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+{"text":"\n\nContents\n\nINTRODUCTION\n\n**THE ABS DIET CHEAT SHEET**\n\nCHAPTER 1\n\n**YOUR WEIGHT IS REALLY NOT YOUR FAULT**\n\nCHAPTER 2\n\n**NEVER GO HUNGRY AGAIN**\n\nThe ABS DIET POWER 12\n\nCHAPTER 3\n\n**THE SIX STEPS TO LIFELONG LEANNESS**\n\nGuidelines for Easy Eating\n\nCHAPTER 4\n\n**SHOP 'TIL YOU DROP (POUNDS)**\n\nThe Complete Abs Diet Grocery List\n\nCHAPTER 5\n\n**LET'S GET IT STARTED**\n\n25 Abs Diet Breakfasts\n\nCHAPTER 6\n\n**LEAN IN THE MIDDLE**\n\n25 Abs Diet Lunches\n\nCHAPTER 7\n\n**START YOUR NIGHT RIGHT**\n\n30 Abs Diet Dinners\n\nCHAPTER 8\n\n**SHAKE THINGS UP**\n\n27 Abs Diet Smoothies and Snacks\n\nCHAPTER 9\n\n**EATING OUT, EATING RIGHT**\n\nThe Abs Diet Restaurant Survival Guide\n\nCHAPTER 10\n\n**INDULGE AND ENJOY**\n\nThe Abs Diet Holiday Survival Guide\n\nCHAPTER 11\n\n**CRANK UP THE FAT BURN**\n\nThe Abs Diet Workout\n\n**ABS DIET FAQ**\n\n**MEASURING YOUR PROGRESS ON THE ABS DIET**\nAcknowledgments\n\n**SEEING THE ABS DIET** come to fruition has been one of the great pleasures of my life. Seeing it make a real impact on the lives of tens of thousands of Americans has been one of the great rewards. For all of it, I have to thank a number of extraordinarily talented, hard-working, and dedicated people who continue to support, encourage and inspire me. In particular:\n\nSteve Murphy, whose courage and commitment to editorial quality has made Rodale Inc. the best publishing company in the world to work for.\n\nThe Rodale family, without whom none of this would be possible.\n\nJeremy Katz, executive editor of _Men's Health_ Books, whose wisdom and guidance has made The Abs Diet into an extraordinary success.\n\nBen Roter, whom I want to be when I grow up.\n\nSteve Perrine, who can make a silk purse out of just about anything.\n\nThe entire _Men's Health_ editorial staff, the smartest and hardest-working group of writers, editors, researchers, designers, and photo directors in the industry. Most important, a big shout out to Chris Krogermeier, Marilyn Hauptly, Jennifer Giandomenico, Erin Hobday, Phillip Rhodes, Brenda Miller, and everyone else who worked so hard and so fast to publish this book in record time.\n\nMy brother, Eric, whose relentless teasing shamed me into taking better care of myself. (Dude, you are sooo dead. . . .)\n\nMy mother, Janice, who raised two of us nearly single-handedly. Your strength and kindness guide my every action.\n\nMy dad, Bohdan, who left this world way to early. I wish you were still here.\n\nElaine Kaufman, who still lets me order off the menu.\n\nAnd special thanks also to: Mary Ann Bekkedahl, Michael Bruno, Jeff Csatari, Aimee Geller, Karen Mazzotta, Jon Hammond, Cathy Gruhn, Joe Heroun, Samantha Irwin, George Karabotsos, Charlene Lutz, Patrick McMullan, Peter Moore, Jeff Morgan, Myatt Murphy, Megan Phillips, Scott Quill, Cindy Ratzlaff, Leslie Schneider, Joyce Shirer, Bill Stump, Sara Vigneri, Bug and Fester, and my stepmother, Mickey.\n\nAnd to Rose. On the rollercoaster of life, you've taught me to let go of the safety bar and reach my hands into the air.\n\n# **INTRODUCTION**\n\n# Eat Right Every Time  \nThe Abs Diet Way to a Flat Belly\n\n**D IET IS A FOUR-LETTER** word.\n\nThat may sound like a strange sentence with which to start a diet book. But then again, this is no ordinary diet book.\n\nWe think of a diet as something we \"go on.\" A high school reunion looms, or a family vacation to beach territory is planned, or some other event that tells us it's time to bear down and get rid of that extra layer of flab comes up. And so we do\u2014we \"go on\" a diet. Then, once we've lost the desired weight, we \"go off\" the diet and go back to our habits of eating cold macaroni and cheese while standing over the kitchen sink. Soon enough, another important event looms, and we're back on another diet again. Up and down, up and down goes our weight, but mostly, over time, it goes up. That's because deprivation diets and fads like eating low-fat, eating low-carb, or eating nothing but grapefruit just don't work in the long run. In fact, they stress your body so much that your body responds by trying even harder to store fat, especially in the midsection.\n\nA recent study in the _American Journal of Preventive Medicine_ found that about 60 percent of Americans who try to lose weight do so by restricting their calorie intakes, with roughly one in 10 skipping meals in a desperate attempt to strip off the pounds. But study after study has shown that yo-yo dieting is one of the best ways to ensure your belly will get bigger and flabbier in the months and years ahead.\n\nWell, those days are over!\n\nThe Abs Diet is a revolutionary new way of eating, one that's swept America in the last year and helped tens of thousands of people lose hundreds of thousands of pounds. In fact, with the Abs Diet\u2014a simple, six-times-a-day eating plan that will never let you get hungry\u2014you can lose 10, 15, even 20 pounds, from your belly first, in 6 weeks or less.\n\nThe Abs Diet isn't a traditional diet, because you'll eat so much delicious food\u2014from steak to strawberries, bread to bacon, soup to nuts\u2014that you'll never want or need to stray from it. In fact, if you're ever hungry on the Abs Diet\u2014well, then, you're not on the Abs Diet.\n\nSee, I know how hard it is to lose weight using traditional methods. As a boy growing up in small-town Pennsylvania, I too struggled with a weight problem. I made bad choices\u2014choosing fast food over smart food, then trying to starve myself to get my body in the shape I wanted it. Sure enough, I'd get hungry, and there I'd be, barking my lunch order into a clown's mouth once again. My brother, Eric, used to invite his friends over to watch my dietary indiscretions: \"Don't disturb the big animal,\" he'd tell his buddies. \"It's feeding.\"\n\nBut all that's changed. As the editor-in-chief of _Men's Health_ , I've spent the past 10 years poring over cutting-edge research in nutrition, fitness, weight loss, and exercise. And what I've learned, I've distilled into the Abs Diet\u2014a program that's been proven time and time again to strip away belly fat and leave you looking and feeling better than ever.\n\n## **The Secret to Perfect Weight Control Is in Your Hands**\n\n**THE ABS DIET REVOLVES** around a dozen delicious, convenient foods I call the ABS DIET POWER 12. All you need to do is eat the acronym: **A** lmonds and other nuts, **B** eans and other legumes, **S** pinach and other green vegetables, **D** airy (low-fat), **I** nstant oatmeal, **E** ggs, **T** urkey and other lean meats, **P** eanut butter, **O** live oil, **W** hole-grain breads and cereals, **E** xtra-protein (whey) powder, **R** aspberries and other berries.\n\nYup, you read that right: You get to eat healthy protein, healthy fats, healthy carbs\u2014there's hardly anything you need to give up on this program. Ice cream? Sure. Grilled cheese sandwiches? Yup. Uncle Frank's famous chili? You bet. All I want you to do is eat more good food, more often, and to toy with the ingredients of your favorites to make them just as delicious\u2014and twice as nutritious. And as for the few foods I do want you to say goodbye to\u2014anything that stains your fingers orange, for example\u2014well, I've come up with some great, tasty, healthful alternatives.\n\nThe Abs Diet is so easy even Jessica Simpson could handle it. (And she'd get to eat Chicken of the Sea even if it really was chicken!) There's no measuring, no counting calories, no complicated equations, no hours-in-the-kitchen recipes. Just simple, smart, delicious food you'll enjoy all day long.\n\nBut even though the Abs Diet is simple, modern life is complicated. The grocery stores and chain restaurants are filled with foods that look healthy but really aren't; foods that are packed with high-calorie sweeteners that actually increase your appetite; foods that are greased up with unhealthy, chemically altered fats that clog up your plumbing; and foods that have had all their nutritional value stripped from them before they're wrapped in cellophane and set on the supermarket shelf. And even family life comes fraught with its own perils: In a survey of 274 single and married women by Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, researchers found that almost 60 percent of married women were obese, compared to just 43 percent of singles. \"Women in larger households have four times the odds of being obese in comparison to women who live alone,\" says study author James E. Rohrer, Ph.D. He suggests that more people in the household translates into more food in the fridge and a risk of obesity that is four times greater than that of women who live solo.\n\nAnd that's why I've created this sequel\u2014 _The Abs Diet Eat Right Every Time Guide_ \u2014to help you make smart, healthy choices on the fly, whether you're cooking up the family dinner or ordering out on a romantic date. Wherever you may be, _The Abs Diet Eat Right Every Time Guide_ will show you how to eat more of the great foods out there and teach you to avoid the fat bombs that are looking to spoil your waistline.\n\nOur relationship with food is a complicated one, especially in America, the land of plenty. Sixty-five percent of American adults are obese or overweight, and for good reason: We've become a country that considers drive-throughs fine dining, that saves money if we order two pizzas instead of one, that loves bosses who treat the office to doughnuts, that's been snowed into thinking sausage is a diet food, and that builds its food pyramids with an order of 50 wings.\n\nWith _The Abs Diet Eat Right Every Time Guide_ , you'll be armed\u2014literally, to the teeth\u2014with the information you need to make the right choices. From Arby's to Zabar's, I've listed the best foods to buy\u2014and the worst foods to avoid\u2014in every shopping and dining situation. Slip this book inside your jacket pocket or into your purse and be ready whenever, wherever hunger strikes.\n\n## **Stay Lean\u2014Not Hungry**\n\n**I TRUST THAT** if you've read this far, you're inspired by the idea that you can rebuild your body. But every person who wants to lose fat is motivated by different factors\u2014whether it's because you want to feel better, live longer, look better in a bathing suit, run faster, or avoid having your kids mistake you for a Sea World attraction. No matter your motivation, I think building a diet plan that works into your lifestyle is the most important element for success.\n\nLike I said at the beginning of this book, diet is a four-letter word. It's been twisted around to mean eating less, not eating more or eating better. Say the word and all you see is a 6-month stint of celery sticks and rice cakes. Well, wrong. You should stop thinking about \"dieting\" and start thinking about building a healthy \"eating plan.\" Even the people you'll read about in this book\u2014people who have lost more than 20 pounds in 6 weeks\u2014found themselves forgetting about the word _diet._\n\nTake Jon Armond, who traded in his beer gut for a flat one with a 35-pound weight loss in 9 weeks. Jon says he doesn't even miss the foods he used to eat.\n\n\"I found myself not even consumed with dieting,\" Jon says. \"I've never been on a diet where you didn't have to think about being on the diet all the time.\" (See his story.) That's because the Abs Diet is a system that's easy to follow because it never leaves you hungry and gives you the nutritional balance to have all of your cravings fulfilled.\n\n## **Eat More\u2014and Weigh Less!**\n\n**MOST DIETS ARE ABOUT** losing\u2014losing meals, losing muscle mass, losing energy. The Abs Diet is about gaining\u2014gaining health and fitness, gaining time and energy, gaining delicious foods you can eat whenever you want. Just look at all you have to gain:\n\n**A longer life!** Belly fat is the most dangerous kind of fat. That's because belly fat often comprises both subcutaneous fat (fat that's under your skin) and visceral fat (fat that lies beneath your stomach muscles, snug up against your internal organs). It's this second type, visceral fat, which can cause you some long-term harm.\n\nHere's why: In a lean, healthy person, the liver uses both fat and glycogen (i.e., blood sugar) as energy. But if your belly is hard to the touch and protrudes out in front of you, it means your liver is basically encased in a layer of fat. With so much fat on hand, your liver gets lazy, forgets about glycogen, and just burns fat for energy. Now, normally, burning fat is good\u2014but not without glycogen to balance it. Your liver is like a big iron stove in your living room. You can fill it with clean, dry wood\u2014that's the glycogen. Or you can fill it with rotten fruit, egg shells, and styrofoam containers\u2014that's the fat. Both will burn, but one will burn cleanly, and the other will create a horrible, stinky mess.\n\nIn your body, that horrible stinky mess is excess cholesterol\u2014the byproduct of a liver that burns more fat than glycogen. Perhaps even worse, once your liver gets used to burning fat, it forgets how to properly manage blood sugar. In one report, researchers concluded that visceral fat is the single-best predictor of diabetes. So factor in the higher cholesterol, the increased risk of diabetes, and all the complications of the two, and you realize that losing that fat is just as important to your long-term health as losing that eyebrow ring is to your future employment. But that's really only the beginning of the story. Shedding fat from your frame is essential to living long and healthy. Consider:\n\n  A Canadian study of 8,000 people found that those with the weakest abdominal muscles (an indicator for fattier abdominal regions) had twice the death rate of those with stronger ones.\n\n  Many studies show that men with waists larger than about 35 inches have an increased risk of heart disease.\n\n  A Swedish study found that cancer rates are 33 percent higher in obese patients than in lean ones.\n\n  Overweight men are 50 percent more likely to develop heart diseases, 360 percent more likely to develop diabetes, and 16 percent more likely to die of a first heart attack.\n\nBottom line: Lose fat, gain years. You don't have to be George Steinbrenner to know who gets the better end of that trade.\n\n**More and better sex!** Sure, losing weight can turn you from a clown to a Clooney, from a Jujube to an Angelina Jolie. But besides the side effects of looking and feeling better (which gives you more confidence and makes you more attractive to others), losing fat helps with the mechanics of sex. Being overweight makes you 50 percent more likely to have erectile dysfunction. Of course, there are many factors that control sexual dysfunction in both men and women, but one of the major ones is a supply-and-demand issue. See, when you're sexually excited, your brain sends an all-points bulletin to your pants. _Wet bathing suit ahead, prepare for engagement._ With that message, your brain sends blood downward to cause an erection in a man or stimulate arousal-sensing and lubricating organs in a woman. But when you're overweight, the aftereffects of the afternoon's burrito supreme gum up your blood vessels and thus narrow the arteries that lead to Shangri La. Without a sufficient blood supply, nothing happens. If there's no gas in the tank, your car ain't going anywhere.\n\n**A pain-free and injury-proof life!** While the core goal of this book is to help you decipher the tricky menu mines you'll encounter through life, another important part of the Abs Diet is transforming your body with a modest amount of exercise. That will teach your body to grow and maintain lean muscle mass. I'll review the workout principles briefly in Chapter 11, but as part of the plan, you'll be doing some work to strengthen your abdominal region. That is, you'll teach your abdominal muscles to be strong. That's not just so you can score a modeling contract. That's because strong abdominal muscles are the infrastructure of your body. Your abs play a role in just about every physical movement you make. They help you run, lift, have sex, stretch, bend, pick up your kids, and shimmy through clothes racks. But most important, they act\u2014along with your lower back\u2014as your internal girdle to support you through the everyday rigors of life. One U.S. Army study showed that those people with the strongest abdominal muscles were the least likely to be injured (for all kinds of injuries, not just lower-back ones), and that points to the crucial role that strong abdominal muscles play. Strong abdominal muscles will help prevent and alleviate back pain\u2014one of the most debilitating and most common injuries for both men and women.\n\nIt helps to realize that abdominal muscles don't really work in isolation; they work as a cohesive group that crisscrosses your midsection and attaches to your spine. When abdominal muscles are weak, other muscles in your body have to pick up the slack. They end up overcompensating, and they end up causing back pain and strain or even more serious back problems.\n\n**Abs!** If you haven't figured it by now, Sherlock, then let me explain: This program is about living a healthier life. It'll help you lose weight, it'll help you gain control of what you eat, and it'll help turn your body into a fat-burning, muscle-building juggernaut. Ultimately, this book is about striving to meet your individual goals and looking the way you want to look, and that's where the abs come in. Abs are the byproduct of your new outlook on eating and exercising. They're the reward for following a plan that makes you healthier. Of course, if you're one bonbon away from a total couch collapse, it's going to take you a little longer than someone who's only 5, 10, or even 20 pounds over their ideal weight. (The typical standard for men is that you need to have a body-fat percentage of around 10 percent to have visible abs. For women, it's around 14 percent.) The fact is, everyone has abs, and everyone has the potential to see their abs. It's just a matter of banishing the fat off your gut so you can. Surely, some people are blessed with high-quality genetics, metabolism, or lipo docs, but the potential is there for everyone.\n\n## **Turn Fat into Muscle!**\n\n**MOST DIET PLANS DEPEND** on willpower for success. The Abs Diet, on the other hand, recruits an often untapped but highly potent ally in your search for slim\u2014your own body!\n\nSee, one of the most potent fat-burners around is lurking right below your own skin. It's muscle, and building more can turn your body into a fat-burning machine. For each pound of muscle you build, you'll burn an extra 50 calories a day\u2014just sitting still. If you were to build just 10 pounds of new muscle, you'd burn off enough extra calories to drop 50 pounds of fat in 1 year\u2014again, simply by sitting still.\n\nOf course, you can't build that muscle by sitting still. So I've included in this book a super-simple workout built around an easy weight-training program that anyone can do. It won't turn you into a gym rat, the Incredible Hulk, or the governor of California. But it will help you trade flab for lean, sexy muscle. (Feeling eager? Turn to this page for a quick peek at the Abs Diet Workout.)\n\n## **Take Back Control of Your Body\u2014And Your Life!**\n\n**YOU DON'T HAVE TO** just take my word for it. Listen to other people who've embraced the Abs Diet\u2014people like Linda Toomey, who lost 20 pounds in 6 weeks, while caring for four small children; or Jim Phillips, who was stuck in a weight rut for years until he found this revolutionary and easy plan; or Kyle Snay, who lost more than 20 pounds on the program and alleviated all of his back pain while doing so. As of now, there are more than 100,000 people taking the Abs Diet Challenge (you can find it on www.absdiet.com [inactive]). The stories of the many people who have tried and succeeded on the Abs Diet show the power of the plan.\n\nNow, with _The Abs Diet Eat Right Every Time Guide_ , you have a passport to success no matter where you and your stomach may wander. What I want is for you to use the Abs Diet Powerfoods as the guiding philosophy for the way you eat. With more than 100 recipes in this book, you'll cook up plenty of tasty ways to help you lose fat. But I also want you to use this guide to help you manage situations when you face more tough questions than Michael Jackson's publicist. It's one thing to eat right when you prepare the foods yourself; it's quite another when you're at the mercy of lard-slinging chefs.\n\nAbove all\u2014and this is really the foundation for _Eat Right Every Time_ \u2014I want you to feel one way while taking part in the Abs Diet: Satisfied.\n\nSatisfied . . . that you'll never be hungry.\n\nSatisfied . . . that you won't be denied great-tasting foods. Satisfied . . . that you have the flexibility to eat according to your lifestyle.\n\nSatisfied . . . that you'll have the knowledge to eat right anywhere you go.\n\nSatisfied . . . that the only new pants you'll ever have to buy will be smaller.\n\nSatisfied\u2014make that ecstatic\u2014with your new body!\n\n# **THE ABS DIET CHEAT SHEET**\n\n**T HIS AT-A-GLANCE GUIDE** summarizes the principles of the Abs Diet: the 6-week plan to flatten your stomach and keep you lean for life.\n\n**Number of meals**\n\nSix a day, spaced relatively evenly throughout the day. Eat snacks 2 hours before larger meals.\n\n**The _ABS DIET POWER 12_**\n\nBase most of your meals on these 12 groups of foods. Every meal should have at least two foods from the list.\n\n**A** lmonds and other nuts\n\n**B** eans and legumes\n\n**S** pinach and other green vegetables\n\n**D** airy (fat-free or low-fat milk, yogurt, cheese)\n\n**I** nstant oatmeal (unsweetened, unflavored)\n\n**E** ggs\n\n**T** urkey and other lean meats\n\n**P** eanut butter\n\n**O** live oil\n\n**W** hole-grain breads and cereals\n\n**E** xtra-protein (whey) powder\n\n**R** aspberries and other berries\n\n**Portion size**\n\nWhile many diets center around controlling portion size, the Abs Diet is designed to be self-controlling. The high-fiber, high-protein foods you'll encounter in this book will fill you up and keep you feeling full for hours. Your body will tell you when it's time to eat\u2014and when it's time to stop.\n\n**Secret weapons**\n\nEach of the ABS DIET POWER 12 has been chosen in part for its stealthy, healthy secret weapons\u2014the nutrients that will help power up your natural fat burners, protect you from illness and injury, and keep you lean and fit for life!\n\n**Nutritional ingredients to emphasize**\n\nProtein, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats, fiber, calcium.\n\n**Nutritional ingredients to limit**\n\nRefined carbohydrates (or carbs with high glycemic index), saturated fats, trans fats, high-fructose corn syrup.\n\n**Alcohol**\n\nLimit yourself to two or three drinks per week, to maximize the benefits of the Abs Diet plan.\n\n**Ultimate Powerfood**\n\nSmoothies. The combination of the calcium and protein in milk, yogurt, and whey powder, combined with the fiber in oatmeal and fruit, makes them one of the more filling and easy options.\n\n**Cheating**\n\nOne meal a week, eat anything you want.\n\n**Exercise program**\n\nOptional for the first 2 weeks. Weeks 3 through 6 incorporate a 20-minute, full-body workout 3 days a week. Emphasis is on strength training, brisk walking, and some abdominal work.\n\n**At-home workout**\n\nGym workouts and at-home workouts are both detailed to excuse-proof your fitness plan.\n\n**Abdominal workout**\n\nAt the beginning of two of your strength-training workouts. One exercise for each of the five different parts of your abs.\n\n### **ABS DIET SUCCESS STORY**\n\n## **INSPIRED TO LOSE, INSPIRED TO WIN**\n\n**Name:** Bret Freeman\n\n**Age:** 38\n\n**Height:** 5\u203210\u2033\n\n**Weight, Week 1:** 205\n\n**Weight, Week 6:** 183\n\n**Weight, Week 17:** 175\n\n\"I was just basically tired of being a fat slob,\" says Bret Freeman, who had been a lean, fit wrestler in high school but steadily gained weight over the years.\n\n\"I tried Atkins and all the fad diets out there. I'd go on and off, and it always seemed like I gained back more weight than what I started out with,\" says Freeman, who once reached an all-time high of 245 pounds. \"I tried The Zone diet, and that thing was so dang complicated; you had to put so much thought into what you ate, good sugars and bad sugars, what it did to your insulin levels. It was horrible.\"\n\nWhen Freeman heard about how simple the Abs Diet was, he couldn't wait to get started. So he ordered it, read it through in a day and a half and started the following Monday. At the same time, he bought a home gym and started the exercise program. The pounds started coming off immediately.\n\n\"I think the Abs Diet worked for me for a combination of reasons, but one was that it kept me eating delicious food all day long,\" he says. \"People would notice how much weight I lost, and they'd say, 'You must be starving yourself.' And I'd tell them, 'You wouldn't believe how much I eat.' \"\n\nThe change? Besides the pounds, Freeman lost inches. He started the diet in snug 38s, and now his 32s are a little loose. \"I think I'm ready to go down to a 30.\" Motivated by Lance Armstrong's story, he's now set to do a couple triathlons, and he's been asked to be the head coach for the high school junior varsity wrestling team. Plus, there's the added satisfaction he feels when he goes to his sons' football games, where he hasn't seen other parents since last season. Freeman says, \"One friend joked that they saw my wife, and they thought she got a new husband because I looked so different.\"\n\nAnd in a way, she did.\nChapter 1\n\n# **YOUR WEIGHT IS REALLY NOT YOUR FAULT**\n\n**E VERYONE HAS ENEMIES.** Batman has the Joker. Duke has UNC. Joan Rivers has gravity. You? Sure, your cranky neighbor may slice your perennials when he mows the lawn, and the boss's henchman may boil your blood, but to me, the biggest enemies you face are the profiteering junk-food merchants of the food industry.\n\nIn a time-strapped society and in your time-strapped life, these piranhas prey on consumers who need a quick fix\u2014a quick fix of fat, fries, and foods designed to hypnotize you with their taste and stretch you at your waist. As you surely can see at any interstate exit, mall food court, or stretch of commercialized suburbia, we live in a world of fast food. We have a world rich with hot dog vendors, pizza windows, order-at-the-counter restaurants, chain restaurants, and extra-value meals\u2014a world where, even when you want to eat healthy, it sometimes feels impossible to do so. These places pelt you with chips, suffocate your innards with ice cream, and shoot rapid-fire Goobers straight into your mouth.\n\nBut fast food doesn't need to be fat food. Convenient eating doesn't have to mean that fat conveniently claims squatter's rights on your gut. Easy eating doesn't mean greasy eating.\n\nThe secret of the Abs Diet's success is that you can follow it no matter where you are. If you just remember to eat the acronym\u2014the ABS DIET POWER 12\u2014you'll stay lean, fit, and healthy no matter where you are. You don't have to fall victim to kitchens that have more grease than a mechanic's fingernails, and you don't have to stop enjoying the taste of food to do so.\n\nYou can eat fast.\n\nYou can enjoy what you eat.\n\nAnd you can be free from hunger, deprivation, and culinary boredom.\n\nI want to arm you with the information you need to make smart decisions about eating on the fly or on a Friday family night out. Before I explain the Abs Diet plan and give you hundreds of choices for what to eat no matter what situation you're in, it's important to review your nutritional friends and enemies. You know, there are only a few things that you can do to fundamentally change the way your body's chemicals, hormones, and organs function, but the one major thing that you do that changes your body's internal systems is eat. Ultimately, your health is dictated by the nutrients that travel through your bloodstream once they pass through your Fritos hole. Here's a quick primer on the pitfalls of your nutritional world.\n\n## **Your Enemies**\n\n### **The Hunger-Booster: High-Fructose Corn Syrup (HFCS)**\n\nI believe there's one primary reason why many people fail on diets\u2014and why they eat poorly to begin with. They're so damn hungry.\n\nSound simple? Anatomically, it's a little more complicated. And the complication has come in the form of a little-known but shockingly ubiquitous food additive called High-Fructose Corn Syrup (HFCS).\n\nNever heard of HFCS before? Then you'll be even more shocked by this next fact: You, the average American, consume almost 63 pounds of it each year.\n\nSit and think about that for a moment. Sixty-two pounds of it each year\u2014or about 228 extra calories every day\u2014and you don't even know what it is.\n\nAnd you're not going to be any happier once you find out: See, up until the 1970s, most sweets were made with simple white sugar. Bad for you, but it was what it was. You sated your sweet tooth, your body absorbed the calories, and you got full pretty fast. But about 3 decades ago, food manufacturers discovered an easier way to make sodas, cereals, yogurts, and some 40,000 more manufactured foods taste sweeter. They developed HFCS, which is derived from corn and is many times cheaper\u2014and sweeter\u2014than simple sugar. Today, HFCS is added to a shocking number of foods, including foods you wouldn't equate with sweeteners: ketchup, pasta sauce, and even crackers. And it's screwing up America's metabolic system.\n\nMechanically, the system works like this: When you eat any type of carbohydrate (like bread or fruit), your body releases insulin to regulate your body weight\u2014pushing those carb calories into your muscles to be used as energy or storing them for later use. Then, like a shut-off mechanism on a gas pump, it suppresses your appetite. That's the signal that tells your body to stop filling; your tank is full.\n\nThe problem is that fructose doesn't stimulate insulin so your body doesn't register it the way it registers simple white sugar. That's why it's possible to see people drink 2-liter bottles of soft drinks in a single sitting. Thirty years ago, that would have been an impossible task, but today, HFCS makes the same number of calories go down and, incredibly, still leaves you hungry for more. Your muscles still need energy, so you crave more food and more sweets. And so you eat more foods containing HFCS, and the cycle continues. Less energy, more flab. HFCS could well stand for Here's Flab Coming to your Stomach.\n\nYou don't need to eliminate this artificial foodstuff from your diet entirely, but you need to ensure your meals don't revolve around it, as many Americans' do. So start checking the food labels: If HFCS is listed first or second on the ingredient list, look at the chart on the nutrition label to see how much sugar the food contains. If it's just a gram or two, it's fine. But if you see a food that has 8 or more grams of sugar, and HFCS is prominent on the list of ingredients, it's a sign that you should leave it on the shelf.\n\n**FOODS HIGH IN HFCS OR FRUCTOSE** | **REPLACE WITH**  \n---|---  \nRegular soft drinks | Unsweetened sparkling water or diet soda  \nCommercial candy (such as jelly beans) | Chocolate candy (check the label; some chocolate bars have HFCS)  \nPancake syrup | Real maple syrup  \nFrozen yogurt | Ice cream  \nFruit-flavored yogurt | Artificially sweetened or sugar-sweetened yogurt  \nHighly sweetened cereals | Sugar-free or low-sugar cereals  \nPasta sauce | Sugar-free pasta sauce\n\n### **The Artery Hardener: Trans Fat**\n\nIf HFCS is Bonnie, then trans fat is Clyde, because together, the duo is responsible for some seriously heinous crimes against your body.\n\nFirst, it's important to know that dietary fats are a little like college bands, minus the long hair and low pants. Some are actually good, and some are unbelievably bad. Trans fats falls into the latter category. Trans fat increases the amount of bad cholesterol in your body, for example, and has been linked to an increased risk of heart disease, diabetes, and a weakened immune system. Scientists have estimated that trans fat contributes to more than 30,000 premature deaths every year.\n\nSo what exactly is this stuff? Once again, it's a Frankenstein monster that's come lumbering out of the labs of the food industry.\n\nTrans fat is created by combining vegetable oil (a liquid) with hydrogen to create partially hydrogenated oil, or trans fatty acids. Once infused with hydrogen, liquid vegetable oil turns into a solid at room temperature, becoming what we recognize today as Crisco or margarine.\n\nTrans fats are beloved by the food and restaurant industries for several reasons. Number one, they're cheap. Number two, they can stick around seemingly forever without going bad. (How gross is that?) Number three, you can add them to myriad foods in a way you can't add regular oil\u2014a cookie with vegetable oil in it will ooze all over the supermarket shelf, but one with partially hydrogenated oil in it will stay crisp and tantalizing. So it's no surprise that food marketers, eager to deliver the sensuous flavor and mouth feel of fat to millions of unsuspecting consumers, now add partially hydrogenated oils to all sorts of things\u2014chips, frozen foods, fries, muffins, to name a few.\n\nBut think about what trans fats are: Fats that are supposed to be liquid but are turned into solids. Now think about what they do when they get inside you. Instead of melting like they would in their natural state, they try to revert to their waxy, solid nature. Once you understand that heart disease and stroke are caused in part by waxy buildups of fat solids in the circulatory system, it's easy to put two and two together. Turning oils into solids isn't doing us a favor\u2014not by a long run.\n\nThe good news is that the U.S. government is finally recognizing the dangers of trans fats. In 2003, food companies were required to list these trans fats for the first time. At least this gives you the power to see the enemy you need to fight (though food companies have several years to phase the new nutritional labels in). In the meantime, use these tactics to reduce your intake of trans fats:\n\n  Check the ingredient list for \"hydrogenated\" or \"partially hydrogenated.\" The higher these ingredients are on the label, the more trans fats they contain (with the exception of processed peanut butter, which contains trace amounts).\n\n  Decode the food label. For those products that don't list trans fats, add all the fat grams together that are listed on the label and then subtract that number from the total fat content. The number you're left with is the estimate for the amount of trans fat.\n\n  Snack on baked chips or chips fried in peanut oil instead of ones with vegetable shortening (check the ingredient list).\n\n  Pick high-protein breakfasts like eggs or Canadian bacon instead of waffles. If you have toast, use jelly instead of margarine.\n\n  At a restaurant, ask what kind of oil the chef uses. You want to hear olive oil\u2014not shortening.\n\n  When eating dinner out, avoid bread, which may be filled with trans fats. It's better to pick a baked potato, soup, or a salad.\n\n  Blot oil from your fries as quickly as possible. A napkin can absorb excess grease.\n\n**IF YOU WANT** | **PICK THIS TRANS FAT-FREE OPTION**  \n---|---  \nCandy bar | Dove dark chocolate bar  \nCereal | Kellogg's Frosted Mini-Wheats or Post Premium Raisin Bran  \nCookies | Archway fat-free cookies or Pamela's Products gourmet cookies  \nCrackers | Ryvita Multigrain crackers  \nFrench fries | McCain 5-Minute Shoestring French Fries  \nPotato chips | Ruffles Natural sea-salted, reduced-fat chips\n\n### **The Belly Buster: Saturated Fats**\n\nJust the name sounds threatening, doesn't it? Saturated fats, as in they're going to sink into your stomach and saturate your organs with soft little globs of putty. Bleeech!\n\nAnd the truth is just as gross as you imagine it to be. Your body likes to burn some kinds of fats\u2014polyunsaturated (from vegetables) and monounsaturated (from nuts and seeds) fats\u2014as energy. But your body would rather save saturated fats around your belly to use for future energy in case, I dunno, your plane crashes in the jungles of the Philippines or something. Assuming there's no Battan Death March in your immediate future, however, your body will continue to hold onto the fat it's stored, and the more you eat, the more you wear. Besides raising cholesterol rates, saturated fats have also been shown to increase your risk for heart disease and some types of cancer.\n\nSaturated fats are found primarily in meats and dairy products. \"But wait!\" you say. \"Aren't meats and dairy products part of the ABS DIET POWER 12?\" Yes, and that's why I emphasize lean meats like turkey, chicken, fish, and some cuts of beef and recommend that you look for low-fat dairy products like low-fat milk or low-fat yogurt whenever possible. The trick is to get the most nutrients\u2014muscle-building protein and fat-fighting calcium\u2014with the least amount of saturated fats.\n\n### **The Energy Sucker: Refined Carbohydrates**\n\nConsider the simple wheat stalk: There it stands, soaking up the sun and minding its own business, a single droplet in a vast sea of amber waves. Who'd have thought this humble grain would spark a controversy more complicated than the JFK assassination? And yet, the dietary landscape is wrought by forces arguing grain's place at the American dinner table. On this side, the USDA food guide pyramid, which calls for six to eleven servings of grains a day. And on that side, the Atkins addicts and other no-carb adherents who believe that simple stalk of wheat is evil incarnate.\n\nThe truth is . . . well, the truth is in neither corner, but somewhere more towards the middle.\n\nThe truth is that the human body can't survive without carbohydrates, because grains\u2014like fruits, vegetables, and other carbs\u2014provide crucial energy to feed the brain, the muscles, and the metabolism. Grains also provide crucial vitamins, minerals, and fiber, all of which the body needs to stay healthy. For example, a recent study at Brigham and Women's Hospital found that women who consumed 800 or more micrograms of folate a day had 29 percent less risk of high blood pressure than those who consumed less than 200 micrograms daily. Folate is just one of the many nutrients found in carbohydrates.\n\nBut the anti-carb movement does have its points to make, because most of the carbohydrates in the American diet aren't rich in all those great nutrients and fiber. They're \"refined carbohydrates,\" such as white sugar, white bread, bagels, waffles, et cetera. Most baked goods, in fact, are made from grains that have had all their great nutrients \"refined\" out of them.\n\nThis causes serious dietary problems for the carb lover. A slice of bread made with whole grains\u2014wheat, oats, or what have you\u2014is full of fiber. Fiber expands once it's in the belly, taking up space, slowing the digestive process, and keeping your energy and hunger levels even for several hours. Take out the fiber, though, and those carb calories go shooting through the digestive track faster than Bill Clinton at a sorority party. There's a rush of blood sugar as the carbs are quickly digested, a burst of energy, and then a letdown as insulin stores the blood sugar and your body cries out for more.\n\nThat's why the ABS DIET POWER 12 includes whole-grain breads and cereals, along with fruit, vegetables, and other carbohydrate sources. Carbs have the energy you need; you just have to choose wisely. Read the label; you want to see the words \"whole grain\" on your bread, cereal, and cracker boxes whenever possible.\n\n## **HOW METABOLISM WORKS\u2014AND HOW TO MAKE IT WORK FOR YOU**\n\nEven if you're lying in bed, lounging on the couch, or sitting on the toilet as you're reading this, your body is burning calories. It's burning calories to keep your heart beating, your lungs breathing, your brain dreaming about Cabo San Lucas. . . . Hey, wake up!\n\nThat calorie burn I'm referring to is your metabolism, and how high it's revving is what determines whether you're losing fat right now\u2014or gaining it. See, your body burns calories all the time, and it burns them in three different ways. One, you burn them when you eat, simply through the act of digestion (remember, it takes more energy to digest protein than it does carbs). Two, you burn calories by exercise and movement, whether you're running a marathon or just walking down the hall. And the last way you burn calories is when you're at rest; that's called your _basal metabolism_ , and it refers to the way your body uses fuel when you're not doing anything. Incredibly enough, this is when the majority of your calories are burned\u2014while you're doing nothing.\n\nThat explains, in part, why watching those calories tick away on the treadmill or the exercise bike is an exercise in frustration. If the majority of calories are burned during your non-exercising times, then it makes sense to boost your calorie burn during those times, and the way you do that is by adding muscle. In fact, for every pound of muscle you build, your body will need to burn off up to 50 extra calories a day, just sitting around doing nothing. Add 6 pounds of muscle, and you're burning up to 300 extra calories a day, just hanging out being you.\n\nLater on in this book, I'll walk you through the basics of the Abs Diet Workout, a muscle-building, fat-burning, 20-minute workout that will help you create the body you've always wanted.\n\n## **Your Friends**\n\n### ****The Muscle Builder: Protein****\n\nYou may think of protein as the staple ingredient for bodybuilders or the Atkins crowd, but protein has more super powers than the Hall of Justice. For one, protein helps kick-start your metabolism. It takes your body twice as much energy to break down protein as it does to break down carbohydrates, so when you eat a high-protein meal, you actually burn off additional calories at the dinner table. In one study, for example, people who ate a high-protein diet burned more than twice as many calories in the hours after their meals as people on a high-carbohydrate diet.\n\nProtein also flips your satisfaction switch. When you start your meal with protein\u2014say, downing a glass of fat-free milk before breakfast or ordering the shrimp cocktail appetizer at dinner\u2014your body registers its satiation level earlier on, and you wind up eating less. And that effect can carry on throughout the day. Some studies have shown that, if all calories are equal, people who eat a high-protein meal feel fuller and eat less at their next meal than those who don't. In another study, subjects who followed a high-protein diet lost an average of 20 pounds each, compared to just 11 pounds lost by participants who followed a low-protein diet. Amazingly, protein not only burned away fat, it burned away belly fat. The high-protein dieters lost twice as much abdominal fat as their low-protein dieting counterparts.\n\n### **The Cholesterol Cutters: Polyunsaturated and Monounsaturated Fats**\n\nTen years ago, if I had told you to eat more fat, I'd have been dragged from my office by the diet police and run out of town on a rail. Although it's generally a good idea to cut down on some kinds of fats\u2014like trans fats and saturated fats\u2014other kinds are actually good for you. Good? Heck, they're great.\n\nOur bodies need fat. We need it to deliver vitamins throughout our bodies. We need it to produce testosterone\u2014the hormone that leads to muscle growth. And we need it to keep satiated and full. In fact, one of the important things we've learned recently is that reducing your fat intake doesn't necessarily decrease your body-fat percentage over the long haul. In a recent study at Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston, participants were put on either a low-fat or moderate-fat diet. After 6 months, the two groups lost about the same amount of weight. But when doctors checked in after 12 months, they discovered that the low-fat eaters had not only gained back what they lost, but they had added an average of 6 pounds! The dieters who were allowed to eat fats, however, lost an average of 9 pounds\u2014and kept it off.\n\nSo, as the song goes, Grease is the Word\u2014as long as it's the right kind of grease. The two kinds of fats that you'll incorporate into your eating plan are polyunsaturated and monounsaturated. Polyunsaturated fats include the famous omega-3's, which are found in fish like salmon and tuna and work to help clear your arteries. But more research shows that polyunsaturated fat also plays a role in helping speed your metabolism. Studies have shown that people who take omega-3's burned more calories throughout the day than those who don't. And a recent study of more than 35,000 women discovered that those who ate fish high in omega-3's had the lowest body mass indexes (BMIs)\u2014even lower than vegetarians. (And if you're a vegetarian, there's still no excuse: Flaxseed and flaxseed oil are also loaded with omega-3's, and you can find them in a health food store. Get the ground flaxseed so you can toss it on cereal or into smoothies.)\n\nThe other kind of good fat\u2014monounsaturated\u2014is found in nuts, olives, avocados, and olive and canola oils. Monounsaturated fats reduce cholesterol levels, as well, and they also help burn fat and keep you satiated. One study found that subjects who ate a meal with oil high in monounsaturated fats felt fuller than those who ate one cooked with the polyunsaturated kind. And that's a primary approach to how you need to eat: Balance your foods with the ingredients that keep your hunger in check. You want to keep your stomach satisfied\u2014not the folks at Big & Tall.\n\n### **The Appetite Suppressor: Fiber-Rich Carbohydrates**\n\nAs I stated earlier in this chapter, it's not the \"carbohydrate\" part you should be concerned about, it's the \"fiber\" part. Whole-grain breads and cereals, oatmeal, and berries\u2014these are the real weapons of mass destruction, and the mass they seek to destroy is the one collecting around your waist.\n\nThere are two types of fiber: soluble and insoluble. Let's see if I can define them both in one paragraph without making you nod off.\n\nSoluble fiber, like the kind you find in oatmeal, apples, and other fruits and grains, likes to hang out in your stomach. While it's hanging out, it does two things. First, it slows digestion, giving you longer-burning energy throughout the day. Second, it bonds with digestive acids, which happen to be made from cholesterol. When fiber splits, it takes the digestive acids with it, forcing your body to pull cholesterol from your bloodstream to make more. Presto, your cholesterol profile improves. Insoluble fiber, mean-while, does not like to hang around. It shoots through your plumbing like Dr no, picking up miscellaneous fats and whatever else happens to be loitering in your system and ushering them out the back. So both types of fiber help keep all your pipes and fittings in order, and if you eat them regularly, they should delay any need for professional plumbing services in the near future.\n\n### **The Weight-Loss Wonder: Calcium**\n\nIn the past few years, researchers have begun studying the effects of calcium-rich dairy foods on weight management. And quite frankly, it's hard not to be cowed by the evidence.\n\nFor example, researchers at Harvard Medical School showed that those who ate three servings of dairy a day\u2014to total the recommended 1,200 milligrams of calcium daily\u2014were 60 percent less likely to be overweight. But some of the most exciting research came from a study in which researchers put subjects on diets that were 500 calories a day less than what they were used to eating. The subjects lost weight\u2014about a pound of fat a week. But when researchers put another set of subjects on the same diet but added dairy to their meals, their fat loss doubled, to 2 pounds a week. Same calorie intake, double the fat loss. Calcium, it seems, is going to be one of the most exciting new areas of research about weight loss and metabolism, and that's why it's an important part of the ABS DIET POWER 12.\n\n### **ABS DIET SUCCESS STORY**\n\n## **SHE HAD THE GUTS TO LOSE HERS**\n\n**Name:** Linda Toomey\n\n**Age:** 35\n\n**Height:** 5\u20324\u2033\n\n**Weight, Week 1:** 145\n\n**Weight, Week 6:** 126\n\n**Body-Fat Percentage, Week 1:** 36\n\n**Body-Fat Percentage, Week 6:** 25\n\nWhen Linda Toomey had her fourth baby, she knew that she had to get the weight off. She was still carrying an extra 20 pounds she'd gained from her third child, and she wanted to act quickly, because she knew the longer she waited, the harder it would be. At 145 pounds and with four children under the age of 6, she knew that her own health\u2014and belly\u2014might take a backseat to everything else going on in her life. \"I'm the queen of excuses,\" she says.\n\nToomey also knew that she needed as much energy as possible\u2014especially considering she wasn't getting a full night's sleep anyway, caring for a newborn.\n\n\"At night, I expected to be tired,\" she says. \"But I was tired 2 hours after I woke up.\"\n\nHer goals: Get her body back, have more energy, and strengthen her back to be able to meet the demands of carrying larger-than-average children.\n\n\"I tried other diets, but being so crazy and busy, I didn't have a lot of time for exercise or food preparation. I needed something that was easy and fast to prepare,\" Toomey says.\n\nShe found it in the Abs Diet. \"It's not really a diet,\" she says. \"It's a lifelong eating plan. I think knowing that you can eat carbs and not resist cravings was one of the key factors. The eating plan was extremely easy to follow, and the whole family could enjoy the meals. I didn't have to prepare different foods for myself.\"\n\nToomey also included the 20-minute exercise plan and strengthened her abdominals and lower back to the point where she has no problem lifting her children.\n\nIn 6 weeks, Toomey dropped 19 pounds and went from 35-percent body fat to 25. And she also went from a size 14 dress to size 6.\n\n\"I'm hoping it motivates a lot of women,\" Toomey says. \"In the past after being pregnant, the waist was extremely hard for me. I may have lost inches from everywhere else in the past, but the waist was my real difficult area. It's amazing how it progressed in a short time.\"\nChapter 2\n\n# **NEVER GO HUNGRY AGAIN**\n\n# The ABS DIET POWER 12\n\n**T HE GOVERNMENT USES** acronyms: FBI, CIA, DOT. Media corporations use acronyms: ABC, CNN, BET. We love acronyms because they're easy to remember. (Do you even recall what CNN stands for after all these years?)\n\nThe Abs Diet comes with its own acronym\u2014the ABS DIET POWER 12. They are 12 foods you want to look for and fit into your eating plan whenever you can.\n\nI don't know about you, but if I had to consult a chart, formulate some kind of substitution plan, or calculate calories at every turn, I'd starve. Eating plans need to be simple, because life is complicated. And that's what the ABS DIET POWER 12 is\u2014simple. Figuratively, it stands for the principles of what this body-transforming diet is all about. Literally, it stands for:\n\n**A** lmonds and other nuts\n\n**B** eans and legumes\n\n**S** pinach and other green vegetables\n\n**D** airy (fat-free or low-fat milk, yogurt, cheese)\n\n**I** nstant oatmeal (unsweetened, unflavored)\n\n**E** ggs\n\n**T** urkey and other lean meats\n\n**P** eanut butter\n\n**O** live oil\n\n**W** hole-grain breads and cereals\n\n**E** xtra-protein (whey) powder\n\n**R** aspberries and other berries\n\nAs you can see, these 12 foods, or food groups, if you will, constitute a veritable cornucopia of dietary choices. You can use the acronym when you're shopping, when you're cooking at home, and when you're eating out.\n\nThe crux of the diet and _The Abs Diet Eat Right Every Time Guide_ is that if you can revolve your meals around these 12 Powerfoods, you'll know exactly what to order, what to shop for, and how to eat right every time. You'll have armed yourself with the \"friend\" category of nutrients that will help your body lose fat and gain lean muscle, and you'll have shunned the \"enemy\" category of junk foods that threaten to lay waste to your waist. Here's a quick overview of the ABS DIET POWER 12 and what they have to offer.\n\n_**How to read the key:**_ For at-a-glance scanning, I've included the following icons under the descriptions of each of the Abs Diet Powerfoods. Each icon demonstrates which important roles each food can help play in maintaining optimum health.\n\n  **Builds muscle:** Foods rich in muscle-building plant and animal proteins qualify for this seal of approval, as do foods rich in certain minerals linked to proper muscle maintenance, such as magnesium.\n\n  **Helps prevent weight gain:** Foods high in calcium and fiber (both of which protect against obesity) as well as foods that help build fat-busting muscle tissue earn this badge of respect.\n\n  **Strengthens bone:** Calcium and vitamin D are the most important bone builders, and they protect the body against osteoporosis. But beware: High levels of sodium can leach calcium out of bone tissue. Fortunately, all of the Powerfoods are naturally low in sodium.\n\n  **Lowers blood pressure:** Any food that's not high in sodium can help lower blood pressure\u2014and earn this designation\u2014if it has beneficial amounts of potassium, magnesium, or calcium.\n\n  **Fights cancer:** Research has shown that there is a lower risk of some types of cancer among people who maintain low-fat, high-fiber diets. You can also help foil cancer by eating foods that are high in calcium, beta-carotene, or vitamin C. In addition, all cruciferous (cabbage-type) and allium (onion-type) vegetables get the cancer protection symbol because research has shown they help prevent certain kinds of cancer.\n\n  **Improves immune function:** Vitamins A, E, B6, and C; folate; and the mineral zinc help to increase the body's immunity to certain types of disease. This icon indicates a Powerfood with high levels of one or more of these nutrients.\n\n  **Fights heart disease:** Artery-clogging cholesterol can lead to trouble if you eat foods that are predominant in saturated and trans fats, while foods that are high in monounsaturated or polyunsaturated fats will actually help protect your heart by keeping your cholesterol levels in check.\n\n## **#1: Almonds and Other Nuts**\n\n**Superpowers: builds muscle, fights cravings**\n\n**Secret weapons: protein, monounsaturated fats, vitamin E, fiber, magnesium, folate (peanuts), phosphorus**\n\n**Fights against: obesity, heart disease, muscle loss, wrinkles, cancer, high blood pressure**\n\n**Sidekicks: flaxseed, pumpkin seeds, sunflower seeds, avocados**\n\n**Imposters: salted or smoked nuts**\n\nThese days, you hear about good fats and bad fats the way you hear about good cops and bad cops. One's on your side, and one's gonna beat you silly. Oreos fall into the latter category, but nuts are clearly out to help you. They contain the monounsaturated fats that clear your arteries and help you feel full.\n\nAll nuts are high in protein and monounsaturated fat. But almonds are like Jack Nicholson in _One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest_ : They're the king of the nuts. A handful of almonds provides half the amount of vitamin E you need in a day and 8 percent of the calcium. Almonds also contain 19 percent of your daily requirement of magnesium\u2014a key component for muscle building. In a Western Washington University study, people taking extra magnesium were able to lift 20 percent more weight and build more muscle than those who weren't. Eat as much as two handfuls of almonds a day. A Toronto University study found that men can eat this amount daily without gaining any extra weight. A Purdue University study showed that people who ate nuts high in monounsaturated fat felt full an hour and a half longer than those who ate fat-free food (rice cakes, in this instance). If you eat 2 ounces of almonds (about 24 of them), it should be enough to suppress your appetite\u2014especially if you wash them down with 8 ounces of water. The fluid helps expand the fiber in the nuts to help you feel fuller. Also, eat almonds with the nuts' nutrient-rich skins on them.\n\nHere are ways to seamlessly introduce almonds and other nuts into your diet.\n\n  Add chopped nuts to plain peanut butter.\n\n  Toss a handful of nuts on cereal, yogurt, or ice cream.\n\n  Put almond slivers in an omelet.\n\n  For a quick popcorn alternative, spray a handful of almonds with nonstick cooking spray and bake at 400 degrees for 5 to 10 minutes. Take them out of the oven and sprinkle them with a mixture of either brown sugar and cinnamon or cayenne pepper and thyme.\n\nOne caveat, before you get all nutty: Smoked and salted nuts don't make the cut here, because of their high sodium content. High sodium can mean high blood pressure.\n\nAlthough it's not technically a nut, I want you to consider adding ground flaxseed to your food. As I pointed out earlier, 1 tablespoon contains only 60 calories, but it packs in omega-3 fatty acids and has nearly 4 grams of fiber. It has a nutty flavor, so you can sprinkle it into a lot of different recipes, add some to your meat or beans, spoon it over cereal, or add a tablespoon to a smoothie.\n\n## **SUPPLEMENT SMARTS**\n\nYou can get nearly every nutrient in the ABS DIET POWER 12 from a bottle or a can. Health food stores are filled with multivitamins and dietary supplements that promise better health and nutrition. But I want you to be eating real, wholesome, delicious foods, not popping pills.\n\nOne main reason\u2014besides the fact that eating your meals in pill form makes you feel like you're on the set of _Logan's Run_ \u2014is that fruits, vegetables, whole grains and other Powerfoods offer not only the aforementioned vitamins, minerals, and fiber, but hundreds of \"micronutrients,\" as well. These micronutrients\u2014many of which are only now being studied and classified\u2014may have tremendous protective properties that scientists are still trying to discover. So the more real food you eat, the more real nutrition you get.\n\nThat said, there are two nutrients that aren't readily available through traditional food sources. If you want to supplement your healthy diet with some extra weight-loss power, consider:\n\n  Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a fatty acid that's been shown to aid in weight loss. Researchers recently reported that subjects taking CLA for 1 year lost up to 8.7 percent of their body fat. The recommended dosage is 3 grams daily.\n\n  Pyruvate is an antioxidant that may help aid weight loss, as well. In two trials, people taking pyruvate in addition to a low-fat diet stepped up their weight loss. The recommended dosage is 25 grams daily.\n\n## **#2: Beans and Legumes**\n\n**Superpowers: builds muscle, helps burn fat, regulates digestion**\n\n**Secret weapons: fiber, protein, iron, folate**\n\n**Fights against: obesity, colon cancer, heart disease, high blood pressure**\n\n**Sidekicks: lentils, peas, bean dips, hummus, edamame**\n\n**Imposters: refried beans, which are high in saturated fats; baked beans, which are high in sugar**\n\nMost of us can trace our resistance to beans to some unfortunately timed intestinal upheaval (third-grade math class, a first date gone awry). But beans are, as the song says, good for your heart; the more you eat them, the more you'll be able to control your hunger. Black, lima, pinto, garbanzo\u2014you pick the bean (as long as it's not refried\u2014refried beans are loaded with fat). Beans are a low-calorie food packed with protein, fiber, and iron\u2014ingredients crucial for building muscle and losing weight. Gastrointestinal disadvantages notwithstanding, beans serve as one of the key members of the Abs Diet cabinet because of all their nutritional power. In fact, you can swap in a bean-heavy dish for a meat-heavy dish a couple of times per week; you'll be lopping a lot of saturated fat out of your diet and replacing it with higher amounts of fiber.\n\nThe best beans for your diet are:\n\n  Soybeans\n\n  Pinto beans\n\n  Chickpeas (garbanzo beans)\n\n  Navy beans\n\n  Black beans\n\n  White beans\n\n  Kidney beans\n\n  Lima beans\n\n## **#3: Spinach and Other Green Vegetables**\n\n**Superpowers: neutralizes free radicals, which are molecules that accelerate the aging process**\n\n**Secret weapons: vitamins including A, C, and K; folate; minerals including calcium and magnesium; fiber; beta-carotene**\n\n**Fights against: cancer, heart disease, stroke, obesity, osteoporosis**\n\n**Sidekicks: cruciferous vegetables like broccoli and brussels sprouts; green, yellow, red, and orange vegetables like asparagus, yellow beans, and peppers**\n\n**Imposters: none, as long as you don't fry them or smother them in fatty cheeses**\n\nYou know vegetables are packed with important nutrients, but they're also a critical part of your body-changing diet. I like spinach in particular because one serving supplies nearly a full day's worth of vitamin A and half of your vitamin C. It's also loaded with folate\u2014a vitamin that protects against heart disease, stroke, and colon cancer. To incorporate spinach into your diet, you can take the fresh stuff and use it as lettuce on a sandwich or try stir-frying it with a little fresh olive oil and garlic.\n\nAnother potent power vegetable is broccoli. It's high in fiber and more densely packed with vitamins and minerals than almost any other food. For instance, broccoli contains nearly 90 percent of the vitamin C of fresh orange juice and almost half as much calcium as milk. It is also a powerful defender against diseases like cancer because it increases the enzymes that help detoxify carcinogens. Tip: With broccoli, you can skip the stalks. The florets have three times as much beta-carotene as the stems, and they're also a great source of other antioxidants. Saut\u00e9 olive oil and garlic and douse them with hot sauce.\n\nIf you hate vegetables, you can learn to hide them but still reap the benefits. Try pureeing them and adding them to marinara sauce or chili. The more you chop and puree vegetables, the more invisible they become, and the easier it is for your body to absorb them.\n\n## **#4: Dairy (Fat-Free or Low-Fat Milk, Yogurt, Cheese)**\n\n**Superpowers: builds strong bones, fires up weight loss**\n\n**Secret weapons: calcium, vitamins A and B 12, riboflavin, phosphorus, potassium**\n\n**Fights against: osteoporosis, obesity, high blood pressure, cancer**\n\n**Sidekicks: cottage cheese, low-fat sour cream**\n\n**Imposters: whole milk, frozen yogurt**\n\nDairy is nutrition's version of a typecast actor. It gets so much attention for one thing it does well\u2014strengthening bones\u2014that it gets little or no attention for all the other stuff it does well. It's about time for dairy to accept a breakout role as a vehicle for weight loss. Just take a look at the mounting evidence: A University of Tennessee study found that dieters who consumed between 1,200 and 1,300 milligrams of calcium a day lost nearly twice as much weight as dieters getting less calcium. In a Purdue University study of 54 people, those who took in 1,000 milligrams of calcium a day (about 3 cups of fat-free milk) gained less weight over 2 years than those with low-calcium diets. Researchers think that calcium probably prevents weight gain by increasing the breakdown of body fat and hampering its formation. Low-fat yogurt, cheeses, and other dairy products can play an important role in your diet. But as your major source of calcium, I recommend milk for one primary reason: volume. Liquids can take up valuable room in your stomach and send the signal to your brain that you're full. Adding in a sprinkle of chocolate powder can also help curb sweet cravings while still providing nutritional power.\n\n## **#5: Instant Oatmeal (Unsweetened, Unflavored)**\n\n**Superpowers: boosts energy and sex drive, reduces cholesterol, maintains blood sugar levels**\n\n**Secret weapons: complex carbohydrates and fiber**\n\n**Fights against: heart disease, diabetes, colon cancer, obesity**\n\n**Sidekicks: high-fiber cereals like All-Bran and Fiber One**\n\n**Imposters: cereals with added sugar and high-fructose corn syrup**\n\nOatmeal is the Bo Derek of your pantry: It's a perfect 10. You can eat it at breakfast to propel you through sluggish mornings, a couple of hours before a workout to feel fully energized by the time you hit the weights, or at night to avoid a late-night binge. I recommend instant oatmeal for its convenience. But I want you to buy the unsweetened, unflavored variety and use other Powerfoods such as milk and berries to enhance the taste. Pre-flavored oatmeal often comes loaded with sugar calories.\n\nOatmeal contains soluble fiber, meaning that it attracts fluid and stays in your stomach longer than insoluble fiber (like vegetables). Soluble fiber is thought to reduce blood cholesterol by binding with digestive acids made from cholesterol and sending them out of your body. When this happens, your liver has to pull cholesterol from your blood to make more digestive acids, and your bad cholesterol levels drop.\n\nTrust me: You need more fiber, both soluble and insoluble. Doctors recommend we get between 25 and 35 grams of fiber per day, but most of us get half that. Fiber is like a bouncer for your body, kicking out troublemakers and showing them the door. Fiber protects you from heart disease, and it also protects you from colon cancer by sweeping carcinogens out of the intestines quickly.\n\nA Penn State study also showed that oatmeal sustains your blood sugar levels longer than many other foods, which keeps your insulin levels stable and ensures you won't be ravenous for the few hours that follow. That's good, because spikes in the production of insulin slow your metabolism and send a signal to the body that it's time to start storing fat. Since oatmeal breaks down slowly in the stomach, it causes less of a spike in insulin levels than foods like bagels. Include oatmeal in a smoothie or as your breakfast.(A U.S. Navy study showed that simply eating breakfast raised metabolism by 10 percent.)\n\nAnother cool fact about oatmeal: Preliminary studies indicate that oatmeal raises the levels of free testosterone in your body, enhancing your body's ability to build muscle and burn fat and boosting your sex drive.\n\n## **#6: Eggs**\n\n**Superpowers: builds muscle, burns fat**\n\n**Secret weapons: protein, vitamin B 12, vitamin A**\n\n**Fights against: obesity**\n\n**Sidekicks: none**\n\n**Imposters: none**\n\nFor a long time, eggs were considered pure evil, and doctors were more likely to recommend tossing eggs at passing cars than into omelet pans. That's because just two eggs contain enough cholesterol to put you over your daily recommended value. Though you can cut out some of the cholesterol by removing part of the yolk and using the whites, more and more research shows that eating an egg or two a day will not raise your cholesterol levels, as once previously believed. In fact, we've learned that most blood cholesterol is made by the body from dietary fat, not dietary cholesterol. And that's why you should take advantage of eggs and their powerful makeup of protein.\n\nThe protein found in eggs has the highest \"biological value\" of protein\u2014a measure of how well it supports your body's protein need\u2014of any food. In other words, the protein in eggs is more effective in building muscle than protein from other sources, even milk and beef. Eggs also contain vitamin B12, which is necessary for fat breakdown.\n\n## **#7: Turkey and Other Lean Meats**\n\n**Superpowers: builds muscle, improves the immune system**\n\n**Secret weapons: protein, iron, zinc, creatine (beef), omega-3 fatty acids (fish), vitamins B** **6** **(chicken and fish) and B** **12** **, phosphorus, potassium**\n\n**Fights against: obesity, various diseases**\n\n**Sidekicks: shellfish, Canadian bacon**\n\n**Imposters: sausage, bacon, cured meats, ham, fatty cuts of steak like T-bone and rib-eye**\n\nA classic muscle-building nutrient, protein is the base of any solid diet plan. You already know that it takes more energy for your body to digest the protein in meat than it does to digest carbohydrates or fat, so the more protein you eat, the more calories you burn. Many studies support the notion that high-protein diets promote weight loss. In one study, researchers in Denmark found that men who substituted protein for 20 percent of their carbs were able to increase their metabolism and increase the number of calories they burned every day by up to 5 percent.\n\nAmong meats, turkey is a rare bird. Turkey breast is one of the leanest meats you'll find, and it packs nearly one-third of your daily requirements of niacin and vitamin B6. Dark meat, if you prefer, has lots of zinc and iron. One caution, though: If you're roasting a whole turkey for a family feast, avoid self-basting birds, which have been injected with fat.\n\nBeef is another classic muscle-building protein. It's the top food source for creatine\u2014the substance your body uses when you lift weights. Beef does have a downside; it contains saturated fats, but some cuts have more than others. Look for rounds or loins (that's code for extra-lean); sirloins and New York strips are less fatty than prime ribs and T-bones. Wash down that steak with a glass of fat-free milk. Research shows that calcium (that magic bullet again!) may reduce the amount of saturated fat your body absorbs. Choose cuts on the left side of the chart below. They contain less fat but still pack high amounts of protein.\n\n**LEAN BEEF (55 calories and 2\u20133 grams of fat per 1-ounce serving)** | **MEDIUM-FAT BEEF (75 calories and 5 grams of fat per 1-ounce serving)**  \n---|---  \nFlank steak | Corned beef  \nGround beef (extra-lean or lean) | Ground beef (not marked as lean or extra-lean)  \nLondon broil |   \nRoast beef | Prime cut  \nTenderloin |\n\nTo cut down on saturated fats even more, concentrate on fish like tuna and salmon, because they contain a healthy dose of omega-3 fatty acids as well as protein. Those fatty acids lower levels of a hormone called leptin in your body. Several recent studies suggest that leptin directly influences your metabolism: The higher your leptin levels, the more readily your body stores calories as fat. Researchers at the University of Wisconsin found that mice with low leptin levels have faster metabolisms and are able to burn fat faster than animals with higher leptin levels. Mayo Clinic researchers studying the diets of two African tribes found that the tribe that ate fish frequently had leptin levels nearly five times lower than the tribe that primarily ate vegetables. A bonus benefit: Researchers in Stockholm studied the diets of more than 6,000 men and found that those who ate no fish had three times the risk of prostate cancer than those who ate it regularly. It's the omega-3's that inhibit prostate cancer growth.\n\n## **#8: Peanut Butter**\n\n**Superpowers: boosts testosterone, builds muscle, burns fat**\n\n**Secret weapons: protein, monounsaturated fat, vitamin E, niacin, magnesium**\n\n**Fights against: obesity, muscle loss, wrinkles, cardiovascular disease**\n\n**Sidekicks: cashew and almond butters**\n\n**Imposters: mass-produced sugary and trans fatty peanut butters**\n\nYes, PB has its disadvantages: It's high in calories, and it doesn't go over well when you order it in four-star restaurants. But it's packed with those heart-healthy monounsaturated fats that can increase your body's production of testosterone, which can help your muscles grow and your fat melt. In one 18-month experiment, people who integrated peanut butter into their diets maintained weight loss better than those on low-fat plans. A recent study from the University of Illinois showed that diners who had monounsaturated fats before a meal (in this case, it was olive oil) ate 25 percent fewer calories during that meal than those who didn't.\n\nPractically speaking, PB also works because it's a quick and versatile snack, and it tastes good. Since a diet that includes an indulgence like peanut butter doesn't leave you feeling deprived, it's easier to follow and won't make you fall prey to other cravings. Use it on an apple, on the go, or to add flavor to potentially bland smoothies. Two caveats: You can't gorge on it because of its fat content; limit yourself to about 3 tablespoons per day. And you should look for all-natural peanut butter, not the mass-produced brands that have added sugar and trans fat.\n\n## **#9: Olive Oil**\n\n**Superpowers: lowers cholesterol and boosts the immune system**\n\n**Secret weapons: monounsaturated fat, vitamin E**\n\n**Fights against: obesity, cancer, heart disease, high blood pressure**\n\n**Sidekicks: canola oil, peanut oil, sesame oil**\n\n**Imposters: vegetable and hydrogenated vegetable oils, trans fatty acids, margarine**\n\nYou read extensive information on the value of high-quality fats like olive oil in Chapter 1. But it's worth reiterating here: Olive oil and its brethren will help you eat less by controlling your food cravings; they'll also help you burn fat and keep your cholesterol in check. Do you need any more reason to pass the bottle?\n\n## **#10: Whole-Grain Breads and Cereals**\n\n**Superpower: prevents your body from storing fat**\n\n**Secret weapons: fiber, protein, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pyridoxine, vitamin E, magnesium, zinc, potassium, iron, calcium**\n\n**Fights against: obesity, cancer, high blood pressure, heart disease**\n\n**Sidekicks: brown rice, whole-wheat pastas, whole-wheat pretzels**\n\n**Imposters: processed bakery products like white bread, bagels, and doughnuts; breads labeled wheat instead of whole wheat**\n\nThere's only so long a person can survive on an all-protein diet or an all-salad diet or an all-anything diet. You will crave carbohydrates because your body needs carbohydrates. The key is to eat the ones that have been the least processed\u2014carbs that still have all their heart-healthy, belly-busting fiber intact.\n\nGrains like wheat, corn, oats, barley, and rye are seeds that come from grasses, and they're broken into three parts\u2014the germ, the bran, and the endosperm. Think of a kernel of corn. The biggest part of the kernel\u2014the part that blows up when you make popcorn\u2014is the endosperm. Nutritionally it's pretty much a big dud. It contains starch, a little protein, and some B vitamins. The germ is the smallest part of the grain; in the corn kernel, it's that little white seedlike thing. But while it's small, it packs the most nutritional power. It contains protein, oils, and the B vitamins thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and pyridoxine. It also has vitamin E and the minerals magnesium, zinc, potassium, and iron. The bran is the third part of the grain and the part where all the fiber is stored. It's a coating around the endosperm that contains B vitamins, zinc, calcium, potassium, magnesium, and other minerals.\n\nSo what's the point of this little biology lesson? Well, get this: When food manufacturers process and refine grains, guess which two parts get tossed out? Yup, the bran, where all the fiber and minerals are, and the germ, where all the protein and vitamins are. And what they keep\u2014the nutritionally bankrupt endosperm (that is, starch)\u2014gets made into pasta, bagels, white bread, white rice, and just about every other wheat product and baked good you'll find. Crazy, right? But if you eat products made with all the parts of the grain\u2014whole-grain bread, whole-grain pasta, long-grain rice\u2014you get all the nutrition that food manufacturers are otherwise trying to cheat you out of.\n\nWhole-grain carbohydrates can play an important role in a healthy lifestyle. In an 11-year study of 16,000 middle-age people, researchers at the University of Minnesota found that consuming three daily servings of whole grains can reduce a person's mortality risk over the course of a decade by 23 percent. (Tell that to your buddy who's eating low-carb.) Whole-grain bread keeps insulin levels low, which keeps you from storing fat. In this diet, it's especially versatile because it'll supplement any kind of meal with little prep time. Toast for breakfast, sandwiches for lunch, bread with a dab of peanut butter for a snack. Don't believe the hype. Carbs\u2014the right kind of carbs\u2014are good for you.\n\nWarning: Food manufacturers are very sneaky. Sometimes, after refining away all the vitamins, fiber, and minerals from wheat, they'll add molasses to the bread, turning it brown, and put it on the grocery shelf with a label that says wheat bread. It's a trick! Truly nutritious breads and other products will say whole-wheat or whole-grain. Don't be fooled.\n\n## **CAN YOU STOMACH THIS?**\n\nWhen I tell people about the Abs Diet, I'm often asked about the issue of portion control. In most diets, portion control is a key element, but the Abs Diet comes with its own portion control built in. Because you'll be eating lots of fiber, protein, and healthy fats, the foods you eat on the Abs Diet will fill you up and give you long-running energy, so you won't feel the need to binge and won't have the urge to stuff your stomach like Santa's sack. But just for kicks, let's look at what happens to your body when you do overeat.\n\n  Your stomach, which is the size of your closed fist, doesn't crave more servings. When you're full, it is, too.\n\n  But if you're eating very quickly\u2014a common problem with junk food\u2014your stomach becomes distended and can swell to as much as three times its original size. It then pushes against your lungs and diaphragm.\n\n  If you really overeat, some of the food may not immediately reach your stomach, so it loiters in your esophagus, causing acid-reflux\u2013related belching and nausea.\n\n  Your liver works overtime to digest the surplus food by producing excess bile\u2014an emulsifier that helps fats and oils pass through your intestines. Your intestines also crank out extra digestive enzymes.\n\n  After all this stressful work, your GI system can't take it and rebels. Your body looks for a way to dump the excess cargo\u2014by any means necessary.\n\n## **#11: Extra-Protein (Whey) Powder**\n\n**Superpowers: builds muscle, burns fat**\n\n**Secret weapons: protein, cysteine, glutathione**\n\n**Fights against: obesity**\n\n**Sidekick: ricotta cheese**\n\n**Imposter: soy protein**\n\nProtein powder? What the heck is that? It's the only Abs Diet Powerfood that you may not be able to find at the supermarket, but it's the one that's worth the trip to a health food store. I'm talking about powdered whey protein, a type of animal protein that packs a muscle-building wallop. If you add whey powder to your meal\u2014in a smoothie, for instance\u2014you may very well have created the most powerful fat-burning meal possible. Whey protein is a high-quality protein that contains essential amino acids that build muscle and burn fat. But it's especially effective because it has the highest amount of protein for the fewest number of calories, making it fat's kryptonite. Smoothies with some whey powder can be most effective before a workout. A 2001 study at the University of Texas found that lifters who drank a shake containing amino acids and carbohydrates before working out increased their protein synthesis (their ability to build muscle) more than lifters who drank the same shake after exercising. Since exercise increases bloodflow to tissues, the theory goes that having whey protein in your system when you work out may lead to a greater uptake of amino acids\u2014the building blocks of muscle\u2014in your muscle.\n\nBut that's not all. Whey protein can help protect your body from prostate cancer. Whey is a good source of cysteine, which your body uses to build a prostate cancer\u2013fighting antioxidant called glutathione. Adding just a small amount may increase glutathione levels in your body by up to 60 percent.\n\nBy the way, the one great source of whey protein in your supermarket is ricotta cheese. Unlike other cheeses, which are made from milk curd, ricotta is made from whey\u2014a good reason to visit your local Italian eatery.\n\n## **#12: Raspberries and Other Berries**\n\n**Superpowers: protects your heart; enhances eyesight; improves balance, coordination, and short-term memory; prevents cravings**\n\n**Secret weapons: antioxidants, fiber, vitamin C, tannins (cranberries)**\n\n**Fights against: heart disease, cancer, obesity**\n\n**Sidekicks: most other fruits, especially apples and grapefruit**\n\n**Imposters: jellies, most of which eliminate fiber and add sugar**\n\nDepending on your taste, any berry will do (except Crunch Berries). I like raspberries as much for their power as for their taste. They carry powerful levels of antioxidants, all-purpose compounds that help your body fight heart disease and cancer. the berries' flavonoids may also help your eyesight, balance, coordination, and short-term memory. One cup of raspberries packs 6 grams of fiber and more than half of your daily requirement of vitamin C.\n\nBlueberries are also loaded with the soluble fiber that, like oatmeal, keeps you fuller longer. In fact, they're one of the most healthful foods you can eat. Blueberries beat out 39 other fruits and vegetables in the antioxidant power ratings. (One study also found that rats that ate blueberries were more coordinated and smarter than rats that didn't.)\n\nStrawberries contain another valuable form of fiber called pectin (as do grapefruits, peaches, apples, and oranges). In a study from the _Journal of the American College of Nutrition_ , subjects drank plain orange juice or juice spiked with pectin. The people who got the loaded juice felt fuller after drinking it than those who got the juice without the pectin. The difference lasted for an impressive 4 hours.\n\n## **MIDNIGHT MADNESS**\n\nIf you're dying for a midnight snack, chances are you're probably more bored, restless, or worried than you are hungry\u2014especially if you've eaten six meals already today. The key here is to do as little harm as possible and to get back to bed. Milk, oatmeal, and bananas contain trace amounts of melatonin, the send-me-to-sleep hormone. Combine them all in one bowl (one instant oatmeal packet made with milk and topped with half a sliced banana) or just have one alone. Backups: A small bowl (\u00bd cup or so) of whole-grain cereal with milk, 2 fig bars, or \u00bc cup ice cream.\n\n### **The Abs Diet Bull's Eye**\n\nVariety being the spice of life and all, you're often going to have the opportunity and the desire to mix in foods that don't fall squarely into the ABS DIET POWER 12. That's fine, as long as you keep your eye on the target and try to mix at least two Powerfoods into each meal and snack.\n\nTo help keep you focused on the ABS DIET POWER 12, I've created a little game I call the Abs Diet Bull's Eye. In the center of this chart are the foods you want to concentrate on. Around them, in concentric layers, are additional foods you'll no doubt run across every day.\n\nIndulge in them from time to time, but try to stay as focused on the center of the bull's eye as you can. You have the flexibility to eat what you want, but this bull's eye will help you focus on the center goal. The closer you stick to the inside, the healthier your diet will be and the better results you'll see. And if your dinnertime darts are always hitting outside the ring, then I think you may need to reevaluate your form.\n\n**Abs Diet Bull's Eye**\n\n**A** lmonds and other nuts\n\n**B** eans and legumes\n\n**S** pinach and other green vegetables\n\n**D** airy (fat-free or low-fat milk, yogurt, cheese)\n\n**I** nstant oatmeal (unsweetened, unflavored)\n\n**E** ggs\n\n**T** urkey and other lean meats\n\n**P** eanut butter\n\n**O** live oil\n\n**W** hole-grain breads and cereals\n\n**E** xtra-protein (whey) powder\n\n**R** aspberries and other berries\n\n**Eat Often**\n\n\u2022 Apples \u2022 Asparagus \u2022 Avocados \u2022 Bananas \u2022 Brown rice \u2022 Canadian bacon \u2022 Canola oil \u2022 Citrus fruits and juices \u2022 Corn \u2022 Cruciferous vegetables, such as broccoli and brussels sprouts \u2022 Edamame \u2022 Eggplant \u2022 Flaxseed \u2022 Fruit, dried \u2022 Fruit juice, no sugar added \u2022 Game, lean choices such as ostrich \u2022 Garlic \u2022 Lentils \u2022 Mushrooms \u2022 Melons \u2022 Nut butters, such as almond and cashew \u2022 Onions \u2022 Pasta,whole-wheat with tomato sauce and\/or vegetables \u2022 Peach \u2022 Peanut oil \u2022 Peas \u2022 Peppers \u2022 Pizza, plain orwith vegetables \u2022 Popcorn, fat-free \u2022 Pumpkin seeds \u2022 Prunes \u2022 Ricotta cheese, part-skim \u2022 Salsa \u2022 Sesame oil \u2022 Shellfish and bivalves, steamed or baked \u2022 Soup, broth-based \u2022 Sunflower seeds \u2022 Sweet potatoes \u2022 Tea \u2022 Tofu \u2022 Tomatoes \u2022 Tomato sauce \u2022 Vegetable juice \u2022 Veggie burgers \u2022 Wine, red\n\n**Eat Occasionally**\n\n\u2022 Applesauce \u2022 Baked beans \u2022 Baked potatoes,white \u2022 Beer, light \u2022 Butter, light \u2022 Chocolate \u2022 Coffee, with low-fat milk \u2022 French fries, baked \u2022 Graham crackers \u2022 Granola, low-fat \u2022 Granola or energy bars \u2022 Ham \u2022 Honey \u2022 Ice cream, low-fat \u2022 Jam or marmalade \u2022 Lamb \u2022 Lasagna \u2022 Lunchmeat \u2022 Macaroni \u2022 Margarine, trans fat-free \u2022 Nuts, salted or smoked \u2022 Pudding, with low-fat milk \u2022 Pork, tenderloin \u2022 Rice, white \u2022 Sauerkraut \u2022 Sorbet or sherbet \u2022 Veal \u2022 Wine,white \u2022 Yogurt, frozen\n\n**Eat Rarely**\n\n\u2022 Bacon \u2022 Bagels \u2022 Baked goods, such as cake and cookies \u2022 Beef, fatty cuts such as T-bone \u2022 Beer, regular \u2022 Breads, white-flour \u2022 Burgers, fast food \u2022 Candy \u2022 Cereals, sugared \u2022 Chicken, fried \u2022 Chicken wings \u2022 Chips \u2022 Dairy products, full-fat \u2022 Doughnuts \u2022 French fries \u2022 Game, fatty choices such as duck \u2022 Jellies \u2022 Margarine \u2022 Non-dairy creamer \u2022 Pasta, with creamy sauce \u2022 Pastries \u2022 Peanut butter, highly processed \u2022 Pizza, frozen or with extra cheese and meat toppings \u2022 Popcorn, buttery \u2022 Salad dressing, creamy \u2022 Sausage, pork \u2022 Seafood, fried \u2022 Soft drinks \u2022 Soup, creamy \u2022 Refried beans \u2022 Ribs \u2022 Vegetables, creamed or fried\n\n### **ABS DIET SUCCESS STORY**\n\n## **HE BEAT THE CURSE OF THE FAMILY GUT**\n\n**Name:** Jim Phillips\n\n**Age:** 37\n\n**Height:** 6\u20321\"\n\n**Weight, Week 1:** 190\n\n**Weight, Week 6:** 169\n\n**Body-Fat Percentage, Week 1:** 24\n\n**Body-Fat Percentage, Week 6:** 15\n\nEver since high school, Jim Phillips had been gaining weight\u2014not all at once, but just a few pounds every year. At one point, he found himself at 215 pounds on his 6-foot-1 frame and decided he needed to do something about it. So he took up running, started cutting down on his fat intake, and concentrated on a more vegetarian-like diet. He lost weight and got down to 190. And he stayed at 190\u2014for 5 years. But still, Phillips's gut lingered on.\n\n\"I think I kinda wore the weight well, but I knew I was definitely overweight\u2014even if other people didn't notice it,\" he says.\n\nOne of the places Phillips wore his weight was the infamous Phillips family gut (which he'd inherited through years of soda, pizza, and bagels). After reaching that plateau of 190, Phillips resigned himself to the fact that he was going to stay there, especially as he got older.\n\nThen, he found the Abs Diet.\n\n\"As soon as I saw the book, I really liked it because of the approach\u2014telling you the foods to eat, not what you can't,\" Phillips says. \"Psychologically, that was one of the biggest things. I like feeling good about what I'm eating.\"\n\nPhillips tried the Abs Diet\u2014eating six times a day (up from his habit of light meals early in the day and eating a big dinner) and following an exercise program that emphasizes strength-training and interval-training as the means to burning fat. He really feels that his change in exercise helped him. \"I was definitely into a lackadaisical routine the last 4 years. When I changed to a shorter routine and higher intensity, I noticed the difference.\"\n\nThe effect: He dropped 21 pounds in 6 weeks, 9 percentage points off his body-fat percentage, and 4 \u00bd inches off his waist. Plus, he has much better energy and fitness levels. Though he ran regularly when he was 190 pounds, he can really feel the difference now. \"I never felt as good running as I feel now. My knees aren't hurting. Hills are so much easier. I just did 13 miles yesterday,\" says Phillips, who has run marathons and is training for another. \"Before, I wouldn't have been able to walk the next day after doing that distance. Now it doesn't even bother me.\"\n\nWhile he still indulges in an occasional doughnut, he's made a change\u2014for good. \"After the fifth or sixth week on the diet, it hit me that I really didn't remember what my old habits were,\" Phillips says. \"The new ways just became natural and something I wanted to live with and how I wanted to eat. It wasn't going to be something I fell off of because I could eat the foods I like to eat.\"\nChapter 3\n\n# **THE SIX STEPS TO LIFELONG LEANNESS**\n\n# Guidelines for Easy Eating\n\n**L OTS OF GOOD THINGS** come in sixes. Besides the Brady kids and bottles of Bud, there's also that group of muscles that gets title billing on this book. And then there's the Abs Diet guidelines. Six of them. That's it.\n\nIt all goes back to the simple principle of, well, simplicity. No matter how nutritionally responsible popular diets are (some are and some aren't, by the way), most of them are more high-maintenance than an old Fiat. They require you to do complicated math, keep dietary journals, or stay \"in the zone\" (wherever the heck that is). Well, forget that. Instead, I've eliminated all the complex elements and boiled the Abs Diet down to six simple guidelines that don't require a degree in home economics or exotic ingredients you need to order from Madagascar.\n\nWhat you'll find are that these six general principles aren't really rules; they just serve as the map that shows you the way to your ultimate destination: a lean, strong, and healthy body.\n\n**Guideline 1: Eat six meals a day**\n\nWhen people are introduced to the Abs Diet, their first question is this: \"How can I lose weight if I'm eating twice as many meals?\" The explanation is simple\u2014and delicious.\n\nSee, nature doesn't much care if you have abs, which is why Cro Magnon man didn't have buffalo-skin Speedos. Our bodies evolved to do one thing: Stay alive long enough to pass our genes on to the next generation. When our ancestors roamed the jungles and plains, they encountered frequent times of deprivation and hardship. So just like bears in winter, our bodies became adept at storing calories, in the form of fat, to tide us over during times when food was scarce.\n\nThe more frequently the body is exposed to times of deprivation, the more it conspires to store fat and to jettison lean muscle tissue. That's because muscle requires more calories to maintain than fat does. The drought hits, the herds move on, and our ancestor starts living on his own muscle tissue. When food returns, his body reacts by bulking up with fat so he can make it through future lean times.\n\nNowadays, the herd never moves on; it's always there, 24 hours a day, at the drive-through. But people who go on calorie-restrictive diets create a modern version of starvation: They're not eating enough calories to maintain their lean muscle tissue. (In fact, most diets are not fat-loss diets, they're muscle-loss diets.) And as soon as people go off their diets, boom: The body instinctively begins storing fat. It doesn't know that it's being starved on purpose; it only knows it needs to survive the next diet.\n\nBut there's more bad news for the starvation-diet set. By burning away muscle, they're sacrificing the body's greatest weapon in the fight against flab. As I said above, muscle requires many more calories to maintain than fat does. In fact, for each pound of muscle you gain, your body burns up to 50 extra calories a day, just sitting still. Now let's say you go on a restrictive diet for a week, and you lose 4 pounds, and half of that is muscle. When you end your diet and return to eating as you normally do, you may be taking in the same number of calories you once did\u2014but your body actually requires 100 calories a day less, because of the muscle you lost. So where do those calories go? Right to your gut. It takes only 3,500 calories to build a pound of fat. So you've now programmed your body to gain a pound of fat every 35 days\u2014or more than 10 pounds in the coming year.\n\nSome diet plan, huh?\n\nAnd yet this is the crux of yo-yo dieting, and it's one of the worst things you can do for your figure and your health. But here's the thing: Most of us go on mini-starvation diets every single day. When we limit ourselves to three meals a day, we're asking our bodies to operate normally all the time, even though we're intermittently depriving it of fuel, then dumping big heaps of calories into it every 6 hours or so. That's why eating three squares will make you round. But if you break those meals into six of them, you're getting a steady stream of fuel throughout the day to balance what your body is doing.\n\nIn fact, the new catchphrase in obesity science is \"energy balance.\" Energy balance refers to taking in throughout the day a similar number of calories as you're burning off. As long as you're constantly fueling your body with small meals, you're constantly teaching it to shed fat. Ideally, you're trying to keep your hourly calorie surplus or deficit within 300 or 500 calories at all times, meaning that you're never going long periods without eating, and you're never overloading your system with too many calories at one sitting. As you burn calories throughout the day\u2014by exercising, by walking from the parking lot, by jumping up and down screaming, if that's your thing\u2014the calories you ingest should stay within similar levels of the calories you burn. That's balance\u2014never having too many calories and never being starved for more. In one study, researchers gave two sets of dieters the same daily calorie intake. But one group ate those calories in two big meals, while the other group ate them in six small meals spread throughout the day. At the end of the study, those who ate six meals a day lost an average of 11 pounds in two weeks; those who ate the same number of calories in just two meals a day also lost 11 pounds, but they lost 3 pounds more of muscle than men eating 6 meals who lost 3 more pounds of fat.\n\nSo the Abs Diet works in two ways: By maintaining your energy balance and by helping you build new muscle. The more lean muscle mass you have, the more energy it takes to fuel it\u2014meaning that calories go to your muscles to sustain them rather than being converted to fat. That's why I call muscle-building exercise the magic bullet in the chamber\u2014the secret weapon in your fight against fat.You'll read much more about the Abs Diet Workout in Chapter 11, and you'll learn how you can build new muscle that jump-starts your metabolism and turns your body into a fat-burning machine. In the meantime, I want you to keep this equation in mind:\n\nMORE FOOD = MORE MUSCLE = LESS FLAB\n\nThe alternative:\n\nLESS FOOD = LESS MUSCLE = MORE FLAB\n\nOh, and one more thing: If you eat six times a day, you never get hungry. If you never get hungry, you never get tired, cranky, or miserable. And if you never get hungry, tired, cranky, or miserable, you never feel the need to drown your hunger pangs or energy drain in a 32-ounce root beer float.\n\nTo keep the fat-burners firing, eat your six meals like this:\n\n  Alternate larger meals and smaller ones.\n\n  Eat your snacks roughly 2 hours before lunch, 2 hours before dinner, and roughly 2 hours after dinner.\n\n  Eat to fit your own schedule and lifestyle, but an ideal schedule would look something like this:\n\n**8 A.M.: Breakfast**\n\n**11 A.M.: Snack**\n\n**1 P.M.: Lunch**\n\n**4 P.M.: Snack**\n\n**6 P.M.: Dinner**\n\n**8 P.M.: Snack**\n\n**Guideline 2: Revolve your eating around the ABS DIET POWER 12**\n\nThe ABS DIET POWER 12 is your ticket to eating better anywhere, anytime. While every meal won't consist entirely of Powerfoods, the more Powerfoods you can squeeze into your day, the more quickly and effectively you'll change your body and your life.\n\nFor example, let's say you're trapped in some nutritional equivalent of Dante's Inferno, where the only food you have to eat comes out of a vending machine. You could choose the Coke and the tortilla chips (mmm . . . nacho cheese!) and those nifty Dunking Sticks for dessert. Or you could peer through the glass and look for Powerfoods. They're in there . . . the fat-free microwave popcorn, the unsalted peanuts, the low-fat chocolate milk.\n\nLet's see . . . soda, chips, and dunking sticks, or chocolate milk, popcorn, and peanuts. Both sound like junk-food meals, right? So which do you choose? Here's where the magic of the Powerfoods comes into play:\n\n**VENDING MACHINE MEAL #1:**\n\n_Can of Coke_ 155 calories, 0 g protein, 40 g carbohydrates, 0 g fat, 0 g fiber, 15 mg sodium\n\n_1.5-ounce bag of nacho cheese tortilla chips_ 212 calories, 3 g protein, 27 g carbohydrates, 11 g fat (2 g saturated), 2 g fiber, 301 mg sodium\n\n_2 Dunking Sticks_ 360 calories, 4 g protein, 44 g carbohydrates, 18 g fat (6 g saturated), 1 g fiber, 260 mg sodium\n\n**VENDING MACHINE MEAL #2:**\n\n_8 ounces low-fat chocolate milk_ 180 calories, 8 g protein, 28 g carbohydrates, 4.5 g fat (3 g saturated), 1 g fiber, 150 mg sodium\n\n_94% Fat-free microwave popcorn (3 cups)_ 120 calories, 4 g protein, 26 g carbohydrates, 2 g fat (0 g saturated), 4 g fiber, 380 mg sodium\n\n_1-ounce bag of unsalted peanuts_ 167 calories, 8 g protein, 5 g carbohydrates, 15 g fat (2 g saturated), 2.5 g fiber, 2 mg sodium\n\nWhat a difference choosing the Powerfoods can make: Meal #1 has about 50 percent more calories (727 versus 467), and pales in comparison nutritionally to Meal #2. By making your choices based on the Powerfoods, you get three times as much protein, more than twice the fiber, and significantly less fat and sodium.\n\nAnd that's something you can do no matter where you are, because every supermarket, every restaurant, every vending machine, and every movie-theater concession stand offers something that contains one or more Powerfoods. And that, my friends, will keep you losing weight\u2014without driving you nuts.\n\nWhile you're negotiating the nutrition wasteland, I'd like you to keep these three thoughts in mind:\n\n  Incorporate two to three Powerfoods into each of your three major meals and at least one or two of them into each of your three snacks.\n\n  Diversify your food at every meal to make sure you have a combination of protein, carbohydrates, and healthy fat.\n\n  Make sure you sneak a little bit of protein into each snack.\n\n**Guideline 3: Drink smoothies regularly**\n\nI'll never forget something that one of the first followers of the Abs Diet said. He lost some 20 pounds in the first 6 weeks, and he attributed most of that loss to one part of the diet: the smoothies. It was like getting to go to Dairy Queen every day, he said.\n\nSee, smoothies are more than just faux milk shakes packed with healthy ingredients. They're one of the keys to the Abs Diet because they pack your day with more energy than a busload of cheerleaders. In a recent study, researchers found that meal-replacement shakes work brilliantly as a weight-loss method. Subjects who replaced two daily meals with shakes or meal-replacement bars lost about 9 percent of their original body weight.