| { | |
| "paper_id": "W05-0309", | |
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| "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0", | |
| "date_generated": "2023-01-19T04:46:28.441776Z" | |
| }, | |
| "title": "A Parallel Proposition Bank II for Chinese and English *", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Martha", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Palmer", | |
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| "institution": "University of Pennsylvania", | |
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| { | |
| "first": "Nianwen", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Xue", | |
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| "institution": "University of Pennsylvania", | |
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| { | |
| "first": "Olga", | |
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| "last": "Babko-Malaya", | |
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| "institution": "University of Pennsylvania", | |
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| { | |
| "first": "Jinying", | |
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| "last": "Chen", | |
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| "institution": "University of Pennsylvania", | |
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| { | |
| "first": "Benjamin", | |
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| "last": "Snyder", | |
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| "institution": "University of Pennsylvania", | |
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| "abstract": "The Proposition Bank (PropBank) project is aimed at creating a corpus of text annotated with information about semantic propositions. The second phase of the project, PropBank II adds additional levels of semantic annotation which include eventuality variables, co-reference, coarse-grained sense tags, and discourse connectives. This paper presents the results of the parallel PropBank II project, which adds these richer layers of semantic annotation to the first 100K of the Chinese Treebank and its English translation. Our preliminary analysis supports the hypothesis that this additional annotation reconciles many of the surface differences between the two languages.", | |
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| "abstract": [ | |
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| "text": "The Proposition Bank (PropBank) project is aimed at creating a corpus of text annotated with information about semantic propositions. The second phase of the project, PropBank II adds additional levels of semantic annotation which include eventuality variables, co-reference, coarse-grained sense tags, and discourse connectives. This paper presents the results of the parallel PropBank II project, which adds these richer layers of semantic annotation to the first 100K of the Chinese Treebank and its English translation. Our preliminary analysis supports the hypothesis that this additional annotation reconciles many of the surface differences between the two languages.", | |
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| "section": "Abstract", | |
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| "text": "There is a pressing need for a consensus on a taskoriented level of semantic representation that can enable the development of powerful new semantic analyzers in the same way that the Penn Treebank (Marcus et al., 1993) enabled the development of statistical syntactic parsers (Collins, 1999; Charniak, 2001) . We believe that shallow semantics expressed as a dependency structure, i.e., predicate-argument structure, for verbs, participial modifiers, and nominalizations provides a feasible level of annotation that would be of great benefit. This annotation, coupled with word senses, minimal co-reference links, event identifiers, and discourse and temporal relations, could provide the foundation for a major advance in our ability to automatically extract salient relationships from text. This will in turn facilitate breakthroughs in message understanding, machine translation, fact retrieval, and information retrieval. The Proposition Bank project is a major step towards providing this type of annotation. It takes a practical approach to semantic representation, adding a layer of predicate argument information, or semantic roles, to the syntactic structures of the Penn Treebank . The Frame Files that provide guidance to the annotators constitute a rich English lexicon with explicit ties between syntactic realizations and coarse-grained senses, Framesets. PropBank Framesets are distinguished primarily by syntactic criteria such as differences in subcategorization frames, and can be seen as the toplevel of an hierarchy of sense distinctions. Groupings of fine-grained WordNet senses, such as those developed for Senseval2 (Palmer et al., to appear) provide an intermediate level, where groups are distinguished by either syntactic or semantic criteria. WordNet senses constitute the bottom level. The PropBank Frameset distinctions, which can be made consistently by humans and systems (over 90% accuracy for both), are surprisingly compatible with the groupings; 95% of the groups map directly onto a single PropBank frameset sense .", | |
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| { | |
| "start": 198, | |
| "end": 219, | |
