Base_JSON/prefixE/json/E91/E91-1036.json

{
    "paper_id": "E91-1036",
    "header": {
        "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0",
        "date_generated": "2023-01-19T10:38:14.205865Z"
    },
    "title": "CLASSICAL LOGICS FOR ATTRIBUTE-VALUE LANGUAGES",
    "authors": [
        {
            "first": "J",
            "middle": [],
            "last": "Iirgen Wcdekind",
            "suffix": "",
            "affiliation": {
                "laboratory": "",
                "institution": "Xerox Palo Alto Research Center and C.S.L.I.-Stanford University",
                "location": {}
            },
            "email": ""
        }
    ],
    "year": "",
    "venue": null,
    "identifiers": {},
    "abstract": "This paper describes a classical logic for attribute-value (or feature description) languages which ate used in urfification grammar to describe a certain kind of linguistic object commonly called attribute-value structure (or feature structure). Tile algorithm which is used for deciding satisfiability of a feature description is based on a restricted deductive closure construction for sets of literals (atomic formulas and negated atomic formulas). In contrast to the Kasper/Rounds approach (cf. [Kasper/Rounds 90]), we can handle cyclicity, without the need for the introduction of complexity norms, as in [Johnson 88J and [Beierle/Pletat 88]. The deductive closure construction is the direct proof-theoretic correlate of the congruence closure algorithm (cf. [Nelson/Oppen 80]), if it were used in attributevalue languages for testing satisfiability of finite sets of literals.",
    "pdf_parse": {
        "paper_id": "E91-1036",
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        "abstract": [
            {
                "text": "This paper describes a classical logic for attribute-value (or feature description) languages which ate used in urfification grammar to describe a certain kind of linguistic object commonly called attribute-value structure (or feature structure). Tile algorithm which is used for deciding satisfiability of a feature description is based on a restricted deductive closure construction for sets of literals (atomic formulas and negated atomic formulas). In contrast to the Kasper/Rounds approach (cf. [Kasper/Rounds 90]), we can handle cyclicity, without the need for the introduction of complexity norms, as in [Johnson 88J and [Beierle/Pletat 88]. The deductive closure construction is the direct proof-theoretic correlate of the congruence closure algorithm (cf. [Nelson/Oppen 80]), if it were used in attributevalue languages for testing satisfiability of finite sets of literals.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Abstract",
                "sec_num": null
            }
        ],
        "body_text": [
            {
                "text": "This paper describes a classical logic for attribute-value (or feature description) languages which are used in unification grammar to describe a certain kind of linguistic object commonly called attribute-value structure (or fcz~ture structure). From a logical point of view an attribute-vMue structure like e.g. tile following (in matrix notation)",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Introduction",
                "sec_num": "1"
            },
            {
                "text": "'PROMISE' TENSE PAST can be regarded as a graphical representation of a minimal model of a satisfiable feature description. If we assume that the attributes (in the example: PRED, TENSE, SUB J, XCOMP) are unary partial function symbols and the values (a, 'PROMISE', PAST, 'JOIIN', 'COME') are constants then the given feature structure represents graphically e.g. the minimal model of the following description:",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "PRED",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "'PRED SUBJa ~ 'JOIIN' &TENSEa ~, PAST & PREDa ~ 'PROMISE' & SUBJa ~ SUBJ XCOMPa & PRED XCOMPa ~ 'COME') I Note that the terms arc h)rnlcd without using brackets. (Since all function symbols are unary, the introduction of brackets would So, in the following attribute-value languages are regarded & quantifier-free sublanguages of classical first order language~ with equality whose (nonlogical) symbols are given by a set o\" unary partial function symbols (attributes) and a set of constants (atomic and complex values). The logical vocabulary includes all propositional connectives; negation is interpreted (:lassically. 2 For quantifier-free attribute-value languages L we give an axiomatic or IIilbert type system ll\u00b0v which simply results from an ordinary first order system (with partial function symbols), if its language were restricted to the vocabulary of L. According to requirements of tile applications, axioms for the constantconsistency, constant/complex-consistency and acyclicity can be added to force these properties for the feature structures (models).",
                "cite_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 608,
                        "end": 623,
                        "text": "(:lassically. 2",
                        "ref_id": null
                    }
