put forward a means for automatically discovering the set of syntactic variations that are tolerated by a VNIC and that should be included in its lexical representation. Moreover, we incorporate such information into statistical measures that effectively predict the idiomaticity level of a given expression. In this regard, our work relates to previous studies on determining the compositionality (inverse of idiomaticity) of MWEs other than idioms.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 199, | |
| "end": 227, | |
| "text": "(Villavicencio et al., 2004)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF25" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Discussion and Conclusions", | |
| "sec_num": "6" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Most previous work on compositionality of MWEs either treat them as collocations (Smadja, 1993) , or examine the distributional similarity between the expression and its constituents (Mc-Carthy et al., 2003; . Lin (1999) and Wermter and Hahn (2005) go one step further and look into a linguistic property of non-compositional compounds-their lexical fixedness-to identify them. Venkatapathy and Joshi (2005) combine aspects of the above-mentioned work, by incorporating lexical fixedness, collocation-based, and distributional similarity measures into a set of features which are used to rank verb+noun combinations according to their compositionality.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 81, | |
| "end": 95, | |
| "text": "(Smadja, 1993)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF23" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 183, | |
| "end": 207, | |
| "text": "(Mc-Carthy et al., 2003;", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 210, | |
| "end": 220, | |
| "text": "Lin (1999)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF13" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 225, | |
| "end": 248, | |
| "text": "Wermter and Hahn (2005)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF26" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 378, | |
| "end": 407, | |
| "text": "Venkatapathy and Joshi (2005)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF24" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Discussion and Conclusions", | |
| "sec_num": "6" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Our work differs from such studies in that it carefully examines several linguistic properties of VNICs that distinguish them from literal (compositional) combinations. Moreover, we suggest novel techniques for translating such characteristics into measures that predict the idiomaticity level of verb+noun combinations. More specifically, we propose statistical measures that quantify the degree of lexical, syntactic, and overall fixedness of such combinations. We demonstrate that these measures can be successfully applied to the task of automatically distinguishing idiomatic combinations from non-idiomatic ones. We also show that our syntactic and overall fixedness measures substantially outperform a widely used measure of collocation, ( * ) , +", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Discussion and Conclusions", | |
| "sec_num": "6" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": ", even when the latter takes syntactic relations into account.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Discussion and Conclusions", | |
| "sec_num": "6" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Others have also drawn on the notion of syntactic fixedness for idiom detection, though specific to a highly constrained type of idiom (Widdows and Dorow, 2005) . Our syntactic fixedness measure looks into a broader set of patterns associated with a large class of idiomatic expressions. Moreover, our approach is general and can be easily extended to other idiomatic combinations.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 135, | |
| "end": 160, | |
| "text": "(Widdows and Dorow, 2005)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF27" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Discussion and Conclusions", | |
| "sec_num": "6" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Each measure we use to identify VNICs captures a different aspect of idiomaticity:", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Discussion and Conclusions", | |
| "sec_num": "6" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "( I ) J +", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Discussion and Conclusions", | |
| "sec_num": "6" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "reflects the statistical idiosyncrasy of VNICs, while the fixedness measures draw on their lexicosyntactic peculiarities. Our ongoing work focuses on combining these measures to distinguish VNICs from other idiosyncratic verb+noun combinations that are neither purely idiomatic nor completely literal, so that we can identify linguistically plausible classes of verb+noun combinations on this continuum (Fazly and Stevenson, 2005) .", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 403, | |