\n\nMore important, smoothies feature everything you could possibly want out of a food, like:\n\n  Ease: They take less than 3 minutes to make\n\n  Taste: Like dessert, with one exception. They're guilt-free.\n\n  Satisfaction: Because they're so thick and packed with Powerfoods, they take up valuable room in your stomach to keep you full for hours.\n\n  Effectiveness: With the secret fat-fighter calcium, and satiating fiber and protein, they're some of the most potent meals or snacks you can make.\n\nWhile Chapter 8 gives you recipes for 27 different kinds of smoothies, I'd also encourage you to mix and match ingredients that fit your tastes. That's the great thing about smoothies. All you have to know is how to open a lid and press a button to make one. So dump in whatever Powerfoods you like, whether it's berries, peanut butter, or oatmeal, and experiment with your own flavors (I advise against the salmon). Then follow these guidelines.\n\n  Drink one or two 8-ounce smoothies a day, as a meal substitute or as a snack. In one study, researchers found that regularly drinking meal replacements increased a man's chance of losing weight and keeping it off for longer than a year.\n\n  Add ice cubes and blend your smoothie for at least 10 minutes. Thicker shakes incorporate a little more air and water but have an increased satiating effect. In one study, researchers found that people stayed fuller longer when they drank thick drinks than when they drank thin ones. Another study found that men who drank yogurt shakes that had been blended until they doubled in volume ate 96 fewer calories a day than men who drank shakes of normal thickness.\n\n  Don't skimp on the yogurt. A University of Tennessee study found that men who added three servings of yogurt a day to their diets lost 61 percent more body fat and 81 percent more stomach fat over 12 weeks than men who didn't eat yogurt. Calcium, baby!\n\n**Guideline 4: Stop counting**\n\nOn the Abs Diet, you'll count the number of pounds you've lost, you'll count the notches on your belt you've gained, you may even count your lucky stars. But one thing you will not count is calories. Counting calories is for suckers.\n\nFor one, most people don't have the time or discipline to record every pretzel stick they eat or weigh the three slices of turkey breast they carved. And two, all calories are not made equally when it comes to metabolism. Instead, the important thing is to eat the right foods. If you do, your body will essentially regulate your caloric intake all by itself. By including a good balance of fiber and protein, you'll be full throughout the day.\n\nWhat you want to do is think about\u2014not record\u2014the amount of food you eat by sticking to one helping of each food group you eat and keeping the total contents of each meal contained to the diameter of your plate (and please, no high-rise mashed potatoes).\n\n**Guideline 5: Watch what you drink**\n\nI think a diet with lots of restrictions is like a roller-coaster without hills or a zoo without animals. What's the point of having a diet plan if it's so regimented and boring that nobody's going to be able to follow it? That's why the Abs Diet is about what you can eat, not what you can't. But the one place you really have to be careful is in what you drink.\n\nAlcohol and soda, along with a lot of juice blends and prepackaged iced teas, contain empty, non-nutritious calories that will work against you in pursuit of a better body. While alcohol has some health benefits in moderation, it also encourages you to eat more, slows down fat-burning, and increases fat-storing. Drink water (eight 8-ounce glasses is ideal), diet soda, and low-fat milk. I encourage you to keep the booze in the cooler for the first 6 weeks of the plan, but if you drink, limit yourself to no more than two or three drinks a week.\n\n**Guideline 6: Go ahead, cheat**\n\nAmericans are rebels at heart\u2014inside each of us lies an inner James Dean or Mae West, an Ali or a Madonna, someone who wants to break the rules and make the world march to their own tune. Well, rebellion is built right into the Abs Diet.\n\nOn the Abs Diet, I want you to cheat\u2014with one whatever-you-want meal a week. That way, you can satisfy your cravings without derailing your commitment to the ABS DIET POWER 12. Of course, in the Abs Diet, there are enough great variations that you'll probably lose the urge for wings, Oreos, or Oreo-flavored wings pretty quickly. In fact, many people who've used the Abs Diet reported that they didn't even feel the urge to cheat, but they loved the fact that they had it as an option.\n\nNow, if you're going to cheat on me, I want you to do it conscientiously. When considering an adulterous encounter with an unhealthy food bear in mind the following:\n\n  Plan it. If you schedule your cheat meal, you'll be less likely to eat on impulse at other times during the week. Make it every Friday, when you meet the gang from work for beer and potato skins. Or every Sunday, when you treat yourself to cake and ice cream while watching Mike Wallace mysteriously not age.\n\n  Really, do it. While you don't have to cheat, it may help you in the long run. Researchers at the National Institutes of Health found that men who ate twice as many calories in a day as normal increased their metabolism by 9 percent in the 24-hour period that followed.\n\n  Stick to one a week. The cheat meal is like walking on a cliffside trail. It's entirely safe\u2014unless you step over the line. You need to view the cheat meal as satisfaction instead of temptation and remain focused on your weight-loss goals. You'll be better off for it.\n\n### **ABS DIET SUCCESS STORY**\n\n## **THE ABS DIET HEALS A BAD BACK**\n\n**Name:** Kyle Snay\n\n**Age:** 36\n\n**Height:** 6\u20325\u2033\n\n**Weight, Week 1:** 227\n\n**Weight, Week 6:** 205\n\n**Weight, Week 9:** 199\n\nKyle Snay knew he needed to get back into shape\u2014fast. Motivation to get in shape came in droves.\n\nReason 1: His dad. Several years earlier, Snay had made plans to visit his father\u2014whom he didn't know well because his parents had been divorced. But 6 months before Snay was to make his pilgrimage, his dad dropped dead of a heart attack. That's when it hit Snay that his health was something he needed better control of.\n\nReason 2: His kids. \"I was a walking Twinkie for years,\" Snay says. \"When my wife was pregnant with our second child, I said that I really needed to do something to get back in shape at least for my family. I was trying to keep up with our 2 year old, and it was exhausting.\"\n\nReason 3: His back. Snay, who's had a herniated disc for 10 years, says, \"My big flare-up came when I was bending down to pick up a Doritos chip.\" After years of twinges, spasms, and pain that laid him up for a couple days at a time, he was told by doctors his choices were surgery or physical therapy. Snay chose neither. He chose the Abs Diet.\n\nAfter deciding he was going to lose weight, Snay went searching for something hassle-free. \"I didn't want to count calories, or carbs, or fat. I read about the Abs Diet in _Men's Health_ and noticed results immediately.\"\n\nBefore, Snay never paid attention to what he ate: His staple foods included ice cream and \"Oreo soup\"\u2014a whole bunch of Oreos in a full bowl of milk. He immediately changed his diet and saw the pounds peel away. Plus, he got a bonus out of it: a better back. \"Since I started, I haven't had a twinge, a spasm, or anything\u2014nothing. My back is completely fine,\" he says. \"It's just unreal. That was a huge plus that I wasn't even expecting.\"\n\nSnay says he really stuck to the principles but appreciates the diet's flexibility. Eating six times a day, he says, makes you feel like you're never really \"on a diet.\"\n\nNow, almost 30 pounds lighter, Snay retrained his metabolism\u2014so much so that he lost his last 5 pounds even when he had to take a week off of exercise and sneak in a few extra cheat meals because he was away at a business conference. He also invents his own recipes following the ABS DIET POWER 12. \"I know people who are still trying to do Atkins, and they just pour meat down their stomach. In a couple of weeks, they're still walking around like a bowl of pudding because they're not doing any exercising, and they're taking too many shortcuts,\" he says.\n\n\"I can't ever see myself going back to who I was before,\" Snay says. \"I just can't wait until it gets warm again. I'm going to go out and wash my car\u2014with my shirt off for the first time in years. I'll even stay out there longer and wash my neighbor's car, too.\"\nChapter 4\n\n# **SHOP 'TIL YOU DROP (POUNDS)**\n\n# The Complete Abs Diet Grocery List\n\n**A S FAR AS I'M CONCERNED,** every time someone walks into a supermarket, they should play \"Welcome to the Jungle\" over the loudspeaker. Supermarkets are one of the most confusing and mind-numbing places on earth, right up there with the Balkans and your local DMV. Supermarkets have one goal: to sell you more calories than you actually came in to buy. The easiest foods to find are usually the worst for you (a special on doughnuts!), and in the checkout lane, eight rows of candy taunt you like the hecklers at a Knicks game. There's a reason why they're called supermarkets, you know; they're super marketers.\n\nSo next time you go food shopping, you should notice things, like . . . the cracker aisle never moves. Sure, the junk\u2014and it usually is junk\u2014on each aisle's end cap may shift, but the basic layout never changes. You can use this to your advantage. Make a list before you go. Be specific; instead of writing \"snacks\" and winding up with the entire Dolly Madison collection in your cart, write \"yogurt\" or \"sliced almonds.\" This way, you'll be able to make tactical strikes; quickly buy exactly what you need instead of the crap they're trying to foist off on you. Here's your guide to sneaking past the schlock and marching down the aisle in style.\n\n### **Produce: Work the Greens**\n\nMost produce is just as nutritious frozen as it is fresh, so be judicious. If you use it up slowly, pack your freezer. If you burn through greens like Vijay Singh, stick with fresh (taste and texture will be better).\n\n**Fresh strawberries and blueberries:** Don't think you'll finish them in 3 to 5 days? Buy frozen instead.\n\n**Bananas:** Avoid too-green ones. They'll add a strange tang to a smoothie.\n\n**Green onions:** Green onions are much easier to use than whole onions for small meals. Just chop the tops and toss the bulb\u2014no half-cut-up, plastic-wrapped onions stinking up your fridge.\n\n**Bagged baby spinach leaves:** Peer through the bottom of the bag. If you see any mush, choose another one.\n\n**Broccoli:** Look for tights buds or florets; they indicate a fresher find.\n\n**Cucumbers:** Choose English cucumbers. They're longer and thinner than ordinary ones and usually come wrapped individually in plastic. Buy them for the convenience factor; they have hardly any seeds.\n\n**Peppers:** Avoid peppers with wrinkled skin; it means they're starting to age.\n\n**Tomatoes:** When possible, buy vine-ripened over hot-house. You don't have to be a gourmand to notice the improvement in taste and texture.\n\n**Lemons:** Pick fruits that feel heavy; it means they have more juice.\n\n**Mixed-green salad blend:** The more colors, the more antioxidants. Look for one with red radicchio, pale green endive, and dark-green spinach.\n\n**Avocados:** The blacker, the better. Too green and they won't be ripe enough to eat.\n\n**Fresh cilantro:** Tear off a leaf and taste it to make sure you're buying cilantro and not flat-leaf parsley. Unless you don't like cilantro. In that case, buy flat-leaf parsley and use it instead.\n\n**Nuts:** Buy unroasted and unsalted loose nuts by the pound so you're not getting more sodium than you bargain for.\n\n### **Meat: Your Muscle Maker**\n\nWhile turkey is a top-shelf Powerfood, that doesn't mean other meats are off-limits. The key is getting the leanest protein for the least amount of saturated fat. Turkey does the job exceptionally well, but only if you buy breast meat. Mixed ground turkey, usually made from dark meat, can contain as much saturated fat as beef.\n\n**Fresh salmon:** Ask for wild-caught salmon; it has fewer chemicals.\n\n**Fresh turkey or chicken cutlets:** Check the label for sodium; some raw meats are plumped with a sodium solution\u2014added salt you don't need. Look for one that contains less than 10 percent broth solution.\n\n**Ground turkey:** If it's not made from ground turkey breast, it could have as much fat as beef.\n\n**Precooked chicken strips:** Try Perdue Short Cuts. No painted-on grill stripes or strange chicken-from-concentrate texture.\n\n**Deli slices:** Healthy Choice turkey or ham have next-to-nothing fat. For a little less sodium, chose plain or honey-roasted over smoked flavors.\n\n**Smoked salmon:** This is a high-sodium food, courtesy of the smoking. Pick the one with the lowest levels.\n\n**Canadian bacon:** Buy the thin-sliced varieties; a smaller piece will help you keep the sodium tab down.\n\n**Flank steak:** Pick the one with the bluest tinge. That means it's aged enough for extra flavor, but it's not too old.\n\n**Lean ground beef:** You want 95 percent lean; it's the one with the least amount of saturated fat.\n\n**Pork loin cuts:** Get the thin ones; they cook in half the time.\n\n### **Dairy: The Great White Help**\n\nDairy products play a key role in the Abs Diet\u2014as snacks, drinks, and as important ingredients in smoothies. They're your greatest source of calcium\u2014the mineral more and more studies point to as a key weight-loss ingredient\u2014and pack a potent protein punch as well. Think of the dairy section as fat-loss central. If you play the percentages.\n\n**Low-fat milk:** Horizon Organic. Cow antibiotics are for sick cows. Go organic.\n\n**Chocolate milk:** Choose Horizon Organic Reduced-Fat in stow-and-go boxes. They don't require refrigeration, so you can take a healthy source of calcium and protein with you anywhere.\n\n**Eggs:** Eggland's Best omega-3 fortified eggs provide an extra shot of heart-healthy omega-3 fatty acids.\n\n**Reduced-fat yogurt:** Stonyfield Farm 100 Percent organic has just-right creamy texture.\n\n**Shredded cheeses:** Sargento Reduced Fat shredded cheese blends offers the best taste for the least fat. Plus, they melt evenly, unlike most other reduced-fat cheese.\n\n**Part-skim ricotta cheese:** Get the big tub. It doesn't expire quickly, and you'll finish it long before it threatens to go bad. Ricotta is a great natural source of whey protein, one of nature's premium muscle-builders.\n\n**String cheese:** Sorrento Stringsters has 8 grams of muscle-building protein per stick, plus more calcium than other brands.\n\n**Cottage cheese:** Cottage cheese is a stealth-sodium food; choose Friendship All-Natural Low-Fat No Salt Added and save the salt for something else.\n\n**Pudding cups:** Swiss Miss. Ordinarily, you should watch out for added sugar. But no-sugar-added pudding is just nasty. This one only has 25 grams of sugary carbs, which won't kill you or blow the diet. As long as you just eat one. Occasionally.\n\n**Back-up smoothie:** Stonyfield Farm has no high-fructose corn syrup, which can't be said for many other bottled smoothies.\n\n## **THE BEST PREPARED FOOD YOU CAN BUY. PERIOD.**\n\nRotisserie chicken is an amazing thing. Not only does it look impressive, but it's an incredibly smart buy, both for the diet- and budget-conscious. First, always purchase a plain one; you're going to pick the skin off anyway, since that's where most of the fat hides. A breast and a leg will make a fine meal (check out the nutrition numbers below). Use the meat that's left to make a chicken salad or stuff it into a quesadilla. And then, toss the entire carcass into a stockpot full of water with chopped vegetables and spices of your choice, simmer for a couple of hours, and you'll wind up with the best chicken soup you've ever eaten. (Just fish out the bones before digging in.)\n\n**3 ounces breast meat (without skin)**\n\n**120 calories, 1.5 g fat (0.5 g saturated), 65 mg sodium**\n\n**3 ounces dark meat (without skin)**\n\n**130 calories, 4 g fat (1 g saturated), 80 mg sodium**\n\n### **Canned Foods: What's in Storage**\n\nCanned foods last will outlast your grandchildren, which is why they're used for currency in so many postapocalypse movies. Just watch out for sodium, the main preservative.\n\n**Tuna:** Star Kist Premium Chunk White Albacore Tuna in Water. Water cuts the fat. But the no-draining-needed bag seals the deal.\n\n**Salmon:** Tulip brand has more fat than others, but it also tastes like salmon and not canned tuna.\n\n**Garbanzos, black beans, kidney beans:** You can't go wrong. But before you cook with them, always rinse off the salty solution they soak in.\n\n**Chicken broth:** Swanson Fat-Free Reduced Sodium tastes like the chicken, not like the can it came in.\n\n**Marinara:** Muir Glen Italian Herb is preseasoned, so you don't have to spice it up. And it's not loaded with high-fructose corn syrup like other varieties.\n\n**Canned tomatoes:** Del Monte Diced Tomatoes, No Salt Added is low sodium and, unlike other brands, contains no high-fructose corn syrup.\n\n**Peaches:** Buy Dole sliced peaches, simply because they come in a resealable plastic jar. No fooling with a can opener or Tupperware.\n\n**Pumpkin:** Buy the in-store brand. Since you're just going to dump it in a smoothie anyway, might as well save a few cents.\n\n### **Sauces: Topping the List**\n\nNormally, sauces are like one-night stands. You enjoy them in the moment, but you feel pretty guilty afterwards. But I've uncovered some choice selections that might just make you interested in a lifelong commitment.\n\n**Olive oil:** Choose extra virgin, which means the goods haven't been damaged by mixing with other oils.\n\n**Balsamic or red wine vinegar:** There's no need to buy super-pricey vinegars shipped over from some forgotten enclave of the Mediterranean. Alessi is a quality, reasonably priced brand.\n\n**Soy sauce:** At 560 milligrams of sodium per tablespoon, La Choy Lite keeps you from getting buried in a salt mine.\n\n**Hot sauce:** Chohula is plenty potent, but it's not laced with extra sodium like many brands.\n\n**Peanut butter:** Crazy Richard's Natural tastes exactly like roast peanuts. Not surprising, since peanuts\u2014and a touch of salt\u2014are its only ingredients.\n\n**Salsa:** Walnut Acres Black Bean and Corn. Black beans provide a small protein boost, and corn contributes the antioxidant zeaxanthin.\n\n**Hummus:** Asmar's Roasted Pepper. The peppers give you a little extra flavor to go with the 3 grams of protein.\n\n**Mustard:** To me, deli-style mustards have more flavor than the sharp yellow kinds. Among them, Silver Springs Deli Style Horseradish has a nice extra kick, but barely any sodium (70 milligrams).\n\n## **THE LOW-FAT BUZZWORDS**\n\nRemember, food labeling isn't about education, it's about marketing. Labels can be confusing, misleading, and damaging if you don't know what you're getting into, especially when you're trying to figure out fat content. Here are some common phrases you'll see on food labels, and a look at what, exactly, they mean.\n\n**Regular:** Greater than 3 grams of fat per serving\n\n**Reduced fat:** 25 percent less fat than regular\n\n**Light or lite:** One-third fewer calories or 50 percent less fat than regular\n\n**Low fat:** No more than 3 grams of fat per serving\n\n**Nonfat or fat-free:** Less than 0.5 gram of fat per serving\n\n### **The Freezer: Cold Comfort**\n\nShop here last and you'll likely make it home with your ice cream intact. \"Ice cream?\" you say. Right. This plan is designed for human beings rather than robots.\n\n**Fish:** Gorton's Cajun Blackened Grilled Fillets are already spiced but not too salty.\n\n**Shrimp:** Since shrimp can be expensive, just pick the least expensive one. There's no real difference.\n\n**Waffles:** Van's Gourmet Flax Waffles have slightly sweet whole-wheat flavor along with 1.6 grams of heart-healthy omega-3 fatty acids.\n\n**Berries and fruit:** Choose Cascadian Farms organic. If you're buying frozen, it pays to go organic. Because they're delicate, berries and fruit often top the lists of high-pesticide produce.\n\n**Edamame:** Make things easy for yourself and buy the already-shelled kind.\n\n**Ice cream:** Edy's Grand Light is the hands-down best light ice cream on the market. It's sweet and creamy and has two-thirds less saturated fat than regular.\n\n**Condensed juice:** Go with Minute Maid. Off brands may have extra sweeteners.\n\n## **LOOK! DOWN THERE! IT'S A BARGAIN!**\n\nMore expensive items are typically found at eye level\u2014right where you'll see them and sweep them into the cart without thinking. Look down, though, and you'll likely find a lower-priced version of the same thing.\n\n**Frozen Dinners**\n\nFrozen dinners can fit into nearly any diet for one reason: They're perfectly portion-controlled. (Well, except for the aptly named Hungry Man XXL, a size designation you're trying to avoid anyway.) In a study at the University of Illinois, people who regularly ate dinners from the freezer section lost 31 percent more weight than their free-eating counterparts. Plus, many of these meals include a respectable amount of fiber. And the 10 frozen dinners in this section in particular balance reasonable amounts of saturated fat with not-too-high sodium (a hidden danger of the freezer aisle).\n\n**Ethnic Gourmet:**\n\n_Chicken Pad Thai_\n\n430 calories, 20 g protein, 71 g carbohydrate, 8 g fat (1.5 g saturated), 3 g fiber, 880 mg sodium\n\n**Healthy Choice:**\n\n_Grilled Chicken Marinara_\n\n270 calories, 22 g protein, 35 g carbohydrate, 4.5 g fat (1.5 g saturated), 5 g fiber, 580 mg sodium\n\n_Grilled Turkey Breast_\n\n250 calories, 18 g protein, 31 g carbohydrate, 5 g fat (2 g saturated), 5 g fiber, 600 mg sodium\n\n_Grilled Steak in Roasted_\n\n_Garlic Sauce_\n\n220 calories, 16 g protein, 22 g carbohydrate, 7 g fat (2.5 g saturated), 5 g fiber, 600 mg sodium\n\n**Lean Cuisine:**\n\n_Chicken & Vegetables_\n\n240 calories, 19 g protein, 30 g carbohydrate, 5 g fat (2 g saturated), 2 g fiber, 630 mg sodium\n\n_Skillet Sensations Herb Chicken_\n\n250 calories, 15 g protein, 38 g carbohydrate, 4 g fat (1 g saturated), 4 g fiber, 890 mg sodium\n\n_Roasted Turkey Breast_\n\n270 calories, 12 g protein, 51 g carbohydrate, 2.5 g fat (.5 g saturated), 3 g fiber, 690 mg sodium\n\n**Smart Ones:**\n\n_Beef Pot Roast_\n\n170 calories, 21 g protein, 10 g carbohydrate, 5 g fat (1.5 g saturated), 2 g fiber, 660 mg sodium\n\n_Stuffed Turkey Breast_\n\n270 calories, 13 g protein, 37 g carbohydrate, 7 g fat (2 g saturated), 5 g fiber, 720 mg sodium\n\n**Stouffer's:**\n\n_Steak Teriyaki Skillet Sensations_\n\n190 calories, 11 g protein, 29 g carbohydrate, 3 g fat (1.5 g saturated), 4 g fiber, 950 mg sodium\n\n## **LABELING LESSON**\n\nAny food label is like a store window. The front of it is designed to draw you in, and then once you're inside, you can figure out whether the product is worth it. With a food label, once you get past the pretty colors and the coquettish cartoon mermaid, you need to flip the can over and inspect the label. Here's what to look for.\n\n**Serving size:** How much you consume. A common trick is for something that appears to be one serving (a bottled drink) to actually be two or more. Don't be fooled.\n\n**Calories:** The measure of energy a food provides. Calories mean different things depending on what you eat, but in the end, extra calories that your body can't burn will get stored as fat.\n\n**Calories from fat:** Multiply that number by 3. If that number is close to the total calories, it could mean trouble.\n\n**% Daily value:** It's the percentage of the daily intake that the food supplies, based on a 2,000-calorie-a-day diet. A usually useless number.\n\n**Total fat:** It's the combined total of saturated, polyunsaturated, monoun-saturated, and trans fats. Look for a ratio that's at least 3 to 1, total to saturated. If monos and polys are listed, it's probably a healthy food. If it's more than 33 percent saturated or trans fat, consider another alternative.\n\n**Cholesterol:** It's a fatlike substance from animals. Your body manufactures most of your cholesterol; what food adds is only a small percentage. Don't worry about it and don't get drawn in by otherwise unhealthy foods that claim \"no cholesterol.\" As a nutritional selling point, it's worthless.\n\n**Sodium:** A mineral (salt, basically) added for flavor and to preserve foods. Unless you have high blood pressure or are sodium sensitive, use 2,000 milligrams as a reasonable daily target. More than that will not only raise your risk of hypertension, it will also make you retain water and look and feel heavier.\n\n**Total carbohydrate:** This includes all of the sugar, starch, and fiber. Total number isn't as important as the kind.\n\n**Dietary fiber:** The roughage that cleans your digestive and circulatory system. Insoluble fiber (in whole-grain foods, nuts, and beans) expands and takes up space in your belly, so it makes you feel full. Soluble fiber (in fruit and oats) keeps blood vessels lubed so cholesterol won't stick. Almost any food with at least 2 grams of fiber is good. Five is even better.\n\n**Protein:** Amino acids that build and maintain your entire body. It helps you feel satisfied. Men who exercise should shoot for 162 to 225 grams per day\u2014and women around 100. Thinner men need no more than 114 grams. Thinner women around 75.\n\n**Vitamin and mineral percentages:** The food's percentage of the minimum amounts of nutrients required to prevent various deficiency diseases. As long as you're eating the ABS DIET POWER 12, you should be getting all the vitamins and minerals you need, but it never hurts to take a daily multivitamin for extra insurance.\n\n**Ingredients:** Arranged in order by weight from most to least. Bad foods like high-fructose corn syrup and partially hydrogenated oils should be the fifth ingredient listed or lower. If not, move on.\n\n### **Bakery\/Grains: The Incredible Bulk**\n\nFiber is crucial to weight loss, and the best place to find it is in whole-grain baked goods. If the first ingredient isn't \"whole grain\" or \"whole wheat,\" keep looking.\n\n**Whole-wheat bread:** Pepperidge Farm or Milton's both offer a variety of high-fiber whole-wheat breads.\n\n**Tortillas:** MexAmerican or Tumaro Honey Wheat are flexible enough for a wrap, yet sturdy enough for a quesadilla. Bonus fiber, too.\n\n**Pitas:** Sahara Whole Wheat offers more fiber\u20145 grams\u2014than other brands.\n\n**English muffins:** Thomas' Whole-Wheat have a gram more fiber than the white-bread kinds.\n\n**Brown rice:** Kraft Minute Rice Instant Whole-Grain Brown is ready in less than 10 minutes.\n\n**Pasta:** De Cecco Whole Wheat is high in fiber, and this brand cooks well. It's not too tough or chewy.\n\n**Cereal:** Here's your best chance for fiber. My favorites include: Nature's Path Optimum (10 grams) and Kellogg's Complete Wheat Bran Flakes (5 grams).\n\n**Oats:** If your need is speed, choose Quick Quaker Oats. They cook in 1 minute and deliver 4 grams of fiber per half cup. If you have a little more time, buy Arrowhead Mills Steel Cut Oats. They take 7 to 9 minutes in the microwave, but they pack a potent 16 grams of fiber per half cup.\n\n### **Baking: Piece of Cake**\n\nYou'll have to navigate past the muffin mix and cake icing to find some important ingredients. Just grab your nuts and get outta there fast.\n\n**Nuts:** Choose sliced almonds, chopped pecans, crushed walnuts\u2014anything that'll slip into a bowl of oatmeal or smoothie and help save you time on the chopping block.\n\n**Honey:** Buy the in-store brand. You'll use only small amounts, so there's no point in buying the super-expensive ones.\n\n**Spices:** Here's another case where value rules. Despite what the label says, they'll last for ages, not just a couple of months. Get the cheap ones. You'll need basil, powdered ginger, cinnamon, cumin, and paprika.\n\n### **Cookies and Candies: No-Sweat Sweets**\n\nSpend too much time here and you'll get fatter just thinking about all the sugar, HFCS, and lard that are lurking in these products. You'll have plenty of opportunity to satisfy sweet cravings\u2014especially with smoothies that taste like shakes. But slip down this aisle for a few necessities.\n\n**Candy bars:** Pick up York Peppermint Patties and Snickers in the bite-sized bags. The key part is bite-sized. Enjoying one or two after dinner is a pleasure no one should be deprived of, diet or not. You just have to supply the willpower to keep it at one or two.\n\n**Crackers:** Triscuit Reduced Fat and Ryvita Crispbread are the best whole-wheat crackers for fiber at 3 grams per serving.\n\n**Cookies:** Fig bars\u2014they're sweet and satisfying, thanks to the fiber. Fig Newtons have 1 gram of fiber per 2-cookie serving; Bakery Barbara's Whole-Wheat Fig Bars have 1 gram per cookie.\n\n### **Drinks: Liquid assets**\n\nLoading up on soda or fruit juice is like reverse liposuction; it's pouring calories that'll be stored as fat back into your body. There's only one drink of choice, but you can spruce it up with a slice of lemon or lime.\n\n**Bottled water:** Buy an entire case. That way, you can't ignore it. Take a bottle everywhere.\n\n## **FAT CONTENT OF MEAT (4 OUNCES, RAW, WITHOUT SKIN OR BONE)**\n\n| **TOTAL (G)** | **SATURATED (G)**  \n---|---|---  \n**Skinless chicken breast** | 1.41 | 0.37  \n**Veal steak** | 2.45 | 0.74  \n**Wild rabbit** | 2.63 | 0.78  \n**Lean ground beef** | 4 | 1.50  \n**Cured ham** | 4.68 | 1.56  \n**Wild duck breast** | 4.82 | 1.50  \n**Chicken drumstick** | 5.05 | 1.34  \n**Lean pork tenderloin** | 5.06 | 1.79  \n**Beef sirloin steak** | 5.15 | 2  \n**Beefalo** | 5.44 | 2.31  \n**Turkey leg** | 7.62 | 2.34  \n**Turkey breast** | 7.96 | 2.17  \n**Lean beef tenderloin** | 8.02 | 3  \n**Lean pork chop** | 8.19 | 2.85  \n**Porterhouse steak** | 8.58 | 3  \n**Lean ground turkey** | 9.37 | 2.55  \n**Veal breast meat** | 9.73 | 3.80  \n**Rib-eye steak** | 18.03 | 7.30  \n**T-bone steak** | 19.63 | 7.69  \n**Ham** | 21.40 | 7.42  \n**Pork belly** | 60.11 | 21.92  \n**Cured pork** | 91.29 | 33.32\n\n### **Health food: Alternative routes**\n\nMost foods in the health food aisle or store taste like the box your computer came in\u2014only worse. (Rice cakes? No thanks.) But there are some great finds lurking in the aisles, and you don't have to be a dietary masochist or an unreformed hippie to shop for them.\n\n**Flaxseed:** Try Barleans's Forti-Flax. Buying your flax pre-ground saves time. And this one comes in a 16-ounce container that'll last for months. Look for it in the refrigerated section.\n\n**Whey protein:** Look for protein powder that also includes casein, another dairy-based muscle builder.\n\n### **Prepared Grocery-Store Foods**\n\nRemember when you were a kid, and all you had to do to score a heaping plateful of meat loaf and green beans was show up at the dinner table? The expanded deli sections of most upmarket grocery stores operate on the same principle. They cook it; you eat it. But this section of the grocery store is as littered with nutritional land mines as the rest (yeah, I mean you, crab cake). Here's how to chart a healthy path.\n\n### **Heat-and-Eat Entr\u00e9es**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENT:**\n\n_Asian pan-seared salmon_ 250 calories, 12 g fat (1.5 g saturated), 350 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Homestyle meat loaf_ 230 calories, 11 g fat (4.5 g saturated), 470 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Crab cake_ 500 calories, 32 g fat (5 g saturated), 990 mg sodium\n\n### **Heat-and-Eat Vegetables**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENT:**\n\n_Asian-style bok choy_ 15 calories, 0 g fat, 190 mg sodium\n\n_Roasted asparagus and leeks_ 30 calories, 0 g fat, 130 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Pesto vegetables_ 70 calories, 3 g fat (0 g saturated), 190 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Creamed spinach_ 90 calories, 4.5 g fat (2.5 g saturated), 460 mg sodium\n\n### **Cold Sides**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENT:**\n\n_Roasted corn salad_ 140 calories, 8 g fat (0.5 g saturated), 390 mg sodium\n\n_Bean salad_ 150 calories, 9 g fat (0 g saturated), 390 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Orzo with vegetables_ 180 calories, 10 g fat (0.5 g saturated), 570 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Tortellini salad_ 300 calories, 26 g fat (1 g saturated), 660 mg sodium\n\n### **ABS DIET SUCCESS STORY**\n\n## **\"IT DOESN'T EVEN FEEL LIKE A DIET\"**\n\n**Name:** Jon Armond\n\n**Height:** 6\u20324\u2033\n\n**Age:** 33\n\n**Weight, Week 1:** 254\n\n**Weight, Week 6:** 229\n\n**Weight, Week 9:** 219\n\n**Body-Fat Percentage, Week 1:** 27\n\n**Body-Fat Percentage, Week 9:** 18\n\nJon Armond's a big guy, and he's always carried his weight well. When he told people he was trying to lose weight, they told him he didn't need to. But Armond knew better. Carrying more than 250 pounds around everywhere he went was taking a serious toll on his body, and he knew he needed to drop some serious pounds.\n\nEven though he was active, Armond was one of those guys who rationalized that he could eat whatever he wanted because he had exercised.\n\nBut the fact was that he ate and drank too much, and he was always tired. (He frequently took naps in the middle of the day).\n\n\"I just didn't feel like I was 33,\" he says. \"I felt like I was 53.\" Then he found the Abs Diet.\n\n\"When I looked in _Men's Health_ and looked at the way the Abs Diet was set up, something clicked. This made perfect sense,\" he says. \"I knew I'd lose weight, but what I didn't expect was the total-body transformation\u2014to see the fat drop and the muscle gain at the same time. That's what I really appreciate about it.\"\n\nFor the first 6 weeks, Armond stuck to the principles without wavering, and he realized that it wasn't really a diet at all, but just a different approach to eating.\n\n\"I found myself not even consumed with it. I've never been on a diet that you didn't have to think about being on the diet all the time,\" he says. Instead, it was a plan that he simply incorporated into his life, and by doing so, he's traded in his \"huge beer gut.\"\n\n\"I've got some abs showing through now,\" Armond says. \"I was wearing size 38s, and I just bought 34s. I was wearing double-X shirts and now I'm wearing larges. I'm ready to go on the public-speaking circuit to talk about the Abs Diet.\"\n\n### **ABS DIET SUCCESS STORY**\n\n## **A FORMER A THLETE FINDS A BETTER BODY**\n\n**Name:** Mark Peterson\n\n**Age:** 25\n\n**Height:** 5\u20329\u2033\n\n**Weight, Week 1:** 187\n\n**Weight, Week 6:** 170\n\n**Weight, Week 12:** 164\n\nMark Peterson was a swimmer in high school and competed in triathlons. But then all that eating during college and law school hit him.\n\n\"Law school is the most unhealthy thing I've ever done in my life,\" he says. \"I was looking for something to get me back in shape.\"\n\nHe decided to train for the Chicago marathon and found a diet to support his training.\n\n\"The Abs Diet gave you a lot of different foods that you could have,\" he says. \"It just seemed like a diet you could totally stick to.\"\n\nHe lived on almonds as a snack, spinach salad as lunch, peanut butter on whole-wheat toast before his workout, and made chicken or fish for dinner. \"I didn't like oatmeal, so I substituted Kashi and Go Lean cereals.\"\n\nIn the fall, Peterson completed the marathon, and friends who hadn't seen him for months noticed the transformation. \"They all said that it looked like I didn't need to lose weight and that I was crazy, but it's totally different when they see me now. A lot of friends couldn't believe the weight I lost.\"\n\nNow that marathon training is over, he has another goal in mind. \"I swam like crazy in high school, and I focused a lot on running, but I've never been close to a six-pack,\" he says. \"This is the closest I've ever been.\"\nChapter 5\n\n# **LET'S GET IT STARTED**\n\n# 25 Abs Diet Breakfasts\n\n**B EFORE WORK,** there's a lot to do\u2014take a shower, check the weather, dress the kids, glance at the stocks and scores, brush your teeth, zip the pants. In that routine, there's not much you can sacrifice\u2014unless you want go to work in your skivvies. So many of us end up treating breakfast like it's a luxury\u2014something that we do only if we have time or if there's a stale Pop-Tart on the floor mats. But sacrificing breakfast is like arguing with the cops; there's absolutely nothing good that can come out of it. Without breakfast, you're operating on reserves, putting your body in a pseudostarvation mode that tells your body's metabolism to slow down to protect you. What you need to do is eat\u2014and eat heartily. Since I know you've apportioned about as much time to make breakfast as you have to slide on your socks, I've whipped up some recipes you can zip through faster than those artery-clogged lines at the drive-through.\n\nSo fire 'em up and start the day strong. What you eat the first hour you're awake will have a huge effect on what you eat for the next 16 or 17. I'm a firm believer that if every day of good eating is a race, then how well you start determines how well you finish.\n\n## **Quicker Oats**\n\n**USE PLAIN INSTANT OATMEAL** for the following recipes. Nothing personal, Quaker guy, but those powdery sugared packets are as antiquated as that hat. For each recipe, mix all ingredients in a microwave-safe bowl and nuke for 2 minutes, unless otherwise noted. All serve 1.\n\n### **Honey, I Shrunk My Gut (Powerfoods: 5)**\n\n1 cup 1% milk\n\n\u00be cup plain instant oatmeal\n\n\u00bd cup blue- or blackberries\n\n1 tablespoon chopped walnuts or pecans 1 teaspoon honey 1 teaspoon ground flaxseed\n\nDash of cinnamon\n\n_Per serving: 459 calories, 19 g protein, 70 g carbohydrates, 9 g fat (2 g saturated), 9 g fiber, 132 mg sodium_\n\n### **Flax Machine (Powerfoods: 4)**\n\n1 cup 1% milk\n\n\u00be cup plain instant oatmeal\n\n\u00bd banana, sliced\n\n1 tablespoon peanut butter\n\n1 teaspoon honey\n\n1 teaspoon ground flaxseed\n\nDash of brown sugar\n\n_Per serving: 515 calories, 22 g protein, 75 g carbohydrates, 13 g fat (3 g saturated), 9 g fiber, 172 mg sodium_\n\n### **You're Nuts (Powerfoods: 5)**\n\n1 cup 1% milk\n\n\u00be cup plain instant oatmeal\n\n1 tablespoon chopped pecans\n\n1 tablespoon chopped walnuts\n\n1\u00bd teaspoon honey\n\n1 teaspoon ground flaxseed\n\n1\u20448 teaspoon cinnamon\n\n_Per serving: 480 calories, 20 g protein, 63 g carbohydrates, 14 g fat (3 g saturated), 8 g fiber, 132 mg sodium_\n\n### **Ginger? Roger! (Powerfoods: 5)**\n\n1 cup 1% milk\n\n\u00be cup plain instant oatmeal\n\n1 tablespoon sliced almonds\n\n1 teaspoon honey\n\n1 teaspoon ground flaxseed\n\n\u00bd teaspoon powdered ginger\n\n1 tablespoon vanilla yogurt\n\n_Mix milk, oats, almonds, honey, flaxseed, and ginger in a microwave-safe bowl. Nuke for 2 minutes. Top with yogurt._\n\n_Per serving: 420 calories, 20 g protein, 62 g carbohydrates, 7 g fat (2 g saturated), 7 g fiber, 142 mg sodium_\n\n## **Instant Omelets**\n\nAt a diner, an omelet is just code for \"throw the leftovers in a pan with some eggs.\" At home, they're a quick source of protein\u2014and a chance to boost your Powerfood count with one pan only. For all recipes, stir 2 eggs with a fork until white and yolk are well blended. Add the remaining ingredients. Nuke for 2 minutes and 30 seconds or until the eggs are firmly set. All serve 1.\n\n### **Tom Tomelet (Powerfoods: 3)**\n\n2 eggs\n\n1 slice turkey, diced\n\n1 tablespoon shredded reduced-fat Mexican cheese blend\n\n_Per serving: 237 calories, 16 g protein, 3 g carbohydrates, 18 g fat (7 g saturated), 0 g fiber, 374 mg sodium_\n\n### **The Green and White (Powerfoods: 3)**\n\n2 eggs\n\n1 tablespoon shredded part-skim mozzarella cheese\n\n1\u20443 cup torn baby spinach leaves\n\n_Per serving: 221 calories, 15 g protein, 3 g carbohydrates, 16 g fat (6.5 g saturated),_ < _1 g fiber, 256 mg sodium_\n\n### **Lean Eggs and Ham (Powerfoods: 2)**\n\n2 eggs\n\n1 slice Canadian bacon, diced\n\n1 slice tomato, chopped\n\n_Per serving: 271 calories, 23 g protein, 4 g carbohydrates, 18 g fat (7 g saturated), 0 g fiber, 781 mg sodium_\n\n### **Bean Counter (Powerfoods: 2)**\n\n2 eggs\n\n2 tablespoons rinsed black beans\n\n1 teaspoon cilantro\n\n_After cooking, top with 1 tablespoon salsa._\n\n_Per serving: 230 calories, 15 g protein, 8 g carbohydrates, 15 g fat (6 g saturated), 1 g fiber, 361 mg sodium_\n\n### **Up in Smoke (Powerfoods: 3)**\n\n2 eggs\n\n1 ounce diced smoked salmon\n\n1\u20443 cup torn baby spinach leaves\n\n_Per serving: 236 calories, 18 g protein, 3 g carbohydrates, 16 g fat (6 g saturated), 0 g fiber, 790 mg sodium_\n\n### **The Mister Bean (Powerfoods: 4)**\n\n2 eggs\n\n1 slice turkey, diced\n\n1 tablespoon rinsed black or cannellini beans\n\n1 tablespoon shredded part-skim mozzarella cheese\n\n_Per serving: 240 calories, 17 g protein, 5 g carbohydrates, 17 g fat (7 g saturated),_ < _1 g fiber, 374 mg sodium_\n\n## **Breakfast Burritos**\n\nYou usually eat burritos for dinner, but a burrito is actually one of the easiest things you can make for breakfast. Just arrange all the ingredients on the tortilla, fold the ends, then neatly roll. For those recipes that call for nuked eggs, you can scramble them in 60 seconds. In a microwave-safe bowl, just stir the eggs with a fork until white and yolk are well blended and microwave for 1 minute per egg.\n\n### **Holy Guacamole! (Powerfoods: 5)**\n\n1 medium whole-wheat tortilla\n\n2 slices fat-free turkey deli slices\n\n2 nuked eggs\n\n\u00bd avocado, sliced\n\n2 tablespoon shredded reduced-fat Mexican-blend cheese\n\n_Per serving: 494 calories, 25 g protein, 31 g carbohydrates, 35 g fat (10 g saturated), 7 g fiber, 718 mg sodium_\n\n### **Yosemite Salmon (Powerfoods: 6)**\n\n2 tablespoons part-skim ricotta cheese\n\n1 medium whole-wheat tortilla\n\n1 ounce smoked salmon, torn into little pieces\n\n2 nuked eggs\n\n1 cup chopped baby spinach\n\n1 sliced green onion\n\n_Spread cheese on tortilla, then arrange remaining ingredients, fold ends in, and roll._\n\n_Per serving: 361 calories, 25 g protein, 26 g carbohydrates, 19 g fat (8 g saturated), 3 g fiber, 1026 mg sodium_\n\n### **Huevos Rancheros (Powerfoods: 4)**\n\n1 medium whole-wheat tortilla\n\n2 nuked eggs\n\n1 sliced green onion\n\n1 tablespoon diced cilantro\n\n2 tablespoons shredded reduced-fat Mexican-blend cheese\n\n2 tablespoons salsa\n\n_Per serving: 326 calories, 20 g protein, 25 g carbohydrates, 19 g fat (7 g saturated), 2 g fiber, 713 mg sodium_\n\n## **DAIRY DAIRY, QUITE CONTRARY**\n\nAt breakfast, put coffee in your milk instead of milk in your coffee. Fill your mug to the rim with fat-free milk first thing in the morning. Drink it down until all that's left is the amount you'd normally add to your coffee; then pour your java on top. You just took in 25 percent of the vitamin D you need every day and 30 percent of the calcium.\n\n## **Breakfast Sandwiches**\n\nOnce suitable only for the lunch box, today sandwiches might show up anywhere\u2014as fancy canap\u00e9s, as hearty dinner entr\u00e9es, as sexual fantasies. . . . Okay, let's not go there. Right now we're concentrating on breakfast, so let's take a look at some healthy choices you can serve up in the A.M. (Who you serve them to is your business.)\n\n### **Mex-illent Adventure (Powerfoods: 3)**\n\n1 tablespoons salsa\n\n1 toasted whole-wheat English muffin\n\n1 nuked egg\n\n1 teaspoon diced cilantro\n\n1 tablespoon shredded reduced-fat Mexican-blend cheese\n\n_Spread salsa on bottom half of muffin, top with egg, cilantro, and cheese. Toast in a toaster oven until cheese melts._\n\n_Per serving: 259 calories, 14 g protein, 29 g carbohydrates, 11 g fat (4 g saturated), 4 g fiber, 691 mg sodium_\n\n### **Foxy Lox (Powerfoods: 3)**\n\n2 tablespoons part-skim ricotta cheese\n\n1 toasted whole-wheat English muffin\n\n1 slice tomato\n\n1 ounce smoked salmon\n\n_Spread cheese over each muffin half, top with tomato and salmon._\n\n_Per serving: 214 calories, 15 g protein, 29 g carbohydrates, 5 g fat (2 g saturated), 5 g fiber, 1027 mg sodium_\n\n### **The Three-Country Breakfast (Powerfoods: 4)**\n\n1 nuked egg\n\n1 slice Canadian bacon\n\n1 slice tomato\n\n1 toasted whole-wheat English muffin\n\n1 tablespoon shredded reduced-fat Mexican cheese blend\n\n_Arrange egg, bacon, and tomato on one half of muffin. Top with cheese. Toast in a toaster oven until cheese melts._\n\n_Per serving: 326 calories, 24 g protein, 30 g carbohydrates, 13 g fat (5 g saturated), 5 g fiber, 1145 mg sodium_\n\n### **Apple Jacked (Powerfoods: 4)**\n\n1 toasted whole-wheat English muffin\n\n1 slice Canadian bacon\n\n2 slices apple\n\n2 tablespoons peanut butter\n\n_Per serving: 403 calories, 23 g protein, 38 g carbohydrates, 20 g fat (3.5 g saturated), 7 g fiber, 1069 mg sodium_\n\n### **Jam Session (Powerfoods: 3)**\n\n1 toasted whole-wheat English muffin\n\n2 tablespoons part-skim ricotta cheese\n\n1\u20443 cup slightly crushed blue-, black-, or raspberries (mash berries in small bowl with fork)\n\n_Per serving: 197 calories, 10 g protein, 33 g carbohydrates, 4 g fat (2 g saturated), 4 g fiber, 460 mg sodium_\n\n### **Wafflewich (Powerfoods: 3)**\n\n1 whole-wheat toaster waffle\n\n2 tablespoons peanut butter\n\n\u00bc cup slightly crushed blue-, black-, or raspberries\n\n_Prepare waffle according to package directions. Spread peanut butter on waffle. Cup waffle in half, add berries, then squeeze lightly. Think of it as a berry breakfast taco._\n\n_Per serving: 308 calories, 12 g protein, 24 g carbohydrates, 20 g fat (3.5 g saturated), 5 g fiber, 212 mg sodium_\n\n### **Turk before Work (Powerfoods: 3)**\n\n1 whole-wheat toaster waffle\n\n2 slices deli turkey\n\n2 slices apple\n\n_Prepare waffle according to package directions. Arrange turkey and apple on waffle, then fold lightly in half._\n\n_Per serving: 139 calories, 7 g protein, 18 g carbohydrates, 5 g fat (1.5 g saturated), 2 g fiber, 359 mg sodium_\n\n## **Turbocharged Yogurt**\n\nIn case you missed it (and I don't know how, since I've been jumping up and down and waving my arms about it for nearly 100 pages now), calcium is one of those ingredients that fortifies more than your skeleton. It seems to be a potent player in the weight-loss game. At breakfast, a cup of power-enhanced yogurt is the fastest power player since Mike Vick. For all, just mix the ingredients and eat.\n\n### **Bananarama (Powerfoods: 2)**\n\n1 cup vanilla yogurt\n\n1 banana, sliced\n\n1 tablespoon chopped walnuts\n\n_Per serving: 363 calories, 15 g protein, 62 g carbohydrates, 8 g fat (3 g saturated), 4 g fiber, 163 mg sodium_\n\n### **Berry Easy (Powerfoods: 3)**\n\n1 cup plain yogurt\n\n\u00bd cup mixed berries\n\n1 teaspoon ground flaxseed\n\n_Per serving: 204 calories, 14 g protein, 27 g carbohydrates, 5 g fat (2.5 g saturated), 4 g fiber, 173 mg sodium_\n\n### **The Rupert Pumpkin (Powerfoods: 2)**\n\n1 cup vanilla yogurt\n\n\u00bc cup canned pumpkin\n\n1 tablespoon chopped pecans\n\n_Per serving: 282 calories, 13 g protein, 40 g carbohydrates, 9 g fat (2.5 g saturated), 2.5 g fiber, 164 mg sodium_\n\n### **A Trip to the Peach (Powerfoods: 2)**\n\n1 cup vanilla yogurt\n\n1\u20443 cup frozen or canned peaches (drain the syrup)\n\n1 tablespoon sliced almonds\n\n_Per serving: 323 calories, 14 g protein, 55 g carbohydrates, 6 g fat (2 g saturated), 2 g fiber, 166 mg sodium_\n\n## **The Super Bowl of Breakfasts**\n\nEight power foods in one bowl? We haven't seen this many A-listers since Oscar night. Start mixing.\n\n### **The Ultimate Power Breakfast (Powerfoods:8)**\n\n1 egg\n\n1 cup 1% milk\n\n\u00be cup oatmeal\n\n\u00bd cup mixed berries\n\n1 tablespoon chopped pecans or sliced almonds\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla whey protein powder\n\n1 teaspoon ground flaxseed\n\n\u00bd banana, sliced\n\n1 tablespoon plain yogurt\n\n_In microwave-safe bowl, mix egg well, then add next 6 ingredients and nuke for 2 minutes. Remove, let cool for a minute or two. Top with sliced banana and yogurt._\n\n_Per serving: 587 calories, 30 g protein, 76 g carbohydrates, 15 g fat (5 g saturated), 13 g fiber, 254 mg sodium_\n\n### **ABS DIET SUCCESS STORY**\n\n## **HE LOST HIS POUNDS AND CURED HIS PAIN**\n\n**Name:** John Kelly\n\n**Age:** 40\n\n**Height:** 6\u20321\u2033\n\n**Weight, Week 1:** 215\n\n**Weight, Week 6:** 193\n\nWhen John Kelly was diagnosed with Barrett's disease\u2014a condition caused by chronic acid reflux that can lead to esophageal cancer\u2014he knew something had to change. He had a demanding job, three sons under the age of 9, and the stress of moving to a new house.\n\n\"It's hard to take care of yourself when there are so many other responsibilities that dominate your life,\" he says. Caught up in trying to be all things to all people, Kelly let his diet and exercise program slide, and, no surprise, he gained weight. \"I just thought that gaining weight and being tired were par for the course.\"\n\nBut what wasn't par for the course were the unexplained pains in his chest. The pain was building to the point where he'd feel nauseous three times a week, and it got so bad that he had to skip work sometimes. When his doctor diagnosed Barrett's disease, Kelly began searching for ways to change his lifestyle, and he found some in the Abs Diet.\n\nBecause of the limitations he had with his illness\u2014no fatty meats, spicy foods, or tomato sauce\u2014Kelly found that the Abs Diet worked for him.\n\n\"My condition meant no vices\u2014no alcohol or caffeine\u2014so the idea of a diet that featured daily smoothies was pretty appealing,\" Kelly says.\n\nWithin weeks, the fat began to melt, and the muscles appeared. But it wasn't just the fat\u2014or the fact that his energy levels had increased. Kelly wasn't feeling sick anymore\u2014and hasn't experienced any symptoms since starting the diet.\n\n\"The Abs Diet helped me return to a more normal life on so many levels that the weight loss and fitness gain are just the icing on the cake,\" Kelly says. \"Being able to contribute at my job and participate in my boys' lives more actively are blessings that I could have never imagined could come from a diet.\"\nChapter 6\n\n# **LEAN IN THE MIDDLE**\n\n# 25 Abs Diet Lunches\n\n**D EPENDING ON WHAT** you do during the day, lunch can often present you with the opportunity to blow your diet like a tropical storm through the Florida Keys. Lunch comes at the very time of day when forces outside of our control are vying for our time. If your job is demanding, lunch sometimes means you have 3 minutes to pop the crackers out of the machine and get back to your desk. If you work with the get-some-fresh-air types, you're on the road at 12 and ordering a burger and beer by 12:06. If you need to have fancy business lunches, you're susceptible to the onslaught of free bread, creamy sauces, and four-story desserts. If you're home with the kids, you're one temper tantrum away from a macaroni-and-cheese binge.\n\nThat's why I suggest that if there's one meal that you should plan every day, it's lunch. Preparing for it makes you less likely to fall victim to any one of the diet busters waiting to pounce. It doesn't matter whether you make your lunch the night before, in the morning, or 3 minutes before you're going to eat it. The point is: Preparation breeds motivation.\n\n## **Wraps**\n\nThe trend toward sandwich wraps over the past few years has made eating a healthy lunch easier than ever before. An easy-access tortilla cuts down on empty calories and eliminates the need for utensils. But there are some bum wraps out there, so I've rolled up and rolled out a handful of smart choices just packed with Powerfoods. All make 1 serving.\n\n### **Thai One On (Powerfoods: 4)**\n\n1\u00bd tablespoons peanut butter\n\n1 whole-wheat tortilla\n\n2\u20443 cup chopped precooked chicken\n\n\u00be cup mixed greens\n\n\u00bc cup matchstick carrots\n\n1 teaspoon diced cilantro\n\n_Spread peanut butter down center of tortilla. Add chicken and remaining ingredients. Fold outside edges in, then roll._\n\n_Per serving: 331 calories, 29 g protein, 30 g carbohydrates, 15 g fat (2 g saturated), 5 g fiber, 661 mg sodium_\n\n### **The Day after Thanksgiving (Powerfoods: 4)**\n\n2 tablespoons cranberry relish\n\n1 whole-wheat tortilla\n\n3 slices turkey\n\n1 slice Muenster cheese\n\n\u00be cup mixed greens\n\n_Spread cranberry relish down center of tortilla. Add turkey and remaining ingredients. Fold outside edges in, then roll._\n\n_Per serving: 311 calories, 24 g protein, 40 g carbohydrates, 11 g fat (6 g saturated), 3 g fiber, 1063 mg sodium_\n\n### **The Cow Tipper (Powerfoods: 3)**\n\n3 slices roast beef\n\n1 whole-wheat tortilla\n\n\u00be cup mixed greens\n\n\u00bc cup chopped tomato\n\n1 tablespoon Dijon mustard\n\n1 tablespoon blue cheese crumbles\n\n_Arrange beef slices down center of tortilla, then add remaining ingredients. Fold outside edges in, then roll._\n\n_Per serving: 208 calories, 22 g protein, 26 g carbohydrates, 5 g fat (2.5 g saturated), 3 g fiber, 1038 mg sodium_\n\n### **The Two Turks (Powerfoods: 6)**\n\n2 slices turkey\n\n1 whole-wheat tortilla\n\n2 slices cooked turkey bacon\n\n\u00be cup mixed greens\n\n3 slices avocado\n\n2 tablespoons shredded reduced-fat Mexican-blend cheese\n\n_Arrange turkey slices down center of tortilla, then add remaining ingredients. Fold outside edges in, then roll._\n\n_Per serving: 407 calories, 27 g protein, 32 g carbohydrates, 24 g fat (6 g saturated), 10 g fiber, 1376 mg sodium_\n\n### **Hot Curlers (Powerfoods: 4)**\n\n1 tablespoon Dijon mustard\n\n1 whole-wheat tortilla\n\n2\u20443 cup chopped precooked chicken\n\n\u00be mixed greens\n\n\u00bc cup diced tomato\n\nHot sauce to taste\n\n2 tablespoons shredded reduced-fat Mexican-blend cheese\n\n_Spread mustard down center of tortilla. Add chicken and remaining ingredients. Fold outside edges in, then roll._\n\n_Per serving: 244 calories, 30 g protein, 28 g carbohydrates, 6 g fat (2 g saturated), 3 g fiber, 1089 mg sodium_\n\n## **Salads**\n\nYour standard chain-restaurant salad bar is a nutritional minefield\u2014there are plenty of healthy, safe moves to make and plenty of fat bombs that can blow up your gut: potato salad, macaroni salad, croutons, those bacon bits that look like gravel. If you make your own salad, you can ensure that your salad has taste and power. All make 1 serving.\n\n### **The Olympiad (Powerfoods: 4)**\n\n2 \u00bd cups mixed greens\n\n1 Roma tomato, chopped\n\n\u00bc cup chopped cucumber\n\n1 tablespoon shredded part-skim mozzarella cheese\n\nPinch black pepper\n\n1 tablespoon balsamic vinegar or red wine\n\n1 teaspoon olive oil\n\n_Per serving: 109 calories, 5 g protein, 8 g carbohydrates, 6 g fat (1.6 g saturated), 4 g fiber, 77 mg sodium_\n\n## **DIY DRESSINGS**\n\nEver wondered how something that should by all laws of nature be refrigerated\u2014like blue cheese dressing\u2014manages to stay out on shelves? Trans fat and lots of preservatives do the work, making salad dressings some of the biggest belly-bloating foods out there.\n\nMaking your own salad dressing is just a little bit harder than boiling water, but it will ensure that you're eating 100 percent healthy (and it'll taste better, too). Add 1 part olive oil to 2 parts acid, such as lemon juice, orange juice, vinegar, or wine. Stir it together to blend or just pour each one on the salad.\n\n### **Sweet Cheeses! (Powerfoods: 5)**\n\n2 \u00bd cups mixed greens\n\n\u00bd cup berries (any type or a mix)\n\n1 tablespoon chopped onion\n\n1 tablespoon blue cheese crumbles\n\n1 tablespoon chopped pecans or walnuts\n\n1 teaspoon ground flaxseed\n\n1 tablespoon balsamic vinegar\n\n1 teaspoon olive oil\n\n_Per serving: 235 calories, 6 g protein, 24 g carbohydrates, 15 g fat (2.7 g saturated), 7 g fiber, 160 mg sodium_\n\n### **Orient Express (Powerfoods: 6)**\n\n2 \u00bd cups mixed greens\n\n\u00bd cup diced precooked chicken\n\n1 green onion, sliced\n\n\u00bc cup chopped green pepper\n\n1 tablespoon sliced almonds\n\n1 teaspoon diced cilantro\n\n1 tablespoon orange juice\n\n1 teaspoon olive oil\n\n_Per serving: 214 calories, 23 g protein, 10 g carbohydrates, 10 g fat (1 g saturated), 4 g fiber, 437 mg sodium_\n\n### **Kidney Punch (Powerfoods: 3)**\n\n2 \u00bd cups mixed greens\n\n\u00bc cup drained canned kidney beans\n\n1 tablespoon chopped onion\n\n1 tablespoon blue cheese crumbles\n\nPinch black pepper\n\n1 tablespoon red wine\n\n1 teaspoon olive oil\n\n_Per serving: 184 calories, 9 g protein, 20 g carbohydrates, 8 g fat (2 g saturated), 9 g fiber, 154 mg sodium_\n\n### **Potion of the Ocean (Powerfoods: 6)**\n\n2 \u00bd cups mixed greens\n\n6 frozen shrimp, defrosted\n\n1 green onion, sliced\n\n\u00bc cup chopped cucumber\n\n\u00bc cup chopped green pepper\n\n1 tablespoon lemon juice\n\n1 teaspoon olive oil\n\n_Per serving: 112 calories, 10 g protein, 8 g carbohydrates, 5 g fat (.78 g saturated), 4 g fiber, 112 mg sodium_\n\n### **El Tequila Ensalada (Powerfoods: 5)**\n\n2 \u00bd cups mixed greens\n\n\u00bc cup drained black beans\n\n1 Roma tomato, chopped\n\n1 green onion, sliced\n\n\u00bd sliced avocado\n\n1 teaspoon diced cilantro\n\n1 tablespoon tequila or, for the less stout of heart, lime juice\n\n1 teaspoon olive oil\n\n_Per serving: 325 calories, 8 g protein, 22 g carbohydrates, 21 g fat (3 g saturated), 13 g fiber, 250 mg sodium_\n\n## **WEEKLY GRIND**\n\nSeveral of these recipes call for lemon juice. If you have real lemons on hand, you can use the rind for zest. Zest adds flavor, and according to a University of Arizona study, a tablespoon of it each week can help cut the risk of developing skin cancer by 30 percent. Another handy tip: After using half a lemon for juice or zest, toss the rest down the drain and let it clean out your rank garbage disposal.\n\n## **Sandwiches**\n\nAs far as ease goes, nothing beats a sandwich. Bread, meat, eat. Still, as drive-throughs and the Hilton sisters prove, just because something's easy doesn't mean it's smart. There are plenty of sandwich fixings, from mile-high corned beef to do-nothing-for-you white bread, that simply don't stack up. Still, we love the sandwich. The trick is to incorporate as many Abs Diet Powerfoods into your concoctions as you can. That means some whole-wheat bread, some lean meat, and some leafy greens if you want. You want to build the ultimate power sandwich that's filling and more well rounded than Anna Nicole Smith (circa 2003). To shake things up, try making these substitutions without the extra layer of guilt.\n\n**Abs Diet BLT**\n\n**SUBSTITUTE THIS:** Turkey bacon\n\n**FOR THAT:** Regular bacon\n\n**ABS DIET ADVANTAGE:** 59 fewer calories\n\n**SUBSTITUTE THIS:** Reduced-fat sour cream\n\n**FOR THAT:** Mayo\n\n**ABS DIET ADVANTAGE:** 2 more grams protein\n\n**SUBSTITUTE THIS:** Baby spinach\n\n**FOR THIS:** Iceberg lettuce\n\n**ABS DIET ADVANTAGE:** 3 more grams fiber\n\n**SUBSTITUTE THIS:** Whole-wheat bread\n\n**FOR THIS:** White bread\n\n**ABS DIET ADVANTAGE:**\n\n**Abs Diet meatball sub**\n\n**SUBSTITUTE THIS:** Turkey meatballs\n\n**FOR THIS:** Beef meatballs\n\n**ABS DIET ADVANTAGE:** 194 fewer calories\n\n**SUBSTITUTE THIS:** Part-skim mozzarella\n\n**FOR THIS:** Full-fat mozzarella\n\n**ABS DIET ADVANTAGE:** 4 grams less saturated fat\n\n**SUBSTITUTE THIS:** Whole-wheat roll\n\n**FOR THIS:** White roll\n\n**ABS DIET ADVANTAGE:** 3.5 grams more fiber\n\n**Abs Diet po boy**\n\n**SUBSTITUTE THIS:** Defrosted frozen steamed shrimp\n\n**FOR THIS:** Deep-fried shrimp\n\n**ABS DIET ADVANTAGE:** 379 fewer calories\n\n**SUBSTITUTE THIS:** Reduced-fat sour cream\n\n**FOR THIS:** R\u00e9moulade\n\n**ABS DIET ADVANTAGE:** 3.5 grams less saturated fat\n\n**Abs Diet gyro**\n\n**SUBSTITUTE THIS:** Lean roast beef\n\n**FOR THIS:** Lamb\n\n**ABS DIET ADVANTAGE:** 14 fewer calories\n\n**SUBSTITUTE THIS:** Reduced-fat yogurt\n\n**FOR THIS:** Full-fat yogurt\n\n**ABS DIET ADVANTAGE:** 1.5 grams less saturated fat\n\n**SUBSTITUTE THIS:** Whole-wheat pita\n\n**FOR THIS:** White pita\n\n**ABS DIET ADVANTAGE:** 3 grams more fiber\n\n**Abs Diet PB&J**\n\n**SUBSTITUTE THIS:** Natural peanut butter\n\n**FOR THIS:** Trans-fatty kind\n\n**ABS DIET ADVANTAGE:** 74 fewer calories\n\n**SUBSTITUTE THIS:** Slightly crushed fresh berries\n\n**FOR THIS:** Sugary jelly\n\n**ABS DIET ADVANTAGE:** 1 gram less saturated fat\n\n**SUBSTITUTE THIS:** Whole-wheat bread\n\n**FOR THIS:** White bread\n\n**ABS DIET ADVANTAGE:** 4 grams more fiber\n\n### **Fill-in-the-Blank-Salad Sandwich (Powerfoods: 4)**\n\n6-ounces salmon or tuna or 2\u20443 cup chopped precooked chicken\n\n1 green onion, sliced\n\n\u00bc cup finely diced cucumber\n\n1 tablespoon reduced fat sour cream\n\n2 teaspoons Dijon mustard\n\n1 teaspoon lemon juice\n\n1\u20448 teaspoon lemon zest\n\nSalt and pepper to taste\n\n_Mix everything together in a big bowl, stirring well to blend in the lemon juice and sour cream. Eat with mixed greens or whole-wheat crackers_.\n\n_Salmon: Per serving: 149 calories, 19 g protein, 2 g carbohydrates, 7 g fat (2 g saturated), 0 g fiber, 661 mg sodium_\n\n_Tuna: Per serving: 127 calories, 22 g protein, 2 g carbohydrates, 3 g fat (1 g saturated), 0 g fiber, 523 mg sodium_\n\n_Chicken: Per serving: 118 calories, 20 g protein, 3 g carbohydrates, 3 g fat (.5 g saturated), 0 g fiber, 603 mg sodium_\n\n## **Soups**\n\nSoup is not the kind of food you think of as fitting into a busy lifestyle, it's hard to stash in your briefcase, tough to eat on the train, and generally frowned upon at business meetings. But soup does offer one big convenience. You can whip up a batch, store it in the fridge, then nuke it the next day (and the next, and the next) for a hearty, healthy, power-packed meal.\n\n### **Macho Gazpacho (Powerfoods: 3)**\n\n3 large tomatoes\n\n1 cup peeled chopped cucumber\n\n\u00bd cup reduced-fat plain yogurt\n\n1 teaspoon balsamic vinegar\n\n1 teaspoon olive oil\n\n1 teaspoon lemon juice\n\n\u00bc teaspoon salt\n\n_Seed the tomatoes (cut a crosshatch in the bottom, hold over the sink and squeeze\u2014most of the seeds will come out of the bottom). Core and chop them into rough chunks and chuck them, along with everything else, into the blender. Puree until smooth. Serve cold_.\n\n_Serves 2_\n\n_Per serving: 118 calories, 6 g protein, 17 g carbohydrates, 4 g fat (1 g saturated), 4 g fiber, 349 mg sodium_\n\n### **The Beaning of Life (Powerfoods: 3)**\n\n1\u00bd cans drained or no salt added black beans\n\n\u00bd cup reduced-fat, low-sodium chicken broth\n\n1 chopped Roma tomato\n\n1 sliced green onion\n\n1 tablespoon lime juice\n\n1 teaspoon hot sauce\n\n1 teaspoon olive oil\n\n1 tablespoon diced cilantro\n\n\u00bd teaspoon cumin\n\nSalt and pepper to taste\n\n1 tablespoon shredded reduced-fat Mexican-blend cheese\n\n_Dump everything except cheese into the blender. Pur\u00e9e until smooth, scraping the sides if needed. Pour into bowls and microwave for 2 or 3 minutes, stirring occasionally. Top with a pinch of cheese._\n\n_Serves 4_\n\n_Per serving: 365 calories, 24 g protein, 60 g carbohydrates, 5 g fat (1 g saturated), 22 g fiber, 475 mg sodium_\n\n## **Pita Pizzas**\n\nContrary to popular belief, pizza _is_ a health food. The tomato sauce provides vitamin C and the anticancer nutrient lycopene; the cheese gives you a hit of calcium and protein; and any vegetables you toss on top bring extra helpings of vitamins, minerals, and fiber.\n\nUnfortunately, most commercial pizzas are corrupted by excess oil, fatty pepperoni, and horrific mutations like \"cheese-filled crust.\" Talk about turning a good thing bad!\n\nOn this page, I've ranked the national pizza chains from healthiest to unhealthiest. But when you want a quick hit of pie, try these home versions for the taste without suffocating your organs in pepperoni. For all of them, spread sauce evenly over pita, then top with remaining ingredients. Bake in an oven pre-heated to 475\u00b0F for 4 to 6 minutes. All serve 1.\n\n### **The Whitey Ford (Powerfoods: 5)**\n\n1 small whole-wheat pita\n\nWhite sauce (stir together \u00bc cup part-skim ricotta cheese, 1 teaspoon olive oil, \u00bc teaspoon dried basil or oregano)\n\n1 green onion, sliced\n\n1 tablespoon part-skim mozzarella cheese\n\n\u00bc cup diced precooked chicken; 1 ounce smoked salmon, chopped; or three slices tomato\n\n_Chicken: Per serving: 254 calories, 18 g protein, 20 g carbohydrates, 12 g fat (4.5 g saturated), 2 g fiber, 393 mg sodium_\n\n_Salmon: Per serving: 254 calories, 17 g protein, 19 g carbohydrates, 13 g fat (5 g saturated), 2 g fiber, 827 mg sodium_\n\n_Tomato: Per serving: 231 calories, 12 g protein, 22 g carbohydrates, 11 g fat (4.5 g saturated), 3 g fiber, 263 mg sodium_\n\n### **The Red Auerbach (Powerfoods: 3)**\n\n1 small whole-wheat pita\n\n\u00bc cup marinara sauce\n\n1 green onion, sliced\n\n2 tablespoons part-skim mozzarella cheese\n\n3 frozen turkey meatballs; 2 turkey slices, chopped; or \u00bc cup chopped green pepper\n\n_Meatball: Per serving: 292 calories, 24 g protein, 27 g carbohydrates, 10 g fat (3 g saturated), 3.5 g fiber, 557 mg sodium_\n\n_Turkey: Per serving: 169 calories, 10 g protein, 21 g carbohydrates, 5 g fat (2 g saturated), 3 g fiber, 676 mg sodium_\n\n_Pepper: Per serving: 156 calories, 7 g protein, 22 g carbohydrates, 5 g fat (2 g saturated), 4 g fiber, 451 mg sodium_\n\n### **The Pancho Villa (Powerfoods: 2)**\n\n1 small whole-wheat pita\n\n\u00bc cup salsa, with a little of the liquid drained\n\n1 teaspoon diced cilantro\n\n2 tablespoons shredded reduced-fat Mexican-blend cheese\n\n\u00bc cup diced precooked chicken; \u00bc cup chopped green or red pepper; or \u00bc cup chopped avocado\n\n_Chicken: Per serving: 166 calories, 14 g protein, 20 g carbohydrates, 5 g fat (2 g saturated), 3 g fiber, 664 mg sodium_\n\n_Pepper: Per serving: 139 calories, 8 g protein, 21 g carbohydrates, 4 g fat (2 g saturated), 4 g fiber, 430 mg sodium_\n\n_Avocado: Per serving: 193 calories, 8 g protein, 23 g carbohydrates, 10 g fat (3 g saturated), 5 g fiber, 434 mg sodium_\nChapter 7\n\n# **START YOUR NIGHT RIGHT**\n\n# 30 Abs Diet Dinners\n\n**T YPICAL SCENARIO:** For the first 10 or 12 hours of your day, your life is somebody else's, whether you're working for a boss or catering to your kids. And just about the time you finally finish feeding everybody else's needs, your stomach starts sending you signals that it's tired of being ignored.\n\nWhen you work hard all day\u2014especially if you're too busy to eat right\u2014it makes sense that you'd want to reward yourself with a big plate of Whatever the Hell You Want, maybe washed down with a Manhattan and a couple glasses of wine. And dinners should be a celebration of sorts\u2014there's nothing wrong with rewarding yourself for forging through another demanding day and taking time to surround yourself with family, friends\u2014and food.\n\nBut you can have your reward without sacrificing your health or your waistline. How well you eat at dinner is in great part determined by what you ate earlier in the day. If you fuel your body throughout the day with four smart, sensible meals and snacks, you'll find you aren't ravenously hungry the minute you walk in the door or craving the half-a-pig special at O'Bloaty's Tavern. You can, instead, enjoy a hearty\u2014and healthy\u2014meal, either at your favorite restaurant or at home with one of these simple recipes. Instead of using dinner as an opportunity to get drunk on fat and sweets, use it as an opportunity to pack in as many of the POWER 12 as you can.\n\n## **Burgers**\n\nBurgers don't have to resemble deep-fried hockey pucks. Make yours with lean beef or turkey, grill or broil it just the way you want it, and enjoy a protein blast that will fire up your fat-burners and stimulate muscle growth. Most grocery stores now carry whole-wheat hamburger buns, so your classic \"junk-food\" dinner can morph into a perfect diet food\u2014without sacrificing taste.\n\n### **The Official Abs Diet Burger (Powerfoods: 5)**\n\n1 egg\n\n1 pound lean ground beef\n\n\u00bd cup oats\n\n1\u20443 cup diced onion\n\n\u00bd cup chopped spinach\n\n2 tablespoons reduced-fat shredded Mexican-blend cheese\n\nSalt and pepper\n\n_In a large bowl, whisk egg. Add everything else, mixing it\u2014your hands are the best tool\u2014until well blended. Form into four patties. Place burgers in a grill pan or nonstick skillet that's heated over medium-high. Cook 6 minutes per side or to desired level of doneness._\n\n_Serves 4 (Wrap any extra burgers in plastic and freeze them for later.)_\n\n_Per serving: 263 calories, 27 g protein, 8 g carbohydrates, 13 g fat (5 g saturated), 1 g fiber, 416 mg sodium_\n\n### **Alaskan Burger (Powerfoods: 4)**\n\n1 egg (use omega-3 eggs to up the good-fat count)\n\n1 can salmon, drained\n\n2 diced pieces of whole-wheat toast\n\n1 tablespoon ground flaxseed\n\nSalt and pepper\n\n_In a large bowl, break open egg and stir. Add everything else, mixing it with your hands until well blended. Form into four patties. Bake in oven that's preheated to 375\u00b0F for 20 minutes, turning once._\n\n_Serves 4_\n\n_Per serving: 230 calories, 23 g protein, 12 g carbohydrates, 10 g fat (2 g saturated), 2 g fiber, 590 mg sodium_\n\n### **Ciao Down Burger (Powerfoods: 2)**\n\n1 egg\n\n1 pound ground turkey breast\n\n2 crushed cloves garlic\n\n1\u20443 cup drained canned diced tomatoes\n\n1 teaspoon dried basil\n\n\u00bc teaspoon salt\n\n_In a large bowl, whisk egg. Add everything else, mixing it with your hands until well blended. Form into four patties. Place patties in a grill pan or nonstick skillet that's heated over medium-high. Cook 6 minutes per side or to desired level of doneness._\n\n_Serves 4_\n\n_Per serving: 147 calories, 30 g protein, 2 g carbohydrates, 3 g fat (.5 g saturated), .5 g fiber, 235 mg sodium_\n\n## **Chicken and Turkey**\n\nAsk a culinary adventurer to describe the flavor of any exotic dish, from frog's legs to turtle soup to medallions of rattlesnake, and chances are you'll hear it \"tastes like chicken.\"\n\nThat's not a lot of respect given to the humble chicken and its larger cousin, the turkey. But these two birds are powerful sources of lean protein and great go-to options whenever you're stuck for something to eat. Try these simple concoctions out for size, and the answer to the eternal question, \"What does it taste like?\" will always be, \"Tastes like I want more.\"\n\n### **Faux Fried Chicken (Powerfoods: 3)**\n\n1 cup of high-fiber bran flakes\n\n1 egg\n\nHot sauce\n\n2 boneless, skinless chicken breasts\n\n_Put cereal in a zip-top bag, seal, and pound the hell out of it. In a large bowl, whisk egg and desired amount of hot sauce together. Dip chicken breasts in egg mixture, then roll in crushed cereal. Bake in an oven preheated to 350\u00b0F for 20 minutes._\n\n_Serves 2_\n\n_Per serving: 211 calories, 31 g protein, 6 g carbohydrates, 6 g fat (2 g saturated), 1 g fiber, 243 mg sodium_\n\n### **The Dijon Lennon (Powerfoods: 3)**\n\n2 boneless, skinless turkey cutlets\n\n1 teaspoon olive oil\n\n1\u20443 cup reduced-fat low-sodium chicken broth\n\n1 tablespoon Dijon mustard\n\n2 sliced green onions\n\nSalt and pepper to taste\n\n_Pound turkey cutlets to an even thickness. Heat oil in nonstick skillet over medium heat. Brown each side of turkey cutlets, about 3 minutes each. Add broth, mustard, onions, salt, and pepper, stirring well. Reduce heat to low. Simmer for 10 to12 minutes._\n\n_Serves 2_\n\n_Per serving: 140 calories, 27 g protein, 2 g carbohydrates, 3 g fat (.4 g saturated), 0 g fiber, 364 mg sodium_\n\n### **Chicken a l'Orange (Powerfoods: 4)**\n\n1 teaspoon olive oil\n\n2 boneless, skinless chicken breasts\n\n1 tablespoon orange juice concentrate\n\n2 tablespoons low-sodium soy sauce\n\n\u00bc teaspoon powdered ginger\n\n1 sliced green onion\n\n1 tablespoon sliced almonds\n\n1 teaspoon diced cilantro\n\n_Heat oil in a nonstick skillet over medium heat. Add chicken and sear for 3 minutes per side. Add orange juice concentrate, soy sauce, and ginger, stirring to mix. Reduce heat and simmer for 5 to 6 minutes. Before serving, top with green onion, almonds, and cilantro._\n\n_Serves 2_\n\n_Per serving: 179 calories, 25 g protein, 7 g carbohydrates, 5 g fat (1 g saturated),_ < _1 g fiber, 572 mg sodium_\n\n## **Precooked Chicken**\n\nPrecooked chicken\u2014low in saturated fat and high in protein\u2014is ideal for busy people. You can eat it plain, chop it up and toss it onto a salad for a quick protein boost, or cook with it. Just beware, though\u2014in order to preserve the cuts for your ease of use, these chicken pieces are saltier than fresh, uncooked chicken. So add as little extra sodium as possible to your meal.\n\n### **Que Sera Quesadilla (Powerfoods: 4)**\n\n2 medium whole-wheat tortillas\n\n\u00bd cup reduced-fat grated Mexican-blend cheese, divided\n\n\u00bd cup diced precooked grilled chicken\n\n1 heaping tablespoon diced fresh cilantro\n\n1 sliced green onion\n\nSalsa\n\n_Place 1 tortilla in a nonstick pan that's preheated over medium-low heat, and top with \u00bd_ _of the cheese and the chicken, cilantro, and onion. Add remaining cheese and top tortilla, pressing down to flatten. Cook 3 minutes, then flip and cook 3 minutes more. Serve with salsa._\n\n_Serves 1_\n\n_Per serving: 425 calories, 42 g protein, 43 g carbohydrates, 15 g fat (7 g saturated), 4 g fiber, 800 mg sodium_\n\n### **Gonzo Chicken (Powerfoods: 8)**\n\n2 cups bagged mixed-green salad mix\n\n1 cup baby spinach leaves\n\n1\u20443 cup rinsed garbanzo beans\n\n\u00bd cup diced precooked chicken\n\n1 tablespoon chopped pecans\n\n1 sliced green onion\n\n3 slices avocado\n\n2 teaspoons olive oil\n\n1\u00bd tablespoons balsamic or red wine vinegar\n\nSalt and pepper to taste\n\n_Mix greens, beans, chicken, nuts, and onion together in a bowl. Top with avocado, oil, and vinegar._\n\n_Serves 1_\n\n_Per serving: 420 calories, 30 g protein, 27 g carbohydrates, 23 g fat (2 g saturated), 9 g fiber, 799 mg sodium_\n\n### **It Takes Stew, Baby (Powerfoods: 5)**\n\n2 cups roughly torn baby spinach leaves\n\n\u00bd cup diced red pepper\n\n1 crushed garlic clove\n\n1 teaspoon olive oil\n\n1 can (10.5 ounces) cannellini beans, drained and rinsed\n\n1 cup cubed precooked chicken\n\n\u00bd cup fat-free reduced-sodium chicken broth\n\nSalt and pepper\n\n_In a nonstick skillet heated over medium-low heat, saut\u00e9 spinach, peppers and garlic in oil 2 minutes, turning frequently. Add beans and chicken. Saut\u00e9 1 minute more. Add broth. Simmer for 10 minutes. Add salt and pepper to taste._\n\n_Serves 2_\n\n_Per serving: 311 calories, 27 g protein, 43 g carbohydrates, 4 g fat (.5 g saturated), 11 g fiber, 420.5 mg sodium_\n\n## **Steak**\n\nRed meat pulsates with amino acids, the cinder blocks of your body's architecture. In fact, steak is the best natural source of creatine, an enzyme that helps stimulate muscle growth. So unleash your inner carnivore, and you'll unleash your abs as well.\n\n### **Fruit of Your Loins (Powerfoods: 3)**\n\n2 beef tenderloin steaks\n\n1 teaspoon olive oil\n\n2 cloves garlic\n\n\u00bc teaspoon pepper\n\n\u00bd cup raspberries or blackberries\n\n1\u20443 cup red wine\n\nSalt\n\n_Place steaks in a skillet heated over medium-high heat. Cook 2 minutes per side. Remove from skillet. Add oil, saut\u00e9 garlic for 30 seconds, then add pepper, berries, and wine. Return steaks to pan and cook 4 to 6 minutes more (or until desired level of doneness). Add salt to taste_.\n\n_Serves 2_\n\n_Per serving: 341 calories, 19 g protein, 5 g carbohydrates, 24 g fat (9 g saturated), 0 g fiber, 130 mg sodium_\n\n### **Sergeant Pepper (Powerfoods: 4)**\n\n6 ounces flank steak (about half of one)\n\n\u00bd green or red pepper, cut lengthwise into strips\n\n1\u20443 cup cashew pieces\n\n2 sliced green onions\n\n3 tablespoons reduced-sodium soy sauce\n\nHot sauce, to taste\n\n1 teaspoon sugar\n\n_Cut meat diagonally and across the grain into thin strips (freezing it for 20 minutes first helps a lot). Place in large zip-top plastic bag with all other ingredients. Shake well to combine. Place into a skillet that's preheated over medium-high heat. Cook for 5 to 6 minutes or until meat reaches desired doneness, turning frequently._\n\n_Serves 2_\n\n_Per serving: 363 calories, 29 g protein, 14 g carbohydrates, 22 g fat (7 g saturated), 1 g fiber, 873 mg sodium_\n\n### **Steak Fa-heat-as (Powerfoods: 4)**\n\n6 ounces flank steak (the other half of the one called for above)\n\n1 small onion, cut into eighths\n\n1 green or red pepper, cut lengthwise into strips\n\n1 small jalape\u00f1o pepper, cut into rings\n\n1 teaspoon olive oil\n\n1 tablespoon diced cilantro\n\n1\u20448 teaspoon cinnamon\n\n\u00bc teaspoon cumin\n\nSalt and pepper to taste\n\n_Cut meat diagonally and across the grain into thin strips. Place in large zip-top plastic bag with all other ingredients. Shake well to combine. Place into a skillet that's preheated over medium-high heat. Cook for 5 to 6 minutes, or until meat reaches desired doneness, turning frequently. Serve with four whole-wheat tortillas and salsa_.\n\n_Serves 2_\n\n_Per serving: 310 calories, 24 g protein, 46 g carbohydrates, 8 g fat (2.5 g saturated), 5 g fiber, 458 mg sodium_\n\n### **Mighty Muffins (Powerfoods: 3)**\n\n1 egg\n\n1 pound lean ground beef\n\n2 tablespoons balsamic vinegar\n\n\u00bd cup oats\n\n\u00bc cup minced onion\n\nSalt and pepper to taste\n\n_In a large bowl, whisk egg. Add everything else, mixing it with your hand until well blended. Divide mixture evenly into a 6-cup nonstick muffin pan. Preheat the oven to 375\u00b0F and bake for 25 minutes_.\n\n_Serves 3 (Wrap extras in plastic and freeze them for later.)_\n\n_Per serving: 349 calories, 35 g protein, 13 g carbohydrates, 16 g fat (6 g saturated), 1.5 g fiber, 329 mg sodium_\n\n### **Aztec Casserole (Powerfoods: 3)**\n\n6 ounces lean ground beef\n\n1\u20443 cup diced onion\n\n1 crushed clove garlic\n\n\u00bc teaspoon cumin\n\n1\u00be cup cooked brown rice\n\n\u00be cup salsa\n\n1 tablespoon diced cilantro\n\n2 tablespoons reduced-fat shredded Mexican blend cheese\n\n_Brown beef in a large nonstick skillet preheated over medium heat (about 3 to 4 minutes.) Add onion and garlic and saut\u00e9 3 to 5 minutes or until soft. Drain fat. Add cumin, rice, salsa, and cilantro, stirring to mix well. Reduce heat to low and simmer for 6 to 8 minutes. Top each serving with a tablespoon of cheese._\n\n_Serves 2_\n\n_Per serving: 397 calories, 25 g protein, 50 g carbohydrates, 11 g fat (4 g saturated), 5 g fiber, 537 mg sodium_\n\n## **One-Pot Dishes**\n\nMost of us don't mind the cooking so much as we mind the cleaning, which is where these recipes come in. Everything gets cooked in one pot, which leaves you more time for _nip\/tuck_ reruns.\n\n### **Three Amigos Chili (Powerfoods: 5)**\n\n1 tablespoon olive oil\n\n1 small onion, diced\n\n1 pound ground turkey breast\n\n1 can diced tomatoes with jalape\u00f1os\n\n1 can (10.5 ounces) each garbanzos, black beans, and kidney beans, drained\n\n1 can (14 ounces) low-sodium chicken broth\n\n\u00bc teaspoon each salt and cumin\n\n1\u20448 teaspoon cinnamon\n\nHot sauce to taste\n\n_Heat oil on medium-low. Add onion and saut\u00e9 until soft (about 3 to 5 minutes). Add turkey and brown (about 5 minutes.) Add tomatoes with juice, beans, broth, and spices. Stir and bring to a boil, then reduce heat and simmer 20 minutes._\n\n_Serves 6 (Freeze the leftovers and save $5 by taking them for lunch.)_\n\n_Per serving: 293 calories, 31 g protein, 32 g carbohydrates, 5 g fat (0 g saturated), 11 g fiber, 788 mg sodium_\n\n### **Hot-Headed Chicken (Powerfoods: 5)**\n\n1 teaspoon olive oil\n\n\u00bd cup diced onion\n\n1\u20443 cup diced red pepper\n\n1 egg\n\n1 tablespoon reduced-sodium soy sauce\n\nHot sauce to taste\n\n1\u00be cup cooked brown rice\n\n1\u00bd cups diced precooked chicken\n\n_Heat oil in nonstick skillet over medium heat. Add onion and red pepper. Saut\u00e9 for 3 to 5 minutes, until onion softens. Add egg, stirring frequently. Cook for 2 to 4 minutes more until egg scrambles. Add soy sauce, hot sauce, rice, and chicken. Stir and cook about 3 minutes more, until dish is well blended and evenly heated._\n\n_Serves 2_\n\n_Per serving: 413 calories, 33 g protein, 49 g carbohydrates, 9 g fat (1.4 g saturated), 5 g fiber, 846 mg sodium_\n\n### **Pot Luck of the Irish (Powerfoods: 3)**\n\n2 small pork tenderloins\n\n\u00bc teaspoon olive oil\n\n\u00bd cup diced onion\n\n\u00bd cup red pepper\n\n1 cup packaged shredded cabbage\n\n1 small chopped tomato\n\n1\u20443 cup low-fat, reduced-sodium chicken broth\n\n1\u20448 teaspoon paprika\n\nSalt and pepper to taste\n\n_In a nonstick skillet, brown pork 2 to 3 minutes per side over medium-high heat. Remove pork. Add oil, onion, and red pepper, saut\u00e9ing for 3 to 5 minutes or until onion softens. Reduce heat to medium. Stir in cabbage, tomato, broth, and spices. Add chops to skillet. Cook 10 minutes more, stirring occasionally._\n\n_Serves 2_\n\n_Per serving: 272 calories, 23 g protein, 10 g carbohydrates, 16 g fat (5 g saturated), 2 g fiber, 60 mg sodium_\n\n## **Seafood**\n\nTo quote the culinarily confused sharks from _Finding Nemo_ , fish are our friends. Besides delivering plenty of lean protein, most fish are packed with the omega-3 fatty acids that help control cholesterol and your appetite at the same time. To be as sleek and energetic as a dolphin, try these no-hassle recipes.\n\n### **No-Scrimp Shrimp (Powerfoods: 3)**\n\n24 large frozen shrimp, peeled and deveined\n\n\u00bd cup chopped baby spinach leaves\n\n1 teaspoon olive oil\n\n1 crushed garlic clove\n\n\u00bd teaspoon dried basil\n\nHot sauce to taste\n\n_Mix all ingredients in a large microwave-safe bowl, tossing well to coat shrimp. Microwave 1 minute. Remove and toss again. Microwave 1\u00bc minutes more._\n\n_Serves 2_\n\n_Per serving: 91 calories, 14 g protein, 1 g carbohydrates, 3 g fat (.5 g saturated), 0 g fiber, 165 mg sodium_\n\n### **The Aqua Man (Powerfoods: 3)**\n\n\u00bd cup trimmed asparagus\n\n\u00bd cup matchstick carrots\n\n1 teaspoon olive oil\n\nJuice of 1 lemon\n\n\u00bd teaspoon lemon rind\n\n1 crushed clove garlic\n\nSalt and pepper to taste\n\n2 tilapia fillets\n\n_In a small bowl, mix vegetables with oil, lemon juice, rind, garlic, and salt and pepper. Arrange fish in a small, shallow microwave-safe baking dish. Pour vegetable mixture over each fillet. Wrap dish tightly in plastic wrap, pricking a couple of times with a fork or toothpick. Microwave for 3 to 4 minutes or until fish flakes lightly with a fork._\n\n_Serves 2_\n\n_Per serving: 136 calories, 22 g protein, 6 g carbohydrates, 3 g fat (1 g saturated), 1 g fiber, 220 mg sodium_\n\n### **Fish Tacos (Powerfoods: 3)**\n\n2 frozen grilled fish fillets, Cajun- or blackened-style\n\n4 small corn tortillas\n\n1 cup chopped baby spinach\n\n4 tablespoons reduced-fat grated Mexican-blend cheese\n\nSalsa\n\n_Microwave fish according to package instructions. Slice fillets into strips, then divide evenly among four tortillas. Top with spinach, 1 tablespoon of cheese, and salsa to taste._\n\n_Serves 2_\n\n_Per serving: 270 calories, 25 g protein, 29 g carbohydrates, 7 g fat (2 g saturated), 4 g fiber, 674 mg sodium_\n\n### **Hot Pink (Powerfoods: 3)**\n\n2 3-ounce cuts of fresh salmon\n\n1\u00bd tablespoons reduced-sodium soy sauce\n\n1 teaspoon olive oil\n\nHot sauce to taste\n\n\u00bc teaspoon powdered ginger\n\n1 sliced green onion\n\n1 teaspoon chopped cilantro\n\n_On a foil-lined pan, place fish on top oven rack under preheated broiler. Broil 4 to 5 minutes or until fish flakes with a fork. Mix soy sauce, olive oil, hot sauce, ginger, onion, and cilantro in a small microwave-safe bowl. Microwave on high for 5 minutes, stirring once. Remove fish from oven. Transfer to plate, then pour half of the soy sauce mixture over each piece of fish._\n\n_Serves 2_\n\n_Per serving: 203 calories, 20 g protein, 1 g carbohydrates, 13 g fat (2.5 g saturated), 0 g fiber, 460 mg sodium_\n\n### **The Perfect Storm (Powerfoods: 3)**\n\n2 tilapia fillets\n\n2 tablespoons mustard\n\n1 egg\n\n\u00bd cup finely chopped pecans\n\nHoney\n\n_Spread each fillet with about 1 tablespoon of mustard, then dip in beaten egg. Roll in chopped nuts. Bake in an oven preheated to 350\u00b0F for 10 to 12 minutes or until fish flakes. When done, drizzle each fillet lightly with honey._\n\n_Serves 2_\n\n_Per serving: 371 calories, 30 g protein, 13 g carbohydrates, 25 g fat (3 g saturated), 3 g fiber, 513 mg sodium_\n\n## **Pasta**\n\nLegend has it that Martin Scorsese took Robert De Niro to Little Italy and directed him to eat pasta in order to balloon up for the second act of _Raging Bull_. But that doesn't mean you can't eat noodles and still look fighting trim. Whenever possible, opt for the whole-wheat versions; they'll give you gut-filling fiber and help take out a hit on your cholesterol. But with all pasta dishes, the key is to avoid fatty sauces and pile your plate high with Powerfoods.\n\n### **The You-Can Noodle (Powerfoods: 3)**\n\n10 or 12 frozen turkey meatballs\n\n2 cups diced tomatoes with sauce\n\n\u00bd teaspoon dried basil\n\n1 crushed clove garlic\n\n4 ounces whole-wheat spaghetti\n\n2 tablespoons shredded part-skim mozzarella cheese\n\n_Defrost meatballs according to package directions. Toss with tomatoes, basil, and garlic. Microwave 2 minutes,_ _stirring once. Toss with cooked pasta and top with cheese._\n\n_Serves 2_\n\n_Per serving: 410 calories, 39 g protein, 39 g carbohydrates, 11 g fat (4 g saturated), 8 g fiber, 557 mg sodium_\n\n### **\"Alfredo, I Know It Was You . . . \"(Powerfoods: 6)**\n\n1 teaspoon olive oil\n\n\u00bd cup part-skim ricotta cheese\n\n\u00bc cup 1% milk\n\n1 packed cup canned salmon, drained\n\n4 ounces whole-wheat spaghetti\n\n2 tablespoons shredded part-skim mozzarella cheese\n\nSalt and pepper\n\n_In a saut\u00e9 pan or skillet, heat oil and garlic over low-medium heat for 1 minute. Add ricotta and milk, stir, then add salmon and simmer 5 to 6 minutes. Thin with additional milk if needed. Pour over cooked pasta and top with cheese. Add salt and pepper to taste._\n\n_Serves 2_\n\n_Per serving: 311 calories, 27 g protein, 20 g carbohydrates, 14 g fat (6 g saturated), 3 g fiber, 543 mg sodium_\n\n### **The Pesto R\u00e9sistance (Powerfoods: 5)**\n\n1 tablespoon olive oil\n\n\u00bd cup walnut pieces\n\n1 crushed clove garlic\n\n2 cups torn baby spinach leaves\n\n1 teaspoon dried basil\n\nSalt and pepper to taste\n\n4 ounces whole-wheat spaghetti\n\n2 tablespoons shredded part-skim mozzarella cheese\n\n_Heat oil in nonstick skillet over medium-low heat. Add nuts and toast 3 to 4 minutes, stirring frequently. Add garlic, spinach, basil, salt, and pepper. Cook 3 to 5 minutes more, turning frequently. Toss with cooked pasta and top with cheese._\n\n_Serves 2_\n\n_Per serving: 335 calories, 9 g protein, 17 g carbohydrates, 28 g fat (4 g saturated), 5 g fiber, 160 mg sodium_\n\n## **Side Dishes**\n\nNo matter what your main course, it's always smart to build your side dishes from the ABS DIET POWER 12\u2014whether it's brown rice, spinach, salad, or beans. But you have many other options, as well.\n\n### **The Breathalyzer (Powerfoods: 2)**\n\n1 teaspoon olive oil\n\n1 crushed clove garlic\n\n3 cups roughly torn baby spinach leaves\n\n_Heat olive oil in a skillet on medium-high. Add garlic and saut\u00e9 2 minutes. Add spinach, saut\u00e9ing 3 to 5 minutes until all leaves are wilted, turning frequently with tongs._\n\n_Serves 2_\n\n_Per serving: 37 calories, 1 g protein, 4 g carbohydrates, 2 g fat (0 g saturated), 2 g fiber, 136 mg sodium_\n\n### **The Green Party (Powerfoods: 2)**\n\n2 cups fresh green beans trimmed into inch-long pieces\n\n1 heaping tablespoon sliced almonds\n\n\u00bc teaspoon lemon rind\n\nSalt to taste\n\nJuice of \u00bd lemon\n\n_Arrange beans, almonds, rind, and salt (in that order) in steamer. Squeeze juice over the top. Steam to desired texture (3 to 5 minutes for firm beans). Add more salt to taste._\n\n_Serves 2_\n\n_Per serving: 54 calories, 2 g protein, 8 g carbohydrates, 1.5 g fat (0 g saturated), 4 g fiber, 290 mg sodium_\n\n### **Nuclear Orange Spud Missiles (Powerfoods: 1)**\n\n2 medium sweet potatoes\n\n2 tablespoons finely chopped pecans\n\n2 tablespoons raisins\n\n2 teaspoons whipped butter\n\n_Pierce potatoes with a fork. Microwave on high for 6 to 8 minutes, turning once. Cut them open and top each with 1 tablespoon pecans, 1 tablespoon raisins, and 1 teaspoon butter._\n\n_Serves 2_\n\n_Per serving: 192 calories, 3 g protein, 32 g carbohydrates, 7 g fat (1 g saturated), 5 g fiber, 57 mg sodium_\n\n### **El El Bean (Powerfoods: 3)**\n\n\u00bd cup canned black beans, drained and rinsed\n\n1 cup canned corn kernels, drained and rinsed\n\n1 sliced green onion\n\n1 teaspoon diced cilantro\n\n1 teaspoon olive oil\n\n\u00bc teaspoon red pepper flakes\n\nSalt and pepper to taste\n\n_Mix ingredients together in a bowl._\n\n_Serves 2_\n\n_Per serving: 150 calories, 5 g protein, 24 g carbohydrates, 4 g fat (0 g saturated), 6 g fiber, 550 mg sodium_\n\n### **Jerry's Rice (Powerfoods: 2)**\n\n1 packet quick-cooking brown rice\n\nReduced-fat, low-sodium chicken broth\n\n1 cup broccoli florets, cut uniformly to thumb tip\u2013sized pieces\n\n_Follow packaged rice directions, substituting chicken broth for the recommended amount of water and adding broccoli after broth has been brought to a boil._\n\n_Serves 4_\n\n_Per serving: 136 calories, 4 g protein, 27 g carbohydrates, 1 g fat (0 g saturated), 2 g fiber, 80 mg sodium_\nChapter 8\n\n# **SHAKE THINGS UP**\n\n# 27 Abs Diet Smoothies and Snacks\n\n**W E LIKE TO DRINK** \u2014whether it's beer, Gatorade, or shots off the bartender's belly. But all drinks are not made alike\u2014and some drinks can really sabotage your diet (or your relationship, in the case of the belly shots).\n\nWhile some drinks, like presweetened iced teas, sports drinks, and Bud, are laden with empty calories, the right drinks can jump-start your metabolism and top off your tank with a healthy dose of Powerfoods. If you've got 3 minutes to spare, you can mix up a Powerfood smoothie. Dump the ingredients in a blender, push the button, and whip up a frenzy of belly-busting nutrition.\n\nThe best thing about smoothies is their versatility. You can down a smoothie at breakfast, use it as a meal replacement at lunch, make it your late-afternoon snack to take the edge off before dinner, or have it at night as your dessert. For all recipes, first blend together any liquid ingredients (milk, yogurt, juice, etc.) and protein powder; this will help break down the grainy powder and make sure it's evenly distributed. Next, add mushy ingredients, like precooked oatmeal and fruit, then add ice at the end. For a thicker shake, you can toss in more ice cubes; you'll add volume without the calories.\n\n### **Check Your Blackberry (Powerfoods: 5)**\n\n\u00be cup instant oatmeal nuked in water\n\n1\u20443 cup blackberries\n\n2 tablespoons low-fat plain yogurt\n\n2 teaspoons vanilla whey protein powder\n\n1 teaspoon ground flaxseed\n\n3 ice cubes\n\n_Makes 2 8-ounce servings_\n\n_Per serving: 149 calories, 8 g protein, 23 g carbohydrates, 1 g fat (0 g saturated), 3 g fiber, 17 mg sodium_\n\n### **Choco-nana (Powerfoods: 4)**\n\n1 cup 1% chocolate milk\n\n1 banana\n\n2 tablespoons low-fat vanilla yogurt\n\n1 tablespoon chopped walnuts\n\n2 teaspoons chocolate whey protein powder\n\n6 ice cubes\n\n_Makes 2 8-ounce servings_\n\n_Per serving: 185 calories, 9 g protein, 31 g carbohydrates, 4 g fat (1 g saturated), 2 g fiber, 106 mg sodium_\n\n### **The Orangeman (Powerfoods: 3)**\n\n1 cup 1% milk\n\n\u00bd cup frozen orange juice concentrate\n\n2 tablespoons low-fat plain yogurt\n\n1 banana\n\n2 teaspoons whey protein powder\n\n6 ice cubes\n\n_Makes 2 8-ounce servings_\n\n_Per serving: 241 calories, 10 g protein, 48 g carbohydrates, 2 g fat (1 g saturated), 2 g fiber, 84 mg sodium_\n\n### **Tirami-Smooth (Powerfoods: 5)**\n\n\u00be cup part-skim ricotta cheese\n\n2 tablespoons low-fat plain yogurt\n\n1 tablespoon slivered almonds\n\n2 teaspoons chocolate whey protein powder\n\n2 teaspoons ground flaxseed\n\n\u00bd teaspoon finely ground coffee\n\n6 ice cubes\n\n_Makes 2 8-ounce servings_\n\n_Per serving: 207 calories, 15 g protein, 15 g carbohydrates, 10 g fat (5 g saturated), 2 g fiber, 134 mg sodium_\n\n### **The Endless Summer (Powerfoods: 4)**\n\n\u00bc cup 1% milk\n\n\u00be cup ready-to-eat cubed seedless watermelon pieces\n\n\u00bd cup strawberries\n\n\u00bd cup low-fat plain yogurt\n\n2 teaspoons vanilla whey protein powder\n\n3 ice cubes\n\n_Makes 2 8-ounce servings_\n\n_Per serving: 92 calories, 7 g protein, 13 g carbohydrates, 2 g fat (1 g saturated), 1 g fiber, 66 mg sodium_\n\n### **Punk'd Pie (Powerfoods: 5)**\n\n\u00bd cup canned pumpkin\n\n\u00be cup instant oatmeal nuked in water\n\n\u00bc cup chopped pecans\n\n2 tablespoons low-fat vanilla yogurt\n\n2 teaspoons vanilla whey protein powder\n\n1 teaspoon ground flaxseed\n\n3 ice cubes\n\n_Makes 2 8-ounce servings_\n\n_Per serving: 270 calories, 9 g protein, 29 g carbohydrates, 11 g fat (1 g saturated), 6 g fiber, 19 mg sodium_\n\n### **Lime Dancing (Powerfoods: 3)**\n\n\u00bd cup frozen lime juice concentrate\n\n1 cup 1% milk\n\n2 tablespoons low-fat vanilla yogurt\n\n1 banana\n\n2 teaspoons vanilla whey protein powder\n\n3 ice cubes\n\n_Makes 2 8-ounce servings_\n\n_Per serving: 274 calories, 8 g protein, 58 g carbohydrates, 2 g fat (1 g saturated), 2 g fiber, 88 mg sodium_\n\n### **Honey-Pecan Smoothie (Powerfoods: 5)**\n\n\u00bd cup 1% milk\n\n\u00bd cup low-fat vanilla yogurt\n\n\u00bc cup chopped pecans\n\n2 teaspoons whey protein powder\n\n1 teaspoon honey\n\n2 teaspoons ground flaxseed\n\n6 ice cubes\n\n_Makes 2 8-ounce servings_\n\n_Per serving: 224 calories, 11 g protein, 18 g carbohydrates, 13 g fat (2 g saturated), 2 g fiber, 78 mg sodium_\n\n## **PACK SNACKS**\n\nFor snacks, you can eat leftovers, smoothies, or smaller portions of the ABS DIET POWER 12. Make sure each snack contains one or two Powerfoods, one of which must be protein. (Note: Dairy options count as protein, too.)\n\n**Protein options**\n\n2 teaspoons peanut butter\n\n1 ounce almonds, pecans, walnuts, or peanuts\n\n3 slices low-sodium deli cold cuts\n\n\u00bd cup shelled edamame\n\n**Dairy options**\n\n8 ounces low-fat yogurt\n\n8 ounces 1% milk or chocolate milk\n\n1\u00bd slices low-fat cheese\n\n1 stick string cheese\n\nLow-fat, no-salt-added cottage cheese\n\nLow-fat yogurt smoothie\n\n**Fruit or vegetable options**\n\n1 ounce raisins\n\nRaw vegetables (celery, baby carrots, broccoli) in unlimited quantity\n\n1\u00bd cups berries\n\n4 ounces cantaloupe\n\n1 large orange\n\n**Whole-grain options**\n\n1 or 2 slices whole-grain bread\n\n1 bowl oatmeal or high-fiber cereal\n\n3 whole-wheat crackers\n\n3 cups fat-free popcorn\n\n1 granola bar\n\n**Dessert options**\n\nAs long as you're pairing them with Powerfoods (like a glass of milk), these indulgences will add a taste of decadence to a healthy snack.\n\n1 chocolate pudding cup\n\n3 mini York Peppermint Patties\n\n3 bite-size Snickers\n\n\u00bd cup reduced-fat ice cream\n\n**Desk-drawer snacks**\n\nThese complete snacks balance complex carbs and protein for a oneand-done fast snack.\n\n* Clif Bar (5 g fiber, 10 g protein)\n\n* Erin Baker's breakfast cookies (6 g fiber, 7 g protein)\n\n* Nile Spice Dried bean soups (11 g fiber, 11 g protein)\n\n### **Mango Tango (Powerfoods: 4)**\n\n\u00bd cup ready-to-eat cubed mango\n\n1\u20443 cup blueberries\n\n\u00bd banana\n\n\u00bd cup 1% milk\n\n\u00bd cup low-fat vanilla yogurt\n\n2 teaspoons vanilla whey protein powder\n\n3 ice cubes\n\n_Makes 2 8-ounce servings_\n\n_Per serving: 158 calories, 8 g protein, 29 g carbohydrates, 2 g fat (1 g saturated), 2 g fiber, 80 mg sodium_\n\n### **Honey-Nut Cheery Oat (Powerfoods: 5)**\n\n\u00be cup instant oatmeal nuked in water\n\n\u00bc cup 1% milk\n\n1 tablespoon peanut butter\n\n2 teaspoons whey protein powder\n\n1 teaspoon honey\n\n1 teaspoon ground flaxseed\n\n6 ice cubes\n\n_Makes 2 8-ounce servings_\n\n_Per serving: 206 calories, 11 g protein, 26 g carbohydrates, 6 g fat (1 g saturated), 4 g fiber, 51 mg sodium_\n\n### **Blue Velvet (Powerfoods: 5)**\n\n\u00bd cup 1% chocolate milk\n\n\u00bd cup low-fat vanilla yogurt\n\n\u00bd cup blueberries\n\n2 teaspoons chocolate whey protein powder\n\n2 teaspoons ground flaxseed\n\n3 ice cubes\n\n_Makes 2 8-ounce servings_\n\n_Per serving: 140 calories, 8 g protein, 22 g carbohydrates, 3 g fat (1 g saturated), 2 g fiber, 92 mg sodium_\n\n### **The Peachy Keen (Powerfoods: 4)**\n\n1 cup 1% milk\n\n2 tablespoons low-fat vanilla yogurt\n\n\u00bd cup frozen peaches\n\n\u00bd cup strawberries\n\n1\u20448 teaspoon powdered ginger\n\n2 teaspoons whey protein powder\n\n3 ice cubes\n\n_Makes 2 8-ounce servings_\n\n_Per serving: 152 calories, 9 g protein, 27 g carbohydrates, 2 g fat (1 g saturated), 2 g fiber, 83 mg sodium_\n\n### **Cheesecake in a Cup (Powerfoods: 4)**\n\n\u00be cup part-skim ricotta cheese\n\n\u00bc cup 1% milk\n\n\u00bd cup blueberries\n\n\u00bd banana\n\n2 teaspoons vanilla whey protein powder\n\n6 ice cubes\n\n_Makes 2 8-ounce servings_\n\n_Per serving: 200 calories, 15 g protein, 19 g carbohydrates, 8 g fat (5 g saturated), 2 g fiber, 139 mg sodium_\n\n### **Juicy Fruit Juice (Powerfoods: 4)**\n\n1 banana\n\n\u00bd cup strawberries\n\n\u00bd cup 1% milk\n\n2 tablespoons low-fat vanilla yogurt\n\n1\u20443 cup orange juice\n\n2 teaspoons vanilla whey protein powder\n\n3 ice cubes\n\n_Makes 2 8-ounce servings_\n\n_Per serving: 137 calories, 6 g protein, 27 g carbohydrates, 1 g fat (.5 g saturated), 3 g fiber, 49 mg sodium_\n\n### **Chocolate Factory (Powerfoods: 5)**\n\n1 cup 1% chocolate milk\n\n2 tablespoons low-fat plain yogurt\n\n2 tablespoons peanut butter\n\n2 teaspoons chocolate whey protein powder\n\n2 teaspoons ground flaxseed\n\n6 ice cubes\n\n_Makes 2 8-ounce servings_\n\n_Per serving: 219 calories, 11 g protein, 20 g carbohydrates, 11 g fat (2 g saturated), 2 g fiber, 167 mg sodium_\n\n### **The Chocolate Latte (Powerfoods: 4)**\n\n\u00bd cup 1% chocolate milk\n\n\u00bd cup low-fat plain yogurt\n\n\u00bd banana\n\n1 tablespoon peanut butter\n\n\u00bd teaspoon finely ground coffee\n\n2 teaspoons chocolate whey protein powder\n\n6 ice cubes\n\n_Makes 2 8-ounce servings_\n\n_Per serving: 171 calories, 10 g protein, 20 g carbohydrates, 6 g fat (2 g saturated), 2 g fiber, 116 mg sodium_\n\n### **Abs Diet Trail Mix (Powerfoods: 4)**\n\nA ready-made power snack is an effective one: It gives you something to reach for when you're hungry, and it gives you good ingredients without guilt. Make this trail mix on the weekend, then keep stashes on hand at work and at home.