| { | |
| "paper_id": "T75-2034", | |
| "header": { | |
| "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0", | |
| "date_generated": "2023-01-19T07:43:11.110028Z" | |
| }, | |
| "title": "", | |
| "authors": [], | |
| "year": "", | |
| "venue": null, | |
| "identifiers": {}, | |
| "abstract": "", | |
| "pdf_parse": { | |
| "paper_id": "T75-2034", | |
| "_pdf_hash": "", | |
| "abstract": [], | |
| "body_text": [ | |
| { | |
| "text": "The inferences I will discuss are ones the speaker intends the listener to draw as an integral part of the message, and so they are a rather special type. Following Grice's (1967) Given-New Contract (Clark and Haviland, 1974, in press; Haviland and Clark, 1974) . English assertions draw a distinction between two kinds of information they convey, a distinction carried by the syntax and intonation alone. The first kind of information has been called Given information, since it is conventionally required to convey information the listener already knows; and the second kind has been called New information, since it is conventionally required to convey information that the listener doesn't yet know but that the speaker would like to get across. to that person by the Given information X l~ft and that the listener was supposed to figure this out by drawing this inference.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 165, | |
| "end": 179, | |
| "text": "Grice's (1967)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 180, | |
| "end": 235, | |
| "text": "Given-New Contract (Clark and Haviland, 1974, in press;", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 236, | |
| "end": 261, | |
| "text": "Haviland and Clark, 1974)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 264, | |
| "end": 533, | |
| "text": "English assertions draw a distinction between two kinds of information they convey, a distinction carried by the syntax and intonation alone. The first kind of information has been called Given information, since it is conventionally required", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "In short, the listener assumes the speaker meant to convey two things: (I) the implicature The Q~e person was missin~ because that person left, and (2) the latter clause contains the intended Antecedent of the Given information in the second sentence l~ft.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "In its most general form, then, the Given-New Contract goes something llke this:", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Given-New Contract: The speaker agrees to try to construct the Given and New information of each utterance in context (a) so that the listener is able to compute from memory the unique Antecedent that was intended for the Given information, and (b). so that he will not already have the New information attached to the Antecedent. The same implicatures arise in 2 and 3.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "As for the pronominallzation in 4, the principle is the same, but the pronoun (he) uses only a subset of the properties that characterize the previously mentioned", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "man.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Indeed, there is a continuum of pronominalization, as for the noun phrase an elderly ~: ~he el der~y ~leman, the elderly man, ~he ~, the ~, the oldster, the adult, the oerson, and he.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The I I I I I I I ! I I I I I I I I I I I \"pronouns\" here range from full to sparse specification, but otherwise work like I and I\".", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 4, | |
| "end": 61, | |
| "text": "I I I I I I I ! I I I I I I I I I I I", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The epithets, on the other hand, add information about the referent, as in the implicature for 7:", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "7\". The antecedent for the bastard is the entity referred to by \"a man\"; that entity is also a bastard. Epithets are surprisingly restricted in productivity, for not Just anything will do, Replace the bastard in 7 by the rancher, or even by the robber, and the bridging doesn't go through; the cancher and robber seem ,to refer to someone other than the man.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "One can also make direct reference to one or more members of a set, as in these examples:", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Set membership:", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "10. I met two people yesteday.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The woman told me a story. 11. I met two doctors yesterday. The tall one told me a story. 12. I swung three times.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The first swing missed by a mile.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Here the Given informaion has an Antecedent that must be picked out uniquely from a previously mentioned set, and to pick it out, one must draw an implieature with several parts.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "For 10, the implicature is approximately this:", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "10\". One of the entities referred to by \"two people\" is a woman and the other is not; this woman is the Antecedent of the woman. The listener of 10 infers that the other person is not a woman since that is the only way the speaker could have picked out \"the woman\"", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "uniquely. Chafe, 1972) . These \"associated\" pieces of information vary in their predictability from the object, event, or situation mentioned --from absolutely necessary to quite unnecessary --although I will list only three levels: It is not easy to separate \"parts\" from \"roles\" in every instance.", | |