                ],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "PRED",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "For deciding consistency (or satisfiability) of a feature description, we assume .first, that the conjunction of the formulas ill,the feature dc'scription is converted to disjunctive normal form. Since a formula in disjunctive normal form is consis. tent, ill\" at least one of its disjuncts is consistent, we only need all algorithm for.deciding consistency of finite sets of literals (atomic formulas or negated atomic formulas) S. In contrast to the reduction algorithms which normalize a set S accord. ing to a complexity norm in a sequence of norm decreasing rewrite steps 3 wc use a restricted deductive closure algorithm for deciding the consistency of sets of literMs. 4 The restriction results from the fact that it is sufficient for deciding the consistency of S to consider proofs of equations from ,.q with a certain subterm property. For tile closure construction only those equations are derived from S whose terms are subterms of the terms occurring in the formulas of S. This guarantees that the construction terminates with a finite set of literals. The adequacy of this subterm property restriction, which was already shown for the number theoretic calculus K in [Kreisel/Tait 61] by [Statman 74] , is a necessary condition for the development of more efficient Cut-free Gentzen type systems for attributenot improve tile readability essentially.) Therefore we write e.g. PRED SUBJa instead of PRED(SUBJ(a)).",
                "cite_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 1201,
                        "end": 1213,
                        "text": "[Statman 74]",
                        "ref_id": null
                    }
                ],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "PRED",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "2For intuitionistic negation cf. e.g. [Dawar/Vijay-Shanker 90] and [Langholm 89]. aCf. e.g.",
                "cite_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 67,
                        "end": 81,
                        "text": "[Langholm 89].",
                        "ref_id": null
                    }
                ],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "PRED",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "[Kreisel/Tait 61], [Knuth/Bendix 70] , and applied to attrlhute-value languages [Johnson 88 Moreover, this closure construction is the direct prooI. theoretic correlate of the congruence closure algorithm (cf.",
                "cite_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 19,
                        "end": 36,
                        "text": "[Knuth/Bendix 70]",
                        "ref_id": null
                    },
                    {
                        "start": 80,
                        "end": 91,
                        "text": "[Johnson 88",
                        "ref_id": null
                    }
                ],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "PRED",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "[Nelaon/Oppen 80]), if it were used for testing satisffability of finite sets of literals in HOt,. As it is shown there, the congruence closure algorithm can bc used to test consistency if the terms of the equations are represented as labeled graphs and the equations as a relation on the nodes of that graph.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "PRED",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "O~ the basis of the algorithm for deciding satlsfiability of finite sets o| formulas we then show the completeness and decidability of//~t,.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "PRED",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "In this section we define the type of lauguagc wc want to consider i~nd introduce some additional notation. We assume that the connectives V (disjunction), ~:(conjunction) and ~ (equivalence) are introduced by their usual definitions, Furthermore, we write sometimes ri ~ rz ;instead of -,, ~' ~ r2 and drop the parentheses according tolthe usual conventions, e all of the constants and function symbols are interpreted by ~). Redundancies which result from the fact that non-interpreted function symbols and function symbols interpreted as empty functions are then regarded as distinct are removed by requiring these partial funct~ions to be nonempty. Suppose [X ,-, Y~(p) designates the set of all (partial) functions from X to Y~ then a model is defined as follows: ",
                "cite_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 661,
                        "end": 673,
                        "text": "[X ,-, Y~(p)",
                        "ref_id": null
                    }
                ],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Attribute-Value Languages",
                "sec_num": "2"
            },
            {
                "text": "2.6. DEFINITION. A model for L",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "2.t Syntax",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "?",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "The System H\u00b0v",
                "sec_num": "3"
            },
            {