\n\n1 cup whole almonds\n\n1 cup pecan halves\n\n1\u20443 cup plain oats\n\nCooking spray\n\n2 tablespoons honey\n\n\u00bd teaspoon cinnamon\n\n1 cup orange-flavored dried cranberries (Craisins)\n\n1 large packet dried apricots\n\n_Preheat oven to 350\u00b0F. Place nuts and oats in a bowl and spray evenly with cooking spray (about 3 shots). Drizzle with 1 tablespoon honey and add cinnamon, stirring to coat. Spread nuts evenly on a pan and toast for 15 minutes, stirring occasionally. Once they've cooled, stir in the second tablespoon of honey and mix in the dried fruit. Divide into \u00bc cup servings and place each into a zip-top bag._\n\n_Makes 9 to 10 servings_\n\n_Per serving: 170 calories, 3 g protein, 18 g carbohydrates, 9 g fat (0 g saturated), 3 g fiber, 0 mg sodium_\n\n### **The Cinnamon Girl (Powerfoods: 3)**\n\n\u00be cup instant oatmeal nuked in water\n\n2 tablespoons low-fat vanilla yogurt\n\n1 teaspoon honey\n\n1 teaspoon ground flaxseed\n\n1\u20448 teaspoon cinnamon\n\n6 ice cubes\n\n_Makes 2 8-ounce servings_\n\n_Per serving: 142 calories, 5 g protein, 25 g carbohydrates, 1 g fat (0 g saturated), 3 g fiber, 11 mg sodium_\n\n### **Peach Vacation (Powerfoods: 3)**\n\n\u00be cup 1% milk\n\n\u00be cup frozen or canned peaches (drain the syrup)\n\n2 tablespoons low-fat plain yogurt\n\n2 teaspoons vanilla whey protein powder\n\n6 ice cubes\n\n_Makes 2 8-ounce servings_\n\n_Per serving: 150 calories, 7 g protein, 29 g carbohydrates, 1.5 g fat (1 g saturated), 2 g fiber, 71 mg sodium_\n\n### **Mint Chocolate Morning (Powerfoods: 3)**\n\n\u00be cup 1% chocolate milk\n\n\u00bd cup low-fat vanilla yogurt\n\n2 teaspoons chocolate whey protein powder\n\n1 frozen Peppermint Pattie\n\n2 teaspoons ground flaxseed\n\n3 ice cubes\n\n_Makes 2 8-ounce servings_\n\n_Per serving: 168 calories, 9 g protein, 26 g carbohydrates, 3 g fat (1.5 g saturated), 1 g fiber, 116 mg sodium_\n\n### **The Hawaiian Five-O (Powerfoods: 4)**\n\n\u00bd cup 1% milk\n\n2 tablespoons low-fat plain yogurt\n\n\u00bc cup frozen orange juice concentrate\n\n\u00bd banana\n\n\u00bc cup strawberries\n\n\u00bc cup cubed ripe mango\n\n2 teaspoons vanilla whey protein powder\n\n3 ice cubes\n\n_Makes 2 8-ounce servings_\n\n_Per serving: 154 calories, 7 g protein, 31 g carbohydrates, 1 g fat (.5 g saturated), 2 g fiber, 50 mg sodium_\n\n### **The New Zealander (Powerfoods: 4)**\n\n1 cup 1% milk\n\n2 tablespoons low-fat plain yogurt\n\n1 medium peeled kiwifruit\n\n\u00bd cup strawberries\n\n2 teaspoons vanilla whey protein powder\n\n3 ice cubes\n\n_Makes 2 8-ounce servings_\n\n_Per serving: 110 calories, 8 g protein, 16 g carbohydrates, 2 g fat (1 g saturated), 2 g fiber, 83 mg sodium_\n\n### **The Almond Hammer (Powerfoods: 5)**\n\n\u00bd cup 1% milk\n\n\u00bd cup low-fat vanilla yogurt\n\n\u00bc cup sliced almonds\n\n2 teaspoons chocolate whey protein powder\n\n1 teaspoon honey\n\n1 teaspoon ground flaxseed\n\n6 ice cubes\n\n_Makes 2 8-ounce servings_\n\n_Per serving: 179 calories, 10 g protein, 18 g carbohydrates, 8 g fat (1.5 g saturated), 2 g fiber, 79 mg sodium_\n\n### **The Nutty Professor (Powerfoods: 5)**\n\n1 cup 1% chocolate milk\n\n2 tablespoons low-fat vanilla yogurt\n\n1 tablespoon frozen orange juice concentrate\n\n\u00bd banana\n\n1 tablespoon sliced almonds\n\n2 teaspoons chocolate whey protein powder\n\n2 teaspoons ground flaxseed\n\n6 ice cubes\n\n_Makes 2 8-ounce servings_\n\n_Per serving: 181 calories, 9 g protein, 29 g carbohydrates, 4 g fat (1 g saturated), 2 g fiber, 107 mg sodium_\n\n### **The Neapolitan (Powerfoods: 5)**\n\n\u00be cup 1% chocolate milk\n\n\u00bd cup low-fat vanilla yogurt\n\n\u00be cup sliced strawberries\n\n1 teaspoon ground flaxseed\n\n2 teaspoons vanilla whey protein powder\n\n3 ice cubes\n\n_Makes 2 8-ounce servings_\n\n_Per serving: 154 calories, 9 g protein, 25 g carbohydrates, 2 g fat (1 g saturated), 2 g fiber, 114 mg sodium_\n\n### **The Whey-Too-Good Smoothie (Powerfoods: 6)**\n\n\u00be cup part-skim ricotta cheese\n\n\u00be cup 1% chocolate milk\n\n\u00bc cup chopped pecans\n\n\u00bd banana\n\n2 tablespoons low-fat vanilla yogurt\n\n2 teaspoons ground flaxseed\n\n2 teaspoons chocolate whey protein powder\n\n6 ice cubes\n\n_Makes 2 8-ounce servings_\n\n_Per serving: 340 calories, 16 g protein, 30 g carbohydrates, 18 g fat (5 g saturated), 3 g fiber, 184 mg sodium_\n\n### **Abs Diet Sundae Parfait (Powerfoods: 3)**\n\nYep, it's still a diet. The ice cream gives you calcium and protein with only a modest amount of fat and refined sugar. Indulge and enjoy!\n\n\u00bd cup reduced-fat chocolate or vanilla ice cream\n\n\u00bc cup berries of your choice, slightly crushed\n\n1 tablespoon chopped nuts of your choice\n\n_Starting with the ice cream, layer the ingredients in a small bowl_.\n\n_Makes 1 serving_\n\n_Per serving: 162 calories, 4.5 g protein, 25 g carbohydrates, 5 g fat (2 g saturated), 1 g fiber, 56 mg sodium_\n\nChapter 9\n\n# **EATING OUT, EATING RIGHT**\n\n# The Abs Diet Restaurant Survival Guide\n\nEating out in a restaurant can be exciting, tempting, arousing . . . dangerous. Here's this seductive menu in front of you\u2014pictures and descriptions of creamy pasta, juicy burgers, cheese-drenched potato skins. They're looking at you. They're daring you. They're whispering in your ear with soft, slow, raspy voices: \"Order meeeeeee.\"\n\nSo you\u2014a person of dignity and restraint, a person with serious goals and a desire to change your body\u2014now have to decide. Do you give in to temptation? You know what's right\u2014what's good for you\u2014but the temptations are crying out to you: the smells, the specials, the free bread, the \"save any room for Chocolate Death?\" sales pitches. Oh, just this once won't hurt. . . .\n\nNo, it won't. But you're going to find yourself in restaurants again and again, still facing the same choices, still being lured by the same temptations. What do you do? It's simple: Look for the Powerfoods. And pull out your copy of _The Abs Diet Eat Right Every Time Guide._\n\nSee, you don't have to sacrifice flavor to eat healthy, and you don't have to deny yourself a night out on the town. You just have to know which menu options deliver the most nutrition with the least number of empty calories and bad-for-you ingredients. To help you through the decision-making process, I've compiled a tireless compendium of nearly every major chain restaurant in the country, with the best and the worst choices each of them has to offer.\n\n## **Fast-Food Joints**\n\nYou've probably already figured out that the grilled-chicken sandwich is the default option when you don't know what else to order. But even the greasiest of junk food Valhallas offers more healthy choices than you might suspect. And even if nothing on the menu qualifies as a health food, you can still cut down on empty calories and saturated fat by ordering smartly. The goal is to stick to the plan, not bore yourself off it. One fast-food burger now and then won't kill you. Just beware of special sauces, dips, and salad dressings. They're often loaded with calories and fat. Stick to ketchup, mustard, or barbecue sauce. And when given the choice, a second burger is usually better than the side of fries.\n\n### **Arby's**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Hot Ham & Swiss Melt_ 270 calories, 8 g fat (3.5 g saturated), 1140 mg sodium\n\n_Grilled Chicken Deluxe_ 380 calories, 12 g fat (2 g saturated), 920 mg sodium\n\n_Arby-Q sandwich_ 360 calories, 11 g fat (4.5 g saturated), 1210 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Arby baked potato with sour cream_ 320 calories, 12 g fat (7 g saturated), 45 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Medium fries_ 380 calories, 16 g fat (2.5 g saturated), 690 mg sodium\n\n**Eat that:** _Martha's Vineyard Salad with almonds and raspberry vinaigrette_ 501 calories, 27 g fat (6 g saturated), 830 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Market Fresh Roast Beef & Swiss_ 780 calories, 39 g fat (12 g saturated), 1740 mg sodium\n\n### **Baja Fresh**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_2 Baja-Style Charbroiled Chicken Tacos_ 360 calories, 8 g fat (1 g saturated), 460 mg sodium\n\n_Shrimp Ensalada_ 180 calories, 4 g fat (1.5 g saturated), 1010 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _2 Baja-Style Wild Gulf Shrimp Tacos_ 380 calories, 10 g fat (1 g saturated), 700 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Chicken Enchilada plate_ 770 calories, 24 g fat (10 g saturated), 2270 mg sodium\n\n**Eat that:** _Charbroiled Chicken Baja Ensalada with salsa_ 325 calories, 7 g fat (2 g saturated), 1150 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Burrito Ultimo with Charbroiled Steak_ 930 calories, 37 g fat (16 g saturated), 2010 mg sodium\n\n### **Burger King\/Breakfast**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Croissan'wich with egg_ 270 calories, 2 g fat (1.5 g saturated), 175 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Croissan'wich with sausage_ 380 calories, 27 g fat (9 g saturated), 630 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Croissan'wich with sausage, egg, and cheese_ 520 calories, 39 g fat (14 g saturated), 1090 mg sodium\n\n### **Burger King\/Lunch & Dinner**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Chicken Tenders (5 piece)_ 210 calories, 12 g fat (3.5 g saturated), 920 mg sodium (Add 35 calories for BBQ sauce or 90 for honey.)\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Medium Onion Rings_ 320 calories, 16 g fat (4 g saturated), 460 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Medium French Fries_ 360 calories, 18 g fat (5 g saturated), 640 mg sodium\n\n**Eat that:** _Chicken Whopper_ 570 calories, 25 g fat (4.5 g saturated), 1410 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Whopper_ 700 calories, 42 g fat (13 g saturated), 1020 mg sodium\n\n### **Chick-fil-A**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Chargrilled Chicken Sandwich_ 270 calories, 3.5 g fat (1 g saturated), 940 mg sodium\n\n_Fresh Fruit Cup_ 60 calories, 0 g fat (0 g saturated), 0 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Carrot and Raisin Salad_ 170 calories, 6 g fat (1 g saturated), 110 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Small waffle fries_ 280 calories, 14 g fat (5 g saturated), 105 mg sodium\n\n**Eat that:** _Chick-n-strips (4 count) (fried)_ 290 calories, 13 g fat (2.5 g saturated), 730 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Chargrilled Chicken Club_ 380 calories, 11 g fat (5 g saturated), 1240 mg sodium\n\n### **Chipotle**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENT:**\n\n_Burrito with black beans, vegetables, lettuce, and salsa_ 600 calories, 18 g fat (3.5 g saturated), 2378 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Burrito with black beans, vegetables, lettuce, and guacamole_ 770 calories, 33 g fat (6 g saturated), 2248 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Burrito with barbecue, rice, lettuce, salsa, cheese, sour cream_ 1120 calories, 51 g fat (20 g saturated), 2920 mg sodium\n\n### **Dairy Queen**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Grilled Chicken Sandwich_ 340 calories, 16 g fat (2.5 g saturated), 1000 mg sodium\n\n_Chocolate Soft Serve_ (\u00bd _cup)_ 150 calories, 5 g fat (3.5 g saturated), 75 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _2 Hot Dogs_ 480 calories, 28 g fat (10 g saturated), 1460 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Chicken Strip Basket with gravy_ 1000 calories, 50 g fat (13 g saturated), 2510 mg sodium\n\n**Eat that:** _Small Chocolate Sundae_ 280 calories, 7 g fat (4.5 g saturated), 140 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Medium Chocolate Malt_ 870 calories, 22 g fat (14 g saturated), 450 mg sodium\n\n### **Hardee's**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Country Ham Biscuit_ 440 calories, 26 g fat (6 g saturated), 1710 mg sodium\n\n_Slammer_ 240 calories, 12 g fat (5 g saturated), 300 mg sodium\n\n_Hot Ham 'n Cheese_ 287 calories, 13 g fat (6 g saturated), 1100 mg sodium\n\n_Mashed potatoes_ 90 calories, 2 g fat, 410 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Frisco Breakfast Sandwich_ 410 calories, 17 g fat (7 g saturated), 870 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Loaded Omelet Biscuit_ 640 calories, 44 g fat (14 g saturated), 1510 mg sodium\n\n**Eat this:** _Cole Slaw_ 170 calories, 10 g fat (2 g saturated), 140 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Medium Crispy Curls_ 410 calories, 20 g fat (5 g saturated), 1020 mg sodium\n\n**Eat that:** _Regular Roast Beef Sandwich_ 330 calories, 16 g fat (7 g saturated), 1220 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Half Pound Six Dollar Burger_ 1060 calories, 72 g fat (30 g saturated), 1860 mg sodium\n\n### **Jack in the Box\/Breakfast**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Breakfast Jack_ 305 calories, 14 g fat (4 g saturated), 715 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Sourdough Breakfast Sandwich_ 445 calories, 26 g fat (8 g saturated), 875 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Extreme Sausage Sandwich_ 690 calories, 50 g fat (17 g saturated), 1265 mg sodium\n\n### **Jack in the Box\/Lunch & Dinner**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Hamburger_ 310 calories, 14 g fat (5 g saturated), 590 mg sodium\n\n_Side salad with low-fat balsamic dressing_ 195 calories, 9.5 g fat (4.5 g saturated), 880 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Egg Roll (1)_ 175 calories, 6 g fat (2 g saturated), 470 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Stuffed Jalape\u00f1os (3 pieces)_ 230 calories, 13 g fat (6 g saturated), 690 mg sodium\n\n**Eat that:** _Chicken Fajita Pita_ 315 calories, 9 g fat (4 g saturated), 1080 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Sourdough Jack_ 715 calories, 51 g fat (18 g saturated), 1165 mg sodium\n\n### **KFC**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Original Recipe Chicken Breast (with skin and breading removed)_ 140 calories, 3 g fat (1 g saturated), 410 mg sodium\n\n_Mashed Potatoes with Gravy_ 110 calories, 4 g fat (1 g saturated), 260 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _BBQ Baked Beans_ 230 calories, 1 g fat (1 g saturated), 720 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Potato Wedges_ 240 calories, 12 g fat (3 g saturated), 830 mg sodium\n\n**Eat that:** _Honey Barbecue Sandwich_ 300 calories, 6 g fat (1.5 g saturated), 640 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Original Recipe Breast_ 380 calories, 19 g fat (6 g saturated), 1150 mg sodium\n\n### **Long John Silver's**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Baked Cod with cocktail sauce_ 145 calories, 2.5 g fat (1 g saturated), 490 mg sodium\n\n_Corn Cobette_ 95 calories, 3 g fat (0.5 g saturated), 0 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Chicken Plank (fried)_ 140 calories, 8 g fat (2.5 g saturated), 400 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Ultimate Fish Sandwich_ 500 calories, 25 g fat (8 g saturated), 1310 mg sodium\n\n**Eat that:** _Pineapple Cream Pie_ 290 calories, 13 g fat (7 g saturated), 210 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Chocolate Cream Pie_ 310 calories, 22 g fat (14 g saturated), 170 mg sodium\n\n### **McDonald's\/Breakfast**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENT:**\n\n_Egg McMuffin_ 290 calories, 11 g fat (4.5 g saturated), 850 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Sausage Burrito_ 300 calories, 16 g fat (6 g saturated), 760 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Sausage McMuffin with Egg_ 450 calories, 26 g fat (10 g saturated), 930 mg sodium\n\n### **McDonald's\/Lunch & Dinner**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Chicken McGrill_ 400 calories, 16 g fat (3 g saturated), 1010 mg sodium\n\n_Side Salad with Low-Fat Balsamic Vinaigrette_ 55 calories, 3 g fat (0 g saturated), 740 mg sodium\n\n_Fiesta salad with salsa_ 390 calories, 22 g fat (10 g saturated), 870 mg sodium\n\n_Fruit 'n Yogurt Parfait (with granola)_ 160 calories, 2 g fat (1 g saturated), 85 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Quarter Pounder_ 420 calories, 18 g fat (7 g saturated), 730 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Big Mac_ 560 calories, 30 g fat (10 g saturated), 1010 mg sodium\n\n**Eat this:** _Chicken Selects (3 piece) (Add 60 calories for buffalo sauce, 70 for honey mustard)_ 380 calories, 20 g fat (3.5 g saturated), 930 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Crispy Chicken Bacon Ranch Salad with dressing_ 620 calories, 31 g fat (8 g saturated), 1560 mg sodium\n\n**Eat that:** _Apple Dippers with Low-Fat Caramel Dip_ 100 calories, 1 g fat (0.5 g saturated), 35 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Baked Apple Pie_ 250 calories, 11 g fat (3 g saturated), 150 mg sodium\n\n### **Taco Bell**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Chicken Burrito, Fiesta style_ 370 calories, 12 g fat (3.5 g saturated), 1090 mg sodium\n\n_2 Ranchero Chicken Soft Tacos_ 540 calories, 14 g fat (4 g saturated), 1710 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Bean Burrito_ 370 calories, 10 g fat (3.5 g saturated), 1200 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Fiesta Taco Salad (without shell)_ 500 calories, 27 g fat (12 g saturated), 1520 mg sodium\n\n### **Wendy's**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Ultimate Chicken Grill sandwich_ 360 calories, 7 g fat (1.5 g saturated), 1100 mg sodium\n\n_Side Salad with Low-Fat Honey Mustard Dressing_ 145 calories, 3 g fat (0 g saturated), 360 mg sodium\n\n_Chili (small)_ 200 calories, 5 g fat (2 g saturated), 870 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Baked potato with sour cream_ 340 calories, 6 g fat (3.5 g saturated), 40 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Biggie fries_ 440 calories, 19 g fat (3.5 g saturated), 380 mg sodium\n\n**Eat that:** _Jr. Cheeseburger_ 310 calories, 12 g fat (6 g saturated), 820 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Spicy Chicken Fillet sandwich_ 510 calories, 19 g fat (3.5 g saturated), 1480 mg sodium\n\n## **Sandwich Shops**\n\nAlways start with building the right base: whole-wheat bread if they have it (rye is also a good choice because it has nearly as much fiber). Then make smart choices\u2014low-fat cheese (go easy on it if all they have is full-fat cheese); no fatty, salty cured cold cuts like pepperoni or salami; and top it with tomatoes and all the greens that bun can hold. And don't always trust the salads; many are loaded with saturated fats hiding in fried noodles, butter-soaked croutons, and goopy dressings.\n\n### **Atlanta Bread Company**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Roast beef sandwich_ 450 calories, 5 g fat (n\/a g saturated), 980 mg sodium\n\n_Turkey breast sandwich_ 420 calories, 4.5 g fat (n\/a g saturated), 1450 mg sodium\n\n_Greek chicken salad_ 210 calories, 10 g fat (n\/a g saturated), 690 mg sodium\n\n_Garden veggie soup (cup)_ 80 calories, 1 g fat (n\/a g saturated), 820 mg sodium\n\n_Country bean soup (cup)_ 140 calories, 1.5 g fat (n\/a g saturated), 1040 mg sodium\n\n_Fruit salad_ 140 calories, 1 g fat (n\/a g saturated), 15 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Chicken Caesar salad_ 310 calories, 11 g fat (N\/A g saturated), 580 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Turkey Club Panini_ 780 calories, 32 g fat (N\/A g saturated), 2000 mg sodium\n\n### **Au Bon Pain**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Grilled Salmon Salad Ficelle_ 280 calories, 7 g fat (2 g saturated), 490 mg sodium\n\n_Turkey Tenderloin Ficelle_ 310 calories, 9 g fat (1.5 g saturated), 860 mg sodium\n\n_Small Garden Salad_ 50 calories, 1 g fat (0 g saturated), 10 mg sodium\n\n_Blueberry yogurt with granola and fresh fruit (small)_ 310 calories, 6 g fat (2 g saturated), 130 mg sodium\n\n_Chargrilled Salmon Filet with Yellow Peppers salad_ 300 calories, 7 g fat (5 g saturated), 420 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Dijon Albacore Tuna sandwich_ 450 calories, 10 g fat (4.5 g saturated), 800 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Clam Chowder in a bread bowl_ 880 calories, 19 g fat (7 g saturated), 2500 mg sodium\n\n### **Blimpie**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_6-inch Turkey sub_ 344 calories, 5 g fat (0.5 g saturated), 1551 mg sodium\n\n_6-inch Grilled Chicken sub_ 373 calories, 9 g fat (2.5 g saturated), 836 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Vegi-Max sub_ 395 calories, 7 g fat (1.5 g saturated), 982 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Buffalo Chicken salad_ 390 calories, 28 g fat (7 g saturated), 1300 mg sodium\n\n### **Einstein Bros. Bagels**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Harvest Chicken Salad on Challah_ 400 calories, 9 g fat (1 g saturated), 520 mg sodium\n\n_100% Albacore Tuna on Artisan Wheat_ 400 calories, 9 g fat (1 g saturated), 520 mg sodium\n\n_Tortilla soup (cup)_ 170 calories, 2 g fat (0 g saturated), 1150 mg sodium\n\n_Jamaican Jerk Entr\u00e9e Salad_ 340 calories, 10 g fat (1 g saturated), 650 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Calypso Chicken Salad Sandwich_ 460 calories, 9 g fat (1 g saturated), 1100 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Club Mex on Challah Sandwich_ 620 calories, 27 g fat (10 g saturated), 1660 mg sodium\n\n**Eat that:** _Low-Fat Minestrone (cup)_ 120 carlories, 3.5 g fat (0 g saturated), 940 mg sodium)\n\n**Not that:** _Caribbean Crab Chowder (cup)_ 220 calories, 14 g fat (12 g saturated), 790 mg sodium)\n\n### **Panera Bread**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Smoked Turkey on Artisan Bread_ 590 calories, 16 g fat (1.5 g saturated), 2320 mg sodium\n\n_Asian Sesame Chicken Salad_ 330 calories, 17 g fat (2 g saturated), 1170 mg sodium\n\n_Low-Fat Vegetarian Black Bean soup (cup)_ 160 calories, 1 g fat (0 g saturated), 820 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** \u00bd _Chicken Caesar Salad\/Low-Fat Vegetarian Autumn Tomato Bisque combo_ 360 calories, 20 g fat (4 g saturated) 1675 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Pepperblue Steak Sandwich_ 780 calories, 38 g fat (8 g saturated), 2070 mg sodium _Broccoli Cheddar soup (cup)_ 230 calories, 16 g fat (9 g saturated), 1000 mg sodium\n\n### **Schlotzsky's Deli**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Dijon Chicken Sandwich (small)_ 329 calories, 4 g fat (N\/A g saturated), 1456 mg sodium\n\n_Fresh Fruit salad (small)_ 86 calories, 1 g fat (N\/A g saturated), 22 mg sodium\n\n_California Pasta salad (small)_ 58 calories, 3 g fat (N\/A g saturated), 250 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Albacore Tuna Sandwich (small)_ 334 calories, 7 g fat (N\/A g saturated), 1230 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _The Original sandwich (small)_ 525 calories, 24 g fat (N\/A g saturated), 1781 mg sodium\n\n### **Subway**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_6-inch roast beef sub_ 290 calories, 5 g fat (2 g saturated), 910 mg sodium\n\n_6-inch savory turkey sub_ 280 calories, 4.5 g fat (1.5 g saturated), 1010 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _6-inch roast beef sub with provolone_ 340 calories, 9 g fat (4 g saturated), 1035 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Meatball marinara sub with provolone_ 550 calories, 26 g fat (13 g saturated), 1305 mg sodium\n\n**Eat this:** _6-inch savory turkey with provolone_ 330 calories, 8.5 g fat (3.5 g saturated), 1135 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Atkins-Friendly Chicken Bacon Ranch Wrap_ 440 calories, 26 g fat (9 g saturated), 1550 mg sodium\n\n**Eat that:** _Oatmeal raisin cookie_ 200 calories, 8 g fat (2.5 g saturated), 170 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Peanut butter cookie_ 220 calories, 12 g fat (4 g saturated), 200 mg sodium\n\n### **Zabar's and other NYC-style delis**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENT:**\n\n_Turkey or ham on rye with lettuce, tomato, provolone, and mustard_ 370 calories, 12 g fat (6 g saturated), 1900 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Corned beef on rye with slaw and mustard_ 380 calories, 20 g fat (5 g saturated), 1500 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Egg salad on white with lettuce and tomato_ 750 calories, 60 g fat (11 g saturated), 900 mg sodium\n\n## **Breakfast Places**\n\nI can't emphasize enough the importance of eating the moment you wake up. They call it \"breakfast\" for a reason\u2014you've been fasting for the past 8 to 10 hours, and your body needs fuel. Eating immediately jump-starts your metabolism and starts you on your daily quest to turn fat into muscle. On the other hand, if you skip breakfast, even for a few hours, you signal your body to begin breaking down muscle for fuel. That's right: Every minute you wait between waking and eating is a minute more of muscle loss.\n\nThat said, sometimes the fastest way to add fuel to the fire is to swing by one of these joints (especially on those mornings where you wake up somewhere . . . unusual). As a rule, make sure they don't put full-fat milk in your coffee concoction, go with reduced-fat vegetable spread on your bagel, and never buy a pastry that's bigger than your head. In fact, if there's one food category I would ban if I could, it's pastries and doughnuts\u2014or, as they're known by their technical, scientific names, \"empty sugar calories fried in lard.\"\n\n### **Breakfast Diner (such as Bob Evans, Denny's, IHOP, Perkins, or Shoney's)**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_2 poached eggs_ 148 calories, 10 g fat (3 g saturated), 294 mg sodium\n\n_Plain whole-wheat toast (per slice)_ 128 calories, 2.5 g fat (.5 g saturated), 160 mg sodium\n\n_Canadian bacon_ 44 calories, 2 g fat (.5 g saturated), 364 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _2 scrambled eggs_ 170 calories, 11 g fat (3 g saturated), 482 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Western omelet with eggs_ 520 calories, 39 g fat (13 g saturated), 1280 mg sodium\n\n**Eat this:** _Plain English muffin_ 139 calories, 1 g fat (0 g saturated), 229 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Plain biscuit_ 280 calories, 12 g fat (3 g saturated), 760 mg sodium\n\n**Eat this:** _Bacon (2 slices)_ 72 calories, 4 g fat (2 g saturated), 54 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Sausage (2 links)_ 250 calories, 22 g fat (6 g saturated), 370 mg sodium\n\n### **Coffee Shop (such as Caribou Coffee, Dunkin' Donuts, Peet's Coffee, or Starbucks)**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENT:**\n\n_Cappuccino with fat-free milk (12 ounces)_ 80 calories, 0 g fat (0 g saturated), 105 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Latte with fat-free milk_ (12 ounces) 120 calories, 0 g fat (0 g saturated), 170 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Latte with whole milk_ (12 ounces) 200 calories, 11 g fat (7 g saturated), 160 mg sodium\n\n## **NUTRITIONAL DETECTIVE WORK**\n\nFood labels are all well and good when you're cooking for yourself, but what about those occasional nights (okay, endless stream of nights) when dinner is dished up by some pimply-faced kid with a paper hat and a bored expression? How do you know what, exactly, is in that paper-and-Styrofoam-wrapped monstrosity you're eating? In the land of \"special sauces\" and \"secret recipes,\" sussing out the nutritional realities of your favorite entrees can take a little detective work.\n\nIf the greasy floor beneath your feet is that of a national fast-food joint, the answers may be pretty easy to come by. Most fast-food restaurants post complete nutritional information on their Web sites. Many will also have posters hanging in some dim corner of the restaurant, if you're willing to search. Be aware of two caveats: First, these menus change all the time, so you need to make sure what you're ordering is what they've posted. Second, watch out for serving size and extra ingredients: At some chains, the numbers for the \"healthy\" salad don't include the fried Chinese noodles that come on top. Others give you the calorie count for a serving of their dressing, but the package that comes with the salad can be two or even three servings, not one.\n\nChain restaurants that feature actual menus and waiters are a mixed bag. Some deserve applause: Panera Bread Company and Don Pablo's Mexican Kitchen provide complete nutritional information on their Web sites. Others deserve a round of jeers: T.G.I. Friday's for example, refused to give us a nutritional breakdown of some of their foods, even when I called their corporate headquarters and harassed them. Applebee's will tell you the calorie count of their Weight Watchers items but not their regular fare. What's up with that?\n\nSo check your favorite chain's Web site. Even if they only list total calories, that's enough to make an informed decision\u2014when you read that half of an onion-blossom appetizer has 1600 calories, you can pretty much figure the meal should only be administered under a cardiologist's care. If you can't find the information you want on the Web, call their customer service line. They might be able to e-mail or fax it to you. And if that's not an option, well, tell them you want it to be.\n\n## **Bagel Shops**\n\n### **Bruegger's Bagels**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Honey Grain bagel_ 330 calories, 3 g fat (0 g saturated), 500 mg sodium\n\n. . . _with Light garden veggie cream cheese_ 60 calories, 4 g fat (2.5 g saturated), 75 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Pumpernickel bagel_ 320 calories, 3 g fat (0 g saturated), 600 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Salt bagel_ 300 calories, 2 g fat (0 g saturated), 1540 mg sodium\n\n**Eat this:** . . . _with Light plain cream cheese_ 70 calories, 4.5 g fat (2 g saturated), 90 mg sodium\n\n**Not this:** . . . _with Light plain cream cheese_ 100 calories, 8 g fat (5 g saturated), 105 mg sodium\n\n### **Manhattan Bagel Co.**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Spinach bagel_ 270 calories, <1 g fat (0 g saturated), 580 mg sodium\n\n. . . _with Light vegetable cream cheese_ 50 calories, 5 g fat (2.5 g saturated), 100 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Rye bagel_ 260 calories, 1 g fat (0 g saturated), 560 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Chocolate chip bagel_ 290 calories, 2.5 g fat (1.5 g saturated), 530 mg sodium **Not that:** . . . _with French vanilla cream cheese_ 100 calories, 7 g fat (4.5 g saturated), 85 mg sodium\n\n**Eat that:** . . . _with Light raisin walnut cream cheese_ 80 calories, 5 g fat (3 g saturated), 75 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** . . . _with French vanilla cream cheese_ 100 calories, 7 g fat (4.5 g saturated), 85 mg sodium\n\n### **Bakery (such as Au Bon Pain, Atlanta Bread Company, Bruegger's Bagels, Caribou Coffee, Einstein Bros. Bagels, Panera, or Starbucks)**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENT:**\n\n_Biscotti_ 110 calories, 5 g fat (1.5 g saturated), 75 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Fruit or Raisin Scone_ 410 calories, 14 g fat (8 g saturated), 350 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Coffee cake_ 570 calories, 28 g fat (10 g saturated), 310 mg sodium\n\n## **Doughnut Shop**\n\n### **Dunkin' Donuts**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENT:**\n\n_Plain glazed donut_ 180 calories, 8 g fat (1.5 g saturated), 250 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Jelly-filled donut_ 210 calories, 8 g fat (1.5 g saturated), 280 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Old Fashioned cake donut_ 300 calories, 19 g fat (5 g saturated), 330 mg sodium\n\n### **Krispy Kreme**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENT:**\n\n_Original glazed donut_ 200 calories, 12 g fat (3 g saturated), 95 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Maple iced glazed donut_ 240 calories, 12 g fat (3 g saturated), 100 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Dulce de leche_ 290 calories, 18 g fat (4.5 g saturated), 160 mg sodium\n\n## **Sit-Down Restaurants**\n\nHere's the big secret about those casual-dinner chain restaurants: They're really all the same place. Sure, there are some slight variations\u2014Ruby Tuesday may give its spinach dip the pedestrian name while T.G.I. Friday's dubs theirs \"Tuscan\"\u2014but both are the same vat of once-healthy vegetables sunk in saturated fat. The same principle applies to steak houses\u2014a sirloin is a sirloin is a sirloin; maybe one place offers it in a 10-ounce cut while another in 12 ounces, but the meat remains the same. So even though these recommendations are not keyed to a specific restaurant, you can use them anywhere. At the steak house, look for cuts with \"loin\" in its name.\n\n### **Steak House**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Filet, aka tenderloin (9 ounces)_ 360 calories, 19 g fat (10 g saturated), 330 mg sodium\n\n_Barbecued chicken breast (10 ounces)_ 280 calories, 5 g fat (2 g saturated), 860 mg sodium\n\n_Steamed mixed vegetables_ 70 calories, 1 g fat (0 g saturated), 900 mg sodium\n\n_Side salad with light dressing_ 200 calories, 9 g fat (1 g saturated), 51 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Sirloin (12 ounces)_ 410 calories, 18 g fat (9 g saturated), 470 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Prime rib (16 ounces)_ 1280 calories, 94 g fat (52 g saturated), 620 mg sodium\n\n**Eat this:** _Saut\u00e9ed mushrooms_ 115 calories, 9 g fat (2 g saturated), 600 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Steak fries_ 590 calories, 31 g fat (12 g saturated), 460 mg sodium\n\n**Eat that:** _Baked potato with sour cream_ 280 calories, 3 g fat (2 g saturated), 200 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Side Caesar salad_ 310 calories, 26 g fat (7 g saturated), 620 mg sodium\n\n### **Casual Sit-Down (such as Applebee's, Bennigan's, Cheesecake Factory, Friendly's, Perkins, O'Charley's, Ruby Tuesday, T.G.I. Friday's, or pretty much any restaurant with an apostrophe s)**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Vegetable Soup (cup)_ 100 calories, 1 g fat (0 g saturated), 610 mg sodium\n\n_Grilled chicken (6 ounces)_ 270 calories, 8 g fat (3 g saturated), 650 mg sodium\n\n_Grilled salmon (8 ounces)_ 420 calories, 21 g fat (4 g saturated), 340 mg sodium\n\n_Vegetable of the day_ 60 calories, 3 g fat (1 g saturated), 150 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Steak fajitas with salsa_ 860 calories, 31 g fat (12 g saturated), 1660 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Rack of ribs (16 ounces)_ 770 calories, 54 g fat (21 g saturated), 770 mg sodium\n\n**Eat this:** _Baked potato with sour cream_ 280 calories, 3 g fat (2 g saturated), 30 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Loaded baked potato_ 620 calories, 31 g fat (19 g saturated), 570 mg sodium\n\n**Eat this:** _Apple pie_ 540 calories, 28 g fat (13 g saturated), 440 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Fudge cake or brownie sundae_ 1130 calories, 57 g fat (30 g saturated), 400 mg sodium\n\n### **Diner**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Pot roast_ 370 calories, 16 g fat (7 g saturated), 570 mg sodium\n\n_Grilled chicken_ 476 calories, 14 g fat (3 g saturated), 1494 mg sodium\n\n_Vegetable of the day_ 60 calories, 3 g fat (1 g saturated), 150 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Roast turkey with stuffing_ 500 calories, 19 g fat (9 g saturated), 2190 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Chicken pot pie_ 680 calories, 37 g fat (17 g saturated), 1590 mg sodium\n\n**Eat this:** _Cole slaw_ 170 calories, 14 g fat (2 g saturated), 380 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Fries_ 600 calories, 30 g fat (12 g saturated), 460 mg sodium\n\n**Eat that:** _Tuna melt_ 537 calories, 28 g fat (13 g saturated), 1518 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Patty melt_ 770 calories, 50 g fat (25 g saturated), 1130 mg sodium\n\n### **Boston Market**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Hand-carved rotisserie turkey_ 170 calories, 1 g fat (0 g saturated), 850 mg sodium\n\n_Fresh steamed broccoli_ 30 calories, 0 g fat (0 g saturated), 30 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** \u00bc _sweet garlic rotisserie chicken (white meat, no skin or wing)_ 170 calories, 4 g fat (1 g saturated), 480 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Chipotle meat loaf and chipotle gravy_ 860 calories, 55 g fat (23 g saturated), 1750 mg sodium\n\n**Eat that:** _Green beans_ 70 calories, 4 g fat (0.5 g saturated), 250 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Squash casserole_ 330 calories, 24 g fat (13 g saturated), 1110 mg sodium\n\n### **Italian Restaurant (such as Olive Garden, Carrabba's, Macaroni Grill, or Fazoli's)**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Minestrone soup (cup)_ 100 calories, 1 g fat (0 g saturated), 610 mg sodium\n\n_Chicken Marsala_ 460 calories, 25 g fat (7 g saturated), 790 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Pasta with marinara sauce_ 850 calories, 17 g fat (4 g saturated), 1450 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Pasta with Alfredo sauce_ 1500 calories, 97 g fat (48 g saturated), 1030 mg sodium\n\n**Eat this:** _Cheese ravioli with tomato sauce_ 620 calories, 26 g fat (11 g saturated), 1290 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Lasagna_ 960 calories, 53 g fat (21 g saturated), 2060 mg sodium\n\n**Eat that:** _Soft breadsticks (2)_ 280 calories, 12 g fat (2 g saturated), 640 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Antipasto (half an order)_ 315 calories, 24 g fat (8 g saturated), 1480 mg sodium\n\n### **Mexican Restaurant (such as Don Pablo's or Chili's)**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Chicken fajitas with lettuce and pico de gallo_ 850 calories, 30 g fat (6 g saturated), 2100 mg sodium\n\n_Side of stewed black, kidney, or pinto beans_ 120 calories, 2 g fat (0 g saturated), 400 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Enchiladas combo (beef and chicken)_ 615 calories, 35 g fat (15 g saturated), 1800 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Chicken chimichanga_ 1100 calories, 50 g fat (15 g saturated), 3300 mg sodium\n\n**Eat that:** _Chips (12) with guacamole (2.5 ounces)_ 380 calories, 22 g fat (4 g saturated), 300 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Chips (12) with cheese dip (2 ounces)_ 440 calories, 25 g fat (7 g saturated), 920 mg sodium\n\n### **Chinese Restaurant (such as Panda Express or P.F. Chang's)**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Egg drop soup_ 60 calories, 3 g fat (1 g saturated), 1000 mg sodium _Stir-fried vegetables_ 750 calories, 19 g fat (3 g saturated), 2150 mg sodium\n\n_Szechuan shrimp_ 950 calories, 20 g fat (2 g saturated), 2460 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Shrimp with garlic sauce_ 950 calories, 30 g fat (4 g saturated), 2950 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Beef with broccoli_ 1180 calories, 46 g fat (9 g saturated), 3150 mg sodium\n\n**Eat this:** _Chicken chow mein_ 1000 calories, 32 g fat (10 g saturated), 2450 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _General Tso's chicken_ 1600 calories, 60 g fat (10 g saturated), 3200 mg sodium\n\n**Eat that:** _Vegetarian spring roll_ 80 calories, 2.5 g fat (0 g saturated), 270 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Chicken\/pork egg roll_ 200 calories, 10 g fat (1 g saturated), 450 mg sodium\n\n### **Sushi Bar**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Edamame (2 ounces)_ 86 calories, 4 g fat (0 g saturated), 8 mg sodium\n\n_Miso soup (cup)_ 50 calories, 2 g fat (n\/a g saturated), 310 mg sodium\n\n_Tuna roll (12 pieces)_ 260 calories, 1.5 g fat (0 g saturated), 270 mg sodium\n\n_Nigiri, salmon (3 pieces)_ 192 calories, 2 g fat (0 g saturated), 126 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _California roll (12 pieces)_ 290 calories, 5 g fat (1 g saturated), 380 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Crunchy shrimp roll (12 pieces)_ 650 calories, 19 g fat (2 g saturated), 1247 mg sodium\n\n**Eat that:** _Nigiri, shrimp (3 pieces)_ 267 calories, 2.5 g fat (0 g saturated), 273 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Nigiri, eel (3 pieces)_ 258 calories, 7 g fat (1.5 g saturated), 432 mg sodium\n\n### **Seafood Restaurant**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Shrimp cocktail (3 ounces)_ 80 calories, 1 g fat (0 g saturated), 190 mg sodium\n\n_Grilled or broiled white fish (6 ounces)_ 210 calories, 5 g fat (1 g saturated), 360 mg sodium\n\n_Grilled or broiled salmon (8 ounces)_ 420 calories, 21 g fat (4 g saturated), 340 mg sodium\n\n_Salad with light dressing_ 90 calories, 7 g fat (1 g saturated), 490 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Broiled salmon (8 ounces)_ 420 calories, 21 g fat (4 g saturated), 340 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Fried white fish (9 ounces)_ 520 calories, 24 g fat (8 g saturated), 840 mg sodium\n\n**Eat this:** _Cup of Manhattan-style clam chowder_ 153 calories, 1 g fat (0 g saturated), 680 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Cup of New England\u2013style clam chowder_ 250 calories, 7 g fat (2 g saturated), 1400 mg sodium\n\n## **Pizza Places**\n\n### ****Domino's****\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENT:**\n\n_2 slices medium thin-crust Vegi-Feast cheese pizza_ 336 calories, 19 g fat (7 g saturated), 793 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _2 slices medium thin-crust Hawaiian Feast pizza_ 348 calories, 19 g fat (7 g saturated), 908 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _2 slices medium hand-tossed Bacon Cheeseburger Feast pizza_ 546 calories, 26 g fat (11 g saturated), 1268 mg sodium\n\n**Eat that:** _Hot buffalo wings (2 pieces)_ 90 calories, 5 g fat (1 g saturated), 508 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Cheesy Bread (2 pieces)_ 246 calories, 13 g fat (4 saturated), 324 mg sodium\n\n## **DANGER AT YOUR DOORSTEP**\n\nThe TV ads are tempting, but which delivery pizza will turn your Blockbuster night into your very own _Return of the Blob_?\n\n**Domino's** _2 slices medium (12\u2033) cheese pizza_ 372 calories, 11 g fat (4 g saturated), 770 mg sodium\n\n**Little Caesar's** _2 slices medium (12\u2033) round cheese pizza_ 320 calories, 12 g fat (5 g saturated), 640 mg sodium\n\n**Pizza Hut** _2 slices medium (12\u2033) hand-tossed crust cheese pizza_ 480 calories, 16 g fat (9 g saturated), 1040 mg sodium\n\n**Papa John's** _2 slices medium (12\u2033) original-crust cheese pizza_ 420 calories, 16 g fat (5 g saturated), 1060 mg sodium\n\n### **Pizza Hut**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENT:**\n\n_2 slices medium Fit 'n' Delicious Ham, Pineapple, and Diced Tomato pizza_ 320 calories, 8 g fat (4 g saturated), 940 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _2 slices medium Thin 'n' Crispy Chicken Supreme pizza_ 400 calories, 14 g fat (7 g saturated), 1040 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _2 slices medium Pepperoni Lover's Pan pizza_ 660 calories, 36 g fat (14 g saturated), 1340 mg sodium\n\n**Eat that:** _Hot wings (2 pieces)_ 110 calories, 6 g fat (2 g saturated), 450 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Cheese Breadsticks (2 pieces)_ 400 calories, 20 g fat (7 g saturated), 680 mg sodium\n\n### **Papa John's**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENT:**\n\n_2 slices medium original-crust Garden Fresh pizza_ 380 calories, 12 g fat (3 g saturated), 940 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _2 slices medium original-crust Grilled Chicken Alfredo pizza_ 420 calories, 14 g fat (5 g saturated), 1020 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _2 slices medium original-crust The Meats pizza_ 540 calories, 26 g fat (8 g saturated), 1420 mg sodium\n\n**Eat this:** _Papa's Chicken Strips (2 pieces)_ 160 calories, 8 g fat (2 g saturated), 350 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Cheesesticks (2 pieces)_ 360 calories, 16 g fat (4.5 g saturated), 830 mg sodium\n\n## **DANGER IN YOUR FREEZER**\n\nDelivery pizza might seem like an extravagance when you could just pop one of those frozen pies into the oven, but ordering delivery can actually save you on calories and sodium as well. That's because pizza joints use mostly fresh ingredients. Here's a rundown of the most popular brands:\n\n**Tony's** _2 slices cheese (Cut into_ _1 \u20446ths)_ 370 calories, 17 g fat (6 g saturated), 780 mg sodium\n\n**Freschetta** _2 slices cheese (Cut into 1\u20448ths)_ 463 calories, 16 g fat (7.5 g saturated), 1288 mg sodium\n\n**DiGiorno** _2 slices cheese (Cut into_ _1 \u20448ths)_ 465 calories, 16.5 g fat (7.5 g saturated), 1275 mg sodium\n\n## **Smoothie Stands**\n\nI prefer you make your own smoothie, but sometimes you need one on the go. If so, always get yours with extra protein (you'd be surprised how many of these shakes are just fruit, water, and air). Then, make sure the shake contains a gram or two of fat, otherwise your body won't absorb many of the fat-soluble nutrients from all that fruit. Simply asking it to be made with low-fat milk or yogurt will do the trick. But beware fat bombs. Here's a clue: If it sounds more like a dessert than a beverage for someone with an active lifestyle, skip it.\n\n### **Jamba Juice**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Berry Fulfilling (16 ounces)_ 160 calories, 0.5 g fat (0 g saturated), 230 mg sodium\n\n_Orange Divine (16 ounces)_ 160 calories, 0.5 g fat (0 g saturated), 230 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Banana Berry (16 ounces)_ 310 calories, 0.5 g fat (0 g saturated), 75 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Chocolate Moo'd (16 ounces)_ 500 calories, 6 g fat (4 g saturated), 260 mg sodium\n\n### **Smoothie King**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Slim-N-Trim vanilla_ 227 calories, 1 g fat (0 g saturated), 150 mg sodium\n\n_Blueberry Heaven_ 260 calories, 1 g fat (0 g saturated), 200 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _The Activator, Chocolate_ 429 calories, 1 g fat (0 g saturated), 260 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Pina Colada Island_ 550 calories, 11 g fat (9 g saturated), 300 mg sodium\n\n## **Food Courts at Malls**\n\nSpend more time eating than you do shopping, and you'll end up having to go back\u2014for bigger clothes. Don't even think about stopping at Cinnabon; eat one of their cinnamon-buns-on-steroids, and you'll rack up 813 calories and 8 grams of saturated fat. Here are the best stops so you won't drop while you shop.\n\n### **Auntie Anne's**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Jalape\u00f1o pretzel (without butter) with marinara sauce_ 280 calories, 1 g fat (0 g saturated), 960 mg sodium\n\n_Whole wheat pretzel (without butter)_ 350 calories, 1.5 g fat (0 g saturated), 1100 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Garlic pretzel (without butter) with sweet mustard_ 380 calories, 2.5 g fat (1 g saturated), 950 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Original pretzel (without butter) with cheese sauce_ 440 calories, 9 g fat (4 g saturated), 1410 mg sodium\n\n### **Mrs. Fields**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENT:**\n\n_Debra's Special Nibbler Cookie_ 100 calories, 4.5 g fat (2 g saturated), 80 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Peanut Butter Bite-Size Nibbler Cookie_ 110 calories, 6 g fat (2.5 g saturated), 95 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Milk Chocolate Chip Cookie_ 280 calories, 13 g fat (8 g saturated), 180 mg sodium\n\n### **Sbarro**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_1 slice fresh tomato pizza_ 450 calories, 14 g fat (n\/a g saturated), 1040 mg sodium\n\n_1 slice mushroom pizza_ 460 calories, 14 g fat (n\/a g saturated), 1310 mg sodium\n\n_Greek salad (side)_ 60 calories, 5 g fat (n\/a g saturated), 130 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _1 slice chicken vegetable pizza_ 530 calories, 17 g fat (n\/a g saturated), 1260 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _1 slice pepperoni pizza_ 730 calories, 37 g fat (n\/a g saturated), 2200 mg sodium\n\n## **Ballparks**\n\nI'm a big fan of smuggling in your own food: It makes healthy eating easier, it makes you feel like a little bit of a rebel, and it avoids the humiliation of paying $453 for one hot dog. But if you can't or won't smuggle trail mix in your underwear, you can still grab a handful of Powerfoods. If you have to pile something on, make it insults to the other team, not nacho cheese.\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Roasted peanuts in shell, unsalted (3 ounces)_ 510 calories, 37 g fat (7.5 g saturated), 0 mg sodium\n\n_Light beer (12 ounces)_ 103 calories, 0 g fat (0 g saturated), 0 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Nachos (12\u201316 nachos)_ 692 calories, 38 g fat (16 g saturated), 1632 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Popcorn popped in oil (medium, 16-cup serving)_ 880 calories, 50 g fat (9 g saturated), 1556 mg sodium\n\n**Eat this:** _Regular beer (12 ounces)_ 139 calories, 0 g fat (0 g saturated), 14 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Cola (16 ounces)_ 155 calories, 0 g fat (0 g saturated), 15 mg sodium\n\n## **Sports Bars**\n\nAlcohol will weaken your defenses; so will the fact that 380-pound offensive tackles are considered pro athletes. So I'll make you a deal: If you are paid millions of dollars to shove enormous men in helmets each Sunday, then order whatever you want. If not, then follow the guidelines below.\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENT:**\n\n_Salted nuts (per ounce)_ 168 calories, 15 g fat (2 g saturated), 190 mg sodium\n\n_Hot wings (4\u20135 wings)_ 350 calories, 24 g fat (8 g saturated), 510 mg sodium\n\n_Fried mozzarella sticks (3 pieces)_ 375 calories, 21 g fat (7 saturated), 780 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Chicken fingers (5 pieces)_ 620 calories, 34 g fat (13 g saturated), 1450 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Cheese fries with ranch dressing (2 cups)_ 1500 calories, 108 g fat (46 g saturated), 1300 mg sodium\n\n**Eat that:** _Burger (Lettuce, tomato, onion, mustard)_ 660 calories, 36 g fat (17 g saturated), 810 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Mushroom cheese-burger_ 900 calories, 57 g fat (28 g saturated), 1070 mg sodium\n\n## **Ice Cream Shops**\n\nFirst, come here directly after a meal. You'll be less likely to pig out. Second, don't stress too much about it; ice cream may be sugary and high in calories, but it also provides protein and calcium. As indulgences go, it's hardly a high crime. So don't waste your time on nasty no-sugar-added ice creams; no sense eating food you don't enjoy. Instead, look for reduced-fat options and add Powerfoods (nuts and fruit) whenever possible. And if you completely ignore all that advice, take this tip: Order the ice cream you absolutely love . . . in a single-scoop cup.\n\n### **Baskin-Robbins**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENTS:**\n\n_Espresso 'n Cream low-fat ice cream (1 scoop)_ 180 calories, 4 g fat (1.5 g saturated), 120 mg sodium\n\n_Perils of Praline low-fat yogurt (1 scoop)_ 190 calories, 3.5 g fat (1.5 g saturated), 170 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Very Berry Strawberry ice cream (1 scoop)_ 220 calories, 11 g fat (7 g saturated), 70 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Fudge Brownie ice cream (2 scoops)_ 600 calories, 38 g fat (22 g saturated), 280 mg sodium\n\n### **Cold Stone Creamery**\n\n**ABS DIET ENDORSEMENT:**\n\n_Low-fat chocolate ice cream with blueberries or strawberries (\"Like it\" size)_ 240 calories, 1.5 g fat (1 g saturated), 140 mg sodium\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Any fruit-flavored ice cream (strawberry, raspberry, banana, etc.) with blueberries (\"Like it\" size)_ 210 calories, 22 g fat (14 g saturated), 90 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Any fruit-flavored ice cream (strawberry, raspberry, banana, etc.) with brownie pieces in a cone (\"Love it\" size)_ 670 calories, 46 g fat (26 g saturated), 400 mg sodium\n\n### **ABS DIET SUCCESS STORY**\n\n## **HE WANTED TO CHASE AFTER HIS KIDS, SO HE CHASED AFTER A GOAL**\n\n**Name:** William Salerno\n\n**Age:** 38\n\n**Height:** 5\u20329\u2033\n\n**Weight, Week 1:** 222\n\n**Weight, Week 6:** 198\n\nHaving twins 2 years ago meant that William Salerno was going to be busier than ever. He was in a job that required him to routinely work 12-hour days, plus now he had to help care for two young children. And that's when it hit him.\n\n\"I feel like I'm an older dad and that I gotta stay ahead of these guys,\" Salerno says. \"I want to be like my father was with me\u2014always active. And that got me thinking.\"\n\nThat's when his business manager told him he had to read _The Abs Diet_.\n\n\"When I read it, something clicked. I'm amazed by it because I usually don't go for those kinds of books. Usually they don't do anything for me,\" he says. \"I started to read it in my office one day and read it for a couple hours. I carried it everywhere. Now I talk about trans fats and high-fructose corn syrup to anybody who'll listen to me.\"\n\nHe reads food ingredients on everything\u2014and remains pumped up about the plan.\n\n\"Almonds are a god,\" he says.\n\nA side benefit is that he no longer experiences any symptoms with gout\u2014a disorder that causes pain in the joints that's hampered Salerno in the past.\n\n\"My theory is that if I'm 220, then I could very well have been 230\u2014I was in that range for a couple of years,\" Salerno says. \"People see me now and they say, where'd it all go? They think I'm starving myself, and I'm not. It's so refreshing and unbelievable.\"\n\nNow, he can't stop talking about it.\n\n\"I quoted passages to my wife so often that she began calling me 'the _Abs Diet_ zealot.'\"\nChapter 10\n\n# **INDULGE AND ENJOY**\n\n# The Abs Diet Holiday Survival Guide\n\n**I F A DIET IS AN ANT,** then the holidays are the bottom of a shoe, because they have the power to squash you every time. Between the cookies, meat loaf, more cookies, eggnog, fruitcake, mashed potatoes and gravy (oh, the gravy), many of us cram 6 months of eating into 6 weeks. The result: Come January, the only thing you're trying to cram is 4 extra inches into your jeans.\n\nAs you know, the Abs Diet isn't about deprivation, so I want you to have the occasional tussle with a kilo-high mound of stuffing. If you do that for 6 weeks straight, you'll have succeeded\u2014on the Flabs Diet. Since you have one cheat meal per week, I suggest you play your card around the biggest bomb\u2014whether it's Thanksgiving dinner, the Christmas party, or a date with Aunt Matilda's can't-resist chocolate cheesecake\u2014and then sidestep the dietary land mines through the rest of the week. To eat right throughout the holidays, these choices will help you avoid turning your diet into a disaster.\n\n### **Halloween**\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Bit-O-Honey_ Per 6 pieces: 186 calories, 4 g fat (0 g saturated), 124 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Whoppers_ Per 9 pieces: 125 calories, 7 g fat (4 g saturated), 38 mg sodium\n\n**Eat this:** _Kit Kat_ Per miniature bar: 51 calories, 3 g fat (1.7 g saturated), 6 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Reese's Pieces_ About 30 pieces: 120 calories, 6 g fat (4 g saturated), 47 mg sodium\n\n**Eat this:** _Milky Way_ Per fun-size piece: 76 calories, 3 g fat (1 g saturated), 43 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Butterfinger_ Per fun-size piece: 100 calories, 4 g fat (2 g saturated), 45 mg sodium\n\n### **Thanksgiving Dinner**\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:**\n\n_1 serving turkey breast_\n\n_2 \u20443 cup mashed potatoes_\n\n_1 \u20443 cup turkey gravy_\n\n_1 dinner roll_\n\n_1 cup corn_\n\n_1 slice jellied cranberry sauce_\n\n_1 slice pumpkin pie_\n\nTOTAL: 1233 calories, 39 g fat (11 g saturated), 1493 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:**\n\n_1 serving dark turkey meat_\n\n_1 cup stuffing_\n\n_2 \u20443 cup sweet potatoes with marshmallow topping_\n\n_1 cup green-bean casserole_\n\n_1 cup homemade cranberry sauce_\n\n_1 slice pecan pie_\n\nTOTAL: 1944 calories, 90 g fat (26 g saturated), 2512 mg sodium\n\n### **Thanksgiving Leftovers**\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:**\n\n_1 serving turkey breast on 2 pieces whole grain bread with lettuce, cranberry sauce_\n\n\u00bd _cup green-bean casserole_\n\nTOTAL: 530 calories, 20 g fat (7 g saturated), 1015 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:**\n\n_1 serving turkey on kaiser roll with mayo  \n2\u20443 cup mashed potatoes_\n\n_1 \u20443 cup turkey gravy_\n\nTOTAL: 665 calories, 30 g fat (7 g saturated), 1300 mg sodium\n\n### **Black Friday at the Mall**\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _1 Auntie Anne's Cinnamon-Sugar pretzel (without butter)_ 350 calories, 2 g fat (0 g saturated), 430 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _1 Cinnabon cinnamon bun_ 813 calories, 32 g fat (8 g saturated, 5 g trans fat), 801 mg sodium\n\n**Eat this:** _TCBY frozen yogurt (small)_ 110 calories, 0 g fat, 60 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Orange Julius (small)_ 220 calories, 1 g fat (0 g saturated), 10 mg sodium\n\n### **At the Office in December**\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _1 handful roasted pistachios_ 175 calories, 14 g fat (1.7 g saturated), 125 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _1 handful_ (\u00bc _cup) holiday M &M's_ 256 calories, 11 g fat (7 g saturated), 32 mg sodium\n\n**Eat this:** _1 brownie (2\u2033 square)_ 165 calories, 7 g fat (2 g saturated), 82 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _A few chunks of peanut brittle_ 274 calories, 11 g fat (2 g saturated), 252 mg sodium\n\n**Eat this:** _1 Hershey's Kiss_ 26 calories, 1.5 g fat (1 g saturated), 4 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _1 1-ounce candy cane_ 110 calories, 0 g fat, 11 mg sodium\n\n### **Christmas Dinner**\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:**\n\n_8 ounces turkey breast_\n\n_2 \u20443 cup stuffing_\n\n_1 cup sweet potatoes_\n\n_1 slice cranberry sauce_\n\n_2 \u20443 cup creamed corn_\n\n_Sliver pecan pie_\n\n_Sliver pumpkin pie_\n\n_Glass of red wine_\n\nTOTAL: 1653 calories, 50 g fat (12 g saturated), 1444 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:**\n\n_8 ounces ham_\n\n_Dinner roll with 2 pats butter_\n\n_1 cup mashed potatoes_\n\n\u00bd _cup gravy_\n\n_1 cup green-bean casserole_\n\n_Slice pumpkin pie with heavy whipped cream_\n\n_Glass of beer_\n\nTOTAL: 1670 calories, 87 g fat (41 g saturated), 5671 mg sodium\n\n### **New Year's Eve**\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _12 large shrimp with 2 tablespoons cocktail sauce_ 125 calories, 1 g fat (0 g saturated), 948 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _1 small crab cake_ 285 calories, 12 g fat (2 g saturated), 807 mg sodium\n\n**Drink this:** _Champagne_ 105 calories, 0 g fat, 0 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Vodka tonic_ 125 calories, 0 g fat, 7 mg sodium\n\n**Eat this:** _8 melon balls wrapped in prosciutto_ 220 calories, 11 g fat (4 g saturated), 1650 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _1 potato pancake with smoked salmon and caviar_ 313 calories, 17 g fat (4 g saturated), 1760 mg sodium\n\n## **Feasts, Not Famine**\n\nAt the end of the year, you're tempted everywhere\u2014at meals, at the secretary's candy jar, under the mistletoe. If you can make it through the biggest fat wave of the year, the other 10 months will be smoother than a supermodel's freshly shaved legs. Sure, you'll hit the occasional holiday feast. Go ahead and enjoy them, but know that you can always make decisions to satisfy your tastes and cravings without drowning yourself in fat.\n\n### **Super Bowl Party**\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:**\n\n_2 handfuls assorted nuts_\n\n_Baked tortilla chips with salsa_\n\n_2 slices turkey or roast beef hoagie with cheese_\n\nTOTAL: 848 calories, 36 g fat (10 g saturated), 2372 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:**\n\n_Celery with onion dip_\n\n_Nacho chips with 7-layer bean and cheese dip_\n\n_15 hot wings_\n\nTOTAL:1264 calories, 86 g fat (26 g saturated), 2229 mg sodium\n\n### **St. Patrick's Day**\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Drink this:** _Guinness (12 ounces)_ 126 calories; _Beamish Irish Cr\u00e8me Stout (12 ounces)_ 146 calories; _Amstel Light (12 ounces)_ 99 calories\n\n**Not that:** _Beck's Dark (12 ounces)_ 146 calories; _Sam Adams Cream Stout (12 ounces)_ 195 calories; _Michelob Light (12 ounces)_ 134 calories\n\n### **Easter Dinner**\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:**\n\n_1 8-ounce serving lamb_\n\n_1 cup roasted potatoes with olive oil_\n\n_1 cup steamed spinach_\n\n_Salad with oil and balsamic vinegar_\n\nTOTAL: 958 calories, 64 g fat (18 g saturated), 502 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:**\n\n_1 8-ounce serving ham_\n\n_1 cup potato salad_\n\n_1 cup corn_\n\n_Caesar salad with Caesar dressing_\n\nTOTAL: 1245 calories, 72 g fat (18 g saturated), 1818 mg sodium\n\n### **Easter Basket**\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _Jelly beans (about 20 pieces)_ 82 calories, 0 g fat, 11 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _Werther's Original_ Per 6 pieces: 120 calories, 2 g fat (2 g saturated fat), 120 mg sodium\n\n**Eat this:** _2 marshmallow peeps_ 64 calories, 0 g fat, 6 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _1 Cadbury Cr\u00e8me Egg_ 170 calories, 6 g fat (3.5 g saturated), 25 mg sodium\n\n### **Fourth of July**\n\n**THE LESSER OF TWO EVILS**\n\n**Eat this:** _1 quarter-pound grilled burger with ketchup, mustard, lettuce, tomato, slice of cheese 1 cup homemade coleslaw_\n\nTOTAL: 548 calories, 24 g fat (9 g saturated), 806 mg sodium\n\n**Not that:** _2 fried chicken legs \u00bd cup macaroni salad_\n\nTOTAL: 1093 calories, 70 g fat (16 g saturated), 1061 mg sodium\n\nChapter 11\n\n# **CRANK UP THE FAT BURN**\n\n# The Abs Diet Workout\n\n**B ETWEEN YOUR JOB,** family, home, and Google addiction, you probably feel pushed and pulled in more directions than a piece of Silly Putty. Me, too.\n\nThe clock seems to move faster and faster, and we're all running to keep up. We crave less stress, more time, and 30 uninterrupted seconds during which nobody nags us about meeting deadlines, caulking cracks, or playing a 14th consecutive game of Candy Land.\n\nWe're all busy. But we're not too busy to exercise.\n\nHere's the proof: The average American spends 28 hours a week watching television. If you watch only one-half as much TV, that still means you have more than a solid half a day of quality time you're spending with O'Reilly, the Donald, or the Three Stooges (Simon, Paula, and Randy) every week.\n\nGive up just one of those hours each week\u2014just one\u2014and you can change your body and your life forever.\n\nI said at the very beginning of this book that the Abs Diet was no ordinary diet, and I meant it. To me, one of the biggest errors in most mainstream diets is that they treat exercise the way the prom queen treats the chess champ\u2014with indifference. They operate on ho-hum exercise principles: Great if you do it, so what if you don't.\n\nBut most plans overlook one simple truth: The best way to lose fat is to build muscle and let that muscle eat away flab from the inside out. Each pound of muscle you build means your body will burn an extra up to 50 calories a day just sitting still. Add 5 pounds of muscle\u2014something you can easily do over the course of 6 weeks\u2014and you're now burning an extra up to 1,750 calories a week! When it comes down to it, exercise can do just as much to reshape your body as any broccoli floret can.\n\nOf course, the ABS DIET POWER 12 gives you all the weapons you need to fight fat: protein, healthy fat, whole grains, and fiber to keep you full, to feed your body nutrients, and to ward off potentially devastating hunger pangs. But you'll accelerate all of your gains with the secret weapon in your dietary artillery: muscle.\n\nI'm not talking bar-bouncer, piano-lifting muscle. I'm talking about lean muscle mass, which works as your body's natural metabolism booster. To make the Abs Diet as effective as possible, you need to add a muscle-building and strength-training workout to your program.\n\nNow, if the only dumbbells you know live four doors down, then the prospect of taking up strength training may seem intimidating. It shouldn't be. Like the Abs Diet itself, the Abs Diet Workout is designed to be fast, simple, effective, and convenient. I know you're not going to spend hours a day in the gym, I know you're not going to enjoy a workout program that's all pain and no gain, and I know you're not going to stick with it if you don't see impressive results, fast. That's why I've created a workout program that will build muscle, melt away fat, and reintroduce you to your abs\u2014all in just 20 minutes a day, 3 days a week.\n\nHow do I know it works? Besides the countless success stories of people who reshaped their bodies with minimal time at the gym, one study found that you can put on 6 pounds of muscle and lose 15 pounds of fat in 6 weeks by following the exercise principles used in the Abs Diet Workout. We're talking just 20 minutes a day, just 3 days a week.\n\nDon't believe it? Think you need to quit your job and spend your life in the gym to see results? Well, check this out: Scientists at the University of Glamorgan in Wales studied 16 weight lifters doing either one or three sets of upper-body exercises three times a week. Those who did one set gained just as much muscle\u2014and burned twice as much fat\u2014as the three-set group. In other words, the less time you spend, the better your results!\n\nWhat's great about this program is that you can do it in a gym or in your house, you don't need fancy equipment, and you can finish it before _ER_ is even halfway over. (In fact, I've even included a no-weight workout that you can do in your backyard, in a hotel room, in a prison cell if need be. No excuses, remember?) One hour a week. That's all I want, and that's all you need.\n\n## **Your 3-Days-a-Week Muscle-Building, Fat-Burning Program**\n\nThink of muscle as your body's python and fat as a quivering mouse. In the battle between the two, the python will always win. And the bigger your python, the more mice it eats.\n\nWhat's great about weight training is that it burns fat in three ways. First, there are the calories you burn off breaking a sweat. Second, there's the fact that new muscle eats up calories, making your body more efficient at burning fat. And third, there's the \"afterburn\"\u2014the additional calories burned off in the hours immediately following your workout. All kinds of exercise raise your metabolism and give you an afterburn. But the effects of weight training far outstrip those of aerobic exercise. In one study, researchers found that the increased calorie burn of aerobics (that is, steady-state cardiovascular exercise like running or cycling) lasted only 30 minutes to an hour after a workout. In subjects who trained with weights, the increased metabolism lasted as long as 48 hours. That's 2 days during which your body burns fat after the fact.\n\nAnd you don't need to push iron like a Nebraska offensive tackle to achieve the afterburn effect. All you have to do is employ the two major Abs Diet components of muscle building: circuit training and compound exercises.\n\n_**Circuit training.**_ There are many different ways to lift weights. A lot of people employ the lift-rest-lift-rest approach to weight training, and that's fine. But my guess is that you're interested in building the most muscle and burning the most fat in the least amount of time possible. So I've built the Abs Diet Workout around circuit training. In this type of training, there is no rest phase, no part of the workout where you're standing around the water fountain looking lost. Circuit training means that your body is constantly working, constantly improving.\n\n## **BONUS: ADVANCED ABS!**\n\nIf you're starting to feel as if your abs are tighter than the jeans you just pulled out of the dryer, then you're probably ready for a more challenging abdominal exercise. Try this one. Lie on your back on a Swiss ball, with your knees bent at 90 degrees, your feet flat, and your hands behind your ears. Keeping your right foot planted, lift your left foot off the floor and bring it toward you as you curl your torso up and to the left so that you right elbow meets your left knee. It's like the classic bicycle maneuver, and it works your entire core at once. Do 12 repetitions. Then plant your left foot on the floor and curl toward your right knee for another 12 reps.\n\nSimply put, circuit training involves moving from one exercise to the next with little rest in between. Once you complete the circuit of 9 or 11 exercises, you rest for 2 minutes and then start again. In your time-compressed life, circuit training works because it means you're working the most muscles in the least amount of time; plus, with little rest, your heart rate stays elevated to give you an additional calorie burn. A recent Ohio University study found that a short-but-hard workout was effective in burning fat. Using a circuit of three exercises in a row for 31 minutes, the subjects were still burning more calories than normal 38 hours after the workout.\n\n_**Compound exercises.**_ Just like compound interest, compound exercises give you more back than you put in. Compound exercises hit many muscles during a single move (the squat engages 256 muscles at once!), so that you're gaining the most benefit from your workout. Compound exercises also ensure that you work the largest muscles in your body (like your chest, legs, and back). Larger muscles take more calories to maintain than smaller ones, making your workout that much more effective.\n\nTo put it all together, all you need is a gym membership or, if you're exercising at home, a set of dumbbells and a bench. (For dumbbells, I recommend you invest in an adjustable pair so that you can change weights for different exercises and up the resistance as you grow stronger.) Though it doesn't matter where you do the circuit, it does matter when you do it. Stick to 3 days a week with at least 1 day a week of rest in between to allow your muscles to recover and grow.\n\n## **ULTIMATE NO-WEIGHT WORKOUT**\n\nSometimes, you can't get to the gym or even access the workout gear you have stashed in your basement. Maybe you're stuck in some god-forsaken Motel 6. Maybe you're trapped at your in-laws' house. Maybe the Feds discovered you gave stock advice to Martha Stewart. Well, that's still no excuse. This full-body routine requires no equipment and only 8 minutes of your time. Perform each exercise below for 30 seconds. Do one move after another without rest and repeat the sequence without rest for a total of four times, if you can.\n\nThe intensity of this workout conditions your muscular and cardiovascular systems, helps improve flexibility, and melts fat. You'll burn hundreds of calories.\n\n**Jumping Jack.** Just like grade school. Start with your hands on your hips and your feet together. Raise your hands out to your sides and up overhead as you move your feet out to the sides. Then bring your feet back together and lower your hands to your sides.\n\n**Split Hop.** Stand with your hands on your hips and your feet together. Move your left foot 6 inches forward and your right foot 6 inches back. Now jump up and switch leg positions so that your right foot is forward.\n\n**Squat Thrust with Pushup.** Stand with your arms at your sides. Bend your knees and lower your hands to the floor. Kick your legs behind you so that you're in a Pushup position. Now do a Pushup. Thrust your knees to your chest so that your feet are back underneath you and stand back up.\n\n**Mountain Climber.** Get back in the Pushup position and kick your knees to your chest, one leg at a time. Alternate thrusting your knees forward, like you're running, so that one leg is extended when one knee is forward.\n\n## **The Abs Diet Circuit**\n\nPerform each exercise once, then move immediately to the next exercise with only 30 seconds of rest in between. When you reach the end of the circuit, rest for 2 minutes and then repeat. Beginners can start with light weights and one circuit. More advanced lifters can do two or three circuits with weights that they can comfortably handle for at least 8 repetitions but no more than 12 repetitions.\n\n**EXERCISE** | **REPETITIONS** | **REST** | **SETS**  \n---|---|---|---  \nSquat | 10\u201312 | 30 seconds | 2  \nBench Press | 10 | 30 seconds | 2  \nPulldown | 10 | 30 seconds | 2  \nMilitary Press | 10 | 30 seconds | 2  \nUpright Row | 10 | 30 seconds | 2  \nTriceps Pushdown | 10\u201312 | 30 seconds | 2  \nLeg Extension | 10\u201312 | 30 seconds | 2  \nBiceps Curl | 10 | 30 seconds | 2  \nLeg Curl | 10\u201312 | 30 seconds | 2\n\n_Note:_ One day a week, add the following two exercises (do the Traveling Lunge after the Pulldown, and the Step-Up after the Upright Row). Because your legs contain your body's largest muscles, the fat-burning potential increases with a little extra time spent working your legs muscles.\n\n**EXERCISE** | **REPETITIONS** | **REST** | **SETS**  \n---|---|---|---  \nTraveling Lunge | 10\u201312 | 30 seconds | 2  \nStep-Up | 10\u201312 | 30 seconds | 2\n\n**Squat.** Hold a barbell with an overhand grip so that it rests comfortably on your upper back. Set your feet shoulder width apart, and keep your knees slightly bent, back straight, and eyes focused straight ahead. Slowly lower your body as if you were sitting back into a chair, keeping your back in its natural alignment and your lower legs perpendicular to the floor. When your thighs are parallel to the floor, pause, then return to the starting position.\n\n_**Home variation:**_ Same, but with one dumbbell in each hand, your palms facing your outer thighs.\n\n**Bench Press.** Lie on your back on a flat bench with your feet on the floor. Grab the barbell with an overhand grip, your hands just beyond shoulder width apart. Lift the bar off the uprights, and hold it at arm's length over your chest. Slowly lower the bar to your chest. Pause, then push the bar back to the starting position.\n\n_**Home variation:**_ Pushups. Get in a Pushup position with your hands shoulder width apart. Bend at the elbows while keeping your back straight, until your chin almost touches the floor, then push back up.\n\n**Pulldown.** Stand facing a lat pulldown machine. Reach up and grasp the bar with an overhand grip that's 4 to 6 inches wider than your shoulders. Sit on the seat, letting the resistance of the bar extend your arms above your head. When you're in position, pull the bar down until it touches your upper chest. Hold the position for a second, then return to the starting position.\n\n_**Home variation:**_ Bent-Over Row. Stand with your knees slightly bent and shoulder width apart. Bend over so that your back is almost parallel to the floor. Holding a dumbbell in each hand, let your arms hang toward the floor. With your palms facing in, pull the dumbbells toward you until they touch the outside of your chest. Pause, then return to the starting position.\n\n**Military Press.** Sitting on an exercise bench, hold a barbell at shoulder height with your hands shoulder width apart. Press the weight straight overhead so that your arms are almost fully extended, hold for a count of one, then bring it down to the front of your shoulders.\n\n_**Home variation:**_ Sitting on a sturdy chair instead of a bench, hold one dumbbell in each hand, about level with your ears. Push the dumbbells straight overhead so that your arms are almost fully extended, hold for a count of one, then return to the starting position.\n\n**Upright Row.** Grab a barbell with an overhand grip and stand with your feet shoulder width apart and your knees slightly bent. Let the barbell hang at arm's length on top of your thighs, thumbs pointed toward each other. Bending your elbows, lift your upper arms straight out to the sides, and pull the barbell straight up until your upper arms are parallel to the floor and the bar is just below chin level. Pause, then return to the starting position.\n\n_**Home variation:**_ Same, using one dumbbell in each hand.\n\n**Triceps Pushdown.** While standing, grip a bar attached to a high pulley cable or lat machine with your hands 6 inches apart. With your elbows tucked against your sides, bring the bar down until it is directly in front of you. With your forearms parallel to the floor (the starting position), push the bar down until your arms are extended straight down with the bar near your thigh. Don't lock your elbows. Return to the starting position.\n\n_**Home variation:**_ Triceps Kickback. Holding a light dumbbell in each hand, stand with your knees slightly bent and shoulder width apart. Bend over so that your back is almost parallel to the ground. Bend your elbows to about 90-degree angles, raising them to just above the level of your back. This is the starting position. Extend your forearms backward, keeping your upper arms stationary. When they're fully extended, your arms should be parallel to the ground. Pause, then return to the starting position.\n\n## **WHAT'S MY MOTIVATION?**\n\nNo matter how dedicated you are to your weight-loss goals, there are some days when you don't feel like getting out of bed, much less getting to the gym. How do you keep making progress? Here are a few tricks to keep you from falling off the exercise wagon.\n\n**Make a bet.** Challenge a coworker to a contest\u2014the first to drop 10 pounds, best of seven in one-on-one, and so forth. Competition is the ultimate motivator.\n\n**Switch training partners.** Working out with a partner who will hold you accountable for showing up at the gym works well\u2014for a while. But the longer you know him, the easier it is to back out of a workout. Find a new one every few months.\n\n**Strike an agreement with your family.** The rule: You get 1 hour to yourself every day, provided that you use it for exercise (and reciprocate the favor).\n\n**Schedule a body-composition test every 2 months.** The short-term end date will keep you focused to keep moving forward.\n\n**Leg Extension.** Sitting on a leg extension machine with your feet under the footpads, lean back slightly, and lift the pads with your feet until your legs are extended.\n\n_**Home variation:**_ Stand with your back flat against a wall. Squat down so that your thighs are parallel to the ground. Hold that position for as long as you can. That consists of one set. Aim for 20 seconds to start and work your way up to 45 seconds.\n\n**Biceps Curl.** Stand while holding a barbell in front of you, palms facing out, with your hands shoulder width apart and your arms hanging in front of you. Curl the weight toward your shoulders, hold for a second, then return to the starting position.\n\n_**Home variation:**_ Same, only use a set of dumbbells instead.\n\n**Leg Curl.** Lie facedown on a leg curl machine and hook your ankles under the padded bar. Keeping your stomach and pelvis against the bench, slowly raise your feet toward your butt, curling up the weight. Come up so that your feet nearly touch your butt, and slowly return to the starting position.\n\n_**Home variation:**_ Lie down with your stomach on the floor. Put a light dumbbell between your feet (so that the top end of the dumbbell rests on the bottom of your feet). Squeeze your feet together and curl them up toward your butt.\n\n**Traveling Lunge.** Rest a barbell against your upper back. Stand, with your feet hip width apart, at one end of the room; you need room to walk about 20 steps. Step forward with your left foot, and lower your body so that your left thigh is parallel to the floor and your right thigh is perpendicular to the floor (your right knee should bend and almost touch the floor). Stand and bring your right foot up next to your left, then repeat with the right leg lunging forward.\n\n_**Home variation:**_ Use dumbbells, holding one in each hand with your arms at your sides. If you don't have enough space, do the move in one place, alternating your lead foot with each lunge.\n\n**Step-Up.** Use a step or bench that's 18 inches off the ground. Place your left foot on the step so that your knee is bent at 90 degrees. Your knee should not advance past the toes of your left foot. Push off with your left foot and bring your right foot onto the step, keeping your back straight. Now step down with the left foot, followed by the right. Alternate the leading foot, or do all of the repetitions leading with one foot and then alternating. Once you're comfortable, add dumbbells.\n\n_**Home variation:**_ Same, only use a staircase instead of a step (if you don't have one).\n\n## **Abdominal Exercises: Before Your Circuit**\n\nYou'd think with a name like the Abs Diet, I'd be asking you to spend more time working your abs than J.Lo spends working the counters at Tiffany & Co. But finding your abs isn't as much about abdominal exercises as it is about changing your body composition to eliminate the belly fat that's covering them. Once you do that, then you can concentrate on building the muscle. It's sort of like a construction company trying to build a housing development. If you don't clear the lot of sand, debris, and trees, you aren't going to have any room to build the house. But if you clear the lot and lay the foundation, then you can build a house that everyone will see.\n\nTo work your abs, you'll want to hit all five parts of your abdominal region (as outlined below). At the beginning of your strength circuit (2 or 3 days a week), do these five exercises in a circuit with little rest in between each. Start with one set, but work up to doing two or three sets. To vary your exercises, see _The Abs Diet,_ which has 50 variations of abdominal moves.\n\n**Traditional Crunch** (works the upper part of the rectus abdominis, which is the six-pack muscle that helps you maintain good posture). Lie on your back with your knees bent and your hands behind your ears. Slowly crunch up, bringing your shoulder blades off the ground. Do 12 to 15 repetitions.\n\n**Flutter Kick** (works the lower part of the rectus abdominis). Lie on your back, raise both feet off the ground, and scissor-kick one leg over the other. Do 20 repetitions.\n\n**Saxon Side Bend** (works the external and internal obliques, which extend diagonally down the sides of your waist and rotate the torso). Hold a pair of lightweight dumbbells over your head, in line with your shoulders, with your elbows slightly bent. Keep your back straight, and slowly bend directly to your left side as far as possible without twisting your upper body. Pause, return to an upright position, then bend to your right side as far as possible. Do 6 to 10 repetitions.\n\n**Bridge** (works the transverse abdominis, which is known as the girdle because it compresses the abdomen). Start to get in a Pushup position, but bend your elbows and rest your weight on your forearms instead. Your body should form a straight line. Pull your abdominals in. Hold for 20 seconds, breathing steadily. Do 1 to 2 repetitions.\n\n**Superman** (works the lower back, which anchors all of the abdominal muscles). Lie with your stomach on the ground and your arms in front of you and legs behind you (in Superman-flying position). Lift your arms and legs about 6 inches off the ground and hold for as long as you can. Repeat three times.\n\n## **Interval Training: 1 Day a Week**\n\nBack in the '80s, the only thing more popular than big hair and shoulder pads was running. Weight-loss experts touted long, steady aerobic exercise as nearly the best way to burn fat, build endurance, and keep the heart pumping.\n\nAnd aerobic exercise (running, cycling, swimming) is good for you. I've run the New York City Marathon twice myself, and I can attest to the fact that cardiovascular exercise strengthens your heart, burns calories, and decreases stress.\n\nBut cardio has two significant drawbacks. First, it only burns calories while you're doing it, not afterward. And second, it does nothing to build muscle. Unless . . . unless you try interval training.\n\nInterval training refers to a shorter, more intense method of working out. Instead of long, slow, boring runs or rides, interval training intersperses short bursts of high-intensity exertion with periods of slow, more restful exercise. In a Canadian study from Laval University, researchers measured differences in fat loss between two groups of exercisers following two different workout programs. The first group rode stationary bikes at a steady pace four or five times a week and burned 300 to 400 calories per 30- to 45-minute session. The second group did the same, but only one or two times a week, and they filled the rest of their sessions with short intervals of high-intensity cycling. They hopped on their stationary bikes and pedaled as quickly as they could for 30 to 90 seconds, rested, and then repeated the process several times per exercise session. As a result, they burned 225 to 250 calories while cycling, but they burned more fat at the end of the study than the workers in group one. In fact, even though they exercised less, their fat loss was nine times greater. Researchers said that the majority of the fat-burning took place after the workout.\n\nSo instead of asking you to spend 30 minutes on a stairclimber or a stationary bike every day, I want you to add one simple interval workout per week to complement your strength training. Your mode of transportation isn't important, so pick whatever activity you prefer. What's important is making sure you change gears. You can vary it in whatever time frames you want (1-minute high-intensity, 1-minute low-intensity, or maybe build up with 30 seconds of high, rest, then 45 seconds, then rest, and so on). Always warm up and cool down for at least 5 minutes at the beginning and end of each interval workout.\n\n## **ULTIMATE TOTAL-BODY DUMBBELL EXERCISE**\n\nDumbbells are one of the smartest fitness investments you can make. They're portable and affordable, and they condition your body even more effectively than standard barbells, because they teach your body to balance and allow for a greater range of motion.\n\nI've created here a super-simple, super-fast dumbbell workout that will hit your whole body at once. Do one set of 12 repetitions, and you're set for the day.\n\n  Grab a pair of light dumbbells and get into a Pushup position, with your arms straight and directly beneath your shoulders.\n\n  Do a Pushup. Then bring your feet underneath you, one foot at a time.\n\n  Keeping your back flat, stand up. (This is a deadlift.)\n\n  From the standing position, curl the weights up to your shoulders.\n\n  Swing your elbows out to your sides so that the weights are above your shoulders.\n\n  Lower your body until your thighs are parallel to the floor. Pause, then stand up as you press the weights overhead.\n\n## **Sample Workout Schedule**\n\nYou'll do circuit training 3 days a week, making sure you have at least 1 day of rest in between days. Additionally, do an interval workout 1 day a week. You also have the option of doing light cardiovascular exercise (cycling, walking, swimming, tennis, or golf without the cart) on your off days. On these days, make having fun your main goal\u2014don't think about calorie burns, afterburns, George Burns, or any other kind of burns.\n\n**Monday: Circuit Training**\n\n**Tuesday (optional): Walking at brisk pace or light cardiovascular exercise**\n\n**Wednesday: Circuit Training**\n\n**Thursday (optional): Walking at brisk pace or light cardiovascular exercise**\n\n**Friday: Circuit Training**\n\n**Saturday: Interval Workout**\n\n**Sunday: Off**\n\n## **The Abs Diet Workout Worksheet**\n\nLike naked bodies, all workouts are not made alike. If you're currently not exercising, then anything is better than a nightly chips festival on the love seat. But for the most powerful workouts for burning fat and adding muscle, follow the Abs Diet Workout Worksheet.\n\nYour goal here is to amass a total of 40 points per week. For each activity, you get full credit for doing the activity continuously for 20 minutes. Exercises in the Abs Diet Workout give you the highest number of points, but if you can't keep to that workout schedule, you can sneak in a few extra points here and there to make your workout work. Don't try to go over 40 points a week, though\u2014there's no extra credit for total exhaustion.\n\n**10 POINTS (FOR EACH 20 MINUTES SPENT)**\n\nAbs Diet Circuit\n\nAbdominals Circuit\n\nInterval Training (solo sport: running, swimming, cycling, or machine)\n\n**6 POINTS (FOR EACH 30 MINUTES SPENT)**\n\nAbs-specific classes\n\nBasketball (full-court)\n\nBoot Camp classes\n\nBoxing\n\nBull running, Pamplona\n\nCalisthenics: pushups, pullups, situps\n\nCross-country skiing, hilly\n\nHiking, hilly\n\nHockey, inline or ice\n\nMountain biking, intermediate to advanced, hilly course\n\nPilates, advanced\n\nPower lifting\n\nSnowshoeing, hilly\n\nSpinning classes\n\nSports-conditioning classes\n\nStairclimbing, stadium stairs\n\nStrength training, noncircuit\n\nVolleyball, beach, competitive\n\n**4 POINTS (FOR EACH 30 MINUTES SPENT)**\n\nBasketball, (half-court)\n\nBOSU classes\n\nDodgeball\n\nDownhill skiing, intermediate to advanced\n\nInline skating, steady\n\nKickboxing classes\n\nMartial arts\n\nPilates, beginner\n\nRacquetball\n\nRowing machine, steady pace\n\nRugby\n\nSoccer\n\nStep classes\n\nStrength-training, resistance bands\n\nStrength-training, ultra-light weights\n\nSurfing\n\nSwimming, steady pace\n\nTennis, competitive\n\nUltimate Frisbee\n\nVolleyball, indoor\n\nYoga, advanced or power\n\n**3 POINTS (FOR EVERY 30 MINUTES SPENT)**\n\nAdventure racing\n\nCross-country skiing, flat\n\nCycling, road, steady pace, flat\n\nDance-aerobic classes\n\nDownhill skiing, easy\n\nFishing, big-league tuna\n\nGolf, without cart\n\nHiking, flat\n\nJogging, steady pace\n\nKayaking\/canoeing\n\nRock climbing\n\nSnowboarding\n\nStairclimbing machine, steady pace\n\nTennis, recreational\n\nUrban Rebounding classes\n\nVolleyball, beach, recreational\n\nWalking, brisk\n\nYoga, beginner\n\n**2 POINTS (FOR EVERY 30 MINUTES SPENT)**\n\nBasketball, solo\n\nBowling\n\nFishing, recreational\n\nFrisbee golf\n\nGardening\n\nGolf, driving range\n\nGolf, with cart\n\nIce skating, recreational\n\nSoftball\n\nStretching, general\n\nWalking, slow\n\nWater aerobics classes\n\nWrestling, with kids\n\nYoga, meditative\n\n### **ABS DIET SUCCESS STORY**\n\n## **MORE ENERGY TO WORK, TO PLAY, AND TO CARE FOR HIS FAMILY**\n\n**Name:** Pete Hemmer\n\n**Age:** 40\n\n**Weight, Week 1:** 244\n\n**Weight, Week 6:** 231\n\n**Weight, Week 10:** 217\n\nPete Hemmer knew he had to get his body back in order. He had reached 286 pounds and was trying to care for premature triplets. He was unhappy\u2014and out of shape, out of breath, out of energy. \"When I stepped on the scale and saw 286, I said at that moment, 'I'm going to be 300 pounds. If I keep going where I'm going, I'll be dead by the time I'm 40,'\" he says. That's when he knew he needed to change, so he just tried adjusting portion sizes and making smart choices about eating. Over the course of about a year and a half, he whittled himself down to 244 pounds\u2014still far off from where he wanted to be. Then he read about the Abs Diet and told his wife, Krista, \"That's the diet plan I need.\n\n\"I went out that weekend and bought the book, read it in a weekend from cover to cover, and my wife said I wouldn't shut up talking about it,\" he says. Then Krista asked him if it was something she could try, too. On Monday, they made their plan, and on Tuesday, they started.\n\n\"As I was pushing the cart down the aisle, I noticed there weren't any boxes in my cart. It was fresh vegetables, dairy and meat, and there were no frozen pizzas. All the stuff that had becomes staples of our diet were missing,\" he says. \"It was just something that struck me\u2014that even though we had been doing well for a year, there was a lot of room for improvement.\"\n\nHemmer, whose goal was to be in better shape by his 40th birthday than he was at his 30th, instantly saw results\u2014in fat loss and in energy levels. \"I noticed when I was going up the steps to a loading dock, I went up two steps at a time and I didn't even blink, and I realized I had never done that. I just felt lighter.\" After the first 2 weeks, Krista even made the comment that they had eaten better the past 2 weeks than they ever had before in their 12 years of marriage.\n\nThe rewards kept coming: Krista has lost 15 pounds and a dress size, Pete's down from a nearly 44-size pants to almost a 34, it's easier to take care of the kids, friends who haven't seen them in months don't even recognize them, and they're even planning a sea kayaking trip. \"That wouldn't have happened before,\" Hemmer says. \"For us, sitting on the sofa and watching a pay-per-view movie was the extent of our physical activity.\"\n\nWhen he went to the gym to have his body composition checked after 6 weeks, the woman who ran the machine looked at Hemmer's 6-week improvement and asked him what he was doing. \"I told her briefly about that the Abs Diet, and she said that even the gym's weight-loss program doesn't get such good results,\" Hemmer says. \"She also said that it appeared that my body had become efficient at burning fat. I told her politely that it was sort of the whole point.\"\n\nAnd, of course, there's also one other side effect: \"Our sex life has improved dramatically,\" Pete says. \"Krista says that if I get in any better shape, she's going to need smelling salts.\"\n\n# **ABS DIET FAQ**\n\n**How does the Abs Diet differ from other diets?**\n\nFollowing most popular diet books is like sending your body to prison\u2014they're all about deprivation and restriction. These diets may work in the short term by shackling you to keep you away from certain foods and calories. But once you get a sniff of freedom (in the form of fries and shakes), you're more likely to try to escape. And you know the severe penalties for trying to escape\u2014a life sentenced to a fat gut.\n\nThe Abs Diet is about gaining, not restricting. You gain a leaner, firmer body, more control over your life, and even more opportunities to enjoy the foods you love. By eating six times a day, you'll keep your energy levels high and your hunger always at bay, while training your body to burn calories and make itself lean. You'll feed yourself the foods that force your body to lose weight, to burn more calories.\n\n**What about really popular ones, like Atkins and South Beach?**\n\nThe Atkins Diet eliminates practically all carbohydrates for the first part of the plan, leaving you with only foods that contain protein and fat. It's a gimmick that works\u2014in the short term. By restricting the foods you eat to only a handful of them, you'll automatically drop pounds because you've dramatically reduced your total calories. But you'll also dramatically reduce your intake of vitamins, minerals, and fiber, while upping your intake of artery-clogging saturated fats. The one good thing about Atkins: It eliminates empty carb calories like doughnuts and Doritos. But on the Abs Diet, you dump the lousy carbs and keep the healthy and delicious ones (whole-grain bread, cereal, fruit, vegetables), which will keep you full, fuel your body, and dampen your cravings.\n\nThe South Beach Diet is based on sound principles of healthy nutrition, and it's a pretty good choice for pure weight loss. But the Abs Diet isn't just about losing weight\u2014it's about turning unsightly flab into lean, sexy muscle. That's why, unlike South Beach, the Abs Diet features muscle-building exercise as part of its foundation. Muscle exponentially speeds up the fat-burning process\u20141 pound of muscle requires your body to burn up to 50 calories a day just to maintain that muscle. This plan combines exercise with the foods that most promote muscle growth.\n\nThere are many diets out there today, and as long as people have the opportunity to choose a course for better health, that's what ultimately counts. Frankly, I hate the word _diet,_ because diet implies that you have to eliminate and restrict, but to call this the Abs Nutritional Superiority Plan seemed a bit much.\n\n**How much weight will I lose?**\n\nI can't give you a firm number, because people's bodies have more variables than a calculus textbook. I can tell you that some people who have used the Abs Diet have lost 25 pounds in 6 weeks. That doesn't necessarily mean that you will, but it means that you might or that you could. Much of your success depends on so many factors\u2014including your intensity of exercise and your starting weight. But we've seen a lot of people who've lost somewhere between 10 and 15 pounds in the first 6 weeks while also gaining a few pounds of muscle, which helps them keep burning fat after that initial 6-week surge.\n\n**What percentage of body fat do you have to get to so that you can see your abs?**\n\nFinding your abs might feel as daunting as digging through sand to find a buried treasure. But if you dig diligently enough\u2014and by that I mean burning off that extra, unwanted flab\u2014you will find the treasure. As far as the specific body-fat percentage, it varies. I've seen both men and women with body-fat percentages in the teens with defined stomach muscles. For most men, you need to get to around 10 percent. The good news is that if you're exercising regularly, then at least 80 percent of every pound you lose will be fat.\n\n**Will it work for women?**\n\nAbsolutely. It doesn't take a Peeping Tom to know that men and women have some distinct physiological differences, but in this case, what works for a man will also work for a woman. This eating plan revolves around eating foods that are good for everyone, and the exercise plan is about building lean muscle mass, not line-backer muscle mass. The key is not to count calories but to eat six meals a day to keep you properly fueled. A woman's portion sizes can be a little smaller than a man's, but by eating well-balanced meals with the ABS DIET POWER 12, anyone can lose fat.\n\n**So the ABS DIET POWER 12 foods are the only ones I can eat?**\n\nAbsolutely not. You build your diet around the ABS DIET POWER 12\u2014and make sure you have several of them at every meal and snack. You can supplement with other foods, but if your meals are centered on the Powerfoods, you'll ensure yourself a well-balanced diet that keeps you satiated and provides you with the ingredients that help keep your body properly fueled and turn it into a fat-burning machine.\n\n**What about portion control? Can I eat any amount I want?**\n\nIf you're eating these Powerfoods, they should take care of your hunger so that you don't have the physical urge to eat a lot. By doing things like eating six times a day and making sure you get enough fiber, you'll decrease the chance of shoveling enormous amounts of food into your mouth. That said, it's always smart to be aware of how much you eat\u2014especially when you're starting out. You can cover your plate with the ABS DIET POWER 12, but there's no need to pile the food so high that you need a city council permit to construct your plate. Let's just say that a height restriction is in effect.\n\n**The Abs Diet includes a weekly cheat meal. Does that mean I really can eat anything?**\n\nYes. One time a week, you can eat anything. You want a Bavarian cream? Eat it. You want a plate of wings? Eat it. You want fried alligator? Eat it. The cheat meal is designed to reward you for good work throughout the week and help keep cravings in check. And what we found is that once people start seeing results, many don't even want the cheat meal\u2014because the ABS DIET POWER 12 satisfy so many different kinds of cravings. The only caveat is that you must limit yourself to just one cheat meal a week. Do it any more, and you might as well be on the Doughnut Diet.\n\n**Can I make food substitutions for the ABS DIET POWER 12?**\n\nMany of the 12 categories are broad enough to include many different dietary choices. Low-fat dairy includes milk, yogurt, cheese, and lean meat can include turkey, beef, fish, and chicken, for example. We do offer some substitution examples for different kinds of foods. Even if you're allergic to one category of food\u2014nuts, for example\u2014you can still figure out what ingredient you're missing by not eating that food and make up for it somewhere else. So having avocado or pumpkin seeds can give you the monounsaturated fats found in nuts\u2014without the danger of an allergic reaction. (That said, if you do suffer from food allergies, consult your doctor before trying this or any other diet plan.)\n\n**Some of the smoothie recipes have cooked instant oatmeal. That sounds gross. How does it taste?