| "end": 430, | |
| "text": "(Fazly and Stevenson, 2005)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF8" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Discussion and Conclusions", | |
| "sec_num": "6" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "There are idiomatic combinations that are used only in a passivized form; we do not consider such cases in our study.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "We collapse some patterns since with a larger pattern set the measure may require larger corpora to perform reliably.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "In selecting literal pairs, we choose those that involve a physical act corresponding to the basic semantics of the verb.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "back_matter": [ | |
| { | |
| "text": ", as well as that of the two baselines,", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "annex", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "and @ s A t C; see Table 2 . (Results for the overall measure are presented later in this section.) As can be seen, the informed baseline,, shows a large improvement over the random baseline (\u00a5\u00a83 error reduction). This shows that one can get relatively good performance by treating verb+noun idiomatic combinations as collocations.performs as well as the informed baseline (4 g 3 error reduction). This result shows that, as hypothesized, lexical fixedness is a reasonably good predictor of idiomaticity. Nonetheless, the performance signifies a need for improvement. Possibly the most beneficial enhancement would be a change in the way we acquire the similar nouns for a target noun.The best performance (shown in boldface) belongs to, with f g 3 error reduction over the random baseline, and \u00a5 g 3 error reduction over the informed baseline. These results demonstrate that syntactic fixedness is a good indicator of idiomaticity, better than a simple measure of collocation ( @ s A t C ), or a measure of lexical fixedness. These results further suggest that looking into deep linguistic properties of VNICs is both necessary and beneficial for the appropriate treatment of these expressions.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 19, | |
| "end": 26, | |
| "text": "Table 2", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "\u00a2 \u00a1 r", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "is known to perform poorly on low frequency data. To examine the effect of frequency on the measures, we analyze their performance on the two divisions of the test data, corresponding to the two frequency bands, TEST ", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "@ s A t C", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "bib_entries": { | |
| "BIBREF0": { | |
| "ref_id": "b0", | |
| "title": "An empirical model of multiword expression decomposability", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Timothy", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Baldwin", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "Colin", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Bannard", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "Takaaki", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Tanaka", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "Dominic", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Widdows", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": 2003, | |
| "venue": "Proc. of the ACL-SIGLEX Workshop on Multiword Expressions", | |
| "volume": "", | |
| "issue": "", | |
| "pages": "89--96", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Timothy Baldwin, Colin Bannard, Takaaki Tanaka, and Dominic Widdows. 2003. An empirical model of multiword expression decomposability. In Proc. of the ACL-SIGLEX Workshop on Multiword Expres- sions, 89-96.", | |
| "links": null | |
| }, | |
| "BIBREF1": { | |
| "ref_id": "b1", | |
| "title": "A statistical approach to the semantics of verb-particles", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Colin", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Bannard", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "Timothy", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Baldwin", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "Alex", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Lascarides", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": 2003, | |
| "venue": "Proc. of the ACL-SIGLEX Workshop on Multiword Expressions", | |
| "volume": "", | |
| "issue": "", | |
| "pages": "65--72", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Colin Bannard, Timothy Baldwin, and Alex Las- carides. 2003. A statistical approach to the seman- tics of verb-particles. In Proc. of the ACL-SIGLEX Workshop on Multiword Expressions, 65-72.", | |
| "links": null | |
| }, | |
| "BIBREF2": { | |
| "ref_id": "b2", | |
| "title": "Idioms: Processing, Structure, and Interpretation", | |
| "authors": [], | |
| "year": 1993, | |
| "venue": "", | |
| "volume": "", | |
| "issue": "", | |