| "cite_spans": [ | |
| { | |
| "start": 10, | |
| "end": 22, | |
| "text": "Chafe, 1972)", | |
| "ref_id": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "For example, the knife in 24 is conceived of not as a part of the action of murdering, as, say, \"stabbing\" would be, but rather as a role in the action, as an instrument.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "I have considered the word knife to have implicit within it the notion that it is an instrument, so it is a characterizing noun, like murderer, not simply a name of a non-functional class llke man.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Ultimately, however, this distinction may be impossible to maintain. therefore, John is slightly daft, which is the Antecedent to the Given information someone other than Mary is slightly daft. In all three of these sequences, the listener is expected to draw the implicature that being in one state, or doing one event, necessarily entails the concurrence of another state, or event.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "These are four general ways, then, in which the listener can bridge from an event or state mentioned in the first sentence to an Antecedent in the second.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "These bridging relations turn out to be very common~ especially in narratives. The most common, perhaps, is the consequence, which pops up between one sentence and the next every time chronological order is conveyed.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "The Given information of the second sentence is taken as a consequence to the event mentioned in the first. dringking, and even Alex. In short, the listener takes as the intended implicature the one that requires the fewest assumptions, yet whose assmptions are all plausible given the listener's knowledge of the speaker, the situation, and facts about the world. All but the necessarylnferences here, of course, are unauthorized.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": ". These \"forward\" inferences differ radically from the \"backward\" inferences forced by the phrase the f~ in 19, for the speaker intended the listener to infer that the room had a chandelier.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Both types of inferences occur, I'm sure, but only the latter type are fully determinate, I suggest that we might do well to study the determinate Inferences first, for'they may well give us a clue as to what sorts of unauthorized Inferences would be likely to be drawn for the typical utterance.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "back_matter": [], | |
| "bib_entries": { | |
| "BIBREF0": { | |
| "ref_id": "b0", | |
| "title": "Discourse structure and human knowledge", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "W", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Chafe", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": null, | |
| "venue": "", | |
| "volume": "", | |
| "issue": "", | |
| "pages": "", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Chafe, W. Discourse structure and human knowledge. In J.B. Carroll and R.O.", | |
| "links": null | |
| } | |
| }, | |
| "ref_entries": { | |
| "TABREF0": { | |
| "text": "BRIDGING' Herbert H. Clark Stanford University Nixon, not long before he was deposed, was quoted as saying at a news conference, \"I am not a crook.\" We all saw immediately that Nixon shouldn't have said what he said.", | |
| "num": null, | |
| "type_str": "table", | |
| "html": null, | |
| "content": "<table><tr><td colspan=\"8\">He wanted to assure everyone that he was</td><td>an</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">honest</td><td colspan=\"2\">man,</td><td colspan=\"4\">but the wording he used was to</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">deny that he was a crook.</td><td>Why</td><td>should</td><td>he</td></tr><tr><td>deny</td><td colspan=\"2\">that?</td><td colspan=\"5\">He must have believed that his</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">audience was</td><td colspan=\"4\">entertaining</td><td>the</td><td>possibility</td></tr><tr><td>that</td><td colspan=\"3\">he was</td><td colspan=\"4\">a crook, and he was trying to</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"7\">disabuse them of this</td><td>belief.