                "text": "In this section we describe an axiomatic or Hilbert type system H\u00b0v for quantifier-free attribute-value languages L. We give a decision procedure for the saris|lability of finite sets of formulas and show the completeness and decidability of H~v on the b~mis of that procedure.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "The System H\u00b0v",
                "sec_num": "3"
            },
            {
                "text": "If L is a fixed attribute-value language, then the system consiSts of a traditional axiomatic propositional calculus for L ud two additional equality axioms. For any formulas ~,~b,X , terms 71n the text following tile definition we drop the overllne. ",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Axioms and Inference Rules",
                "sec_num": "3.1"
            },
            {
                "text": "We now prove 3.3. TIIEOREM. The satisfiability of a fi.ite set oJ formulas F is decidable.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Satisfiability",
                "sec_num": "3.2"
            },
            {
                "text": "by providing a terminating procedure: First the conjunctio, of all formulas in F (denoted by A F) is converted into disjunctive normal form (DNF) using the well-known standard techniques. Then A F is equivalent with a DNF = (4,&4~&...&\u00a2k,) ",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 222,
                        "end": 239,
                        "text": "= (4,&4~&...&\u00a2k,)",
                        "ref_id": null
                    }
                ],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Satisfiability",
                "sec_num": "3.2"
            },
            {
                "text": "v (4~&...&4~,~) v ... v ~v-, ... v,k.,",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Satisfiability",
                "sec_num": "3.2"
            },
            {
                "text": "where the conjuncts 4i (i = 1 .... n; j = 1 .... ki) are either atomic formulas or negations of atomic formulas, henceforth called iiterals. By the definition of the satisfiability we get:",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Satisfiability",
                "sec_num": "3.2"
            },
            {
                "text": "scf. e.g. [Church 56 ]. 9Axlom El restricts the reflexivity of identity to denoting terms: if a term denotes, then also its suhterms do (cf. the definition of ~). Thus equality is not a reflexive, but only a subterm reflexive relation.",
                "cite_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 10,
                        "end": 20,
                        "text": "[Church 56",
                        "ref_id": null
                    }
                ],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Satisfiability",
                "sec_num": "3.2"
            },
            {
                "text": "1\u00b0If (i.) constant-consistency and (li.) constant/complexconsistency are to be guaranteed for a set Of atomic values",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Satisfiability",
                "sec_num": "3.2"
            },
            {
                "text": "V (V C_ C),",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Satisfiability",
                "sec_num": "3.2"
            },
            {
                "text": "for each a, beV (a # b) and leFt, axiomsof the form (i.) F a ~ b and (ii.) b fa ~ Ja have to be added (a finite set). I[ also acyclicity has to be ensured, axioms of the form (iii.) bar ~ ~', with \u00a2eFI + , veT, have to be added. Although this set is i,finite, we only need a finite subset for the satisfiability test and for deci,lal,illty (see below). II F'or the propositional calculus of. the sta,dard proofs, l\"or axioms E1 and It,2 cf. [Johnson 88 ].",
                "cite_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 441,
                        "end": 452,
                        "text": "[Johnson 88",
                        "ref_id": null
                    }
                ],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Satisfiability",
                "sec_num": "3.2"
            },
            {
                "text": "We complete the proof of Theorem 3.3 by an algorithm that converts a finite set of literals S i into a deductively equivalent set of literals in normal form S i which is satisfiable iff it is not equM to {.L}.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "LEMMA. Let A St v A Sav ... v A s\" be a DNF d/A r consisting of conjunctions A Si of the literals in S i, then A r is satisfiable, iff at least one disjuncl A Si is satisfiablel",
                "sec_num": "3.4."
            },
            {
                "text": "The normal form is constructed by closing S deductively by those equations whose terms are subterms of the terms occurring in S. For the construction we use the following derived rules:",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "A Normal Form for Sets of Literals",
                "sec_num": "3.2.1"
            },
            {
                "text": "R1 or ~ r' I-r ~ r Subterm Reflexivity R2 r ~ r'A4l-4[r/r'] Substitutivity R3 r .~ r' I-r' ~ r Symmetry.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "A Normal Form for Sets of Literals",