| "pages": "", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Cristina Cacciari and Patrizia Tabossi, editors. 1993. Idioms: Processing, Structure, and Interpretation. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.", | |
| "links": null | |
| }, | |
| "BIBREF3": { | |
| "ref_id": "b3", | |
| "title": "The place of idioms in a literal and metaphorical world", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Cristina", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Cacciari", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": 1993, | |
| "venue": "", | |
| "volume": "", | |
| "issue": "", | |
| "pages": "27--53", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Cristina Cacciari. 1993. The place of idioms in a lit- eral and metaphorical world. In Cacciari and Ta- bossi (Cacciari and Tabossi, 1993), 27-53.", | |
| "links": null | |
| }, | |
| "BIBREF4": { | |
| "ref_id": "b4", | |
| "title": "Using statistics in lexical analysis", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Kenneth", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Church", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "William", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Gale", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "Patrick", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Hanks", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "Donald", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Hindle", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": 1991, | |
| "venue": "Lexical Acquisition: Exploiting On-Line Resources to Build a Lexicon", | |
| "volume": "", | |
| "issue": "", | |
| "pages": "115--164", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Kenneth Church, William Gale, Patrick Hanks, and Donald Hindle. 1991. Using statistics in lexical analysis. In Uri Zernik, editor, Lexical Acquisition: Exploiting On-Line Resources to Build a Lexicon, 115-164. Lawrence Erlbaum.", | |
| "links": null | |
| }, | |
| "BIBREF5": { | |
| "ref_id": "b5", | |
| "title": "Head-Driven Statistical Models for Natural Language Parsing", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Michael", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Collins", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": 1999, | |
| "venue": "", | |
| "volume": "", | |
| "issue": "", | |
| "pages": "", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Michael Collins. 1999. Head-Driven Statistical Mod- els for Natural Language Parsing. Ph.D. thesis, University of Pennsylvania.", | |
| "links": null | |
| }, | |
| "BIBREF6": { | |
| "ref_id": "b6", | |
| "title": "Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Anthony", | |
| "middle": [ | |
| "P" | |
| ], | |
| "last": "Cowie", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "Ronald", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Mackin", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "Isabel", | |
| "middle": [ | |
| "R" | |
| ], | |
| "last": "Mc-Caig", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": 1983, | |
| "venue": "", | |
| "volume": "2", | |
| "issue": "", | |
| "pages": "", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Anthony P. Cowie, Ronald Mackin, and Isabel R. Mc- Caig. 1983. Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English, volume 2. Oxford University Press.", | |
| "links": null | |
| }, | |
| "BIBREF7": { | |
| "ref_id": "b7", | |
| "title": "Similarity-based estimation of word cooccurrence probabilities", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Ido", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Dagan", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "Fernando", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Pereira", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "Lillian", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Lee", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": 1994, | |
| "venue": "Proc. of ACL'94", | |
| "volume": "", | |
| "issue": "", | |
| "pages": "272--278", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Ido Dagan, Fernando Pereira, and Lillian Lee. 1994. Similarity-based estimation of word cooccurrence probabilities. In Proc. of ACL'94, 272-278.", | |
| "links": null | |
| }, | |
| "BIBREF8": { | |
| "ref_id": "b8", | |
| "title": "Automatic acquisition of knowledge about multiword predicates", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Afsaneh", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Fazly", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "Suzanne", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Stevenson", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": 2005, | |
| "venue": "Proc. of PACLIC'05", | |
| "volume": "", | |
| "issue": "", | |
| "pages": "", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Afsaneh Fazly and Suzanne Stevenson. 2005. Au- tomatic acquisition of knowledge about multiword predicates. In Proc. of PACLIC'05.", | |
| "links": null | |
| }, | |
| "BIBREF9": { | |
| "ref_id": "b9", | |