**\n\nRecipes are a little like CD collections\u2014what works for me might not work for you. But from the smoothies I've had, I can't even taste the oatmeal after it's blended\u2014especially when there are berries or chocolate whey powder in them. So be brave and give it a go: Oatmeal adds bulk to the smoothie as well as the all-important satiating fiber.\n\n**What about this issue of targeting body fat? I thought you couldn't spot-reduce.**\n\nWell, you can't spot-reduce per se. That's a myth. But when you lose weight on the Abs Diet\u2014particularly if you're doing some moderate exercise at the same time\u2014you'll lower your body fat and will likely notice much of that loss around your midsection, since that's where most of the fat accumulates. And if you are doing ab workouts and strengthening those muscles, then as the fat peels away, you'll begin to see the washboard.\n\n### **ABS DIET SUCCESS STORY**\n\n## **HE INSPIRED HIS WIFE\u2014AND HIS SON**\n\n**Name:** Bill and Kathy Bartz\n\n**Bill's age:** 56\n\n**Height:** 5\u20329\u2033\n\n**Weight, Week 1:** 187\n\n**Weight, Week 6:** 170\n\n**Weight, Week 12:** 166\n\n**Body-fat percentage, Week 1:** 18.7\n\n**Body-fat percentage, Week 12:** 10.2\n\n**Kathy's height:** 5\u20326\u2033\n\n**Weight, Week 1:** 126\n\n**Weight, Week 12:** 118\n\nLast year, Bill Bartz made a New Year's resolution: He wanted to see his six-pack before the end of the year. He had been lifting weights regularly for 15 years, so he had a lot of bulky muscle mass, but he was missing the definition.\n\n\"I saw the author on _Good Morning America_ on the Fourth of July, and I thought, hmmmmm,\" Bartz says. \"So I decided to go to Border's and get the book. I just started reading it and it all made sense. And what I really liked was how it took other diets and blew them apart.\"\n\nSo Bartz decided to jump on the Abs Diet, and the pounds jumped off.\n\n\"One day, as I was getting out of the shower with a towel wrapped around me, my wife said, 'Whoa, that thing is working.'\" So Bartz's wife, Kathy, joined in, too. With not much weight to lose, Kathy went from 126 pounds to 118.\n\nBartz took ab-specific classes 3 days a week at the gym, continued lifting weights, and incorporated interval training into his workouts.\n\nBut maybe the best outcome of the program is what it's done for his overall health. He's taking part in a clinical study in which his blood pressure is measured every 6 months. Since he started, his BP dropped from 130\/90 to around 115\/70. \"When I went there, they were blown away,\" he says. \"Right away, they noticed a difference in weight and they noticed a drastic drop in blood pressure. The nurse even wanted the name of the book so she could get one for her husband.\"\n\nBartz has been spreading the word about the Abs Diet\u2014now, he's in competition with his 25-year-old son in a race for the first one to get a six-pack. His son isn't on the Abs Diet\u2014and he' s losing out. Bartz says, \"Last Saturday, I sent him a picture and he said, 'Dad, that's not you. You found that picture on the Internet.'\n\n\"I'm not at a six-pack yet, but I'm darn close,\" Bartz says, \"and I know I'll have that six-pack for the end of the year.\"\n\n# **MEASURING YOUR PROGRESS ON THE ABS DIET**\n\n**E VERY PERSON HAS HIS** or her own way of measuring success on a diet. Some measure it by the way their pants feel. Some measure it by the compliments they receive. Some measure it by the fact that they no longer have to buy two seats when they fly cross-country. But if you want harder numbers to know where you stand, here are some pretty good ways to gauge your progress.\n\n**Weight.** Pounds lost help give you some idea, but it's an incomplete number because it doesn't take into account the amount of muscle you're going to develop over the course of a plan. Muscle weighs more than fat, so even a dramatic fat loss may not translate into a dramatic drop in body weight.\n\n**Body mass index.** The BMI is a formula that takes into consideration your height and your weight, and gives you an indication of whether you're overweight, obese, or in good shape. To calculate your BMI, the easiest thing to do is use an online calculator, like the one at MensHealth.com\/BMI. A BMI between 25 and 30 indicates that you're overweight. Over 30 signifies obesity. BMI has its flaws as well (it doesn't take into account muscle mass, and it also leaves out another important factor\u2014weight distribution, i.e. where most of the fat on your body resides). But for most people, it's a better indicator of progress than simply body weight itself.\n\n**Waist-to-hip ratio.** Researchers have recently started using waist size and its relationship to hip size as a more definitive way to determine your health risk. It's considered more important than BMI because visceral fat\u2014the fat that pushes your waist out in front of you\u2014is a leading indicator for diabetes and heart disease. British researchers recently reported that men with waists of 40 or more inches, and women with waists of 35 or more, are at substantially higher risk for these diseases\u2014up to four times higher.\n\nThat's why I want you to concentrate on lowering your waist-to-hip ratio. To figure out yours, measure your waist at your belly button and your hips at the widest point (around your butt). Divide your waist by your hips. For example, if your hips measure 40 inches and your waist at belly-button level measures 38 inches, your waist-to-hip ratio is 0.95. You want a waist-to-hip ratio of 0.92 or lower.\n\n**Body-fat percentage.** Though this is the most difficult for the average person to measure because it requires a bit of technology, it's the most useful. That's because it doesn't just take into consideration weight, but also how much of your weight is fat and how much is muscle. Many gyms offer body-fat measurements, or you can try an at-home body-fat calculator. If you want a simple low-tech test (and this isn't as accurate as what the electronic versions will give you), try this: Sit in a chair with your knees and your feet flat on the floor. Using your thumb and index finger, gently pinch the skin on top of your right thigh. Measure the thickness of the pinched skin with a ruler. If it's \u00be inch or less, you have about 14 percent body fat\u2014ideal for a guy, quite fit for a woman. If it's an inch, you're probably closer to 18 percent fat, which is a tad high for a man, but desirable for a woman. If you pinch more than an inch, you're at increased risk for diabetes and heart disease.\n\nThis last measurement can be the most significant because it'll really help give you a sense of how well you're sticking to a plan. As you see your body-fat percentage decrease, you'll see an increase in the amount of visible muscle. Experts say that in order for your abs to show, your body fat needs to be between 7 and 10 percent. For the average slightly overweight man, that means cutting body fat in about half. If you want to see your progress, take measurements every 2 weeks or so\u2014and certainly not every day.\n\n**MEASUREMENT** | **START** | **END OF WEEK 2** | **END OF WEEK 4** | **END OF WEEK 6**  \n---|---|---|---|---  \nWeight |  |  |  |   \nBMI |  |  |  |   \nWaist-to-hip ratio |  |  |  |   \nBody-fat percentage* |  |  |  |\n\n_*Make sure to have the same person administer body-fat readings using the same method to ensure consistency._\n\n### **ABS DIET SUCCESS STORY**\n\n## **A FORMER KICKBOXER KICKS IT INTO GEAR**\n\n**Name:** Ray and Kim Welborn\n\n**Ray's age:** 44\n\n**Height:** 5\u20328\u2033\n\n**Weight, week 1:** 188\n\n**Weight, week 6:** 169\n\nWhen he was in his twenties, Ray Welborn weighed in at about 130 pounds\u2014it was his fighting weight as a professional kickboxer. But after he stopped, he started putting on the pounds. One day recently, he and his wife, Kim, were in the bookstore and saw the _Abs Diet_. They immediately took to it\u2014Ray for what he thought it could do for his body, and Kim because it reminded her of the way her parents brought her up to eat healthy.\n\nRay, who's lost nearly 20 pounds, and Kim, who's lost 7, follow the weekly meal planner in the original Abs Diet. \"That's our bible,\" Ray says. \"And we stick to it. We even find that we can't eat as much on our cheat meal because of our shrinking bellies.\"\n\nWith the meals, they adjusted recipes just a bit\u2014so that Kim would eat 4\u20445 of a portion. That's when she started seeing a change. \"I like it because of the healthy food,\" Kim says. \"I used to do Weight Watchers, and they all concentrated just on points\u2014it didn't matter whether it had high-fructose corn syrup in it or not. With Weight Watchers, I was always hungry. With this, I'm never hungry.\"\n\nBoth Ray and Kim have lost the weight from their bellies, and Ray is seeing muscles he hasn't seen in years, including ones right around his rib cage. \"She really feels it when she cuddles up to me,\" he says.\n\nMore importantly, Ray _feels_ healthier. \"I feel lighter. My knees don't hurt as much anymore. With the excess weight off, it doesn't hurt to go downstairs like it used to,\" he says. \"And I can tell you. I can bend over and tie my shoes and breathe at the same time. Seriously.\"\n\n# **INDEX**\n\nUnderscored page references indicate sidebars and charts. **Boldface** references indicate illustrations.\n\n**A**\n\nAbdominal exercises,\n\nadvanced,\n\nbridge,\n\nflutter kick, 183\u201384\n\nsaxon side bend,\n\nsuperman,\n\ntraditional crunch,\n\nAbdominal muscles\n\nbenefits of strengthening,\n\nbody-fat percentage for seeing, , 192\u201393,\n\nAbdominal workout, in Abs Diet,\n\nAbs Diet\n\nbenefits of, , 5\u20136\n\nbetter sex,\n\nhealthier life, 8\u20139\n\nlonger life,\n\npain and injury prevention, 7\u20138\n\nBull's Eye, **48\u201349**\n\ncheat sheet, 11\u201312\n\ncompared with other diets, 191\u201392\n\nexpected weight loss from,\n\nfood choices in, ,  ( _see also_ ABS DIET POWER 12)\n\nguidelines\n\nABS DIET POWER 12 foods, 57\u201359\n\ncheating, 61\u201362\n\ndrinks,\n\nno calorie counting, 60\u201361\n\nsix meals a day, 53\u201357\n\nsmoothies, 59\u201360\n\nmeasuring progress on, 197\u2013200\n\norigin of,\n\nportions in, , , , 193\u201394\n\nsuccess with ( _see_ Success stories)\n\nfor women,\n\nAbs Diet Challenge,\n\n_Abs Diet Eat Right Every Time Guide, The_\n\nhow to use, ,\n\npurpose of,\n\nAbs Diet FAQ, 191\u201396\n\nABS DIET POWER , , , , , ,\n\nfood substitutions in, 195\u201396\n\nguidelines for, 57\u201359\n\nmeaning of icons in, 29\u201330\n\noverview of foods in, , 28\u201329\n\nalmonds and other nuts, 31\u201333\n\nbeans and legumes, 33\u201334\n\ndairy products, 35\u201336\n\neggs, 38\u201339\n\nextra-protein (whey) powder, 45\u201346\n\ninstant oatmeal, 36\u201338\n\nolive oil,\n\npeanut butter,\n\nraspberries and other berries, 46\u201347\n\nspinach and other green vegetables, 34\u201335\n\nturkey and other lean meats, 39\u201340\n\nwhole-grain breads and cereals, 42\u201345\n\nstaying focused on, **48\u201349**\n\nsupplementing, with other foods,\n\nAbs Diet Sundae Parfait,\n\nAbs Diet Trail Mix,\n\nAbs Diet Workout,\n\nabdominal exercises in,\n\nadvanced exercise,\n\nbridge,\n\nflutter kick, 183\u201384\n\nsaxon side bend,\n\nsuperman,\n\ntraditional crunch,\n\ncalorie burning from, 175\u201376\n\ncircuit training in, 176\u201377, 177\u201378,\n\nbench press, 179\u201380\n\nbent-over row,\n\nbiceps curl,\n\nleg curl,\n\nleg extension,\n\nmilitary press,\n\npulldown,\n\npushups,\n\nsquat,\n\nstep-up, 182\u201383\n\ntraveling lunge,\n\ntriceps kickback,\n\ntriceps pushdown,\n\nupright row,\n\ncompound exercises in,\n\nfat burning from, , , 175\u201376\n\nflexibility of,\n\ninterval training in, 185\u201388\n\nmuscle building from, 174\u201376\n\nsample schedule for,\n\nAbs Diet Workout Worksheet, 189\u201390\n\nAerobic exercise, , 184\u201385\n\nAlcohol, ,\n\nAllium vegetables, for cancer prevention,\n\nAlmonds, 31\u201333\n\nApplebee's, 154\u201355\n\nArby's, 137\u201338\n\nAtkins Diet,\n\nAtlanta Bread Company, ,\n\nAu Bon Pain, 145\u201346,\n\nAuntie Anne's,\n\nAvocados,\n\n**B**\n\nBacon, Canadian,\n\nBagel shops, best choices at, 151\u201352\n\nBaja Fresh,\n\nBakeries, chain,\n\nBallparks, best food choices at, 163\u201364\n\nBalsamic vinegar,\n\nBananas, ,\n\nBaskin-Robbins,\n\nBeans, 33\u201334,\n\nBeef, 39\u201340, ,\n\nBelly fat\n\ndangers of, 6\u20137\n\nprotein burning,\n\nBench press, 179\u201380\n\nBennigan's, 154\u201355\n\nBent-over row,\n\nBerries, 46\u201347, . _See also specific berries_\n\nBeta-carotene, for cancer prevention,\n\nBiceps curl,\n\nBlack Friday at the mall,\n\nBlimpie,\n\nBlood-pressure-lowering icon,\n\nBlood sugar control, from oatmeal,\n\nBlueberries, 46\u201347,\n\nBob Evans, 149\u201350\n\nBody fat\n\ndangers of, 6\u20137\n\ntargeting,\n\nBody-fat percentage\n\nfor defined abs, , 192\u201393,\n\nfor measuring progress, 199\u2013200\n\nBody mass index, for measuring progress,\n\nBone-strengthening icon,\n\nBoston Market,\n\nBreads, whole-grain, 42\u201345,\n\nBreakfast, 80\u201381\n\nimportance of, 80\u201381\n\nrecipes\n\nburritos, 84\u201385\n\noats, 81\u201382\n\nomelets, 82\u201384\n\nsandwiches, 86\u201389\n\nUltimate Power\n\nBreakfast, 90\u201391\n\nyogurt, 89\u201390\n\nBreakfast places, best choices at, 149\u201350\n\nBridge,\n\nBroccoli, ,\n\nBrown rice,\n\nBruegger's Bagels, 151\u201352\n\nBull's Eye, Abs Diet, **48\u201349**\n\nBurger King, 138\u201339\n\nBurgers\n\nAlaskan Burger,\n\nCiao Down Burger,\n\nOfficial Abs Diet Burger,\n\nBurritos, breakfast,\n\nHoly Guacamole!,\n\nHuevos Rancheros,\n\nYosemite Salmon,\n\n**C**\n\nCalcium\n\nin almonds,\n\nfor bone strength,\n\nin broccoli,\n\nfor cancer prevention,\n\nfor lowering blood pressure,\n\nsaturated fat and,\n\nweight loss from, , , ,\n\nCalorie burning\n\nfrom metabolism,\n\nfrom weight training, 175\u201376\n\nCalorie counting, lack of, in Abs Diet,\n\nCanadian bacon,\n\nCancer-fighting icon,\n\nCancer prevention,\n\nfish for,\n\nvegetables for,\n\nwhey protein for,\n\nCandy bars, 74\u201375\n\nCanned foods, shopping for, 67\u201368\n\nCarbohydrates\n\nin Abs Diet,\n\nfiber-rich, 26\u201327\n\nrefined,\n\nwhole-grain, 43\u201345\n\nCaribou Coffee, ,\n\nCarrabba's,\n\nCereals, whole-grain, 42\u201345,\n\nCheating on Abs Diet, , 61\u201362, 194\u201395\n\nCheat sheet, 11\u201312\n\nCheesecake Factory, 154\u201355\n\nCheeses,\n\nChicken,\n\nChicken a l'Orange,\n\nFaux Fried Chicken,\n\nprecooked, , 107\u20138\n\nGonzo Chicken, 108\u20139\n\nHot-Headed Chicken,\n\nIt Takes Stew, Baby,\n\nQue Sera Quesadilla,\n\nrotisserie,\n\nChicken broth,\n\nChick-fil-A,\n\nChili's,\n\nChinese restaurants,\n\nChipotle, 139\u201340\n\nChocolate milk,\n\nCholesterol, blood\n\nfats increasing, ,\n\nfiber lowering,\n\nobesity and,\n\nCholesterol, dietary, in eggs,\n\nChristmas dinner,\n\nCilantro,\n\nCircuit training, 176\u201377, 177\u201383\n\nCLA, recommended dosage of,\n\nCoffee, milk in,\n\nCoffee shops,\n\nCold Stone Creamery,\n\nCompound exercises,\n\nConjugated linoleic acid (CLA), recommended dosage of,\n\nConvenience foods, as unhealthy,\n\nCookies,\n\nCottage cheese,\n\nCrackers, 75\u201376\n\nCreatine, in beef, 39\u201340\n\nCruciferous vegetables, for cancer prevention,\n\nCrunch, traditional,\n\nCucumbers,\n\n**D**\n\nDairy products, 35\u201336\n\nin ABS DIET POWER ,\n\nshopping for, 66\u201367\n\nweight loss from, ,\n\nDairy Queen,\n\nDeli slices,\n\nDenny's, 149\u201350\n\nDiabetes, visceral fat and, ,\n\nDietary fat\n\nbad\n\nsaturated fat, , ,\n\ntrans fats, 17\u201319, , ,\n\ngood\n\nmonounsaturated fats, , ,\n\npolyunsaturated fats, 25\u201326,\n\nin meat,\n\nneed for, 23\u201324\n\nDiets\n\nvs. eating plan,\n\npopular, compared with Abs Diet, 191\u201392\n\nproblems with, 1\u20132\n\nDiGiorno pizza,\n\nDiners,\n\nbreakfast, 149\u201350\n\nDinner, 103\u20134\n\nrecipes\n\nburgers, 104\u20135\n\nchicken and turkey, 106\u20137\n\none-pot dishes, 112\u201314\n\npasta, 117\u201319\n\nprecooked chicken, 107\u20139\n\nseafood, 114\u201317\n\nside dishes, 119\u201321\n\nsteak, 109\u201312\n\nDomino's, ,\n\nDon Pablo's,\n\nDoughnut shop, best choices at,\n\nDrinks, , ,\n\nsmoothies ( _see_ Smoothies)\n\nDumbbell exercise, ultimate total-body,\n\nDunkin' Donuts, ,\n\n**E**\n\nEaster basket,\n\nEaster dinner,\n\nEating out. _See_ Restaurants\n\nEating plan, vs. diets,\n\nEating schedule, for six meals a day,\n\nEdamame,\n\nEggs, 38\u201339, . _See also_ Omelet(s)\n\nEinstein Bros. Bagels, 146\u201347,\n\nEnergy balance,\n\nEnglish muffins,\n\nErectile dysfunction,\n\nEthnic Gourmet frozen dinners,\n\nExercise\n\naerobic, , 184\u201385\n\nlack of, in diets,\n\nmotivation for,\n\nExercise program, in Abs Diet,  ( _see also_ Abs Diet Workout)\n\n**F**\n\nFast food, 14\u201315\n\nbest choices of, 137\u201344\n\nFat. _See_ Body fat; Dietary fat\n\nFat burning\n\nfrom muscle,\n\nfrom whey protein,\n\nFazoli's,\n\nFiber\n\nfor cancer prevention,\n\nin oatmeal,\n\nfor preventing weight gain,\n\nsoluble and insoluble, 26\u201327\n\nin whole grains,\n\nFish, 25\u201326, , . _See also_ Seafood\n\nFlank steak,\n\nFlaxseed, , ,\n\nFlaxseed oil,\n\nFlutter kick, 183\u201384\n\nFolate\n\nin carbohydrates,\n\nfor improving immune function,\n\nin spinach,\n\nFood courts, best choices at, 162\u201363\n\nFood labels\n\nlow-fat phrases on,\n\nunderstanding, 72\u201373\n\nFood shopping, for bargain items,\n\nFood shopping list\n\ncanned foods, 67\u201368\n\ncookies and candies, 74\u201376\n\ndairy, 66\u201367\n\ndrinks,\n\nfrozen foods, 69\u201372\n\ngrains, 72\u201374\n\nhealth food,\n\nmeat, 65\u201366,\n\nnuts, honey, and spices,\n\nprepared foods, 78\u201379\n\nproduce, 64\u201365\n\nsauces, 68\u201369\n\nFourth of July,\n\nFrequently asked questions, 191\u201396\n\nFreschetta pizza,\n\nFriendly's, 154\u201355\n\nFrozen dinners, 70\u201372\n\nFrozen foods, shopping for, 69\u201370\n\nFruit\n\nfrozen,\n\nshopping for,\n\n**G**\n\nGrains\n\nbenefits of, 21\u201322\n\nparts of,\n\nwhole, , 42\u201345\n\nshopping for, 72\u201374\n\nGreen onions,\n\n**H**\n\nHalloween,\n\nHardee's, 140\u201341\n\nHealth food, shopping for,\n\nHealthy Choice frozen dinners,\n\nHeart-disease-fighting icon,\n\nHigh-fructose corn syrup, 15\u201317,\n\nHoliday eating, 167\u201372\n\nHoney,\n\nHot sauce,\n\nHummus,\n\nHunger, lack of, from six meals a day,\n\n**I**\n\nIce cream,\n\nAbs Diet Sundae Parfait,\n\nIce cream shops, best choices at, 164\u201365\n\nIcons, in ABS DIET POWER , 29\u201330\n\nIHOP, 149\u201350\n\nImmune-function-boosting icon,\n\nInsulin, , ,\n\nInterval training, 185\u201388\n\nIron, in turkey,\n\nItalian restaurants,\n\n**J**\n\nJack in the Box,\n\nJamba Juice,\n\nJuice, condensed,\n\nJumping jacks,\n\n**K**\n\nKFC,\n\nKrispy Kreme,\n\n**L**\n\nLabels, food. _See_ Food labels\n\nLean Cuisine frozen dinners,\n\nLeg curl,\n\nLeg extension,\n\nLemons, ,\n\nLeptin,\n\nLittle Caesar's,\n\nLiver, effect of belly fat on,\n\nLong John Silver's,\n\nLow-fat diets\n\nfor cancer prevention,\n\ndrawbacks of,\n\nLow-fat products, labeling on,\n\nLunch,\n\nrecipes\n\npita pizzas, 101\u20132\n\nsalads, 95\u201397\n\nsandwiches, 98\u201399\n\nsoups, 99\u2013101\n\nwraps, 93\u201395\n\n**M**\n\nMacaroni Grill,\n\nMagnesium\n\nin almonds,\n\nfor lowering blood pressure,\n\nfor muscle building, ,\n\nManhattan Bagel Co.,\n\nMarinara sauce,\n\nMcDonald's, 142\u201343\n\nMeals, number of, in Abs Diet,\n\nMeats. _See also specific meats_\n\nin ABS DIET POWER , , 39\u201340\n\nfat content of,\n\nshopping for, 65\u201366,\n\nMetabolism,\n\nleptin influencing,\n\nmuscle increasing,\n\nMexican restaurants,\n\nMicronutrients,\n\nMidnight snacks,\n\nMilitary press,\n\nMilk\n\nas calcium source,\n\nchoosing,\n\nwith coffee,\n\nfor midnight snack,\n\nsaturated fat and,\n\nMonounsaturated fats, ,\n\nlowering cholesterol, ,\n\nin nuts,\n\nin peanut butter,\n\nMotivation for exercise,\n\nMountain climber,\n\nMrs. Fields,\n\nMuscle\n\ncalorie burning from,\n\nfat burning from,\n\nMuscle building\n\nfrom Abs Diet Workout, 174\u201376\n\nfor fat loss, 56\u201357\n\nfrom protein, ,\n\nfrom whey protein, 45\u201346\n\nMuscle-building icon, 29\u201330\n\nMuscle loss\n\nfrom starvation diets, 53\u201355\n\nstudy on,\n\nMustard,\n\n**N**\n\nNew Year's Eve,\n\nNiacin, in turkey,\n\nNo-weight workout,\n\nNutritional information\n\non commercial pizza,\n\non frozen pizza,\n\nfrom restaurants, 150\u201351\n\nNutritional ingredients to emphasize and limit,\n\nNuts, 31\u201333, ,\n\n**O**\n\nOatmeal, 36\u201338,\n\nfor midnight snack,\n\nrecipes\n\nFlax Machine,\n\nGinger _Roger!,_\n\nHoney, I Shrunk My Gut,\n\nYou're Nuts,\n\nin smoothies,\n\nObesity, ,\n\nO'Charley's, 154\u201355\n\nOffice party in December,\n\nOlive Garden,\n\nOlive oil, ,\n\nOmega-3 fatty acids, 25\u201326, ,\n\nOmelet(s), 82\u201383\n\nBean Counter,\n\nGreen and White,\n\nLean Eggs and Ham,\n\nMister Bean,\n\nTom Tomelet,\n\nUp in Smoke,\n\nOne-pot dishes\n\nHot-Headed Chicken,\n\nPot Luck of the Irish,\n\nThree-Amigos Chili, 112\u201313\n\nOnions, green,\n\nOvereating, effects of,\n\nOverweight,\n\n**P**\n\nPanda Express,\n\nPanera Bread, ,\n\nPapa John's, , 160\u201361\n\nPasta, ,\n\n\"Alfredo, I Know It Was\n\nYou . . . ,\"\n\nPesto R\u00e9sistance, 118\u201319\n\nYou-Can Noodle, 117\u201318\n\nPeaches,\n\nPeanut butter, ,\n\nPectin,\n\nPeet's Coffee,\n\nPeppers,\n\nPerkins, 149\u201350, 154\u201355\n\nP.F. Chang's,\n\nPita pizzas,\n\nPancho Villa,\n\nRed Auerbach,\n\nWhitey Ford,\n\nPitas,\n\nPizza\n\ncommercial, ,\n\nfrozen,\n\npita ( _see_ Pita pizzas)\n\nPizza Hut, ,\n\nPizza places, best choices at, 159\u201361\n\nPolyunsaturated fats, 25\u201326,\n\nPork\n\nPot Luck of the Irish,\n\nPortions, in Abs Diet, , , , 193\u201394\n\nPotassium, for lowering blood pressure,\n\nPrepared grocery-store foods, 78\u201379\n\nProduce, shopping for, 64\u201365\n\nProgress on Abs Diet, measuring, 197\u2013200\n\nProstate cancer, preventing, ,\n\nProtein\n\nbenefits of, 22\u201323\n\nin eggs, 38\u201339\n\nfor fat burning, ,\n\nfor muscle building, 29\u201330, ,\n\nfor weight loss,\n\nProtein powder, 45\u201346\n\nPudding cups,\n\nPulldown,\n\nPumpkin,\n\nPushups,\n\nPyruvate, recommended dosage of,\n\n**R**\n\nRaspberries,\n\nRed wine vinegar,\n\nRestaurants, 136\u201337\n\nbest food choices at\n\nbagel shops, 151\u201352\n\nballparks, 163\u201364\n\nbreakfast places, 149\u201350\n\ndoughnut shop,\n\nfast-food places, 137\u201344\n\nfood courts at malls, 162\u201363\n\nice cream shops, 164\u201365\n\npizza places, 159\u201361\n\nsandwich shops, 144\u201348\n\nsit-down restaurants, 153\u201359\n\nsmoothie stands, 161\u201362\n\nsports bars,\n\nnutritional information from, 150\u201351\n\nRice, brown,\n\nRicotta cheese, ,\n\nRotisserie chicken,\n\nRuby Tuesday, 154\u201355\n\n**S**\n\nSalad blends,\n\nSalad dressing, homemade,\n\nSalads\n\nEl Tequila Ensalada,\n\nKidney Punch, 96\u201397\n\nOlympiad,\n\nOrient Express,\n\nPotion of the Ocean,\n\nSweet Cheeses!,\n\nSalmon, , ,\n\nSalsa,\n\nSandwiches\n\nbreakfast\n\nApple Jacked,\n\nFoxy Lox,\n\nJam Session,\n\nMex-illent Adventure, 86\u201387\n\nThree-Country Breakfast,\n\nTurk before Work,\n\nWafflewich, 88\u201389\n\nlunch, , 98\u201399\n\nFill-in-the-Blank-Salad Sandwich,\n\nSandwich shops, best choices at, 144\u201348\n\nSaturated fats, , ,\n\nSauces, shopping for, 68\u201369\n\nSaxon side bend,\n\nSbarro,\n\nSchlotzsky's Deli, 147\u201348\n\nSeafood. _See also_ Fish\n\nAqua Man,\n\nFish Tacos,\n\nHot Pink,\n\nNo-Scrimp Shrimp, 114\u201315\n\nPerfect Storm,\n\nSeafood restaurants, 158\u201359\n\nSecret weapons, in Abs Diet,\n\nSex, improved, after Abs Diet,\n\nSex drive, oatmeal boosting,\n\nShoney's, 149\u201350\n\nShrimp,\n\nSide dishes\n\nBreathalyzer,\n\nEl El Bean, 120\u201321\n\nGreen Party, 119\u201320\n\nJerry's Rice,\n\nNuclear Orange Spud Missiles,\n\nSit-down restaurants, best choices at, 153\u201359\n\nSix meals a day, as Abs Diet guideline, 53\u201357\n\nSmart Ones frozen dinners,\n\nSmoothie King, 161\u201362\n\nSmoothies, 122\u201323\n\nin Abs Diet,\n\nadvantages of, 59\u201360\n\nbottled,\n\nguidelines for,\n\noatmeal in,\n\nrecipes\n\nAlmond Hammer,\n\nBlue Velvet, 128\u201329\n\nCheck Your Blackberry,\n\nCheesecake in a Cup,\n\nChocolate Factory,\n\nChocolate Latte, 130\u201331\n\nChoco-nana,\n\nCinnamon Girl,\n\nEndless Summer, 124\u201325\n\nHawaiian Five-O,\n\nHoney-Nut Cheery Oat,\n\nHoney-Pecan Smoothie, 126\u201327\n\nJuicy Fruit Juice,\n\nLime Dancing,\n\nMango Tango,\n\nMint Chocolate Morning, 132\u201333\n\nNeapolitan, 134\u201335\n\nNew Zealander,\n\nNutty Professor,\n\nOrangeman,\n\nPeach Vacation,\n\nPeachy Keen,\n\nPunk'd Pie,\n\nTirami-Smooth,\n\nWhey-Too-Good Smoothie,\n\nwhey protein in,\n\nSmoothie stands, best choices at, 161\u201362\n\nSnacks, 126\u201327\n\nAbs Diet Trail Mix,\n\nmidnight,\n\nSoda,\n\nSodium, ,\n\nSoups, 99\u2013100\n\nBeaning of Life, 100\u2013101\n\nMacho Gazpacho,\n\nSouth Beach Diet,\n\nSoy sauce,\n\nSpices,\n\nSpinach, 34\u201335,\n\nSplit hop,\n\nSports bars, best choices at,\n\nSpot-reducing, myth of,\n\nSquat,\n\nSquat thrust with pushup,\n\nSt. Patrick's Day,\n\nStarbucks, ,\n\nStarvation diets, muscle loss from, 53\u201355\n\nSteak,\n\nAztec Casserole,\n\nflank,\n\nFruit of Your Loins,\n\nMighty Muffins,\n\nSergeant Pepper,\n\nSteak Fa-heat-as,\n\nSteak houses,\n\nStep-up, 182\u201383\n\nStouffer's frozen dinners,\n\nStrawberries, ,\n\nString cheese,\n\nSubway,\n\nSuccess stories, , 9\u201310, , 24\u201325, 50\u201351, 54\u201355, 76\u201377, 78\u201379, 86\u201387, , 186\u201387, 194\u201395, 198\u201399\n\nSundae Parfait, Abs Diet,\n\nSuper Bowl party,\n\nSuperman,\n\nSupermarkets\n\nbargain items in,\n\npitfalls of, 63\u201364\n\nSupplements, vs. food,\n\nSushi bar,\n\n**T**\n\nTaco Bell, 143\u201344\n\nT.G.I. Friday's, 154\u201355\n\nThanksgiving,\n\nThree meals a day, drawbacks of, 55\u201356\n\nTomatoes, ,\n\nTony's pizza,\n\nTortillas,\n\nTrail Mix, Abs Diet,\n\nTrans fats, 17\u201319, ,\n\nTraveling lunge,\n\nTriceps kickback,\n\nTriceps pushdown,\n\nTuna, , 67\u201368\n\nTurkey, ,\n\nDijon Lennon, 106\u20137\n\nThree Amigos Chili, 112\u201313\n\n**U**\n\nUltimate Power Breakfast, 90\u201391\n\nUpright row,\n\n**V**\n\nVegetables, 34\u201335. _See also_ Side dishes\n\nshopping for, 64\u201365\n\nVending machine meals, comparison of,\n\nVinegars,\n\nVisceral fat, dangers of, 6\u20137,\n\nVitamin A\n\nfor improving immune function,\n\nin spinach,\n\nVitamin B6\n\nfor improving immune function,\n\nin turkey,\n\nVitamin B12, in eggs,\n\nVitamin C\n\nin broccoli,\n\nfor cancer prevention,\n\nfor improving immune function,\n\nin spinach,\n\nVitamin D, for bone strength,\n\nVitamin E\n\nin almonds,\n\nfor improving immune function,\n\n**W**\n\nWaffles,\n\nWaist-to-hip ratio, for measuring progress, 198\u201399\n\nWater, bottled,\n\nWeight, for measuring progress,\n\nWeight gain prevention icon,\n\nWeight loss, expected, from Abs Diet,\n\nWeight training. _See also_ Abs Diet Workout, circuit training in\n\ncalorie burning from, 175\u201376\n\nWendy's,\n\nWhey protein, 45\u201346,\n\nWhole grains, , 42\u201345\n\nshopping for, 72\u201374\n\nWhole-wheat bread, 42\u201345,\n\nWomen\n\nAbs Diet for,\n\nobesity in,\n\nWorkouts\n\nin Abs Diet,  ( _see also_ Abs Diet Workout)\n\nwhey protein before, 45\u201346\n\nWraps\n\nCow Tipper,\n\nDay after Thanksgiving,\n\nHot Curlers, 94\u201395\n\nThai One On,\n\nTwo Turks,\n\n**Y**\n\nYogurt,\n\nin breakfast recipes\n\nBananarama,\n\nBerry Easy,\n\nRupert Pumpkin,\n\nTrip to the Peach,\n\nin smoothies,\n\n**Z**\n\nZabar's,\n\nZinc\n\nfor improving immune function,\n\nin turkey,\n\n* * *\n\n_Note on sources: Whenever possible, I have used published data from major national chain restaurants. In cases of similar foods, I examined the nutritional profiles of each and selected one that seemed most representative of an industry-wide standard. In cases where published material was not available, I have used independent tests from the following sources: The USDA and The Center for Science in the Public Interest (Restaurant Confidential)._\n\n* * *\n\n**Notice**\n\nThis book is intended as a reference volume only, not as a medical manual. The information given here is designed to help you make informed decisions about your health. It is not intended as a substitute for any treatment that may have been prescribed by your doctor. If you suspect that you have a medical problem, we urge you to seek competent medical help. Mention of specific companies, organizations, or authorities in this book does not imply endorsement by the publisher, nor does mention of specific companies, organizations, or authorities imply that they endorse this book. Internet addresses and telephone numbers given in this book were accurate at the time it went to press.\n\nSales of this book without a front cover may be unauthorized. If this book is coverless, it may have been reported to the publisher as \"unsold or destroyed\" and neither the author nor the publisher may have received payment for it.\n\n\u00a9 2005 by Rodale Inc.\n\nAll rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any other information storage and retrieval system, without the written permission of the publisher.\n\n_Men's Health_ is a registered trademark of Rodale Inc.\n\nBook design by Christopher Rhoads\n\n**Distributed to the trade by Holtzbrinck Publishers**\n\nISBN-13 978\u20131\u201359486\u2013238\u20130 paperback\n\nISBN-10 1\u201359486\u2013238\u20139 paperback\n\neISBN-13 978\u20131\u201359486\u2013892\u20134\n\nWe inspire and enable people to improve their lives and the world around them\n\nFor more of our products vist **rodalestore.com** or call 800-848-4735\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}}
+{"text":"\n\n\n\nProduced by KD Weeks, Colin Bell and the Online Distributed\nProofreading Team at http:\/\/www.pgdp.net\n\n\n\n\n\n\n                          Transcriber's Note:\n\nThis version of the text cannot represent certain typographical effects.\nItalics are delimited with the '_' character as _italic_. Bold font is\ndelimited by the '=' character. Superscripted and subscripted characters\nare shown as '^2' and '_{2}' respectively. Emphasized words in Greek\nare, by convention, printed using wider spacing (_gesperrt_). The '_'\ncharacter is used as a delimiter in this version, e.g. (\u03bc\u03b9\u03bc\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1\u03af _\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5\n\u03b3\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5_).\n\nThe original text includes annotations on two Greek texts, the Epistle\nto the Colossians, and an Epistle to Philemon. On each page, several\nlines of Greek are accompanied by a double column of notations on key\nwords. It was not possible to follow that convention in this version,\ngiven the nature of our medium.\n\nAny hyphenations in the Greek text that occurred on page breaks have\nbeen removed, and the word's end has been moved to the previous page. On\nmany occasions, a note appears on an earlier page than the text it\nglosses. In this version, the notes have been arranged so that each\n_follows_ the text to which it refers.\n\nThere are Greek inscriptions printed in an uncial font, and using a\nlunate sigma (\u03f2). These will appear here as ==\u03bc\u03b9\u03bc\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1\u03af \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b3\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03f2\u03b8\u03b5==.\nThe occasional blackletter font appears here as '=blackletter\ntext='.\n\nFootnotes have been moved to follow each paragraph, and are resequenced\nto be unique across the text. Any internal references to those notes\nhave been modified as well.\n\nThe section entitled AD LAODICENSES presents the text of an apocryphal\nletter from St Paul. Given the brevity of the text, these notes are\ngathered after the letter.\n\nThe index includes references to both pages and to the verses of the two\nEpistles included here. Those references to a verse may refer to either\nthe Greek itself, or to any of the notes on that verse.\n\nPlease consult the note at the end of this text for any other issues\nthat arose during its presentation.\n\n\n\n\n                        THE EPISTLES OF ST PAUL.\n\n                                  III.\n\n                       THE FIRST ROMAN CAPTIVITY.\n\n                                   2.\n\n                       EPISTLE TO THE COLOSSIANS.\n\n                                   3.\n\n                          EPISTLE TO PHILEMON.\n\n[Illustration]\n\n                          =Cambridge:=\n                      PRINTED BY C. J. CLAY, M.A.\n                        AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.\n\n                               ST PAUL'S\n                       EPISTLES TO THE COLOSSIANS\n                                 AND TO\n                               PHILEMON.\n\n                            _A REVISED TEXT_\n\n                                  WITH\n\n                INTRODUCTIONS, NOTES, AND DISSERTATIONS.\n\n\n\n\n                                   BY\n\n                         J. B. LIGHTFOOT, D.D.\n\n                          CANON OF ST PAUL'S;\n                     HULSEAN PROFESSOR OF DIVINITY,\n                                  AND\n             HONORARY FELLOW OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.\n\n\n\n\n                            =London:=\n                          _MACMILLAN AND CO._\n                                 1875.\n\n                        [_All Rights reserved._]\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n\n\n\n         ==\u03bc\u03b9\u03bc\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1\u03af \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b3\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03f2\u03b8\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03f2 \u03ba\u1f00\u03b3\u1f7c \u03c7\u03c1\u03b9\u03f2\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6.==\n\n                         ---------------------\n\n              \u03a0\u03b1\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bc\u03ad\u03b3\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03bc\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2.\n\n                                                    CLEMENT.\n\n                               ----------\n\n       \u039f\u1f50\u03c7 \u1f61\u03c2 \u03a0\u03b1\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c4\u03ac\u03c3\u03c3\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd\u00b7 \u1f10\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03cc\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2,\n       \u1f10\u03b3\u1f7c \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03ac\u03ba\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2\u00b7 \u1f10\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bb\u03b5\u03cd\u03b8\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2, \u1f10\u03b3\u1f7c \u03b4\u1f72 \u03bc\u03ad\u03c7\u03c1\u03b9 \u03bd\u1fe6\u03bd\n          \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2.\n\n                                                   IGNATIUS.\n\n                               ----------\n\n     \u039f\u1f54\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f10\u03b3\u1f7c \u03bf\u1f54\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f04\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f45\u03bc\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bc\u03bf\u03af \u03b4\u03cd\u03bd\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5\u03b8\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9\n            \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u1fb3 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bc\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd\u03b4\u03cc\u03be\u03bf\u03c5 \u03a0\u03b1\u03cd\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5.\n\n                                                   POLYCARP.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n\n\n\n                                PREFACE.\n\n\nOn the completion of another volume of my commentary, I wish again to\nrenew my thanks for the assistance received from previous labourers in\nthe same field. Such obligations must always be great; but it is not\neasy in a few words to apportion them fairly, and I shall not make the\nattempt. I have not consciously neglected any aid which might render\nthis volume more complete; but at the same time I venture to hope that\nmy previous commentaries have established my claim to be regarded as an\nindependent worker, and in the present instance more especially I have\nfound myself obliged to diverge widely from the treatment of my\npredecessors, and to draw largely from other materials than those which\nthey have collected.\n\nIn the preface to a previous volume I expressed an intention of\nappending to my commentary on the Colossian Epistle an essay on\n'Christianity and Gnosis.' This intention has not been fulfilled in the\nletter; but the subject enters largely into the investigation of the\nColossian heresy, where it receives as much attention as, at all events\nfor the present, it seems to require. It will necessarily come under\ndiscussion again, when the Pastoral Epistles are taken in hand.\n\nThe question of the genuineness of the two epistles contained in this\nvolume has been deliberately deferred. It could not be discussed with\nany advantage apart from the Epistle to the Ephesians, for the three\nletters are inseparably bound together. Meanwhile however the doctrinal\nand historical discussions will, if I mistake not, have furnished\nanswers to the main objections which have been urged; while the\ncommentary will have shown how thoroughly natural the language and\nthoughts are, if conceived as arising out of an immediate emergency.\nMore especially it will have been made apparent that the Epistle to the\nColossians hangs together as a whole, and that the phenomena are\naltogether adverse to any theory of interpolation such as that recently\nput forward by Professor Holtzmann.\n\nIn the commentary, as well as in the introduction, it has been a chief\naim to illustrate and develope the theological conception of the Person\nof Christ, which underlies the Epistle to the Colossians. The Colossian\nheresy for instance owes its importance mainly to the fact that it\nthrows out this conception into bolder relief. To this portion of the\nsubject therefore I venture to direct special attention.\n\nI cannot conclude without offering my thanks to Mr A. A. VanSittart who,\nas on former occasions, has given his aid in correcting the proof sheets\nof this volume; and to the Rev. J. J. Scott, of Trinity College, who has\nprepared the index. I wish also to express my obligations to Dr\nSchiller-Szinessy, of whose Talmudical learning I have freely availed\nmyself in verifying Frankel's quotations and in other ways. I should add\nhowever that he is not in any degree responsible for my conclusions and\nhas not even seen what I have written.\n\n    TRINITY COLLEGE,\n        _April 30, 1875_.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n\n\n\n                               CONTENTS.\n\n                       EPISTLE TO THE COLOSSIANS.\n\n     _INTRODUCTION._\n\n                                                              PAGE\n\n          I.   _The Churches of the Lycus_                    1\u201372\n\n          II.  _The Colossian Heresy_                       73\u2013113\n\n               _On some points connected with the\n               Essenes._\n\n               1. _The name Essene_                        114\u2013119\n\n               2. _Origin and Affinities of the            119\u2013157\n               Essenes_\n\n               3. _Essenism and Christianity_              158\u2013179\n\n          III. _Character and Contents of the Epistle_     180\u2013194\n\n     _TEXT AND NOTES_                                      197\u2013311\n\n          _On some Various Readings in the Epistle_        312\u2013322\n\n          _On the meaning of \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1_                      323\u2013339\n\n          _The Epistle from Laodicea_                      340\u2013366\n\n                          EPISTLE TO PHILEMON.\n\n     _INTRODUCTION_                                        369\u2013395\n\n     _TEXT AND NOTES_                                      399\u2013412\n\n     _INDEX_                                               415\u2013424\n\n\n\n\n                                   I.\n                       THE CHURCHES OF THE LYCUS.\n\n\n[Sidenote: Situation of the three cities.]\n\nLying in, or overhanging, the valley of the Lycus, a tributary of the\nM\u00e6ander, were three neighbouring towns, Laodicea, Hierapolis, and\nColoss\u00e6[1]. The river flows, roughly speaking, from east to west; but at\nthis point, which is some few miles above its junction with the M\u00e6ander,\nits direction is more nearly from south-east to north-west[2]. Laodicea\nand Hierapolis stand face to face, being situated respectively on the\nsouthern and northern sides of the valley, at a distance of six\nmiles[3], and within sight of each other, the river lying in the open\nplain between the two. The site of Coloss\u00e6 is somewhat higher up the\nstream, at a distance of perhaps ten or twelve miles[4] from the point\nwhere the road between Laodicea and Hierapolis crosses the Lycus. Unlike\nLaodicea and Hierapolis, which overhang the valley on opposite sides,\nColoss\u00e6 stands immediately on the river-bank, the two parts of the town\nbeing divided by the stream. The three cities lie so near to each other,\nthat it would be quite possible to visit them all in the course of a\nsingle day.\n\nFootnote 1:\n\n  The following are among the most important books of travel relating to\n  this district; Pococke _Description of the East and Some Other\n  Countries_, Vol. II, Part II, London 1745; Chandler _Travels in Asia\n  Minor_ etc., Oxford 1775; Leake _Tour in Asia Minor_, London 1824;\n  Arundell _Discoveries in Asia Minor_, London 1834; Hamilton\n  _Researches in Asia Minor, Pontus, and Armenia_, London 1842; Fellows\n  _Asia Minor_, London 1839, _Discoveries in Lycia_, London 1840; de\n  Tchihatcheff _Asie Mineure, Description Physique, Statistique et\n  Arch\u00e9ologique_, Paris 1853 etc., with the accompanying Atlas (1860);\n  de Laborde _Voyage de l'Asie Mineure_ (the expedition itself took\n  place in 1826, but the date on the title-page is 1838, and the\n  introduction was written in 1861); Le Bas _Voyage Arch\u00e9ologique en\n  Gr\u00e8ce et en Asie Mineure_, continued by Waddington and not yet\n  completed; Texier _Description de l'Asie Mineure_, Vol. I (1839). It\n  is hardly necessary to add the smaller works of Texier and Le Bas on\n  _Asie Mineure_ (Paris 1862, 1863) in Didot's series _L'Univers_, as\n  these have only a secondary value. Of the books enumerated, Hamilton's\n  work is the most important for the topography, etc.; Tchihatcheff's\n  for the physical features; and Le Bas and Waddington's for the\n  inscriptions, etc. The best maps are those of Hamilton and\n  Tchihatcheff; to which should be added the _Karte von Klein-Asien_ by\n  v. Vincke and others, published by Schropp, Berlin 1844.\n\n  Besides books on Asia Minor generally, some works relating especially\n  to the Seven Churches may be mentioned. Smith's _Survey of the Seven\n  Churches of Asia_ (1678) is a work of great merit for the time, and\n  contains the earliest description of the sites of these Phrygian\n  cities. It was published in Latin first, and translated by its author\n  afterwards. Arundell's _Seven Churches_ (1828) is a well-known book.\n  Allom and Walsh's _Constantinople and the Scenery of the Seven\n  Churches of Asia Minor illustrated_ (1850) gives some views of this\n  district. Svoboda's _Seven Churches of Asia_ (1869) contains 20\n  photographs and an introduction by the Rev. H. B. Tristram. This is a\n  selection from a larger series of Svoboda's photographs, published\n  separately.\n\nFootnote 2:\n\n  The maps differ very considerably in this respect, nor do the\n  statements of travellers always agree. The direction of the river, as\n  given in the text, accords with the maps of Hamilton and Tchihatcheff,\n  and with the accounts of the most accurate writers.\n\nFootnote 3:\n\n  _Anton. Itin._ p. 337 (Wesseling) gives the distance as 6 miles. See\n  also Fellows _Asia Minor_ p. 283, Hamilton I. p. 514. The relative\n  position of the two cities appears in Laborde's view, pl. xxxix.\n\nFootnote 4:\n\n  I do not find any distinct notice of the distance; but, to judge from\n  the maps and itineraries of modern travellers, this estimate will\n  probably be found not very far wrong.\n\n[Sidenote: Their neighbourhood and intercourse.]\n\nThus situated, they would necessarily hold constant intercourse with\neach other. We are not surprised therefore to find them so closely\nconnected in the earliest ages of Christianity. It was the consequence\nof their position that they owed their knowledge of the Gospel to the\nsame evangelist, that the same phases of thought prevailed in them, and\nthat they were exposed to the same temptations, moral as well as\nintellectual.\n\n[Sidenote: Physical forces at work.]\n\nThe physical features of the neighbourhood are very striking. Two potent\nforces of nature are actively at work to change the face of the country,\nthe one destroying old land-marks, the other creating fresh ground.\n\n[Sidenote: Frequent earthquakes.]\n\nOn the one hand, the valley of the Lycus was and is especially liable to\nviolent earthquakes. The same danger indeed extends over large portions\nof Asia Minor, but this district is singled out by ancient writers[5]\n(and the testimony of modern travellers confirms the statement[6]), as\nthe chief theatre of these catastrophes. Not once or twice only in the\nhistory of Laodicea do we read of such visitations laying waste the city\nitself or some flourishing town in the neighbourhood[7]. Though the\nexterior surface of the earth shows no traces of recent volcanoes, still\nthe cavernous nature of the soil and the hot springs and mephitic\nvapours abounding here indicate the presence of those subterranean\nfires, which from time to time have manifested themselves in this work\nof destruction.\n\nFootnote 5:\n\n  See especially Strabo xii. 8. 16 (p. 578) \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03cd\u03c4\u03c1\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c7\u03ce\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n  _\u03c4\u1f78 \u03b5\u1f54\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd_\u00b7 \u03b5\u1f30 \u03b3\u03ac\u03c1 \u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f04\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f21 \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03af\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 \u03b5\u1f54\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n  \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03bf\u03c7\u03ce\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b4\u1f72 \u039a\u03ac\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03c1\u03b1.\n\nFootnote 6:\n\n  Thus Pococke (p. 71) in 1745 writes of Denizli, which is close to\n  Laodicea, 'The old town was destroyed about 25 years past by an\n  earthquake, in which 12,000 people perished.'\n\nFootnote 7:\n\n  See below p. 38.\n\n[Sidenote: Deposits of travertine.]\n\nBut, while the crust of the earth is constantly broken up by these\nforces from beneath, another agency is actively employed above ground in\nlaying a new surface. If fire has its fitful outbursts of devastation,\nwater is only less powerful in its gradual work of reconstruction. The\nlateral streams which swell the waters of the Lycus are thickly\nimpregnated with calcareous matter, which they deposit in their course.\nThe travertine formations of this valley are among the most remarkable\nin the world, surpassing even the striking phenomena of Tivoli and\nClermont[8]. Ancient monuments are buried, fertile lands overlaid,\nriver-beds choked up and streams diverted, fantastic grottos and\ncascades and archways of stone formed, by this strange capricious power,\nat once destructive and creative, working silently and relentlessly\nthrough long ages. Fatal to vegetation, these incrustations spread like\na stony shroud over the ground. Gleaming like glaciers on the hill-side\nthey attract the eye of the traveller at a distance of twenty miles[9],\nand form a singularly striking feature in scenery of more than common\nbeauty and impressiveness.\n\nFootnote 8:\n\n  Tchihatcheff P. I. _Geogr. Phys. Comp._ p. 344 sq., esp. p. 353. See\n  the references below, pp. 9 sq., 15.\n\nFootnote 9:\n\n  Fellows _Asia Minor_ p. 283.\n\n[Sidenote: Produce and manufactures of the district.]\n\nAt the same time, along with these destructive agencies, the fertility\nof the district was and is unusually great. Its rich pastures fed large\nflocks of sheep, whose fleeces were of a superior quality; and the trade\nin dyed woollen goods was the chief source of prosperity to these towns.\nFor the bounty of nature was not confined to the production of the\nmaterial, but extended also to the preparation of the fabric. The\nmineral streams had chemical qualities, which were highly valued by the\ndyer[10]. Hence we find that all the three towns, with which we are\nconcerned, were famous in this branch of trade. At Hierapolis, as at\nThyatira, the guild of the dyers appears in the inscriptions as an\nimportant and influential body[11]. Their colours vied in brilliancy\nwith the richest scarlets and purples of the farther east[12]. Laodicea\nagain was famous for the colour of its fleeces, probably a glossy black,\nwhich was much esteemed[13]. Here also we read of a guild of dyers[14].\nAnd lastly, Coloss\u00e6 gave its name to a peculiar dye, which seems to have\nbeen some shade of purple, and from which it derived a considerable\nrevenue[15].\n\nFootnote 10:\n\n  See note 13.\n\nFootnote 11:\n\n  Boeckh _Corp. Inscr._ no. 3924 (at Hierapolis) \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f21\u03c1\u1ff7\u03bf\u03bd \u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c6\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u1fd6\n  _\u1f21 \u1f10\u03c1\u03b3\u03b1\u03c3\u03af\u03b1 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b2\u03b1\u03c6\u03b5\u03ce\u03bd_. See Laborde's view, pl. xxxv. In another\n  inscription too (Le Bas and Waddington, no. 1687) there is mention of\n  the purple-dyers, \u03c0\u03bf\u03c1\u03c6\u03c5\u03c1\u03b1\u03b2\u03b1\u03c6\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2.\n\nFootnote 12:\n\n  Strabo xiii. 4. 14 (p. 630) \u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c6\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03c1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u03b8\u03b1\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff6\u03c2\n  \u03c3\u03cd\u03bc\u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f39\u03b5\u03c1\u1f70\u03bd \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd \u1f55\u03b4\u03c9\u03c1, \u1f64\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f10\u03ba \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1fe5\u03b9\u03b6\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b2\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03b1\n  \u1f10\u03bd\u03ac\u03bc\u03b9\u03bb\u03bb\u03b1 \u03b5\u1f34\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03ba \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03cc\u03ba\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f01\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5\u03c1\u03b3\u03ad\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd.\n\nFootnote 13:\n\n  Strabo xii. 8. 16 (p. 578) \u03c6\u03ad\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9 \u03b4' \u1f41 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03af\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u03cc\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2\n  \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03b2\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u1f00\u03c1\u03b5\u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03ba\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1 \u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03c1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd, \u1f96 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u039c\u03b9\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03c9\u03bd\n  \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c6\u03ad\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9, \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03ba\u03bf\u03c1\u03b1\u03be\u1f74\u03bd \u03c7\u03c1\u03cc\u03b1\u03bd, \u1f65\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03bf\u03b4\u03b5\u03cd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9\n  \u03bb\u03b1\u03bc\u03c0\u03c1\u1ff6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd, \u1f65\u03c3\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f31 \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03c3\u03b7\u03bd\u03bf\u1f76 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f41\u03bc\u03c9\u03bd\u03cd\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2,\n  \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03bf\u03bd \u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2. For this strange adjective \u03ba\u03bf\u03c1\u03b1\u03be\u03cc\u03c2 (which seems to\n  be derived from \u03ba\u03cc\u03c1\u03b1\u03be and to mean 'raven-black') see the passages in\n  Hase and Dindorf's _Steph. Thes._ In Latin we find the form\n  _coracinus_, Vitruv. viii. 3 \u00a7 14 'Aliis coracino colore,' Laodicea\n  being mentioned in the context. Vitruvius represents this as the\n  natural colour of the fleeces, and attributes it to the water drunk by\n  the sheep. See also Plin. _N. H._ viii. 48 \u00a7 73. So too Hieron. _adv.\n  Jovin._ ii. 21 (II. p. 358) 'Laodice\u00e6 indumentis ornatus incedis.' The\n  ancient accounts of the natural colour of the fleeces in this\n  neighbourhood are partially confirmed by modern travellers; e.g.\n  Pococke p. 74, Chandler p. 228.\n\nFootnote 14:\n\n  Boeckh _Corp. Inscr._ 3938 [\u1f21 \u1f10\u03c1\u03b3\u03b1\u03c3\u03af\u03b1] \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b3\u03bd\u03b1\u03c6\u03ad[\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c6\u03ad\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd]\n  (\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5\u03c1\u03b3[\u1ff6]\u03bd.\n\nFootnote 15:\n\n  See the passage of Strabo quoted p. 4, note 13. The place gives its\n  name to the colour, and not conversely, as stated in Blakesley's\n  Herod. vii. 113. See also Plin. _N. H._ xxi. 9 \u00a7 27, 'In vepribus\n  nascitur cyclaminum ... flos ejus _colossinus_ in coronas admittitur,'\n  a passage which assists in determining the colour.\n\n[Sidenote: 1. LAODICEA.]\n\n[Sidenote: Its name and history.]\n\n1. Of these three towns LAODICEA, as the most important, deserves to be\nconsidered first. Laodice was a common name among the ladies of the\nroyal house of the Seleucid\u00e6, as Antiochus was among the princes. Hence\nAntiochia and Laodicea occur frequently as the designations of cities\nwithin the dominions of the Syrian kings. Laodicea on the Lycus[16], as\nit was surnamed to distinguish it from other towns so called, and more\nespecially perhaps from its near neighbour Laodicea Catacecaumene, had\nborne in succession the names of Diospolis and Rhoas[17]; but when\nrefounded by Antiochus Theos (B.C. 261\u2013246), it was newly designated\nafter his wife Laodice[18]. It is situated[19] on an undulating hill, or\ngroup of hills, which overhangs the valley on the south, being washed on\neither side by the streams of the Asopus and the Caprus, tributaries of\nthe Lycus[20]. Behind it rise the snow-capped heights of Cadmus, the\nlofty mountain barrier which shuts in the south side of the main\nvalley[21]. [Sidenote: Its growing prosperity.] A place of no great\nimportance at first, it made rapid strides in the last days of the\nrepublic and under the earliest C\u00e6sars, and had become, two or three\ngenerations before St Paul wrote, a populous and thriving city[22].\nAmong its famous inhabitants are mentioned the names of some\nphilosophers, sophists, and rhetoricians, men renowned in their day but\nforgotten or almost forgotten now[23]. More to our purpose, as\nillustrating the boasted wealth and prosperity of the city, which\nappeared as a reproach and a stumblingblock in an Apostle's eyes[24],\nare the facts, that one of its citizens, Polemo, became a king and a\nfather of kings, and that another, Hiero, having accumulated enormous\nwealth, bequeathed all his property to the people and adorned the city\nwith costly gifts[25]. To the good fortune of her principal sons, as\nwell as to the fertility of the country around, the geographer Strabo\nascribes the increase and prosperity of Laodicea. The ruins of public\nbuildings still bear testimony by their number and magnificence to the\npast greatness of the city[26].\n\nFootnote 16:\n\n  \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u039b\u03cd\u03ba\u1ff3, Boeckh _Corp. Inscr._ no. 3938, Ptol. _Geogr._ v. 2, Tab.\n  Peut. 'laudicium pilycum'; \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 [\u03c4\u1ff7] \u039b\u03cd\u03ba\u1ff3, Eckhel _Num. Vet._ III. p.\n  166, Strabo l.c., Boeckh _Corp. Inscr._ 5881, 5893; \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u039b\u03cd\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd, Boeckh\n  _Corp. Inscr._ 6478. A citizen was styled \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u039b\u03cd\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5, Diog.\n  Laert. ix. 12 \u00a7 116.\n\nFootnote 17:\n\n  Plin. _N. H._ v. 29.\n\nFootnote 18:\n\n  Steph. Byz. s.v., who quotes the oracle in obedience to which (\u1f61\u03c2\n  \u1f10\u03ba\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03c5\u03c3\u03b5 \u0396\u03b5\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c8\u03b9\u03b2\u03c1\u03b5\u03bc\u03ad\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2) it was founded.\n\nFootnote 19:\n\n  For descriptions of Laodicea see Smith p. 250 sq., Pococke p. 71 sq.,\n  Chandler p. 224 sq., Arundell _Seven Churches_ p. 84 sq., _Asia Minor_\n  II. p. 180 sq., Fellows _Asia Minor_ 280 sq., Hamilton I. p. 514 sq.,\n  Tchihatcheff P. I. p. 252 sq., 258 sq. See also the views in Laborde,\n  pl. xxxix, Allom and Walsh II. p. 86, and Svoboda phot. 36\u201338.\n\n  The modern Turkish name is Eskihissar, 'the Old Castle,' corresponding\n  to the modern Greek, Pale\u00f3kastro, a common name for the sites of\n  ancient cities; Leake p. 251. On the ancient site itself there is no\n  town or village; the modern city Denizli is a few miles off.\n\nFootnote 20:\n\n  The position of Laodicea with respect to the neighbouring streams is\n  accurately described by Pliny _N.H._ v. 29 'Imposita est Lyco flumini,\n  latera affluentibus Asopo et Capro'; see Tchihatcheff P. I. p. 258.\n  Strabo xii. (l.c.) is more careless in his description (for it can\n  hardly be, as Tchihatcheff assumes, that he has mistaken one of these\n  two tributaries for the Lycus itself), \u1f10\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u1fe6\u03b8\u03b1 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f41 \u039a\u03ac\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f41\n  \u039b\u03cd\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bc\u03b2\u03ac\u03bb\u03bb\u03b5 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u039c\u03b1\u03b9\u03ac\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u1ff3 \u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u03b1\u03bc\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u03b1\u03bc\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f50\u03bc\u03b5\u03b3\u03ad\u03b8\u03b7\u03c2, where \u1f10\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u1fe6\u03b8\u03b1\n  refers to \u1f41 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03af\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u03cc\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2, and where by the junction of\n  the stream with the M\u00e6ander must be intended the junction of the\n  _combined_ stream of the Lycus and Caprus. On the coins of Laodicea\n  (Eckhel III. p. 166, Mionnet IV. p. 330, ib. Suppl. VII. p. 587, 589)\n  the Lycus and Caprus appear together, being sometimes represented as a\n  wolf and a wild-boar. The Asopus is omitted, either as being a less\n  important stream or as being less capable of symbolical\n  representation. Of modern travellers, Smith (p. 250), and after him\n  Pococke (p. 72), have correctly described the position of the streams.\n  Chandler (p. 227), misled by Strabo, mistakes the Caprus for the Lycus\n  and the Lycus for the M\u00e6ander. The modern name of the Lycus is Tchoruk\n  S\u00fa.\n\nFootnote 21:\n\n  The modern name of Cadmus is Baba-Dagh, 'The father of mountains.'\n\nFootnote 22:\n\n  Strabo xii. l.c. \u1f21 \u03b4\u1f72 \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03af\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 \u03bc\u03b9\u03ba\u03c1\u1f70 \u03c0\u03c1\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u1f40\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b1 \u1f00\u03cd\u03be\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f14\u03bb\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u03bd \u1f10\u03c6'\n  \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03c9\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03c9\u03bd, \u03ba\u03b1\u03af\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u03ba\u03c9\u03b8\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b1 \u1f10\u03ba \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b9\u03bf\u03c1\u03ba\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76\n  \u039c\u03b9\u03b8\u03c1\u03b9\u03b4\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f18\u03c5\u03c0\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2. Strabo flourished in the time of Augustus\n  and the earlier years of Tiberius. The growing importance of Laodicea\n  dates from before the age of Cicero: see p. 7.\n\nFootnote 23:\n\n  Strabo l.c.; Diog. Laert. ix. 11 \u00a7 106, 12 \u00a7 116; Philostr. _Vit.\n  Soph._ i. 25; Eckhel _Doctr. Num. Vet._ III. p. 162, 163 sq.\n\nFootnote 24:\n\n  Rev. iii. 17; see below p. 43.\n\nFootnote 25:\n\n  Strabo l.c.\n\nFootnote 26:\n\n  The ruins of Laodicea have formed the quarry out of which the modern\n  town of Denizli is built. Yet notwithstanding these depredations they\n  are still very extensive, comprising an amphitheatre, two or three\n  theatres, an aqueduct, etc. The amphitheatre was built by the\n  munificence of a citizen of Laodicea only a few years after St Paul\n  wrote, as the inscription testifies; Boeckh _Corp. Inscr._ no. 3935.\n  See especially Hamilton I. p. 515 sq., who describes these ruins as\n  'bearing the stamp of Roman extravagance and luxury, rather than of\n  the stern and massive solidity of the Greeks.'\n\n[Sidenote: Its political rank, as the capital of a _conventus_.]\n\nNot less important, as throwing light on the Apostolic history, is the\npolitical status of Laodicea. Asia Minor under the Romans was divided\ninto districts, each comprising several towns and having its chief city,\nin which the courts were held from time to time by the proconsul or\nlegate of the province, and where the taxes from the subordinate towns\nwere collected[27]. Each of these political aggregates was styled in\nLatin _conventus_, in Greek \u03b4\u03b9\u03bf\u03af\u03ba\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2\u2014a term afterwards borrowed by the\nChristian Church, being applied to a similar ecclesiastical aggregate,\nand thus naturalised in the languages of Christendom as _diocese_. At\nthe head of the most important of these political dioceses, the\n'Cibyratic convention' or 'jurisdiction,' as it was called, comprising\nnot less than twenty-five towns, stood Laodicea[28]. Here in times past\nCicero, as proconsul of Cilicia, had held his court[29]; hither at\nstated seasons flocked suitors, advocates, clerks, sheriffs'-officers,\ntax-collectors, pleasure-seekers, courtiers\u2014all those crowds whom\nbusiness or leisure or policy or curiosity would draw together from a\nwealthy and populous district, when the representative of the laws and\nthe majesty of Rome appeared to receive homage and to hold his\nassize[30]. To this position as the chief city of the Cibyratic union\nthe inscriptions probably refer, when they style Laodicea the\n'metropolis[31].' And in its metropolitan rank we see an explanation of\nthe fact, that to Laodicea, as to the centre of a Christian diocese\nalso, whence their letters would readily be circulated among the\nneighbouring brotherhoods, two Apostles address themselves in\nsuccession, the one writing from his captivity in Rome[32], the other\nfrom his exile at Patmos[33].\n\nFootnote 27:\n\n  See Becker and Marquardt _R\u00f6m. Alterth._ III. 1. p. 136 sq.\n\nFootnote 28:\n\n  See Cic. _ad Att._ v. 21,'Idibus Februariis ... forum institueram\n  agere Laodice\u00e6 Cibyraticum,'with the references in the next note:\n  comp. also Plin. _N.H._ v. 29 'Una (jurisdictio) appellatur\n  Cibyratica. Ipsum (i.e. Cibyra) oppidum Phrygi\u00e6 est. Conveniunt eo xxv\n  civitates, celeberrima urbe Laodicea.'\n\n  Besides these passages, testimony is borne to the importance of the\n  Cibyratic 'conventus' by Strabo, xiii. 4 \u00a7 17 (p. 631), \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2\n  \u03bc\u03b5\u03b3\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03be\u03b5\u03c4\u03ac\u03b6\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b4\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f08\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f21 \u039a\u03b9\u03b2\u03c5\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03ae. It will be\n  remembered also that Horace singles out the _Cibyratica negotia_\n  (_Epist._ i. 6. 33) to represent Oriental trade generally. The\n  importance of Laodicea may be inferred from the fact that, though the\n  union was named after Cibyra, its head-quarters were from the first\n  fixed at or soon afterwards transferred to Laodicea.\n\nFootnote 29:\n\n  See _ad Fam._ ii. 17, iii. 5, 7, 8, ix. 25, xiii. 54, 67, xv. 4; _ad\n  Att._ v. 16, 17, 20, 21, vi. 1, 2, 3, 7. He visited Laodicea on\n  several occasions, sometimes making a long stay there, and not a few\n  of his letters are written thence. See especially his account of his\n  work there, _ad Att._ vi. 2, 'Hoc foro quod egi ex Idibus Februariis\n  Laodice\u00e6 ad Kalendas Maias omnium dioecesium, pr\u00e6ter Cilici\u00e6,\n  mirabilia qu\u00e6dam efficimus; ita mult\u00e6 civitates, etc.' Altogether\n  Laodicea seems to have been second in importance to none of the cities\n  in his province, except perhaps Tarsus. See also the notice, _in\n  Verr._ Act. ii. I. c. 30.\n\nFootnote 30:\n\n  The description which Dion Chrysostom gives in his eulogy of Cel\u00e6n\u00e6\n  (Apamea Cibotus), the metropolis of a neighbouring 'dioecesis,'\n  enables us to realise the concourse which gathered together on these\n  occasions: _Orat._ XXXV (II. p. 69) \u03be\u03c5\u03bd\u03ac\u03b3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c0\u03bb\u1fc6\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03c9\u03bd\n  \u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03b6\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd, \u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03b6\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd, \u1f21\u03b3\u03b5\u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd, \u1f51\u03c0\u03b7\u03c1\u03b5\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd, \u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03b5\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd, \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\nFootnote 31:\n\n  On this word see Becker and Marquardt l.c. p. 138 sq. It had lost its\n  original sense, as the mother city of a colony. Laodicea is styled\n  'metropolis' on the coins, Mionnet IV. p. 321.\n\nFootnote 32:\n\n  Col. iv. 16 with the notes. See also below p. 37, and the introduction\n  to the Epistle to the Ephesians.\n\nFootnote 33:\n\n  Rev. iii. 14.\n\n[Sidenote: Its religious\n           worship.]\n\nOn the religious worship of Laodicea very little special information\nexists. Its tutelary deity was Zeus, whose guardianship had been\nrecognised in Diospolis, the older name of the city, and who, having\n(according to the legend) commanded its rebuilding, was commemorated on\nits coins with the surname Laodicenus[34]. Occasionally he is also\ncalled Aseis, a title which perhaps reproduces a Syrian epithet of this\ndeity, 'the mighty.' If this interpretation be correct, we have a link\nof connexion between Laodicea and the religions of the farther East\u2014a\nconnexion far from improbable, considering that Laodicea was refounded\nby a Syrian king and is not unlikely to have adopted some features of\nSyrian worship[35].\n\nFootnote 34:\n\n  See Eckhel III. p. 159 sq. (passim), Mionnet IV. p. 315 sq., ib.\n  Suppl. VII. p. 578 sq. (passim). In the coins commemorating an\n  alliance with some other city Laodicea is represented by Zeus; e.g.\n  Mionnet IV. pp. 320, 324, 331 sq., Suppl. VII. pp. 586, 589.\n\nFootnote 35:\n\n  ==\u03b1\u03f2\u03b5\u03b9\u03f2== or ==\u03b1\u03f2\u03b5\u03b9\u03f2 \u03bb\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u03c9\u03bd==. See Waddington _Voyage en Asie\n  Mineure au point de vue Numismatique_ (Paris 1853) pp. 25, 26 sq. Mr\n  Waddington adopts a suggestion communicated to him by M. de Longp\u00e9rier\n  that this word represents the Aramaic \u05e2\u05d6\u05d9\u05d6\u05d0 'the strong, mighty,'\n  which appears also in the Arabic 'Aziz.' This view gains some\n  confirmation from the fact, not mentioned by Mr Waddington, that\n  \u1f0c\u03b6\u03b9\u03b6\u03bf\u03c2 was an epithet of the Ares of Edessa: Julian _Orat._ iv; comp.\n  Cureton _Spic. Syr._ p. 80, and see de Lagarde _Gesamm. Abhandl._ p.\n  16. On the other hand this Shemitic word elsewhere, when adopted into\n  Greek or Latin, is written \u1f0c\u03b6\u03b9\u03b6\u03bf\u03c2 or Azizus: see Garrucci in the\n  _Arch\u00e6ologia_ XLIII. p. 45 'Tyrio Septimio Azizo,' and Boeckh _Corp.\n  Inscr._ 9893 \u1f0c\u03b6\u03b9\u03b6\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f08\u03b3\u03c1\u03af\u03c0\u03b1 \u03a3\u03cd\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2. M. de Longp\u00e9rier offers the\n  alternative that \u03b1\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03f2, _i.e._ \u1f08\u03c3\u03af\u03c2, is equivalent to \u1f08\u03c3\u03b9\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2. An\n  objection to this view, stronger than those urged by Mr Waddington, is\n  the fact that \u1f08\u03c3\u03af\u03c2 seems only to be used as a feminine adjective. M.\n  Renan points to the fact that this \u03b6\u03b5\u03c5\u03c2 \u03b1\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 is represented with his\n  hand on the horns of a goat, and on the strength of this coincidence\n  would identify him with 'the Azazel of the Semites' (_Saint Paul_, p.\n  359), though tradition and orthography alike point to some other\n  derivation of Azazel (\u05e2\u05d6\u05d0\u05d6\u05dc).\n\n[Sidenote: 2. HIERAPOLIS.]\n\n[Sidenote: Its situation.]\n\n2. On the north of the valley, opposite to the sloping hills which mark\nthe site of Laodicea, is a broad level terrace jutting out from the\nmountain side and overhanging the plain with almost precipitous sides.\nOn this plateau are scattered the vast ruins of HIERAPOLIS[36]. The\nmountains upon which it abuts occupy the wedge of ground between the\nM\u00e6ander and the Lycus; but, as the M\u00e6ander above its junction with the\nLycus passes through a narrow ravine, they blend, when seen from a\ndistance, with the loftier range of the Mesogis which overhangs the\nright bank of the M\u00e6ander almost from its source to its embouchure, and\nform with it the northern barrier to the view, as the Cadmus range does\nthe southern, the broad valley stretching between. Thus Hierapolis may\nbe said to lie over against Mesogis, as Laodicea lies over against\nCadmus[37].\n\nFootnote 36:\n\n  For descriptions of Hierapolis, see Smith p. 245 sq., Pococke p. 75\n  sq., Chandler 229 sq., Arundell _Seven Churches_ p. 79 sq., Hamilton\n  p. 517 sq., Fellows _Asia Minor_ p. 283 sq. For the travertine\n  deposits see especially the description and plates in Tchihatcheff P.\n  I. p. 345, together with the views in Laborde (pl. xxxii-xxxviii), and\n  Svoboda (photogr. 41\u201347). Tchihatcheff repeatedly calls the place\n  Hieropolis; but this form, though commonly used of other towns (see\n  Steph. Byz. s.v. \u1f39\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b9\u03c2, Leake _Num. Hell._ p. 67), appears not to\n  occur as a designation of the Phrygian city, which seems always to be\n  written Hierapolis. The citizens however are sometimes called\n  \u1f39\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 on the coins.\n\n  The modern name is given differently by travellers. It is generally\n  called Pambouk-Kalessi, i.e. 'cotton-castle,' supposed to allude to\n  the appearance of the petrifactions, though cotton is grown in the\n  neighbourhood (Hamilton I. p. 517). So Smith, Pococke, Chandler,\n  Arundell, Tchihatcheff, Waddington, and others. M. Renan says\n  '_Tambouk_, et non _Pambouk, Kalessi_' (_S. Paul_ p. 357). Laborde\n  gives the word _Tambouk_ in some places and _Pambouk_ in others; and\n  Leake says 'Hierapolis, now called _Tab\u00fak-Kale_ or _Pambuk-Kale_' (p.\n  252).\n\nFootnote 37:\n\n  Strabo xiii. 4. 14 (p. 629) says \u1f51\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b2\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u039c\u03b5\u03c3\u03c9\u03b3\u03af\u03b4\u03b1 ...\n  \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c3\u1f76 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u039c\u03b5\u03c3\u03c9\u03b3\u1f76\u03b4\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03c1\u1f7a \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f39\u03b5\u03c1\u1f70 \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b9\u03c2,\n  \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. He cannot mean that Hierapolis was situated immediately in or\n  by the Mesogis (for the name does not seem ever to be applied to the\n  mountains between the Lycus and M\u00e6ander), but that with respect to\n  Laodicea it stood over against the Mesogis, as I have explained it in\n  the text. The view in Laborde (pl. xxxix) shows the appearance of\n  Hierapolis from Laodicea. Strabo had himself visited the place and\n  must have known how it was situated. Some modern travellers however\n  (e.g. Chandler and Arundell) speak of the plateau of Hierapolis as\n  part of the Mesogis. Steiger (_Kolosser_ p. 33) gets over the\n  difficulty by translating Strabo's words, 'near the Mesogis but on the\n  opposite side (i.e. of the M\u00e6ander) is the Laodicean Hierapolis' (to\n  distinguish it from others of the name); but \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03c1\u1f7a cannot be\n  separated from \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 without violence.\n\n[Sidenote: Remarkable physical features.]\n\nIt is at Hierapolis that the remarkable physical features which\ndistinguish the valley of the Lycus display themselves in the fullest\nperfection. Over the steep cliffs which support the plateau of the city,\ntumble cascades of pure white stone, the deposit of calcareous matter\nfrom the streams which, after traversing this upper level, are\nprecipitated over the ledge into the plain beneath and assume the most\nfantastic shapes in their descent. At one time overhanging in cornices\nfringed with stalactites, at another hollowed out into basins or broken\nup with ridges, they mark the site of the city at a distance, glistening\non the mountain-side like foaming cataracts frozen in the fall.\n\n[Sidenote: Their relation to the Apostolic history.]\n\nBut for the immediate history of St Paul's Epistles the striking beauty\nof the scenery has no value. It is not probable that he had visited this\ndistrict when the letters to the Colossians and Laodiceans were written.\nWere it otherwise, we can hardly suppose, that educated under widely\ndifferent influences and occupied with deeper and more absorbing\nthoughts, he would have shared the enthusiasm which this scenery\ninspires in the modern traveller. Still it will give a reality to our\nconceptions, if we try to picture to ourselves the external features of\nthat city, which was destined before long to become the adopted home of\nApostles and other personal disciples of the Lord, and to play a\nconspicuous part\u2014second perhaps only to Ephesus\u2014in the history of the\nChurch during the ages immediately succeeding the Apostles.\n\n[Sidenote: Hierapolis a famous watering-place.]\n\nLike Laodicea, Hierapolis was at this time an important and a growing\ncity, though not like Laodicea holding metropolitan rank[38]. Besides\nthe trade in dyed wools, which it shared in common with the neighbouring\ntowns, it had another source of wealth and prosperity peculiar to\nitself. The streams to which the scenery owes the remarkable features\nalready described, are endowed with valuable medicinal qualities, while\nat the same time they are so copious that the ancient city is described\nas full of self-made baths[39]. An inscription, still legible among the\nruins, celebrates their virtues in heroic verse, thus apostrophizing the\ncity:\n\n             Hail, fairest soil in all broad Asia's realm;\n             Hail, golden city, nymph divine, bedeck'd\n             With flowing rills, thy jewels[40].\n\nCoins of Hierapolis too are extant of various types, on which \u00c6sculapius\nand Hygeia appear either singly or together[41]. To this fashionable\nwatering-place, thus favoured by nature, seekers of pleasure and seekers\nof health alike were drawn.\n\nFootnote 38:\n\n  On its _ecclesiastical_ title of metropolis, see below, p. 70, note\n  277.\n\nFootnote 39:\n\n  Strabo l.c. \u03bf\u1f55\u03c4\u03c9 \u03b4' \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u1f76\u03bd \u1f04\u03c6\u03b8\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u1fc6\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f55\u03b4\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f65\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f21 \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b9\u03c2\n  \u03bc\u03b5\u03c3\u03c4\u1f74 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03b2\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03bd\u03b5\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03af.\n\nFootnote 40:\n\n  Boeckh _Corp. Inscr._ 3909, \u1f08\u03c3\u03af\u03b4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f50\u03c1\u03b5\u03af\u03b7\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03b5\u03c1\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03bf\u1f56\u03b4\u03b1\u03c2\n  \u1f01\u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd, \u03c7\u03b1\u03af\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2, \u03c7\u03c1\u03c5\u03c3\u03cc\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b9 \u1f39\u03b5\u03c1\u03ac\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b9, \u03c0\u03cc\u03c4\u03bd\u03b9\u03b1 \u039d\u03c5\u03bc\u03c6\u1ff6\u03bd, \u03bd\u03ac\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd,\n  \u1f00\u03b3\u03bb\u03b1\u0390\u1fc3\u03c3\u03b9, \u03ba\u03b5\u03ba\u03b1\u03c3\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7.\n\nFootnote 41:\n\n  Mionnet IV. p. 297, 306, 307, ib. Suppl. VII. p. 567; Waddington\n  _Voyage_ etc. p. 24.\n\n[Sidenote: The magnificence of its ruins.]\n\nTo the ancient magnificence of Hierapolis its extant ruins bear ample\ntestimony. More favoured than Laodicea, it has not in its immediate\nneighbourhood any modern town or village of importance, whose\ninhabitants have been tempted to quarry materials for their houses out\nof the memorials of its former greatness. Hence the whole plateau is\ncovered with ruins, of which the extent and the good taste are equally\nremarkable; and of these the pal\u00e6stra and the therm\u00e6, as might be\nexpected, are among the more prominent.\n\n[Sidenote: Its religious worship.]\n\nA city, which combined the pursuit of health and of gaiety, had fitly\nchosen as its patron deity Apollo, the god alike of medicine and of\nfestivity, here worshipped especially as 'Archegetes,' the Founder[42].\nBut more important, as illustrating the religious temper of this\nPhrygian city, is another fact connected with it. [Sidenote: The\nPlutonium.]In Hierapolis was a spot called the Plutonium, a hot well or\nspring, from whose narrow mouth issued a mephitic vapour immediately\nfatal to those who stood over the opening and inhaled its fumes. To the\nmutilated priests of Cybele alone (so it was believed) an immunity was\ngiven from heaven, which freed them from its deadly effects[43]. Indeed\nthis city appears to have been a chief centre of the passionate mystical\ndevotion of ancient Phrygia. But indications are not wanting, that in\naddition to this older worship religious rites were borrowed also from\nother parts of the East, more especially from Egypt[44]. By the\nmultitude of her temples Hierapolis established her right to the title\nof the 'sacred city,' which she bore[45].\n\nFootnote 42:\n\n  Boeckh _Corp. Inscr._ 3905, 3906; Mionnet iv. pp. 297, 301, 307, ib.\n  Suppl. vii. p. 568, 569, 570. In coins struck to commemorate alliances\n  with other cities, Hierapolis is represented by Apollo Archegetes:\n  Mionnet IV. p. 303, ib. Suppl. VII. 572, 573, 574; Waddington _Voyage_\n  etc. p. 25; and see Eckhel III. p. 156. On the meaning of\n  _Archegetes_, under which name Apollo was worshipped by other cities\n  also, who regarded him as their founder, see Spanheim on Callim.\n  _Hymn. Apoll._ 57.\n\nFootnote 43:\n\n  Strabo l.c. He himself had seen the phenomenon and was doubtful how to\n  account for the immunity of these priests, \u03b5\u1f34\u03c4\u03b5 \u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u1fb3 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03af\u1fb3 ... \u03b5\u1f34\u03c4\u03b5\n  \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9\u03b4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u1f76 \u03b4\u03c5\u03bd\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bc\u03b2\u03b1\u03af\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2. See also Plin. _N. H._\n  ii. 93 \u00a7 95 'locum ... matris tantum magn\u00e6 sacerdoti innoxium.' Dion\n  Cass. (Xiphil.) lxviii. 27, who also witnessed the phenomenon, adds \u03bf\u1f50\n  \u03bc\u1f74\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b1\u1f30\u03c4\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03bd\u03bf\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f14\u03c7\u03c9, \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03c9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f05 \u03c4\u03b5 \u03b5\u1f36\u03b4\u03bf\u03bd \u1f61\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f36\u03b4\u03bf\u03bd\n  \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f03 \u1f24\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b1 \u1f61\u03c2 \u1f24\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b1. Ammian. Marc. xxiii. 6. 18 also mentions this\n  marvel, but speaks cautiously, 'ut asserunt quidam,' and adds 'quod\n  qua causa eveniat, rationibus physicis permittatur.' Comp. Anthol.\n  VII. p. 190 \u0395\u1f34 \u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03ac\u03b3\u03be\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u1f40\u03ba\u03bd\u03b5\u1fd6 \u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b4' \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6, \u1f10\u03be \u1f39\u03b5\u03c1\u1fb6\u03c2\n  \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03c1\u1f78\u03bd \u1f55\u03b4\u03c9\u03c1 \u03c0\u03b9\u03ad\u03c4\u03c9; Stob\u00e6us _Ecl._ i. 34, p. 680. Laborde states\n  (p. 83) that he discovered by experiment that the waters are sometimes\n  fatal to animal life and sometimes perfectly harmless; and if this be\n  substantiated, we have a solution of the marvel. Other modern\n  travellers, who have visited the Plutonium, are Cockerell (Leake p.\n  342), and Svoboda. In Svoboda's work a chemical analysis of the waters\n  is given.\n\nFootnote 44:\n\n  On a coin of Hierapolis, Pluto-Serapis appears seated, while before\n  him stands Isis with a sistrum in her hand; Waddington _Voyage_ etc.\n  p. 24. See also Mionnet IV. pp. 296, 305; Leake _Num. Hell._ p. 66.\n\n  The worship of Serapis appears elsewhere in this neighbourhood. At\n  Chon\u00e6 (Coloss\u00e6) is an inscription recording a vow to this deity; Le\n  Bas _Asie Mineure_ inscr. 1693 b.\n\nFootnote 45:\n\n  Steph. Byz. s.v. \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f31\u03b5\u03c1\u1f70 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd.\n\n[Sidenote: The birth-place of Epictetus.]\n\nThough at this time we have no record of famous citizens at Hierapolis,\nsuch as graced the annals of Laodicea, yet a generation or two later she\nnumbered among her sons one nobler far than the rhetoricians and\nsophists, the millionaires and princes, of whom her neighbour could\nboast. The lame slave Epictetus, the loftiest of heathen moralists, must\nhave been growing up to manhood when the first rumours of the Gospel\nreached his native city. Did any chance throw him across the path of\nEpaphras, who first announced the glad-tidings there? [Sidenote:\nEpictetus and Christianity.]Did he ever meet the great Apostle himself,\nwhile dragging out his long captivity at Rome, or when after his release\nhe paid his long-promised visit to the valley of the Lycus? We should be\nglad to think that these two men met together face to face\u2014the greatest\nof Christian, and the greatest of heathen preachers. Such a meeting\nwould solve more than one riddle. A Christian Epictetus certainly was\nnot; his Stoic doctrine and his Stoic morality are alike apparent: but\nnevertheless his language presents some strange coincidences with the\nApostolic writings, which would thus receive an explanation[46]. It must\nbe confessed however, that of any outward intercourse between the\nApostle and the philosopher history furnishes no hint.\n\nFootnote 46:\n\n  See _Philippians_, pp. 312, 313.\n\n[Sidenote: 3. COLOSS\u00c6.]\n\n3. While the sites of Laodicea and Hierapolis are conspicuous, so that\nthey were early identified by their ruins, the same is not the case with\nCOLOSS\u00c6. [Sidenote: Difficulty of determining its site.]Only within the\npresent generation has the position of this once famous city been\nascertained, and even now it lacks the confirmation of any inscription\nfound _in situ_ and giving the name[47]. [Sidenote: Subterranean channel\nof the Lycus.]Herodotus states that in Coloss\u00e6 the river Lycus\ndisappears in a subterranean cave, emerging again at a distance of about\nfive stades[48]; and this very singular landmark--the underground\npassage of a stream for half a mile\u2014might be thought to have placed the\nsite of the city beyond the reach of controversy. But this is not the\ncase. In the immediate neighbourhood of the only ruins which can\npossibly be identified with Coloss\u00e6, no such subterranean channel has\nbeen discovered. But on the other hand the appearance of the river at\nthis point suggests that at one time the narrow gorge through which it\nruns, as it traverses the ruins, was overarched for some distance with\nincrustations of travertine, and that this natural bridge was broken up\nafterwards by an earthquake, so as to expose the channel of the\nstream[49]. This explanation seems satisfactory. If it be rejected, we\nmust look for the underground channel, not within the city itself, as\nthe words of Herodotus strictly interpreted require, but at some point\nhigher up the stream. In either case there can be little doubt that\nthese are the ruins of Coloss\u00e6. [Sidenote: Petrifying stream.]The fact\nmentioned by Pliny[50], that there is in this city a river which turns\nbrick into stone, is satisfied by a side stream flowing into the Lycus\nfrom the north, and laying large deposits of calcareous matter; though\nin this region, as we have seen, such a phenomenon is very far from\nrare. The site of Coloss\u00e6 then, as determined by these considerations,\nlies two or three miles north of the present town of Chonos, the\nmedi\u00e6val Chon\u00e6, and some twelve miles east of Laodicea. The Lycus\ntraverses the site of the ruins, dividing the city into two parts, the\nnecropolis standing on the right or northern bank, and the town itself\non the left.\n\nFootnote 47:\n\n  See however a mutilated inscription (Boeckh _Corp. Inscr._ 3956) with\n  the letters ...==\u03b7\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd==, found near Chon\u00e6.\n\nFootnote 48:\n\n  Herod. vii. 30 \u1f00\u03c0\u03af\u03ba\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf \u1f10\u03c2 \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03c3\u03ac\u03c2, \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd \u03bc\u03b5\u03b3\u03ac\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd \u03a6\u03c1\u03c5\u03b3\u03af\u03b7\u03c2, \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u039b\u03cd\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2\n  \u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u03b1\u03bc\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c2 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03b2\u03ac\u03bb\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd \u1f00\u03c6\u03b1\u03bd\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, \u1f14\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03b4\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u1f61\u03c2 \u03c0\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\n  \u03bc\u03ac\u03bb\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03ac \u03ba\u1fc3 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c6\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03ba\u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03bf\u1fd6 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f56\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u039c\u03b1\u03af\u03b1\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd.\n\nFootnote 49:\n\n  This is the explanation of Hamilton (I. p. 509 sq.), who (with the\n  doubtful exception of Laborde) has the merit of having first\n  identified and described the site of Coloss\u00e6. It stands on the Tchoruk\n  S\u00fa (Lycus) at the point where it is joined by two other streams, the\n  Bounar Bashi S\u00fa and the Ak-S\u00fa. In confirmation of his opinion,\n  Hamilton found a tradition in the neighbourhood that the river had\n  once been covered over at this spot (p. 522). He followed the course\n  of the Lycus for some distance without finding any subterranean\n  channel (p. 521 sq.).\n\n  It is difficult to say whether the following account in Strabo xii. 8\n  \u00a7 16 (p. 578) refers to the Lycus or not; \u1f44\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 \u039a\u03ac\u03b4\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03be \u03bf\u1f53 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f41\n  \u039b\u03cd\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 \u1fe5\u03b5\u1fd6 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f04\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f41\u03bc\u03ce\u03bd\u03c5\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f44\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9\u00b7 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ad\u03bf\u03bd \u03b4' \u03bf\u1f57\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 \u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1fe5\u03c5\u1f72\u03b9\u03c2\n  \u03b5\u1f36\u03c4' \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03ba\u03cd\u03c8\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03ad\u03c0\u03b5\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f04\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u03b1\u03bc\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2, \u1f10\u03bc\u03c6\u03b1\u03af\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd \u1f05\u03bc\u03b1\n  \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03cd\u03c4\u03c1\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c7\u03ce\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b5\u1f54\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd. If the Lycus is meant,\n  may not \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03ad\u03c0\u03b5\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd imply that this remarkable feature had changed\n  before Strabo wrote?\n\n  Laborde (p. 103), who visited the place before Hamilton, though his\n  account was apparently not published till later, fixes on the same\n  site for Coloss\u00e6, but thinks that he has discovered the subterranean\n  course of the Lycus, to which Herodotus refers, much higher up a\n  stream, close to its source ('\u00e0 dix pas de cette source'), which he\n  describes as '\u00e0 deux lieues au nord de Coloss\u00e6.' Yet in the same\n  paragraph he says 'Or il [H\u00e9rodote, exact cicerone] savait que _le\n  Lycus dispara\u00eet pr\u00e8s de Coloss\u00e6, ville consid\u00e9rable de la Phrygie_'\n  (the italics are his own). He apparently does not see the vast\n  difference between his _pr\u00e8s de Coloss\u00e6_ thus widely interpreted and\n  the precise \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 of Herodotus himself. Obviously no great reliance\n  can be placed on the accuracy of a writer, who treats his authorities\n  thus. The subterranean stream which Laborde saw, and of which he gives\n  a view (pl. xl), may possibly be the phenomenon to which Herodotus\n  alludes; but if so, Herodotus has expressed himself very carelessly.\n  On the whole Hamilton's solution seems much more probable.\n\n  Arundell's account (_Seven Churches_ p. 98 sq., _Asia Minor_ p. 160\n  sq.) is very confused, and it is not clear whether he has fixed on the\n  right site for Coloss\u00e6; but it bears testimony to the existence of two\n  subterranean courses of rivers, though neither of them is close enough\n  to the city to satisfy Herodotus' description.\n\nFootnote 50:\n\n  Plin. _N.H._ xxxi. 2 \u00a7 20. This is the Ak-S\u00fa, which has strongly\n  petrifying qualities.\n\n[Sidenote: Its ancient greatness]\n\nCommanding the approaches to a pass in the Cadmus range, and standing on\na great high-way communicating between Eastern and Western Asia, Coloss\u00e6\nat an early date appears as a very important place. Here the mighty host\nof Xerxes halted on its march against Greece; it is mentioned on this\noccasion as 'a great city of Phrygia[51].' Here too Cyrus remained seven\ndays on his daring enterprise which terminated so fatally; the Greek\ncaptain, who records the expedition, speaks of it as 'a populous city,\nprosperous and great[52].' But after this time its glory seems to wane.\nThe political supremacy [Sidenote: and later decline.]of Laodicea and\nthe growing popularity of Hierapolis gradually drain its strength; and\nStrabo, writing about two generations before St Paul, describes it as a\n'small town[53]' in the district of which Laodicea was the capital. We\nshall therefore be prepared to find that, while Laodicea and Hierapolis\nboth hold important places in the early records of the Church, Coloss\u00e6\ndisappears wholly from the pages of history. Its comparative\ninsignificance is still attested by its ruins, which are few and\nmeagre[54], while the vast remains of temples, baths, theatres,\naqueducts, gymnasia, and sepulchres, strewing the extensive sites of its\nmore fortunate neighbours, still bear witness to their ancient\nprosperity and magnificence. It is not even mentioned by Ptolemy, though\nhis enumeration of towns includes several inconsiderable places[55].\nWithout doubt Coloss\u00e6 was the least important Church, to which any\nepistle of St Paul was addressed.\n\nFootnote 51:\n\n  Herod. vii. 30. See p. 14, note 48.\n\nFootnote 52:\n\n  Xen. _Anab._ i. 2. 6 \u1f10\u03be\u03b5\u03bb\u03b1\u03cd\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03a6\u03c1\u03c5\u03b3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 ... \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03c3\u03ac\u03c2, \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd\n  \u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd, \u03b5\u1f50\u03b4\u03b1\u03af\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bc\u03b5\u03b3\u03ac\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd.\n\nFootnote 53:\n\n  \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1, Strabo xii. 8. 13 (p. 576). Plin. _N. H._ v. 32 \u00a7 41 writes\n  'Phrygia ... oppida ibi celeberrima pr\u00e6ter jam dicta, Ancyra, Andria,\n  Cel\u00e6n\u00e6, Coloss\u00e6,' etc. The commentators, referring to this passage,\n  overlook the words 'pr\u00e6ter jam dicta,' and represent Pliny as calling\n  Coloss\u00e6 'oppidum celeberrimum.' Not unnaturally they find it difficult\n  to reconcile this expression with Strabo's statement. But in fact\n  Pliny has already exhausted all the considerable towns, Hierapolis,\n  Laodicea, Apamea, etc., and even much less important places than these\n  (see v. 28, 29 \u00a7 29), so that only decayed and third-rate towns\n  remain. The Ancyra here mentioned is not the capital of Galatia, but a\n  much smaller Phrygian town.\n\nFootnote 54:\n\n  Laborde p. 102 'De cette grande c\u00e9l\u00e9brit\u00e9 de Coloss\u00e6 il ne reste\n  presque rien: ce sont des substructions sans suite, des fragments sans\n  grandeur; les restes d'un th\u00e9\u00e2tre de m\u00e9diocre dimension, une acropole\n  sans hardiesse,' etc.\n\nFootnote 55:\n\n  _Geogr._ v. 2.\n\n[Sidenote: Uncertain orthography of the name.]\n\nAnd perhaps also we may regard the variation in the orthography of the\nname as another indication of its comparative obscurity and its early\nextinction. Are we to write _Coloss\u00e6_ or _Colass\u00e6_? So far as the\nevidence goes, the conclusion would seem to be that, while Coloss\u00e6 alone\noccurs during the classical period and in St Paul's time, it was\nafterwards supplanted by Colass\u00e6, when the town itself had either\ndisappeared altogether or was already passing out of notice[56].\n\nFootnote 56:\n\n  All Greek writers till some centuries after the Christian era write it\n  \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03af: so Herod. vii. 30, Xen. _Anab._ i. 2. 6, Strabo xii. 8. 13,\n  Diod. xiv. 80, Poly\u00e6n. _Strat._ vii. 16. 1; though in one or more MSS\n  of some of these authors it is written \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03af, showing the tendency\n  of later scribes. _Coloss\u00e6_ is also the universal form in Latin\n  writers. The coins moreover, even as late as the reign of Gordian\n  (A.D. 238\u2013244) when they ceased to be struck, universally have\n  ==\u03ba\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03f2\u03f2\u03b7\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9== (or ==\u03ba\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03f2\u03b7\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9==); Mionnet IV. p. 267 sq.: see\n  Babington _Numismatic Chronicle_ New series III. p. 1 sq., 6. In\n  Hierocles (_Synecd._ p. 666, Wessel.) and in the _Apostolic\n  Constitutions_ (vii. 46) \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03af seems to be the original reading of\n  the text, and in later Byzantine writers this form is common. If Prof.