| { | |
| "paper_id": "E85-1016", | |
| "header": { | |
| "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0", | |
| "date_generated": "2023-01-19T11:30:18.130129Z" | |
| }, | |
| "title": "", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Helene", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Bestougeff", | |
| "suffix": "", | |
| "affiliation": { | |
| "laboratory": "", | |
| "institution": "CNRS-Universite Paris VII Z", | |
| "location": { | |
| "addrLine": "Place Jussieu", | |
| "postCode": "75005", | |
| "settlement": "PARIS", | |
| "country": "FRANCE" | |
| } | |
| }, | |
| "email": "" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "Gerard", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Ligozat", | |
| "suffix": "", | |
| "affiliation": { | |
| "laboratory": "", | |
| "institution": "CNRS-Universite Paris VII Z", | |
| "location": { | |
| "addrLine": "Place Jussieu", | |
| "postCode": "75005", | |
| "settlement": "PARIS", | |
| "country": "FRANCE" | |
| } | |
| }, | |
| "email": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": "", | |
| "venue": null, | |
| "identifiers": {}, | |
| "abstract": "", | |
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| "paper_id": "E85-1016", | |
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| "abstract": [], | |
| "body_text": [ | |
| { | |
| "text": "As for modularity, a typical situation in linguistics has to do with a hierarchy of concepts or units, and the relations between those units at different levels. ", | |
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| { | |
| "text": "absrectype (*,**) tree = * + ** # (*,**)tree # (*,**)tree", | |
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| "text": "with tiptree x = abs_tree (inl x) and comptree (y,tl,t2) = abs_tr(~u (inr (y,tl,t2)) and istip t =isl(rep_tree t) and tipof t= outl(reptree t) and labelof t = fSt(OUtr (reptree t)) and sonof t =snd(outr(reptree t))", | |
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| "text": "This type is defined as recursive and abstract. The symbols \"+\" and \"#\" respectively, denote the two type constructors \"disjoint sum\" and \"cartesian product\" The functions \"abs_tree\" and \"rep_tree\" ,both of them of type (ty -> ty), are only available inside the definition of the abstract type \"tree\" : abs_tree maps the concrete representation of a tree unto its abstraction; rep_tree has the converse effect.", | |
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| "text": "Finally (* + **) -> ** projects out right summand. (2).", | |
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| { | |
| "text": "-Sentence (4) implies sentence (7), not (8).", | |
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| { | |
| "text": "-Sentence (5) implies sentence (8).", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
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| { | |
| "text": "-Sentence (6) implies neither sentence 7nor, a fortiori, (6, 7, 8) with that of the verb t So sin~ in (9, 10, 11).", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 57, | |
| "end": 60, | |
| "text": "(6,", | |
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| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 61, | |
| "end": 63, | |
| "text": "7,", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 64, | |
| "end": 66, | |
| "text": "8)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
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| "text": "The comparison between (4) and 6 (Reichenbach, 1957 ) . It provides a way of describin~ the notion of \"present relevance\", which is present in (5) , but not in (4).", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 33, | |
| "end": 53, | |
| "text": "(Reichenbach, 1957 )", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
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| "text": "The contrast between (1 , 2) and (12.) points to another kind of distinction one has to make: (i) expresses a state, (2) a habit, which hold at the moment of speech.", | |
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| "text": "On the contrary, we use the term \"situation\" as a generic term coverin~ states, events or processes .", | |
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| { | |
| "text": "-inception and termination of a situation.", | |
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| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "-information relative to the completion of the situation.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
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| "sec_num": null | |
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| { | |
| "text": "local inferences on situations.", | |
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| "text": "mass/count properties of situations. (Allen 83) , where a set of \"intervals\" is abstractly characterized by the relations holdin~ between its elements. It can be shown (Bestou~eff and Li~ozat ,1984) that any set theoritic model of Allen's axioms is equivalent to (a subset) of the intervals (that is, couples of points) on a totally ordered set.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 37, | |
| "end": 47, | |
| "text": "(Allen 83)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 168, | |
| "end": 198, | |
| "text": "(Bestou~eff and Li~ozat ,1984)", | |
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| } | |
| ], | |
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| { | |
| "text": "In our model,the basic elements are typed boundaries, with a (partial) order defined on them.", | |
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| "text": "As shown in (Bestougeff and Li~ozat, 1984) The state be ill in (i) holds upon an interval whose left and right boundaries are \"closing\" and \"opening\", respectively. This is a general situation for states in an enunciative setting.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 12, | |