| "title": "The determiner in English idioms", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Christiane", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Fellbaum", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": 1993, | |
| "venue": "", | |
| "volume": "", | |
| "issue": "", | |
| "pages": "271--295", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Christiane Fellbaum. 1993. The determiner in English idioms. In Cacciari and Tabossi (Cacciari and Ta- bossi, 1993), 271-295.", | |
| "links": null | |
| }, | |
| "BIBREF10": { | |
| "ref_id": "b10", | |
| "title": "The ontological loneliness of verb phrase idioms", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Christiane", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Fellbaum", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": 2005, | |
| "venue": "Ontolinguistics. Mouton de Gruyter. Forthcomming", | |
| "volume": "", | |
| "issue": "", | |
| "pages": "", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Christiane Fellbaum. 2005. The ontological loneliness of verb phrase idioms. In Andrea Schalley and Di- etmar Zaefferer, editors, Ontolinguistics. Mouton de Gruyter. Forthcomming.", | |
| "links": null | |
| }, | |
| "BIBREF11": { | |
| "ref_id": "b11", | |
| "title": "Idiom meanings and allusional content", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Sam", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Glucksberg", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": 1993, | |
| "venue": "", | |
| "volume": "", | |
| "issue": "", | |
| "pages": "3--26", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Sam Glucksberg. 1993. Idiom meanings and allu- sional content. In Cacciari and Tabossi (Cacciari and Tabossi, 1993), 3-26.", | |
| "links": null | |
| }, | |
| "BIBREF12": { | |
| "ref_id": "b12", | |
| "title": "Automatic retrieval and clustering of similar words", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Dekang", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Lin", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": 1998, | |
| "venue": "Proc. of COLING-ACL'98", | |
| "volume": "", | |
| "issue": "", | |
| "pages": "", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Dekang Lin. 1998. Automatic retrieval and clustering of similar words. In Proc. of COLING-ACL'98.", | |
| "links": null | |
| }, | |
| "BIBREF13": { | |
| "ref_id": "b13", | |
| "title": "Automatic identification of noncompositional phrases", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Dekang", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Lin", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": 1999, | |
| "venue": "Proc. of ACL'99", | |
| "volume": "", | |
| "issue": "", | |
| "pages": "317--341", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Dekang Lin. 1999. Automatic identification of non- compositional phrases. In Proc. of ACL'99, 317-24.", | |
| "links": null | |
| }, | |
| "BIBREF14": { | |
| "ref_id": "b14", | |
| "title": "Detecting a continuum of compositionality in phrasal verbs", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Diana", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Mccarthy", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "Bill", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Keller", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "John", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Carroll", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": 2003, | |
| "venue": "Proc. of the ACL-SIGLEX Workshop on Multiword Expressions", | |
| "volume": "", | |
| "issue": "", | |
| "pages": "", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Diana McCarthy, Bill Keller, and John Carroll. 2003. Detecting a continuum of compositionality in phrasal verbs. In Proc. of the ACL-SIGLEX Work- shop on Multiword Expressions.", | |
| "links": null | |
| }, | |
| "BIBREF15": { | |
| "ref_id": "b15", | |
| "title": "Fixed Expressions and Idioms in English: A Corpus-Based Approach", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Rosamund", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Moon", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": 1998, | |
| "venue": "", | |
| "volume": "", | |
| "issue": "", | |
| "pages": "", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Rosamund Moon. 1998. Fixed Expressions and Id- ioms in English: A Corpus-Based Approach. Ox- ford University Press.", | |
| "links": null | |
| }, | |
| "BIBREF16": { | |
| "ref_id": "b16", | |
| "title": "Patterns of usage for English SIT, STAND, and LIE: A cognitively inspired exploration in corpus linguistics", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "John", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Newman", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "Sally", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Rice", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": 2004, | |
| "venue": "Cognitive Linguistics", | |
| "volume": "15", | |
| "issue": "3", | |
| "pages": "351--396", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "John Newman and Sally Rice. 2004. Patterns of usage for English SIT, STAND, and LIE: A cognitively in- spired exploration in corpus linguistics. Cognitive Linguistics, 15(3):351-396.", | |