\n  Babington (p. 3) were right in supposing that it is connected with\n  \u03ba\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03c3\u03cc\u03c2, the question of the correct spelling might be regarded as\n  settled; but in a Phrygian city over which so many Eastern nations\n  swept in succession, who shall say to what language the name belonged,\n  or what are its affinities?\n\n  Thus, judging from classical usage, we should say that \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03af was\n  the old form and that \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03af did not supplant it till some time\n  after St Paul's age. This view is confirmed by a review of the\n  authorities for the different readings in the New Testament.\n\n  In the opening of the epistle (i. 1) the authorities for \u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2\n  are overwhelming. It is read by \u05d0BDFGL (A is obliterated here and C is\n  wanting); and in the Old Latin, Vulgate, and Armenian Versions. On the\n  other hand \u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 is read by KP. 17. 37. 47, and among the\n  versions by the Memphitic and the Philoxenian Syriac (\u0729\u0718\u0720\u0710\u0723\u0718\u0724, though\n  the marg. gives ==\u03ba\u03bf\u03bb\u03f2\u03f2\u03b1\u03b9\u03f2==). In the Peshito also the present\n  reading represents \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2, but as the vowel was not expressed\n  originally and depends on the later pointing, its authority can hardly\n  be quoted. The Thebaic is wanting here.\n\n  In the _heading_ of the epistle however there is considerably more\n  authority for the form in \u03b1. \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 is the reading of AB^* KP. 37\n  (\u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03b1\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2). 47. C is wanting here, but has \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 in the\n  subscription. On the other hand \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 (or \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2) appears in\n  \u05d0B^1 (according to Tregelles, but B^3 Tisch.; see his introd. p.\n  xxxxviii) DFG (but G has left \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 in the heading of one page,\n  and \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b1\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 in another) L. 17 (\u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03b1\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2), in the Latin Version,\n  and in the margin of the Philoxenian Syriac. The readings of both\n  Peshito and Philoxenian (text) here depend on the vocalisation; and\n  those of other versions are not recorded. In the _subscription_ the\n  preponderance of authority is even more favourable to \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2.\n\n  Taking into account the obvious tendency which there would be in\n  scribes to make the title \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 or \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 conform\n  to the opening \u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 or \u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2, as shown in G, we seem to\n  arrive at the conclusion that, while \u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 was indisputably the\n  original reading in the opening, \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 was probably the\n  earlier reading in the title. If so, the title must have been added at\n  a somewhat later date; which is not improbable.\n\n  Connected with this question is the variation in the adjectival form,\n  -\u03b7\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2 or -\u03b1\u03b5\u03cd\u03c2. Parallels to this double termination occur in other\n  words; e.g. \u0394\u03bf\u03ba\u03b9\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2, \u0394\u03bf\u03ba\u03b9\u03bc\u03b5\u03cd\u03c2; \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b7\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2, \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u03cd\u03c2; \u039d\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03b7\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2,\n  \u039d\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03b5\u03cd\u03c2; \u03a3\u03b1\u03b3\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03b7\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2, \u03a3\u03b1\u03b3\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03b5\u03cd\u03c2, etc. The coins, while they\n  universally exhibit the form in \u03bf, are equally persistent in the\n  termination -\u03b7\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2, ==\u03ba\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03f2\u03f2\u03b7\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd==; and it is curious that to the\n  form \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03c3\u03b7\u03bd\u03bf\u03af in Strabo xii. 8 \u00a7 16 (p. 578) there is a various\n  reading \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2. Thus, though there is no necessary connexion\n  between the two, the termination -\u03b7\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2 seems to go with the \u03bf form,\n  and the termination -\u03b1\u03b5\u03cd\u03c2 with the \u03b1 form.\n\n  For the above reasons I have written confidently \u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 in the\n  text, and with more hesitation \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 in the superscription.\n\n[Sidenote: Ethnological relations of the three cities.]\n\nConsidered ethnologically, these three cities are generally regarded as\nbelonging to Phrygia. But as they are situated on the western border of\nPhrygia, and as the frontier line separating Phrygia from Lydia and\nCaria was not distinctly traced, this designation is not persistent[57].\nThus Laodicea is sometimes assigned to Caria, more rarely to Lydia[58];\nand again, Hierapolis is described as half Lydian, half Phrygian[59]. On\nthe other hand I have not observed that Coloss\u00e6 is ever regarded as\nother than Phrygian[60], partly perhaps because the notices relating to\nit belong to an earlier date when these several names denoted political\nas well as ethnological divisions, and their limits were definitely\nmarked in consequence, but chiefly because it lies some miles to the\neast of the other cities, and therefore farther from the doubtful border\nland.\n\nFootnote 57:\n\n  Strabo, xiii. 4. 12 (p. 628) \u03c4\u1f70 \u03b4' \u1f11\u03be\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03bd\u03cc\u03c4\u03b9\u03b1 \u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b7 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c4\u03cc\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2\n  \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bc\u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u03ba\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9 \u03bc\u03ad\u03c7\u03c1\u03b9 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03a4\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd, \u1f65\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03a6\u03c1\u03cd\u03b3\u03b9\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70\n  \u039a\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03ba\u1f70 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70 \u039b\u03cd\u03b4\u03b9\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f14\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u039c\u03c5\u03c3\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03b4\u03b9\u03ac\u03ba\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9\n  \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03af\u03c0\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f04\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bb\u03b1\u00b7 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c3\u03cd\u03b3\u03c7\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u03b1\u03cd\u03c4\u03b7\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50 \u03bc\u03b9\u03ba\u03c1\u1f70\n  \u03c3\u03c5\u03bb\u03bb\u03b1\u03bc\u03b2\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1fec\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03bc\u1f74 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c6\u1fe6\u03bb\u03b1 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\nFootnote 58:\n\n  To _Phrygia_, Strabo xii. 8. 13 (p. 576), Polyb. v. 57, and so\n  generally; to _Caria, Orac. Sibyll._ iii. 472 \u039a\u03b1\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03bb\u03b1\u1f78\u03bd \u1f04\u03c3\u03c4\u03c5, Ptol.\n  v. 2, Philostr. _Vit. Soph._ i. 25 (though in the context Philostratus\n  adds that at one time \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03a6\u03c1\u03c5\u03b3\u03af\u1fb3 \u03be\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03ac\u03c4\u03c4\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf); to _Lydia_, Steph. Byz.\n  s.v. On the coins the city is sometimes represented as seated between\n  two female figures ==\u03c6\u03c1\u03c5\u03b3\u03b9\u03b1== and ==\u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03b1==; Eckhel III. p. 160,\n  comp. Mionnet IV. p. 329. From its situation on the confines of the\n  three countries Laodicea seems to have obtained the surname\n  _Trimitaria_ or _Trimetaria_, by which it is sometimes designated in\n  later times: see below, p. 65, note 205, and comp. Wesseling, _Itin._\n  p. 665.\n\nFootnote 59:\n\n  Steph. Byz. s.v. says \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03be\u1f7a \u03a6\u03c1\u03c5\u03b3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u039b\u03c5\u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b9\u03c2. But generally\n  Hierapolis is assigned to Phrygia: e.g. Ptol. v. 2, Vitruv. viii. 3 \u00a7\n  10.\n\nFootnote 60:\n\n  Coloss\u00e6 is assigned to Phrygia in Herod. vii. 30, Xen. _Anab._ i. 2.\n  6, Strabo xii. 8. 13, Diod. xiv. 80, Plin. _N. H._ v. 32 \u00a7 41, Poly\u00e6n.\n  _Strat._ vii. 16. 1.\n\n[Sidenote: Their political relations.]\n\nPhrygia however ceased to have any political significance, when this\ncountry came under the dominion of the Romans. Politically speaking, the\nthree cities with the rest of the Cibyratic union belonged at this time\nto Asia, the proconsular province[61]. As an _Asiatic_ Church\naccordingly Laodicea is addressed in the Apocalyptic letter. To this\nprovince they had been assigned in the first instance; then they were\nhanded over to Cilicia[62]; afterwards they were transferred and\nre-transferred from the one to the other; till finally, before the\nChristian era, they became a permanent part of Asia, their original\nprovince. Here they remained, until the close of the fourth century,\nwhen a new distribution of the Roman empire was made, and the province\nof Phrygia Pacatiana created with Laodicea as its capital[63].\n\nFootnote 61:\n\n  After the year B.C. 49 they seem to have been permanently attached to\n  'Asia': before that time they are bandied about between Asia and\n  Cilicia. These alternations are traced by Bergmann _de Asia provincia_\n  (Berlin, 1846) and in _Philologus_ II. 4 (1847) p. 641 sq. See Becker\n  and Marquardt _R\u00f6m. Alterth._ III. I. p. 130 sq. Laodicea is assigned\n  to 'Asia' in Boeckh _Corp. Inscr._ 6512, 6541, 6626.\n\n  The name 'Asia' will be used throughout this chapter in its political\n  sense, as applying to the Roman province.\n\nFootnote 62:\n\n  Cic. _ad Fam._ xiii. 67 'ex provincia mea Ciliciensi, cui scis \u03c4\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2\n  \u03b4\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 Asiaticas [i.e. Cibyraticam, Apamensem, Synnadensem]\n  attributas fuisse'; _ad Att._ v. 21 'mea expectatio Asi\u00e6 nostrarum\n  di\u0153cesium' and 'in hac mea Asia.' See also above p. 7, notes 2, 3.\n\nFootnote 63:\n\n  3 Hierocles _Synecd._ p. 664 sq. (Wessel.): see below p. 69.\n\n[Sidenote: Important Jewish settlement in this neighbourhood.]\n\nThe Epistle to the Colossians supposes a powerful Jewish colony in\nLaodicea and the neighbourhood. We are not however left to draw this\ninference from the epistle alone, but the fact is established by ample\nindependent testimony. When, with the insolent licence characteristic\nof Oriental kings, Antiochus the Great transplanted two thousand\nJewish families from Babylonia and Mesopotamia into Lydia and\nPhrygia[64],[Sidenote: Colony of Antiochus the Great.] we can hardly\ndoubt that among the principal stations of these new colonists would\nbe the two most thriving cities of Phrygia, which were also the two\nmost important settlements of the Syrian kings, Apamea and Laodicea,\nthe one founded by his grandfather Antiochus the First, the other by\nhis father Antiochus the Second. If the commercial importance of\nApamea at this time was greater (for somewhat later it was reckoned\nsecond only to Ephesus among the cities of Asia Minor as a centre of\ntrade), the political rank of Laodicea stood higher[65]. When mention\nis made of Lydia and Phrygia[66], this latter city especially is\npointed out by its position, for it stood near the frontier of the two\ncountries. A Jewish settlement once established, the influx of their\nfellow-countrymen would be rapid and continuous. Accordingly under the\nRoman domination we find them gathered here in very large\nnumbers.[Sidenote: Confiscations of Flaccus.] When Flaccus the\npropr\u00e6tor of Asia (B.C. 62), who was afterwards accused of\nmaladministration in his province and defended by Cicero, forbade the\ncontributions of the Jews to the temple-worship and the consequent\nexportation of money to Palestine, he seized as contraband not less\nthan twenty pounds weight in gold in the single district of which\nLaodicea was the capital[67]. Calculated at the rate of a half-shekel\nfor each man, this sum represents a population of more than eleven\nthousand adult freemen[68]; for women, children, and slaves were\nexempted. It must be remembered however, that this is only the sum\nwhich the Roman officers succeeded in detecting and confiscating; and\nthat therefore the whole Jewish population would probably be much\nlarger than this partial estimate implies. The amount seized at\nApamea, the other great Phrygian centre, was five times as large as\nthis[69]. [Sidenote: Other evidence.]Somewhat later we have a document\npurporting to be a decree of the Laodiceans, in which they thank the\nRoman Consul for a measure granting to Jews the liberty of observing\ntheir sabbaths and practising other rites of their religion[70]; and\nthough this decree is probably spurious, yet it serves equally well to\nshow that at this time Laodicea was regarded as an important centre of\nthe dispersion in Asia Minor. To the same effect may be quoted the\nextravagant hyperbole in the Talmud, that when on a certain occasion\nan insurrection of the Jews broke out in C\u00e6sarea the metropolis of\nCappadocia, which brought down upon their heads the cruel vengeance of\nking Sapor and led to a massacre of 12,000, 'the wall of Laodicea was\ncloven with the sound of the harpstrings' in the fatal and premature\nmerriment of the insurgents[71]. This place was doubtless singled out,\nbecause it had a peculiar interest for the Jews, as one of their chief\nsettlements[72]. It will be remembered also, that Phrygia is\nespecially mentioned among those countries which furnished their quota\nof worshippers at Jerusalem, and were thus represented at the baptism\nof the Christian Church on the great day of Pentecost[73].\n\nFootnote 64:\n\n  Joseph. _Antiq._ xii. 3, 4.\n\nFootnote 65:\n\n  Strabo xii. 8. 13 (p. 576) \u03b5\u1f36\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f08\u03c0\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 \u1f21 \u039a\u03b9\u03b2\u03c9\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03bb\u03b5\u03b3\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n  \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u1f76\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 \u03b1\u1f35\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c3\u1f76 \u03bc\u03ad\u03b3\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03a6\u03c1\u03c5\u03b3\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b5\u03c9\u03bd. Below \u00a7 15\n  (p. 577) he says \u1f08\u03c0\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 \u03b4' \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u1f76\u03bd \u1f10\u03bc\u03c0\u03cc\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03bc\u03ad\u03b3\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f30\u03b4\u03af\u03c9\u03c2 \u03bb\u03b5\u03b3\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03c2\n  \u1f08\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b5\u03c5\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bf\u03bd \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f1c\u03c6\u03b5\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd. The relative importance of Apamea\n  and Laodicea two or three generations earlier than St Paul may be\n  inferred from the notices in Cicero; but there is reason for thinking\n  that Laodicea afterwards grew more rapidly than Apamea.\n\nFootnote 66:\n\n  In Josephus l.c. the words are \u03c4\u1f70 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03a6\u03c1\u03c5\u03b3\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u039b\u03c5\u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03bd, the two\n  names being under the vinculum of the one article: while immediately\n  afterwards Lydia is dropped and Phrygia alone named, \u03c0\u03ad\u03bc\u03c8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u1f70\u03c2 ...\n  \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03a6\u03c1\u03c5\u03b3\u03af\u03b1\u03bd.\n\nFootnote 67:\n\n  Cic. _pro Flacc._ 28 'Sequitur auri illa invidia Judaici.... Quum\n  aurum Jud\u00e6orum nomine quotannis ex Italia et ex omnibus provinciis\n  Hierosolyma exportari soleret, Flaccus sanxit edicto ne ex Asia\n  exportari liceret ... multitudinem Jud\u00e6orum, flagrantem nonnumquam in\n  concionibus, pro republica contemnere gravitatis summ\u00e6 fuit.... Apame\u00e6\n  manifesto comprehensum ante pedes pr\u00e6toris in foro expensum est auri\n  pondo centum paullo minus ... Laodice\u00e6 viginti pondo paullo amplius.'\n\n  Josephus (_Antiq._ xiv. 7. 2), quoting the words of Strabo, \u03c0\u03ad\u03bc\u03c8\u03b1\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72\n  \u039c\u03b9\u03b8\u03c1\u03b9\u03b4\u03ac\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u039a\u1ff6 \u1f14\u03bb\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5 ... \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f38\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u1f40\u03ba\u03c4\u03b1\u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03b9\u03b1 \u03c4\u03ac\u03bb\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1,\n  explains this enormous sum as composed of the temple-offerings of the\n  Jews which they sent to Cos for safety out of the way of Mithridates.\n\nFootnote 68:\n\n  This calculation supposes (1) That the half-shekel weighs 110 gr; (2)\n  That the Roman pound is 5050 gr; (3) That the relation of gold to\n  silver was at this time as 12 : 1. This last estimate is possibly\n  somewhat too high.\n\nFootnote 69:\n\n  The coinage of Apamea affords a striking example of Judaic influence\n  at a later date. On coins struck at this place in the reigns of\n  Severus, Macrinus, and the elder Philip, an ark is represented\n  floating on the waters. Within are a man and a woman: on the roof a\n  bird is perched; while in the air another bird approaches bearing an\n  olive-branch in its claws. The ark bears the inscription \u03bd\u03c9\u03b5. Outside\n  are two standing figures, a man and a woman (apparently the same two\n  who have been represented within the ark), with their hands raised as\n  in the attitude of prayer. The connexion of the ark of Noah with\n  Apamea is explained by a passage in one of the Sibylline Oracles (i.\n  261 sq.), where the mountain overhanging Apamea is identified with\n  Ararat, and the ark (\u03ba\u03b9\u03b2\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2) is stated to have rested there. Whether\n  this Apamea obtained its distinctive surname of Cibotus, the Ark or\n  Chest, from its physical features, or from its position as the centre\n  of taxation and finance for the district, or from some other cause, it\n  is difficult to say. In any case this surname might naturally suggest\n  to those acquainted with the Old Testament a connexion with the deluge\n  of Noah; but the idea would not have been adopted in the coinage of\n  the place without the pressure of strong Jewish influences. On these\n  coins see Eckhel _Doctr. Num. Vet._ III. p. 132 sq., and the paper of\n  Sir F. Madden in the _Numismatic Chronicle_ N. S. VI. p. 173 sq.\n  (1866), where they are figured.\n\nFootnote 70:\n\n  Joseph. _Ant._ xiv. 10. 21.\n\nFootnote 71:\n\n  Talm. Babl. _Mo\u00ebd Katon_ 26a, quoted by Neubauer, _La G\u00e9ographie du\n  Talmud_ p. 319, though he seems to have misunderstood the expression\n  quoted in the text, of which he gives the sense, 'Cette ville\n  tremblait au bruit des fl\u00e8ches qu'on avait tir\u00e9es.'\n\n  It is probably this same Laodicea which is meant in another Talmudical\n  passage, Talm. Babl. _Baba Metziah_ 84a (also quoted by Neubauer, p.\n  311), in which Elijah appearing to R. Ishmael ben R. Jose, says 'Thy\n  father fled to Asia; flee thou to Laodicea,' where Asia is supposed to\n  mean Sardis.\n\nFootnote 72:\n\n  An inscription found at Rome in the Jewish cemetery at the Porta\n  Portuensis (Boeckh _Corp. Inscr._ 9916) runs thus; ==\u03b5\u03bd\u03b8\u03b1 . \u03ba\u03b9\u03c4\u03b5 .\n  \u03b1\u03bc\u03bc\u03b9\u03b1 . [\u03b5]\u03b9\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b5\u03b1 . \u03b1\u03c0\u03bf . \u03bb\u03b1\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b9\u03b1\u03f2.== \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. i.e. \u1f14\u03bd\u03b8\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f08\u03bc\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\n  \u1f38\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u03af\u03b1 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2. Probably Laodicea on the Lycus is meant.\n  Perhaps also we may refer another inscription (6478), which mentions\n  one Trypho from Laodicea on the Lycus, to a Jewish source.\n\nFootnote 73:\n\n  Acts ii. 10.\n\n[Sidenote: Special attractions of Hierapolis.]\n\nMention has already been made of the traffic in dyed wools, which formed\nthe staple of commerce in the valley of the Lycus[74]. It may be\ninferred from other notices that this branch of trade had a peculiar\nattraction for the Jews[75]. If so, their commercial instincts would\nconstantly bring fresh recruits to a colony which was already very\nconsiderable. But the neighbourhood held out other inducements besides\nthis. Hierapolis, the gay watering place, the pleasant resort of idlers,\nhad charms for them, as well as Laodicea the busy commercial city. At\nleast such was the complaint of stricter patriots at home. 'The wines\nand the baths of Phrygia,' writes a Talmudist bitterly, 'have separated\nthe ten tribes from Israel[76].'\n\nFootnote 74:\n\n  See p. 4.\n\nFootnote 75:\n\n  Acts xvi. 14. Is there an allusion to this branch of trade in the\n  message to the Church of Laodicea, Rev. iii. 17 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u03bf\u1f36\u03b4\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c3\u03cd \u03b5\u1f36 \u1f41\n  ... \u03b3\u03c5\u03bc\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2\u00b7 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bc\u03b2\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03b5\u03cd\u03c9 \u03c3\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f00\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03ac\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 ... \u1f31\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03b9\u03b1 \u03bb\u03b5\u03c5\u03ba\u1f70 \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03b2\u03ac\u03bb\u1fc3,\n  \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.? The only other of the seven messages, which contains an\n  allusion to the white garments, is addressed to the Church of Sardis,\n  where again there might be a reference to the \u03b2\u03ac\u03bc\u03bc\u03b1 \u03a3\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd\n  (Arist. _Pax_ 1174, _Acharn._ 112) and the \u03c6\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03af\u03b4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03a3\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03af\n  (Plato Com. in Athen. II. p. 48 E) of the comic poets.\n\nFootnote 76:\n\n  Talm. Babl. _Sabbath_ 147 b, quoted by Neubauer _La G\u00e9ographie du\n  Talmud_ p. 317: see Wiesner _Schol. zum Babyl. Talm._ p. 259 sq., and\n  p. 207 sq. On the word translated 'baths,' see Rapoport's _Erech\n  Millin_ p. 113, col. 1.\n\n[Sidenote: St Paul had not visited the district when he wrote.]\n\nThere is no ground for supposing that, when St Paul wrote his Epistle to\nthe Colossians, he had ever visited the church in which he evinces so\ndeep an interest. Whether we examine the narrative in the Acts, or\nwhether we gather up the notices in the epistle itself, we find no hint\nthat he had ever been in this neighbourhood; but on the contrary some\nexpressions indirectly exclude the supposition of a visit to the\ndistrict.\n\n[Sidenote: What is meant by _Phrygia_ in St Luke?]\n\nIt is true that St Luke more than once mentions Phrygia as lying on St\nPaul's route or as witnessing his labours. But Phrygia was a vague and\ncomprehensive term; nor can we assume that the valley of the Lycus was\nintended, unless the direction of his route or the context of the\nnarrative distinctly points to this south-western corner of Phrygia. In\nneither of the two passages, where St Paul is stated to have travelled\nthrough Phrygia, is this the case.\n\n[Sidenote: 1. St Paul's visit to Phrygia on his second missionary\n           journey.]\n\n1. On his second missionary journey, after he has revisited and\nconfirmed the churches of Pisidia and Lycaonia founded on his first\nvisit, he passes through 'the Phrygian and Galatian country[77].' I have\npointed out elsewhere that this expression must be used to denote the\nregion which might be called indifferently Phrygia or Galatia\u2014the land\nwhich had originally belonged to the Phrygians and had afterwards been\ncolonised by the Gauls; or the parts of either country which lay in the\nimmediate neighbourhood of this debatable ground[78]. This region lies\nconsiderably north and east of the valley of the Lycus. Assuming that\nthe last of the Lycaonian and Pisidian towns at which St Paul halted was\nAntioch, he would not on any probable supposition approach nearer to\nColoss\u00e6 than Apamea Cibotus on his way to 'the Phrygian and Galatian\ncountry', nor indeed need he have gone nearly so far westward as this.\nAnd again on his departure from this region he journeys by Mysia to\nTroas, leaving 'Asia' on his left hand and Bithynia on his right. Thus\nthe notices of his route conspire to show that his path on this occasion\nlay far away from the valley of the Lycus.\n\nFootnote 77:\n\n  Acts xvi. 6 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03a6\u03c1\u03c5\u03b3\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u0393\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1f74\u03bd \u03c7\u03ce\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd, the correct reading. For\n  this use of \u03a6\u03c1\u03c5\u03b3\u03af\u03b1\u03bd as an adjective comp. Mark i. 5 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b1 \u1f21 \u1f38\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u03af\u03b1\n  \u03c7\u03ce\u03c1\u03b1, Joh. iii. 22 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f38\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03b3\u1fc6\u03bd, Luke iii. 1 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f38\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c1\u03b1\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n  \u03a4\u03c1\u03b1\u03c7\u03c9\u03bd\u03af\u03c4\u03b9\u03b4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c7\u03ce\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2, Acts xiii. 14 \u1f08\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9\u03cc\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03a0\u03b9\u03c3\u03b9\u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03bd (the correct\n  reading).\n\nFootnote 78:\n\n  See _Galatians_, p. 18 sq., 22.\n\n[Sidenote: 2. His visit on his third missionary journey.]\n\n2. But if he was not brought into the neighbourhood of Coloss\u00e6 on his\nsecond missionary journey, it is equally improbable that he visited it\non his third. So far as regards Asia Minor, he seems to have confined\nhimself to revisiting the churches already founded; the new ground which\nhe broke was in Macedonia and Greece. Thus when we are told that during\nthis third journey St Paul after leaving Antioch 'passed in order\nthrough the Galatian country and Phrygia, confirming all the\ndisciples,'[79] we can hardly doubt that 'the Galatian country and\nPhrygia' in this latter passage denotes essentially the same region as\n'the Phrygian and Galatian country' in the former. The slight change of\nexpression is explained by the altered direction of his route. In the\nfirst instance his course, as determined by its extreme limits\u2014Antioch\nin Pisidia its starting point, and Alexandria Troas its\ntermination\u2014would be northward for the first part of the way, and thus\nwould lie on the border land of Phrygia and Galatia; whereas on this\nsecond occasion, when he was travelling from Antioch in Syria to\nEphesus, its direction would be generally from east to west, and the\nmore strictly Galatian district would be traversed before the Phrygian.\nIf we suppose him to leave Galatia at Pessinus on its western border, he\nwould pass along the great highway\u2014formerly a Persian and at this time a\nRoman road\u2014by Synnada and Sardis to Ephesus, traversing the heart of\nPhrygia, but following the valleys of the Hermus and Cayster, and\nseparated from the M\u00e6ander and Lycus by the high mountain ranges which\nbound these latter to the north[80].\n\nFootnote 79:\n\n  Acts xviii. 23.\n\nFootnote 80:\n\n  M. Renan (_Saint Paul_ pp. 51 sq., 126, 313) maintains that the\n  Galatia of St Paul and St Luke is not the country properly so called,\n  but that they are speaking of the Churches of Pisidian Antioch,\n  Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe, which lay within the _Roman province_ of\n  Galatia. This interpretation of Galatia necessarily affects his view\n  of St Paul's routes (pp. 126 sq., 331 sq.); and he supposes the\n  Apostle on his third missionary journey to have passed through the\n  valley of the Lycus, without however remaining to preach the Gospel\n  there (pp. 331 sq., 356 sq., 362). As Antioch in Pisidia would on this\n  hypothesis be the farthest church in 'Galatia and Phrygia' which St\n  Paul visited, his direct route from that city to Ephesus (Acts xviii.\n  23, xix. 1) would naturally lie by this valley. I have already\n  (_Galatians_ pp. 18 sq., 22) stated the serious objections to which\n  this interpretation of 'Galatia' is open, and (if I mistake not) have\n  answered most of M. Renan's arguments by anticipation. But, as this\n  interpretation nearly affects an important point in the history of St\n  Paul's dealings with the Colossians, it is necessary to subject it to\n  a closer examination.\n\n  Without stopping to enquire whether this view is reconcilable with St\n  Paul's assertion (Col. ii. 1) that these churches in the Lycus valley\n  'had not seen his face in the flesh,' it will appear (I think) that M.\n  Renan's arguments are in some cases untenable and in others may be\n  turned against himself. The three heads under which they may be\n  conveniently considered are: (i) The use of the name 'Galatia'; (ii)\n  The itinerary of St Paul's travels; (iii) The historical notices in\n  the Epistle to the Galatians.\n\n  (i) On the first point, M. Renan states that St Paul was in the habit\n  of using the _official_ name for each district and therefore called\n  the country which extends from Antioch in Pisidia to Derbe 'Galatia,'\n  supporting this view by the Apostle's use of Asia, Macedonia, and\n  Achaia (p. 51). The answer is that the names of these elder provinces\n  had very generally superseded the local names, but this was not the\n  case with the other districts of Asia Minor where the provinces had\n  been formed at a comparatively late date. The usage of St Luke is a\n  good criterion. He also speaks of Asia, Macedonia, and Achaia; but at\n  the same time his narrative abounds in historical or ethnographical\n  names which have no official import; e.g. Lycaonia, Mysia, Pamphylia,\n  Pisidia, Phrygia. Where we have no evidence, it is reasonable to\n  assume that St Paul's usage was conformable to St Luke's. And again,\n  if we consider St Luke's account alone, how insuperable are the\n  difficulties which this view of Galatia creates. The part of Asia\n  Minor, with which we are immediately concerned, was comprised\n  officially in the provinces of Asia and Galatia. On M. Renan's\n  showing, St Luke, after calling Antioch a city of Pisidia (xiii. 14)\n  and Lystra and Derbe cities of Lycaonia (xiv. 6), treats all the\n  three, together with the intermediate Iconium, as belonging to Galatia\n  (xvi. 6, xviii. 23). He explains the inconsistency by saying that in\n  the former case the narrative proceeds in detail, in the latter in\n  masses. But if so, why should he combine a historical and ethnological\n  name Phrygia with an official name Galatia in the same breath, when\n  the two are different in kind and cannot be mutually exclusive?\n  'Galatia and Asia,' would be intelligible on this supposition, but not\n  'Galatia and Phrygia.' Moreover the very form of the expression in\n  xvi. 6, 'the Phrygian and Galatian country' (according to the correct\n  reading which M. Renan neglects) appears in its studied vagueness to\n  exclude the idea that St Luke means the province of Galatia, whose\n  boundaries were precisely marked. And even granting that the Christian\n  communities of Lycaonia and Pisidia could by a straining of language\n  be called Churches of Galatia, is it possible that St Paul would\n  address them personally as 'ye foolish Galatians' (Gal. iii. 1)? Such\n  language would be no more appropriate than if a modern preacher in a\n  familiar address were to appeal to the Poles of Warsaw as 'ye\n  Russians,' or the Hungarians of Pesth as 'ye Austrians,' or the Irish\n  of Cork as 'ye Englishmen.'\n\n  (ii) In the itinerary of St Paul several points require consideration.\n  (_a_) M. Renan lays stress on the fact that in Acts xvi. 6, xviii. 23,\n  the order in which the names of Phrygia and Galatia occur is inverted.\n  I seem to myself to have explained this satisfactorily in the text. He\n  appears to be unaware of the correct reading in xvi. 6, \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03a6\u03c1\u03c5\u03b3\u03af\u03b1\u03bd\n  \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u0393\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1f74\u03bd \u03c7\u03ce\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd (see _Galatians_ p. 22), though it has an\n  important bearing on St Paul's probable route. (_b_) He states that\n  Troas was St Paul's aim ('l'objectif de Saint Paul') in the one case\n  (xvi. 6), and Ephesus in the other (xviii. 23): consequently he argues\n  that Galatia, properly so called, is inconceivable, as there was no\n  reason why he should have made 'this strange detour towards the\n  north.' The answer is that Troas was not his 'objectif' in the first\n  instance, nor Ephesus in the second. On the first occasion St Luke\n  states that the Apostle set out on his journey with quite different\n  intentions, but that after he had got well to the north of Asia Minor\n  he was driven by a series of divine intimations to proceed first to\n  Troas and thence to cross over into Europe (see _Philippians_ p. 48).\n  This narrative seems to me to imply that he starts for his further\n  travels from some point in the western part of Galatia proper. When he\n  comes to the borders of Mysia, he designs bearing to the left and\n  preaching in Asia; but a divine voice forbids him. He then purposes\n  diverging to the right and delivering his message in Bithynia; but the\n  same unseen power checks him again. Thus he is driven forward, and\n  passes by Mysia to the coast at Troas (Acts xvi. 6\u20138). Here all is\n  plain. But if we suppose him to start, not from some town in Galatia\n  proper such as Pessinus, but from Antioch in Pisidia, why should\n  Bithynia, which would be far out of the way, be mentioned at all? On\n  the second occasion, St Paul's primary object is to revisit the\n  Galatian Churches which he had planted on the former journey (xviii.\n  23), and it is not till after he has fulfilled this intention that he\n  goes to Ephesus. (_c_) M. Renan also calls attention to the difficulty\n  of traversing 'the central steppe' of Asia Minor. 'There was\n  probably,' he says, 'at this epoch no route from Iconium to Ancyra,'\n  and in justification of this statement he refers to Perrot, _de Gal.\n  Rom. prov._ p. 102, 103. Even so, there were regular roads from either\n  Iconium or Antioch to Pessinus; and this route would serve equally\n  well. Moreover the Apostle, who was accustomed to 'perils of rivers,\n  perils of robbers, perils in the wilderness' (2 Cor. xi. 26), and who\n  preferred walking from Troas to Assos (Acts xx. 13) while his\n  companions sailed, would not be deterred by any rough or unfrequented\n  paths. But the facts adduced by Perrot do not lend themselves to any\n  such inference, nor does he himself draw it. He cites an inscription\n  of the year A.D. 82 which speaks of A. C\u00e6sennius Gallus, the legate of\n  Domitian, as a great road-maker throughout the Eastern provinces of\n  Asia Minor, and he suggests that the existing remains of a road\n  between Ancyra and Iconium may be part of this governor's work. Even\n  if the suggestion be adopted, it is highly improbable that no road\n  should have existed previously, when we consider the comparative\n  facility of constructing a way along this line of country (Perrot p.\n  103) and the importance of such a direct route. (_d_) 'In the\n  conception of the author of the Acts,' writes M. Renan, 'the two\n  journeys across Asia Minor are journeys of confirmation and not of\n  conversion (Acts xv. 36, 41, xvi. 5, 6, xviii. 23).' This statement\n  seems to me to be only partially true. In both cases St Paul _begins_\n  his tour by confirming churches already established, but in both he\n  advances beyond this and breaks new ground. In the former he starts\n  with the existing churches of Lycaonia and Pisidia and extends his\n  labours to Galatia: in the latter he starts with the then existing\n  churches of Galatia, and carries the Gospel into Macedonia and Achaia.\n  This, so far as I can discover, was his general rule.\n\n  (iii) The notices in the Galatian Epistle, which appear to M. Renan to\n  favour his view, are these: (_a_) St Paul appears to have 'had\n  intimate relations with the Galatian Church, at least as intimate as\n  with the Corinthians and Thessalonians,' whereas St Luke disposes of\n  the Apostle's preaching in Galatia very summarily, unless the\n  communities of Lycaonia and Pisidia be included. But the Galatian\n  Epistle by no means evinces the same close and varied personal\n  relations which we find in the letters to these other churches, more\n  especially to the Corinthians. And again; St Luke's history is more or\n  less fragmentary. Whole years are sometimes dismissed in a few verses.\n  The stay in Arabia which made so deep an impression on St Paul himself\n  is not even mentioned: the three months' sojourn in Greece, though\n  doubtless full of stirring events, only occupies a single verse in the\n  narrative (Acts xx. 3). St Luke appears to have joined St Paul after\n  his visit to Galatia (xvi. 10); and there is no reason why he should\n  have dwelt on incidents with which he had no direct acquaintance.\n  (_b_) M. Renan sees in the presence of emissaries from Jerusalem in\n  the Galatian Churches an indication that Galatia proper is not meant.\n  'It is improbable that they would have made such a journey.' But why\n  so? There were important Jewish settlements in Galatia proper\n  (_Galatians_ p. 9 sq.); there was a good road through Syria and\n  Cilicia to Ancyra (_Itin. Anton._ p. 205 sq., _Itin. Hierosol._ p. 575\n  sq. ed. Wessel.); and if we find such emissaries as far away from\n  Jerusalem as Corinth (2 Cor. xi. 13, etc.), there is at least no\n  improbability that they should have reached Galatia. (_c_) Lastly; M.\n  Renan thinks that the mention of Barnabas (Gal. ii. 1, 9, 13) implies\n  that he was personally known to the churches addressed, and therefore\n  points to Lycaonia and Pisidia. But are we to infer on the same\n  grounds that he was personally known to the Corinthians (1 Cor. ix.\n  6), and to the Colossians (Col. iv. 10)? In fact the name of Barnabas,\n  as a famous Apostle and an older disciple even than St Paul himself,\n  would not fail to be well known in all the churches. On the other hand\n  one or two notices in the Galatian Epistle present serious obstacles\n  to M. Renan's view. What are we to say for instance to St Paul's\n  statement, that he preached the Gospel in Galatia \u03b4\u03b9' \u1f00\u03c3\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2\n  \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2 (iv. 13), i.e. because he was detained by sickness (see\n  _Galatians_ pp. 23 sq., 172), whereas his journey to Lycaonia and\n  Pisidia is distinctly planned with a view to missionary work? Why\n  again is there no mention of Timothy, who was much in St Paul's\n  company about this time, and who on this showing was himself a\n  Galatian? Some mention would seem to be especially suggested where St\n  Paul is justifying his conduct respecting the attempt to compel Titus\n  to be circumcised.\n\n[Sidenote: The inference from]\n\nThus St Luke's narrative seems to exclude any visit of the Apostle to\nthe Churches of the Lycus before his first [Sidenote: St Luke's\nnarrative]Roman captivity. And this inference is confirmed by St Paul's\nown language to the Colossians.\n\n[Sidenote: borne out by St Paul's own language.]\n\nHe represents his knowledge of their continued progress, and even of\ntheir first initiation, in the truths of the Gospel, as derived from the\nreport of others. He describes himself as _hearing_ of their faith in\nChrist and their love to the saints[81]. He recalls the day when he\nfirst _heard_ of their Christian profession and zeal[82]. .[Sidenote:\nSilence of St Paul.]Though opportunities occur again and again where he\nwould naturally have referred to his direct personal relations with\nthem, if he had been their evangelist, he abstains from any such\nreference. He speaks of their being instructed in the Gospel, of his own\npreaching the Gospel, several times in the course of the letter, but he\nnever places the two in any direct connexion, though the one reference\nstands in the immediate neighbourhood of the other[83]. Moreover, if he\nhad actually visited Coloss\u00e6, it must appear strange that he should not\nonce allude to any incident occurring during his sojourn there, for this\nepistle would then be the single exception to his ordinary practice. And\nlastly; in one passage at least, if interpreted in its natural sense, he\ndeclares that the Colossians were personally unknown to him: 'I would\nhave you know,' he writes, 'how great a conflict I have for you and them\nthat are in Laodicea and as many as have not seen my face in the\nflesh'[84].\n\nFootnote 81:\n\n  Col. i. 4.\n\nFootnote 82:\n\n  i. 9 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f21\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2, \u1f00\u03c6' \u1f25\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f20\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd, \u03bf\u1f50 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c5\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03b8\u03b1, \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n  This corresponds to ver. 6 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd, \u1f00\u03c6' \u1f27\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f20\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\n  \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03c0\u03ad\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f00\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u1fb3. The day when they first\n  heard the preaching of the Gospel, and the day when he first heard the\n  tidings of this fact, are set against each other.\n\nFootnote 83:\n\n  e.g. i. 5\u20138, 21\u201323, 25, 28, 29. ii. 5, 6.\n\nFootnote 84:\n\n  ii. 1 \u03b8\u03ad\u03bb\u03c9 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03b4\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f21\u03bb\u03af\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u1ff6\u03bd\u03b1 \u1f14\u03c7\u03c9 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd\n  \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u1fb3 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f45\u03c3\u03bf\u03b9 \u03bf\u1f50\u03c7 \u1f11\u03ce\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03c1\u03cc\u03c3\u03c9\u03c0\u03cc\u03bd \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03af, \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1\n  \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03b1\u1f31 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd, \u03c3\u03c5\u03bc\u03b2\u03b9\u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. The question of\n  interpretation is whether the people of Coloss\u00e6 and Laodicea belong to\n  the same category with the \u1f45\u03c3\u03bf\u03b9, or not. The latter view is taken by\n  one or two ancient interpreters (e.g. Theodoret in his introduction to\n  the epistle), and has been adopted by several modern critics. Yet it\n  is opposed alike to grammatical and logical considerations. (1) The\n  grammatical form is unfavourable; for the preposition \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 is not\n  repeated, so that all the persons mentioned are included under a\n  vinculum. (2) No adequate sense can be extracted from the passage, so\n  interpreted. For in this case what is the drift of the enumeration? If\n  intended to be exhaustive, it does not fulfil the purpose; for nothing\n  is said of others whom he had seen beside the Colossians and\n  Laodiceans. If not intended to be exhaustive, it is meaningless; for\n  there is no reason why the Colossians and Laodiceans especially should\n  be set off against those whom he had not seen, or indeed why in this\n  connexion those whom he had not seen should be mentioned at all. The\n  whole context shows that the Apostle is dwelling on his spiritual\n  communion with and interest in those with whom he has had no personal\n  communications. St Jerome (_Ep._ cxxx. ad Demetr. \u00a7 2) has rightly\n  caught the spirit of the passage; 'Ignoti ad ignotam scribimus,\n  dumtaxat juxta faciem corporalem. Alioquin interior <DW25> pulcre sibi\n  cognitus est illa notitia qua et Paulus apostolus Colossenses\n  multosque credentium noverat quos ante non viderat.' For parallels to\n  this use of \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f45\u03c3\u03bf\u03b9, see the note on the passage.\n\n[Sidenote: Epaphras was the evangelist of this district.]\n\nBut, if he was not directly their evangelist, yet to him they were\nindirectly indebted for their knowledge of the truth. Epaphras had been\nhis delegate to them, his representative in Christ. By Epaphras they had\nbeen converted to the Gospel. This is the evident meaning of a passage\nin the opening of the epistle, which has been much obscured by\nmisreading and mistranslation, and which may be paraphrased thus: 'The\nGospel, which has spread and borne fruit throughout the rest of the\nworld, has been equally successful among yourselves. This fertile growth\nhas been manifested in you from the first day when the message of God's\ngrace was preached to you, and accepted by you\u2014preached not as now with\nadulterations by these false teachers, but in its genuine simplicity by\nEpaphras our beloved fellowservant; he has been a faithful minister of\nChrist and a faithful representative of us, and from him we have\nreceived tidings of your love in the Spirit'[85].\n\nFootnote 85:\n\n  i. 6 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u1ff3 \u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03c0\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f50\u03be\u03b1\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd, \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2\n  \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd, \u1f00\u03c6' \u1f24\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f20\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03c0\u03ad\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03bd\n  \u1f00\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u1fb3, \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bc\u03ac\u03b8\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u1f18\u03c0\u03b1\u03c6\u03c1\u1fb6 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b4\u03bf\u03cd\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd, \u1f45\u03c2\n  \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03ac\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, \u1f41 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b7\u03bb\u03ce\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd\n  \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9.\n\n  The various readings which obscure the meaning are these. (i) The\n  received text for \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bc\u03ac\u03b8\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 has \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bc\u03ac\u03b8\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5. With this\n  reading the passage suggests that the instructions of Epaphras were\n  _superadded to_, and so distinct from, the original evangelization of\n  Coloss\u00e6; whereas the correct text identifies them. (ii) For \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd\n  the received reading is \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd. Thus the fact that St Paul did not\n  preach at Coloss\u00e6 in person, but _through his representative_, is\n  obliterated. In both cases the authority for the readings which I have\n  adopted against the received text is overwhelming.\n\n  The obscurity of rendering is in \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 [\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76] \u1f10\u03bc\u03ac\u03b8\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u1f18\u03c0\u03b1\u03c6\u03c1\u1fb6,\n  translated in our English Version by the ambiguous expression, 'as ye\n  also learned of Epaphras.' The true force of the words is, 'according\n  as ye were taught by Epaphras,' being an explanation of \u1f10\u03bd \u1f00\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u1fb3.\n  See the notes on the passage.]\n\n[Sidenote: St Paul's residence at Ephesus instrumental in their\n           conversion.]\n\nHow or when the conversion of the Colossians took place, we have no\ndirect information. Yet it can hardly be wrong to connect the event with\nSt Paul's long sojourn at Ephesus. Here he remained preaching for three\nwhole years. It is possible indeed that during this period he paid short\nvisits to other neighbouring cities of Asia: [Sidenote: A.D. 54\u201357.] but\nif so, the notices in the Acts oblige us to suppose these interruptions\nto his residence in Ephesus to have been slight and infrequent[86]. Yet,\nthough the Apostle himself was stationary in the capital, the Apostle's\ninfluence and teaching spread far beyond the limits of the city and its\nimmediate neighbourhood. It was hardly an exaggeration when Demetrius\ndeclared that 'almost throughout all Asia this Paul had persuaded and\nturned away much people'[87]. The sacred historian himself uses equally\nstrong language in describing the effects of the Apostle's preaching;\n'All they which dwelt in Asia heard the word of the Lord, both Jews and\nGreeks'[88]. In accordance with these notices, the Apostle himself in an\nepistle written during this sojourn sends salutations to Corinth, not\nfrom the Church of Ephesus specially, as might have been anticipated,\nbut from the 'Churches of Asia' generally[89]. St Luke, it should be\nobserved, ascribes this dissemination of the Gospel, not to journeys\nundertaken by the Apostle, but to his preaching at Ephesus itself[90].\nThither, as to the metropolis of Western Asia, would flock crowds from\nall the towns and villages far and near. Thence they would carry away,\neach to his own neighbourhood, the spiritual treasure which they had so\nunexpectedly found.\n\nFootnote 86:\n\n  See especially xx. 18 'Ye know, from the first day when I set foot on\n  Asia, how I was with you _all the time_', and ver. 31 'For three years\n  _night and day I ceased not_ warning every one with tears.' As it\n  seems necessary to allow for a brief visit to Corinth (2 Cor. xii. 14,\n  xiii. 1) during this period, other interruptions of long duration\n  should not be postulated.\n\nFootnote 87:\n\n  Acts xix. 26.\n\nFootnote 88:\n\n  Acts xix. 10.\n\nFootnote 89:\n\n  1 Cor. xvi. 19 \u1f00\u03c3\u03c0\u03ac\u03b6\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f31 \u1f10\u03ba\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f08\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2. In accordance\n  with these facts it should be noticed that St Paul himself alluding to\n  this period speaks of 'Asia', as the scene of his ministry (2 Cor. i.\n  8, Rom. xvi. 5).\n\nFootnote 90:\n\n  Acts xix. 10 'disputing daily in the School of Tyrannus; and this\n  continued for two years, so that all they which dwelt in Asia, etc.'\n\n[Sidenote: Close alliance of these cities with Ephesus.]\n\nAmong the places thus represented at the Asiatic metropolis would\ndoubtless be the cities lying in the valley of the Lycus. The bonds of\namity between these places and Ephesus appear to have been unusually\nstrong. The _Concord of the Laodiceans and Ephesians_, the _Concord of\nthe Hierapolitans and Ephesians_, are repeatedly commemorated on medals\nstruck for the purpose[91]. [Sidenote: The work of Philemon and\nNymphas,] Thus the Colossians, Epaphras and Philemon, the latter with\nhis household[92], and perhaps also the Laodicean Nymphas[93], would\nfall in with the Apostle of the Gentiles and hear from his lips the\nfirst tidings of a heavenly life.\n\nFootnote 91:\n\n  \u03bb\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u03c9\u03bd . \u03b5\u03c6\u03b5\u03f2\u03b9\u03c9\u03bd . \u03bf\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03b1, Eckhel III. p. 165, Mionnet IV. p. 324,\n  325, 331, 332, _Suppl._ VII. p. 583, 586, 589; \u03b9\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd . \u03b5\u03c6\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c9\u03bd\n  . \u03bf\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03b1, Eckhel III. p. 155, 157, Mionnet IV. p. 299, 300, 307,\n  _Suppl._ VII. p. 569, 571, 572, 574, 575. See Steiger _Kolosser_ p.\n  50, and comp. Krause _Civitat. Neocor._ \u00a7 20.\n\nFootnote 92:\n\n  Philem. 1, 2, 19.\n\nFootnote 93:\n\n  Col. iv. 15. On the question whether the name is _Nymphas_ or\n  _Nympha_, see the notes there.\n\n[Sidenote: but especially Epaphras.]\n\nBut, whatever service may have been rendered by Philemon at Coloss\u00e6, or\nby Nymphas at Laodicea, it was to Epaphras especially that all the three\ncities were indebted for their knowledge of the Gospel. Though he was a\nColossian by birth, the fervency of his prayers and the energy of his\nlove are represented as extending equally to Laodicea and\nHierapolis[94]. It is obvious that he looked upon himself as responsible\nfor the spiritual well-being of all alike.\n\nFootnote 94:\n\n  iv. 12, 13.\n\n[Sidenote: St Paul still a stranger to this district.]\n\nWe pass over a period of five or six years. St Paul's first captivity in\nRome is now drawing to a close. During this interval he has not once\nvisited the valley of the Lycus. He has, it is true, skirted the coast\nand called at Miletus, which lies near the mouth of the M\u00e6ander; but,\nthough the elders of Ephesus were summoned to meet him there[95], no\nmention is made of any representatives from these more distant towns.\n\nFootnote 95:\n\n  Acts xx. 16, 17.\n\n[Sidenote: His imprisonment at Rome.]\n\nI have elsewhere described the Apostle's circumstances during his\nresidence in Rome, so far as they are known to us[96]. It is sufficient\nto say here, that though he is still a prisoner, friends new and old\nminister freely to his wants. Meanwhile the alienation of the Judaic\nChristians is complete. Three only, remaining faithful to him, are\ncommemorated as honourable exceptions in the general desertion[97].\n\nFootnote 96:\n\n  See _Philippians_ p. 6 sq.\n\nFootnote 97:\n\n  Col. iv. 10, 11. See _Philippians_ p. 17 sq.\n\n[Sidenote: Coloss\u00e6 brought before his notice by two incidents.]\n\nWe have seen that Coloss\u00e6 was an unimportant place, and that it had no\ndirect personal claims on the Apostle. We might therefore feel surprise\nthat, thus doubly disqualified, it should nevertheless attract his\nspecial attention at a critical moment, when severe personal trials were\nsuperadded to 'the care of all the churches.' But two circumstances, the\none affecting his public duties, the other private and personal,\nhappening at this time, conspired to bring Coloss\u00e6 prominently before\nhis notice.\n\n[Sidenote: 1. The mission of EPAPHRAS.]\n\n1. He had received a visit from EPAPHRAS. The dangerous condition of the\nColossian and neighbouring churches had filled the mind of their\nevangelist with alarm. A strange form of heresy had broken out in these\nbrotherhoods\u2014a combination of Judaic formalism with Oriental mystic\nspeculation\u2014and was already spreading rapidly. His distress was extreme.\nHe gratefully acknowledged and reported their faith in Christ and their\nworks of love[98]. But this only quickened his anxiety. He had 'much\ntoil for them'; he was 'ever wrestling in his prayers on their behalf,'\nthat they might stand fast and not abandon the simplicity of their\nearlier faith[99]. He came to Rome, we may suppose, for the express\npurpose of laying this state of things before the Apostle and seeking\nhis counsel and assistance.\n\nFootnote 98:\n\n  i. 4, 8.\n\nFootnote 99:\n\n  iv. 12, 13.\n\n[Sidenote: 2. ONESIMUS a fugitive in Rome.]\n\n2. But at the time when Epaphras paid this visit, St Paul was also in\ncommunication with another Colossian, who had visited Rome under very\ndifferent circumstances. ONESIMUS, the runaway slave, had sought the\nmetropolis, the common sink of all nations[100], probably as a\nconvenient hiding place, where he might escape detection among its\ncrowds and make a livelihood as best he could. Here, perhaps\naccidentally, perhaps through the intervention of Epaphras, he fell in\nwith his master's old friend. The Apostle interested himself in his\ncase, instructed him in the Gospel, and transformed him from a\ngood-for-nothing slave[101] into a 'faithful and beloved brother[102].'\n\nFootnote 100:\n\n  Tac. _An._ xv. 44.\n\nFootnote 101:\n\n  Philem. 11 \u03c4\u03cc\u03bd \u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u03ad \u03c3\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f04\u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\nFootnote 102:\n\n  Col. iv. 9; comp. Philem. 16.\n\n[Sidenote: The Apostle despatches three letters simultaneously.]\n\nThis combination of circumstances called the Apostle's attention to the\nChurches of the Lycus, and more especially to Coloss\u00e6. His letters,\nwhich had been found 'weighty and powerful' in other cases, might not be\nunavailing now; and in this hope he took up his pen. Three epistles were\nwritten and despatched at the same time to this district.\n\n[Sidenote: 1. The EPISTLE TO THE COLOSSIANS.]\n\n1. He addresses a special letter to the COLOSSIANS, written in the joint\nnames of himself and Timothy, warning them against the errors of the\nfalse teachers. He gratefully acknowledges the report which he has\nreceived of their love and zeal[103]. He assures them of the conflict\nwhich agitates him on their behalf[104]. He warns them to be on their\nguard against the delusive logic of enticing words, against the vain\ndeceit of a false philosophy[105]. [Sidenote: The theological and the\npractical error of the Colossians.]The purity of their Christianity is\nendangered by two errors, recommended to them by their heretical\nleaders\u2014the one theological, the other practical\u2014but both alike\nspringing from the same source, the conception of matter as the origin\nand abode of evil. Thus, regarding God and matter as directly\nantagonistic and therefore apart from and having no communication with\neach other, they sought to explain the creation and government of the\nworld by interposing a series of intermediate beings, emanations or\nangels, to whom accordingly they offered worship. At the same time,\nsince they held that evil resided, not in the rebellious spirit of man,\nbut in the innate properties of matter, they sought to overcome it by a\nrigid ascetic discipline, which failed after all to touch the springs of\naction. [Sidenote: The proper corrective to both lies in the Christ of\nthe Gospel.]As both errors flowed from the same source, they must be\ncorrected by the application of the same remedy, the Christ of the\nGospel. In the Person of Christ, the one mediator between heaven and\nearth, is the true solution of the theological difficulty. Through the\nLife in Christ, the purification of the heart through faith and love, is\nthe effectual triumph over moral evil[106]. [Sidenote: References to\nEpaphras.]St Paul therefore prescribes to the Colossians the true\nteaching of the Gospel, as the best antidote to the twofold danger which\nthreatens at once their theological creed and their moral principles;\nwhile at the same time he enforces his lesson by the claims of personal\naffection, appealing to the devotion of their evangelist Epaphras on\ntheir behalf[107].\n\nFootnote 103:\n\n  i. 3\u20139, 21 sq.\n\nFootnote 104:\n\n  ii. 1 sq.\n\nFootnote 105:\n\n  ii. 4, 8, 18.\n\nFootnote 106:\n\n  i. 1\u201320, ii. 9, iii. 4. The two threads are closely interwoven in St\n  Paul's refutation, as these references will show. The connexion of the\n  two errors, as arising from the same false principle, will be\n  considered more in detail in the next chapter.\n\nFootnote 107:\n\n  i. 7, iv. 12.\n\nOf Epaphras himself we know nothing beyond the few but significant\nnotices which connect him with Coloss\u00e6[108]. He did not return to\nColoss\u00e6 as the bearer of the letter, but remained behind with St\nPaul[109]. As St Paul in a contemporary epistle designates him his\nfellow-prisoner[110], it may be inferred that his zeal and affection had\ninvolved him in the Apostle's captivity, and that his continuance in\nRome was enforced. But however this may be, the letter was placed in the\nhands of Tychicus, a native of proconsular Asia, probably of\nEphesus[111],[Sidenote: Tychicus and Onesimus accompany the letter.] who\nwas entrusted with a wider mission at this time, and in its discharge\nwould be obliged to visit the valley of the Lycus[112]. At the same time\nhe was accompanied by Onesimus, whom the Colossians had only known\nhitherto as a worthless slave, but who now returns to them with the\nstamp of the Apostle's warm approval. St Paul says very little about\nhimself, because Tychicus and Onesimus would be able by word of mouth to\ncommunicate all information to the Colossians[113]. [Sidenote: The\nsalutations.]But he sends one or two salutations which deserve a few\nwords of explanation. Epaphras of course greets his fellow-townsmen and\nchildren in the faith. Other names are those of Aristarchus the\nThessalonian, who had been with the Apostle at Ephesus[114] and may\npossibly have formed some personal connexion with the Colossians at that\ntime: Mark, against whom apparently the Apostle fears that a prejudice\nmay be entertained (perhaps the fact of his earlier desertion, and of St\nPaul's dissatisfaction in consequence[115], may have been widely known),\nand for whom therefore he asks a favourable reception at his approaching\nvisit to Coloss\u00e6, according to instructions which they had already\nreceived; and Jesus the Just, of whose relations with the Colossians we\nknow nothing, and whose only claim to a mention may have been his\nsingular fidelity to the Apostle at a critical juncture. Salutations\nmoreover are added from Luke and from Demas; and here again their close\ncompanionship with the Apostle is, so far as we know, the sole cause of\ntheir names appearing[116].\n\nFootnote 108:\n\n  For the reasons why Epaphras cannot be identified with Epaphroditus,\n  who is mentioned in the Philippian letter, see _Philippians_ p. 60,\n  note 4. The later tradition, which makes him bishop of Coloss\u00e6, is\n  doubtless an inference from St Paul's language and has no independent\n  value. The further statement of the martyrologies, that he suffered\n  martyrdom for his flock, can hardly be held to deserve any higher\n  credit. His day is the 19th of July in the Western Calendar. His body\n  is said to lie in the Church of S. Maria Maggiore at Rome.\n\nFootnote 109:\n\n  Col. iv. 12.\n\nFootnote 110:\n\n  Philem. 23 \u1f41 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9\u03c7\u03bc\u03ac\u03bb\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2 \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5. The word may possibly have a\n  metaphorical sense (see _Philippians_ p. 11); but the literal meaning\n  is more probable. St Jerome on Philem. 23 (VII. p. 762) gives the\n  story that St Paul's parents were natives of Giscala and, when the\n  Romans invaded and wasted Jud\u00e6a, were banished thence with their son\n  to Tarsus. He adds that Epaphras may have been St Paul's\n  fellow-prisoner at this time, and have been removed with his parents\n  to Coloss\u00e6. It is not quite clear whether this statement respecting\n  Epaphras is part of the tradition, or Jerome's own conjecture appended\n  to it.\n\nFootnote 111:\n\n  Acts xx. 4, 2 Tim. iv. 12.\n\nFootnote 112:\n\n  See below, p. 37.\n\nFootnote 113:\n\n  Col. iv. 7\u20139.\n\nFootnote 114:\n\n  Acts xix. 29.\n\nFootnote 115:\n\n  Acts xiii. 13, xv. 37\u201339.\n\nFootnote 116:\n\n  Col. iv. 10\u201314.\n\n[Sidenote: Charge respecting Laodicea.]\n\nLastly, the Laodiceans were closely connected with the Colossians by\nlocal and spiritual ties. To the Church of Laodicea therefore, and to\nthe household of one Nymphas who was a prominent member of it, he sends\ngreeting. At the same time he directs them to interchange letters with\nthe Laodiceans; for to Laodicea also he had written. And he closes his\nsalutations with a message to Archippus, a resident either at Coloss\u00e6 or\nat Laodicea (for on this point we are left to conjecture), who held some\nimportant office in the Church, and respecting whose zeal he seems to\nhave entertained a misgiving[117].\n\nFootnote 117:\n\n  iv. 15\u201317.\n\n[Sidenote: 2. The LETTER TO PHILEMON.]\n\n2. But, while providing for the spiritual welfare of the whole Colossian\nChurch, he did not forget the temporal interests of its humblest member.\nHaving attended to the solicitations of the evangelist Epaphras, he\naddressed himself to the troubles of the runaway slave Onesimus. The\nmission of Tychicus to Coloss\u00e6 was a favourable opportunity of restoring\nhim to Philemon; for Tychicus, well known as the Apostle's friend and\nfellow-labourer, might throw the shield of his protection over him and\navert the worst consequences of Philemon's anger. But, not content with\nthis measure of precaution, the Apostle himself writes to PHILEMON on\nthe offender's behalf, recommending him as a changed man[118], and\nclaiming forgiveness for him as a return due from Philemon to himself as\nto his spiritual father[119].\n\nFootnote 118:\n\n  Philem. 11, 16.\n\nFootnote 119:\n\n  ver. 19.\n\nThe salutations in this letter are the same as those in the Epistle to\nthe Colossians with the exception of Jesus Justus, whose name is\nomitted[120]. Towards the close St Paul declares his hope of release and\nintention of visiting Coloss\u00e6, and asks Philemon to 'prepare a lodging'\nfor him[121].\n\nFootnote 120:\n\n  vv. 23, 24.\n\nFootnote 121:\n\n  ver. 22.\n\n[Sidenote: 3. The CIRCULAR LETTER, of which a copy is sent to LAODICEA.]\n\n3. But at the same time with the two letters destined especially for\nColoss\u00e6, the Apostle despatched a third, which had a wider scope. It has\nbeen already mentioned that Tychicus was charged with a mission to the\nAsiatic Churches. It has been noticed also that the Colossians were\ndirected to procure and read a letter in the possession of the\nLaodiceans. These two facts are closely connected. The Apostle wrote at\nthis time a circular letter to the Asiatic Churches, which got its\nultimate designation from the metropolitan city and is consequently\nknown to us as the Epistle to the EPHESIANS[122]. It was the immediate\nobject of Tychicus' journey to deliver copies of this letter at all the\nprincipal centres of Christianity in the district, and at the same time\nto communicate by word of mouth the Apostle's special messages to\neach[123]. Among these centres was Laodicea. Thus his mission brought\nhim into the immediate neighbourhood of Coloss\u00e6. But he was not charged\nto deliver another copy of the circular letter at Coloss\u00e6 itself, for\nthis Church would be regarded only as a dependency of Laodicea; and\nbesides he was the bearer of a special letter from the Apostle to them.\nIt was sufficient therefore to provide that the Laodicean copy should be\ncirculated and read at Coloss\u00e6.\n\nFootnote 122:\n\n  See the introduction to the epistle.\n\nFootnote 123:\n\n  Ephes. vi. 21, 22.\n\n[Sidenote: Personal links connecting the three letters.]\n\nThus the three letters are closely related. Tychicus is the personal\nlink of connexion between the Epistles to the Ephesians and to the\nColossians; Onesimus between those to the Colossians and to Philemon.\n\nFor reasons given elsewhere[124], it would appear that these three\nletters were written and despatched towards the close of [Sidenote:\nEarthquake in the Lycus Valley.]the Apostle's captivity, about the year\n63. At some time not very distant from this date, a great catastrophe\novertook the cities of the Lycus valley. An earthquake was no uncommon\noccurrence in this region[125]. But on this occasion the shock had been\nunusually violent, and Laodicea, the flourishing and populous, was laid\nin ruins. Tacitus, who is our earliest authority for this fact, places\nit in the year 60 and is silent about the neighbouring towns[126].\nEusebius however makes it subsequent [Sidenote: Its probable date.]to\nthe burning of Rome (A.D. 64), and mentions Hierapolis and Coloss\u00e6 also\nas involved in the disaster[127]; while later writers, adopting the date\nof Eusebius and including the three cities with him, represent it as one\nof a series of divine judgments on the heathen world for the persecution\nof the Christians which followed on the fire[128]. Having no direct\nknowledge of the source from which Eusebius derived his information, we\nshould naturally be disposed to accept the authority of Tacitus for the\ndate, as more trustworthy. But, as indications occur elsewhere that\nEusebius followed unusually good authorities in recording these\nearthquakes[129], it is far from improbable that he [Sidenote: Bearing\non the chronology of these letters.] gives the correct date[130]. In\nthis case the catastrophe was subsequent to the writing of these\nletters. If on the other hand the year named by Tacitus be adopted, we\ngain a subsidiary confirmation of the comparatively late date which I\nhave ventured to assign to these epistles on independent grounds; for,\nif they had been written two years earlier, when the blow was recent, we\nmight reasonably have expected to find some reference to a disaster\nwhich had devastated Laodicea and from which Coloss\u00e6 cannot have escaped\naltogether without injury. The additional fact mentioned by the Roman\nhistorian, that Laodicea was rebuilt from her own resources without the\nusual assistance from Rome[131], is valuable as illustrating a later\nnotice in the Apostolic writings[132].\n\nFootnote 124:\n\n  See _Philippians_ p. 29 sq.; where reasons are given for placing the\n  Philippian Epistle at an earlier, and the others at a later stage in\n  the Apostle's captivity.\n\nFootnote 125:\n\n  See above, p. 3. Laodicea was visited by the following earthquakes in\n  the ages preceding and subsequent to the Christian era.\n\n  (1) Before about B.C. 125, _Orac. Sibyll._ iii. 471, if the date now\n  commonly assigned to this Sibylline Oracle be correct, and if the\n  passage is to be regarded as a prophecy after the event. In iii. 347\n  Hierapolis is also mentioned as suffering in the same way; but it may\n  be questioned whether the Phrygian city is meant.\n\n  (2) About B.C. 12, Strabo xii. 8, p. 579, Dion Cass. liv. 30. Strabo\n  names only Laodicea and Tralles, but Dion Cassius says \u1f21 \u1f08\u03c3\u03af\u03b1 \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f14\u03b8\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2\n  \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03bc\u03ac\u03bb\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f10\u03b4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03bf.\n\n  (3) A.D. 60 according to Tacitus (_Ann._ xiv. 27); A.D. 64 or 65\n  according to Eusebius (_Chron._ s.a.), who includes also Hierapolis\n  and Coloss\u00e6. To this earthquake allusion is made in a Sibylline Oracle\n  written not many years after the event; _Orac. Sibyll._ iv. 107 (see\n  also v. 289, vii. 23).\n\n  (4) Between A.D. 222 and A.D. 235, in the reign of Alexander Severus,\n  as we learn from another Sibylline Oracle (xii. 280). On this occasion\n  Hierapolis also suffered.\n\n  This list will probably be found not to have exhausted all these\n  catastrophes on record.\n\n  The following earthquakes also are mentioned as happening in the\n  neighbouring towns or in the district generally: the date uncertain,\n  _Carura_ (Strabo xii. 8, p. 578); A.D. 17 the _twelve cities_,\n  _Sardis_ being the worst sufferer (Tac. _Ann._ ii. 7, Plin. _N.H._ ii.\n  86, Dion Cass. lvii. 17, Strabo xii. 8, p. 579); A.D. 23 _Cibyra_\n  (Tac. _Ann._ iv. 13); A.D. 53 _Apamea_ (Tac. _Ann._ xii. 58): about\n  A.D. 155, under Antoninus Pius, 'Rhodiorum et _Asi\u00e6_ oppida' (Capitol.\n  _Anton. Pius_ 9); A.D. 178, under M. Aurelius, _Smyrna_ and other\n  cities (_Chron. Pasch._ I. p. 489, ed. Dind., Aristid. _Or._ xx, xxi,\n  xli; see Clinton _Fast. Rom._ I. p. 176 sq., Hertzberg _Griechenland_\n  etc. II. pp. 371, 410); A.D. 262, under Gallienus II (Trebell.\n  _Gallien._ 5 'Malum tristius in _Asi\u00e6_ urbibus fuit ... hiatus terr\u00e6\n  plurimis in locis fuerunt, cum aqua salsa in fossis appareret,' ib. 6\n  'vastatam _Asiam_ ... elementorum concussionibus'). Strabo says (p.\n  579) that _Philadelphia_ is more or less shaken daily (\u03ba\u03b1\u03b8' \u1f21\u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd),\n  and that _Apamea_ has suffered from numerous earthquakes.\n\nFootnote 126:\n\n  Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 27 'Eodem anno ex inlustribus Asi\u00e6 urbibus Laodicea,\n  tremore terr\u00e6 prolapsa, nullo a nobis remedio propriis opibus\n  revaluit.' The year is given 'Nerone iv, Corn. Cosso consulibus' (xiv.\n  20). Two different writers, in _Smith's Dictionary of Geography_ and\n  _Smith's Dictionary of the Bible_, s.v. Laodicea, place the\n  destruction of Laodicea in the reign of Tiberius, confusing this\n  earthquake with an earlier one (_Ann._ ii. 47). By this earlier\n  earthquake 'duodecim celebres Asi\u00e6 urbes conlaps\u00e6,' but their names\n  are given, and not one is situated in the valley of the Lycus.\n\nFootnote 127:\n\n  Euseb. _Chron._ Ol. 210 (II. p. 154 sq., ed. Sch\u00f6ne) 'In Asia tres\n  urbes terr\u00e6 motu conciderunt Laodicea Hierapolis Coloss\u00e6.' The\n  Armenian version and Jerome agree in placing it the next event in\n  order after the fire at Rome (A.D. 64), though there is a difference\n  of a year in the two texts. If the Sibylline Oracle, v. 317, refers to\n  this earthquake, as seems probable, we have independent testimony that\n  Hierapolis was involved in the catastrophe; comp. _ib._ v. 289.\n\nFootnote 128:\n\n  This is evidently the idea of Orosius, vii. 7.\n\nFootnote 129:\n\n  I draw this inference from his account of the earthquake in the reign\n  of Tiberius. Tacitus (_Ann._ ii. 47) states that _twelve_ cities were\n  ruined in one night, and records their names. Pliny also, who mentions\n  this earthquake as 'the greatest within the memory of man' (_N.H._ ii.\n  86), gives the same number. Eusebius however, _Chron._ Ol. 198 (II. p.\n  146 sq., ed. Sch\u00f6ne), names _thirteen_ cities, coinciding with Tacitus\n  as far as he goes, but including Ephesus also. Now a monument was\n  found at Puteoli (see Gronov. _Thes._ _Gr\u00e6c. Ant._ VII. p. 433 sq.),\n  and is now in the Museum at Naples (_Museo Borbonico_ XV, Tav. iv, v),\n  dedicated to Tiberius and representing _fourteen_ female figures with\n  the names of fourteen Asiatic cities underneath; these names being the\n  same as those mentioned by Tacitus with the addition of Ephesus and\n  Cibyra. There can be no doubt that this was one of those monuments\n  mentioned by Apollonius quoted in Phlegon (_Fragm._ 42, M\u00fcller's\n  _Fragm. Hist. Gr\u00e6c._ III. p. 621) as erected to commemorate the\n  liberality of Tiberius in contributing to the restoration of the\n  ruined cities (see Eckhel _Doct. Num. Vet._ VI. 192 sq.). But no\n  earthquake at Ephesus is mentioned by Tacitus. He does indeed speak of\n  such a catastrophe as happening at Cibyra (_Ann._ iv. 13) six years\n  later than the one which ruined the twelve cities, and of the relief\n  which Tiberius afforded on this latter occasion as on the former. But\n  we owe to Eusebius alone the fact that Ephesus also was seriously\n  injured by an earthquake in the same year\u2014perhaps not on the same\n  night\u2014with the twelve cities: and this fact is necessary to explain\n  the monument. It should be added that Nipperdey (on Tac. _Ann._ ii.\n  47) supposes the earthquake at Ephesus to have been recorded in the\n  lost portion of the fifth book of the _Annals_ which comprised the\n  years A.D. 29\u201331; but this bare hypothesis cannot outweigh the direct\n  testimony of Eusebius.\n\nFootnote 130:\n\n  Hertzberg (_Geschichte Griechenlands unter der Herrschaft der R\u00f6mer_,\n  II. p. 96) supposes that Tacitus and Eusebius refer to two different\n  events, and that Laodicea was visited by earthquakes twice within a\n  few years, A.D. 60 and A.D. 65.\n\nFootnote 131:\n\n  Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 27, quoted above, p. 38, note 126. To this fact\n  allusion is made in the feigned prediction of the Sibyllines, iv. 107\n  \u03a4\u03bb\u1fc6\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03af\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1, \u03c3\u1f72 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u03c1\u03ce\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u1f72 \u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u03b7\u03bd\u03af\u03be\u03b1\u03c2, \u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd\n  \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd \u03b5\u1f50\u03c1\u03c5\u03ac\u03b3\u03c5\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd, where \u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 must be the 2nd person, 'Thou wilt\n  rebuild thy city with its broad streets.' This Sibylline poem was\n  written about the year 80. The building of the amphitheatre mentioned\n  above (p. 6, note 6), would form part of this work of reconstruction.\n\nFootnote 132:\n\n  See below, p. 43.\n\n[Sidenote: St Mark's intended visit.]\n\nIt has been seen that, when these letters were written, St Mark was\nintending shortly to visit Coloss\u00e6, and that the Apostle himself,\nlooking forward to his release, hoped at length to make a personal\nacquaintance with these Churches, which hitherto he knew only through\nthe report of others. Whether St Mark's visit was ever paid or not, we\nhave no means of determining[133]. Of St Paul himself it is reasonable\nto assume, [Sidenote: St Paul probably visits Coloss\u00e6.] that in the\ninterval between his first and second Roman captivity he found some\nopportunity of carrying out his design. At all events we find him at\nMiletus, near to the mouth of the M\u00e6ander[134]; and the journey between\nthis place and Laodicea is neither long nor difficult.\n\nFootnote 133:\n\n  Two notices however imply that St Mark had some personal connexion\n  with Asia Minor in the years immediately succeeding the date of this\n  reference: (1) St Peter, writing to the Churches of Asia Minor, sends\n  a salutation from St Mark (1 Pet. v. 13); (2) St Paul gives charge to\n  Timothy, who appears to be still residing at Ephesus, to take up Mark\n  and bring him to Rome (2 Tim. iv. 11 \u039c\u03ac\u03c1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03b2\u1f7c\u03bd \u1f04\u03b3\u03b5 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u1f70\n  \u03c3\u03b5\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6). Thus it seems fairly probable that St Mark's projected visit\n  to Coloss\u00e6 was paid.\n\nFootnote 134:\n\n  2 Tim. iv. 20. By a strange error Lequien (_Oriens Christ._ I. p. 833)\n  substitutes Hierapolis for Nicopolis in Tit. iii. 12, and argues from\n  the passage that the Church of Hierapolis was founded by St Paul.\n\n[Sidenote: St John in Asia Minor.]\n\nAt the time of this visit\u2014the first and last, we may suppose, which he\npaid to the valley of the Lycus\u2014St Paul's direction of the Asiatic\nChurches is drawing to a close. With his death they pass into the hands\nof St John[135], who takes up his abode in Asia Minor. Of Coloss\u00e6 and\nHierapolis we hear nothing more in the New Testament: but from his exile\nin[Sidenote: The message to Laodicea.] Patmos the beloved disciple\ndelivers his Lord's message to the Church of Laodicea[136]; a message\ndoubtless intended to be communicated also to the two subordinate\nChurches, to which it would apply almost equally well.\n\nFootnote 135:\n\n  It was apparently during the interval between St Paul's first\n  captivity at Rome and his death, that St Peter wrote to the Churches\n  of Asia Minor (1 Pet. i. 1). Whether in this interval he also visited\n  personally the districts evangelized directly or indirectly by St\n  Paul, we have no means of deciding. Such a visit is far from unlikely,\n  but it can hardly have been of long duration. A copy of his letters\n  would probably be sent to Laodicea, as a principal centre of\n  Christianity in Proconsular Asia, which is among the provinces\n  mentioned in the address of the First Epistle.\n\nFootnote 136:\n\n  Rev. iii. 14\u201321.\n\n[Sidenote: Correspondences between the Apocalypse and St Paul's\n           Epistles.]\n\nThe message communicated by St John to Laodicea prolongs the note which\nwas struck by St Paul in the letter to Coloss\u00e6. An interval of a very\nfew years has not materially altered the character of these Churches.\nObviously the same temper prevails, the same errors are rife, the same\ncorrection must be applied.\n\n[Sidenote: 1. The doctrine of the Person of Christ,]\n\n1. Thus, while St Paul finds it necessary to enforce the truth that\nChrist is the image of the invisible God, that in Him all the divine\nfulness dwells, that He existed before all things, that through Him all\nthings were created and in Him all things are sustained, that He is the\nprimary source (\u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03ae) and has the pre-eminence in all things[137]; so in\nalmost identical language St John, speaking in the person of our Lord,\ndeclares that He is the Amen, the faithful and true witness, the primary\nsource (\u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03ae) of the creation of God[138]. Some lingering shreds of the\nold heresy, we may suppose, still hung about these Churches, and instead\nof 'holding fast the Head' they were even yet prone to substitute\nintermediate agencies, angelic mediators, as links in the chain which\nshould bind man to God. They still failed to realise the majesty and\nsignificance, the _completeness_, of the Person of Christ.\n\nFootnote 137:\n\n  Col. i. 15\u201318.\n\nFootnote 138:\n\n  Rev. iii. 14. It should be observed that this designation of our Lord\n  (\u1f21 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1f74 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6), which so closely resembles the language\n  of the Colossian Epistle, does not occur in the messages to the other\n  six Churches, nor do we there find anything resembling it.\n\n[Sidenote: and practical duties which follow upon it.]\n\nAnd the practical duty also, which follows from the recognition of the\ntheological truth, is enforced by both Apostles in very similar\nlanguage. If St Paul entreats the Colossians to seek those things which\nare above, where Christ is seated on the right hand of God[139], and in\nthe companion epistle, which also he directs them to read, reminds the\nChurches that God raised them with Christ and seated them with him in\nheavenly places in Christ Jesus[140]; in like manner St John gives this\npromise to the Laodiceans in the name of his Lord: 'He that overcometh,\nI will grant to him to sit with me in my throne, even as I also overcame\nand did sit with my Father in His throne[141]'.\n\nFootnote 139:\n\n  Col. iii. 1.\n\nFootnote 140:\n\n  Ephes. ii. 6 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03ae\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03b5\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03ba\u03ac\u03b8\u03b9\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\nFootnote 141:\n\n  Rev. iii. 21 \u03b4\u03ce\u03c3\u03c9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4' \u1f10\u03bc\u03bf\u1fe6, \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. Here again it must be\n  noticed that there is no such resemblance in the language of the\n  promises to the faithful in the other six Churches. This double\n  coincidence, affecting the two ideas which may be said to cover the\n  whole ground in the Epistle to the Colossians, can hardly, I think, be\n  fortuitous, and suggests an acquaintance with and recognition of the\n  earlier Apostle's teaching on the part of St John.\n\n[Sidenote: 2. Warning against lukewarmness.]\n\n2. But again; after a parting salutation to the Church of Laodicea St\nPaul closes with a warning to Archippus, apparently its chief pastor, to\ntake heed to his ministry[142]. Some signs of slackened zeal seem to\nhave called forth this rebuke. It may be an accidental coincidence, but\nit is at least worthy of notice, that lukewarmness is the special sin\ndenounced in the angel of the Laodiceans, and that the necessity of\ngreater earnestness is the burden of the message to that Church[143]. As\nwith the people, so is it with the priest. The community takes its\ncolour from and communicates its colour to its spiritual rulers. The 'be\nzealous' of St John is the counterpart to the 'take heed' of St Paul.\n\nFootnote 142:\n\n  Col. iv. 17.\n\nFootnote 143:\n\n  Rev. iii. 19. If the common view, that by the angel of the Church its\n  chief pastor is meant, were correct, and if Archippus (as is very\n  probable) had been living when St John wrote, the coincidence would be\n  still more striking; see Trench's _Epistles to the Seven Churches in\n  Asia_, p. 180. But for reasons given elsewhere (Philippians p. 197\n  sq.), this interpretation of the angels seems to me incorrect.\n\n[Sidenote: 3. The pride of wealth denounced.]\n\n3. Lastly; in the Apocalyptic message the pride of wealth is sternly\ncondemned in the Laodicean Church: 'For that thou sayest I am rich and\nhave gotten me riches and have need of nothing, and knowest not that\nthou art utterly wretched and miserable and beggarly and blind and\nnaked, I counsel thee to buy gold of me refined with fire, that thou\nmayest have riches[144].' This proud vaunt receives its best\nillustration from a recent occurrence at Laodicea, to which allusion has\nalready been made. Only a very few years before this date an earthquake\nhad laid the city in ruins. Yet from this catastrophe she rose again\nwith more than her former splendour. [Sidenote: The vaunt of\nLaodicea.]This however was not her chief title to respect. While other\ncities, prostrated by a like visitation, had sought relief from the\nconcessions of the Roman senate or the liberality of the emperor's\npurse, it was the glory of Laodicea that she alone neither courted nor\nobtained assistance, but recovered by her own resources. 'Nullo a nobis\nremedio,' says the Roman historian, 'propriis opibus revaluit[145].'\nThus she had asserted a proud independence, to which neither far-famed\nmetropolitan Ephesus, nor old imperial Sardis, nor her prosperous\ncommercial neighbours, Apamea and Cibyra, could lay claim[146]. No one\nwould dispute her boast that she 'had gotten riches and had need of\nnothing.'\n\nFootnote 144:\n\n  Rev. iii. 17, 18, where the correct reading with the repetition of the\n  definite articles, \u1f41 \u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03af\u03c0\u03c9\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f41 \u1f10\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2, signifies the type, the\n  embodiment of wretchedness, etc.\n\nFootnote 145:\n\n  Tac. Ann. xiv. 27.\n\nFootnote 146:\n\n  In all the other cases of earthquake which Tacitus records as\n  happening in these Asiatic cities, Ann. ii. 47 (the twelve cities),\n  iv. 13 (Cibyra), xii. 58 (Apamea), he mentions the fact of their\n  obtaining relief from the Senate or the Emperor. On an earlier\n  occasion Laodicea herself had not disdained under similar\n  circumstances to receive assistance from Augustus: Strabo, xii. p.\n  579.\n\n[Sidenote: Pride of intellectual wealth.]\n\nBut is there not a second and subsidiary idea underlying the Apocalyptic\nrebuke? The pride of intellectual wealth, we may well suspect, was a\ntemptation at Laodicea hardly less strong than the pride of material\nresources. When St Paul wrote, the theology of the Gospel and the\ncomprehension of the Church were alike endangered by a spirit of\nintellectual exclusiveness[147] in these cities. He warned them against\na vain philosophy, against a show of wisdom, against an intrusive mystic\nspeculation, which vainly puffed up the fleshly mind[148]. He tacitly\ncontrasted with this false intellectual wealth 'the riches of the glory\nof God's mystery revealed in Christ[149],' the riches of the full\nassurance of understanding, the genuine treasures of wisdom and\nknowledge[150]. May not the same contrast be discerned in the language\nof St John? The Laodiceans boast of their enlightenment, but they are\nblind, and to cure their blindness they must seek eye-salve from the\nhands of the great Physician. They vaunt their wealth of knowledge, but\nthey are wretched paupers, and must beg the refined gold of the Gospel\nto relieve their wants[151].\n\nFootnote 147:\n\n  See the next chapter of this introduction.\n\nFootnote 148:\n\n  Col. ii. 8, 18, 23.\n\nFootnote 149:\n\n  i. 27.\n\nFootnote 150:\n\n  ii. 2, 3.\n\nFootnote 151:\n\n  Comp. Eph. i. 18 'The _eyes of your understanding being enlightened_,\n  that ye may know what is the hope of his calling, what the _riches of\n  the glory of his inheritance_ in the saints.'\n\nThis is the last notice in the Apostolic records relating to the\nChurches in the valley of the Lycus; but during the succeeding ages the\nChristian communities of this district play a conspicuous part in the\nstruggles and the development of the Church. [Sidenote: The early\ndisciples settle in proconsular Asia]When after the destruction of\nJerusalem St John fixed his abode at Ephesus, it would appear that not a\nfew of the oldest surviving members of the Palestinian Church\naccompanied him into 'Asia,' which henceforward became the head-quarters\nof Apostolic authority. In this body of emigrants Andrew[152] and Philip\namong the Twelve, Aristion and John the presbyter[153] among other\npersonal disciples of the Lord, are especially mentioned.\n\nFootnote 152:\n\n  _Canon Murator._ fol. 1, l. 14 (p. 17, ed. Tregelles), Cureton's\n  _Ancient Syriac Documents_ pp. 32, 34. Comp. Papias in Euseb. _H.E._\n  iii. 39.\n\nFootnote 153:\n\n  Papias in Euseb. _H.E._ iii. 39.\n\n[Sidenote: and especially at Hierapolis.]\n\nAmong the chief settlements of this Christian dispersion was Hierapolis.\nThis fact explains how these Phrygian Churches assumed a prominence in\nthe ecclesiastical history of the second century, for which we are\nhardly prepared by their antecedents as they appear in connexion with St\nPaul, and which they failed to maintain in the history of the later\nChurch.\n\nHere at all events was settled Philip of Bethsaida[154], the [Sidenote:\nPhilip the Apostle with his daughters.] early friend and fellow-townsman\nof St John, and the first Apostle who is recorded to have held\ncommunication with the Gentiles[155]. Here he died and was buried; and\nhere after his decease lived his two virgin daughters, who survived to a\nvery advanced age and thus handed down to the second century the\ntraditions of the earliest days of the Church. A third daughter, who was\nmarried, had settled in Ephesus, where her body rested[156]. [Sidenote:\nTheir traditions collected by Papias.]It was from the two daughters who\nresided at Hierapolis, that Papias heard several stories of the first\npreachers of the Gospel, which he transmitted to posterity in his\nwork[157].\n\nFootnote 154:\n\n  Polycrates in Euseb. _H.E._ iii. 31, v. 24 \u03a6\u03af\u03bb\u03b9\u03c0\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd [\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd] _\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd\n  \u03b4\u03ce\u03b4\u03b5\u03ba\u03b1 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd_, \u1f43\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b5\u03ba\u03bf\u03af\u03bc\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f39\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03cd\u03bf \u03b8\u03c5\u03b3\u03b1\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b5\u03c2\n  \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b3\u03b5\u03b3\u03b7\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03c5\u1fd6\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f20 \u1f11\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b8\u03c5\u03b3\u03ac\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f01\u03b3\u03af\u1ff3 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\n  \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b9\u03c4\u03b5\u03c5\u03c3\u03b1\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7, \u1f23 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f18\u03c6\u03ad\u03c3\u1ff3 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03b1\u03cd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9. To this third daughter the\n  statement of Clement of Alexandria must refer, though by a common\n  looseness of expression he uses the plural number (Euseb. _H.E._ iii.\n  30), \u1f23 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 _\u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2_ \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b4\u03bf\u03ba\u03b9\u03bc\u03ac\u03c3\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u00b7 \u03a0\u03ad\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n  \u03a6\u03af\u03bb\u03b9\u03c0\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b1\u03b9\u03b4\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf, \u03a6\u03af\u03bb\u03b9\u03c0\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03b8\u03c5\u03b3\u03b1\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u03ac\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd\n  \u1f10\u03be\u03ad\u03b4\u03c9\u03ba\u03b5. On the other hand in the _Dialogue between Caius and\n  Proclus_, Philip the Evangelist was represented as residing at\n  Hierapolis (Euseb. _H.E._ iii. 31) \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03ae\u03c4\u03b9\u03b4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03c4\u03ad\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03b5\u03c2\n  \u03b1\u1f31 \u03a6\u03af\u03bb\u03b9\u03c0\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b3\u03b5\u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f39\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f08\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03bd\u00b7 \u1f41 \u03c4\u03ac\u03c6\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd\n  \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u1f76\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f41 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd, where the mention of the _four_\n  daughters _prophesying_ identifies the person meant (see Acts xxi. 8).\n  Nothing can be clearer than that St Luke distinguishes Philip the\n  Evangelist from Philip the Apostle; for (1) When the Seven are\n  appointed, he distinctly states that this new office is created to\n  relieve the Twelve of some onerous duties (Acts vi. 2\u20135). (2) After\n  Philip the Evangelist has preached in Samaria, two of the Twelve are\n  sent thither to convey the gifts of the Spirit, which required the\n  presence of an Apostle (viii. 14\u201317). (3) When St Paul and his\n  companions visit Philip at C\u00e6sarea, he is carefully described as 'the\n  Evangelist, being one of the Seven' (xxi. 8). As St Luke was a member\n  of the Apostle's company when this visit was paid, and stayed 'many\n  days' in Philip's house, the accuracy of his information cannot be\n  questioned. Yet Eusebius (_H.E._ iii. 31) assumes the identity of the\n  Apostle with the Evangelist, and describes the notice in the _Dialogue\n  of Caius and Proclus_ as being 'in harmony with (\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u1fb4\u03b4\u03c9\u03bd)' the\n  language of Polycrates. And accordingly in another passage (_H.E._\n  iii. 39), when he has occasion to mention the conversations of Papias\n  with Philip's daughters at Hierapolis, he again supposes them to be\n  the same who are mentioned in the Acts.\n\n  My reasons for believing that the Philip who lived at Hierapolis was\n  not the Evangelist, but the Apostle, are as follows. (1) This is\n  distinctly stated by the earliest witness, Polycrates, who was bishop\n  of Ephesus at the close of the second century, and who besides claimed\n  to have and probably had special opportunities of knowing early\n  traditions. It is confirmed moreover by the notice in Clement of\n  Alexandria, who is the next in order of time, and whose means of\n  information also were good, for one of his earliest teachers was an\n  Ionian Greek (_Strom._ I. 1, p. 322). (2) The other view depends\n  solely on the authority of the _Dialogue of Caius and Proclus_. I have\n  given reasons elsewhere for questioning the separate existence of the\n  Roman presbyter Caius, and for supposing that this dialogue was\n  written by Hippolytus bishop of Portus (_Journal of Philology_ I. p.