| "text": "(Marcus et al., 1993)", | |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF9" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "start": 277, | |
| "end": 292, | |
| "text": "(Collins, 1999;", | |
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| }, | |
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| "end": 308, | |
| "text": "Charniak, 2001)", | |
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| "text": "(Palmer et al., to appear)", | |
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| "section": "Introduction", | |
| "sec_num": "1" | |
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| "text": "The semantic annotation provided by PropBank is only a first approximation at capturing the full richness of semantic representation. Additional annotation of nominalizations and other noun pred-icates has already begun at NYU. This paper describes the results of PropBank II, a project to provide richer semantic annotation to structures that have already been propbanked, specifically, eventuality ID s, coreference, coarse-grained sense tags, and discourse connectives. Of special interest to the machine translation community is our finding, presented in this paper, that PropBank II annotation reconciles many of the surface differences of the two languages.", | |
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| "section": "Introduction", | |
| "sec_num": "1" | |
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| "text": "PropBank is an annotation of the Wall Street Journal portion of the Penn Treebank II (Marcus et al., 1994) with 'predicate-argument' structures, using sense tags for highly polysemous words and semantic role labels for each argument. An important goal is to provide consistent semantic role labels across different syntactic realizations of the same verb, as in the window in [ARG0 John] broke [ARG1 the window] and [ARG1 The window] broke. PropBank can provide frequency counts for (statistical) analysis or generation components in a machine translation system, but provides only a shallow semantic analysis in that the annotation is close to the syntactic structure and each verb is its own predicate.", | |
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| "end": 106, | |
| "text": "(Marcus et al., 1994)", | |
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| "section": "PropBank I", | |
| "sec_num": "2" | |
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| "text": "In PropBank, semantic roles are defined on a verb-by-verb basis. An individual verb's semantic arguments are simply numbered, beginning with 0. Polysemous verbs have several framesets, corresponding to a relatively coarse notion of word senses, with a separate set of numbered roles, a roleset, defined for each Frameset. For instance, leave has both a DEPART Frameset ([ARG0 John] ARGM-LOC in my will] .) While most Framesets have three or four numbered roles, as many as six can appear, in particular for certain verbs of motion. Verbs can take any of a set of general, adjunct-like arguments (ARGMs), such as LOC (location), TMP (time), DIS (discourse connectives), PRP (purpose) or DIR (direction). Negations (NEG) and modals (MOD) are also marked.", | |
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| "start": 369, | |
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| "text": "([ARG0 John]", | |
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| "text": "ARGM-LOC in my will]", | |
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| "section": "PropBank I", | |
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| "text": "There are several other annotation projects, FrameNet (Baker et al., 1998) , Salsa (Ellsworth et al., 2004) , and the Prague Tectogrammatics (Hajicova and Kucerova, 2002) , that share similar goals. Berkeley s FrameNet project, (Baker et al., 1998; Fillmore and Atkins, 1998; Johnson et al., 2002) is committed to producing rich semantic frames on which the annotation is based, but it is less concerned with annotating complete texts, concentrating instead on annotating a set of examples for each predicator (including verbs, nouns and adjectives), and attempting to describe the network of relations among the semantic frames. For instance, the buyer of a buy event and the seller of a sell event would both be Arg0 s (Agents) in PropBank, while in FrameNet one is the BUYER and the other is the SELLER. The Salsa project (Ellsworth et al., 2004) in Germany is producing a German lexicon based on the FrameNet semantic frames and annotating a large German newswire corpus. PropBank style annotation is being used for verbs which do not yet have FrameNet frames defined.", | |
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| "text": "(Hajicova and Kucerova, 2002)", | |
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| "text": "The PropBank annotation philosophy has been extended to the Penn Chinese Proposition Bank (Xue and Palmer, 2003) . The Chinese PropBank annotation is performed on a smaller (250k words) and yet growing corpus annotated with syntactic structures (Xue et al., To appear). The same syntactic alternations that form the basis for the English PropBank annotation also exist in robust quantities in Chinese, even though it may not be the case that the same exact verbs (meaning verbs that are close translations of one another) have the exact same range of syntactic realization for Chinese and English. For example, in (1), \" /New Year / reception\" plays the same role in (a) and (b), which is the event or activity held, even though it occurs in different syntactic positions. Assigning the same argument label, Arg1, to both instances, captures this regularity. It is worth noting that the predicate /hold\" does not have passive morphology in (1a), despite what its English translation suggests. Like the English PropBank, the adjunct-like elements receive more general labels like TMP or LOC, as also illustrated in (1). The functional tags for Chinese and English PropBanks are to a large extent similar and more details can be found in (Xue and Palmer, 2003 ", | |