| "links": null | |
| }, | |
| "BIBREF18": { | |
| "ref_id": "b18", | |
| "title": "Put, Set, Lay and Place: A Cognitive Linguistic Approach to Verbal Meaning", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Paul", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Pauwels", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": ". ; Lin-Com", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Europa", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": 2000, | |
| "venue": "", | |
| "volume": "", | |
| "issue": "", | |
| "pages": "", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Paul Pauwels. 2000. Put, Set, Lay and Place: A Cog- nitive Linguistic Approach to Verbal Meaning. LIN- COM EUROPA.", | |
| "links": null | |
| }, | |
| "BIBREF19": { | |
| "ref_id": "b19", | |
| "title": "Semantic similarity in a taxonomy: An information-based measure and its application to problems of ambiguity in natural language", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Philip", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Resnik", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": 1999, | |
| "venue": "JAIR", | |
| "volume": "", | |
| "issue": "11", | |
| "pages": "95--130", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Philip Resnik. 1999. Semantic similarity in a taxon- omy: An information-based measure and its appli- cation to problems of ambiguity in natural language. JAIR, (11):95-130.", | |
| "links": null | |
| }, | |
| "BIBREF20": { | |
| "ref_id": "b20", | |
| "title": "TGrep2 User Manual", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "L", | |
| "middle": [ | |
| "T" | |
| ], | |
| "last": "Douglas", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Rohde", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": 2004, | |
| "venue": "", | |
| "volume": "", | |
| "issue": "", | |
| "pages": "", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Douglas L. T. Rohde. 2004. TGrep2 User Manual.", | |
| "links": null | |
| }, | |
| "BIBREF21": { | |
| "ref_id": "b21", | |
| "title": "Multiword expressions: A pain in the neck for NLP", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Ivan", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Sag", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "Timothy", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Baldwin", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "Francis", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Bond", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": 2002, | |
| "venue": "Proc. of CI-CLING'02", | |
| "volume": "", | |
| "issue": "", | |
| "pages": "1--15", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Ivan Sag, Timothy Baldwin, Francis Bond, Ann Copes- take, and Dan Flickinger. 2002. Multiword expres- sions: A pain in the neck for NLP. In Proc. of CI- CLING'02, 1-15.", | |
| "links": null | |
| }, | |
| "BIBREF22": { | |
| "ref_id": "b22", | |
| "title": "Collins COBUILD Idioms Dictionary", | |
| "authors": [], | |
| "year": 2002, | |
| "venue": "", | |
| "volume": "", | |
| "issue": "", | |
| "pages": "", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Maggie Seaton and Alison Macaulay, editors. 2002. Collins COBUILD Idioms Dictionary. Harper- Collins Publishers, 2nd edition.", | |
| "links": null | |
| }, | |
| "BIBREF23": { | |
| "ref_id": "b23", | |
| "title": "Retrieving collocations from text: Xtract. CL", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Frank", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Smadja", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": 1993, | |
| "venue": "", | |
| "volume": "19", | |
| "issue": "", | |
| "pages": "143--177", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Frank Smadja. 1993. Retrieving collocations from text: Xtract. CL, 19(1):143-177.", | |
| "links": null | |
| }, | |
| "BIBREF24": { | |
| "ref_id": "b24", | |
| "title": "Measuring the relative compositionality of verb-noun (V-N) collocations by integrating features", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Sriram", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Venkatapathy", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "Aravid", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Joshi", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": 2005, | |
| "venue": "Proc. of HLT-EMNLP'05", | |
| "volume": "", | |
| "issue": "", | |
| "pages": "899--906", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Sriram Venkatapathy and Aravid Joshi. 2005. Mea- suring the relative compositionality of verb-noun (V- N) collocations by integrating features. In Proc. of HLT-EMNLP'05, 899-906.", | |
| "links": null | |
| }, | |
| "BIBREF25": { | |
| "ref_id": "b25", | |
| "title": "Benjamin Waldron, and Fabre Lambeau", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Aline", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Villavicencio", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "Ann", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Copestake", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": 2004, | |