| "end": 42, | |
| "text": "(Bestougeff and Li~ozat, 1984)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
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| { | |
| "text": "The event John repair my ca.._~ in (5), conversely, holds upon an interval with resp.", | |
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| "text": "\"opening\" and \"closina\" left and right boundaries. The signature of this object is the set of typed operators: make_in#v=-:", | |
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| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "(boundary # pred# boundary) -> intv le~t=-:", | |
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| { | |
| "text": "intv -> boundary right=-: intv -> boundary getp =-: intv -> pred purl =-: (boundary#in#v) -> intv purr =-: (boundary # intv ) -> intv show intv =-: intv ->(intv + (intv # nseq)) abstype pts =nseq #index make_pts=-:((nseq #index) -> pts) fl=-: pred -> pts f2=-: pred -> pts fn=-:", | |
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| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "pred -> pts rules:-: (status # tense # vendler # adverbial) -> pred -> pts)", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
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| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "apply rules =-:", | |
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| { | |
| "text": "(pred # status) -> pts where the functional type \"pred-> pts\" denotes the set of functions which build PTS's from predicate information. The predicate information is given through the \" rules\" where \"status\" is the information relative to the enunciative vs. aoristic status; \"tense\" denotes the morphological tense of the clause, \"vendler\" , the Vendler class (i.e. state, activity, accomplishement or achievement ) computed from classe(s) assigned to verbs in the dictionary and the syntactical configurations ; finally \"adverbial\" corresponds to information attached to the time adverbials. The analysis of (21) yields: tense : simple past; status : enunciative (by default); vendler :state; adverbial :none.", | |
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| { | |
| "text": "Denoting by \"p\" the predication: John is in love with Mary, the structure of the representing PTS can be Symbolized by the formula :", | |
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| "text": "C1 p O2 ~ 03 ($3 R2) where the C's and O's denote closin8 and opening boundaries and S and R,points of speech and reference respectively . These are indexed by the order of occurrence of the correspondin~ boundaries. ~ denotes a dummy predication. ", | |
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| } | |
| ], | |
| "back_matter": [], | |
| "bib_entries": { | |
| "BIBREF0": { | |
| "ref_id": "b0", | |
| "title": "Maintaining knowledge about temporal intervals", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "J", | |
| "middle": [ | |
| "A" | |
| ], | |
| "last": "Allen", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": 1983, | |
| "venue": "Comm.ACM", | |
| "volume": "26", | |
| "issue": "", | |
| "pages": "832--843", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Allen,J.A.1983 Maintaining knowledge about temporal intervals. Comm.ACM 26 pp.832-843.", | |
| "links": null | |
| } | |
| }, | |
| "ref_entries": { | |
| "FIGREF0": { | |
| "uris": null, | |
| "type_str": "figure", | |
| "num": null, | |
| "text": "The signature of this type is the set of operators: tiptree=-: * -> (**,*)tree comptree=-: \u2022 # (**,*)tree # (**,*)tree ->(*,**)tree istip=-: (*,**)tree ->bool tipof=-: (*,**)tree ->** l~belof=-:(*,**) tree -" | |
| }, | |
| "FIGREF1": { | |
| "uris": null, | |
| "type_str": "figure", | |
| "num": null, | |
| "text": "interval is as follows : abstype intv =boundary # pred# boundary with make_intv (11,12,13)= abs_intv (11,12,13) and left I =fst (rep intv i) and right 1 = snd (snd (rep_intv i)) and 8etp 1 =fst (snd (rep_Intv l)) and purl (b,i)= if fst (rep_intv i) =U then abs_intv (b,fst(snd(rep_intv)), snd(snd (rep_intv i))) else i and putr(b,i)= if snd(snd(rep_intv i)) = U then abs_intv(fst(rep_intv i), fst(snd(rep_intv i)),b) else i and show_intv 1 =rep_intv i;;" | |
| }, | |
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| "text": "In particular the syntactical and semantical analysis can be done in terms of objects.(De Boissieu and Forest , 1985).", | |
| "content": "<table><tr><td colspan=\"10\">ad-hoc and independant specifications.</td><td>To</td><td>neither</td><td>does sentence (3) imply sentence</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">achieve</td><td colspan=\"3\">these goals</td><td colspan=\"6\">it may be necessary</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"11\">to define primitive objects, which do not</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"11\">have any lingustic interpretation but are</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"11\">merely buildinE blocks whose use enhances modularity In this case ,the lower level objects can be hidden to the user Keeping this in mind ,we can now proceed to the description of the linguistic motivations which are behind the construction of temporal objects The idea is to ~ive a systematic way of representing temporal information by</td><td>The version of ML we use (INRIA ,1984) written in Lisp with access to the lisp system. So our object environment is is constructed as a collection of abstract data types. The hierarchy between types results from the combination and enrichment of more basic types. This hierarchy creates multiple inheritance relations between types. Some examples will be given in the context of temporal</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">defining</td><td colspan=\"7\">abstract structures based</td><td colspan=\"2\">upon</td><td>objects.