                "sec_num": "3.2.1"
            },
            {
                "text": "We get RI and R2 from E1 and E2 by the deduction theorem. R3 is derivable from R1 and R2, since we get from r ~ r' first r ~ r by R1 and then r' ~, z by R2. The deductive closure construction restricted by the subterm property is a proof-theoretic simulation of the congruence closure algorithm (cf. [Nelson/Oppen 80] then r ,.mr' is in Sv iff the nodes which represent the terms r and r' in the graph constructed for S are congruentfl t Moreover, for unary partial functions the algorithm is simpler, since the arity does not have to be controlled.",
                "cite_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 300,
                        "end": 317,
                        "text": "[Nelson/Oppen 80]",
                        "ref_id": null
                    }
                ],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "A Normal Form for Sets of Literals",
                "sec_num": "3.2.1"
            },
            {
                "text": "3.9. LEMMA. The set ol all equations in S~ is closed under subterm reflexivity, symmetry and transitivity.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "A Normal Form for Sets of Literals",
                "sec_num": "3.2.1"
            },
            {
                "text": "PROOF. For S~ = {.!_} trivial. If S~ # {.L}, then Sv is closed under subterm reflexivity and symmetry, since these properties are inherited from So to its successor sets. Sv is closed under transitivity, since we first get ra~SUB(Ts) from rl ~ r2, r~ ~ rsESu and then according to the construction also ",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "A Normal Form for Sets of Literals",
                "sec_num": "3.2.1"
            },
            {
                "text": "For the proof that the satisfiability of a finite set of fiterals is decidable we first show that a set of literals in normal form is satisfiable, iff the set is not equal to {.L}. For Sv = {.L} we get trivially:",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Satisfiability of Sets of Literals",
                "sec_num": "3.2.2"
            },
            {
                "text": "3.10. LEMMA. Sv = {.1.} ~ \"~3M(J=M Sv).",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Satisfiability of Sets of Literals",
                "sec_num": "3.2.2"
            },
            {
                "text": "Otherwise we can show the satisfiability of Sv by the construction of a canonical model that satisfies S~.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Satisfiability of Sets of Literals",
                "sec_num": "3.2.2"
            },
            {
                "text": "Let Ev be the set of all (nonnegated) equations in Sv, TE~ the set of terms occurring in Ev and mEv the relation induced by E~ on T~ ({(r,r') [ r ~ r'eE~}). Then, we choose as the universe of the canonical model M~ = (Uv,~v) the set of all equivalence classes of ~ on TE~, if T~ #-g. By Lemma 3.9 this set exists. If Sv contains no (unnegated) equation, we set Uv = {fl}, sittce the universe has to be nonempty. PROOF. (We prove I=~ @, for every \u00a2, i, S~ hy induction oil the structure of @.) L is not element of S~. If 1 were in S~, we would get by the definition of S~ S~ = {a.} which contradicts our assumption.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Satisfiability of Sets of Literals",
                "sec_num": "3.2.2"
            },
            {
                "text": "For @ =~ ,L, ~=MJ\" \u00a3 holds trivially. Assume that @ is ~ (r ~ r'). If r .m r' were satisfied by M~, ~(r) would be equal to ~,,(r'). By Lemma 3.12 we would then get $~(r) = [r] and ~v(r') = [r'], with r, r'(Tg~. Since ~g, is an equivalence relation on 7\"g~, r ~ r'\u00a2Su would follow from [r] = Jr'l, and, contradicting the assumption, we would get S~ = {'L} by tile defipition of S~. n It can be easily shown that Mv is a unique (up to isomorphism) minimal model for Sv. :s Strictly speaking, if M is & model for 16It can be verified very easily by using this fact that we need to add to a set of literals S only a finite number of axioms to ensure the =cycllcity. All axioms of the form ~\" ~ ~ (\u00a2~\u00a2Ft, ~'e'T), with la'r~ _~ ISUB(T~)I, are e.g. more than enough, since from a consistent but cyclic set of literals S must follow an equation ar ~ ~ (aeFi + ,~'eT), with I~1 < I~1, and I~1 _< ISUB(TE)I holds by the construction of S~ homomorl~hic to My, then every minimal submodel of M tl, al, satisfies c~, is isomorphic to My.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Satisfiability of Sets of Literals",
                "sec_num": "3.2.2"
            },
            {
                "text": "From the two leuinlata above it follows first that tile sails]lability of sets of formulas in normal form is decidable:",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Satisfiability of Sets of Literals",
                "sec_num": "3.2.2"
            },
            {