| "venue": "Proc. of the ACL'04 Workshop on Multiword Expressions", | |
| "volume": "", | |
| "issue": "", | |
| "pages": "80--87", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Aline Villavicencio, Ann Copestake, Benjamin Wal- dron, and Fabre Lambeau. 2004. Lexical encod- ing of MWEs. In Proc. of the ACL'04 Workshop on Multiword Expressions, 80-87.", | |
| "links": null | |
| }, | |
| "BIBREF26": { | |
| "ref_id": "b26", | |
| "title": "Paradigmatic modifiability statistics for the extraction of complex multi-word terms", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Joachim", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Wermter", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "Udo", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Hahn", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": 2005, | |
| "venue": "Proc. of HLT-EMNLP'05", | |
| "volume": "", | |
| "issue": "", | |
| "pages": "843--850", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Joachim Wermter and Udo Hahn. 2005. Paradigmatic modifiability statistics for the extraction of com- plex multi-word terms. In Proc. of HLT-EMNLP'05, 843-850.", | |
| "links": null | |
| }, | |
| "BIBREF27": { | |
| "ref_id": "b27", | |
| "title": "Automatic extraction of idioms using graph analysis and asymmetric lexicosyntactic patterns", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Dominic", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Widdows", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "Beate", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Dorow", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": 2005, | |
| "venue": "Proc. of ACL'05 Workshop on Deep Lexical Acquisition", | |
| "volume": "", | |
| "issue": "", | |
| "pages": "48--56", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Dominic Widdows and Beate Dorow. 2005. Automatic extraction of idioms using graph analysis and asym- metric lexicosyntactic patterns. In Proc. of ACL'05 Workshop on Deep Lexical Acquisition, 48-56.", | |
| "links": null | |
| } | |
| }, | |
| "ref_entries": { | |
| "FIGREF0": { | |
| "type_str": "figure", | |
| "text": "frequency of the target verb with any noun in", | |
| "num": null, | |
| "uris": null | |
| }, | |
| "FIGREF1": { | |
| "type_str": "figure", | |
| "text": "and half literal), ensuring both low and high frequency items are included. Sample idioms corresponding to the extracted pairs are: kick the habit, move mountains, lose face, and keep one's word.4.3 Experimental SetupDevelopment expressions are used in devising the fixedness measures, as well as in determining the values of the parameters (", | |
| "num": null, | |
| "uris": null | |
| }, | |
| "FIGREF2": { | |
| "type_str": "figure", | |
| "text": "determines the maximum number of nouns similar to the target noun, to be considered in measuring the lexical fixedness of a given pair. The value of this parameter is determined by performing experiments over the development data,", | |
| "num": null, | |
| "uris": null | |
| }, | |
| "FIGREF4": { | |
| "type_str": "figure", | |
| "text": "the distribution of and through examining the development data. We evaluate the appropriateness of this approach in determining the Cform(s) of idiomatic pairs by verifying its predicted forms against OD-CIE and CCID. Specifically, for each of the \u00a1 g S g idiomatic pairs in TEST c , we calculate the precision and recall of its predicted Cforms (those whose -scores are above \u00a5 \u00a7", | |
| "num": null, | |
| "uris": null | |
| }, | |
| "TABREF2": { | |
| "content": "<table/>", | |
| "html": null, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "text": "Patterns for syntactic fixedness measure.", | |
| "type_str": "table" | |
| }, | |
| "TABREF4": { | |
| "content": "<table><tr><td>Data Set:</td></tr></table>", | |
| "html": null, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "text": "Accuracy and relative error reduction for all measures over test pairs divided by frequency.", | |
| "type_str": "table" | |
| }, | |
| "TABREF5": { | |
| "content": "<table><tr><td>.</td></tr></table>", | |
| "html": null, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "text": "Performance of the hybrid measure over TEST", | |
| "type_str": "table" | |
| }, | |
| "TABREF6": { | |
| "content": "<table><tr><td colspan=\"2\">presents the performance of the hy-brid measure, u \u00a2 v w y x r : ; = > ? , repeating that of x u \u00a2 v w x x and u \u00a2 v w y x r < 4 % 6 7 for comparison. x u \u00a2 v w x x < ; = > ? outperforms both lexical and syn-</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">tactic fixedness measures, with a substantial im-</td></tr><tr><td>provement over table, improvement over u \u00a2 v w x x</td><td>, and a small, but no-u \u00a2 v w x x 4 % 6 7</td></tr></table>", | |
| "html": null, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "text": "", | |
| "type_str": "table" | |
| } | |
| } | |
| } | |
| } |