</td></tr><tr><td>the</td><td colspan=\"2\">concepts</td><td colspan=\"2\">and</td><td colspan=\"4\">the hypotheses</td><td>of</td><td>a</td><td>Clearly,</td><td>the</td><td>management</td><td>of the</td><td>object</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">particular linguistic theory.</td><td/><td/><td/><td>level</td><td>must be done on top of</td><td>ML</td><td>The</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>explicit coding mixes Lisp and ML.</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">The</td><td colspan=\"3\">linguistic</td><td colspan=\"5\">theory we rely on</td><td>is</td></tr><tr><td>that</td><td>of</td><td colspan=\"4\">A. Culioli</td><td colspan=\"5\">(Culioli, 1980),</td><td>As we work in a functional environment</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">suitably</td><td colspan=\"3\">adapted</td><td colspan=\"2\">to</td><td colspan=\"4\">computational</td><td>there is no \"local memory\".However,</td><td>this</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">purposes.</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>is , to our viewpoint,</td><td>a minor drawback</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>compared</td><td>to</td><td>the</td><td>advantage</td><td>of</td><td>the</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"11\">Temporal information can be informally</td><td>abstraction facilities.</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">characterized</td><td colspan=\"5\">as information</td><td colspan=\"3\">pertaining</td><td>In</td><td>a</td><td>next stage, we intend to introduce</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"11\">to the location and \"shape\" of the states</td><td>the</td><td>necessary</td><td>axioms</td><td>and</td><td>perform</td><td>the</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"11\">and events described by natural language.</td><td>computations in a deductive style.</td></tr><tr><td>In</td><td colspan=\"3\">particular,</td><td colspan=\"2\">this</td><td colspan=\"2\">includes</td><td colspan=\"2\">what</td><td>is</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">commonly referred to as aspect.</td><td/><td/><td/><td>This</td><td>approach</td><td>can be</td><td>used</td><td>for</td><td>the</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>formal</td><td>representation</td><td>of</td><td>natural</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"11\">Furthermore, natural language has both a temporal information in descriptive and an operative structure: it describes and allows the users to make systematic inferences. Among these inferences are those concerned with the ordering of events, but such inferences are only part o~ a whole set of inferences on the</td><td>language, or as a grammar formalism . PROCESSING TEHPORAL INFORMATION</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"11\">factuality, the degree of completion, the type of occurrence, of the situations considered. In fact, it can be argued that the ordering relations are not necessarily of a primary nature.</td><td>Tense and time representation in languages is generally studied one of the three main disciplines natural under : logics, linguistics, and artificial intelligence. A brief overview of these</td></tr><tr><td>kind</td><td colspan=\"9\">Some of data and inferences we examples will illustrate have</td><td>the in</td><td>4 vlewpolnts (Bestougeff an Ligozat, 1984). different is</td><td>given</td><td>in</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">mind.</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>The</td><td>main</td><td>problem</td><td>is to</td><td>choose</td><td>the</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">Consider sentences:</td><td/><td>the</td><td colspan=\"3\">following</td><td/><td colspan=\"2\">simple</td><td>relevant adequate abstraction. objects emphasized that we deny in order It must be strongly to get an ourselves the</td></tr><tr><td>(i) (2) (33 (4)</td><td colspan=\"7\">John is ill. John repairs cars. John is repairing my car. John repaired my car.</td><td/><td/><td/><td>right representation to assume any particular of time from the The concrete properties result from physical outset. the specifications.</td></tr><tr><td>(5) (6) (7)</td><td colspan=\"8\">John has repaired my car. John was repairing my car. My car has been repaired.</td><td/><td/><td>The choice somehow arbitrary, of the nevertheless comply</td><td>basic but to the</td><td>objects it should is following</td></tr><tr><td>(83</td><td colspan=\"7\">My car is repaired now.</td><td/><td/><td/><td>rules :the objects must be</td></tr><tr><td>(9)</td><td colspan=\"5\">John was singing.</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td>(i0)</td><td colspan=\"3\">John sang.</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>-close to linguistic intuit{on.</td></tr><tr><td>(Ii)</td><td colspan=\"6\">John has been singing.</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>general</td><td>enough</td><td>to be reusable</td><td>as</td></tr><tr><td>(12)</td><td colspan=\"5\">Cats are smart.</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>such in different contexts, or give</td><td>rise</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>to</td><td>new</td><td>objects</td><td>by</td><td>enrichment</td><td>or</td></tr><tr><td/><td>We</td><td>wish</td><td colspan=\"4\">to account for</td><td colspan=\"2\">some</td><td colspan=\"2\">basic</td><td>inheritance.</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">information</td><td colspan=\"6\">imparted by the use of</td><td colspan=\"2\">such</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"6\">sentences. For example:</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>The second point is required to</td><td>avoid</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">-Sentence</td><td>(2)</td><td colspan=\"2\">does</td><td>not</td><td colspan=\"2\">imply</td><td colspan=\"2\">(3),</td></tr></table>", | |
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