</td><td>But</td><td>in</td><td>so</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">doing, he</td><td colspan=\"2\">was</td><td colspan=\"3\">tacitly acknowledging that</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">peoplewere entertaining</td><td>this possibility,</td></tr><tr><td>and</td><td colspan=\"2\">this</td><td colspan=\"2\">was</td><td/><td colspan=\"2\">something</td><td>he</td><td>had</td><td>never</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">acknowledged before in public.</td><td>Here,</td><td>then,</td></tr><tr><td>was</td><td>a</td><td colspan=\"2\">public</td><td colspan=\"4\">admission</td><td>that</td><td>he was</td><td>in</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">trouble, and this signaled a change</td><td>in</td><td>his</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"5\">public posture.</td><td colspan=\"3\">My inferences about Nixon's</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">ubterance stopped about there, but I am sure</td></tr><tr><td>that</td><td colspan=\"2\">the</td><td colspan=\"5\">knowledgeable</td><td>White</td><td>House press</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">corps went on</td><td colspan=\"3\">drawing</td><td>further</td><td>inferences.</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">In any</td><td colspan=\"2\">event</td><td colspan=\"4\">we all took this utterance a</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">long way.</td><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td/><td colspan=\"7\">This is an example par excellence of</td><td>a</td></tr><tr><td>basic</td><td colspan=\"7\">problem for theories of understanding</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">natural</td><td colspan=\"4\">language:</td><td>How</td><td>do</td><td>listeners</td><td>draw</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">inferences</td><td colspan=\"2\">from</td><td/><td colspan=\"2\">what</td><td>they</td><td>hear,</td><td>what</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">direction do they take their inferences, and</td></tr><tr><td>when</td><td colspan=\"2\">do</td><td colspan=\"2\">they</td><td colspan=\"2\">stop?</td><td>In this</td><td>particular</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">example,</td><td colspan=\"2\">at</td><td colspan=\"2\">least</td><td colspan=\"2\">most</td><td>listeners</td><td>began,</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">tacitly,</td><td/><td colspan=\"3\">drawing</td><td colspan=\"2\">the</td><td>same</td><td>llne</td><td>of</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"5\">inferences, but</td><td>at</td><td colspan=\"2\">a certain</td><td>point,</td><td>the</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">lines diverged and went on to many different</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"5\">stopping points.</td><td colspan=\"2\">But</td><td>is</td><td>this</td><td>description</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">general?</td><td/><td colspan=\"2\">Could</td><td colspan=\"3\">listeners</td><td>go</td><td>on</td><td>drawing</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">inferences ad infinitum? And ultimately,</td><td>is</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">drawing</td><td/><td colspan=\"4\">inferences</td><td>as</td><td>a</td><td>part</td><td>of</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">comprehension</td><td colspan=\"4\">a describable</td><td>process,</td><td>one</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">with specifiable constraints?</td></tr><tr><td/><td colspan=\"7\">In this brief paper</td><td>I would</td><td>llke</td><td>to</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">discuss</td><td colspan=\"4\">a certain</td><td colspan=\"2\">class</td><td>of inferences in</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">comprehension that may provide some</td><td>general</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">lessons</td><td colspan=\"3\">about</td><td colspan=\"2\">the</td><td>problem</td><td>of</td><td>drawing</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">inferences.</td><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr></table>" | |
| }, | |
| "TABREF5": { | |
| "text": "only one truck, but the second sentence, as part of its implicature, forces this to be the case.", | |
| "num": null, | |
| "type_str": "table", | |
| "html": null, | |
| "content": "<table><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>Probable parts:</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"11\">The first sentence in 20 does not claim that</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">there</td><td colspan=\"9\">was only one murderer, but the second</td><td>16. I walked</td><td>into</td><td>the</td><td>room.</td><td>The</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">sentence</td><td colspan=\"3\">forces</td><td/><td colspan=\"2\">this</td><td/><td>implicature.</td><td>windows looked out to the bay.</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">Similarly,</td><td colspan=\"2\">the</td><td colspan=\"2\">verb</td><td colspan=\"4\">trucked in 22 doesn't</td><td>17. I went shopping yesterday.