                "text": "Since S, and S are deductively equivalent, we can establish by the following lemma that the satisfiability of arbitrary finite sets of literals S is decidable.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Satisfiability of Sets of Literals",
                "sec_num": "3.2.2"
            },
            {
                "text": "3.14. LEMMA. S~ # {_L} ~ 3M(~M S).",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Satisfiability of Sets of Literals",
                "sec_num": "3.2.2"
            },
            {
                "text": "PROOF. (--,) If Sv # {,L}, we know by Lemma 3.13 that My is a model for S~. Then, by the soundness Su i-S \"--* VM(~M Sv --*~M S). Since S is derivable from Sv, it follows ~M, S and thus S~ # {.L} ---, :IM(~M S).",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Satisfiability of Sets of Literals",
                "sec_num": "3.2.2"
            },
            {
                "text": "(,-) If S~ = {.L}, then for each model M V=M S~. From the soundness we get S I-Sv --* VM(~M S \"-*~M Sv). Since S=. is derivable from S, it follows VM(~M Sv \"*~=M S) amd hence S~ = {.l_} --VM(~M S). O",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Satisfiability of Sets of Literals",
                "sec_num": "3.2.2"
            },
            {
                "text": "Using tile procedure for deciding satisfiability we can easily show the completeness and decidability of lt\u00b0A v . PROOF. By the completeness and soundness we know F I-@ .-. I' ~ ~. Since @ is a logical consequence of r, iff ~ r u {,., ~}, we can decide r I--\u00a2~ by tile procedure for deciding ~= FU{,., ~}. 13",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Completeness and Decidability",
                "sec_num": "3.3"
            },
            {
                "text": "-204 -",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "",
                "sec_num": null
            }
        ],
        "back_matter": [
            {
                "text": "The author has been supported during tile writing of the submitted draft version of this paper by the EEC Esprit project -208 -DYANA at the Institut fiir maschinelle Sprachverarbeitung, Universit~t Stuttgart. The author would like to thank Jochen D6rre, Mark Johnson, liana Kaml,, It(,n Kal,lau , Paul King, John Maxwell and Stefan Momma as well as all anonymous reviewer for their comments on earlier versions of this paper. All remaining errors are of course lily own.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Acknowledgments",
                "sec_num": null
            }
        ],
        "bib_entries": {
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        "ref_entries": {
            "FIGREF0": {
                "type_str": "figure",
                "uris": null,
                "num": null,
                "text": "consists of a nonempty universclt anti an inter. pre~a|ion function 9. Since not every term denotes an element In M if the function symbols are interi)reted as unary partial functions, we generalize the partiality of the denotation by as-stltl~l~Ig that ~) itself is a partiM function. Thus in general not tCf. also [Statmml 77]. sWe drop the outermost brackets, assume that the connectives h~ty e the precedence ,~> & > v >:), _--and are left associative."
            },
            "FIGREF1": {
                "type_str": "figure",
                "uris": null,
                "num": null,
                "text": "is a pair M = (//, ~)), cpnsisting of a nonempty set U and an interpretation function 9 = 9c U ~Fi, such that (i) 9~[c ~ u]~ (iii) Vf~F,(I~Dom(9) --, 9(f) # ~). The (partial) denotation function for terms ~ (~;\u00a2[T ~-*/at] e) induced by 9 is defined as follows: 7 2.7. DEFINITION. For every ceC anti freT\" (feFl), f)(~(r)) if feDom(9) A~(r) definedA ~(fr) = ~(r)eDom(9(f)) undefined otherwise. 2.8. DEFINITION. The satisfaction relation between models M and formulas ~b (~M ~b, read: M satisfies ~, M is a model of ~b, ~ is true in M) is defined recursively: V=M \u00b1 ~M r ~. r' ~ 9(r),9(r') defined Ag(r) = ~(r') J=u,/,3x .-. l=M,/,-.l=~x. A formula ~b is valid ([= ~), iff ~b is true in all models. A formula ~b is satisfiable, iff it has at least one model. Given a set of formulas F, we say that M satisfies r (~ r), iff M satisfies each formula ~b in F. F is satisfiable, iff there is a model that satisfies each formula in F. ~ is logical consequen\u00a2~ of F (F ~ \u00a2), iff every model that satisfies F is a model of ~."
            },
            "FIGREF2": {
                "type_str": "figure",
                "uris": null,
                "num": null,
                "text": "r, r', and every sequence of functors a (aeF;) of L the form,las under A1 -A4 are propositionalaxioms s and the formulas under El and E2 are equality axioms. \u00b0 The Modus Ponens (MP) is the only inlerence rule) is derivable from a set of formulas F (I\" b ~,), iff there is a finite sequence of formulas ff~...qL, such that ft, = q~ and every ~i is an axiom, one of the formulas in U or follows by MP from two previous formulas of the sequence, ff is a theorem (F ~), iff ~ is derivable from the empty set. A is derivable from F (r I-A), iff each formula of A is derivable from P. F and A are deductively equivalent (I\" -U-A), iff r I-A and A F I'."