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| "text": "(Xue and Palmer, 2003", | |
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| "text": "As discussed above, PropBank II adds richer semantic annotation to the PropBank I predicate argument structures, notably eventuality variables, co-references, coarse-grained sense tags Babko-Malaya and Palmer, 2005) , and discourse connectives (Xue, To appear) To create our parallel PropBank II, we began with the first 100K words of the Chinese Treebank which had already been propbanked, and which we had had translated into English. The English translation was first treebanked and then propbanked, and we are now in the process of adding the PropBank II annotation to both the English and the Chinese propbanks. We will discuss our progress on each of the three individual components of PropBank II in turn, bringing out translation issues along the way that have been highlighted by the additional annotation. In general we find that this level of abstraction facilitates the alignment of the source and target language descriptions: event ID s and event coreferences simplify the mappings between verbal and nominal events; English coarse-grained sense tags correspond to unique Chinese lemmas; and discourse connectives correspond well.", | |
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| "sec_num": "3" | |
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| "text": "Positing eventuality 1 variables provides a straightforward way to represent the semantics of adverbial modifiers of events and capture nominal and pronominal references to events. Given that the arguments and adjuncts for the verbs are already annotated in Propbank I, adding eventuality variables is for the most part straightforward. The example in (2) illustrates a Propbank I annotation, which is identified with a unique event id in Propbank II. Annotation of event variables starts by automatically associating all Propbank I annotations with potential event ids. Since not all annotations actually denote eventualities, we manually filter out selected classes of verbs. We further attempt to identify all nouns and nominals which describe eventualities as well as all sentential arguments of the verbs which refer to events. And, finally, part of the PropBank II annotation involves tagging of event coreference for pronouns as well as empty categories. All these tasks are discussed in more detail below.", | |
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| "section": "Eventuality variables", | |
| "sec_num": "3.1" | |
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| "text": "Identifying event modifiers. The actual annotation starts from the presumption that all verbs are events or states and nouns are not. All the verbs in the corpus are automatically assigned a unique event identifier and the manual part of the task becomes (i) identification of verbs or verb senses that do not denote eventualities, (ii) identification of nouns that do denote events. For example, in (3), begin is an aspectual verb that does not introduce an event variable, but rather modifies the verb take , as is supported by the fact that it is translated as an adverb \" /initially\" in the corresponding Chinese sentence.", | |
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| "section": "Eventuality variables", | |
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| "text": "(3) /key /develop /DE /medicine /and /biology /technology, /new /technology, /new /material, /computer /and /application, /photo /electric /integration /etc. /industry /already /initially /take /shape. Key developments in industries such as medicine, biotechnology, new materials, computer and its applications, protoelectric integration, etc. have begun to take shape.", | |
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| "section": "Eventuality variables", | |
| "sec_num": "3.1" | |
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| "text": "Nominalizations as events Although most nouns do not introduce eventualities, some do and these nouns are generally nominalizations 2 . This is true for both English and Chinese, as is illustrated in (4). Both /develop and /deepening are nominalized verbs that denote events. Having a parallel propbank annotated with event variables allows us to see how events are lined up in the two languages and how their lexical realizations can vary. The nominalized verbs in Chinese can be translated into verbs or their nominalizations, as is shown in the alternative translations of the Chinese original in (4). What makes this particular example even more interesting is the fact that the adjective modifier of the events, /continued , can actually be realized as an aspectual verb in English. The semantic representations of the Propbank II annotation, however, are preserved: both the aspectual verb continue in English and the adjective /continued in Chinese are modifiers of the events denoted by /development and /deepening . Event Coreference Another aspect of the event variable annotation involves identifying pronominal expressions that corefer with events. These pronominal expressions may be overt, as in the Chinese example in (5), while others correspond to null pronouns, marked as pro 3 . in the Treebank annotations, as in (6): the whole countries export, *pro* clearly indicating that China s industrial product manufacturing level has improved.", | |