</td><td>The</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"11\">say there is Then come the strictly optional roles:</td><td>walk did me good. 18. I left at 8 p.m. made me jumpy. There is no guarantee</td><td>The that</td><td>darkness the room</td><td>has</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>windows,</td><td>that going shopping means walking,</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"5\">Optional rolgs:</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>or that it is dark at 8 p.m., but these</td><td>are</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>all</td><td>probable</td><td>or at least reasonable.</td><td>The</td></tr><tr><td/><td colspan=\"3\">23. John</td><td colspan=\"2\">died</td><td colspan=\"4\">yesterday.</td><td>The</td><td>implicature of 16 is simply this:</td></tr><tr><td/><td colspan=\"6\">murderer got away.</td><td/><td/><td/><td>16\". The room mentioned has windows;</td></tr><tr><td/><td colspan=\"3\">24. John</td><td colspan=\"2\">was</td><td colspan=\"3\">murdered</td><td colspan=\"2\">yesterday.</td><td>they</td><td>are</td><td>the</td><td>Antecedent</td><td>for</td><td>the</td></tr><tr><td/><td colspan=\"7\">The knife lay nearby.</td><td/><td/><td>windows,</td></tr><tr><td/><td colspan=\"10\">25. John went walking at noon.</td><td>The</td></tr><tr><td/><td colspan=\"6\">park was beautiful.</td><td/><td/><td/><td>There are, however,</td><td>associated</td><td>parts</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>that one would normally not think of and are</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">In 23, the</td><td colspan=\"4\">implicature</td><td colspan=\"2\">is</td><td colspan=\"2\">something</td><td>like</td><td>only induced by the need for an Antecedent:</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"11\">this: 23\". Some one person caused John</td><td>to</td><td>Inducible p~rts:</td></tr><tr><td/><td colspan=\"2\">die;</td><td colspan=\"2\">that</td><td colspan=\"2\">one</td><td colspan=\"3\">person</td><td>is</td><td>the</td></tr><tr><td/><td colspan=\"9\">Antecedent of the murderer.</td><td>19. I walked</td><td>into</td><td>the</td><td>room.</td><td>The</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">In 24, the</td><td colspan=\"4\">implicature</td><td colspan=\"2\">is</td><td colspan=\"2\">that</td><td>John</td><td>was</td><td>chandeliers sparkled brightly.</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">stabbed</td><td/><td>to</td><td colspan=\"3\">death</td><td colspan=\"2\">with</td><td colspan=\"2\">a knife,</td><td>the</td><td>20. I went shopping yesterday.</td><td>The</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"11\">instrument referred to by the knife, and</td><td>in</td><td>climb did me good.</td></tr><tr><td>25</td><td>the</td><td colspan=\"9\">implicature is that where Jo~n went</td><td>21. I left at 8 p.m.</td><td>The haste</td><td>was</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"11\">walking was in a park, the place referred to</td><td>necessary given the circumstances.</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">by the park.</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>Here we come to</td><td>infer</td><td>that</td><td>the</td><td>room</td><td>had</td></tr><tr><td/><td colspan=\"8\">These two categories --</td><td colspan=\"2\">necessary</td><td>and</td><td>chandeliers,</td><td>that</td><td>going</td><td>shopping included</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">optional</td><td colspan=\"2\">roles</td><td>--</td><td colspan=\"2\">cover</td><td colspan=\"3\">a lot of ground.</td><td>some climbing, and that the departure</td><td>at</td><td>8</td></tr><tr><td>Most</td><td colspan=\"2\">noun</td><td/><td colspan=\"3\">phrases,</td><td colspan=\"2\">for</td><td colspan=\"2\">example,</td><td>are</td><td>p.m.</td><td>was</td><td>hasty,</td><td>but these were certainly</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"11\">characterizing, in that they contain as Raft</td><td>not</td><td>necessary</td><td>parts</td><td>of</td><td>these</td><td>objects,</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">of their specification how</td><td colspan=\"3\">they</td><td>relate</td><td>to</td><td>events,</td><td>or states.</td><td>For 19, the implicature</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">other</td><td colspan=\"3\">events.</td><td colspan=\"6\">I have given unadorned noun</td><td>would be this:</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"11\">phrases here, but of course they can</td><td>become</td><td>19\". The</td><td>room</td><td>mentioned</td><td>had</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">quite</td><td colspan=\"4\">elaborate.</td><td colspan=\"5\">The murderer could have</td><td>chandeliers; they are the Antecedent</td></tr><tr><td>been</td><td colspan=\"2\">the</td><td colspan=\"3\">person</td><td>whQ</td><td colspan=\"4\">murdered</td><td>John;</td><td>the</td><td>for the ~.</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">knife,</td><td colspan=\"2\">which</td><td colspan=\"2\">is</td><td colspan=\"3\">implicitly</td><td colspan=\"2\">defined</td><td>as a</td><td>Here, then is a clear</td><td>case</td><td>in which</td><td>the</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"10\">tool, could have been t~e knife</td><td>with</td><td>which</td><td>search</td><td>for</td><td>an</td><td>Antecedent</td><td>induced</td><td>the</td></tr><tr><td>it</td><td colspan=\"7\">was do~e; and so on.