            },
            "FIGREF3": {
                "type_str": "figure",
                "uris": null,
                "num": null,
                "text": "Ts denotes the set of terms occurring in the formulas of S (Ts = {r, r' I (~)r .~ r'cS}), and SUB(Ts) denotes the set of all subterms of the terms in \"Is n SUB(7\"s) = {~ I ~,,~r~, with aeFl*}, then the normal form is constructed according to the following inductive definition. 3.5. I)EFIN1TION. For a given set of literals S we define a sequence of sets Si (i >_ O) by induction: With S~= S U {r' ..~ r [ r ,~ r'eS},"
            },
            "FIGREF4": {
                "type_str": "figure",
                "uris": null,
                "num": null,
                "text": "t3), if used for testing satisfiability of finite sets of literals in H\u00b0v. Strictly speaking, if i. the congruence closure algorithm is weakened for partial functions, ii. S is not trivially inconsistent (.1_ not in S), andiii. the failure in the induction step of 3.5. is overruled, tZCL also[Gallier 87]."
            },
            "FIGREF5": {
                "type_str": "figure",
                "uris": null,
                "num": null,
                "text": "Tile canonical model for S of Example I which is constructed using ,.(;2 = Sv is given by: { {e,.,e},{b}, {e,a,.f]u,/.fe}, l/v = ~ {ge, pmb}, {rob, ngf fc, rig/f a}, {, {/e, fa}, {Pile, of/s, gu, ha} J For each term r in Tg~ it follows from tile definition of ~c and ~,: ~(r) = [d. By the following lemma we show in addition that the domain of \u00a3rv restricted to Ts~ is equal to TE~. 3.12. LEMMA. For each term r in Ts~: 11 ~ is defined for r, then ~,(r) = [r], with retd,. PROOF. (By induction on the length of r.) Suppose first that ~v is defined for r. For every coustant c it follows from the definition of ~)c that i~c(c) = [c], with c(7\"E~. Assume for fr by inductive hypothesis ~v(r) = [r], with roTEs, then it follows from the definition of ~F~(f) that ~rt(f)([r]) -----[fr~]~ witlt frtcTF.~ and r'([r]. Since r' is a subterm of ]r', wc first get r'eT-i;~ and by Lemma 3.9 fr' .~ fr',r' \"~ r~S~. Because of fr(SUB(Ts), then also fr m ]r(Sv. So, fr must also be in Tg~ and hence c~, (f)([r]) = [fr]. [Next we show for the model My: 3.13. LEMMA. S~ # {,L} -.I=M~ S~."
            },
            "FIGREF6": {
                "type_str": "figure",
                "uris": null,
                "num": null,
                "text": "Suppose ~ = r ~ r', then r,r' are in T~, ~ is defined for r and r ~, and ~v(r) = [r], ~(r') = [r']. Because of r r'(S~, it follows that [r] = [r']. So ~v(r) = ~(r') and hence ~M,, 7\" ,~, r t."
            },
            "FIGREF7": {
                "type_str": "figure",
                "uris": null,
                "num": null,
                "text": ".15. TIIEOREM. For euery finite set of formulas P, and]or each formula ~: 1I F ~ q~, then r b ~. PROOF. By definition @ is a logical consequence of F, iff F O {N @} is unsatisfiable. Using the equivalences of Theorem 3.3, wc first get: r o {~ \u00a2} + {A(r u {~ \u00a2})}. S,,l,l,OSe, that A S' v,..vAs\" is a DNFofA(Fu{~ @}), then ru{~ ~} + {A s' v...v AS\"} and by tile decision procedure V= ru {~ ~b} ,-., s~ = {_L} A...A Sv n = {.L}. If r U {.-, @) is unsatisfiable, it follows that \u00a3 U {,,, @} -iF {2.}, since each S i is deductively equivalent with {.L}. From \u00a3 U {.~ @} k -L it follows by the deduction theorem first FI-,,.~D.L and thus Ft-,-, -L D ~. From I'F~ / D ~ and F I-~ -L by MP then r I-~.13 3.16. COROLLARY. For every finite set o] ]ormulas F and each ]ormula ~, F ~\" ~ is decidable."