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| "section": "Eventuality variables", | |
| "sec_num": "3.1" | |
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| "text": "(6) /these /achievement /among /have /138 /item /BEI /enterprise /apply /to /production /on /spin gold from straw , *pro* /greatly /improve /ASP /China /nickel /industry /DE /production /level. Among these achievements, 138 items have been applied to production by enterprises to spin gold from straw, which greatly improved the production level of China s nickel industry.", | |
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| "section": "Eventuality variables", | |
| "sec_num": "3.1" | |
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| "text": "It is not the case, however that overt pro-nouns in Chinese will always correspond to overt pronouns in English. In (5), the overt pronoun /this in Chinese corresponds with a null pronoun in English in the beginning of a reduced relative clause, while in (6), the null pronoun in Chinese is translated into a relative pronoun which that introduces a relative clause. In other cases, neither language has an overt pronoun, although one is posited in the treebank annotation, as in (7). 7/last year, /New York /new /list /DE /foreign /enterprise /altogether /have 61/61 /CL, *pro* /create /recent year /since /highest /record. Last year, there were 61 new foreign en-terpises listed in New York Stock Exchange, *PRO* creating the highest record in history.", | |
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| "section": "Eventuality variables", | |
| "sec_num": "3.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Having a parallel propbank annotated with event variables allows us to examine how the same events are lexicalized in English and Chi-nese and how they align, whether they have been indicated by verbs or nouns.", | |
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| "section": "Eventuality variables", | |
| "sec_num": "3.1" | |
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| "text": "In general, the verbs in the Chinese PropBank are less polysemous than the English PropBank verbs, with the vast majority of the lemmas having just one Frameset. On the other hand, the Chinese PropBank has more lemmas (including stative verbs which are generally translated into adjectives in English) normalized by the corpus size. The Chinese PropBank has 4854 lemmas in the 250K words that have been propbanked alone, while the English PropBank has just 3635 lemmas in the entire 1 million words corpus. Of the 4854 Chinese lemmas, only 62 of them have 3 or more framesets. In contrast, 294 lemmas have 3 or more framesets in the English Propbank. In our sense-tagging part of the project, we have been using manual groupings of the English Word-Net senses. These groupings were previously shown to reconcile a substantial portion of the tagging disagreements, raising inter-annotator agreement from 71% in the case of fine-grained WordNet senses to 82% in the case of grouped senses for the Senseval 2 English data (Palmer et al., to appear) , and currently to 89% for 93 new verbs (almost 12K instances) . The question which arises, however, is how useful these grouped senses are and whether the level of granularity which they provide is sufficient for such applications as machine translation from English to Chinese.", | |
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| "section": "Grouped sense tags", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2" | |
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| "text": "In a preliminary investigation, we randomly selected 7 verbs and 5 nouns and looked at their corresponding translations in the Chinese Propbank. As the tables below show, for 6 verbs (join, pass, settle, raise, appear, fight) and 3 nouns (resolution, organization, development), grouped English senses map to unique Chinese translation sets. For a few examples, which include realize and party, grouped senses map to the same word in Chinese, preserving the ambiguity. This investigation justifies the appropriateness of the grouped sense tags, and indicates potential for providing a useful level of granularity for MT.", | |
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| "section": "Grouped sense tags", | |
| "sec_num": "3.2" | |
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| "text": "Another component of the Chinese / English Parallel Propbank II is the annotation of dis-course connectives for both Chinese corpus and its English translation. Like the other two components, the annotation is performed on the first 100K words of the Parallel Chinese English Treebank. The annotation of Chinese discourse connectives follows in large part the theoretic assumptions and annotation practices of the English Penn Discourse Project (PDTB) (Miltsakaki et al., 2004) . Adaptations are made only when they are warranted by the linguistic facts of Chinese. While the English PTDB annotates both explicit and implicit discourse connectives, our ini-ordinary people have this need. As a result, the different kinds of columns in the newspaper become the main source of information.", | |