\n  98 sq., Cambridge, 1868). But however this may be, its author was a\n  Roman ecclesiastic, and probably wrote some quarter of a century at\n  least after Polycrates. In all respects therefore his authority is\n  inferior. Moreover it is suspicious in form. It mentions four\n  daughters instead of three, makes them all virgins, and represents\n  them as prophetesses, thus showing a distinct aim of reproducing the\n  particulars as given in Acts xxi. 9; whereas the account of Polycrates\n  is divergent in all three respects. (3) A life-long friendship would\n  naturally draw Philip the Apostle of Bethsaida after John, as it also\n  drew Andrew. And, when we turn to St John's Gospel, we can hardly\n  resist the impression that incidents relating to Andrew and Philip had\n  a special interest, not only for the writer of the Gospel, but also\n  for his hearers (John i. 40, 43\u201346, vi. 5\u20138, xii. 20\u201322, xiv. 8, 9).\n  Moreover the Apostles Andrew and Philip appear in this Gospel as\n  inseparable companions. (4) Lastly; when Papias mentions collecting\n  the sayings of the Twelve and of other early disciples from those who\n  heard them, he gives a prominent place to these two Apostles \u03c4\u03af\n  \u1f08\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u03ad\u03b1\u03c2 ... \u03b5\u1f36\u03c0\u03b5\u03bd \u1f22 \u03c4\u03af \u03a6\u03af\u03bb\u03b9\u03c0\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2, but there is no reference to Philip\n  the Evangelist. When therefore we read later that he conversed with\n  the daughters of Philip, it seems natural to infer that the Philip\n  intended is the same person whom he has mentioned previously. It\n  should be added, though no great value can be assigned to such\n  channels of information, that the Acts of Philip place the Apostle at\n  Hierapolis; Tischendorf, _Act. Apost. Apocr._ p. 75 sq.\n\n  On the other hand, those who suppose that the Evangelist, and not the\n  Apostle, resided at Hierapolis, account for the other form of the\n  tradition by the natural desire of the Asiatic Churches to trace their\n  spiritual descent directly from the Twelve. This solution of the\n  phenomenon might have been accepted, if the authorities in favour of\n  Philip the Evangelist had been prior in time and superior in quality.\n  There is no improbability in supposing that both the Philips were\n  married and had daughters.\n\nFootnote 155:\n\n  John xii. 20.\n\nFootnote 156:\n\n  See above p. 45, note 154.\n\nFootnote 157:\n\n  Euseb. _H.E._ iii. 39. This is the general reference for all those\n  particulars respecting Papias which are derived from Eusebius.\n\nThis Papias had conversed not only with the daughters of Philip, but\nalso with at least two personal disciples of the Lord, Aristion and John\nthe presbyter. He made it his business to gather traditions respecting\nthe sayings of the Saviour and His Apostles; and he published a work in\nfive books, entitled _An Exposition of the Oracles of the Lord_, using\nthe information thus collected to illustrate the discourses, and perhaps\nthe doings, of Christ as recorded in the Gospels[158]. Among other\nstories he related, apparently on the authority of these daughters of\nPhilip, how a certain dead man had been restored to life in his own day,\nand how Justus Barsabas, who is mentioned in the Acts, had drunk a\ndeadly poison and miraculously escaped from any evil effects[159].\n\nFootnote 158:\n\n  See Westcott, _Canon_ p. 63. On the opinions of Papias and on the\n  nature of his work, I may perhaps be allowed to refer to an article in\n  the _Contemporary Review_ Aug. 1867, where I have collected and\n  investigated all the notices of this father. The object of Papias'\n  work was not to construct a Gospel narrative, but to interpret and\n  illustrate those already existing. I ought to add that on two minor\n  points, the martyrdom of Papias and the identity of Philip with the\n  Evangelist, I have been led to modify my views since the article was\n  written.\n\nFootnote 159:\n\n  Euseb. l.c. \u1f61\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f41 \u03a0\u03b1\u03c0\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u03ae\u03b3\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd\n  \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9\u03bb\u03b7\u03c6\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b8\u03b1\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 [\u1f00\u03c0\u03bf]; \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a6\u03b9\u03bb\u03af\u03c0\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b8\u03c5\u03b3\u03b1\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03c9\u03bd\n  \u03bc\u03bd\u03b7\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9, \u03c4\u1f70 \u03bd\u1fe6\u03bd \u03c3\u03b7\u03bc\u03b5\u03b9\u03c9\u03c4\u03ad\u03bf\u03bd\u00b7 \u03bd\u03b5\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f00\u03bd\u03ac\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd\n  \u03b3\u03b5\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c5\u1fd6\u03b1\u03bd \u1f31\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f56 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd \u1f15\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ac\u03b4\u03bf\u03be\u03bf\u03bd \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u1f38\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd\n  \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u0392\u03b1\u03c1\u03c3\u03b1\u03b2\u1fb6\u03bd \u03b3\u03b5\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. The information respecting the\n  raising of the dead man might have come from the daughters of Philip,\n  as the context seems certainly to imply, while yet the event happened\n  in Papias' own time (\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd). It will be remembered that even\n  Iren\u00e6us mentions similar miracles as occurring in his own age (_H\u00e6r._\n  ii. 32. 4). Eusebius does not say that the miraculous preservation of\n  Justus Barsabas also occurred in the time of Papias.\n\n[Sidenote: Life and teaching of PAPIAS.]\n\nIf we may judge by his name, PAPIAS was a native of Phrygia, probably of\nHierapolis[160], of which he afterwards became bishop, and must have\ngrown up to youth or early manhood before the close of the first\ncentury. He is said to have suffered martyrdom at Pergamum about the\nyear 165; but there is good reason for distrusting this statement,\nindependently of any chronological difficulty which it involves[161].\nOtherwise [Sidenote: Account of Eusebius.]he must have lived to a very\nadvanced age. Eusebius, to whom chiefly we owe our information\nrespecting him, was repelled by his millennarian views, and describes\nhim as a man of mean intelligence[162], accusing him of misunderstanding\nthe Apostolic sayings respecting the kingdom of Christ and thus\ninterpreting in a material sense expressions which were intended to be\nmystical and symbolical. This disparaging account, though one-sided, was\nindeed not altogether undeserved, for his love of the marvellous seems\nto have overpowered his faculty of discrimination. But the adverse\nverdict of Eusebius must be corrected by the more sympathetic language\nof Iren\u00e6us[163], who possibly may have known him personally, and who\ncertainly must have been well acquainted with his reputation and\ncharacter.\n\nFootnote 160:\n\n  Papias, or (as it is very frequently written in inscriptions) Pappias,\n  is a common Phrygian name. It is found several times at Hierapolis,\n  not only in inscriptions (Boeckh _Corp. Inscr._ no. 3930, 3912 a add.)\n  but even on coins (Mionnet IV. p. 301). This is explained by the fact\n  that it was an epithet of the Hierapolitan Zeus (Boeckh 3817 \u03a0\u03b1\u03c0\u03af\u1fb3 \u0394\u03b9\u1fd2\n  \u03c3\u03c9\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c1\u03b9), just as in Bithynia this same god was called \u03a0\u03ac\u03c0\u03b1\u03c2 (Lobeck\n  _Aglaoph._ p. 1048; see Boeckh _Corp. Inscr._ III. p. 1051). Hence as\n  the name of a mortal it is equivalent to the Greek Diogenes; e.g.\n  Boeckh no. 3912 a add., \u03a0\u03b1\u03c0\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a3\u03c4\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f41 \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u0394\u03b9\u03bf\u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03c2. In\n  an inscription at Trajanopolis we meet with it in a curious\n  conjunction with other familiar names (Boeckh no. 3865 i add.) \u03a0\u03b1\u03c0\u03c0\u03af\u03b1\u03c2\n  \u03a4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03a4\u03c5\u03c7\u03b9\u03ba\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. (see Waddington on Le Bas, Inscr. no.\n  718). This last belongs to the year A.D. 199. Other analogous Phrygian\n  names are Ammias, Tatias (with the corresponding feminines), which\n  with Latin terminations become Ammianus, Tatianus.\n\n  Thus at Hierapolis the name Papias is derived from heathen mythology,\n  and accordingly the persons bearing it on the inscriptions and coins\n  are all heathens. It may therefore be presumed that our Papias was of\n  Gentile origin. The inference however is not absolutely certain, since\n  elsewhere it is found borne by Jews; see the Talmudical references in\n  Zunz _Namen der Juden_ p. 16.\n\nFootnote 161:\n\n  _Chron. Pasch._ sub ann. 163 \u03c3\u1f7a\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f01\u03b3\u03af\u1ff3 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03a0\u03bf\u03bb\u03c5\u03ba\u03ac\u03c1\u03c0\u1ff3 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f04\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b8' \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78\n  \u03a6\u03b9\u03bb\u03b1\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03c5\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03a3\u03bc\u03cd\u03c1\u03bd\u1fc3\u00b7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd \u03a0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03ac\u03bc\u1ff3 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f15\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9, \u1f10\u03bd \u03bf\u1f37\u03c2\n  \u1f27\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03a0\u03b1\u03c0\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f04\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03af, \u1f67\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f14\u03b3\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u03b1 \u03c6\u03ad\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03b1.\n  See also the Syrian epitome of Euseb. _Chron._ (II. p. 216 ed. Sch\u00f6ne)\n  'Cum persecutio in Asia esset, Polycarpos martyrium subiit et Papias,\n  quorum martyria in libro (scripta) extant,' but the Armenian version\n  of the _Chronicon_ mentions only Polycarp, while Jerome says\n  'Polycarpus et Pionius fecere martyrium.' In his history (iv. 15)\n  Eusebius, after quoting the _Martyrdom of Polycarp_ at length, adds \u1f10\u03bd\n  \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1fc7 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u1fc7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 _\u1f04\u03bb\u03bb\u03b1 \u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03b1 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u1fc6\u03c0\u03c4\u03bf_ ... \u03bc\u03b5\u03b8'\n  \u1f67\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u039c\u03b7\u03c4\u03c1\u03cc\u03b4\u03c9\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 ... \u1f00\u03bd\u03ae\u03c1\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9\u00b7 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b3\u03b5 \u03bc\u1f74\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03b2\u03bf\u03ae\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03cd\u03c1\u03c9\u03bd\n  \u03b5\u1f37\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c1\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf _\u03a0\u03b9\u03cc\u03bd\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2_ ... \u1f11\u03be\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f04\u03bb\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03a0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03ac\u03bc\u1ff3\n  \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f08\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03bc\u03bd\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u03bc\u03b5\u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03c5\u03c1\u03b7\u03ba\u03cc\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03c6\u03ad\u03c1\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, \u039a\u03ac\u03c1\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n  _\u03a0\u03b1\u03c0\u03cd\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5_ \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9\u03ba\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f08\u03b3\u03b1\u03b8\u03bf\u03bd\u03af\u03ba\u03b7\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. He here falls into the\n  serious error of imagining that Metrodorus, Pionius, Carpus, Papylus,\n  and the others were martyred under M. Aurelius, whereas we know from\n  their extant Acts that they suffered in the Decian persecution. For\n  the martyrdoms of Pionius and Metrodorus see _Act. SS. Bolland._ Feb.\n  1; for those of Carpus, Papylus, and Agathonica, _ib._ April 13. The\n  Acts of the former, which are included in Ruinart (_Act. Sinc. Mart._\n  p. 120 sq., 1689) are apparently the same which were seen by Eusebius.\n  Those of the latter are a late compilation of the Metaphrast, but were\n  probably founded on the earlier document. At all events the tradition\n  of the persecution in which they suffered could hardly have been\n  perverted or lost. Eusebius seems to have found their Acts bound up in\n  the same volume with those of Polycarp, and without reading them\n  through, to have drawn the hasty inference that they suffered at the\n  same time. But notwithstanding the error, or perhaps owing to it, this\n  passage in the Ecclesiastical History, by a confusion of the names\n  Papias and Papylus, seems to have given rise to the statement\n  respecting Papias in the Chronicon Paschale and in the Syrian epitome,\n  as it obviously has misled Jerome respecting Pionius. If so, the\n  martyrdom of Papias is a fiction, and he may have died a natural death\n  at an earlier date; so that the not very serious difficulty of his\n  longevity will disappear. The time of Polycarp's martyrdom is fixed by\n  various data as Easter A.D. 166 (see Clinton's _Fast. Rom._ I. p.\n  157).\n\nFootnote 162:\n\n  _H E._ iii. 39 \u03c3\u03c6\u03cc\u03b4\u03c1\u03b1 \u03c3\u03bc\u03b9\u03ba\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd. In another passage (iii. 36),\n  as commonly read, Eusebius makes partial amends to Papias by calling\n  him \u1f00\u03bd\u1f74\u03c1 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03bc\u03ac\u03bb\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1 \u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03b9\u03ce\u03c4\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03b4\u03ae\u03bc\u03c9\u03bd, but\n  this passage is found to be a spurious interpolation (see\n  _Contemporary Review_ l.c. p. 12), and was probably added by some one\n  who was acquainted with the work of Papias and desired to do him\n  justice.\n\nFootnote 163:\n\n  Iren. v. 33. 3, 4.\n\nMuch has been written respecting the relation of this writer to the\nCanonical Gospels, but the discussion has no very direct bearing on our\nspecial subject, and may be dismissed here[164]. One question however,\nwhich has a real importance as affecting the progress of the Gospel in\nthese parts, has been raised by modern criticism and must not be passed\nover in silence.\n\nFootnote 164:\n\n  See on this subject Westcott _Canon_ p. 64 sq.; _Contemporary Review_\n  l.c. p. 12 sq.\n\n[Sidenote: A modern hypothesis respecting Christianity in Asia Minor\n           stated and discussed.]\n\nIt has been supposed that there was an entire dislocation and\ndiscontinuity in the history of Christianity in Asia Minor at a certain\nepoch; that the Apostle of the Gentiles was ignored and his teaching\nrepudiated, if not anathematized; and that on its ruins was erected the\nstandard of Judaism, around which with a marvellous unanimity deserters\nfrom the Pauline Gospel rallied. Of this retrograde faith St John is\nsupposed to have been the great champion, and Papias a typical and\nimportant representative[165].\n\nFootnote 165:\n\n  The theory of the T\u00fcbingen school may be studied in Baur's\n  _Christliche Kirche der drei ersten Jahrhunderte_ or in Schwegler's\n  _Nachapostolisches Zeitalter_. It has been reproduced (at least as far\n  as regards the Asiatic Churches) by Renan _Saint Paul_ p. 366 sq.\n\nThe subject, as a whole, is too wide for a full investigation here. I\nmust content myself with occupying a limited area, showing not only the\nhistorical baselessness, but the strong inherent improbability of the\ntheory, as applied to Hierapolis and the neighbouring churches. As this\ndistrict is its chief strong-hold, a repulse at this point must involve\nits ultimate defeat along the whole line.\n\n[Sidenote: The position of St John]\n\nOf St John himself I have already spoken[166]. It has been shown that\nhis language addressed to these Churches is not only not opposed to St\nPaul's teaching, but presents remarkable coincidences with it. So far at\nleast the theory finds no support; and, when from St John we turn to\nPapias, the case is not different. [Sidenote: and of Papias.]The\nadvocates of the hypothesis in question lay the chief stress of their\nargument on the silence of Papias, or rather of Eusebius. Eusebius\nquotes a passage from Papias, in which the bishop of Hierapolis mentions\ncollecting from trustworthy sources the sayings of certain Apostles and\nearly disciples; but St Paul is not named among them. He also gives\nshort extracts from Papias referring to the Gospels of St Matthew and St\nMark, and mentions that this writer made use of the first Epistle of St\nJohn and the first Epistle of St Peter; but here again there is no\nallusion to St Paul's writings. Whether referring to the personal\ntestimony or to the Canonical writings of the Apostles, Papias, we are\nreminded, is equally silent about St Paul.\n\nFootnote 166:\n\n  See above p. 41 sq.\n\nOn both these points a satisfactory answer can be given; but the two\ncases are essentially different, and must be considered apart.\n\n[Sidenote: 1. The traditions collected by Papias.]\n\n(1) The range of _personal testimony_ which Papias would be able to\ncollect depended on his opportunities. Before he had grown up to\nmanhood, the personal reminiscences of St Paul would have almost died\nout. The Apostle of the Gentiles had not resided more than three years\neven at Ephesus, and seems to have paid only one brief visit to the\nvalley of the Lycus, even if he visited it at all. Such recollections of\nSt Paul as might once have lingered here would certainly be overshadowed\nby and forgotten in the later sojourn of St John, which, beginning where\nthey ceased, extended over more than a quarter of a century. To St John,\nand to those personal disciples of Christ who surrounded him, Papias and\nhis contemporaries would naturally and almost inevitably look for the\ntraditions which they so eagerly collected. This is the case with the\nleading representative of the Asiatic school in the next generation,\nIren\u00e6us, whose traditions are almost wholly derived from St John and his\ncompanions, while at the same time he evinces an entire sympathy with\nthe work and teaching of St Paul. But indeed, even if it had been\notherwise, the object which Papias had directly in view did not suggest\nany appeal to St Paul's authority. He was writing an 'Exposition of the\nOracles of the Lord,' and he sought to supplement and interpret these by\ntraditions of our Lord's life, such as eyewitnesses only could give. St\nPaul could have no place among those personal disciples of Christ, of\nwhom alone he is speaking in this preface to his work, which Eusebius\nquotes.\n\n[Sidenote: 2. His references to the Canonical writings.]\n\n(2) But, though we have no right to expect any mention of St Paul where\nthe appeal is to personal testimony, yet with quotations from or\nreferences to the _Canonical writings_ the case, it may be argued, is\ndifferent. Here at all events we might look for some recognition of St\nPaul. To this argument it would perhaps be a sufficient reply, that St\nPaul's Epistles do not furnish any matter which must necessarily have\nbeen introduced into a work such as Papias composed. But the complete\nand decisive answer is this; that the silence of Eusebius, so far from\ncarrying with it the silence of Papias, does not [Sidenote: No weight to\nbe attached to the silence of Eusebius.] even afford a presumption in\nthis direction. Papias may have quoted St Paul again and again, and yet\nEusebius would see no reason to chronicle the fact. His usage in other\ncases is decisive on this point. The Epistle of Polycarp which was read\nby Eusebius is the same which we still possess. Not only does it teem\nwith the most obvious quotations from St Paul, but in one passage it\ndirectly mentions his writing to the Philippians[167]. Yet the\nhistorian, describing its relation to the Canonical Scriptures, contents\nhimself with saying that it 'employs some testimonies from the former\nEpistle of Peter[168].' Exactly similar is his language respecting\nIren\u00e6us also. Iren\u00e6us, as is well known, cites by name almost every one\nof St Paul's Epistles; yet the description which Eusebius gives under\nthis same head, after quoting this writer's notices respecting the\nhistory of the Gospels and the Apocalypse, is that 'he mentions also the\nfirst Epistle of John, alleging very many testimonies from it, and in\nlike manner also the former Epistle of Peter[169].' There is every\nreason therefore to suppose that Eusebius would deal with Papias as he\nhas dealt with Polycarp and Iren\u00e6us, and that, unless Papias had\nintroduced some curious fact relating to St Paul, it would not have\noccurred to him to record mere quotations from or references to this\nApostle's letters. It may be supposed that Eusebius records with a fair\namount of attention references to the Catholic Epistles in early\nwriters, because the limits of the Canon in this part were not\naccurately fixed. On the other hand the Epistles of St Paul were\nuniversally received and therefore did not need to be accredited by any\nsuch testimony. But whatever may be the explanation, the fact is patent,\nand it furnishes a complete answer to the argument drawn from his\nsilence in the case of Papias[170].\n\nFootnote 167:\n\n  \u00a7 3.\n\nFootnote 168:\n\n  _H.E._ iv. 14 \u1f41 \u03b3\u03ad \u03c4\u03bf\u03b9 \u03a0\u03bf\u03bb\u03cd\u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03b4\u03b7\u03bb\u03c9\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03c3\u1fc3 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03a6\u03b9\u03bb\u03b9\u03c0\u03c0\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2\n  \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u1fc7 \u03c6\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u1fc3 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b5\u1fe6\u03c1\u03bf \u03ba\u03ad\u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1\u03af \u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03b9 \u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03a0\u03ad\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\n  \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u1fc6\u03c2. This is all that Eusebius says with reference to\n  Polycarp's knowledge of the Canonical writings. It so happens that in\n  an earlier passage (iii. 36) he has given an extract from Polycarp, in\n  which St Paul's name is mentioned; but the quotation is brought to\n  illustrate the life of Ignatius, and the mention of the Apostle there\n  is purely accidental.\n\nFootnote 169:\n\n  _H.E._ v. 8 \u03bc\u03ad\u03bc\u03bd\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f38\u03c9\u03ac\u03bd\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c0\u03c1\u03ce\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u1fc6\u03c2, \u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03b1 \u1f10\u03be\n  \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c3\u03c6\u03ad\u03c1\u03c9\u03bd, \u1f41\u03bc\u03bf\u03af\u03c9\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03a0\u03ad\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2.\n\nFootnote 170:\n\n  It is necessary to press this argument, because though it has never\n  been answered and (so far as I can see) is quite unanswerable, yet\n  thoughtful men, who have no sympathy with the T\u00fcbingen views of early\n  Christian history, still continue to argue from the silence of\n  Eusebius, as though it had some real significance. To illustrate the\n  omissions of Eusebius I have given only the instances of Polycarp and\n  Iren\u00e6us, because they are historically connected with Papias; but his\n  silence is even more remarkable in other cases. Thus, when speaking of\n  the epistle of the Roman Clement (_H.E._ iii. 38), he alludes to the\n  coincidences with the Epistle to the Hebrews, but omits to mention the\n  direct references to St Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians which\n  is referred to by name, and is even silent about the numerous and\n  patent quotations from the Epistle of St James.\n\n[Sidenote: The views of Papias inferred from his associates.]\n\nBut, if the assumption has been proved to be baseless, have we any\ngrounds for saying that it is also highly improbable? Here it seems fair\nto argue from the well-known to the unknown. Of the opinions of Papias\nrespecting St Paul we know absolutely nothing; of the opinions of\nPolycarp and Iren\u00e6us ample evidence lies before us. _Noscitur a sociis_\nis a sound maxim to apply in such a case. Papias was a companion of\nPolycarp, and he is quoted with deference by Iren\u00e6us[171]. Is it\nprobable that his opinions should be diametrically opposed to those of\nhis friend and contemporary on a cardinal point affecting the very\nconception of Christianity (for the rejection of St Paul must be\nconsidered in this light)? or that this vital heterodoxy, if it existed,\nshould have escaped an intelligent critic of the next generation who had\nthe five books of his work before him, who himself had passed his early\nlife in Asia Minor, and who yet appeals to Papias as preserving the\ndoctrinal tradition which had been handed down from the Apostles\nthemselves to his own time? I say nothing of Eusebius himself, who, with\na distinct prejudice against Papias, accuses him of no worse heresy in\nhis writings than entertaining millennarian views.\n\nFootnote 171:\n\n  Iren. _H\u00e6r._ v. 33. 4.\n\n[Sidenote: Millennarian views consistent with the recognition of St\n           Paul.]\n\nIt may indeed be confessed that a man like Papias, whose natural bent,\nassisted by his Phrygian education, was towards sensuous views of\nreligion, would not be likely to appreciate the essentially spiritual\nteaching of St Paul; but this proves nothing. The difference between\nunconscious want of sympathy and conscious rejection is all important\nfor the matter in hand. The same charge might be brought against\nnumberless theologians, whether in the middle ages or in more modern\ntimes, into whose minds it never entered to question the authority of\nthe Apostle and who quote his writings with the utmost reverence.\nNeither in the primitive days of Christianity nor in its later stages\nhas the profession of Chiliastic views been found inconsistent with the\nfullest recognition of St Paul's Apostolic claims. In the early Church\nIren\u00e6us and Tertullian are notable instances of this combination; and in\nour own age and country a tendency to millennarian speculations has been\ncommonly associated with the staunchest adherence to the fundamental\ndoctrines of St Paul.\n\n[Sidenote: ABERCIUS probably his successor.]\n\nAs the successor of Papias and the predecessor of Claudius Apollinaris\nin the see of Hierapolis, we may perhaps name ABERCIUS or AVIRCIUS[172].\nHis legendary Acts assign his episcopate to the reign of Marcus\nAurelius; and, though they are disfigured by extravagant fictions, yet\nthe date may perhaps be accepted, as it seems to be confirmed by other\nevidence. An inscription on his tombstone recorded how he had paid one\n[Sidenote: His journeys.] visit to the city of Rome, and another to the\nbanks of the Euphrates. These long journeys are not without parallels in\nthe lives of contemporary bishops. Polycarp of Smyrna visited Rome,\nhoping to adjust the Paschal controversy; Melito of Sardis went as far\nas Palestine, desiring to ascertain on the spot the facts relating to\nthe Canon of the Old Testament Scriptures. These or similar motives may\nhave influenced Abercius to undertake his distant journeys. If we may\nassume the identification of this bishop with one Avircius Marcellus who\nis mentioned in a contemporary document, he took an active interest in\nthe Montanist controversy, as from his position he was likely to do.\n\nFootnote 172:\n\n  The life of this Abercius is printed in the Bollandist _Acta\n  Sanctorum_ Oct. 22. It may safely be pronounced spurious. Among other\n  incidents, the saint goes to Rome and casts out a demon from Lucilla,\n  the daughter of M. Aurelius and Faustina, at the same time compelling\n  the demon to take up an altar from Rome and transport it through the\n  air to Hierapolis. But these Acts, though legendary themselves,\n  contain an epitaph which has the ring of genuineness and which seems\n  to have suggested the story to the pious forger who invented the Acts.\n  This very interesting memorial is given and discussed at length by\n  Pitra, _Spicil. Solesm._ III. p. 532 sq. It is inscribed by one\n  Abercius of Hierapolis on his tomb, which he erected during his\n  life-time. He declares himself a disciple of the good shepherd, who\n  taught him trustworthy writings (\u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03bc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03ac) and sent him to visit\n  queenly Rome, where he saw a people sealed with the bright seal [of\n  baptism]. He recounts also a journey to Syria and the East, when he\n  crossed the Euphrates. He says that faith served up to him as a\n  banquet the \u03b9\u03c7\u03b8\u03c5\u03c2 from the fountain, giving him bread and wine. He\n  states that he has reached his 72nd year. And he closes by threatening\n  with severe penalties those who disturb his tomb. The resemblance of\n  this inscription to others found _in situ_ in the cemetery at\n  Hierapolis, after allowance made for the Christian element, is very\n  striking. The commencement \u1f18\u03ba\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 closely resembles the form\n  of another Hierapolitan inscription, Boeckh _Corp. Inscr._ 3906; the\n  enumeration of foreign tours has a counterpart in the monument of one\n  Flavius Zeuxis which states that the deceased had made 72 voyages\n  round the promontory of Malea to Italy (_ib._ 3920); and lastly, the\n  prohibition against putting another grave upon his, and the imposition\n  of fines to be paid to the treasury and the city if this injunction is\n  violated, are echos of language which occurs again and again on\n  tombstones in this city (_ib._ 3915, 3916, 3922, 3923, etc.). Out of\n  this epitaph, which he found probably at Hierapolis, and which, as he\n  himself tells us (\u00a7 41), was in a much mutilated condition, the\n  legend-writer apparently created his story, interpreting the queen, by\n  which Abercius himself probably meant the city of Rome, to be the\n  empress Faustina, with whom the saint is represented as having an\n  interview, M. Aurelius himself being absent at the time on his German\n  campaign. This view, that the epitaph is genuine and gave rise to the\n  Acts, is also maintained by Garrucci (_Civilt\u00e0 Cattolica_ 1856, I. p.\n  683, II. p. 84, quoted in the _Acta Sanct._ l.c.), whose criticisms\n  however are not always sound; and indeed as a whole it bears every\n  mark of authenticity, though possibly it may contain some\n  interpolations, which its mutilated condition would encourage.\n\n  The inscription itself however does not tell us what office Abercius\n  held or when he lived. There was a person of this name bishop of\n  Hierapolis present at the Council of Chalcedon A.D. 451 (Labb. _Conc._\n  IV. 862, 1204, 1341, 1392, 1496, 1744, ed. Coleti). But a chief pastor\n  of the Church at this late date would have declared his office\n  plainly; and the inscription points to a more primitive age, for the\n  expressions are archaic and the writer seems to veil his profession of\n  Christianity under language studiously obscure. The open profession of\n  Christianity on inscriptions occurs at an earlier date in these parts\n  than elsewhere. Already the word \u03c7\u03c1\u03b9\u03f2\u03c4\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03f2 or \u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03f2\u03c4\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03f2 is found on\n  tombstones of the third century; Boeckh _Corp. Inscr._ 3857 g, 3857 p,\n  3865 l; see Renan _Saint Paul_ p. 363. Thus we are entirely at fault\n  unless we accept the statement in the Acts.\n\n  And it is not unreasonable to suppose that, so far as regards the date\n  and office of Abercius, the writer of these Acts followed some\n  adequate historical tradition. Nor indeed is his statement altogether\n  without confirmation. We have evidence that a person bearing this name\n  lived in these parts of Asia Minor, somewhere about this time. An\n  unknown writer of a polemical tract against Montanism dedicates his\n  work to one Avircius Marcellus, at whose instigation it was written.\n  Eusebius (_H.E._ v. 16), who is our authority for this fact, relates\n  that Montanism found a determined and formidable opponent in\n  Apollinaris at Hierapolis and 'several other learned men of that day\n  with him,' who left large materials for a history of the movement. He\n  then goes on to say; \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b3\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u1fc6\u03c2 _\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd\n  \u03b5\u1f30\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd \u03b4\u03ae \u03c4\u03b9\u03c2_ ... \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03bf\u03b9\u03bc\u03b9\u03ac\u03b6\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 ... \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c4\u03c1\u03cc\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd\u00b7 \u1f18\u03ba\n  \u03c0\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f45\u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f31\u03ba\u03b1\u03bd\u03c9\u03c4\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c7\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5, \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03c4\u1f72 \u1f08\u03bf\u03c5\u03af\u03c1\u03ba\u03b9\u03b5 \u039c\u03ac\u03c1\u03ba\u03b5\u03bb\u03bb\u03b5,\n  \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c4\u03b1\u03c7\u03b8\u03b5\u1f76\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03c5\u03b3\u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03c8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u1f70 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., i.e. 'One of the\n  aforesaid writers at the commencement of his treatise against them\n  (the Montanists) etc.' May not the person here addressed be the\n  Abercius of the epitaph?\n\n  But if so, who is the writer that addresses him, and when did he live?\n  Some MSS omit \u03b4\u03ae \u03c4\u03b9\u03c2, and others substitute \u1f24\u03b4\u03b7, thus making\n  Apollinaris himself the writer. But the words seem certainly to have\n  been part of the original text, as the sense requires them; for if\n  they are omitted, \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd must be connected with \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd,\n  where it is not wanted. Thus Eusebius quotes the writer anonymously;\n  and those who assign the treatise to Apollinaris cannot plead the\n  authority of the original text of the historian himself.\n\n  But after all may it not have been written by Apollinaris, though\n  Eusebius was uncertain about the authorship? He quotes in succession\n  three \u03c3\u03c5\u03b3\u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03bc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 or treatises, speaking of them as though they\n  emanated from the same author. The first of these, from which the\n  address to Avircius Marcellus is quoted, might very well have been\n  composed soon after the Montanist controversy broke out (as Eusebius\n  himself elsewhere states was the case with the work of Apollinaris,\n  iv. 27 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03a6\u03c1\u03c5\u03b3\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b1\u1f31\u03c1\u03ad\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 ... \u1f65\u03c3\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u1f10\u03ba\u03c6\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03c2); but\n  the second and third distinctly state that they were written some time\n  after the death of Montanus. May not Eusebius have had before him a\n  volume containing a collection of tracts against Montanism 'by\n  Claudius Apollinaris and others,' in which the authorship of the\n  several tracts was not distinctly marked? This hypothesis would\n  explain the words with which he prefaces his extracts, and would also\n  account for his vague manner of quotation. It would also explain the\n  omission of \u03b4\u03ae \u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 in some texts (the ancient Syriac version boldly\n  substitutes the name of Apollinaris), and would explain how Rufinus,\n  Nicephorus, and others, who might have had independent information,\n  ascribed the treatise to this father. I have already pointed out how\n  Eusebius was led into a similar error of connecting together several\n  martyrologies and treating them as contemporaneous, because they were\n  collected in the same volume (p. 48, note 161). Elsewhere too I have\n  endeavoured to show that he mistook the authorship of a tract which\n  was bound up with others, owing to the absence of a title (_Caius or\n  Hippolytus?_ in the _Journal of Philology_ I. p. 98 sq.).\n\n  On this hypothesis, Claudius Apollinaris would very probably be the\n  author of the first of these treatises. If so, it would appear to have\n  been written while he was still a presbyter, at the instigation of his\n  bishop Avircius Marcellus whom he succeeded not long after in the see\n  of Hierapolis.\n\n  If on the other hand Eusebius has correctly assigned the first\n  treatise to the same writer as the second and third, who must have\n  written after the beginning of the third century, Avircius Marcellus\n  to whom it is addressed cannot have held the see of Hierapolis during\n  the reign of M. Aurelius (A.D. 161\u2013180); and, if he was ever bishop of\n  this city, must have been a successor, not a predecessor, of Claudius\n  Apollinaris. In this case we have the alternative of abandoning the\n  identification of this Avircius with the Hierapolitan bishop of the\n  same name, or of rejecting the statement of the Acts which places his\n  episcopate in this reign.\n\n  The occurrence of the name Abercius in the later history of the see of\n  Hierapolis (see p. 55) is no argument against the existence of this\n  earlier bishop. It was no uncommon practice for the later occupants of\n  sees to assume the name of some famous predecessor who lived in\n  primitive or early times. The case of Ignatius at Antioch is only one\n  of several examples which might be produced.\n\n  There is some ground for supposing that, like Papias and Apollinaris,\n  Abercius earned a place in literary history. Baronio had in his hands\n  an epistle to M. Aurelius, purporting to have been written by this\n  Abercius, which he obviously considered genuine and which he describes\n  as 'apostolicum redolens spiritum,' promising to publish it in his\n  Annals (_Martyr. Rom._ Oct. 22). To his great grief however he\n  afterwards lost it ('doluimus vehementer e manibus nostris elapsam\n  nescio quomodo'), and was therefore unable to fulfil his promise\n  (_Annal._ s. a. 163, n. 15). A \u03b2\u03af\u03b2\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03b1\u03c3\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 by Abercius is\n  mentioned in the Acts (\u00a7 39); but this, if it ever existed, was\n  doubtless spurious.\n\n[Sidenote: CLAUDIUS APOLLINARIS bishop of Hierapolis.]\n\nThe literary character of the see of Hierapolis, which had been\ninaugurated by Papias, was ably sustained by CLAUDIUS APOLLINARIS. His\nsurname, which seems to have been common in these parts[173], may have\nbeen derived from the patron deity of Hierapolis[174] and suggests a\nGentile origin. His intimate acquaintance with heathen literature, which\nis mentioned by more than one ancient writer, points in the same\ndirection. During the reign of M. Aurelius he had already made himself a\nname by his writings, and seems to have been promoted to the see of\nHierapolis before the death of that emperor[175].\n\nFootnote 173:\n\n  Some of the family, as we may infer from the monuments, held a high\n  position in another Phrygian town. On a tablet at \u00c6zani, on which is\n  inscribed a letter from the emperor Septimius Severus in reply to the\n  congratulations of the people at the elevation of Caracalla to the\n  rank of Augustus (A.D. 198), we find the name of ==\u03ba\u03bb\u03b1\u03c5\u03b4\u03b9\u03bf\u03f2 .\n  \u03b1\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03f2 . \u03b1\u03c5\u03c1\u03b7\u03bb\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03f2==, Boeckh 3837 (see III. p. 1066 add.). In\n  another inscription at the same place, the same or another member of\n  the family is commemorated as holding the office of pr\u00e6tor for the\n  second time, ==\u03f2\u03c4\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03b7\u03b3\u03bf\u03c5\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03f2 . \u03c4\u03bf . \u03b2 . \u03ba\u03bb . \u03b1\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c5==; Boeckh\n  3840, _ib._ p. 1067. See also the inscriptions 3842 c, 3846 z (_ib._\n  pp. 1069, 1078) at the same place, where again the name Apollinarius\n  occurs. It is found also at Appia no. 3857 b (_ib._ p. 1086). At an\n  earlier date one Claudius Apollinaris appears in command of the Roman\n  fleet at Misenum (Tac. _Hist._ iii. 57, 76, 77). The name occurs also\n  at Hierapolis itself, Boeckh, no. 3915. ==\u03c0 . \u03b1\u03b9\u03bb\u03b9\u03bf\u03f2 . \u03c0 . \u03b1\u03b9\u03bb\u03b9\u03bf\u03c5 .\n  \u03b1\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c5 . \u03b9\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf[\u03c5] . \u03c5\u03b9\u03bf\u03f2 . \u03f2\u03b5[...] . \u03b1\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03f2 . \u03bc\u03b1\u03ba\u03b5\u03b4\u03c9\u03bd\n  .== \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., which shows that both the forms, _Apollinaris_ and\n  _Apollinarius_, by which the bishop of Hierapolis is designated, are\n  legitimate. The former however is the correct Latin form, the latter\n  being the Greek adaptation.\n\n  More than a generation later than our Apollinaris, Origen in his\n  letter to Africanus (_Op._ I. 30, Delarue) sends greeting to a bishop\n  bearing this name (\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u1f78\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03c0\u03b1\u03bd \u1f08\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd), of whom nothing\n  more is known.\n\nFootnote 174:\n\n  Apollo Archegetes; see above p. 12, note 42.\n\nFootnote 175:\n\n  Euseb. _H.E._ iv. 26, _Chron._ s. a. 171, 172, 'Apollinaris Asianus,\n  Hierapolitanus episcopus, insignis habetur.'\n\n[Sidenote: His literary works.]\n\nOf his works, which were very numerous, only a few scanty fragments have\nsurvived[176]. The imperfect lists however, which have reached us, bear\nample testimony both to the literary activity of the man, and to the\nprominence of the Church, over which he presided, in the great\ntheological and ecclesiastical controversies of the age.\n\nFootnote 176:\n\n  Collected in Routh's _Reliqui\u00e6 Sacr\u00e6_ I. p. 159 sq., and quite\n  recently in Otto's _Corp. Apol. Christ._ IX. p. 479 sq.\n\n[Sidenote: He takes part in the two chief controversies of the day.]\n\nThe two questions, which especially agitated the Churches of Asia Minor\nduring the last thirty years of the first century, were the celebration\nof the Easter festival and the pretensions of the Montanist prophets. In\nboth disputes Claudius Apollinaris took an active and conspicuous part.\n\n[Sidenote: 1. The Paschal question.]\n\n1. The Paschal controversy, after smouldering long both here and\nelsewhere, first burst into flames in the neighbouring Church of\nLaodicea[178]. An able bishop of Hierapolis therefore must necessarily\nhave been involved in the dispute, even if he had been desirous of\navoiding it. What side Apollinaris took in the controversy the extant\nfragments of his work do not by themselves enable us to decide; for they\ndeal merely with a subsidiary question which does not seriously affect\nthe main issue[179]. But we can hardly doubt that with Polycarp of\nSmyrna and Melito of Sardis and Polycrates of Ephesus he defended the\npractice which was universal in Asia[180], observing the Paschal\nanniversary on the 14th Nisan whether it fell on a Friday or not, and\ninvoking the authority of St John at Ephesus, and of St Philip at his\nown Hierapolis[181], against the divergent usage of Alexandria and\nPalestine and the West.\n\nFootnote 178:\n\n  See below, p. 63.\n\nFootnote 179:\n\n  The main point at issue was whether the exact day of the month should\n  be observed, as the Quartodecimans maintained, irrespective of the day\n  of the week. The fragment of Apollinaris (preserved in the _Chron.\n  Pasch._ p. 13) relates to a discrepancy which some had found in the\n  accounts of St Matthew and St John.\n\nFootnote 180:\n\n  Eusebius represents the dioceses of 'Asia' and the neighbourhood, as\n  absolutely unanimous; _H.E._ v. 23 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u0391\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f01\u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f31 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03af\u03b1\u03b9, v.\n  24 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u0391\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u1f05\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f41\u03bc\u03cc\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03ba\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03af\u03b1\u03c2. 'Asia'\n  includes all this district, as appears from Polycrates, _ib._\n\nFootnote 181:\n\n  See Polycrates of Ephesus in Euseb. _H.E._ v. 24.\n\n[Sidenote: 2. Montanism.]\n\n2. His writings on the Montanist controversy were still more famous, and\nare recommended as an authority on the subject by Serapion of Antioch a\nfew years after the author's death[182]. Though later than many of his\nworks[183], they were written soon after Montanus had divulged the\nextravagance of his pretensions and before Montanism had attained its\ncomplete development. If a later notice may be trusted, Apollinaris was\nnot satisfied with attacking Montanism in writing, but summoned at\nHierapolis a council of twenty-six bishops besides himself, where this\nheresy was condemned and sentence of excommunication pronounced against\nMontanus together with his adherent the pretended prophetess\nMaximilla[184].\n\nFootnote 182:\n\n  In Euseb. _H.E._ v. 19.\n\nFootnote 183:\n\n  Eusebius (_H.E._ iv. 27) at the close of his list of the works of\n  Apollinarius gives \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 _\u1f03 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c4\u03b1_ \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03ad\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c8\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 [\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd]\n  \u03a6\u03c1\u03c5\u03b3\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b1\u1f31\u03c1\u03ad\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4' \u03bf\u1f50 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u1f7a\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c4\u03bf\u03bc\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u03c7\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd, \u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5 \u03b3\u03b5 \u03bc\u1f74\u03bd\n  \u1f65\u03c3\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u1f10\u03ba\u03c6\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03c2, \u1f14\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u039c\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f05\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n  \u03c8\u03b5\u03c5\u03b4\u03bf\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03ae\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1f70\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c0\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u03c5\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5, _i.e._ the vagaries\n  of Montanus and his followers had already begun when Apollinaris\n  wrote, but Montanism assumed a new phase shortly after.\n\nFootnote 184:\n\n  Included in the _Libellus Synodicus_ published by Pappus; see Labb.\n  _Conc._ I. 615, ed. Coleti. Though this council is not mentioned\n  elsewhere, there is no sufficient ground for questioning its\n  authenticity. The important part taken by Apollinaris against the\n  Montanists is recognised by Eusebius _H.E._ v. 16, \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03bb\u03b5\u03b3\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd\n  \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03a6\u03c1\u03cd\u03b3\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f05\u03b9\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f45\u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u1f30\u03c3\u03c7\u03c5\u03c1\u1f78\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b3\u03ce\u03bd\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f39\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2\n  \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f08\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd.\n\n  After mentioning the council the compiler of this Synodicon speaks\n  thus of the false prophets; \u03bf\u1f33 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b2\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c6\u03ae\u03bc\u03c9\u03c2, \u1f24\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b4\u03b1\u03b9\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u1ff6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2, \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03ce\u03c2\n  \u03c6\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f41 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1 [_i.e._ \u1f08\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2], \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b2\u03af\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03b5\u03c8\u03b1\u03bd, \u03c3\u1f7a\u03bd\n  \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03ad\u03ba\u03c1\u03b9\u03bd\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u0398\u03b5\u03cc\u03b4\u03bf\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c3\u03ba\u03c5\u03c4\u03ad\u03b1. He evidently has before\n  him the fragments of the anonymous treatises quoted by Eusebius\n  (_H.E._ v. 16), as the following parallels taken from these fragments\n  shew: \u1f61\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03bf\u03c5\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u1ff3 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 _\u03b4\u03b1\u03b9\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u1ff6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9_ ... _\u03b2\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c6\u03b7\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd_\n  \u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03ac\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f00\u03c0\u03b7\u03c5\u03b8\u03b1\u03b4\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 ... _\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b2\u03b9\u1f78\u03bd\n  \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03ad\u03c8\u03b1\u03b9_ \u1f38\u03bf\u03cd\u03b4\u03b1 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03b4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b4\u03af\u03ba\u03b7\u03bd ... \u03bf\u1f36\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c0\u03cc\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b1\n  _\u0398\u03b5\u03cc\u03b4\u03bf\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd_ \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f31\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 ... \u03c4\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03c5\u03c4\u03ae\u03ba\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9 \u039c\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n  _\u0398\u03b5\u03cc\u03b4\u03bf\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2_ \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f21 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7 \u03b3\u03c5\u03bd\u03ae. Thus he must have had before\n  him a text of Eusebius which omitted the words \u03b4\u03ae \u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 at the\n  commencement, as they are omitted in some existing MSS (see above, p.\n  56, note); and accordingly he ascribed all the treatises to\n  Apollinaris. The parallels are taken from the first and second\n  treatises; the first might have been written by Apollinaris, but the\n  second was certainly not by his hand, as it refers to much later\n  events (see above, p. 56).\n\n  Hefele (_Conciliengeschichte_ I. p. 71) places the date of this\n  council before A.D. 150. But if the testimony of Eusebius is worth\n  anything, this is impossible; for he states that the writings of\n  Claudius Apollinaris against the Montanists were later than his\n  Apology to M. Aurelius (see p. 59, note 183), and this Apology was not\n  written till after A.D. 174 (see p. 61, note 187). The chronology of\n  Montanism is very perplexing, but Hefele's dates appear to be much too\n  early. The _Chronicon_ of Eusebius gives the rise of Montanism under\n  A.D. 172 or 173, and this statement is consistent with the notices in\n  his History. But if this date be correct, it most probably refers to\n  Montanism as a distinct system; and the fires had probably been\n  smouldering within the Church for some time before they broke out.\n\n  It will be observed that the writer of the Synodicon identifies\n  Theodotus the Montanist (see Euseb. _H.E._ v. 3) with Theodotus the\n  leather-seller who was a Monarchian. There is no authority for this\n  identification in Eusebius.\n\n[Sidenote: His other h\u00e6resiological writings.]\n\nNor were his controversial writings confined to these two topics. In one\nplace he refuted the Encratites[185]; in another he upheld the orthodox\nteaching respecting the true humanity of Christ[186]. It is plain that\nhe did not confine himself to questions especially affecting Asia Minor;\nbut that the doctrine and the practice of the Church generally found in\nhim a vigorous advocate, who was equally opposed to the novelties of\nheretical teaching and the rigours of overstrained asceticism.\n\nFootnote 185:\n\n  Theodoret. _H.E._ i. 21.\n\nFootnote 186:\n\n  Socr. _H.E._ iii. 7.\n\nNor again did Apollinaris restrict himself to controversies carried on\nbetween Christian and Christian. He appears alike as the champion of the\nGospel against attacks from without, and as the promoter of Christian\nlife and devotion within the pale of the Church. [Sidenote: His\napologetic] On the one hand he was the author of an apology addressed to\nM. Aurelius[187], of a controversial treatise in five books against the\nGreeks, and of a second in two books against the Jews[188]; on the other\nwe find mentioned among his [Sidenote: and didactic works.] writings a\nwork in two books _on Truth_, and a second _on Piety_, besides several\nof which the titles have not come down to us[189]. He seems indeed to\nhave written on almost every subject which interested the Church of his\nage. He was not only well versed in the Scriptures, but showed a wide\nacquaintance with secular literature also[190]. His style is praised by\na competent judge[191], and his orthodoxy was such as to satisfy the\ndogmatic precision of the post-Nicene age[192].\n\nFootnote 187:\n\n  Euseb. _H.E._ iv. 26, 27. He referred in this Apology to the incident\n  of the so-called Thundering Legion, which happened A.D. 174; and as\n  reported by Eusebius (_H.E._ v. 5), he stated that the legion was thus\n  named by the emperor in commemoration of this miraculous thunderstorm.\n  As a contemporary however, he must probably have known that the title\n  _Legio Fulminata_ existed long before; and we may conjecture that he\n  used some ambiguous expression implying that it was fitly so named\n  (_e.g._ \u1f10\u03c0\u03ce\u03bd\u03c5\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03c4\u03c5\u03c7\u03af\u03b1\u03c2), which Eusebius and later writers\n  misunderstood; just as Eusebius himself (v. 24) speaks of Iren\u00e6us as\n  \u03c6\u03b5\u03c1\u03ce\u03bd\u03c5\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f62\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b7\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u1fb3 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c4\u03c1\u03cc\u03c0\u1ff3 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c1\u03b7\u03bd\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03bf\u03c2. Of the\n  words used by Eusebius, \u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b3\u03b5\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03cc\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03ad\u03c9\u03c2\n  \u03b5\u1f30\u03bb\u03b7\u03c6\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b7\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03bd, we may suspect that \u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b3\u03b5\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03cc\u03c4\u03b9\n  \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b7\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03bd is an expression borrowed from Apollinaris himself, while\n  \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03ad\u03c9\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03bb\u03b7\u03c6\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 gives Eusebius' own erroneous\n  interpretation of his author's meaning.\n\n  The name of this legion was _Fulminata_, not _Fulminatrix_, as it is\n  often carelessly written out, where the inscriptions have merely\n  FVLM.; see Becker and Marquardt _R\u00f6m. Alterth._ III. 2, p. 353.\n\nFootnote 188:\n\n  The words \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f38\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u1ff6\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b5\u03cd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd are omitted in some\n  MSS and by Rufinus. They are found however in the very ancient Syriac\n  version, and are doubtless genuine. Their omission is due to the\n  hom\u0153oteleuton, as they are immediately preceded by \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76\n  \u1f00\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u1ff6\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b5\u03cd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd.\n\nFootnote 189:\n\n  A list of his works is given by Eusebius (_H.E._ iv. 27), who explains\n  that there were many others which he had not seen. This list omits the\n  work on the Paschal Feast, which is quoted in the _Chronicon Paschale_\n  p. 13 (ed. Dind.), and the treatise _on Piety_, of which we know from\n  Photius _Bibl._ 14.\n\nFootnote 190:\n\n  Theodoret. _H\u00e6r. Fab._ iii. 2 \u1f00\u03bd\u1f74\u03c1 \u1f00\u03be\u03b9\u1f72\u03c0\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03b3\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd\n  \u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f14\u03be\u03c9\u03b8\u03b5\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03b9\u03b4\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03bb\u03b7\u03c6\u03ce\u03c2. So too Jerome, _Ep._ 70 (I.\n  p. 428, ed. Vallarsi), names him among those who were equally versed\n  in sacred and profane literature.\n\nFootnote 191:\n\n  Photius l.c., \u1f00\u03be\u03b9\u03cc\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f41 \u1f00\u03bd\u1f74\u03c1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c6\u03c1\u03ac\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u1f00\u03be\u03b9\u03bf\u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u1ff3 \u03ba\u03b5\u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2.\n\nFootnote 192:\n\n  Euseb. _H.E._ iv. 21, Jerome l.c., Theodoret. l.c., Socr. _H.E._ iii.\n  7.\n\n[Sidenote: Important bearing of these facts on the history of\n           Christianity.]\n\nThese facts are not unimportant in their bearing on the question which\nhas been already discussed in relation to Papias. If there had been such\na discontinuity of doctrine and practice in the Church of Hierapolis as\nthe theory in question assumes, if the Pauline Gospel was repudiated in\nthe later years of the first century and rank Judaism adopted in its\nstead, how can we explain the position of Apollinaris? Obviously a\ncounter-revolution must have taken place, which undid the effects of the\nformer. One dislocation must have been compensated by another. And yet\nIren\u00e6us knows nothing of these religious convulsions which must have\nshaken the doctrine of the Church to its foundations, but represents the\ntradition as one, continuous, unbroken, reaching back through the elders\nof the Asiatic Churches, through Papias and Polycarp, to St John\nhimself\u2014Iren\u00e6us who received his Christian education in Asia Minor, who\nthroughout life was in communication with the churches there, and who\nhad already reached middle age when this second revolution is supposed\nto have occurred. The demands on our credulity, which this theory makes,\nare enormous. And its improbability becomes only the more glaring, as we\nextend our view.[Sidenote: Solidarity of the Church in the second\ncentury.] For the _solidarity_ of the Church is the one striking fact\nunmistakably revealed to us, as here and there the veil which shrouds\nthe history of the second century is lifted. Anicetus and Soter and\nEleutherus and Victor at Rome, Pant\u00e6nus and Clement at Alexandria,\nPolycrates at Ephesus, Papias and Apollinaris at Hierapolis, Polycarp at\nSmyrna, Melito at Sardis, Ignatius and Serapion at Antioch, Primus and\nDionysius at Corinth, Pothinus and Iren\u00e6us in Gaul, Philippus and\nPinytus in Crete, Hegesippus and Narcissus in Palestine, all are bound\ntogether by the ties of a common organization and the sympathy of a\ncommon creed. The Paschal controversy is especially valuable, as showing\nthe limits of divergence consistent with the unity of the Church. The\nstudy of this controversy teaches us to appreciate with ever increasing\nforce the pregnant saying of Iren\u00e6us that the difference of the usage\nestablishes the harmony of the faith[193].\n\nFootnote 193:\n\n  Iren. in Euseb. _H.E._ v. 24 \u1f21 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c6\u03c9\u03bd\u03af\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 (the fast which\n  preceded the Paschal festival) \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f41\u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9.\n\n[Sidenote: Activity of Laodicea.]\n\nThough Laodicea cannot show the same intellectual activity as Hierapolis\nduring the second century, yet in practical energy she is not wanting.\n\n[Sidenote: Martyrdom of Sagaris. c. A.D. 165.]\n\nThe same persecution, which, permitted if not encouraged by the imperial\nStoic, was fatal to Polycarp at Smyrna, deprived Laodicea also of her\nbishop Sagaris[194]. The exact year in which he fell a martyr is not\nknown; but we can hardly be wrong in assuming that his death was nearly\ncoincident with those of Polycarp and his companions. His name appears\nto have been held in great honour[195].\n\nFootnote 194:\n\n  Melito in Euseb. _H.E._ iv. 26 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03a3\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03b9\u03bb\u03bb\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u03a0\u03b1\u03cd\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c5\u03c0\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2\n  \u1f08\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, \u1fa7 \u03a3\u03ac\u03b3\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u1ff7 \u1f10\u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03cd\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd, \u1f10\u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf \u03b6\u03ae\u03c4\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u1f74 \u1f10\u03bd \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u1fb3\n  \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03c7\u03b1 \u1f10\u03bc\u03c0\u03b5\u03c3\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u1f78\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n  \u1f10\u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03c6\u03b7 \u03c4\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c4\u03b1 (_i.e._ Melito's own treatise on the Paschal festival).\n\nFootnote 195:\n\n  Besides Melito (l.c.), Polycrates of Ephesus refers to him with\n  respect; Euseb. _H.E._ v. 24, \u03c4\u1f76 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03b4\u03b5\u1fd6 \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03a3\u03ac\u03b3\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n  \u03bc\u03ac\u03c1\u03c4\u03c5\u03c1\u03b1, \u1f45\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u1fb3 \u03ba\u03b5\u03ba\u03bf\u03af\u03bc\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9.\n\n[Sidenote: Outbreak of the Paschal controversy.]\n\nBut while the Church of Laodicea was thus contending against foes\nwithout, she was also torn asunder by feuds within. Coincident with the\nmartyrdom of Sagaris was the outburst of the Paschal controversy, of\nwhich mention has been already made, and which for more than a century\nand a half disturbed the peace of the Church, until it was finally laid\nat rest by the Council of Nic\u00e6a. The Laodiceans would naturally regulate\ntheir festival by the Asiatic or Quartodeciman usage, strictly observing\nthe day of the month and disregarding the day of the week. But a great\ncommercial centre like Laodicea must have attracted large crowds of\nforeign Christians from Palestine or Egypt or Rome or Gaul, who were\naccustomed to commemorate the Passion always on a Friday and the\nResurrection on a Sunday according to the western practice; and in this\nway probably the dispute arose. The treatise _on the Paschal Festival_\nby Melito of Sardis was written on this occasion to defend the Asiatic\npractice. The fact that Laodicea became the head-quarters of the\ncontroversy is a speaking testimony to the prominence of this Church in\nthe latter half of the second century.\n\n[Sidenote: Hierapolis and Laodicea in later history.]\n\nAt a later date the influence of both Hierapolis and Laodicea has\nsensibly declined. In the great controversies of the fourth s and fifth\ncenturies they take no conspicuous part. Among their bishops there is\nnot one who has left his mark on history. And yet their names appear at\nmost of the great Councils, in which they bear a silent part. [Sidenote:\nThe _Arian_ heresy. NIC\u00c6A A.D. 325.]At Nic\u00e6a Hierapolis was represented\nby Flaccus[196], Laodicea by Nunechius[197]. They both acquiesced in its\ndecrees, and the latter as metropolitan published them throughout the\nPhrygian Churches[198]. Soon after, both sees lapsed into Arianism.\n[Sidenote: Philippopolis A.D. 347.] At the synod of Philippopolis,\ncomposed of bishops who had seceded from the Council of Sardica, the\nrepresentatives of these two sees were present and joined in the\ncondemnation of the Athanasians. On this occasion Hierapolis was still\nrepresented by Flaccus, who had thus turned traitor to his former\nfaith[199]. On the other hand Laodicea had changed its bishop twice\nmeanwhile. Cecropius had won the imperial favour by his abuse of the\northodox party, and was first promoted to Laodicea, whence he was\ntranslated to Nicomedia[200]. He was succeeded by Nonnius, who signed\nthe Arian decree at Philippopolis[201]. When these sees recovered their\northodoxy we [Sidenote: CONSTANTINOPLE. A.D. 381.]] do not know; but it\nis perhaps a significant fact, that neither is represented at the second\ngeneral Council, held at Constantinople [Sidenote: The _Nestorian_ and\n_Eutychian_ heresies. EPHESUS. A.D. 431.] (A.D. 381)[202]. At the third\ngeneral Council, which met at Ephesus, Laodicea is represented by\nAristonicus, Hierapolis by Venantius[203]. Both bishops sign the decrees\ncondemning Nestorius. Again in the next Christological controversy which\nagitated the Church the two sees bear their part. At the notorious\n[Sidenote: Latrocinium. A.D. 449.] Robbers' Synod, held also at Ephesus,\nLaodicea was represented by another Nunechius, Hierapolis by Stephanus.\nBoth bishops committed themselves to the policy of Dioscorus and the\nopinions of the heretic Eutyches[204]. Yet with the fickleness which\ncharacterized these sees at an earlier date during the Arian\ncontroversy, we find their representatives two years [Sidenote:\nCHALCEDON. A.D. 451.] later at the Council of Chalcedon siding with the\northodox party and condemning the Eutychian heresy which they had so\nlately supported[205]. Nunechius is still bishop of Laodicea, and\nreverses his former vote. Stephanus has been succeeded at Hierapolis by\nAbercius, whose orthodoxy, so far as we know, had not been compromised\nby any previous expression of opinion[206].\n\nFootnote 196:\n\n  Labb. _Conc._ II. 57, 62, ed. Coleti; Cowper's _Syriac Miscellanies_\n  p. 11, 28. It is remarkable that after Papias all the early bishops of\n  Hierapolis of whom any notice is preserved, have Roman names; Avircius\n  Marcellus (?), Claudius Apollinaris, Flaccus, Lucius, Venantius.\n\nFootnote 197:\n\n  Labb. _Conc._ II. 57, 62; Cowper's _Syriac Miscellanies_ pp. 11, 28,\n  34. He had also been present at the Synod of Ancyra held about A.D.\n  314 (see _Galatians_ p. 34); _ib._ p. 41.\n\nFootnote 198:\n\n  Labb. _Conc._ II. 236.\n\nFootnote 199:\n\n  _ib._ 744.\n\nFootnote 200:\n\n  Athanas. _ad Episc. \u00c6gypt._ 8 (_Op._ I. p. 219), _Hist. Arian. ad\n  Mon._ 74 (_ib._ p. 307).\n\nFootnote 201:\n\n  Labb. _Conc._ II. 744.\n\nFootnote 202:\n\n  Cowper's _Syriac Miscell._ p. 39.\n\nFootnote 203:\n\n  Labb. _Conc._ III. 1085, 1222, Mans. _Conc._ IV. 1367. The name of\n  this bishop of Hierapolis is variously written, but Venantius seems to\n  be the true orthography. For some unexplained reason, though present\n  in person he signs by deputy. He had before subscribed the protest to\n  Cyril against commencing the proceedings before the arrival of John of\n  Antioch (Mans. _Conc._ V. 767), and perhaps his acquiescence in the\n  decisions of the Council was not very hearty.\n\nFootnote 204:\n\n  Labb. _Conc._ IV. 892, 925, 928, 1107, 1170, 1171, 1185. In the Acts\n  of this heretical council, as occasionally in those of the Council of\n  Chalcedon, Laodicea is surnamed _Trimitaria_ (see above, p. 18, note\n  2). Following Le Quien (_Or. Christ._ I. p. 835), I have assumed the\n  Stephanus who was present at the _Latrocinium_ to have been bishop of\n  the _Phrygian_ Hierapolis, though I have not found any decisive\n  indication which Hierapolis is meant. On the other hand the bishop of\n  the _Syrian_ Hierapolis at this time certainly bore the name Stephanus\n  (Labb. _Conc._ IV. 727, 1506, [1550], 1644, 1836, V. 46); and the\n  synod held under Stephanus A.D. 445, which Wiltsch (_Geography and\n  Statistics of the Church_ I. p. 170, Eng. Trans.) assigns to our\n  Hierapolis, belongs to the Syrian city of the same name, as the\n  connexion with Perrha shews: Labb. _Conc._ IV. 727, 1644.\n\nFootnote 205:\n\n  Labb. _Conc._ IV. 853, 862, 1195, 1204, 1241, 1312, 1337, 1383, 1392,\n  1444, 1445, 1463, 1480, 1481, 1496, 1501, 1505, 1716, 1732, 1736,\n  1744, 1746, 1751.\n\nFootnote 206:\n\n  The bishops of both sees are addressed by the Emperor Leo in his\n  letter respecting the Council of Chalcedon: but their replies are not\n  preserved. Nunechius is still bishop of Laodicea; but Hierapolis has\n  again changed hands, and Philippus has succeeded Abercius (Labb.\n  _Conc._ IV. 1836 sq.). Nunechius of Laodicea was one of those who\n  signed the decree against simony at the Council of Constantinople\n  (A.D. 459): _Conc._ V. 50.\n\n[Sidenote: Later vacillation of these sees.]\n\nThe history of these churches at a later date is such as might have been\nanticipated from their attitude during the period of the first Four\nGeneral Councils. The sees of Laodicea and Hierapolis, one or both, are\nrepresented at all the more important assemblies of the Church; and the\nsame vacillation and infirmity of purpose, which had characterized their\nholders in the earlier councils, marks the proceedings of their later\nsuccessors[207].\n\nFootnote 207:\n\n  See for instance the tergiversation of Theodorus of Laodicea and\n  Ignatius of Hierapolis in the matter of Photius and the 8th General\n  Council.\n\n[Sidenote: Their comparative unimportance.]\n\nBut, though the two sees thus continue to bear witness to their\nexistence by the repeated presence of their occupants at councils and\nsynods, yet the real influence of Laodicea and Hierapolis on the Church\nat large has terminated with the close of the second century. On one\noccasion only did either [Sidenote: COUNCIL OF LAODICEA an exception.]\ncommunity assume a position of prominence. About the middle of the\nfourth century a council was held at Laodicea[208]. It [Sidenote: Its\ndecree on the Canon.] was convened more especially to settle some points\nof ecclesiastical discipline; but incidentally the assembled bishops\nwere led to make an order respecting the Canon of Scripture[209]. As\nthis was the first occasion in which the subject had been brought\nformally before the notice of an ecclesiastical assembly this Council of\nLaodicea secured a notoriety which it would not otherwise have obtained,\nand to which it was hardly entitled by its constitution or its\nproceedings. Its decrees were confirmed and adopted by later councils\nboth in the East and in the West[210].\n\nFootnote 208:\n\n  This council cannot have been held earlier than the year 344, as the\n  7th canon makes mention of the Photinians, and Photinus did not\n  attract notice before that year: see Hefele, _Conciliengesch._ I. p.\n  722 sq. In the ancient lists of Councils it stands after that of\n  Antioch (A.D. 341), and before that of Constantinople (A.D. 381). Dr\n  Westcott (_History of the Canon_, p. 400) is inclined to place it\n  about A.D. 363, and this is the time very generally adopted.\n\n  Here however a difficulty presents itself, which has not been noticed\n  hitherto. In the Syriac MS _Brit. Mus._ Add. 14,528, are lists of the\n  bishops present at the earlier councils, including Laodicea (see\n  Wright's _Catalogue of the Syriac MSS in the British Museum_, DCCCVI,\n  p. 1030 sq.). These lists have been published by Cowper (_Syriac\n  Miscell._ p. 42 sq., _Analecta Nic\u00e6na_ p. 36), who however has\n  transposed the lists of Antioch and Laodicea, so that he ascribes to\n  the Antiochian Synod the names which really belong to the Laodicean.\n  This is determined (as I am informed by Prof. Wright) by the position\n  of the lists.\n\n  The Laodicean list then, which seems to be imperfect, contains twenty\n  names; and, when examined, it yields these results. (1) At least\n  three-fourths of the names can be identified with bishops who sat at\n  Nic\u00e6a, and probably the exceptions would be fewer, if in some cases\n  they had not been obscured by transcription into Syriac and by the\n  errors of copyists. (2) When identified, they are found to belong in\n  almost every instance to C\u0153lesyria, Ph\u0153nicia, Palestine,\n  Cilicia, and Isauria, whereas apparently not one comes from Phrygia,\n  Lydia, or the other western districts of Asia Minor.\n\n  Supposing that this is a genuine Laodicean list, we are led by the\n  first result to place it as near in time as possible to the Council of\n  Nic\u00e6a; and by the second to question whether after all the Syrian\n  Laodicea may not have been meant instead of the Phrygian. On the other\n  hand tradition is unanimous in placing this synod in the Phrygian\n  town, and in this very Syriac MS the heading of the canons begins 'Of\n  the Synod of Laodicea of Phrygia.' On the whole it appears probable\n  that this supposed list of bishops who met at Laodicea belongs to some\n  other Council. The Laodicean Synod seems to have been, as Dr Westcott\n  describes it (l.c.), 'A small gathering of clergy from parts of Lydia\n  and Phrygia.'\n\n  In a large mosaic in the Church at Bethlehem, in which all the more\n  important Councils are represented, we find the following inscription;\n  [\u1f29] \u1f01\u03b3\u03af\u03b1 \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03bf\u03b4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f21 \u1f10\u03bd \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u1fb3 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03a6\u03c1\u03c5\u03b3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u1f72 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03ba\u03cc\u03c0\u03c9\u03bd \u03b3\u03ad\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03bd\n  \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u039c\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u1f78\u03bd \u03ba\u1f72 [\u03c4]\u1f70[\u03c2] \u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03c0\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f11\u03c1\u03ad\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2\u00b7 \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd[\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2] \u1f61\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f31\u03c1\u03b5\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n  \u1f10\u03c7\u03b8\u03c1\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bb\u03b5\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f21 \u1f01\u03b3\u03af\u03b1 \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03bf\u03b4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b5\u03b8\u03b5\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd (Ciampini _de Sacr.\n  \u00c6dif. a Constant. constr._ p. 156; comp. Boeckh _Corp. Inscr._ 8953).\n  From its position we might infer that the synod to which this\n  inscription refers was supposed to have taken place before the Council\n  of Nic\u00e6a; and if so, it may have been one of those Asiatic synods held\n  against Montanism at the end of the second or beginning of the third\n  century. But, inasmuch as no record of any such synod is preserved\n  elsewhere, we must probably refer it to the well-known Council of\n  Laodicea in the fourth century. In this case however the description\n  is not very correct, for though Montanism is incidentally condemned in\n  the eighth canon, yet this condemnation was not the main object of the\n  council and occupies a very subordinate place. The Bethlehem mosaics\n  were completed A.D. 1169: see Boeckh _C. I._ 8736.\n\nFootnote 209:\n\n  The canons of this Council, 59 in number, will be found in Labb.\n  _Conc._ I. 1530 sq., ed. Coleti. The last of these forbids the reading\n  of any but 'the Canonical books of the New and Old Testament.' To this\n  is often appended (sometimes as a 60th canon) a list of the Canonical\n  books; but Dr Westcott has shown that this list is a later addition\n  and does not belong to the original decrees of the council (_Canon_ p.\n  400 sq.).\n\nFootnote 210:\n\n  By the Quinisextine Council (A.D. 692) in the East (Labb. _Conc._ VII.\n  1345), and by the Synod of Aix-la-Chapelle (A.D. 789) in the West\n  (_Conc._ IX. 10 sq.).\n\n[Sidenote: Its decrees illustrate the Epistle to the Colossians.]\n\nMore important however for my special purpose, than the influence of\nthis synod on the Church at large, is the light which its canons throw\non the heretical tendencies of this district, and on the warnings of St\nPaul in the Colossian Epistle. To illustrate this fact it will only be\nnecessary to write out some of these canons at length:\n\n[Sidenote: Col. ii. 14, 16, 17.]\n\n29. 'It is not right for Christians to Judaize and abstain from labour\non the sabbath, but to work on this same day. They should pay respect\nrather to the Lord's day, and, if possible, abstain from labour on it as\nChristians. But if they should be found Judaizers, let them be anathema\nin the sight of Christ.'\n\n[Sidenote: Col. ii. 18.]\n\n35. 'It is not right for Christians to abandon the Church of God and go\naway and invoke angels (\u1f00\u03b3\u03b3\u03ad\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u1f40\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03ac\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd)[211] and hold conventicles\n(\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03ac\u03be\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd); for these things are forbidden. If therefore any one\nis found devoting himself to this secret idolatry, let him be anathema,\nbecause he abandoned our Lord Jesus Christ and went after idolatry.'\n\nFootnote 211:\n\n  Theodoret about a century after the Laodicean Council, commenting on\n  Col. ii. 18, states that this disease (\u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03ac\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2) which St Paul\n  denounces 'long remained in Phrygia and Pisidia.' 'For this reason\n  also,' he adds, 'a synod convened in Laodicea of Phrygia forbad by a\n  decree the offering prayer to angels; and even to the present time\n  oratories of the holy Michael may be seen among them and their\n  neighbours.' See also below p. 71, note 219. A curious inscription,\n  found in the theatre at Miletus (Boeckh _C. I._ 2895), illustrates\n  this tendency. It is an inscription in seven columns, each having a\n  different planetary symbol, and a different permutation of the vowels\n  with the same invocation ==\u03b1\u03b3\u03b9\u03b5 . \u03c6\u03c5\u03bb\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd . \u03c4\u03b7\u03bd . \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd . \u03bc\u03b9\u03bb\u03b7\u03f2\u03b9\u03c9\u03bd .\n  \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9 . \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03f2 . \u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03f2 . \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03f2==, while at the common base is\n  written ==\u03b1\u03c1\u03c7\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9 . \u03c6\u03c5\u03bb\u03b1\u03f2\u03f2\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 . \u03b7 . \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b9\u03f2 . \u03bc\u03b9\u03bb\u03b7\u03f2\u03b9\u03c9\u03bd . \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9 .\n  \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03f2 . \u03bf\u03b9 . \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4...== Boeckh writes, 'Etsi hic titulus Gnosticorum\n  et Basilidianorum commentis prorsus congruus est, tamen potuit ab\n  ethnicis Milesiis scriptus esse; quare nolui eum inter Christianos\n  rejicere, quum pr\u00e6sertim public\u00e6 Milesiorum superstitionis documentum\n  insigne sit.' The idea of the seven h\u03ac\u03b3\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9, combined in the one\n  \u03b1\u03c1\u03c7\u03ac\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2, seems certainly to point to Jewish, if not Christian,\n  influences: Rev. i. 4, iii. 1, iv. 5, v. 6.\n\n36. 'It is not right for priests or clergy to be magicians or enchanters\nor mathematicians or astrologers[212], or to make safe-guards\n(\u03c6\u03c5\u03bb\u03b1\u03ba\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03b1) as they are called, for such things are prisons\n(\u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03c9\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03b1) of their souls[213]: and we have enjoined that they which\nwear them be cast out of the Church.'\n\nFootnote 212:\n\n  Though there is no direct mention of 'magic' in the letter to the\n  Colossians, yet it was a characteristic tendency of this part of Asia:\n  Acts xix. 19, 2 Tim. iii. 8, 13. See the note on Gal. v. 20. The term\n  \u03bc\u03b1\u03b8\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u1f76 is used in this decree in its ordinary sense of\n  astrologers, soothsayers.\n\nFootnote 213:\n\n  A Play on the double sense of \u03c6\u03c5\u03bb\u03b1\u03ba\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd (1) a safeguard or amulet,\n  (2) a guard-house.\n\n37. 'It is not right to receive from Jews or heretics the festive\nofferings which they send about, nor to join in their festivals.'\n\n38. 'It is not right to receive unleavened bread from the Jews or to\nparticipate in their impieties.'\n\nIt is strange, at this late date, to find still lingering in these\nchurches the same readiness to be 'judged in respect of an holiday or a\nnew moon or a sabbath,' with the same tendency to relinquish the hold of\nthe Head and to substitute 'a voluntary humility and worshipping of\nangels,' which three centuries before had called forth the Apostle's\nrebuke and warning in the Epistle to the Colossians.\n\n[Sidenote: Ecclesiastical status of Laodicea and Hierapolis.]\n\nDuring the flourishing period of the Eastern Church, Laodicea appears as\nthe metropolis of the province of Phrygia Pacatiana, counting among its\nsuffragan bishoprics the see of Coloss\u00e6[214]. On the other hand\nHierapolis, though only six miles distant, belonged to the neighbouring\nprovince of Phrygia Salutaris[215], whose metropolis was Synnada, and of\nwhich it was one of the most important sees. The stream of the Lycus\nseems to have formed the boundary line between the two ecclesiastical\nprovinces. At a later date Hierapolis itself was raised to metropolitan\nrank[216].\n\nFootnote 214:\n\n  A list of the bishoprics belonging to this province at the time of the\n  Council of Chalcedon is given, Labb. _Conc._ IV. 1501, 1716.\n\nFootnote 215:\n\n  _Conc._ IV. 1716, 1744.\n\nFootnote 216:\n\n  At the 5th and 6th General Councils (A.D. 553 and A.D. 680) Hierapolis\n  is styled a metropolis (Labb. _Conc._ VI. 220, VII. 1068, 1097, 1117);\n  and in the latter case it is designated metropolis of _Phrygia\n  Pacatiana_, though this same designation is still given to Laodicea.\n  Synnada retains its position as metropolis of _Phrygia Salutaris_.\n\n  From this time forward Hierapolis seems always to hold metropolitan\n  rank. But no notice is preserved of the circumstances under which the\n  change was made. In the _Notiti\u00e6_ it generally occurs twice\u2014first as a\n  suffragan see of Phrygia Salutaris, and secondly as metropolis of\n  another Phrygia Pacatiana (distinct from that which has Laodicea for\n  its metropolis): _Hieroclis Synecdemus et Notiti\u00e6_ (ed. Parthey) Not.\n  1, pp. 56, 57, 69, 73; Not. 3, pp. 114, 124; Not. 7, pp. 152, 161;\n  Not. 8, pp. 164, 176, 180; Not. 9, pp. 193, 197; Not. 10, pp. 212,\n  220. In this latter position it is placed quite out of the proper\n  geographical order, thus showing that its metropolitan jurisdiction\n  was created comparatively late. The number of dioceses in the province\n  is generally given as 9; Nilus _ib._ p. 301. The name of the province\n  is variously corrupted from \u03a0\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd\u1fc6\u03c2, e.g. \u039a\u03b1\u03c0\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd\u1fc6\u03c2, \u039a\u03b1\u03c0\u03c0\u03b1\u03b4\u03bf\u03ba\u03af\u03b1\u03c2.\n  Unless the ecclesiastical position of Hierapolis was altogether\n  anomalous, as a province within a province, its double mention in the\n  _Notiti\u00e6_ must be explained by a confusion of its earlier and later\n  status.\n\n[Sidenote: Obscurity of Coloss\u00e6.]\n\nBut while Laodicea and Hierapolis held the foremost place in the records\nof the early Church, and continued to bear an active, though\ninconspicuous part, in later Christian history, Coloss\u00e6 was from the\nvery first a cipher. The town itself, as we have seen, was already\nwaning in importance, when the Apostle wrote; and its subsequent decline\nseems to have been rapid. Not a single event in Christian history is\nconnected with its name; and its very existence is only rescued from\noblivion, when at long intervals some bishop of Coloss\u00e6 attaches his\nsignature to the decree of an ecclesiastical synod. The city ceased to\nstrike coins in the reign of Gordian (A.D. [Sidenote: It is supplanted\nby Chon\u00e6.] 238\u2013244)[217]. It fell gradually into decay, being supplanted\nby the neighbouring town Chon\u00e6, the modern Chonos, so called from the\nnatural funnels by which the streams here disappear in underground\nchannels formed by the incrustations of travertine[218]. We may\nconjecture also that its ruin was hastened by a renewed assault of its\nancient enemy, the earthquake[219]. It is commonly said that Chon\u00e6 is\nbuilt on the site of the ancient Coloss\u00e6; but the later town stands at\nsome distance from the earlier, as Salisbury does from Old Sarum. The\nepiscopal see necessarily followed the population; though for some time\nafter its removal to the new town the bishop still continued to use the\nolder title, with or without the addition of Chon\u00e6 by way of\nexplanation, till at length the name of this primitive Apostolic Church\npasses wholly out of sight[220].\n\nFootnote 217:\n\n  See Mionnet IV. p. 269, Leake _Numism. Hellen._ p. 45.\n\nFootnote 218:\n\n  Joannes Curopalata p. 686 (ed. Bonn.) \u03c6\u03ae\u03bc\u03b7 ... \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03a4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c1\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2\n  \u1f00\u03c0\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03ad\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b1 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03a7\u03ce\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b9\u03c4\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03b2\u03cc\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd\n  \u03b8\u03b1\u03cd\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03b8\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03ae\u03b3\u03bf\u03c5 \u03bd\u03b1\u1f78\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03bc\u03b1\u03c7\u03b1\u03af\u03c1\u1fb3 ...\n  \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b4\u1f74 \u03c3\u03c7\u03b5\u03c4\u03bb\u03b9\u03ce\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd, \u03bc\u03b7\u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c3\u03ae\u03c1\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u1fa7\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u03bf\u1f31\n  \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c1\u03c1\u03ad\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u03b1\u03bc\u03bf\u1f76 \u1f10\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b5 _\u03c7\u03c9\u03bd\u03b5\u03c5\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9_ \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n  \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03ae\u03b3\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c0\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03b9\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b4\u03b7\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u03c3\u03b7\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f61\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c0\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\n  \u03c4\u1f78 \u1fe5\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bb\u03b9\u1f70\u03bd \u03b5\u1f50\u03b4\u03c1\u03bf\u03bc\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9, \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03c6\u03b5\u03c5\u03b3\u03cc\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9,\n  \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. The 'worship of angels' is curiously connected with the\n  physical features of the country in the legend to which Curopalata\n  refers. The people were in imminent danger from a sudden inundation of\n  the Lycus, when the archangel Michael appeared and opened a chasm in\n  the earth through which the waters flowed away harmlessly: Hartley's\n  _Researches in Greece_ p. 53. See another legend, or another version\n  of the legend, in which the archangel interposes, in Laborde p. 103.\n\n  It was the birth-place of Nicetas Choniates, one of the most important\n  of the Byzantine historians, who thus speaks of it (_de Manuel_ vi. 2,\n  p. 230, ed. Bonn.); \u03a6\u03c1\u03c5\u03b3\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03af\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03b5\u03bb\u03b8\u1f7c\u03bd \u1f00\u03c6\u03b9\u03ba\u03bd\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f10\u03c2\n  \u03a7\u03ce\u03bd\u03b1\u03c2, \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd \u03b5\u1f50\u03b4\u03b1\u03af\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bc\u03b5\u03b3\u03ac\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd, \u03c0\u03ac\u03bb\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03ac\u03c2, \u03c4\u1f72\u03bd \u1f10\u03bc\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n  \u03c3\u03c5\u03b3\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u03ad\u03c9\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03af\u03b4\u03b1, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03b9\u03ba\u1f78\u03bd \u03bd\u03b1\u1f78\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c3\u03b9\u1f7c\u03bd \u03bc\u03b5\u03b3\u03ad\u03b8\u03b5\u03b9 \u03bc\u03ad\u03b3\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd\n  \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03ac\u03bb\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9 \u03ba\u03ac\u03bb\u03bb\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u1f44\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b8\u03b1\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f05\u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f14\u03c1\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.,\n  where a corrupt reading \u03a0\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u1f70\u03c2 for \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u1f70\u03c2 has misled some. It will\n  be remembered that the words \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd \u03b5\u1f50\u03b4\u03b1\u03af\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bc\u03b5\u03b3\u03ac\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd are borrowed\n  from Xenophon's description of Coloss\u00e6 (_Anab._ i. 2. 6): see above,\n  p. 15, note 52.\n\n  He again alludes to his native place, _de Isaac._ ii. 2, pp. 52, 3\n  \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03a6\u03c1\u03cd\u03b3\u03b1\u03c2 \u03bc\u03c5\u03c1\u03b9\u03b1\u03c7\u1ff6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03ba\u03ac\u03ba\u03c9\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd, \u1f65\u03c3\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03a7\u03c9\u03bd\u1ff6\u03bd\n  \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03ae\u03c4\u03bf\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2, and _Urbs Capta_ 16, p. 842, \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f24\u03bd \u1f10\u03bc\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n  \u03c3\u03c5\u03b3\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u03ad\u03c9\u03c2 \u039d\u03b9\u03ba\u03ae\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u1f76\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f31 \u03a7\u1ff6\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f21 \u1f00\u03b3\u03c7\u03b9\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03bc\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u03b1\u03cd\u03c4\u1fc3 \u03a6\u03c1\u03c5\u03b3\u03b9\u03ba\u1f74\n  \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03af\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1.\n\nFootnote 219:\n\n  Thus Hamilton (I. p. 514) reports that an earthquake which occurred at\n  Denizli about a hundred years ago caused the inhabitants to remove\n  their residences to a different locality, where they have remained\n  ever since. Earthquakes have been largely instrumental in changing the\n  sites of cities situated within the range of their influence.\n\nFootnote 220:\n\n  At the Council of Chalcedon (A.D. 451) Nunechius of Laodicea\n  subscribes 'for the absent bishops under him,' among whom is mentioned\n  \u1f18\u03c0\u03b9\u03c6\u03b1\u03bd\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u1ff6\u03bd (Labb. _Conc._ IV. 1501, ed. Coleti; comp.\n  _ib._ 1745). At the Quinisextine Council (A.D. 692) occurs the\n  signature of \u039a\u03bf\u03c3\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fc6\u03c2 (_sic_) \u03a0\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd\u1fc6\u03c2\n  (_Conc._ VII. 1408). At the 2nd Council of Nic\u00e6a (A.D. 787) the name\n  of the see is in a transition state; the bishop Theodosius (or\n  Dositheus) signs himself sometimes \u03a7\u03c9\u03bd\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f24\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9 \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u1ff6\u03bd, sometimes\n  \u03a7\u03c9\u03bd\u1ff6\u03bd simply (_Conc._ VIII. 689, 796, 988, 1200, 1222, 1357, 1378,\n  1432, 1523, 1533, in many of which passages the word \u03a7\u03c9\u03bd\u1ff6\u03bd is grossly\n  corrupted). At later Councils the see is called \u03a7\u1ff6\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9; and this is the\n  name which it bears in the _Notiti\u00e6_ (pp. 97, 127, 199, 222, 303, ed.\n  Parthey).\n\n[Sidenote: Turkish conquest.]\n\nThe Turkish conquest pressed with more than common severity on these\ndistricts. When the day of visitation came, the Church was taken by\nsurprise. Occupied with ignoble quarrels and selfish interests, she had\nno ear for the voice of Him who demanded admission. The door was barred\nand the knock unheeded. The long-impending doom overtook her, and the\ngolden candlestick was removed for ever from the Eternal Presence[221].