            },
            "TABREF4": {
                "type_str": "table",
                "html": null,
                "num": null,
                "content": "<table><tr><td>So</td><td>St</td><td/><td>$2 = S~</td><td/><td/></tr><tr><td>ngf fa .'# e</td><td>.....*</td><td/><td>\"-4</td><td/><td/></tr><tr><td>{e,~e}</td><td>~</td><td/><td>-~</td><td/><td/></tr><tr><td>{b}</td><td>--*</td><td/><td>--,</td><td/><td/></tr><tr><td>{e,a} )</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td>{a, ffa}</td><td colspan=\"2\">{c, a, ffa, ffc}</td><td>\"--*</td><td/><td/></tr><tr><td>{ffe}</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td>{ge,pmb}</td><td>--*</td><td/><td>--*</td><td/><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">{rob, rig/f c} {rob, ngffc, ngffa} % {fc} ) {fc, fa} {fa} \u00a2</td><td>---* -...</td><td/><td/></tr><tr><td>Dffc} Da, ~a}</td><td colspan=\"4\">{gffc,~ffa} \\ Df fc,~f Ia,~a,h,q D~, ~a, ~fla} /</td><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"5\">3.6. DEFINITION. Let S, = S,; with t = min{i I S, = S,\u00f7~}.</td><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">3.7. LEMMA. For Sv holds: S -iF-Sv.</td><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td>su~(7-s).</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"5\">So, if S is not trivially inconsistent (\u00a3 not in S), the con-</td><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"5\">struction terminates with {_1.}, since there exists a proof of an</td><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"5\">equation from S with the subterm property, whose negation is</td><td/></tr><tr><td>in $.</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td>EXAMPLE 2.</td><td>For</td><td>the</td><td>inconsistent</td><td>set</td><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"5\">S' = S o {gmme ~ pnh f f a} the constructi'on terminates after</td><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"5\">4 steps (S~ = {.L}), sittce there is a proof of gmme m, pnhffa from S' with the subterm property of depth 3. e~me e~me mb~.ngJJc cma ~_amha amJJa</td><td>[</td><td>tin</td><td>~ r2)trl r J[~-</td><td>-......</td><td>1 ? \u2022</td></tr><tr><td>9empmb e~mme</td><td/><td>mb'~ngfJa</td><td>9]JamhJJa</td><td/><td/></tr><tr><td>gmme = pmb</td><td/><td colspan=\"2\">mfi m nh f f a</td><td/><td/></tr><tr><td/><td colspan=\"2\">9mine ~ pnh f f a</td><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td>;</td><td/><td/></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"3\">EXAMPLE 1. Assume that L consists of the constants a, b, c, e</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"3\">and the function symbols f,g, h,m, n,p. Then, for the set of</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>literals</td><td/></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>ga = ha, a .~ If a, ngffa ~ e</td></tr></table>",
                "text": "Since Si C Si+l, for Si\u00f7l # {l}, tile construction terminates oil tile basis of the subterm condition either with a finite.set of literals or with {l}. If each term of the equations in Si+, is a subterm of tile terms in Ts, no term of the equations in $~+1 can be longer than the longest term in Ts. ,r'rO, then r ~ r'cSi. Furthermore, we mark by an arrow that a set under Si is also induced (without modifications) by the equations in Si+l. This follows from the subterm condition in the inductive construction.3.8. DEFINITION. A proof of an equation from S has the subterm property, iff each term occurring in the equations of that proof is a subterm of the terms in Ts, i.e. an element of"
            },
            "TABREF6": {
                "type_str": "table",
                "html": null,
                "num": null,
                "content": "<table><tr><td colspan=\"2\">llv =</td><td>{0}</td><td>otherwise</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">attd the interpretation function ~v, which is defined for c\u00a2C,</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">feFt and [r]d4v by: Is</td><td/></tr><tr><td>~c(c)</td><td colspan=\"3\">f [c] = ~, undefined otherwise if ccT~</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td>[It']</td><td>if r'e[r] and fr'eT~,,</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">~Ft(f)([r]) =</td><td colspan=\"2\">undefined otherwise.</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">It follows from the definition that ~ is a partial function. Sup-</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">pose further for ~)Ft(f) that [rl] = [r2] and that ~Ft(f)([rt])</td></tr><tr><td>is defined. Then</td><td/><td/></tr><tr><td/><td colspan=\"3\">~F, (f)(fn]) = ~F~ (f)(fr2]).</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">For this, suppose ~F,(f)([rl]) --[frq, with r'e[rl]. Since</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">~E~ is an equivalence relation we get r'e[r~] and thus</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">~, (f)([~]) = [fr'].</td><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">t4CL [Wedekind 90].</td><td/></tr></table>",
                "text": "3.11. DEFINITION. For a set of iiterals S~ in normal form, the canonical term model for Sv is given by the pair My -(Uv, ~lv}, consisting of the universe"
            }
        }
    }
}