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| "end": 477, | |
| "text": "(Miltsakaki et al., 2004)", | |
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| "section": "Discourse connectives", | |
| "sec_num": "3.3" | |
| }, | |
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| "text": "This paper presented preliminary results of the parallel PropBank II project. It highlighted some interesting aspects of the differences between English and Chinese, which play an important role for MT and other applications. Some of the questions addressed had to do with how events are lexicalized and aligned in the two languages, which level of sense granularity is needed for MT from English to Chinese, and highlighting notable differences between discourse connectives in the two languages. Further investigation and alignment of the parallel corpus, as well as richer annotation, will reveal other interesting phenomena.", | |
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| "section": "Conclusion", | |
| "sec_num": "4" | |
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| "text": "The term 'eventuality' is used here to refer to events and states.", | |
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| "text": "The problem of identifying nouns which denote events is addressed as part of the sense-tagging tagging. Detailed discussion can be found in(Babko-Malaya and Palmer, 2005).", | |
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| "text": "The small *pro* and big *PRO* distinction made in the Chinese Treebank is exploratory in nature. The idea is that it is easier to erase this distinction if it turns out to be implausible or infeasible than to add it if it turns out to be important.", | |
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| "text": "(5) /additionally, /export /commodity /structure /continue /optimize, /last year /industry /finished product /export /quota /account for /entire country /export /quantity /DE /proportion /reach /85.6 percent, /this /clearly /indicate /China /industry /product /DE /produce /level /compared with /past /have /LE /very /big /improvement. Moreover, the structure of export com-modities continues to optimize, and last year s export volume of manufactured products ac-counts for 85.6 percent of The annotation of the discourse connectives in a parallel English Chinese Propbank exposes interesting correspondences between English and Chinese discourse connectives. The examples in 11show that is polysemous and corresponds with different expressions in English. It is a noun meaning result in (11a), where it is not a discourse connective. In (11b) it means in the end , invoking a contrast between what has been planned and how the actual result turned out. In (11c) it means as a result , expressing causality between the cause and the result.(11) a. /adopt /go slow /DE /policy, /result /BE /unnecessarily /lose /at /mainland /DE /business opportunity.The result of adopting the go slow policy is unnecessarily losing business opportunities in the mainland.", | |
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| "section": "annex", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "/fiber institute /plan /enroll /10 /CL /student, /in the end /only /have /20 /person /register. The fiber institute planned to enroll 10 students. In the end, only 20 people registered to take the exam.", | |
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| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "b.", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "/school /not /teach /finance management , /ordinary /people /and /have /this /aspect /DE /need, /as a result, /newspaper /on /every /kind /colunn /then /become /information /DE /main /source. The school does not teach finance management and", | |
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| "section": "c.", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
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| "text": "(2) a. Mr. Bush met him privately in the White House onThursday. b. Propbank I: Rel: met, Arg0: Mr. Bush, Arg1: him, ArgM-MNR: privately, ArgM-LOC: in the White House, ArgM-TMP: on Thursday. c. Propbank II: \u2203e meeting(e) & Arg0(e,Mr. Bush) & Arg1(e, him) & MNR (e, privately) & LOC(e, in the White House) & TMP (e, on Thursday).", | |
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| "FIGREF1": { | |
| "text": "economy continues to develop and its practice of opening to the outside continues to deepenWith the continued development of China s economy and the continued deepening of its practice of opening to the outside", | |
| "num": null, | |
| "uris": null, | |
| "type_str": "figure" | |
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| "TABREF2": { | |
| "text": "English verbs and their translations in the parallel Propbank", | |
| "type_str": "table", | |
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| "content": "<table><tr><td>Verb</td><td>English senses</td></tr></table>", | |
| "num": null | |
| } | |
| } | |
| } | |
| } |