\n\nFootnote 221:\n\n  For the remains of Christian churches at Laodicea see Fellows _Asia\n  Minor_ p. 282, Pococke p. 74. A description of the three fine churches\n  at Hierapolis is given in Fergusson's _Illustrated Handbook of\n  Architecture_ II. p. 967 sq.; comp. Texier _Asie Mineure_ I. p. 143.\n\n\n\n\n                                  II.\n                         THE COLOSSIAN HERESY.\n\n\n[Sidenote: Two elements in the Colossian heresy.]\n\nFrom the language of St Paul, addressed to the Church of Coloss\u00e6, we may\ninfer the presence of two disturbing elements which threatened the\npurity of Christian faith and practice in this community. These elements\nare distinguishable in themselves, though it does not follow that they\npresent the teaching of two distinct parties.\n\n[Sidenote: 1. JUDAIC.]\n\n1. A mere glance at the epistle suffices to detect the presence of\nJUDAISM in the teaching which the Apostle combats. The observance of\nsabbaths and new moons is decisive in this respect. The distinction of\nmeats and drinks points in the same direction[222]. Even the enforcement\nof the initiatory rite of Judaism may be inferred from the contrast\nimplied in St Paul's recommendation of the spiritual circumcision[223].\n\n[Sidenote: 2. GNOSTIC.]\n\n2. On the other hand a closer examination of its language shows that\nthese Judaic features do not exhaust the portraiture of the heresy or\nheresies against which the epistle is directed. We discern an element of\ntheosophic speculation, which is alien to the spirit of Judaism proper.\nWe are confronted with a shadowy mysticism, which loses itself in the\ncontemplation of the unseen world. We discover a tendency to interpose\ncertain spiritual agencies, intermediate beings, between God and man, as\nthe instruments of communication and the objects of worship[224].\nAnticipating the result which will appear more clearly hereafter, we may\nsay that along with its Judaism there was a GNOSTIC element in the false\nteaching which prevailed at Coloss\u00e6.\n\nFootnote 222:\n\n  Col. ii. 16, 17, 21 sq.\n\nFootnote 223:\n\n  ii. 11.\n\nFootnote 224:\n\n  ii. 4, 8, 18, 23.\n\n[Sidenote: Are these combined or separate?]\n\nHave we then two heresies here, or one only? Were these elements\ndistinct, or were they fused into the same system? In other words, Is St\nPaul controverting a phase of Judaism on the one hand, and a phase of\nGnosticism on the other; or did he find himself in conflict with a\nJud\u00e6o-Gnostic heresy which combined the two[225]?\n\nFootnote 225:\n\n  The Colossian heresy has been made the subject of special\n  dissertations by SCHNECKENBURGER _Beitr\u00e4ge zur Einleitung ins N. T._\n  (Stuttgart 1832), and _Ueber das Alter der j\u00fcdischen Proselyten-Taufe,\n  nebst einer Beilage \u00fcber die Irrlehrer zu Coloss\u00e4_ (Berlin 1828); by\n  OSIANDER _Ueber die Colossischen Irrlehrer_ (_T\u00fcbinger Zeitschrift_\n  for 1834, III. p. 96 sq.); and by RHEINWALD _De Pseudodoctoribus\n  Colossensibus_ (Bonn 1834). But more valuable contributions to the\n  subject will often be found in introductions to the commentaries on\n  the epistle. Those of BLEEK, DAVIES, MEYER, OLSHAUSEN, STEIGER, and DE\n  WETTE may be mentioned. Among other works which may be consulted are\n  BAUR _Der Apostel Paulus_ p. 417 sq.; BOEHMER _Isagoge in Epistolam ad\n  Colossenses_, Berlin 1829, p. 56 sq., p. 277 sq.; BURTON _Inquiry into\n  the Heresies of the Apostolic Age_, Lectures IV, V; EWALD _Die\n  Sendschreiben des Apostels Paulus_ p. 462 sq.; HILGENFELD _Der\n  Gnosticismus u. das Neue Testament_ in the _Zeitschr. f. Wissensch.\n  Theol._ XIII. p. 233 sq.; R. A. LIPSIUS in _Schenkels Bibel-Lexikon_,\n  s.v. Gnosis; MAYERHOFF _Der Brief an die Colosser_ p. 107 sq.; NEANDER\n  _Planting of the Christian Church_ I. p. 319 sq. (Eng. Trans.); DE\n  PRESSENS\u00c9 _Trois Premiers Si\u00e8cles_ II. p. 194 sq.; STORR _Opuscula_\n  II. p. 149 sq.; THIERSCH _Die Kirche im Apostolischen Zeitalter_ p.\n  146 sq. Of all the accounts of these Colossian false teachers, I have\n  found none more satisfactory than that of Neander, whose opinions are\n  followed in the main by the most sober of later writers.\n\n  In the investigation which follows I have assumed that the Colossian\n  false teachers were Christians in some sense. The views maintained by\n  some earlier critics, who regarded them as (1) Jews, or (2) Greek\n  philosophers, or (3) Chaldean magi, have found no favour and do not\n  need serious consideration. See Meyer's introduction for an\n  enumeration of such views. A refutation of them will be found in\n  Bleek's _Vorlesungen_ p. 12 sq.\n\n[Sidenote: General reasons for supposing one heresy only, in which they\n           are fused.]\n\nOn closer examination we find ourselves compelled to adopt the latter\nalternative. The epistle itself contains no hint that the Apostle has\nmore than one set of antagonists in view; and the needless\nmultiplication of persons or events is always to be deprecated in\nhistorical criticism. Nor indeed does the hypothesis of a single complex\nheresy present any real difficulty. If the two elements seem\nirreconcileable, or at least incongruous, at first sight, the\nincongruity disappears on further examination. It will be shown in the\ncourse of this investigation, that some special tendencies of religious\nthought among the Jews themselves before and about this time prepared\nthe way for such a combination in a Christian community like the Church\nof Coloss\u00e6[226]. Moreover we shall find that the Christian heresies of\nthe next succeeding ages exhibit in a more developed form the same\ncomplex type, which here appears in its nascent state[227]; this later\ndevelopment not only showing that the combination was historically\npossible in itself, but likewise presupposing some earlier stage of its\nexistence such as confronts us at Coloss\u00e6.\n\nFootnote 226:\n\n  See below, p. 83 sq.\n\nFootnote 227:\n\n  See below, p. 107 sq.\n\n[Sidenote: S. Paul's language is decisive on this point.]\n\nBut in fact the Apostle's language hardly leaves the question open. The\ntwo elements are so closely interwoven in his refutation, that it is\nimpossible to separate them. He passes backwards and forwards from the\none to the other in such a way as to show that they are only parts of\none complex whole. On this point the logical connexion of the sentences\nis decisive: 'Beware lest any man make spoil of you through philosophy\nand vain deceit after the tradition of men, after the rudiments of the\nworld.... Ye were circumcised with a circumcision not made with\nhands.... And you ... did He quicken, ... blotting out the handwriting\nof ordinances which was against you.... Let no man therefore judge you\nin meat or drink, or in respect of a holy day or a new moon or a\nsabbath.... Let no man beguile you of your prize in a self-imposed\nhumility and service of angels.... If ye died with Christ from the\nrudiments of the world, why ... are ye subject to ordinances ... which\nthings have a show of wisdom in self-imposed service and humility and\nhard treatment of the body, but are of no value against indulgence of\nthe flesh[228].' Here the superior wisdom, the speculative element which\nis characteristic of Gnosticism, and the ritual observance, the\npractical element which was supplied by Judaism, are regarded not only\nas springing from the same stem, but also as intertwined in their\ngrowth. And the more carefully we examine the sequence of the Apostle's\nthoughts, the more intimate will the connexion appear.\n\nFootnote 228:\n\n  Col. ii. 8\u201323. Hilgenfeld (_Der Gnosticismus_ etc. p. 250 sq.)\n  contends strenuously for the separation of the two elements. He argues\n  that 'these two tendencies are related to one another as fire and\n  water, and nothing stands in the way of allowing the author after the\n  first side-glance at the Gnostics to pass over with ver. 11 to the\n  Judaizers, with whom Col. ii. 16 sq. is exclusively concerned.' He\n  supposes therefore that ii. 8\u201310 refers to 'pure Gnostics,' and ii.\n  16\u201323 to 'pure Judaizers.' To this it is sufficient to answer (1)\n  That, if the two elements be so antagonistic, they managed\n  nevertheless to reconcile their differences; for we find them united\n  in several Jud\u00e6o-Gnostic heresies in the first half of the second\n  century, \u03be\u03c5\u03bd\u03ce\u03bc\u03bf\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u03b3\u03ac\u03c1, \u1f44\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f14\u03c7\u03b8\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03c1\u03af\u03bd, \u03c0\u1fe6\u03c1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b8\u03ac\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n  \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4' \u1f10\u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03be\u03ac\u03c4\u03b7\u03bd; (2) That the two passages are directly connected\n  together by \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c7\u03b5\u1fd6\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5, which occurs in both vv. 8, 20;\n  (3) That it is not a simple transition once for all from the Gnostic\n  to the Judaic element, but the epistle passes to and fro several times\n  from the one to the other; while no hint is given that two separate\n  heresies are attacked, but on the contrary the sentences are connected\n  in a logical sequence (e.g. ver. 9 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9, 10 \u1f43\u03c2, 11 \u1f10\u03bd \u1fa7, 12 \u1f10\u03bd \u1fa7, 13\n  \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76, 16 \u03bf\u1f56\u03bd). I hope to make this point clear in my notes on the\n  passage.\n\n  The hypothesis of more than one heresy is maintained also by Heinrichs\n  (Koppe N. T. VII. Part 2, 1803). At an earlier date it seems to be\n  favoured by Grotius (notes on ii. 16, 21); but his language is not\n  very explicit. And earlier still Calvin in his argument to the epistle\n  writes, 'Putant aliqui duo fuisse hominum genera, qui abducere\n  tentarent Colossenses ab evangelii puritate,' but rejects this view as\n  uncalled for.\n\n  The same question is raised with regard to the heretical teachers of\n  the Pastoral Epistles, and should probably be answered in the same\n  way.\n\n[Sidenote: Gnosticism must be defined and described.]\n\nHaving described the speculative element in this complex heresy\nprovisionally as Gnostic, I purpose enquiring in the first place, how\nfar Judaism prior to and independently of Christianity had allied itself\nwith Gnostic modes of thought; and afterwards, whether the description\nof the Colossian heresy is such as to justify us in thus classing it as\na species of Gnosticism. But, as a preliminary to these enquiries, some\ndefinition of the word, or at least some conception of the leading ideas\nwhich it involves, will be necessary. With its complex varieties and\nelaborate developments we have no concern here: for, if Gnosticism can\nbe found at all in the records of the Apostolic age, it will obviously\nappear in a simple and elementary form. Divested of its accessories and\npresented in its barest outline, it is not difficult of\ndelineation[229].\n\nFootnote 229:\n\n  The chief authorities for the history of Gnosticism are NEANDER\n  _Church History_ II. p. 1 sq.; BAUR _Die Christliche Gnosis_\n  (T\u00fcbingen, 1835); MATTER _Histoire Critique du Gnosticisme_ (2nd ed.,\n  Strasbourg and Paris, 1843); R. A. LIPSIUS _Gnosticismus_ in Ersch u.\n  Gruber _s.v._ (Leipzig, 1860); and for Gnostic art, KING _Gnostics and\n  their Remains_ (London 1864).\n\n[Sidenote: 1. Intellectual exclusiveness of Gnosticism.]\n\n1. As the name attests[230], Gnosticism implies the possession of a\nsuperior wisdom, which is hidden from others. It makes a distinction\nbetween the select few who have this higher gift, and the vulgar many\nwho are without it. Faith, blind faith, suffices the latter, while\nknowledge is the exclusive possession of the former. Thus it recognises\na separation of intellectual _caste_ in religion, introducing the\ndistinction of an esoteric and an exoteric doctrine, and interposing an\ninitiation of some kind or other between the two classes. In short it is\nanimated by the exclusive _aristocratic_ spirit[231], which\ndistinguishes the ancient religions, and from which it was a main\nfunction of Christianity to deliver mankind.\n\nFootnote 230:\n\n  See esp. Iren. i. 6. 1 sq., Clem. Alex. Strom. ii. p. 433 sq.\n  (Potter). On the words \u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9, \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03af, by which they designated\n  the possessors of this higher _gnosis_, see the notes on Col. i. 28,\n  and Phil. iii. 15.\n\nFootnote 231:\n\n  See Neander l.c. p. 1 sq., from whom the epithet is borrowed.\n\n[Sidenote: Speculative tenets of Gnosticism.]\n\n2. This was its spirit; and the intellectual questions, on which its\nenergies were concentrated and to which it professed to hold the key,\nwere mainly twofold. How can the work of creation be explained? and, How\nare we to account for the existence of evil[232]? To reconcile the\ncreation of the world and [Sidenote: Creation of the world, and\nexistence of evil.] the existence of evil with the conception of God as\nthe absolute Being, was the problem which all the Gnostic systems set\nthemselves to solve. It will be seen that the two questions cannot be\ntreated independently but have a very close and intimate connexion with\neach other.\n\nFootnote 232:\n\n  The fathers speak of this as the main question about which the\n  Gnostics busy themselves; _Unde malum?_ \u03c0\u03cc\u03b8\u03b5\u03bd \u1f21 \u03ba\u03b1\u03ba\u03af\u03b1; Tertull. _de\n  Pr\u00e6scr._ 7, _adv. Marc._ I. 2, Eus. _H.E._ v. 27; passages quoted by\n  Baur _Christliche Gnosis_ p. 19. On the leading conceptions of\n  Gnosticism see especially Neander, l.c. p. 9 sq.\n\n[Sidenote: Existence of evil, how to be explained?]\n\nThe Gnostic argument ran as follows: Did God create the world out of\nnothing, evolve it from Himself? Then, God being perfectly good and\ncreation having resulted from His sole act without any opposing or\nmodifying influence, evil would have been impossible; for otherwise we\nare driven to the conclusion that God created evil.\n\n[Sidenote: Matter the abode of evil.]\n\nThis solution being rejected as impossible, the Gnostic was obliged to\npostulate some antagonistic principle independent of God, by which His\ncreative energy was thwarted and limited. This opposing principle, the\nkingdom of evil, he conceived to be the world of matter. The precise\nidea of its mode of operation varies in different Gnostic systems. It is\nsometimes regarded as a dead passive resistance, sometimes as a\nturbulent active power. But, though the exact point of view may shift,\nthe object contemplated is always the same. In some way or other evil is\nregarded as residing in the material, sensible world. Thus Gnostic\nspeculation on the existence of evil ends in a dualism.\n\n[Sidenote: Creation, how to be explained?]\n\nThis point being conceded, the ulterior question arises: How then is\ncreation possible? How can the Infinite communicate with the Finite, the\nGood with the Evil? How can God act upon matter? God is perfect,\nabsolute, incomprehensible.\n\nThis, the Gnostic went on to argue, could only have been possible by\nsome self-limitation on the part of God. God must express Himself in\nsome way. There must be some evolution, some effluence, of Deity.\n[Sidenote: Doctrine of emanations.] Thus the Divine Being germinates, as\nit were; and the first germination again evolves a second from itself in\nlike manner. In this way we obtain a series of successive emanations,\nwhich may be more or fewer, as the requirements of any particular system\ndemand. In each successive evolution the Divine element is feebler. They\nsink gradually lower and lower in the scale, as they are farther removed\nfrom their source; until at length contact with matter is possible, and\ncreation ensues. These are the emanations, \u00e6ons, spirits, or angels, of\nGnosticism, conceived as more or less concrete and personal according to\nthe different aspects in which they are regarded in different systems.\n\n[Sidenote: 3. Practical errors of Gnosticism.]\n\n3. Such is the bare outline (and nothing more is needed for my immediate\npurpose) of the speculative views of Gnosticism. But it is obvious that\nthese views must have exerted a powerful influence on the ethical\nsystems of their advocates, and thus they would involve important\npractical consequences. If matter is the principle of evil, it is of\ninfinite moment for a man to know how he can avoid its baneful influence\nand thus keep his higher nature unclogged and unsullied.\n\n[Sidenote: Two opposite ethical rules.]\n\nTo this practical question two directly opposite answers were\ngiven[233]:\n\nFootnote 233:\n\n  On this point see Clem. _Strom._ iii. 5 (p. 529) \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b4\u03cd\u03bf \u03b4\u03b9\u03b5\u03bb\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2\n  \u03c0\u03c1\u03ac\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f01\u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f31\u03c1\u03ad\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03c1\u03b9\u03bd\u03ce\u03bc\u03b5\u03b8\u03b1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2\u00b7 \u1f22 \u03b3\u03ac\u03c1 \u03c4\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c6\u03cc\u03c1\u03c9\u03c2\n  \u03b6\u1fc6\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03ac\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, \u1f22 \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f51\u03c0\u03ad\u03c1\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u1f04\u03b3\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f10\u03b3\u03ba\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03c3\u03b5\u03b2\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n  \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03c7\u03b8\u03b7\u03bc\u03bf\u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b7\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03ad\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9, with the whole passage which follows.\n  As examples of the one extreme may be instanced the Carpocratians and\n  Cainites: of the other the Encratites.\n\n[Sidenote: (i) Rigid asceticism.]\n\n(i) On the one hand, it was contended that the desired end might best be\nattained by a rigorous abstinence. Thus communication with matter, if it\ncould not be entirely avoided, might be reduced to a minimum. Its\ngrosser defilements at all events would be escaped. The material part of\nman would be subdued and mortified, if it could not be annihilated; and\nthe spirit, thus set free, would be sublimated, and rise to its proper\nlevel. Thus the ethics of Gnosticism pointed in the first instance to a\nstrict _asceticism_.\n\n[Sidenote: (ii) Unrestrained license.]\n\n(ii) But obviously the results thus attained are very slight and\ninadequate. Matter is about us everywhere. We do but touch the skirts of\nthe evil, when we endeavour to fence ourselves about by prohibitive\nordinances, as for instance, when we enjoin a spare diet or forbid\nmarriage. Some more comprehensive rule is wanted, which shall apply to\nevery contingency and every moment of our lives. Arguing in this way,\nother Gnostic teachers arrived at an ethical rule directly opposed to\nthe former. 'Cultivate an entire indifference,' they said, 'to the world\nof sense. Do not give it a thought one way or the other, but follow your\nown impulses. The ascetic principle assigns a certain importance to\nmatter. The ascetic fails in consequence to assert his own independence.\nThe true rule of life is to treat matter as something alien to you,\ntowards which you have no duties or obligations and which you can use or\nleave unused as you like[234].' In this way the reaction from rigid\nasceticism led to the opposite extreme of unrestrained _licentiousness_,\nboth alike springing from the same false conception of matter as the\nprinciple of evil.\n\nFootnote 234:\n\n  See for instance the description of the Carpocratians in Iren. i. 25.\n  3 sq., ii. 32. 1 sq., Hippol. _H\u00e6r._ vii. 32, Epiphan. _H\u00e6r._ xxvii. 2\n  sq.; from which passages it appears that they justified their moral\n  profligacy on the principle that the highest perfection consists in\n  the most complete contempt of mundane things.\n\n[Sidenote: Original independence of Gnosticism and its subsequent\n           connexion with Christianity.]\n\nGnosticism, as defined by these characteristic features, has obviously\nno necessary connexion with Christianity[235]. Christianity would\nnaturally arouse it to unwonted activity, by leading men to dwell more\nearnestly on the nature and power of evil, and thus stimulating more\nsystematic thought on the theological questions which had already\narrested attention. After no long time Gnosticism would absorb into its\nsystem more or fewer Christian elements, or Christianity in some of its\nforms would receive a tinge from Gnosticism. But the thing itself had an\nindependent root, and seems to have been prior in time. The\nprobabilities of the case, and the scanty traditions of history, alike\npoint to this independence of the two[236]. If so, it is a matter of\nlittle moment at what precise time the name 'Gnostic' was adopted,\nwhether before or after contact with Christianity; for we are concerned\nonly with the growth and direction of thought which the name\nrepresents[237].\n\nFootnote 235:\n\n  It will be seen from the description in the text, that Gnosticism (as\n  I have defined it) presupposes only a belief in one God, the absolute\n  Being, as against the vulgar polytheism. All its _essential_ features,\n  as a speculative system, may be explained from this simple element of\n  belief, without any intervention of specially Christian or even Jewish\n  doctrine. Christianity added two new elements to it; (1) the idea of\n  _Redemption_, (2) the person of _Christ_. To explain the former, and\n  to find a place for the latter, henceforth become prominent questions\n  which press for solution; and Gnosticism in its several developments\n  undergoes various modifications in the endeavour to solve them.\n  Redemption must be set in some relation to the fundamental Gnostic\n  conception of the antagonism between God and matter; and Christ must\n  have some place found for Him in the fundamental Gnostic doctrine of\n  emanations.\n\n  If it be urged that there is no authority for the name 'Gnostic' as\n  applied to these pre-Christian theosophists, I am not concerned to\n  prove the contrary, as my main position is not affected thereby. The\n  term 'Gnostic' is here used, only because no other is so convenient,\n  or so appropriate. See note 239, p. 81.\n\nFootnote 236:\n\n  This question will require closer investigation when I come to discuss\n  the genuineness of the Epistle to the Colossians. Meanwhile I content\n  myself with referring to Baur _Christliche Gnosis_ p. 29 sq. and\n  Lipsius _Gnosticismus_ p. 230 sq. Both these writers concede, and\n  indeed insist upon, the non-Christian basis of Gnosticism, at least so\n  far as I have maintained it in the text. Thus for instance Baur says\n  (p. 52), 'Though Christian gnosis is the completion of gnosis, yet the\n  Christian element in gnosis is not so essential as that gnosis cannot\n  still be gnosis even without this element. But just as we can abstract\n  it from the Christian element, so can we also go still further and\n  regard even the Jewish as not strictly an essential element of\n  gnosis.' In another work (_Die drei ersten Jahrhunderte_, p. 167, 1st\n  ed.) he expresses himself still more strongly to the same effect, but\n  the expressions are modified in the second edition.\n\nFootnote 237:\n\n  We may perhaps gather from the notices which are preserved that,\n  though the substantive \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 was used with more or less precision\n  even before contact with Christianity to designate the superior\n  illumination of these opinions, the adjective \u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03af was not\n  distinctly applied to those who maintained them till somewhat later.\n  Still it is possible that pre-Christian Gnostics already so designated\n  themselves. Hippolytus speaks of the Naassenes or Ophites as giving\n  themselves this name; _H\u00e6r._ v. 6 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u1f70 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b5\u03ba\u03ac\u03bb\u03b5\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2\n  \u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2, \u03c6\u03ac\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03b2\u03ac\u03b8\u03b7 \u03b3\u03b9\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd; comp. \u00a7\u00a7 8, 11. His\n  language seems to imply (though it is not explicit) that they were the\n  first to adopt the name. The Ophites were plainly among the earliest\n  Gnostic sects, as the heathen element is still predominant in their\n  teaching, and their Christianity seems to have been a later graft on\n  their pagan theosophy; but at what stage in their development they\n  adopted the name \u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03af does not appear. Iren\u00e6us (_H\u00e6r._ i. 25. 6)\n  speaks of the name as affected especially by the Carpocratians. For\n  the use of the substantive \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 see 1 Cor. viii. 1, xiii. 2, 8, 1\n  Tim. vi. 20, and the note on Col. ii. 3: comp. Rev. ii. 24 \u1f44\u03b9\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b5\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba\n  \u1f14\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u1f70 \u03b2\u03b1\u03b8\u03ad\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a3\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u1fb6, \u1f61\u03c2 \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd (as explained by the passage\n  already quoted from Hippol. _H\u00e6r._ v. 6; see _Galatians_, p. 298, note\n  3).\n\n                  *       *       *       *       *\n\n[Sidenote: Its alliance with Judaism before Christianity.]\n\nIf then Gnosticism was not an offspring of Christianity, but a direction\nof religious speculation which existed independently, we are at liberty\nto entertain the question whether it did not form an alliance with\nJudaism, contemporaneously with or prior to its alliance with\nChristianity. There is at least no obstacle which bars such an\ninvestigation at the outset. If this should prove to be the case, then\nwe have a combination which prepares the way for the otherwise strange\nphenomena presented in the Epistle to the Colossians.\n\n[Sidenote: The three sects of the Jews.]\n\nThose, who have sought analogies to the three Jewish sects among the\nphilosophical schools of Greece and Rome, have compared the Sadducees to\nthe Epicureans, the Pharisees to the Stoics, and the Essenes to the\nPythagoreans. Like all historical parallels, this comparison is open to\nmisapprehension: but, carefully guarded, the illustration is pertinent\nand instructive.\n\n[Sidenote: Sadduceeism, purely negative.]\n\nWith the Sadducees we have no concern here. Whatever respect may be due\nto their attitude in the earlier stages of their history, at the\nChristian era at least they have ceased to deserve our sympathy; for\ntheir position has become mainly _negative_. They take their stand on\ndenials\u2014the denial of the existence of angels, the denial of the\nresurrection of the dead, the denial of a progressive development in the\nJewish Church. In these negative tendencies, in the materialistic\nteaching of the sect, and in the moral consequences to which it led, a\nvery rough resemblance to the Epicureans will appear[238].\n\nFootnote 238:\n\n  The name _Epicureans_ seems to be applied to them even in the Talmud;\n  see Eisenmenger's _Entdecktes Judenthum_ i. pp. 95, 694 sq.; comp.\n  Keim _Geschichte Jesu von Nazara_ i. p. 281.\n\n[Sidenote: Phariseeism and Essenism compared.]\n\nThe two _positive_ sects were the Pharisees and the Essenes. Both alike\nwere strict observers of the ritual law; but, while the Pharisee was\nessentially _practical_, the tendency of the Essene was to _mysticism_;\nwhile the Pharisee was a man of the world, the Essene was a member of a\nbrotherhood. In this respect the Stoic and the Pythagorean were the\nnearest counterparts which the history of Greek philosophy and social\nlife could offer. These analogies indeed are suggested by Josephus\nhimself[239].\n\nFootnote 239:\n\n  For the Pharisees see Vit. 2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c3\u03b9\u03cc\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1' \u1f1d\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9 \u03a3\u03c4\u03c9\u03ca\u03ba\u1fc7\n  \u03bb\u03b5\u03b3\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u1fc3: for the Essenes, _Ant._ xv. 10. 4 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03af\u03c4\u1fc3 \u03c7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1'\n  \u1f1d\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 \u03a0\u03c5\u03b8\u03b1\u03b3\u03cc\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b4\u03b5\u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03b3\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u1fc3.\n\n[Sidenote: Elusive features of Essenism.]\n\nWhile the portrait of the Pharisee is distinctly traced and easily\nrecognised, this is not the case with the Essene. The Essene is the\ngreat enigma of Hebrew history. Admired alike by Jew, by Heathen, and by\nChristian, he yet remains a dim vague outline, on which the highest\nsubtlety of successive critics has been employed to supply a substantial\nform and an adequate colouring. An ascetic mystical dreamy recluse, he\nseems too far removed from the hard experience of life to be capable of\nrealisation.\n\n[Sidenote: A sufficiently distinct portrait of the sect attainable.]\n\nAnd yet by careful use of the existing materials the portrait of this\nsect may be so far restored, as to establish with a reasonable amount of\nprobability the point with which alone we are here concerned. It will\nappear from the delineations of ancient writers, more especially of\nPhilo and Josephus, that the characteristic feature of Essenism was a\nparticular direction of mystic speculation, involving a rigid asceticism\nas its practical consequence. Following the definition of Gnosticism\nwhich has been already given, we may not unfitly call this tendency\n_Gnostic_.\n\n[Sidenote: Main features of Essenism.]\n\nHaving anticipated the results in this statement, I shall now endeavour\nto develope the main features of Essenism; and, while doing so, I will\nask my readers to bear in mind the portrait of the Colossian heresy in\nSt Paul, and to mark the resemblances, as the enquiry proceeds[240].\n\nFootnote 240:\n\n   The really important contemporary sources of information respecting\n  the Essenes are JOSEPHUS, _Bell. Jud._ ii. 8. 2\u201313, _Ant._ xiii. 5. 9,\n  xviii. 1. 5, _Vit._ 2 (with notices of individual Essenes _Bell. Jud._\n  i. 3. 5, ii. 7. 3, ii. 20. 4, iii. 2. 1, _Ant._ xiii. 11. 2, xv. 10.\n  4, 5); and PHILO, _Quod omnis probus liber_ \u00a7 12 sq. (II. p. 457 sq.),\n  _Apol. pro Jud._ (II. p. 632 sq., a fragment quoted by Eusebius _Pr\u00e6p.\n  Evang._ viii. 11 ). The account of the Therapeutes by the latter\n  writer, _de Vita Contemplativa_ (II. p. 471 sq.), must also be\n  consulted, as describing a closely allied sect. To these should be\n  added the short notice of PLINY, _N.H._ v. 15. 17, as expressing the\n  views of a Roman writer. His account, we may conjecture, was taken\n  from Alexander Polyhistor, a contemporary of Sulla, whom he mentions\n  in his prefatory elenchus as one of his authorities for this 5th book,\n  and who wrote a work _On the Jews_ (Clem. Alex. _Strom._ i. 21, p.\n  396, Euseb. _Pr\u00e6p. Ev._ ix. 17). Significant mention of the Essenes is\n  found also in the Christian HEGESIPPUS (Euseb. _H.E._ iv. 22) and in\n  the heathen DION CHRYSOSTOM (Synesius _Dion_ 3, p. 39). EPIPHANIUS\n  (_H\u00e6r._ pp. 28 sq., 40 sq.) discusses two separate sects, which he\n  calls _Essenes_ and _Oss\u00e6ans_ respectively. These are doubtless\n  different names of the same persons. His account is, as usual,\n  confused and inaccurate, but has a certain value. All other\n  authorities are secondary. HIPPOLYTUS, _H\u00e6r._ ix. 18\u201328, follows\n  Josephus (_Bell. Jud._ ii. 8. 2 sq.) almost exclusively. PORPHYRY also\n  (_de Abstinentia_, iv. II sq.) copies this same passage of Josephus,\n  with a few unimportant exceptions probably taken from a lost work by\n  the same author, \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f19\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b1\u03c2, which he mentions by name.\n  EUSEBIUS (_Pr\u00e6p. Evang._ viii. II sq., ix. 3) contents himself with\n  quoting Philo and Porphyry. SOLINUS (_Polyh._ xxxv. 9 sq.) merely\n  abstracts Pliny. TALMUDICAL and RABBINICAL passages, supposed to\n  contain references to the Essenes, are collected by Frankel in the\n  articles mentioned in a later paragraph; but the allusions are most\n  uncertain (see the appendix to this chapter). The authorities for the\n  history of the Essenes are the subject of an article by W. Clemens in\n  the _Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Theol._ 1869, p. 328 sq.\n\n  The attack on the genuineness of Philo's treatise _De Vita\n  Contemplativa_ made by Gr\u00e4tz (III. p. 463 sq.) has been met by Zeller\n  (_Philosophie_, III. ii. p. 255 sq.), whose refutation is complete.\n  The attack of the same writer (III. p. 464) on the genuineness of the\n  treatise _Quod omnis probus liber_> Zeller considers too frivolous to\n  need refuting (_ib._ p. 235). A refutation will be found in the\n  above-mentioned article of W. Clemens (p. 340 sq.).\n\n  Of modern writings relating to the Essenes the following may be\n  especially mentioned; BELLERMANN _Ueber Ess\u00e4er u. Therapeuten_, Berlin\n  1821; GFR\u00d6RER _Philo_ II. p. 299 sq.; D\u00c4HNE _Ersch u. Gruber's\n  Encyklop\u00e4die_ s.v.; FRANKEL _Zeitschrift f\u00fcr die religi\u00f6sen Interessen\n  des Judenthums_ 1846 p. 441 sq., _Monatschrift f\u00fcr Geschichte u.\n  Wissenschaft des Judenthums_ 1853 p. 30 sq., 61 sq.; B\u00d6TTGER_Ueber den\n  Orden der Ess\u00e4er_, Dresden 1849; EWALD _Geschichte des Volkes Israel_\n  IV. p. 420 sq., VII. p. 153 sq.; RITSCHL _Entstehung der\n  Altkatholischen Kirche_ p. 179 sq. (ed. 2, 1857), and _Theologische\n  Jahrb\u00fccher_ 1855, p. 315 sq.; JOST _Geschichte des Judenthums_ I. p.\n  207 sq.; GRAETZ _Geschichte der Juden_ III. p. 79 sq., 463 sq. (ed. 2,\n  1863); HILGENFELD _J\u00fcdische Apocalyptik_ p. 245 sq., and _Zeitschr. f.\n  Wiss. Theol._ X. p. 97 sq., XI. p. 343 sq., XIV. p. 30 sq.; WESTCOTT\n  _Smith's Dictionary of the Bible_ s.v.; GINSBURG _The Essenes_, London\n  1864, and in _Kitto's Cyclop\u00e6dia_ s.v.; DERENBOURG _L'Histoire et la\n  G\u00e9ographie de la Palestine_ p. 166 sq., 460 sq.; KEIM _Geschichte Jesu\n  von Nazara_ I. p. 282 sq.; HAUSRATH _Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte_\n  I. p. 133 sq.; LIPSIUS _Schenkel's Bibel Lexikon_ s.v.; HERZFELD\n  _Geschichte des Volkes Israel_ II. 368 sq., 388 sq., 509 sq. (ed. 2,\n  1863); ZELLER _Philosophie der Griechen_ III. 2. p. 234 sq. (ed. 2,\n  1868); LANGEN _Judenthum in Pal\u00e4stina_ p. 190 sq.; L\u00d6WY\n  _Kritisch-talmudisches Lexicon_ s.v. (Wien 1863); WEISS _Zur\n  Geschichte der j\u00fcdischen Tradition_ p. 120 sq. (Wien).\n\nThe Judaic element is especially prominent in the life and teaching of\nthe sect. The Essene was exceptionally rigorous in his observance of the\nMosaic ritual. In his strict abstinence [Sidenote: Observance of the\nMosaic law.] from work on the sabbath he far surpassed all the other\nJews. He would not light a fire, would not move a vessel, would not\nperform even the most ordinary functions of life[241]. The whole day was\ngiven up to religious exercises and to exposition of the\nScriptures[242]. His respect for the law extended also to the law-giver.\nAfter God, the name of Moses was held in the highest reverence. He who\nblasphemed his name was punished with death[243]. In all these points\nthe Essene was an exaggeration, almost a caricature, of the Pharisee.\n\nFootnote 241:\n\n  _B.J._ ii. 8. 9 \u03c6\u03c5\u03bb\u03ac\u03c3\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 ... \u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f11\u03b2\u03b4\u03cc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f14\u03c1\u03b3\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03c6\u03ac\u03c0\u03c4\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9\n  \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03ce\u03c4\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f38\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u1f01\u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd\u00b7 \u03bf\u1f50 \u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78 \u1f21\u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2\n  \u03bc\u03b9\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03c5\u03ac\u03b6\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, \u1f61\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b7\u03b4\u1f72 \u03c0\u1fe6\u03c1 \u1f10\u03bd\u03b1\u03cd\u03bf\u03b9\u03b5\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03bd\u1fc3 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f21\u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u1fb3, \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb' \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u1f72\n  \u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u1fe6\u03cc\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b9 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03ba\u03b9\u03bd\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b8\u03b1\u03c1\u1fe5\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. Hippolytus (_H\u00e6r._ ix. 25) adds\n  that some of them do not so much as leave their beds on this day.\n\nFootnote 242:\n\n  Philo _Quod omn. prob. lib._ \u00a7 12. Of the Therapeutes see Philo _Vit.\n  Cont._ \u00a7 3, 4.\n\nFootnote 243:\n\n  _B.J._ l.c. \u00a7 9 \u03c3\u03ad\u03b2\u03b1\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03bc\u03ad\u03b3\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u0398\u03b5\u1f78\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f44\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\n  \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03bf\u03b8\u03ad\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5, \u03ba\u1f02\u03bd \u03b2\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c6\u03b7\u03bc\u03ae\u03c3\u1fc3 \u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd (i.e. \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03bf\u03b8\u03ad\u03c4\u03b7\u03bd),\n  \u03ba\u03bf\u03bb\u03ac\u03b6\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03ac\u03c4\u1ff3: comp. \u00a7 10.\n\n[Sidenote: External elements superadded.]\n\nSo far the Essene has not departed from the principles of normal\nJudaism; but here the divergence begins. In three main points we trace\nthe working of influences, which must have been derived from external\nsources.\n\n[Sidenote: 1. Rigid asceticism, in respect to]\n\n1. To the legalism of the Pharisee, the Essene added an asceticism,\nwhich was peculiarly his own, and which in many respects contradicted\nthe tenets of the other sect. The honourable, and even exaggerated,\nestimate of marriage, which was characteristic of the Jew, and of the\nPharisee as the typical Jew, found no favour with the Essene[244].\n[Sidenote: marriage,]Marriage was to him an abomination. Those Essenes\nwho lived together as members of an order, and in whom the principles of\nthe sect were carried to their logical consequences, eschewed it\naltogether. To secure the continuance of their brotherhood they adopted\nchildren, whom they brought up in the doctrines and practices of the\ncommunity. There were others however who took a different view. They\naccepted marriage, as necessary for the preservation of the race. Yet\neven with them it seems to have been regarded only as an inevitable\nevil. They fenced it off by stringent rules, demanding a three years'\nprobation and enjoining various purificatory rites[245]. The conception\nof marriage, as quickening and educating the affections and thus\nexalting and refining human life, was wholly foreign to their minds.\nWoman was a mere instrument of temptation in their eyes, deceitful,\nfaithless, selfish, jealous, misled and misleading by her passions.\n\nFootnote 244:\n\n  _B.J._ l.c. \u00a7 2 \u03b3\u03ac\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c8\u03af\u03b1 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 ... \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03af\u03ba\u03c9\u03bd\n  \u1f00\u03c3\u03b5\u03bb\u03b3\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c6\u03c5\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bc\u03b7\u03b4\u03b5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f15\u03bd\u03b1\n  \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd, _Ant._ xviii. 1. 5; Philo _Fragm._ p. 633 \u03b3\u03ac\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u1fc3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\n  \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c6\u03b5\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u1f10\u03b3\u03ba\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd\u00b7 \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f04\u03b3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9\n  \u03b3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u1fd6\u03ba\u03b1, \u03b4\u03af\u03bf\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c6\u03af\u03bb\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u1f21 \u03b3\u03c5\u03bd\u1f74 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b6\u03b7\u03bb\u03cc\u03c4\u03c5\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03c1\u03af\u03c9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\u1f78\u03bd\n  \u1f00\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f24\u03b8\u03b7 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c3\u03b1\u03bb\u03b5\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9, with more to the same purpose. This\n  peculiarity astonished the heathen Pliny, _N.H._ v. 15, 'gens sola et\n  in toto orbe pr\u00e6ter ceteros mira, sine ulla femina, venere\n  abdicata.... In diem ex \u00e6quo convenarum turba renascitur large\n  frequentantibus.... Ita per s\u00e6culorum millia (incredibile dictu) gens\n  \u00e6terna est, in qua nemo nascitur. Tam f\u0153cunda illis aliorum vit\u00e6\n  p\u0153nitentia est.'\n\nFootnote 245:\n\n  _B.J._ l.c. \u00a7 13. Josephus speaks of these as \u1f15\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b7\u03bd\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u03ac\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1, \u1f43\n  \u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03b9\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f14\u03b8\u03b7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f04\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f41\u03bc\u03bf\u03c6\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd, \u03b4\u03b9\u03b5\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u1fc7\n  \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03b3\u03ac\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd \u03b4\u03cc\u03be\u1fc3. We may suppose that they corresponded to the third\n  order of a Benedictine or Franciscan brotherhood; so that, living in\n  the world, they would observe the rule up to a certain point, but\n  would not be bound by vows of celibacy or subject to the more rigorous\n  discipline of the sect.\n\n[Sidenote: meats and drinks,]\n\nBut their ascetic tendencies did not stop here. The Pharisee was very\ncareful to observe the distinction of meats lawful and unlawful, as laid\ndown by the Mosaic code, and even rendered these ordinances vexatious by\nminute definitions of his own. But the Essene went far beyond him. He\ndrank no wine, he did not touch animal food. His meal consisted of a\npiece of bread and a single mess of vegetables. Even this simple fare\nwas prepared for him by special officers consecrated for the purpose,\nthat it might be free from all contamination[246]. Nay, so stringent\nwere the rules of the order on this point, that when an Essene was\nexcommunicated, he often died of starvation, being bound by his oath not\nto take food prepared by defiled hands, and thus being reduced to eat\nthe very grass of the field[247].\n\nFootnote 246:\n\n  _B.J._ l.c. \u00a7 5; see Philo's account of the Therapeutes, _Vit. Cont._\n  \u00a7 4 \u03c3\u03b9\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03c5\u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u1f72\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u03ad\u03bd, \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u1f04\u03c1\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03b5\u1f50\u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u1fc6\u00b7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f44\u03c8\u03bf\u03bd \u1f05\u03bb\u03b5\u03c2,\n  \u03bf\u1f53\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f31 \u1f00\u03b2\u03c1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03b9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03cd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f51\u03c3\u03c3\u03ce\u03c0\u1ff3\u00b7 \u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f55\u03b4\u03c9\u03c1 \u03bd\u03b1\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03bd\n  \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd; and again more to the same effect in \u00a7 9: and compare\n  the Essene story of St James in Hegesippus (Euseb. _H.E._ ii. 23)\n  \u03bf\u1f36\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03af\u03ba\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f14\u03c0\u03b9\u03b5\u03bd, \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u1f72 \u1f14\u03bc\u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd \u1f14\u03c6\u03b1\u03b3\u03b5. Their abstention from\n  animal food accounts for Porphyry's giving them so prominent a place\n  in his treatise: see Zeller, p. 243.\n\nFootnote 247:\n\n  _B.J._ l.c. \u00a7 8.\n\n[Sidenote: and oil for anointing.]\n\nAgain, in hot climates oil for anointing the body is almost a necessary\nof life. From this too the Essenes strictly abstained. Even if they were\naccidentally smeared, they were careful at once to wash themselves,\nholding the mere touch to be a contamination[248].\n\nFootnote 248:\n\n  _B.J._ l.c. \u00a7 3 \u03ba\u03b7\u03bb\u1fd6\u03b4\u03b1 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03bc\u03b2\u03ac\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f14\u03bb\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.; Hegesippus\n  l.c. \u1f14\u03bb\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f20\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03c8\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf.\n\n[Sidenote: Underlying principle of this asceticism.]\n\nFrom these facts it seems clear that Essene abstinence was something\nmore than the mere exaggeration of Pharisaic principles. The rigour of\nthe Pharisee was based on his obligation of obedience to an absolute\nexternal law. The Essene introduced a new principle. He condemned in any\nform the gratification of the natural cravings, nor would he consent to\nregard it as moral or immoral only according to the motive which\nsuggested it or the consequences which flowed from it. It was in itself\nan absolute evil. He sought to disengage himself, as far as possible,\nfrom the conditions of physical life. In short, in the asceticism of the\nEssene we seem to see the germ of that Gnostic dualism which regards\nmatter as the principle, or at least the abode, of evil.\n\n[Sidenote: 2. Speculative tenets.]\n\n2. And, when we come to investigate the speculative tenets of the sect,\nwe shall find that the Essenes have diverged appreciably from the common\ntype of Jewish orthodoxy.\n\n[Sidenote: (i) Tendency to sun-worship.]\n\n(i) Attention was directed above to their respect for Moses and the\nMosaic law, which they shared in common with the Pharisee. But there was\nanother side to their theological teaching. Though our information is\nsomewhat defective, still in the scanty notices which are preserved we\nfind sufficient indications that they had absorbed some foreign elements\nof religious thought into their system. Thus at day-break they addressed\ncertain prayers, which had been handed down from their forefathers, to\nthe Sun, 'as if entreating him to rise[249].' They were careful also to\nconceal and bury all polluting substances, so as not 'to insult the rays\nof the god[250].' We cannot indeed suppose that they regarded the sun as\nmore than a symbol of the unseen power who gives light and life; but\ntheir outward demonstrations of reverence were sufficiently prominent to\nattach to them, or to a sect derived from them, the epithet of\n'Sun-worshippers[251],' and some connexion with the characteristic\nfeature of Parsee devotion at once suggests itself. The practice at all\nevents stands in strong contrast to the denunciations of worship paid to\nthe 'hosts of heaven' in the Hebrew prophets.\n\nFootnote 249:\n\n  _B.J._ l.c. \u00a7 5 \u03c0\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2 \u03b3\u03b5 \u03bc\u1f74\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b8\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bf\u03bd \u1f30\u03b4\u03af\u03c9\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f50\u03c3\u03b5\u03b2\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2\u00b7 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f76\u03bd \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c7\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd\n  \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f25\u03bb\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u1f72\u03bd \u03c6\u03b8\u03ad\u03b3\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b2\u03b5\u03b2\u03ae\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd, \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b5\u03ce\u03c9 \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b1\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd\n  \u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03ac\u03c2, \u1f65\u03c3\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u1f31\u03ba\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bb\u03b1\u03b9. Compare what Philo says of the\n  Therapeutes, _Vit. Cont._ \u00a7 3 \u1f21\u03bb\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03af\u03c3\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f50\u03b7\u03bc\u03b5\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03bd\n  \u03b1\u1f30\u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f44\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f50\u03b7\u03bc\u03b5\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03bd, \u03c6\u03c9\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c4\u03b7\u03bd \u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd\n  \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03b8\u1fc6\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9, and _ib._ \u00a7 11. On the attempt of Frankel (_Zeitschr._\n  p. 458) to resolve this worship, which Josephus states to be offered\n  to the sun (\u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd), into the ordinary prayers of the Pharisaic Jew\n  at day-break, see the appendix to this chapter.\n\nFootnote 250:\n\n  _B.J._ l.c. \u00a7 9 \u1f61\u03c2 \u03bc\u1f74 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03b3\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f51\u03b2\u03c1\u03af\u03b6\u03bf\u03b9\u03b5\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6. There can be no\n  doubt, I think, that by \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 is meant the 'sun-god'; comp. Eur.\n  _Heracl._ 749 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c6\u03b1\u03b5\u03c3\u03af\u03bc\u03b2\u03c1\u03bf\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03b3\u03b1\u03af, _Alc._ 722 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c6\u03ad\u03b3\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n  \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6, Appian _Pr\u00e6f._ 9 \u03b4\u03c5\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6, _Lib._ 113 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76\n  \u03b4\u03b5\u03af\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd \u1f11\u03c3\u03c0\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd \u1f44\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, _Civ._ iv. 79 \u03b4\u03cd\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f04\u03c1\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6: comp.\n  Herod. ii. 24. Dr Ginsburg has obliterated this very important touch\n  by translating \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03b3\u1f70\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 'the Divine rays' (_Essenes_ p. 47).\n  It is a significant fact that Hippolytus (_H\u00e6r._ ix. 25) omits the\n  words \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6, evidently regarding them as a stumbling-block. How\n  Josephus expressed himself in the original Hebrew of the _Bellum\n  Judaicum_, it is vain to speculate: but the Greek translation was\n  authorised, if not made, by him.\n\nFootnote 251:\n\n  Epiphan. _H\u00e6r._ xix. 2, xx. 3 \u1f48\u03c3\u03c3\u03b7\u03bd\u03bf\u1f76 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u1f38\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u03ca\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2\n  \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03a3\u03b1\u03bc\u03c8\u03b1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u03b1\u1f35\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, liii. 1, 2 \u03a3\u03b1\u03bc\u03c8\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f11\u03c1\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9\n  \u1f29\u03bb\u03b9\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03af, from the Hebrew \u05e9\u05de\u05e9 'the sun.' The historical connexion of\n  the Samps\u00e6ans with the Essenes is evident from these passages: though\n  it is difficult to say what their precise relations to each other\n  were. See the appendix.\n\n[Sidenote: (ii) Resurrection of the body denied.]\n\n(ii) Nor again is it an insignificant fact that, while the Pharisee\nmaintained the resurrection of the body as a cardinal article of his\nfaith, the Essene restricted himself to a belief in the immortality of\nthe soul. The soul, he maintained, was confined in the flesh, as in a\nprison-house. Only when disengaged from these fetters would it be truly\nfree. Then it would soar aloft, rejoicing in its newly attained\nliberty[252]. This doctrine accords with the fundamental conception of\nthe malignity of matter. To those who held this conception a\nresurrection of the body would be repulsive, as involving a perpetuation\nof evil.\n\nFootnote 252:\n\n  _B.J._ l.c. \u00a7 11 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f15\u03c1\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f25\u03b4\u03b5 \u1f21 \u03b4\u03cc\u03be\u03b1, \u03c6\u03b8\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd\n  \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f55\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50 \u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03b9\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2, \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f00\u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2\n  \u1f00\u03b5\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd ... \u1f10\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03b4\u1f70\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b5\u03b8\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c3\u03ac\u03c1\u03ba\u03b1 \u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd, \u03bf\u1f37\u03b1 \u03b4\u1f74\n  \u03bc\u03b1\u03ba\u03c1\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03b7\u03bb\u03bb\u03b1\u03b3\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03c2, \u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c7\u03b1\u03af\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5\u1ff6\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03c6\u03ad\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9\n  \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. To this doctrine the teaching of the Pharisees stands in direct\n  contrast; _ib._ \u00a7 13: comp. also _Ant._ xviii. 1. 3, 5.\n\n  Nothing can be more explicit than the language of Josephus. On the\n  other hand Hippolytus (_H\u00e6r._ ix. 27) says of them \u1f41\u03bc\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n  \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c3\u03ac\u03c1\u03ba\u03b1 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f14\u03c3\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f00\u03b8\u03ac\u03bd\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u1f43\u03bd \u03c4\u03c1\u03cc\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd \u1f24\u03b4\u03b7 \u1f00\u03b8\u03ac\u03bd\u03b1\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2\n  \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f21 \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03ae \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.; but his authority is worthless on this point, as\n  he can have had no personal knowledge of the facts: see Zeller p. 251,\n  note 2. Hilgenfeld takes a different view; _Zeitschr._ XIV. p. 49.\n\n[Sidenote: (iii) Prohibition of sacrifices.]\n\n(iii) But they also separated themselves from the religious belief of\nthe orthodox Jew in another respect, which would provoke more notice.\nWhile they sent gifts to the temple at Jerusalem, they refused to offer\nsacrifices there[253]. It would appear that the slaughter of animals was\naltogether forbidden by their creed[254]. It is certain that they were\nafraid of contracting some ceremonial impurity by offering victims in\nthe temple. Meanwhile they had sacrifices, bloodless sacrifices, of\ntheir own. They regarded their simple meals with their accompanying\nprayers and thanksgiving, not only as devotional but even as sacrificial\nrites. Those who prepared and presided over these meals were their\nconsecrated priests[255].\n\nFootnote 253:\n\n  _Ant._ xviii. 1. 5 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f31\u03b5\u03c1\u1f78\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03b8\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03ac \u03c4\u03b5 \u03c3\u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03b8\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba\n  \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f01\u03b3\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u1ff6\u03bd, \u1f03\u03c2 \u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03b6\u03bf\u03b9\u03b5\u03bd, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b9' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c1\u03b3\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\n  \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u03b5\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03af\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c6' \u03b1\u1f51\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03b8\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9. So Philo\n  _Quod omn. prob. lib._ \u00a7 12 describes them as \u03bf\u1f50 \u03b6\u1ff7\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b8\u03cd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb'\n  \u1f31\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c0\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03c5\u03ac\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u1f00\u03be\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2.\n\nFootnote 254:\n\n  The following considerations show that their abstention should\n  probably be explained in this way: (1) Though the language of Josephus\n  may be ambiguous, that of Philo is unequivocal on this point; (2)\n  Their abstention from the temple-sacrifices cannot be considered apart\n  from the fact that they ate no animal food: see above p. 86, note 246.\n  (3) The Christianized Essenes, or Ebionites, though strong Judaizers\n  in many respects, yet distinctly protested against the sacrifice of\n  animals; see Clem. _Hom._ iii. 45, 52, and comp. Ritschl p. 224. On\n  this subject see also Zeller p. 242 sq., and the appendix to this\n  chapter.\n\nFootnote 255:\n\n  _Ant._ xviii. 1. 5 \u1f31\u03b5\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b5 [\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03bf\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9] \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c3\u03af\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n  \u03b2\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd, _B.J._ ii. 8. 5 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03c7\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f41 \u1f31\u03b5\u03c1\u03b5\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.;\n  see Ritschl p. 181.\n\n[Sidenote: (iv) Esoteric doctrine of angels.]\n\n(iv) In what other respects they may have departed from, or added to,\nthe normal creed of Judaism, we do not know. But it is expressly stated\nthat, when a novice after passing through the probationary stages was\nadmitted to the full privileges of the order, the oath of admission\nbound him 'to conceal nothing from the members of the sect, and to\nreport nothing concerning them to others, even though threatened with\ndeath; not to communicate any of their doctrines to anyone otherwise\nthan as he himself had received them; but to abstain from robbery, and\nin like manner to guard carefully the books of their sect, and _the\nnames of the angels_[256].' It may be reasonably supposed that more\nlurks under this last expression than meets the ear. This esoteric\ndoctrine, relating to angelic beings, may have been another link which\nattached Essenism to the religion of Zoroaster[257]. At all events we\nseem to be justified in connecting it with the self-imposed service and\nworshipping of angels at Coloss\u00e6: and we may well suspect that we have\nhere a germ which was developed into the Gnostic doctrine of \u00e6ons or\nemanations.\n\nFootnote 256:\n\n  _B.J._ l.c. \u00a7 7 \u1f45\u03c1\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f44\u03bc\u03bd\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c6\u03c1\u03b9\u03ba\u03ce\u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 ... \u03bc\u03ae\u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03c1\u03cd\u03c8\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9\n  \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f31\u03c1\u03b5\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03bc\u03ae\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f11\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9 \u03bc\u03b7\u03bd\u03cd\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f02\u03bd \u03bc\u03ad\u03c7\u03c1\u03b9 \u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\n  \u03c4\u1f76\u03c2 \u03b2\u03b9\u03ac\u03b6\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9. \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f40\u03bc\u03bd\u03cd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9 \u03bc\u03b7\u03b4\u03b5\u03bd\u1f76 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b4\u03bf\u03b3\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd\n  \u1f11\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f22 \u1f61\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u03bd\u00b7 \u1f00\u03c6\u03ad\u03be\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03bb\u1fc3\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\n  \u1f41\u03bc\u03bf\u03af\u03c9\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f31\u03c1\u03ad\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b2\u03b9\u03b2\u03bb\u03af\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03b3\u03ad\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd \u1f40\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1.\n  With this notice should be compared the Ebionite \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03b1, or\n  protest of initiation, prefixed to the _Clementine Homilies_, which\n  shows how closely the Christian Essenes followed the practice of their\n  Jewish predecessors in this respect. See Zeller p. 254.\n\nFootnote 257:\n\n  See below, in the appendix.\n\n[Sidenote: (v) Speculations on God and Creation.]\n\n(v) If so, it is not unconnected with another notice relating to Essene\npeculiarities. The Gnostic doctrine of intermediate beings between God\nand the world, as we have seen, was intimately connected with\nspeculations respecting creation. Now we are specially informed that the\nEssenes, while leaving physical studies in general to speculative idlers\n(\u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5\u03c9\u03c1\u03bf\u03bb\u03ad\u03c3\u03c7\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2), as being beyond the reach of human nature, yet\nexcepted from their general condemnation that philosophy which treats of\nthe existence of God and the generation of the universe[258].\n\nFootnote 258:\n\n  Philo _Omn. prob. lib._ \u00a7 12 (p. 458) \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c6\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03ba\u1f78\u03bd \u1f61\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03b6\u03bf\u03bd \u1f22 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70\n  \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03af\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd \u03c6\u03cd\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5\u03c9\u03c1\u03bf\u03bb\u03ad\u03c3\u03c7\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b9\u03c0\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2, \u03c0\u03bb\u1f74\u03bd \u1f45\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76\n  \u1f51\u03c0\u03ac\u03c1\u03be\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03ad\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9.\n\n[Sidenote: (vi) Magical charms.]\n\n(vi) Mention has been made incidentally of certain secret books peculiar\nto the sect. The existence of such an apocryphal literature was a sure\ntoken of some abnormal development in doctrine[259]. In the passage\nquoted it is mentioned in relation to some form of angelology. Elsewhere\ntheir skill in prediction, for which they were especially famous, is\nconnected with the perusal of certain 'sacred books,' which however are\nnot described[260]. But more especially, we are told that the Essenes\nstudied with extraordinary diligence the writings of the ancients,\nselecting those especially which could be turned to profit for soul and\nbody, and that from these they learnt the qualities of roots and the\nproperties of stones[261]. This expression, as illustrated by other\nnotices, points clearly to the study of occult sciences, and recalls the\nalliance with the practice of magical arts, which was a distinguishing\nfeature of Gnosticism, and is condemned by Christian teachers even in\nthe heresies of the Apostolic age.\n\nFootnote 259:\n\n  The word _Apocrypha_ was used originally to designate the secret books\n  which contained the esoteric doctrine of a sect. The secondary sense\n  'spurious' was derived from the general character of these writings,\n  which were heretical, generally Gnostic, forgeries. See Prof.\n  Plumptre's article _Apocrypha_ in Smith's _Dictionary of the Bible_,\n  and the note on \u1f00\u03c0\u03cc\u03ba\u03c1\u03c5\u03c6\u03bf\u03b9 below, ii. 3.\n\nFootnote 260:\n\n  _B.J._ ii. 8. 12 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c3\u1f76 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f33 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03bc\u03ad\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03b3\u03b9\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\n  \u1f51\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c7\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, \u03b2\u03af\u03b2\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f31\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c6\u03cc\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f01\u03b3\u03bd\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03b7\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd\n  \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c6\u03b8\u03ad\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f10\u03bc\u03c0\u03b1\u03b9\u03b4\u03bf\u03c4\u03c1\u03b9\u03b2\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u00b7 \u03c3\u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72, \u03b5\u1f34\u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u03b5, \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2\n  \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03b1\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03b5\u03cd\u03c3\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f00\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c7\u03ae\u03c3\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd. Dr Ginsburg (p. 49) translates \u03b2\u03af\u03b2\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2\n  \u1f31\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 '_the_ sacred Scripture,' and \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03b7\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c6\u03b8\u03ad\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd '_the_\n  sayings of _the_ prophets'; but as the definite articles are wanting,\n  the expressions cannot be so rendered, nor does there seem to be any\n  reference to the Canonical writings.\n\n  We learn from an anecdote in _Ant._ xiii. II. 2, that the teachers of\n  this sect communicated the art of prediction to their disciples by\n  instruction. We may therefore conjecture that with the Essenes this\n  acquisition was connected with magic or astrology. At all events it is\n  not treated as a direct inspiration.\n\nFootnote 261:\n\n  _B.J._ ii. 8. 6 \u03c3\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03ac\u03b6\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f10\u03ba\u03c4\u03cc\u03c0\u03c9\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03b9\u1ff6\u03bd\n  \u03c3\u03c5\u03b3\u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03bc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1, \u03bc\u03ac\u03bb\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f60\u03c6\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2\u00b7\n  \u1f14\u03bd\u03b8\u03b5\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b8\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03b8\u1ff6\u03bd \u1fe5\u03af\u03b6\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u03b5 \u1f00\u03bb\u03b5\u03be\u03b9\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bb\u03af\u03b8\u03c9\u03bd\n  \u1f30\u03b4\u03b9\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b5\u03c5\u03bd\u1ff6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9. This passage might seem at first sight to\n  refer simply to the _medicinal_ qualities of vegetable and mineral\n  substances; but a comparison with another notice in Josephus invests\n  it with a different meaning. In _Ant._ viii. 2. 5 he states that\n  Solomon, having received by divine inspiration the art of defeating\n  demons for the advantage and healing of man (\u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f60\u03c6\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n  \u03b8\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u1ff6\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2), composed and left behind him charms\n  (\u1f10\u03c0\u1ff3\u03b4\u03ac\u03c2) by which diseases were allayed, and diverse kinds of\n  exorcisms (\u03c4\u03c1\u03cc\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c1\u03ba\u03ce\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03bd) by which demons were cast out. 'This\n  mode of healing,' he adds, 'is very powerful even to the present day';\n  and he then relates how, as he was credibly informed (\u1f31\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03b1), one\n  of his countrymen, Eleazar by name, had healed several persons\n  possessed by demons in the presence of Vespasian and his sons and a\n  number of officers and common soldiers. This he did by applying to the\n  nose of the possessed his ring, which had concealed in it one of the\n  _roots_ which Solomon had directed to be used, and thus drawing out\n  the demon through the nostrils of the person smelling it. At the same\n  time he adjured the evil spirit not to return, 'making mention of\n  Solomon and repeating the charms composed by him.' On one occasion\n  this Eleazar gave ocular proof that the demon was exorcized; and thus,\n  adds Josephus, \u03c3\u03b1\u03c6\u1f74\u03c2 \u1f21 \u03a3\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1. On these\n  books relating to the occult arts and ascribed to Solomon see\n  Fabricius _Cod. Pseud. Vet. Test._ I. p. 1036 sq., where many curious\n  notices are gathered together. Comp. especially Origen, _In Matth.\n  Comm._ xxxv. \u00a7 110 (III. p. 910), Pseudo-Just. _Qu\u00e6st._ 55.\n\n  This interpretation explains all the expressions in the passage. The\n  \u03bb\u03af\u03b8\u03c9\u03bd \u1f30\u03b4\u03b9\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 naturally points to the use of charms or amulets, as\n  may be seen e.g. from the treatise, Damigeron _de Lapidibus_, printed\n  in the _Spicil. Solemn._ III. p. 324 sq.: comp. King _Antique Gems_\n  Sect. IV, _Gnostics and their Remains_. The reference to 'the books of\n  the ancients' thus finds an adequate explanation. On the other hand\n  the only expression which seemed to militate against this view,\n  \u1f00\u03bb\u03b5\u03be\u03b9\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9 \u1fe5\u03af\u03b6\u03b1\u03b9, is justified by the story in the _Antiquities_. It\n  should be added also that Hippolytus (_H\u00e6r._ ix. 22) paraphrases the\n  language of Josephus so as to give it this sense; \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c5 \u03b4\u1f72\n  _\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03ad\u03c1\u03b3\u03c9\u03c2_ \u1f14\u03c7\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u03b2\u03bf\u03c4\u03ac\u03bd\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bb\u03af\u03b8\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2, _\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9_\n  \u1f44\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, \u03c6\u03ac\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03bc\u1f74 \u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03b7\u03bd \u03c4\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9.\n  The sense which \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03af\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 ('curiosus') bears in Acts xix. 19 and\n  elsewhere, referring to magical arts, illustrates its use here.\n\n  Thus these Essenes were dealers in charms, rather than physicians. And\n  yet it is quite possible that along with this practice of the occult\n  sciences they studied the healing art in its nobler forms. The works\n  of Alexander of Tralles, an eminent ancient physician, constantly\n  recommend the use of such charms, of which some obviously come from a\n  Jewish source and not improbably may have been taken from these\n  Solomonian books to which Josephus refers. A number of passages from\n  this and other writers, specifying charms of various kinds, are given\n  in Becker and Marquardt _Rom. Alterth._ IV. p. 116 sq. See also\n  Spencer's note on Orig. _c. Cels._ p. 17 sq.\n\n[Sidenote: 3. Exclusive spirit of Essenism.]\n\n3. But the notice to which I have just alluded suggests a broader\naffinity with Gnosticism. Not only did the theological speculations of\nthe Essenes take a Gnostic turn, but they guarded their peculiar tenets\nwith Gnostic reserve. They too had their esoteric doctrine which they\nlooked upon as the exclusive possession of the privileged few; their\n'mysteries' which it was a grievous offence to communicate to the\nuninitiated. This doctrine was contained, as we have seen, in an\napocryphal literature. Their whole organisation was arranged so as to\nprevent the divulgence of its secrets to those without. The long period\nof noviciate, the careful rites of initiation, the distinction of the\nseveral orders[262] in the community, the solemn oaths by which they\nbound their members, were so many safeguards against a betrayal of this\nprecious deposit, which they held to be restricted to the inmost circle\nof the brotherhood.\n\nFootnote 262:\n\n  See especially _B.J._ ii. 8. 7, 10.\n\n[Sidenote: The three notes of Gnosticism found in the Essenes.]\n\nIn selecting these details I have not attempted to give a finished\nportrait of Essenism. From this point of view the delineation would be\nimperfect and misleading: for I have left out of sight the nobler\nfeatures of the sect, their courageous endurance, their simple piety,\ntheir brotherly love. My object was solely to call attention to those\nfeatures which distinguish it from the normal type of Judaism, and seem\nto justify the attribution of Gnostic influences. And here it has been\nseen that the three characteristics, which were singled out above as\ndistinctive of Gnosticism, reappear in the Essenes; though it has been\nconvenient to consider them in the reversed order. This Jewish sect\nexhibits the same exclusiveness in the communication of its doctrines.\nIts theological speculations take the same direction, dwelling on the\nmysteries of creation, regarding matter as the abode of evil, and\npostulating certain intermediate spiritual agencies as necessary links\nof communication between heaven and earth. And lastly, its speculative\nopinions involve the same ethical conclusions, and lead in like manner\nto a rigid asceticism. If the notices relating to these points do not\nalways explain themselves, yet read in the light of the heresies of the\nApostolic age and in that of subsequent Jud\u00e6o-Gnostic Christianity,\ntheir bearing seems to be distinct enough; so that we should not be far\nwrong, if we were to designate Essenism as Gnostic Judaism[263].\n\nFootnote 263:\n\n  I have said nothing of the Cabbala, as a development of Jewish thought\n  illustrating the Colossian heresy: because the books containing the\n  Cabbalistic speculations are comparatively recent, and if they contain\n  ancient elements, it seems impossible to separate these from later\n  additions or to assign to them even an approximate date. The\n  Cabbalistic doctrine however will serve to show to what extent Judaism\n  may be developed in the direction of speculative mysticism.\n\n[Sidenote: How widely were the Essenes dispersed?]\n\nBut the Essenes of whom historical notices are preserved were\ninhabitants of the Holy Land. Their monasteries were situated on the\nshores of the Dead Sea. We are told indeed, that the sect was not\nconfined to any one place, and that members of the order were found in\ngreat numbers in divers cities and villages[264]. But Jud\u00e6a in one\nnotice, Palestine and Syria in another, are especially named as the\nlocalities of the Essene settlements[265]. Have we any reason to suppose\nthat they were represented among the Jews of the Dispersion? In Egypt\nindeed we find ourselves confronted with a similar ascetic sect, the\nTherapeutes, who may perhaps have had an independent origin, but who\nnevertheless exhibit substantially the same type of Jewish thought and\npractice[266]. But the Dispersion of Egypt, it may be argued, was\nexceptional; and we might expect to find here organisations and\ndevelopments of Judaism hardly less marked and various than in the\nmother country. [Sidenote: Do they appear in Asia Minor?] What ground\nhave we for assuming the existence of this type in Asia Minor? Do we\nmeet with any traces of it in the cities of the Lycus, or in proconsular\nAsia generally, which would justify the opinion that it might make its\ninfluence felt in the Christian communities of that district?\n\nFootnote 264:\n\n  Philo _Fragm._ p. 632 \u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70\u03c2 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f38\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u03af\u03b1\u03c2,\n  \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c2, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bc\u03b5\u03b3\u03ac\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03c5\u03b1\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u1f41\u03bc\u03af\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2; Joseph.\n  _B.J._ ii. 8. 4 \u03bc\u03af\u03b1 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b9\u03c2, \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb' \u1f10\u03bd \u1f11\u03ba\u03ac\u03c3\u03c4\u1fc3\n  \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03af. On the notices of the settlements and dispersion of\n  the Essenes see Zeller p. 239.\n\nFootnote 265:\n\n  Philo names _Jud\u00e6a_ in _Fragm._ p. 632; _Palestine_ and _Syria_ in\n  _Quod omn. prob. lib._ 12 p. 457. Their chief settlements were in the\n  neighbourhood of the Dead Sea. This fact is mentioned by the heathen\n  writers Pliny (_N.H._ v. 15) and Dion Chrysostom (Synesius _Dio_ 3).\n  The name of the 'Essene gate' at Jerusalem (_B.J._ v. 4. 2) seems to\n  point to some establishment of the order close to the walls of that\n  city.\n\nFootnote 266:\n\n  They are only known to us from Philo's treatise _de Vita\n  Contemplativa_. Their settlements were on the shores of the Mareotic\n  lake near Alexandria. Unlike the Essenes, they were not gathered\n  together in convents as members of a fraternity, but lived apart as\n  anchorites, though in the same neighbourhood. In other respects their\n  tenets and practices are very similar to those of the Essenes.\n\n[Sidenote: How the term _Essene_ is to be understood.]\n\nNow it has been shown that the colonies of the Jews in this\nneighbourhood were populous and influential[267]; and it might be argued\nwith great probability that among these large numbers Essene Judaism\ncould not be unrepresented. But indeed throughout this investigation,\nwhen I speak of the Judaism in the Colossian Church as Essene, I do not\nassume a precise identity of origin, but only an essential affinity of\ntype, with the Essenes of the mother country. As a matter of history, it\nmay or may not have sprung from the colonies on the shores of the Dead\nSea; but as this can neither be proved nor disproved, so also it is\nimmaterial to my main [Sidenote: Probabilities of the case.] purpose.\nAll along its frontier, wherever Judaism became enamoured of and was\nwedded to Oriental mysticism, the same union would produce substantially\nthe same results. In a country where Phrygia, Persia, Syria, all in turn\nhad moulded religious thought, it would be strange indeed if Judaism\nentirely escaped these influences. Nor, as a matter of fact, are\nindications wanting to show that it was not unaffected [Sidenote: Direct\nindications.] by them. If the traces are few, they are at least as\nnumerous and as clear as with our defective information on the whole\nsubject we have any right to expect in this particular instance.\n\nFootnote 267:\n\n  See above, p. 19 sq.\n\n[Sidenote: St Paul at Ephesus A.D. 54\u201357.]\n\nWhen St Paul visits Ephesus, he comes in contact with certain strolling\nJews, exorcists, who attempt to cast out evil spirits[268]. Connecting\nthis fact with the notices of Josephus, from which we infer that\nexorcisms of this kind were especially [Sidenote: Exorcisms and]\npractised by the Essenes[269], we seem to have an indication of their\npresence in the capital of proconsular Asia. If so, it is a significant\nfact that in their exorcisms they employed the name of our Lord: for\nthen we must regard this as the earliest notice of those overtures of\nalliance on the part of Essenism, which involved such important\nconsequences in the subsequent history of the Church[270]. It is also\nworth observing, that the next incident in St Luke's narrative is the\nburning [Sidenote: magical books.] of their magical books by those whom\nSt Paul converted on this occasion[271]. As Jews are especially\nmentioned among these converts, and as books of charms are ascribed to\nthe Essenes by Josephus, the two incidents, standing in this close\nconnexion, throw great light on the type of Judaism which thus appears\nat Ephesus[272].\n\nFootnote 268:\n\n  Acts xix. 13 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03b5\u03c1\u03c7\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd \u1f38\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c1\u03ba\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd.\n\nFootnote 269:\n\n  See above p. 91, note 261.\n\nFootnote 270:\n\n  On the later contact of Essenism with Christianity, see the appendix,\n  and _Galatians_ p. 310 sq.\n\nFootnote 271:\n\n  There is doubtless a reference to the charms called \u1f18\u03c6\u03ad\u03c3\u03b9\u03b1 \u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03bc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 in\n  this passage: see Wetstein ad loc., and the references in Becker and\n  Marquardt _R\u00f6m. Alterth._ IV. p. 123 sq. But this supposition does not\n  exclude the Jews from a share in these magical arts, while the context\n  points to some such participation.\n\nFootnote 272:\n\n  I can only regard it as an accidental coincidence that the epulones of\n  the Ephesian Artemis were called _Essenes_, Pausan. viii. 13. 1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2\n  \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f08\u03c1\u03c4\u03ad\u03bc\u03b9\u03b4\u03b9 \u1f31\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f18\u03c6\u03b5\u03c3\u03af\u1fb3 \u03b3\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2, \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd\n  \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b9\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u1fc6\u03bd\u03b1\u03c2: see Guhl _Ephesiaca_ 106 sq. The _Etymol. Magn._ has\n  \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03ae\u03bd: \u1f41 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u1f18\u03c6\u03b5\u03c3\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2, and adds several absurd derivations\n  of the word. In the sense of 'a king' it is used by Callimachus _Hymn.\n  Jov. 66_ \u03bf\u1f54 \u03c3\u03b5 \u03b8\u03b5\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03c3\u03c3\u1fc6\u03bd\u03b1 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd \u03b8\u03ad\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd. It is probably not a Greek\n  word, as other terms connected with the worship of the Ephesian\n  Artemis (e.g. \u03bc\u03b5\u03b3\u03ac\u03b2\u03c5\u03b6\u03bf\u03c2, a Persian word) point to an oriental or at\n  least a non-Greek origin; and some have derived it from the Aramaic\n  \u05d4\u05e1\u05d9\u05df _chasin_ 'strong' or 'powerful.' But there is no sufficient\n  ground for connecting it directly with the name of the sect \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b7\u03bd\u03bf\u03af or\n  \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03b9, as some writers are disposed to do (e.g. Spanheim on\n  _Callim._ l.c., Creuzer _Symbolik_ IV. pp. 347, 349); though this view\n  is favoured by the fact that certain ascetic practices were enjoined\n  on these pagan 'Essenes.'\n\n[Sidenote: Sibylline Oracle A.D. 80.]\n\nSomewhat later we have another notice which bears in the same direction.\nThe Sibylline Oracle, which forms the fourth book in the existing\ncollection, is discovered by internal evidence to have been written\nabout A.D. 80[273]. It is plainly a product of Judaism, but its Judaism\ndoes not belong to the normal Pharisaic type. With Essenism it rejects\nsacrifices, even regarding the shedding of blood as a pollution[274],\nand with Essenism also it inculcates the duty of frequent washings[275].\nYet from other indications we are led to the conclusion, that this poem\nwas not written in the interests of Essenism properly so called, but\nrepresents some allied though independent development of Judaism. In\nsome respects at all events its language seems quite inconsistent with\nthe purer type of Essenism[276]. But its general tendency is clear: and\nof its locality there can hardly be a doubt. The affairs of Asia Minor\noccupy a disproportionate space in the poet's description of the past\nand vision of the future. The cities of the M\u00e6ander and its\nneighbourhood, among these Laodicea, are mentioned with emphasis[277].\n\nFootnote 273:\n\n  Its date is fixed by the following allusions. The temple at Jerusalem\n  has been destroyed by Titus (vv. 122 sq.), and the cities of Campania\n  have been overwhelmed in fire and ashes (vv. 127 sq.). Nero has\n  disappeared and his disappearance has been followed by bloody contests\n  in Rome (vv. 116 sq.); but his return is still expected (vv. 134 sq.).\n\nFootnote 274:\n\n  See vv. 27\u201330 \u03bf\u1f33 \u03bd\u03b7\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u1f05\u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03ad\u03c8\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f30\u03b4\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b2\u03c9\u03bc\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2,\n  \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03b1\u1fd6\u03b1 \u03bb\u03af\u03b8\u03c9\u03bd \u1f31\u03b4\u03c1\u03cd\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba\u03c9\u03c6\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f05\u03b9\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f10\u03bc\u03c8\u03cd\u03c7\u03c9\u03bd \u03bc\u03b5\u03bc\u03b9\u03b1\u03c3\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b8\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u1fc3\u03c3\u03b9\n  \u03c4\u03b5\u03c4\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03cc\u03b4\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. In an earlier passage vv. 8 sq. it is said of God,\n  \u03bf\u1f54\u03c4\u03b5 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03bf\u1f34\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9 \u03bd\u03b1\u1ff7 \u03bb\u03af\u03b8\u03bf\u03bd \u1f31\u03b4\u03c1\u03c5\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba\u03c9\u03c6\u03cc\u03c4\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03bd\u03c9\u03b4\u03cc\u03bd \u03c4\u03b5, \u03b2\u03c1\u03bf\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd\n  \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03c5\u03b1\u03bb\u03b3\u03ad\u03b1 \u03bb\u03ce\u03b2\u03b7\u03bd.\n\nFootnote 275:\n\n  ver. 160 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u03b1\u03bc\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bb\u03bf\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 \u1f45\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u03b4\u03ad\u03bc\u03b1\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f10\u03bd\u03ac\u03bf\u03b9\u03c3\u03b9. Another point of\n  contact with the Essenes is the great stress on prayers before meals,\n  ver. 26 \u03b5\u1f50\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03ad\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f76\u03bd \u03c0\u03b9\u03ad\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03c6\u03b1\u03b3\u03ad\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u03b5. Ewald (_Sibyll. B\u00fccher_ p.\n  46) points also to the prominence of the words \u03b5\u1f50\u03c3\u03b5\u03b2\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, \u03b5\u1f50\u03c3\u03b5\u03b2\u03ae\u03c2,\n  \u03b5\u1f50\u03c3\u03b5\u03b2\u03af\u03b1 (vv. 26, 35, 42, 45, 133, 148, 151, 162, 165, 181, 183) to\n  designate the elect of God, as tending in the same direction. The\n  force of this latter argument will depend mainly on the derivation\n  which is given to the name _Essene_. See the appendix.\n\nFootnote 276:\n\n  Thus for instance, Ewald (l.c., p. 47) points to the tacit approval of\n  marriage in ver. 33. I hardly think however that this passage, which\n  merely condemns adultery, can be taken to imply so much. More\n  irreconcilable with pure Essenism is the belief in the resurrection of\n  the body and the future life on earth, which is maintained in vv. 176\n  sq.; though Hilgenfeld (_Zeitschr._ XIV. p. 49) does not recognise the\n  difficulty. See above p. 88. This Sibylline writer was perhaps rather\n  a Hemerobaptist than an Essene. On the relation of the Hemerobaptists\n  and Essenes see the appendix. Alexandre, _Orac. Sibyll._ (II. p. 323),\n  says of this Sibylline Oracle, 'Ipse liber haud dubie Christianus\n  est,' but there is nothing distinctly Christian in its teaching.\n\nFootnote 277:\n\n  vv. 106 sq., 145 sq.; see above p. 40, note 131. It begins \u03ba\u03bb\u1fe6\u03b8\u03b9 \u03bb\u03b5\u1f7c\u03c2\n  \u1f08\u03c3\u03af\u03b7\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b5\u03b3\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03c5\u03c7\u03ad\u03bf\u03c2 \u0395\u1f50\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03b7\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b5.\n\n[Sidenote: Phrygia and Asia congenial to this type of religion.]\n\nAnd certainly the moral and intellectual atmosphere would not be\nunfavourable to the growth of such a plant. The same district, which in\nspeculative philosophy had produced a Thales and a Heraclitus[278], had\ndeveloped in popular religion the worship of the Phrygian Cybele and\nSabazius and of the Ephesian Artemis[279]. Cosmological speculation,\nmystic theosophy, religious fanaticism, all had their home here.\nAssociated with Judaism or with Christianity the natural temperament and\nthe intellectual bias of the people would take a new direction; but the\nold type would not be altogether obliterated. Phrygia reared the hybrid\nmonstrosities of Ophitism[280]. She was the mother of Montanist\nenthusiasm[281], and the foster-mother of Novatian rigorism[282]. The\nsyncretist, the mystic, the devotee, the puritan, would find a congenial\nclimate in these regions of Asia Minor.\n\nFootnote 278:\n\n  The exceptional activity of the forces of nature in these districts of\n  Asia Minor may have directed the speculations of the Ionic school\n  towards physics, and more especially towards cosmogony. In Heraclitus\n  there is also a strong mystical element. But besides such broader\n  affinities, I venture to call attention to special dicta of the two\n  philosophers mentioned in the text, which curiously recall the tenets\n  of the Jud\u00e6o-Gnostic teachers. Thales declared (Diog. Laert. i. 27)\n  \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd \u1f14\u03bc\u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b1\u03b9\u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03b7, or, as reported by Aristotle\n  (_de An._ i. 5, p. 411), \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03b7 \u03b8\u03b5\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30^\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9. In a recorded\n  saying of Heraclitus we have the very language of a Gnostic teacher;\n  Clem. Alex. _Strom._ v. 13, p. 699, _\u03c4\u1f70 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b2\u03ac\u03b8\u03b7\n  \u03ba\u03c1\u03cd\u03c0\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd_ \u1f00\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03af\u03b7 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03b8\u03ae, \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8' \u1f29\u03b7\u03c1\u03ac\u03ba\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd\u00b7 \u1f00\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03af\u03b7 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c6\u03c5\u03b3\u03b3\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\n  \u03c4\u1f78 \u03bc\u1f74 \u03b3\u03b9\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9. See above pp. 77, 92.\n\nFootnote 279:\n\n  For the characteristic features of Phrygian religious worship see\n  Steiger _Kolosser_ p. 70 sq.\n\nFootnote 280:\n\n  The prominence, which the Phrygian mysteries and Phrygian rites held\n  in the syncretism of the Ophites, is clear from the account of\n  Hippolytus _H\u00e6r._ v. 7 sq. Indeed Phrygia appears to have been the\n  proper home of Ophitism. Yet the admixture of Judaic elements is not\n  less obvious, as their name _Naassene_, derived from the Hebrew word\n  for a serpent, shows.\n\nFootnote 281:\n\n  The name, by which the Montanists were commonly known in the early\n  ages, was the sect of the 'Phrygians'; Clem. _Strom._ vii. 17, p. 900\n  \u03b1\u1f31 \u03b4\u1f72 [\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b1\u1f31\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03ad\u03c9\u03bd] \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u1f14\u03b8\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 [\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b1\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03b5\u03cd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9], \u1f61\u03c2 \u1f21 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03a6\u03c1\u03c5\u03b3\u1ff6\u03bd\n  (comp. Eus. _H.E._ iv. 27, v. 16, Hipp. _H\u00e6r._ viii. 19, x. 25). From\n  \u03bf\u1f31 (or \u1f21) \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03a6\u03c1\u03c5\u03b3\u03ac\u03c2 (Eus. _H.E._ ii. 25, v. 16, 18, vi. 20) comes\n  the sol\u0153cistic Latin name _Cataphryges_.\n\nFootnote 282:\n\n  Socrates (iv. 28) accounts for the spread of Novatianism in Phrygia by\n  the \u03c3\u03c9\u03c6\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b7 of the Phrygian temper. If so, it is a striking\n  testimony to the power of Christianity, that under its influence the\n  religious enthusiasm of the Phrygians should have taken this\n  direction, and that they should have exchanged the fanatical orgiasm\n  of their heathen worship for the rigid puritanism of the Novatianist.\n\n                  *       *       *       *       *\n\n[Sidenote: Previous results summed up.]\n\nIt has thus been shown _first_, that Essene Judaism was Gnostic in its\ncharacter; and _secondly_, that this type of Jewish thought and practice\nhad established itself in the Apostolic age in those parts of Asia Minor\nwith which we are more directly concerned. It now remains to examine the\nheresy of the [Sidenote: Is the Colossian heresy Gnostic?] Colossian\nChurch more nearly, and to see whether it deserves the name, which\nprovisionally was given to it, of Gnostic Judaism. Its Judaism all will\nallow. Its claim to be regarded as Gnostic will require a closer\nscrutiny. And in conducting [Sidenote: Three notes of Gnosticism.] this\nexamination, it will be convenient to take the three notes of Gnosticism\nwhich have been already laid down, and to enquire how far it satisfies\nthese tests.\n\n[Sidenote: 1. Intellectual exclusiveness.]\n\n1. It has been pointed out that Gnosticism strove to establish, or\nrather to preserve, an _intellectual oligarchy_ in religion. It had its\nhidden wisdom, its exclusive mysteries, its privileged class.