</td><td colspan=\"3\">English contains a</td><td>proposition that a particular part</td><td>must</td><td>be</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"5\">range of cleft</td><td>and</td><td colspan=\"5\">pseudo-cleft</td><td>sentences</td><td>present.</td><td>In</td><td>normal</td><td>comprehension,</td><td>after</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"11\">that often fill Just this purpose, as in The</td><td>reading ~ walke~ into ~he room, we</td><td>wouldn't</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"11\">one that murdered John \u00a3o~ away, and It was</td><td>spontaneously</td><td>think</td><td>of a chandelier in the</td></tr><tr><td>that</td><td colspan=\"8\">man who murdered John.</td><td colspan=\"2\">Adjectives can</td><td>room.</td><td>The first part of</td><td>19\"</td><td>clearly</td><td>only</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"9\">carry out this characterizing</td><td/><td>funcion</td><td>too,</td><td>arises because of the second sentence in 19.</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"11\">as in The gqiltv party g_q~ away.</td><td>What these</td><td>On the other hand, notice</td><td>that</td><td>19\"</td><td>is</td><td>an</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"5\">adjectives (e.g.</td><td colspan=\"6\">~uiltv), relative</td><td>clauses</td><td>implicature</td><td>of</td><td>precisely</td><td>the same form as</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">(e.g.</td><td colspan=\"2\">th~$</td><td colspan=\"3\">murdered</td><td colspan=\"3\">John),</td><td>and</td><td>derived</td><td>16\".</td><td>It is Just that the first half of</td><td>the</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">nouns (e.g.</td><td colspan=\"6\">the murderer) do</td><td>is</td><td>pick</td><td>out</td><td>implicature</td><td>in 19\" cannot be assumed either</td></tr><tr><td>the</td><td colspan=\"2\">role</td><td colspan=\"2\">the</td><td colspan=\"6\">intended Antecedent plays in</td><td>automatically or even probably.</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"9\">the previously named events.</td><td/></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>Indirect reference by characterization\"</td></tr><tr><td/><td colspan=\"6\">Necessary Darts:</td><td/><td/><td/><td>Often</td><td>the Given information characterizes a</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>role that something implicitly plays ~ in</td><td>an</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td colspan=\"5\">13. I looked</td><td colspan=\"2\">into</td><td colspan=\"2\">the</td><td>room.</td><td>The</td><td>event</td><td>or circumstance mentioned before, and</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td colspan=\"8\">ceiling was very high.</td><td>these</td><td>have</td><td>a tremendous</td><td>variety.</td><td>First</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td colspan=\"8\">14. I hit a home run.</td><td>The swing had</td><td>there are the necessary roles:</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td colspan=\"6\">been a good one.</td><td/><td/></tr><tr><td/><td/><td colspan=\"5\">15. I looked</td><td colspan=\"2\">into</td><td colspan=\"2\">the</td><td>room.</td><td>The</td><td>e es~</td><td>roles:</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td colspan=\"8\">size was overwhelming.</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>20. John was</td><td>murdered</td><td>yesterday.</td></tr><tr><td/><td colspan=\"8\">In 13, since all rooms</td><td colspan=\"2\">have</td><td>ceilings,</td><td>and</td><td>The murderer got away</td></tr><tr><td/><td colspan=\"2\">only</td><td colspan=\"2\">one</td><td colspan=\"2\">ceiling</td><td colspan=\"4\">each, the ceiling can be</td><td>21.</td><td>I</td><td>~ went shopping yesterday. \"</td><td>The</td></tr><tr><td/><td colspan=\"10\">definite with the following implicature:</td><td>time I started was 3 p.m.</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td colspan=\"4\">13\". The</td><td>room</td><td/><td colspan=\"3\">mentioned</td><td>has</td><td>a</td><td>22. I trucked the goods to New York.</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td colspan=\"4\">ceiling;</td><td colspan=\"2\">that</td><td colspan=\"3\">ceiling</td><td>is</td><td>the</td><td>The truck was full.</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td colspan=\"9\">Antecedent of the ceiling.</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>The implicature for these is uncomplicated,</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"8\">Next consider associated parts that are</td><td>as illustrated for 20:</td></tr><tr><td/><td colspan=\"5\">only probable:</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>20\". Some</td><td>one</td><td>person</td><td>performed</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>John's</td><td>murder;</td><td>that</td><td>person is the</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>Antecedent for the murderer.</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>171</td></tr></table>" | |
| } | |
| } | |
| } | |
| } |