\n\nNow I think it will be evident, that St Paul in this epistle [Sidenote:\nSt Paul contends for the universality of the Gospel,] feels himself\nchallenged to contend for the _universality_ of the Gospel. This indeed\nis a characteristic feature of the Apostle's teaching at all times, and\nholds an equally prominent place in the epistles of an earlier date. But\nthe point to be observed is, that the Apostle, in maintaining this\ndoctrine, has changed the mode of his defence; and this fact suggests\nthat there has been a change in the direction of the attack. It is no\nlonger against national exclusiveness, but against intellectual\nexclusiveness, that he contends. His adversaries do not now plead\nceremonial restrictions, or at least do not plead these alone: but they\nerect an artificial barrier of spiritual privilege, even more fatal to\nthe universal claims of the Gospel, because more specious and more\ninsidious. It is not now against Jew as such, but against the Jew become\nGnostic, that he fights the battle of liberty. In other words; it is not\nagainst Christian Pharisaism but against Christian Essenism that he\ndefends his position. Only in the light of such an antagonism can we\nunderstand the emphatic iteration with which he claims to 'warn _every_\nman and teach _every_ man in _every_ wisdom, that he may present\n[Sidenote: against the pretentions of an aristocracy of intellect.]\n_every_ man perfect in Christ Jesus[283].' It will be remembered that\n'wisdom' in Gnostic teaching was the exclusive possession of the few; it\nwill not be forgotten that 'perfection' was the term especially applied\nin their language to this privileged minority, as contradistinguished\nfrom the common herd of believers; and thus it will be readily\nunderstood why St Paul should go on to say that this universality of the\nGospel is the one object of his contention, to which all the energies of\nhis life are directed, and having done so, should express his intense\nanxiety for the Churches of Coloss\u00e6 and the neighbourhood, lest they\nshould be led astray by a spurious wisdom to desert the true\nknowledge[284]. This danger also will enable us to appreciate a novel\nfeature in another passage of the epistle. While dwelling on the\nobliteration of all distinctions in Christ, he repeats his earlier\ncontrasts, 'Greek and Jew,' 'circumcision and uncircumcision,'\n'bondslave and free'; but to these he adds new words which at once give\na wider scope and a more immediate application to the lesson. In Christ\nthe existence of 'barbarian' and even 'Scythian,' the lowest type of\nbarbarian, is extinguished[285]. As culture, civilisation, philosophy,\nknowledge, are no conditions of acceptance, so neither is their absence\nany disqualification in the believer. The aristocracy of intellectual\ndiscernment, which Gnosticism upheld in religion, is abhorrent to the\nfirst principles of the Gospel.\n\nFootnote 283:\n\n  i. 28 \u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03b8\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 _\u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1_ \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03ac\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 _\u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1_\n  \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd _\u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u1fc3_ \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u1fb3 \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03c9\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd _\u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1_ \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd\n  _\u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd_ \u1f10\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. The reiteration has offended the\n  scribes; and the first \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd is omitted in some copies, the\n  second in others. For \u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd see the note on the passage.\n\nFootnote 284:\n\n  The connexion of the sentences should be carefully observed. After the\n  passage quoted in the last note comes the asseveration that this is\n  the one object of the Apostle's preaching (i. 29) \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f43 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03bf\u03c0\u03b9\u1ff6\n  \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.; then the expression of concern on behalf of the Colossians\n  (ii. 1) \u03b8\u03ad\u03bb\u03c9 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03b4\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f21\u03bb\u03af\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u1ff6\u03bd\u03b1 \u1f14\u03c7\u03c9 _\u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1_ \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd\n  \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.; then the desire that they may be brought (ii. 2) \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2\n  _\u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd_ \u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 _\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03c2_ \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03ad\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2, \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2\n  _\u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd_ \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bc\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6; then the definition of this\n  mystery (ii. 2, 3), \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03bd \u1fa7 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c3\u1f76\u03bd _\u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2_ \u03bf\u1f31 \u03b8\u03b7\u03c3\u03b1\u03c5\u03c1\u03bf\u1f76\n  \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.; then the warning against the false teachers (ii. 4) \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03c9\n  \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03bc\u03b7\u03b4\u03b5\u1f76\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03af\u03b6\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\nFootnote 285:\n\n  Col. iii. 11 after \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03bf\u03bc\u1f74 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u03b2\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03af\u03b1 the Apostle adds \u03b2\u03ac\u03c1\u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2,\n  \u03a3\u03ba\u03cd\u03b8\u03b7\u03c2. There is nothing corresponding to this in the parallel\n  passage, Gal. iii. 28.\n\n[Sidenote: He contrasts the true wisdom with the false,]\n\nHence also must be explained the frequent occurrence of the words\n'wisdom' (\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1), 'intelligence' (\u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2), 'knowledge' (\u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2),\n'perfect knowledge' (\u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2), in this epistle[286]. St Paul takes up\nthe language of his opponents, and translates it into a higher sphere.\nThe false teachers put forward a 'philosophy,' but it was only an empty\ndeceit, only a plausible display of false-reasoning[287]. They pretended\n'wisdom,' but it was merely the profession, not the reality[288].\nAgainst these pretentions the Apostle sets the true wisdom of the\nGospel. On its wealth, its fulness, its perfection, he is never tired of\ndwelling[289]. The true wisdom, he would argue, is essentially spiritual\nand yet essentially definite; while the false is argumentative, is\nspeculative, [Sidenote: and dwells on the veritable mystery.] is vague\nand dreamy[290]. Again they had their rites of initiation. St Paul\ncontrasts with these the one universal, comprehensive mystery[291], the\nknowledge of God in Christ. This mystery is complete in itself: it\ncontains 'all the treasures of wisdom and of knowledge hidden' in\nit[292]. Moreover it is offered to all without distinction: though once\nhidden, its revelation is unrestricted, except by the waywardness and\ndisobedience of men. The esoteric spirit of Gnosticism finds no\ncountenance in the Apostle's teaching.\n\nFootnote 286:\n\n  For \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1 see i. 9, 28, ii. 3, iii. 16, iv. 5; for \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 i. 9, ii.\n  2; for \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 ii. 3; for \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 i. 9, 10, ii. 2, iii. 10.\n\nFootnote 287:\n\n  ii. 4 \u03c0\u03b9\u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03af\u03b1, ii. 8 \u03ba\u03b5\u03bd\u1f74 \u1f00\u03c0\u03ac\u03c4\u03b7.\n\nFootnote 288:\n\n  ii. 23 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, where the \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd suggests the contrast of\n  the suppressed clause.\n\nFootnote 289:\n\n  e.g. i. 9, 28, iii. 16 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u1fc3 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u1fb3; ii. 2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03c2. For the\n  'wealth' of this knowledge compare i. 27, ii. 2, iii. 16; and see\n  above p. 44.\n\nFootnote 290:\n\n  ii. 4, 18.\n\nFootnote 291:\n\n  i. 26, 27, ii. 2, iv. 3.\n\nFootnote 292:\n\n  ii. 2 \u1f10\u03bd \u1fa7 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c3\u1f76\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03b8\u03b7\u03c3\u03b1\u03c5\u03c1\u03bf\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2\n  \u1f00\u03c0\u03cc\u03ba\u03c1\u03c5\u03c6\u03bf\u03b9. For the meaning of \u1f00\u03c0\u03cc\u03ba\u03c1\u03c5\u03c6\u03bf\u03b9 see above p. 90, and the note\n  on the passage.\n\n[Sidenote: 2. Speculative tenets.\n           Cosmogony and theology.]\n\n2. From the informing spirit of Gnosticism we turn to the speculative\ntenets\u2014the cosmogony and the theology of the Gnostic.\n\nAnd here too the affinities to Gnosticism reveal themselves in the\nColossian heresy. We cannot fail to observe that the [Sidenote: St Paul\nattacks the doctrine of angelic mediators,] Apostle has in view the\ndoctrine of intermediate agencies, regarded as instruments in the\ncreation and government of the world. Though this tenet is not\ndistinctly mentioned, it is tacitly assumed in the teaching which St\nPaul opposes to it. Against the philosophy of successive evolutions from\nthe Divine nature, angelic mediators forming the successive links in the\nchain which binds the finite to the Infinite, he sets the doctrine\n[Sidenote: setting against it the doctrine of the Word Incarnate,] of\nthe one Eternal Son, the Word of God begotten before the worlds[293].\nThe angelology of the heretics had a twofold bearing; it was intimately\nconnected at once with cosmogony and with religion. Correspondingly St\nPaul represents the mediatorial function of Christ as twofold: it is\nexercised in the natural creation, and it is exercised in the spiritual\ncreation. In both these spheres His initiative is absolute, His control\nis universal, His action is complete. By His agency the world of matter\nwas created and is sustained. He is at once the beginning and the\n[Sidenote: as the reconciler of heaven and earth.] end of the material\nuniverse; 'All things have been created through Him and unto Him.' Nor\nis His office in the spiritual world less complete. In the Church, as in\nthe Universe, He is sole, absolute, supreme; the primary source from\nwhich all life proceeds and the ultimate arbiter in whom all feuds are\nreconciled.\n\nFootnote 293:\n\n  The two great Christological passages are i. 15\u201320, ii. 9\u201315. They\n  will be found to justify the statements in this and the following\n  paragraphs of the text. For the meaning of individual expressions see\n  the notes on the passages.\n\n[Sidenote: His relations to (1) Deity; as God manifested.]\n\nOn the one hand, in relation to Deity, He is the visible image of the\ninvisible God. He is not only the chief manifestation of the Divine\nnature: He exhausts the Godhead manifested. In Him resides the totality\nof the Divine powers and attributes. For this totality Gnostic teachers\nhad a technical [Sidenote: The _pleroma_ resides in Him.] term, the\n_pleroma_ or _plenitude_[294]. From the pleroma they supposed that all\nthose agencies issued, through which God has at any time exerted His\npower in creation, or manifested His will through revelation. These\nmediatorial beings would retain more or less of its influence, according\nas they claimed direct parentage from it or traced their descent through\nsuccessive evolutions. But in all cases this pleroma was distributed,\ndiluted, transformed and darkened by foreign admixture. They were only\npartial and blurred images, often deceptive caricatures, of their\noriginal, broken lights of the great central Light. It is not improbable\nthat, like later speculators of the same school, they found a place\nsomewhere or other in their genealogy of spiritual beings for the\nChrist. If so, St Paul's language becomes doubly significant. But this\nhypothesis is not needed to explain its reference. In contrast to their\ndoctrine, he asserts and repeats the assertion, that the pleroma abides\nabsolutely and wholly in Christ as the Word of God[295]. The entire\nlight is concentrated in Him.\n\nFootnote 294:\n\n  See the detached note on \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1.\n\nFootnote 295:\n\n  i. 19 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b5\u1f50\u03b4\u03cc\u03ba\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9, ii. 9 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7\n  \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b8\u03b5\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03c2.\n\n[Sidenote: (2) Created things; as absolute Lord.]\n\nHence it follows that, as regards created things, His supremacy must be\nabsolute. In heaven as in earth, over things immaterial as over things\nmaterial, He is king. Speculations on the nature of intermediate\nspiritual agencies\u2014their names, their ranks, their offices\u2014were rife in\nthe schools of Jud\u00e6o-Gnostic thought. 'Thrones, dominations, princedoms,\nvirtues, powers'\u2013these formed part of the spiritual nomenclature which\nthey had invented to describe different grades of angelic mediators.\nWithout entering into these speculations, the Apostle asserts that\nChrist is Lord of all, the highest and the lowest, whatever rank they\nmay hold and by whatever name they are called[296], for they are parts\nof creation and He is the source of creation. Through Him they became,\nand unto Him they tend.\n\nFootnote 296:\n\n  See especially i. 16 \u03b5\u1f34\u03c4\u03b5 \u03b8\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b5\u1f34\u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03c5\u03c1\u03b9\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f34\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f34\u03c4\u03b5\n  \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., compared with the parallel passage in Eph. i. 21\n  \u1f51\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03ac\u03bd\u03c9 \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03c5\u03bd\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03c5\u03c1\u03b9\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n  \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f40\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f40\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03b6\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. Compare also ii. 10 \u1f21 \u03ba\u03b5\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u1f74 \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2\n  \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, and ii. 15 \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03ba\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1f70\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2\n  \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\n[Sidenote: Angelolatry is therefore condemned]\n\nHence the worship of angels, which the false teachers inculcated, was\nutterly wrong in principle. The motive of this angelolatry it is not\ndifficult to imagine. There was a show of humility[297], for there was a\nconfession of weakness, in this subservience to inferior mediatorial\nagencies. It was held feasible to grasp at the lower links of the chain\nwhich bound earth to heaven, when heaven itself seemed far beyond the\nreach of man. The successive grades of intermediate beings were as\nsuccessive steps, by which man might mount the ladder leading up to the\nthrone of God. This carefully woven web of sophistry the Apostle tears\nto shreds. The doctrine of the false teachers was based on confident\nassumptions respecting angelic beings of whom they could know nothing.\nIt was moreover a denial of Christ's twofold personality and His\n[Sidenote: as a denial of His perfect mediation.] mediatorial office. It\nfollows from the true conception of Christ's Person, that He and He\nalone can bridge over the chasm between earth and heaven; for He is at\nonce the lowest and the highest. He raises up man to God, for He brings\ndown God to man. Thus the chain is reduced to a single link, this link\nbeing the Word made flesh. As the _pleroma_ resides in Him, so is it\ncommunicated to us through Him[298]. To substitute allegiance to any\nother spiritual mediator is to sever the connexion of the limbs with the\nHead, which is the centre of life and the mainspring of all energy\nthroughout the body[300].\n\nFootnote 297:\n\n  ii. 18 \u03b8\u03ad\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c6\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u1fc3 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b8\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u1fb3 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03b3\u03ad\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\nFootnote 298:\n\n  ii. 10; comp. i. 9.\n\nFootnote 300:\n\n  ii. 18.\n\n[Sidenote: The Apostle's practical inference.]\n\nHence follows the practical conclusion, that, whatever is done, must be\ndone in the name of the Lord[301]. Wives must submit to their husbands\n'in the Lord': children must obey their parents 'in the Lord': servants\nmust work for the masters as working 'unto the Lord[302].' This\niteration, 'in the Lord,' 'unto the Lord,' is not an irrelevant form of\nwords; but arises as an immediate inference from the main idea which\nunderlies the doctrinal portion of the epistle.\n\nFootnote 301:\n\n  iii. 17.\n\nFootnote 302:\n\n  iii. 18, 20, 23.\n\n[Sidenote: 3. Moral results of Gnostic doctrine.]\n\n3. It has been shown that the speculative tenets of Gnosticism might\nlead (and as a matter of fact we know that they did lead) to either of\ntwo practical extremes, to rigid asceticism or to unbridled license. The\nlatter alternative appears to some extent in the heresy of the Pastoral\nEpistles[303], and still more plainly in those of the Catholic\nEpistles[304] and the Apocalypse[305]. It is constantly urged by\nCatholic writers as a reproach against later Gnostic sects[306].\n\nFootnote 303:\n\n  At least in 2 Tim. iii. 1\u20137, where, though the most monstrous\n  developments of the evil were still future, the Apostle's language\n  implies that it had already begun. On the other hand in the picture of\n  the heresy in 1 Tim. iv. 2 the ascetic tendency still predominates.\n\nFootnote 304:\n\n  2 Pet. ii. 10 sq., Jude 8.\n\nFootnote 305:\n\n  Apoc. ii. 14, 20\u201322.\n\nFootnote 306:\n\n  See the notes on Clem. Rom. _Ep._ ii. \u00a7 9.\n\n[Sidenote: Asceticism of the Colossian heresy]\n\nBut the former and nobler extreme was the first impulse of the Gnostic.\nTo escape from the infection of evil by escaping from the domination of\nmatter was his chief anxiety. This appears very plainly in the Colossian\nheresy. Though the prohibitions to which the Apostle alludes might be\nexplained in part by the ordinances of the Mosaic ritual, this\nexplanation will not cover all the facts. Thus for instance drinks are\nmentioned as well as meats[307], though on the former the law of Moses\nis silent. Thus again the rigorous denunciation, 'Touch not, taste not,\nhandle not[308],' seems to go very far beyond the Levitical enactments.\nAnd moreover the _motive_ of these prohibitions [Sidenote: not explained\nby its Judaism.] is Essene rather than Pharisaic, Gnostic rather than\nJewish. These severities of discipline were intended 'to check\nindulgence of the flesh[309].' They professed to treat the body with\nentire disregard, to ignore its cravings and to deny its wants. In\nshort; they betray a strong _ascetic_ tendency[310], of which normal\nJudaism, as represented by the Pharisee, offers no explanation.\n\nFootnote 307:\n\n  ii. 16.\n\nFootnote 308:\n\n  ii. 21.\n\nFootnote 309:\n\n  ii. 23.\n\nFootnote 310:\n\n  Asceticism is of two kinds. There is the asceticism of dualism\n  (whether conscious or unconscious), which springs from a false\n  principle; and there is the asceticism of self-discipline, which is\n  the training of the Christian athlete (1 Cor. ix. 27). I need not say\n  that the remarks in the text apply only to the former.\n\n[Sidenote: St Paul's reply shows its Gnostic bearing.]\n\nAnd St Paul's answer points to the same inference. The difference will\nappear more plainly, if we compare it with his treatment of Pharisaic\nJudaism in the Galatian Church. This epistle offers nothing at all\ncorresponding to his language on that occasion; 'If righteousness be by\nlaw, then Christ died in vain'; 'If ye be circumcised, Christ shall\nprofit you nothing'; 'Christ is nullified for you, whosoever are\njustified by law; ye are fallen from grace[311].' The point of view in\nfact is wholly changed. With these Essene or Gnostic Judaizers the\nMosaic law was neither the motive nor the standard, it was only the\nstarting point, of their austerities. Hence in replying the [Sidenote:\nIt is no longer the contrast of law and grace.] Apostle no longer deals\nwith law, as law; he no longer points the contrast of grace and works;\nbut he enters upon the _moral_ aspects of these ascetic practices. He\ndenounces them, as concentrating the thoughts on earthly and perishable\nthings[312]. He points out that they fail in their purpose, and are\nfound valueless against carnal indulgences[313]. In their place he\noffers the true and only remedy against sin\u2014the elevation of the inner\nlife in Christ, the transference of the affections into a higher\nsphere[314], where the temptations of the flesh are powerless. Thus\ndying with Christ, they will kill all their earthly members[315]. Thus\nrising with Christ, they will be renewed in the image of God their\nCreator[316].\n\nFootnote 311:\n\n  Gal. ii. 21, v. 2, 4.\n\nFootnote 312:\n\n  ii. 8, 20\u201322.\n\nFootnote 313:\n\n  ii. 23 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9\u03bc\u1fc7 \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b9 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u1f74\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2: see the note on\n  these words.\n\nFootnote 314:\n\n  iii. 1, 2.\n\nFootnote 315:\n\n  iii. 3, 5.\n\nFootnote 316:\n\n  iii. 10.\n\n[Sidenote: The truth of the above result tested by]\n\nIn attempting to draw a complete portrait of the Colossian heresy from a\nfew features accidentally exhibited in St Paul's epistle, it has been\nnecessary to supply certain links; and some assurance may not\nunreasonably be required that this has not been done arbitrarily. Nor is\nthis security wanting. In all such cases the test will be twofold. The\nresult must be consistent with itself: and it must do no violence to the\nhistorical conditions under which the phenomena arose.\n\n[Sidenote: (1) Its inherent consistency and symmetry.]\n\n1. In the present instance the former of these tests is fully satisfied.\nThe consistency and the symmetry of the result is its great\nrecommendation. The postulate of a Gnostic type brings the separate\nparts of the representation into direct connexion. The speculative\nopinions and the practical tendencies of the heresy thus explain, and\nare explained by, each other. It is analogous to the hypothesis of the\ncomparative anatomist, who by referring the fossil remains to their\nproper type restores the whole skeleton of some unknown animal from a\nfew bones belonging to different extremities of the body, and without\nthe intermediate and connecting parts. In the one case, as in the other,\nthe result is the justification of the postulate.\n\n[Sidenote: (2) Its place in a historical sequence.]\n\n2. And again; the historical conditions of the problem are carefully\nobserved. It has been shown already, that Judaism in the preceding age\nhad in one of its developments assumed a form which was the natural\nprecursor of the Colossian heresy. In order to complete the argument it\nwill be necessary to show that Christianity in the generation next\nsucceeding exhibited a perverted type, which was its natural outgrowth.\nIf this can be done, the Colossian heresy will take its proper place in\na regular historical sequence.\n\n                  *       *       *       *       *\n\n[Sidenote: Continuance of this type of Jud\u00e6o-Gnosticism in the\n           district.]\n\nI have already pointed out, that the language of St John in the\nApocalypse, which was probably written within a few years of this\nepistle, seems to imply the continuance in this district of the same\ntype of heresy which is here denounced by St Paul[317]. But the notices\nin this book are not more definite than those of the Epistle to the\nColossians itself; and we are led to look outside the Canonical writings\nfor some more explicit evidence. Has early Christian history then\npreserved any record of a distinctly Gnostic school existing on the\nconfines of the Apostolic age, which may be considered a legitimate\ndevelopment of the phase of religious speculation that confronts us\nhere?\n\nFootnote 317:\n\n  See above p. 41 sq.\n\n[Sidenote: Heresy of Cerinthus.]\n\n[Sidenote: His date and place.]\n\nWe find exactly the phenomenon which we are seeking in the heresy of\nCerinthus[318]. The time, the place, the circumstances, all agree. This\nheresiarch is said to have been originally a native of Alexandria[319];\nbut proconsular Asia is allowed on all hands to have been the scene of\nhis activity as a teacher[320]. He lived and taught at the close of the\nApostolic age, that is, in the latest decade of the first century. Some\nwriters indeed make him an antagonist of St Peter and St Paul[321], but\ntheir authority is not trustworthy, nor is this very early date at all\nprobable. But there can be no reasonable doubt that he was a\ncontemporary of St John, who was related by Polycarp to have denounced\nhim face to face on one memorable occasion[322], and is moreover said by\nIren\u00e6us to have written his Gospel with the direct object of confuting\nhis errors[323].\n\nFootnote 318:\n\n  The relation of Cerinthus to the Colossian heresy is briefly indicated\n  by Neander _Planting of Christianity_ I. p. 325 sq. (Eng. Trans.). It\n  has been remarked by other writers also, both earlier and later. The\n  subject appeared to me to deserve a fuller investigation than it has\n  yet received.\n\nFootnote 319:\n\n  Hippol. _H\u00e6r._ vii. 33 \u0391\u1f30\u03b3\u03c5\u03c0\u03c4\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03b9\u03b4\u03b5\u03af\u1fb3 \u1f00\u03c3\u03ba\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03c2, x. 21 \u1f41 \u1f10\u03bd \u0391\u1f30\u03b3\u03cd\u03c0\u03c4\u1ff3\n  \u1f00\u03c3\u03ba\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03c2, Theodoret. _H\u00e6r. Fab._ ii. 3 \u1f10\u03bd \u0391\u1f30\u03b3\u03cd\u03c0\u03c4\u1ff3 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b5\u00ee\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03af\u03c8\u03b1\u03c2\n  \u03c7\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd.\n\nFootnote 320:\n\n  Iren. i. 26. 1 'et Cerinthus autem quidam ... in Asia docuit,'\n  Epiphan. _H\u00e6r._ xxviii. 1 \u1f10\u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf \u03b4\u1f72 \u03bf\u1f57\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f41 \u039a\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03bd\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f08\u03c3\u03af\u1fb3\n  \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03af\u03b2\u03c9\u03bd, \u03ba\u1f00\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b5 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03b7\u03c1\u03cd\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2, Theodoret. 1.\n  c. \u1f55\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f08\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u1f00\u03c6\u03af\u03ba\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf. The scene of his encounter with St\n  John in the bath is placed at Ephesus: see below, note 322.\n\nFootnote 321:\n\n  Epiphanius (xxviii. 2 sq.) represents him as the ringleader of the\n  Judaizing opponents of the Apostles in the Acts and Epistles to the\n  Corinthians and Galatians. Philastrius (_H\u00e6r._ 36) takes the same\n  line.]\n\nFootnote 322:\n\n  The well-known story of the encounter between St John and Cerinthus in\n  the bath is related by Iren\u00e6us (iii. 3. 4) on the authority of\n  Polycarp, who appears from the sequence of Iren\u00e6us' narrative to have\n  told it at Rome, when he paid his visit to Anicetus; \u1f43\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76\n  \u1f08\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ae\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b4\u03b7\u03bc\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc4 \u1fec\u03ce\u03bc\u1fc3 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd \u03b1\u1f31\u03c1\u03b5\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03bd\n  \u1f10\u03c0\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03b5\u03c8\u03b5\u03bd ... \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c3\u1f76\u03bd \u03bf\u1f31 \u1f00\u03ba\u03b7\u03ba\u03bf\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u00fb \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f38\u03c9\u03ac\u03bd\u03bd\u03b7\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\nFootnote 323:\n\n  Iren. iii. II. 1.\n\n[Sidenote: Cerinthus a link between Judaism and Gnosticism.]\n\n'Cerinthus,' writes Neander, 'is best entitled to be considered as the\nintermediate link between the Judaizing and the Gnostic sects.' 'Even\namong the ancients,' he adds, 'opposite reports respecting his doctrines\nhave been given from opposite points of view, according as the Gnostic\nor the Judaizing element was exclusively insisted upon: and the dispute\non this point has been kept up even to modern times. In point of\nchronology too Cerinthus may be regarded as representing the principle\nin its transition from Judaism to Gnosticism[324].'\n\nFootnote 324:\n\n  _Church History_ II. p. 42 (Bohn's Trans.).\n\n[Sidenote: Judaism still prominent in his system]\n\nOf his Judaism no doubt has been or can be entertained. The gross\nChiliastic doctrine ascribed to him[325], even though it may have been\nexaggerated in the representations of adverse writers, can only be\nexplained by a Jewish origin. His conception of the Person of Christ was\nEbionite, that is Judaic, in its main features[326]. He is said moreover\nto have enforced the rite of circumcision and to have inculcated the\nobservance of sabbaths[327]. It is related also that the Cerinthians,\nlike the Ebionites, accepted the Gospel of St Matthew alone[328].'\n\nFootnote 325:\n\n  See the _Dialogue of Caius and Proclus_ in Euseb. _H.E._ iii. 28,\n  Dionysius of Alexandria, ib. vii. 25, Theodoret. l.c., Augustin.\n  _H\u00e6r._ 8.\n\nFootnote 326:\n\n  See below p. 111.\n\nFootnote 327:\n\n  Epiphan. _H\u00e6r._ xxviii. 4, 5, Philastr. _H\u00e6r._ 36, Augustin. l.c. The\n  statements of these writers would not carry much weight in themselves;\n  but in this instance they are rendered highly probable by the known\n  Judaism of Cerinthus.\n\nFootnote 328:\n\n  Epiphan. _H\u00e6r._ xxviii. 5, xxx. 14, Philastr. _H\u00e6r._ 36.\n\n[Sidenote: though Gnosticism is already aggressive.]\n\nAt the same time, it is said by an ancient writer that his adherence to\nJudaism was only partial[329]. This limitation is doubtless correct. As\nGnostic principles asserted themselves more distinctly, pure Judaism\nnecessarily suffered. All or nearly all the early Gnostic heresies were\nJudaic; and for a time a compromise was effected which involved more or\nless concession on either side. But the ultimate incompatibility of the\ntwo at length became evident, and a precarious alliance was exchanged\nfor an open antagonism. This final result however was not reached till\nthe middle of the second century: and meanwhile it was a question to\nwhat extent Judaism was prepared to make concessions for the sake of\nthis new ally. Even the Jewish Essenes, as we have seen, departed from\nthe orthodox position in the matter of sacrifices; and if we possessed\nfuller information, we should probably find that they made still larger\nconcessions than this. Of the Colossian heretics we can only form a\nconjecture, but the angelology and angelolatry attributed to them point\nto a further step in the same direction. As we pass from them to\nCerinthus we are [Sidenote: Gnostic element in his teaching.] no longer\nleft in doubt; for the Gnostic element has clearly gained the ascendant,\nthough it has not yet driven its rival out of the field. Two\ncharacteristic features in his teaching especially deserve\nconsideration, both as evincing the tendency of his speculations and as\nthrowing back light on the notices in the Colossian Epistle.\n\nFootnote 329:\n\n  Epiphan. _H\u00e6r._ xxviii. 1 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03ad\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f38\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u03ca\u03c3\u03bc\u1ff7 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2.\n\n[Sidenote: 1. His Gnostic Cosmogony]\n\n1. His cosmogony is essentially Gnostic. The great problem of creation\npresented itself to him in the same aspect; and the solution which he\noffered was generically the same. The world, he asserted, was not made\nby the highest God, but by an angel or power far removed from, and\nignorant of, this supreme Being[330]. Other authorities describing his\nsystem speak not of a single power, but of powers, as creating the\nuniverse[331]; but all alike represent this demiurge, or these\ndemiurges, as ignorant of the absolute God. It is moreover stated that\nhe held the Mosaic law to have been given not by the supreme God\nHimself, but by this angel, or one of these angels, who created the\nworld[332].\n\nFootnote 330:\n\n  Iren. i. 26. 1 'Non a primo Deo factum esse mundum docuit, sed a\n  virtute quadam valde separata et distante ab ea principalitate qu\u00e6 est\n  super universa, et ignorante eum qui est super omnia Deum'; Hippol.\n  _H\u00e6r._ vii. 33 \u1f14\u03bb\u03b5\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50\u03c7 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03c1\u03ce\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b3\u03b5\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd,\n  \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb' \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 \u03b4\u03c5\u03bd\u03ac\u03bc\u03ad\u03c9\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b5\u03c7\u03c9\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f45\u03bb\u03b1 \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n  \u1f00\u03b3\u03bd\u03bf\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u0398\u03b5\u03cc\u03bd, x. 21 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 \u03b4\u03c5\u03bd\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03ce\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03b9\u03ba\u1fc6\u03c2,\n  \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u1f7a \u03ba\u03b5\u03c7\u03c9\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b5\u03c3\u03c4\u03ce\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f45\u03bb\u03b1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03b8\u03b5\u03bd\u03c4\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n  \u1f00\u03b3\u03bd\u03bf\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u0398\u03b5\u03cc\u03bd.\n\nFootnote 331:\n\n  Pseudo-Tertull. _H\u00e6r._ 3 'Carpocrates pr\u00e6terea hanc tulit sectam: Unam\n  esse dicit virtutem in superioribus principalem, ex hac prolatos\n  angelos atque virtutes, quos distantes longe a superioribus virtutibus\n  mundum istum in inferioribus partibus condidisse.... Post hunc\n  Cerinthus h\u00e6reticus erupit, similia docens. Nam et ipse mundum\n  institutum esse ab illis dicit'; Epiphan. _H\u00e6r._ xxviii. 1 \u1f15\u03bd\u03b1 \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9\n  \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03b3\u03ad\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd \u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b7\u03ba\u03cc\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd; Theodoret. H. F. ii. 3 \u1f15\u03bd\u03b1 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd\n  \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f45\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd \u0398\u03b5\u03cc\u03bd, \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b4\u03b7\u03bc\u03b9\u03bf\u03c5\u03c1\u03b3\u03cc\u03bd,\n  \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03b4\u03c5\u03bd\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u1f70\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b5\u03c7\u03c9\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u1ff6\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03bd\u03bf\u03bf\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2;\n  Augustin. _H\u00e6r._ 8. The one statement is quite reconcilable with the\n  other. Among those angels by whose instrumentality the world was\n  created, Cerinthus appears to have assigned a position of preeminence\n  to one, whom he regarded as the demiurge in a special sense and under\n  whom the others worked; see Neander _Church History_ II. p. 43.\n\nFootnote 332:\n\n  Pseudo-Tertull. l.c.; Epiphan. _H\u00e6r._ xxviii. 4 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b4\u03b5\u03b4\u03c9\u03ba\u03cc\u03c4\u03b1 \u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd \u1f15\u03bd\u03b1\n  \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03b3\u03ad\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd \u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b7\u03ba\u03cc\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd.\n\n[Sidenote: and consequent angelology.]\n\nFrom these notices it is plain that angelology had an important place in\nhis speculations; and that he employed it to explain the existence of\nevil supposed to be inherent in the physical world, as well as to\naccount for the imperfections of the old dispensation. The 'remote\ndistance' of his angelic demiurge from the supreme God can hardly be\nexplained except on the hypothesis of _successive_ generations of these\nintermediate agencies. Thus his solution is thoroughly Gnostic. At the\nsame time, as contrasted with later and more sharply defined Gnostic\nsystems, the Judaic origin and complexion of his cosmogony is obvious.\nHis intermediate agencies still retain the name and the personality of\nangels, and have not yet given way to those vague idealities which, as\nemanations [Sidenote: Angels of earlier and \u00e6ons of later Gnostics.] or\n\u00e6ons, took their place in later speculations. Thus his theory is linked\non to the angelology of later Judaism founded on the angelic appearances\nrecorded in the Old Testament narrative. And again: while later Gnostics\nrepresent the demiurge and giver of the law as antagonistic to the\nsupreme and good God, Cerinthus does not go beyond postulating his\nignorance. He went as far as he could without breaking entirely with the\nOld Testament and abandoning his Judaic standing-ground.\n\n[Sidenote: Cerinthus a link between the Colossian heresy and later\n           Gnosticism.]\n\nIn these respects Cerinthus is the proper link between the incipient\ngnosis of the Colossian heretics and the mature gnosis of the second\ncentury. In the Colossian epistle we still breathe the atmosphere of\nJewish angelology, nor is there any trace of the _\u00e6on_ of later\nGnosticism[333]; while yet speculation is so far advanced that the\nangels have an important function in explaining the mysteries of the\ncreation and government of the world. On the other hand it has not\nreached the point at which we find it in Cerinthus. Gnostic conceptions\nrespecting the relation of the demiurgic agency to the supreme God would\nappear to have passed through three stages. This relation was\nrepresented first, as imperfect appreciation; next, as entire ignorance;\nlastly, as direct antagonism. The second and third are the standing\npoints of Cerinthus and of the later Gnostic teachers respectively. The\nfirst was probably the position of the Colossian false teachers. The\nimperfections of the natural world, they would urge, were due to the\nlimited capacities of these angels to whom the demiurgic work was\ncommitted, and to their imperfect sympathy with the supreme God; but at\nthe same time they might fitly receive worship as mediators between God\nand man; and indeed humanity seemed in its weakness to need the\nintervention of some such beings less remote from itself than the\nhighest heaven.\n\nFootnote 333:\n\n  I am quite unable to see any reference to the Gnostic conception of an\n  _\u00e6on_ in the passages of the New Testament, which are sometimes quoted\n  in support of this view, e.g., by Baur Paulus p. 428, Burton\n  _Lectures_ p. 111 sq.\n\n[Sidenote: 2. His Christology.]\n\n2. Again the Christology of Cerinthus deserves attention from this point\nof view. Here all our authorities are agreed. As a Judaizer Cerinthus\nheld with the Ebionites that Jesus was only the son of Joseph and Mary,\nborn in the natural way. As a Gnostic he maintained that the Christ\nfirst descended in the form of a dove on the carpenter's son at his\nbaptism; that He revealed to him the unknown Father, and worked miracles\nthrough him: and that at length He took His flight and left him, so that\nJesus alone suffered and rose, while the Christ remained\nimpassible[334]. It would appear also, though this is not certain, that\nhe described this re-ascension of the Christ, as a return 'to His own\n_pleroma_[335].'\n\nFootnote 334:\n\n  Iren. i. 26. 1, Hippol. _H\u00e6r._ vii. 33, x. 21, Epiphan. _H\u00e6r._ xxviii.\n  1, Theodoret. _H. F._ ii. 3. The arguments by which Lipsius\n  (_Gnosticismus_ pp. 245, 258, in Ersch u. Gruber; _Quellenkritik des\n  Epiphanios_ p. 118 sq.) attempts to show that Cerinthus did not\n  separate the Christ from Jesus, and that Iren\u00e6us (and subsequent\n  authors copying him) have wrongly attributed to this heretic the\n  theories of later Gnostics, seem insufficient to outweigh these direct\n  statements. It is more probable that the system of Cerinthus should\n  have admitted some foreign elements not very consistent with his\n  Judaic standing point, than that these writers should have been\n  misinformed. Inconsistency was a necessary condition of Judaic\n  Gnosticism. The point however is comparatively unimportant as\n  affecting my main purpose.\n\nFootnote 335:\n\n  Iren\u00e6us (iii. 11. 1), after speaking of Cerinthus and the Nicolaitans,\n  proceeds 'non, quemadmodum illi dicunt, alterum quidem fabricatorem\n  (i.e. demiurgum), alium autem Patrem Domini: et alium quidem\n  fabricatoris filium, alterum vero de superioribus Christum, quem et\n  impassibilem perseverasse, descendentem in Jesum filium fabricatoris,\n  et iterum _revolasse in suum pleroma_.' The doctrine is precisely that\n  which he has before ascribed to Cerinthus (i. 26. 1), but the mode of\n  statement may have been borrowed from the Nicolaitans or from some\n  later Gnostics. There is however no improbability in the supposition\n  that Cerinthus used the word pleroma in this way; see the detached\n  note on \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 below.\n\n[Sidenote: Approach towards Cerinthian Christology in the Colossian\n           heresy.]\n\nNow it is not clear from St Paul's language what opinions the Colossian\nheretics held respecting the person of our Lord; but we may safely\nassume that he regarded them as inadequate and derogatory. The emphasis,\nwith which he asserts the eternal being and absolute sovereignty of\nChrist, can hardly be explained in any other way. But individual\nexpressions tempt us to conjecture that the same ideas were already\nfloating in the air, which ultimately took form and consistency in the\ntenets of Cerinthus. Thus, when he reiterates the statement that the\n_whole_ pleroma abides _permanently_ in Christ[336], he would appear to\nbe tacitly refuting some opinion which maintained only mutable and\nimperfect relations between the two. When again he speaks of the true\ngospel first taught to the Colossians as the doctrine of 'the Christ,\n_even_ Jesus the Lord[337],' his language might seem to be directed\nagainst the tendency to separate the heavenly Christ from the earthly\nJesus, as though the connexion were only transient. When lastly he\ndwells on the work of reconciliation, as wrought 'through the blood of\nChrist's cross,' 'in the body of His flesh through death[338],' we may\nperhaps infer that he already discerned a disposition to put aside\nChrist's passion as a stumbling-block in the way of philosophical\nreligion. Thus regarded, the Apostle's language gains force and point;\nthough no stress can be laid on explanations which are so largely\nconjectural.\n\nFootnote 336:\n\n  i. 19, ii. 9. See above p. 102, note 295. On the force of \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd\n  see the note on the earlier of the two passages.\n\nFootnote 337:\n\n  ii. 6 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b5\u03bb\u03ac\u03b2\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd, \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u039a\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd.\n\nFootnote 338:\n\n  i. 20, 22.\n\n[Sidenote: The Gnosticism of the Colossians being vague and\n           undeveloped.]\n\nBut if so, the very generality of his language shows that these\nspeculations were still vague and fluctuating. The difference which\nseparates these heretics from Cerinthus may be measured by the greater\nprecision and directness in the Apostolic counter-statement, as we turn\nfrom the Epistle to the Colossians to the Gospel of St John. In this\ninterval, extending over nearly a quarter of a century, speculation had\ntaken a definite shape. The elements of Gnostic theory, which were\nbefore held in solution, had meanwhile crystallized around the facts of\nthe Gospel. Yet still we seem justified, even at the earlier date, in\nspeaking of these general ideas as Gnostic, guarding ourselves at the\nsame time against misunderstanding with the twofold caution, that we\nhere employ the term to express the simplest and most elementary\nconceptions of this tendency of thought, and that we do not postulate\nits use as a distinct designation of any sect or sects at this early\ndate. Thus limited, the view that the writer of this epistle is\ncombating a Gnostic heresy seems free from all objections, while it\nappears necessary to explain his language; and certainly it does not, as\nis sometimes imagined, place any weapon in the hands of those who would\nassail the early date and Apostolic authorship of the epistle.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n\n              _On some points connected with the Essenes._\n\n\n                                   I.\n                            THE NAME ESSENE.\n\n\n[Sidenote: Various forms of the name in Greek.]\n\nThe name is variously written in Greek;\n\n1. \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b7\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2: Joseph. _Ant._ xiii. 5. 9, xiii. 10. 6, xv. 10. 5, xviii. 1.\n  2, 5, _B.J._ ii. 8. 2, 13, _Vit._ 2; Plin. _N.H._ v. 15. 17 (Essenus);\n  Dion Chrys. in Synes. _Dion_ 3; Hippol. _H\u00e6r._ ix. 18, 28 (MS \u1f10\u03c3\u03b7\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2);\n  Epiphan. _H\u00e6r._ p. 28 sq, 127 (ed. Pet.).\n\n2. \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2: Philo II. pp. 457, 471, 632 (ed. Mang.); Hegesippus in\n  Euseb. _H.E._ iv. 22; Porphyr. _de Abstin._ iv. 11. So too Joseph.\n  _B.J._ ii. 7. 3, ii. 20. 4, iii. 2. 1; _Ant._ xv. 10. 4; though in the\n  immediate context of this last passage he writes \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b7\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2, if the\n  common texts may be trusted.\n\n3. \u1f48\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2: Epiphan. _H\u00e6r._ pp. 40 sq., 125, 462. The common texts very\n  frequently make him write \u1f48\u03c3\u03c3\u03b7\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2, but see Dindorf's notes, Epiphan.\n  _Op._ 1. pp. 380, 425. With Epiphanius the Essenes are a Samaritan,\n  the Oss\u00e6ans a Judaic sect. He has evidently got his information from\n  two distinct sources, and does not see that the same persons are\n  intended.\n\n4. \u0399\u1f10\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2, Epiphan. _H\u00e6r._ p. 117. From the connexion the same sect\n  again seems to be meant: but owing to the form Epiphanius conjectures\n  (\u03bf\u1f36\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9) that the name is derived from Jesse, the father of David.\n\n[Sidenote: All etymologies to be rejected which derive the name.]\n\nIf any certain example could be produced where the name occurs in any\nearly Hebrew or Aramaic writing, the question of its derivation would\nprobably be settled; but in the absence of a single decisive instance a\nwide field is opened for conjecture, and critics have not been backward\nin availing themselves of the license. In discussing the claims of the\ndifferent etymologies proposed we may reject:\n\n[Sidenote: (i) From the Greek;]\n\n_First_: derivations from the Greek. Thus Philo connects the word with\n\u1f45\u03c3\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 'holy': _Quod omn. prob._ 12, p. 457 \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03b9 ... \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03bb\u03ad\u03ba\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\n\u1f11\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ce\u03bd\u03c5\u03bc\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f41\u03c3\u03b9\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, \u00a7 13, p. 459 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u1f22 \u1f41\u03c3\u03af\u03c9\u03bd,\n_Fragm._ p. 632 \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03b9, \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f41\u03c3\u03b9\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1, \u03bc\u03bf\u1f76 \u03b4\u03bf\u03ba\u1ff6\n[\u03b4\u03bf\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6;], \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b7\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f00\u03be\u03b9\u03c9\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2. It is not quite clear whether\nPhilo is here playing with words after the manner of his master Plato,\nor whether he holds a pre-established harmony to exist among different\nlanguages by which similar sounds represent similar things, or whether\nlastly he seriously means that the name was directly derived from the\nGreek word \u1f45\u03c3\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2. The last supposition is the least probable; but he\ncertainly does not reject this derivation 'as incorrect' (Ginsburg\n_Essenes_ p. 27), nor can \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ce\u03bd\u03c5\u03bc\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f41\u03c3\u03b9\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 be rendered 'from an\nincorrect derivation from the Greek homonym _hosiotes_' (ib. p. 32),\nsince the word \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ce\u03bd\u03c5\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 never involves the notion of _false_ etymology.\nThe amount of truth which probably underlies Philo's statement will be\nconsidered hereafter. Another Greek derivation is \u1f34\u03c3\u03bf\u03c2, 'companion,\nassociate,' suggested by Rapoport, _Erech Millin_ p. 41. Several others\nagain are suggested by L\u00f6wy, s.v. Ess\u00e4er, e.g. \u1f14\u03c3\u03c9 from their esoteric\ndoctrine, or \u03b1\u1f36\u03c3\u03b1 from their fatalism. All such may be rejected as\ninstances of ingenious trifling, if indeed they deserve to be called\ningenious.\n\n[Sidenote: (ii) From names of persons or places;]\n\n_Secondly_: derivations from proper names whether of persons or of\nplaces. Thus the word has been derived from _Jesse_ the father of David\n(Epiphan. l.c.), or from one \u05d9\u05e9\u05d9 Isai, the disciple of R. Joshua ben\nPerachia who migrated to Egypt in the time of Alexander Jann\u00e6us (L\u00f6w in\n_Ben Chananja_ i. p. 352). Again it has been referred to the town _Essa_\n(a doubtful reading in Joseph. _Ant._ xiii. 15. 3) beyond the Jordan.\nAnd other similar derivations have been suggested.\n\n[Sidenote: From Hebrew roots not supplying the right consonants,]\n\n_Thirdly_: etymologies from the Hebrew or Aramaic, which do not supply\nthe right consonants, or do not supply them in the right order. Under\nthis head several must be rejected;\n\n\u05d0\u05e1\u05e8 _\u0101sar_ 'to bind,' Adler _Volkslehrer_ VI. p. 50, referred to by\n  Ginsburg _Essenes_ p. 29.\n\n\u05d7\u05e1\u05d9\u05d3 _ch\u0101s\u012bd_ 'pious,' which is represented by \u1f08\u03c3\u03b9\u03b4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2 (1 Macc. ii. 42\n  (v. l.), vii. 13, 2 Macc. xiv. 6), and could not possibly assume the\n  form \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2 or \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b7\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2. Yet this derivation appears in Josippon ben\n  Gorion (iv. 6, 7, v. 24, pp. 274, 278, 451), who substitutes\n  _Chasidim_ in narratives where the Essenes are mentioned in the\n  original of Josephus; and it has been adopted by many more recent\n  writers.\n\n\u05e1\u05d7\u05d0 _s'\u0101ch_ 'to bathe,' from which with an _Aleph_ prefixed we might get\n  \u05d0\u05e1\u05d4\u05d0\u05d9 _as'chai_ 'bathers' (a word however which does not occur): Gr\u00e4tz\n  _Gesch. der Juden_ iii. pp. 82, 468.\n\n\u05e6\u05e0\u05d5\u05e2 _tsan\u016ba\u0639_ 'retired, modest,' adopted by Frankel (_Zeitschrift_\n  1846, p. 449, _Monatschrift_ II[. p. 32) after a suggestion by L\u00f6w.\n\n[Sidenote: such as those which make _n_ part of the root.]\n\nTo this category must be assigned those etymologies which contain a \u05d5 as\nthe third consonant of the root; since the comparison of the parallel\nforms \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2 and \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b7\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2 shows that in the latter word the \u03bd is only\nformative. On this ground we must reject:\n\n\u05d7\u05e1\u05d9\u05df _ch\u0101s\u012bn_; see below under \u05e2\u05e9\u05d9\u05df.\n\n\u05d7\u05e6\u05df _ch\u014dtsen_ 'a fold' of a garment, and so supposed to signify the\n\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03af\u03b6\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 or 'apron', which was given to every neophyte among the Essenes\n(Joseph. _B.J._ ii. 8. 5, 7): suggested by Jellinek _Ben Chananja_ IV.\np. 374.\n\n\u05e2\u05e9\u05d9\u05df _\u0639\u0101sh\u012bn_ 'strong': see Cohn in Frankel's _Monatschrift_ VII. p.\n271. This etymology is suggested to explain Epiphanius _H\u00e6r._ p. 40\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f48\u03c3\u03c3\u03b7\u03bd\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f11\u03c1\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03ba\u03b4\u03cc\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f40\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2\n\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u1f78\u03bd \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 ('a sturdy race'). The name 'Essene' is so interpreted\nalso in Makrisi (de Sacy, _Chrestom. Arab._ I. p. 114, 306); but, as he\nhimself writes it with _Elif_ and not _Ain_, it is plain that he got\nthis interpretation from some one else, probably from Epiphanius. The\ncorrect reading however in Epiphanius is \u1f48\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd, not \u1f48\u03c3\u03c3\u03b7\u03bd\u1ff6\u03bd; and it\nwould therefore appear that this father or his informant derived the\nword from the Hebrew root \u05e2\u05df\u05d5 rather than from the Aramaic \u05e2\u05e9\u05df. The\n\u1f48\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03b9 would then be the \u05e2\u05d5\u05d9\u05e1, and this is so far a possible\nderivation, that the _n_ does not enter into the root. Another word\nsuggested to explain the etymology of Epiphanius is the Aramaic \u05d7\u05e1\u05d9\u05df\n_ch\u0101s\u012bn_ 'powerful, strong' (from \u05d4\u05e1\u05df); but this is open to the same\nobjections as \u05e2\u05e9\u05d9\u05df.\n\n[Sidenote: Other derivations considered:]\n\nWhen all such derivations are eliminated as untenable or improbable,\nconsiderable uncertainty still remains. The 1st and 3rd radicals might\nbe any of the gutturals \u05d0,\u05d4,\u05d7,\u05e2; and the Greek \u03c2, as the 2nd radical,\nmight represent any one of several Shemitic sibilants.\n\nThus we have the choice of the following etymologies, which have found\nmore or less favour.\n\n[Sidenote: (1) \u05d0\u05e1\u05d9\u05d0 'a physician';]\n\n(1) \u05d0\u05e1\u05d0 _\u0103s\u0101_ 'to heal,' whence \u05d0\u05e1\u05d9\u05d0 _asy\u0101_, 'a physician.' The Essenes\nare supposed to be so called because Josephus states (_B.J._ ii. 8. 6)\nthat they paid great attention to the qualities of herbs and minerals\nwith a view to the healing of diseases (\u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b8\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03b8\u1ff6\u03bd). This\netymology is supported likewise by an appeal to the name \u03b8\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03c5\u03c4\u03b1\u03af,\nwhich Philo gives to an allied sect in Egypt (_de Vit. Cont._ \u00a7 1, II.\np. 471). It seems highly improbable however, that the ordinary name of\nthe Essenes should have been derived from a pursuit which was merely\nsecondary and incidental; while the supposed analogy of the Therapeut\u00e6\nrests on a wrong interpretation of the word. Philo indeed (l.c.), bent\nupon extracting from it as much moral significance as possible, says,\n\u03b8\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03c5\u03c4\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b8\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03c5\u03c4\u03c1\u03af\u03b4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, \u1f24\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1' \u1f45\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd \u1f30\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03b9\u03ba\u1f74\u03bd\n\u1f10\u03c0\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03ad\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba\u03c1\u03b5\u03af\u03c3\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f21 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b8\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\n\u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd, \u1f10\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03bd\u03b7 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u1f70\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.) \u1f22 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1' \u1f45\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba \u03c6\u03cd\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f31\u03b5\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bd\n\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03b1\u03b9\u03b4\u03b5\u03cd\u03b8\u03b7\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u03b8\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f43\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.: but the latter meaning alone\naccords with the usage of the word; for \u03b8\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03c5\u03c4\u03ae\u03c2, used absolutely,\nsignifies 'a worshipper, devotee,' not 'a physician, healer.' This\netymology of \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2 is ascribed, though wrongly, to Philo by Asaria di\nRossi (_Meor Enayim_ 3, fol. 33 _a_) and has been very widely received.\nAmong more recent writers, who have adopted or favoured it, are\nBellermann (_Ueber Ess\u00e4er u. Therapeuten_ p. 7), Gfr\u00f6rer (_Philo_ II. p.\n341), D\u00e4hne (_Ersch u. Gruber_, s.v.), Baur (_Christl. Kirche der drei\nerst. Jahrh._ p. 20), Herzfeld (_Gesch. des Judenthums_ II. p. 371, 395,\n397 sq.), Geiger (_Urschrift_ p. 126), Derenbourg (_L'Histoire et la\nG\u00e9ographie de la Palestine_ pp. 170, 175, notes), Keim (_Jesus von\nNazara_ I. p. 284 sq.), and Hamburger (_Real-Encyclop\u00e4die f\u00fcr Bibel u.\nTalmud_, s.v.). Several of these writers identify the Essenes with the\nBaithusians (\u05d1\u05d9\u05d4\u05d5\u05e1\u05d9\u05df) of the Talmud, though in the Talmud the\nBaithusians are connected with the Sadducees. This identification was\nsuggested by di Rossi (l.c. fol. 33 _b_), who interprets 'Baithusians'\nas 'the school of the Essenes' (\u05d1\u05d9\u05d7 \u05d0\u05d9\u05e1\u05d9\u05d0): while subsequent writers,\ngoing a step further, have explained it 'the school of the physicians'\n(\u05d1\u05d9\u05d7 \u05d0\u05d9\u05e1\u05d9\u05d0).\n\n[Sidenote: (2) \u05d7\u05d6\u05d9\u05d0 'a seer';]\n\n(2) \u05d7\u05d6\u05d0 _ch\u0103z\u0101_ 'to see', whence \u05d7\u05d6\u05d9\u05d0 _chazy\u0101_ 'a seer', in reference to\nthe prophetic powers which the Essenes claimed, as the result of ascetic\ncontemplation: Joseph. _B.J._ ii. 8. 12 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c3\u1f76 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f43\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70\n\u03bc\u03ad\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03b3\u03b9\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c7\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. For instances of such Essene\nprophets see _Ant._ xiii. II. 2, xv. 10. 5, _B.J._ I. 3. 5, ii. 7. 3.\nSuidas, s.v. \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03b9, says: \u03b8\u03b5\u03c9\u03c1\u03af\u1fb3 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, \u1f14\u03bd\u03b8\u03b5\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf \u03b4\u03b7\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f40\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, \u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c4\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9, \u03b8\u03b5\u03c9\u03c1\u03b7\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03af.\nFor this derivation, which was suggested by Baumgarten (see Bellermann\np. 10) and is adopted by Hilgenfeld (_J\u00fcd. Apocal._ p. 278), there is\nsomething to be said: but \u05d7\u05d6\u05d0 is rather \u1f41\u03c1\u1fb6\u03bd than \u03b8\u03b5\u03c9\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd; and thus it\nmust denote the result rather than the process, the _vision_ which was\nthe privilege of the few rather than the _contemplation_ which was the\nduty of all. Indeed in a later paper (_Zeitschr_. XI. p. 346, 1868)\nHilgenfeld expresses himself doubtfully about this derivation, feeling\nthe difficulty of explaining the \u03c3\u03c2 from the \u05d6. This is a real\nobjection. In the transliteration of the LXX the \u05d6 is persistently\nrepresented by \u03b6, and the \u05e6 by \u03c2. The exceptions to this rule, where the\nmanuscript authority is beyond question, are very few, and in every case\nthey seem capable of explanation by peculiar circumstances.\n\n[Sidenote: (3) \u05e2\u05e9\u05d4 'to do';]\n\n(3) _\u0639\u0101s\u0101h_ 'to do,' so that \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03b9 would signify 'the doers, the\nobservers of the law,' thus referring to the strictness of Essene\npractices: see Oppenheim in Frankel's _Monatschrift_ VII. p. 272 sq. It\nhas been suggested also that, as the Pharisees were especially\ndesignated the teachers, the Essenes were called the 'doers' by a sort\nof antithesis: see an article in Jost's _Annalen_ 1839, p. 145. Thus the\ntalmudic phrase \u05d0\u05e0\u05e9\u05d9 \u05de\u05e2\u05e9\u05d4, interpreted 'men of practice, of good deeds,'\nis supposed to refer to the Essenes (see Frankel's _Zeitschrift_ III. p.\n458, _Monatschrift_ II. p. 70). In some passages indeed (see Surenhuis\n_Mishna_ III. p. 313) it may possibly mean 'workers of miracles' (as\n\u1f14\u03c1\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd Joh. v. 20, vii. 21, x. 25, etc.); but in this sense also it might\nbe explained of the thaumaturgic powers claimed by the Essenes. (See\nbelow, p. 126.) On the use which has been made of a passage in the\n_Aboth_ of R. Nathan c. 37, as supporting this derivation, I shall have\nto speak hereafter. Altogether this etymology has little or nothing to\nrecommend it.\n\nI have reserved to the last the two derivations which seem to deserve\nmost consideration.\n\n[Sidenote: (4) _chasyo_ 'pious';]\n\n(4) \u071a\u0724\u071d _chasi_ (\u071a\u0723\u0710 _ch's\u0113_) or \u071a\u0723\u071d\u0710 _chasyo_, 'pious,' in Syriac. This\nderivation, which is also given by de Sacy (_Chrestom. Arab._ I. p.\n347), is adopted by Ewald (_Gesch. des V. Isr._ IV. p. 484, ed. 3, 1864,\nVII. pp. 154, 477, ed. 2, 1859), who abandons in its favour another\netymology (\u05d4\u05d6\u05df _chazzan_ 'watcher, worshipper' = \u03b8\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03c5\u03c4\u03ae\u03c2) which he\nhad suggested in an earlier edition of his fourth volume (p. 420). It is\nrecommended by the fact that it resembles not only in sound, but in\nmeaning, the Greek \u1f45\u03c3\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2, of which it is a common rendering in the\nPeshito (Acts ii. 27, xiii. 35, Tit. i. 8). Thus it explains the\nderivation given by Philo (see above, p. 115), and it also accounts for\nthe tendency to write \u1f48\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2 for \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2 in Greek. Ewald moreover\npoints out how an Essenizing Sibylline poem (_Orac. Sib._ iv; see above,\np. 96) dwells on the Greek equivalents, \u03b5\u1f50\u03c3\u03b5\u03b2\u03ae\u03c2, \u03b5\u1f50\u03c3\u03b5\u03b2\u03af\u03b7, etc. (vv. 26,\n35, 42 sq., 148 sq., 162, 165 sq., 178 sq., ed. Alexandre), as if they\nhad a special value for the writer: see _Gesch._ VII. p. 154, _Sibyll.\nB\u00fccher_ p. 46. Lipsius (Schenkel's _Bibel-Lexikon_, _s.v._) also\nconsiders this the most probable etymology.\n\n[Sidenote: (5) \u05d7\u05e9\u05d0\u05d9\u05dd 'silent ones.']\n\n(5) \u05d7\u05e9\u05d0 _ch\u0101sh\u0101_ (also \u05d7\u05e9\u05d4) Heb., 'to be silent'; whence \u05d7\u05e9\u05d0\u05d9\u05dd\n_chashsh\u0101\u012bm_ 'the silent ones,' who meditate on mysteries. Jost (_Gesch.\nd. Judenth._ I. p. 207) believes that this was the derivation accepted\nby Josephus, since he elsewhere (_Ant._ iii. 7. 5, iii. 8. 9) writes out\n\u05d7\u05e9\u05df, _ch\u014dshen_ 'the high-priest's breast-plate' (Exod. xxviii. 15 sq),\n\u1f10\u03c3\u03c3\u03ae\u03bd or \u1f10\u03c3\u03c3\u03ae\u03bd\u03b7\u03c2 in Greek, and explains it \u03c3\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9, \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd\n\u1f19\u03bb\u03bb\u03ae\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd \u03b3\u03bb\u1ff6\u03c4\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd \u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bf\u03bd (i.e. the 'place of oracles' or 'of reason':\ncomp. Philo _de Mon._ ii. \u00a7 5, II. p. 226 \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03c4\u03cd\u03bc\u03c9\u03c2,\n\u1f10\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03b4\u1f74 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f10\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03af\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b5\u03b4\u03b7\u03bc\u03b9\u03bf\u03cd\u03c1\u03b3\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.),\nas it is translated in the LXX. Even though modern critics should be\nright in connecting \u05d7\u05e9\u05df with the Arab. \ufea3\u0633\u0646 'pulcher fuit, ornavit' (see\nGesen. _Thes._ p. 535, s.v.), the other derivation may have prevailed in\nJosephus' time. We may illustrate this derivation by Josephus'\ndescription of the Essenes, _B.J._ ii. 8. 5 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f14\u03be\u03c9\u03b8\u03b5\u03bd \u1f61\u03c2 \u03bc\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03cc\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9\n\u03c6\u03c1\u03b9\u03ba\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f21 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f14\u03bd\u03b4\u03bf\u03bd \u03c3\u03b9\u03c9\u03c0\u1f74 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03c6\u03b1\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9; and perhaps this will also\nexplain the Greek equivalent \u03b8\u03b5\u03c9\u03c1\u03b7\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03af, which Suidas gives for \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03b9.\nThe use of the Hebrew word \u05d7\u05e9\u05d0\u05d9\u05dd in Mishna _Shekalim_ v. 6, though we\nneed not suppose that the Essenes are there meant, will serve to show\nhow it might be adopted as the name of the sect. On this word see Levy\n_Chald\u00e4isches W\u00f6rterbuch_ p. 287. On the whole this seems the most\nprobable etymology of any, though it has not found so much favour as the\nlast. At all events the rules of transliteration are entirely satisfied,\nand this can hardly be said of the other derivations which come into\ncompetition with it.\n\n\n                                   2.\n                 ORIGIN AND AFFINITIES OF THE ESSENES.\n\n[Sidenote: The principle of the restoration.]\n\nThe ruling principle of the Restoration under Ezra was the isolation of\nthe Jewish people from all influences of the surrounding nations. Only\nby the rigorous application of this principle was it possible to guard\nthe nationality of the Hebrews, and thus to preserve the sacred deposit\nof religious truth of which this nationality was the husk. Hence the\nstrictest attention was paid to the Levitical ordinances, and more\nespecially to those which aimed at ceremonial purity. The principle,\nwhich was thus distinctly asserted at the period of the national\nrevival, gained force and concentration at a later date from the active\nantagonism to which the patriotic Jews were driven by the religious and\npolitical aggressions of the Syrian kings. During the Maccab\u00e6an wars we\nread of a party or sect [Sidenote: Rise of the Asid\u00e6ans.] called the\n_Chasidim_ or _Asid\u00e6ans_ (\u1f08\u03c3\u03b9\u03b4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03b9), the 'pious' or 'devout,' who\nzealous in their observance of the ceremonial law stoutly resisted any\nconcession to the practices of Hellenism, and took their place in the\nvan of the struggle with their national enemies, the Antiochene monarchs\n(1 Macc. ii. 42, vii. 13, 2 Macc. xiv. 6). But, though their names\nappear now for the first time, they are not mentioned as a newly formed\nparty; and it is probable that they had their origin at a much earlier\ndate.\n\nThe subsequent history of this tendency to exclusiveness and isolation\nis wrapt in the same obscurity. At a somewhat later date [Sidenote:\nPharisaism and Essenism traced to the same principle.] it is exhibited\nin the _Pharisees_ and the _Essenes_; but whether these were\nhistorically connected with the Chasidim as divergent offshoots of the\noriginal sect, or whether they represent independent developments of the\nsame principle, we are without the proper data for deciding. The\nprinciple itself appears in the name of the Pharisees, which, as\ndenoting 'separation,' points to the avoidance of all foreign and\ncontaminating influences. On the other hand the meaning of the name\n_Essene_ is uncertain, for the attempt to derive it directly from\n_Chasidim_ must be abandoned; but the tendency of the sect is\nunmistakeable. If with the Pharisees ceremonial purity was a principal\naim, with the Essenes it was an absorbing passion. It was enforced and\nguarded moreover by a special organization. While the Pharisees were a\nsect, the Essenes were an order. Like the Pythagoreans in Magna Gr\u00e6cia\nand the Buddhists in India before them, like the Christian monks of the\nEgyptian and Syrian deserts after them, they were formed into a\nreligious brotherhood, fenced about by minute and rigid rules, and\ncarefully guarded from any contamination with the outer world.\n\n[Sidenote: Foreign elements in Essenism.]\n\nThus the sect may have arisen in the heart of Judaism. The idea of\nceremonial purity was essentially Judaic. But still, when we turn to the\nrepresentations of Philo and Josephus, it is impossible to overlook\nother traits which betoken foreign affinities. Whatever the Essenes may\nhave been in their origin, at the Christian era at least and in the\nApostolic age they no longer represented the current type of religious\nthought and practice among the Jews. This foreign element has been\nderived by some from the Pythagoreans, by others from the Syrians or\nPersians or even from the farther East; but, whether Greek or Oriental,\nits existence has until lately been almost universally allowed.\n\n[Sidenote: Frankel's theory well received,]\n\nThe investigations of Frankel, published first in 1846 in his\n_Zeitschrift_, and continued in 1853 in his _Monatschrift_, have given a\ndifferent direction to current opinion. Frankel maintains that Essenism\nwas a purely indigenous growth, that it is only Pharisaism in an\nexaggerated form, and that it has nothing distinctive and owes nothing,\nor next to nothing, to foreign influences. To establish this point, he\ndisparages the representations of Philo and Josephus as  to suit\nthe tastes of their heathen readers, while in their place he brings\nforward as authorities a number of passages from talmudical and\nrabbinical writings, in which he discovers references to this sect. In\nthis view he is followed implicitly by some later writers, and has\nlargely influenced the opinions of others; while nearly all speak of his\ninvestigations as throwing great light on the subject.\n\n[Sidenote: but groundless and misleading.]\n\nIt is perhaps dangerous to dissent from a view which has found so much\nfavour; but nevertheless I am obliged to confess my belief that,\nwhatever value Frankel's investigations may have as contributions to our\nknowledge of Jewish religious thought and practice, they throw little or\nno light on the Essenes specially; and that the blind acceptance of his\nresults by later writers has greatly obscured the distinctive features\nof this sect. I cannot but think that any one, who will investigate\nFrankel's references and test his results step by step, will arrive at\nthe conclusion to which I myself have been led, that his talmudical\nresearches have left our knowledge of this sect where it was before, and\nthat we must still refer to Josephus and Philo for any precise\ninformation respecting them.\n\n[Sidenote: His double derivation of the name.]\n\nFrankel starts from the etymology of the name. He supposes that \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2,\n\u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b7\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2, represent two different Hebrew words, the former \u05d7\u05e1\u05d9\u05d3 _ch\u0101s\u012bd_,\nthe latter \u05e6\u05e0\u05d5\u05e2 _tsan\u016ba\u0639_, both clothed in suitable Greek dresses[339].\nWherever therefore either of these words occurs, there is, or there may\nbe, a direct reference to the Essenes.\n\nFootnote 339:\n\n  _Zeitschrift_ p. 449 'F\u00fcr _Ess\u00e4er_ liegt, wie schon von anderen Seiten\n  bemerkt wurde, das Hebr. \u05d7\u05e1\u05d9\u05d3, f\u00fcr _Essener_, nach einer Bemerkung des\n  Herrn L. L\u00f6w im _Orient_, das Hebr. \u05e6\u05e0\u05d5\u05e2 nahe'; see also pp. 454, 455;\n  _Monatschrift_ p. 32.\n\n[Sidenote: Fatal objections to it.]\n\nIt is not too much to say that these etymologies are impossible; and\nthis for several reasons. (1) The two words \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2, \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b7\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2, are\nplainly duplicate forms of the same Hebrew or Aramaic original, like\n\u03a3\u03b1\u03bc\u03c8\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2 and \u03a3\u03b1\u03bc\u03c8\u03b7\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2 (Epiphan. _H\u00e6r._ pp. 40, 47, 127; and even\n\u03a3\u03b1\u03bc\u03c8\u03af\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 p. 46), \u039d\u03b1\u03b6\u03c9\u03c1\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2 and \u039d\u03b1\u03b6\u03b1\u03c1\u03b7\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2, \u0393\u03b9\u03c4\u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2 and \u0393\u03b9\u03c4\u03c4\u03b7\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2 (Steph.\nByz. s.v., Hippol. _H\u00e6r._ vi. 7), with which we may compare \u0392\u03bf\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2\nand \u0392\u03bf\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03b7\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2, \u039c\u03b5\u03bb\u03b9\u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2 and \u039c\u03b5\u03bb\u03b9\u03c4\u03b7\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2, and numberless other examples.\n(2) Again; when we consider either word singly, the derivation offered\nis attended with the most serious difficulties. There is no reason why\nin \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2 the _d_ should have disappeared from _chasid_, while it is\nhardly possible to conceive that tsanua\u0639 should have taken such an\nincongruous form as \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b7\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2. (3) And lastly; the more important of the\ntwo words, _chasid_, had already a recognised Greek equivalent in\n\u1f08\u03c3\u03b9\u03b4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2; and it seems highly improbable that a form so divergent as\n\u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2 should have taken its place.\n\n[Sidenote: Dependence of the theory on the derivation.]\n\nIndeed Frankel's derivations are generally, if not universally,\nabandoned by later writers; and yet these same writers repeat his\nquotations and accept his results, as if the references were equally\nvalid, though the name of the sect has disappeared. They seem to be\nsatisfied with the stability of the edifice, even when the foundation is\nundermined. Thus for instance Gr\u00e4tz not only maintains after Frankel\nthat the Essenes 'were properly nothing more than stationary or, more\nstrictly speaking, consistently logical (consequente) _Chasidim_,' and\n'that therefore they were not so far removed from the Pharisees that\nthey can be regarded as a separate sect,' and 'accepts entirely these\nresults' which, as he says, 'rest on critical investigation' (III. p.\n463), but even boldly translates _chasiduth_ 'the Essene mode of life'\n(ib. 84), though he himself gives a wholly different derivation of the\nword 'Essene,' making it signify 'washers' or 'baptists' (see above, p.\n116). And even those who do not go to this length of inconsistency, yet\navail themselves freely of the passages where _chasid_ occurs, and\ninterpret it of the Essenes, while distinctly repudiating the\netymology[340].\n\nFootnote 340:\n\n  e.g. Keim (p. 286) and Derenbourg (p. 166, 461 sq.), who both derive\n  Essene from \u05d0\u05e1\u05d9\u05d0 'a physician.'\n\n[Sidenote: The term _chasid_ not applied specially to the Essenes.]\n\nBut, although \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2 or \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b7\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2 is not a Greek form of _chasid_, it\nmight still happen that this word was applied to them as an epithet,\nthough not as a proper name. Only in this case the reference ought to be\nunmistakeable, before any conclusions are based upon it. But in fact,\nafter going through all the passages which Frankel gives, it is\nimpossible to feel satisfied that in a single instance there is a direct\nallusion to the Essenes. Sometimes the word seems to refer to the old\nsect of the _Chasidim_ or _Asid\u00e6ans_, as for instance when Jose ben\nJoezer, who lived during the Maccab\u00e6an war, is called a _chasid_[341].\nAt all events this R. Jose is known to have been a married man, for he\nis stated to have disinherited his children (_Baba Bathra_ 133 _b_); and\ntherefore he cannot have belonged to the stricter order of Essenes.\nSometimes it is employed quite generally to denote pious observers of\nthe ceremonial law, as for instance when it is said that with the death\nof certain famous teachers the Chasidim ceased[342]. In this latter\nsense the expression \u05d7\u05e1\u05d9\u05d3\u05d9\u05dd \u05d4\u05e8\u05d0\u05e9\u05d5\u05e0\u05d9\u05dd, 'the ancient or primitive\nChasidim' (_Monatschr._ pp. 31, 62), is perhaps used; for these\nprimitive Chasidim again are mentioned as having wives and\nchildren[343], and it appears also that they were scrupulously exact in\nbringing their sacrificial offerings[344]. Thus it is impossible to\nidentify them with the Essenes, as described by Josephus and Philo. Even\nin those passages of which most has been made, the reference is more\nthan doubtful. Thus great stress is laid on the saying of R. Joshua ben\nChananiah in Mishna _Sotah_ iii. 4, 'The foolish _chasid_ and the clever\nvillain (\u05d7\u05e1\u05d9\u05d3 \u05e9\u05d5\u05d8\u05d4 \u05d5\u05e8\u05e9\u05e2 \u05e2\u05e8\u05d5\u05dd), etc., are the ruin of the world.' But the\nconnexion points to a much more general meaning of _chasid_, and the\nrendering in Surenhuis, '<DW25> pius qui insipiens, improbus qui astutus,'\ngives the correct antithesis. So we might say that there is no one more\nmischievous than the wrong-headed conscientious man. It is true that the\nGemaras illustrate the expression by examples of those who allow an\nover-punctilious regard for external forms to stand in the way of deeds\nof mercy. And perhaps rightly. But there is no reference to any\ndistinctive Essene practices in the illustrations given. Again; the\nsaying in Mishna _Pirke Aboth_ v. 10, 'He who says Mine is thine and\nthine is thine is [a] _chasid_ (\u05e9\u05dc\u05d9 \u05e9\u05dc\u05da \u05d5\u05e9\u05dc\u05da \u05e9\u05dc\u05da \u05d4\u05e1\u05d9\u05d3),' is quoted by\nseveral writers as though it referred to the Essene community of\ngoods[345]. But in the first place the idea of community of goods would\nrequire 'Mine is thine and thine is mine': and in the second place, the\nwhole context, and especially the clause which immediately follows (and\nwhich these writers do not give), 'He who says Thine is mine and mine is\nmine is wicked (\u05e8\u05e9\u05e2),' show plainly that \u05d7\u05e1\u05d9\u05d3 must be taken in its\ngeneral sense 'pious,' and the whole expression implies not reciprocal\ninterchange but individual self-denial.\n\nFootnote 341:\n\n  Mishna _Chagigah_ ii. 7; _Zeitschr._ p. 454, _Monatschr._ pp. 33, 62.\n  See Frankel's own account of this R. Jose in an earlier volume,\n  _Monatschr._ I. p. 405 sq.\n\nFootnote 342:\n\n  _Zeitschr._ p. 457, _Monatschr._ p. 69 sq.; see below, p. 126.\n\nFootnote 343:\n\n  _Niddah_ 38 _a_; see L\u00f6wy s.v. Ess\u00e4er.\n\nFootnote 344:\n\n  Mishna _Kerithuth_ vi. 3, _Nedarim_ 10 a; see _Monatschr._ p. 65.\n\nFootnote 345:\n\n  Thus Gr\u00e4tz (III. p. 81) speaking of the community of goods among the\n  Essenes writes, 'From this view springs the proverb; Every Chassid\n  says; _Mine and thine belong to thee_ (not _me_)' thus giving a turn\n  to the expression which in its original connexion it does not at all\n  justify. Of the existence of such a proverb I have found no traces. It\n  certainly is not suggested in the passage of _Pirke Aboth_. Later in\n  the volume (p. 467) Gr\u00e4tz tacitly alters the words to make them\n  express reciprocation or community of goods, substituting 'Thine is\n  mine' for 'Thine is thine' in the second clause; 'The Chassid must\n  have no property of his own, but must treat it as belonging to the\n  Society (\u05e9\u05dc\u05d9 \u05e9\u05dc\u05da \u05e9\u05dc\u05da \u05e9\u05dc\u05d9 \u05d7\u05e1\u05d9\u05d3).' At least, as he gives no reference, I\n  suppose that he refers to the same passage. In this loose way he\n  treats the whole subject. Keim (p. 294) quotes the passage correctly,\n  but refers it nevertheless to Essene communism.\n\n[Sidenote: Possible connexion of\n           _chasid_ and _chasyo_\n           discussed.]\n\nIt might indeed be urged, though this is not Frankel's plea, that\nsupposing the true etymology of the word \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2, \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b7\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2, to be the\nSyriac \u071a\u0723\u0710, \u071a\u0723\u071d\u0710, _ch's\u0113_, _chasyo_ (a possible derivation), _chasid_\nmight have been its Hebrew equivalent as being similar in sound and\nmeaning, and perhaps ultimately connected in derivation, the exactly\ncorresponding triliteral root \u05d7\u05e1\u05d0 (comp. \u05d7\u05d5\u05dd) not being in use in\nHebrew[346]. But before we accept this explanation we have a right to\ndemand some evidence which, if not demonstrative, is at least\ncircumstantial, that _chasid_ is used of the Essenes: and this we have\nseen is not forthcoming. Moreover, if the Essenes had thus inherited the\nname of the _Chasidim_, we should have expected that its old Greek\nequivalent \u1f08\u03c3\u03b9\u03b4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03b9, which is still used later than the Maccab\u00e6an era,\nwould also have gone with it; rather than that a new Greek word \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2\n(or \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b7\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2) should have been invented to take its place. But indeed the\nSyriac Version of the Old Testament furnishes an argument against this\nconvertibility of the Hebrew _chasid_ and the Syriac _chasyo_, which\nmust be regarded as [Sidenote: Usage is unfavourable to this view.]\nalmost decisive. The numerous passages in the Psalms, where the\nexpressions 'My _chasidim_,' 'His _chasidim_,' occur (xxx. 5, xxxi. 24,\nxxxvii. 28, lii. 11, lxxix. 2, lxxxv. 9, xcvii. 10, cxvi. 15, cxxxii. 9,\ncxlix. 9: comp. xxxii. 6, cxlix. 1, 5) seem to have suggested the\nassumption of the name to the original Asid\u00e6ans. But in such passages\n\u05d7\u05e1\u05d9\u05d3 is commonly, if not universally, rendered in the Peshito not by\n\u071a\u0723\u0710, \u071a\u0723\u071d\u0710, but by a wholly different word \u0719\u0715\u071d\u0729 _zad\u012bk_. And again, in\nthe Books of Maccabees the Syriac rendering for the name \u1f08\u03c3\u03b9\u03b4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03b9,\n_Chasidim_, is a word derived from another quite distinct root. These\nfacts show that the Hebrew _chasid_ and the Syriac _chasyo_ were not\npractically equivalents, so that the one would suggest the other; and\nthus all presumption in favour of a connexion between \u1f08\u03c3\u03b9\u03b4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2 and\n\u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2 is removed.\n\nFootnote 346:\n\n  This is Hitzig's view (_Geschichte des Volkes Israel_ p. 427). He\n  maintains that \"they were called '_Hasidim_' by the later Jews because\n  the Syrian _Essenes_ means exactly the same as '_Hasidim_.'\"\n\n[Sidenote: Frankel's second derivation]\n\nFrankel's other derivation \u05e6\u05e0\u05d5\u05e2, _tsan\u016ba\u0639_, suggested as an equivalent\nto \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b7\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2, has found no favour with later writers, and indeed is too\nfar removed from the Greek form to be tenable. [Sidenote: _tsanua\u0639_\nconsidered.]\n\nNor do the passages quoted by him[347] require or suggest any allusion\nto this sect. Thus in Mishna _Demai_, vi. 6, we are told that the school\nof Hillel permits a certain license in a particular matter, but it is\nadded, 'The \u05e6\u05e0\u05d5\u05e2\u05d9 of the school of Hillel followed the precept of the\nschool of Shammai.' Here, as Frankel himself confesses, the Jerusalem\nTalmud knows nothing about Essenes, but explains the word by \u05d1\u05e9\u05d3\u05d9, i.e.\n'upright, worthy[348]'; while elsewhere, as he allows[349], it must have\nthis general sense. Indeed the mention of the 'school of Hillel' here\nseems to exclude the Essenes. In its comprehensive meaning it will most\nnaturally be taken also in the other passage quoted by Frankel,\n_Kiddushin_ 71 _a_, where it is stated that the pronunciation of the\nsacred name, which formerly was known to all, is now only to be divulged\nto the \u05e6\u05e0\u05d5\u05e2\u05d9\u05dd, i.e. the discreet, among the priests; and in fact it\noccurs in reference to the communication of the same mystery in the\nimmediate context also, where it could not possibly be treated as a\nproper name; \u05e9\u05e6\u05e0\u05d5\u05e2 \u05d5\u05e2\u05e0\u05d9\u05d5 \u05d5\u05e2\u05d5\u05de\u05d3 \u05d1\u05d7\u05e6\u05d9 \u05d9\u05de\u05d9\u05d5, 'who is _discreet_ and meek\nand has reached middle age,' etc.\n\nFootnote 347:\n\n  _Zeitschr_. pp. 455, 457; _Monatschr._ p. 32.\n\nFootnote 348:\n\n  _Monatschr._ p. 32.\n\nFootnote 349:\n\n  _Zeitschr._ p. 455.\n\n[Sidenote: Other supposed etymologies in the Talmud. (1) _Asya_ 'a\n           physician,']\n\nOf other etymologies, which have been suggested, and through which it\nmight be supposed the Essenes are mentioned by name in the Talmud, \u05d0\u05d9\u05e1\u05d0,\n_asya_, 'a physician,' is the one which has found most favour. For the\nreasons given above (p. 117) this derivation seems highly improbable,\nand the passages quoted are quite insufficient to overcome the\nobjections. Of these the strongest is in the Talm. Jerus. _Yoma_ iii. 7,\nwhere we are told that a certain physician\n\n[Sidenote: not supported by the passages quoted in its behalf.]\n\n(\u05d0\u05e1\u05d9) offered to communicate the sacred name to R. Pinchas the son of\nChama, and the latter refused on the ground that he ate of the\ntithes\u2014this being regarded as a disqualification, apparently because it\nwas inconsistent with the highest degree of ceremonial purity[350]. The\nsame story is told with some modifications in Midrash _Qoheleth_ iii.\n11[351]. Here Frankel, though himself (as we have seen) adopting a\ndifferent derivation of the word 'Essene,' yet supposes that this\nparticular physician belonged to the sect, on the sole ground that\nceremonial purity is represented as a qualification for the initiation\ninto the mystery of the Sacred Name. L\u00f6wy (l.c.) denies that the\nallusion to the tithes is rightly interpreted: but even supposing it to\nbe correct, the passage is quite an inadequate basis either for\nFrankel's conclusion that this particular physician was an Essene, or\nfor the derivation of the word Essene which others maintain. Again, in\nthe statement of Talm. Jerus. _Kethuboth_ ii. 3, that correct\nmanuscripts were called books of \u05d0\u05e1\u05d9[352], the word _Asi_ is generally\ntaken as a proper name. But even if this interpretation be false, there\nis absolutely nothing in the context which suggests any allusion to the\nEssenes[353]. In like manner the passage from _Sanhedrin_ 99 _b_, where\na physician is mentioned[354], supports no such inference. Indeed, as\nthis last passage relates to the family of the _Asi_, he obviously can\nhave had no connexion with the celibate Essenes.\n\nFootnote 350:\n\n  Frankel _Monatschr._ p. 71: comp. Derenbourg p. 170 sq.\n\nFootnote 351:\n\n  See L\u00f6wy _Krit.-Talm. Lex._ s.v. Ess\u00e4er.\n\nFootnote 352:\n\n  Urged in favour of this derivation by Herzfeld II. p. 398.\n\nFootnote 353:\n\n  The oath taken by the Essenes (Joseph. _B.J._ ii. 8. 7) \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\n  ... \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f31\u03c1\u03ad\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b2\u03b9\u03b2\u03bb\u03af\u03b1 can have nothing to do with accuracy\n  in transcribing copies, as Herzfeld (II. pp. 398, 407) seems to think.\n  The natural meaning of \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, 'to keep safe or close' and so 'not\n  to divulge' (e.g. Polyb. xxxi. 6. 5 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f10\u03be\u03ad\u03c6\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u03bd\u03ce\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd\n  \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1' \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u1fc7), is also the meaning suggested here by the\n  context.\n\nFootnote 354:\n\n  The passage is adduced in support of this derivation by Derenbourg p.\n  175.\n\n[Sidenote: (2) _\u0639asah_ 'to do.']\n\nHitherto our search for the name in the Talmud has been unsuccessful.\nOne possibility however still remains. The talmudical writers speak of\ncertain \u05d0\u05e0\u05e9\u05d9 \u05de\u05e2\u05e9\u05d4 'men of deeds'; and if (as some suppose) the name\nEssene is derived from \u05e2\u05e9\u05d4, have we not here the mention which we are\nseeking? Frankel rejects the etymology, but presses the\nidentification[355]. The expression, he urges, is often used in\nconnexion with _chasidim_. It signifies 'miracle workers,' and therefore\naptly describes the supernatural powers supposed to be exercised by the\nEssenes[356]. Thus we are informed in Mishna _Sotah_ ix. 15, that 'When\nR. Chaninah ben Dosa died, the men of deeds ceased; when R. Jose Ketinta\ndied, the chasidim ceased.' In the Jerusalem Talmud however this mishna\nis read, 'With the death of R. Chaninah ben Dosa and R. Jose Ketinta the\nchasidim ceased'; while the Gemara there explains R. Chaninah to have\nbeen one of the \u05de\u05e2\u05e9\u05d4 \u05d0\u05e0\u05e9\u05d9. Thus, Frankel concludes, 'the identity of\nthese with \u05d4\u05e1\u05d9\u05d3\u05d9\u05dd becomes still more plain.' Now it seems clear that\nthis expression \u05d0\u05e0\u05e9\u05d9 \u05de\u05e2\u05e9\u05d4 in some places cannot refer to miraculous\npowers, but must mean 'men of practical goodness,' as for instance in\n_Succah_ 51_a_, 53_a_; and being a general term expressive of moral\nexcellence, it is naturally connected with _chasidim_, which is likewise\na general term expressive of piety and goodness. Nor is there any reason\nwhy it should not always be taken in this sense. It is true that stories\nare told elsewhere of this R. Chaninah, which ascribe miraculous powers\nto him[357], and hence there is a temptation to translate it\n'wonder-worker,' as applied to him. But the reason is quite\ninsufficient. Moreover it must be observed that R. Chaninah's wife is a\nprominent person in the legends of his miracles reported in _Taanith_ 24\n_b_; and thus we need hardly stop to discuss the possible meanings of\n\u05d0\u05e0\u05e9\u05d9 \u05de\u05e2\u05e9\u05d4, since his claims to being considered an Essene are barred at\nthe outset by this fact[358].\n\nFootnote 355:\n\n  See _Zeitschr._ p 438, _Monatschr._ pp. 68\u201370.\n\nFootnote 356:\n\n  See above, p. 118.\n\nFootnote 357:\n\n  _Taanith_ 24_b_, _Yoma_ 53_b_; see Surenhuis _Mishna_ III. p. 313.\n\nFootnote 358:\n\n  In this and similar cases it is unnecessary to consider whether the\n  persons mentioned might have belonged to those looser disciples of\n  Essenism, who married (see above, p. 85): because the identification\n  is meaningless unless they belonged to the strict order itself.\n\nIt has been asserted indeed by a recent author, that one very ancient\nJewish writer distinctly adopts this derivation, and as distinctly\nstates that the Essenes were a class of Pharisees[359]. If this were the\ncase, Frankel's theory, though not his etymology, would receive a\nstriking confirmation: and it is therefore important to enquire on what\nfoundation the assertion rests.\n\nFootnote 359:\n\n  Ginsburg in Kitto's _Cyclop\u00e6dia_ s.v., I. p. 829: comp. _Essenes_ pp.\n  22, 28.\n\n[Sidenote: The authority for this derivation traced to an error.]\n\nDr Ginsburg's authority for this statement is a passage from the _Aboth_\nof Rabbi Nathan, c. 37, which, as he gives it, appears conclusive;\n'There are eight kinds of Pharisees ... and those Pharisees who live in\ncelibacy are Essenes.' But what are the facts of the case? _First_; This\nbook was certainly not written by its reputed author, the R. Nathan who\nwas vice-president under the younger Gamaliel about A. D. 140. It may\npossibly have been founded on an earlier treatise by that famous\nteacher, though even this is very doubtful: but in its present form it\nis a comparatively modern work. On this point all or almost all recent\nwriters on Hebrew literature are agreed[360]. _Secondly_; Dr Ginsburg\nhas taken the reading \u05de\u05d7\u05d5\u05e4\u05ea\u05d5 \u05e2\u05e9\u05d0\u05e0\u05d9, without even mentioning any\nalternative. Whether the words so read are capable of the meaning which\nhe has assigned to them, may be highly questionable; but at all events\nthis cannot have been the original reading, as the parallel passages,\nBabl. Sotah fol. 22_b_, Jerus. _Sotah_ v. 5, Jerus. _Berakhoth_ ix. 5,\n(quoted by Buxtorf and Levy, s.v. \u05e4\u05e8\u05d9\u05e9), distinctly prove. In Babl.\n_Sotah_ l.c., the corresponding expression is \u05de\u05d4 \u05d4\u05d5\u05d1\u05ea\u05d9 \u05d5\u05d0\u05e2\u05e9\u05e0\u05d4 'What is\nmy duty, and I will do it,' and the passage in Jerus. _Berakhoth_ l.c.\nis to the same effect. These parallels show that the reading \u05de\u05d4 \u05d4\u05d5\u05d1\u05ea\u05d9\n\u05d5\u05d0\u05e2\u05e9\u05e0\u05d4 must be taken also in _Aboth_ c. 37, so that the passage will be\nrendered, 'The Pharisee _who says_, What is my duty, and I will do it.'\nThus the Essenes and celibacy disappear together. _Lastly_; Inasmuch as\nDr Ginsburg himself takes a wholly different view of the name Essene,\nconnecting it either with \u05d7\u05e6\u05df 'an apron,' or with \u05d4\u05e1\u05d9\u05dd 'pious[361],' it\nis difficult to see how he could translate \u05e2\u05e9\u05d0\u05e0\u05d9 'Essene' (from \u05e2\u05e9\u05d0 'to\ndo') in this passage, except on the supposition that R. Nathan was\nentirely ignorant of the orthography and derivation of the word Essene.\nYet, if such ignorance were conceivable in so ancient a writer, his\nauthority on this question would be absolutely worthless. But indeed Dr\nGinsburg would appear to have adopted this reference to R. Nathan, with\nthe reading of the passage and the interpretation of the name, from some\nother writer[362]. At all events it is quite inconsistent with his own\nopinion as expressed previously.\n\nFootnote 360:\n\n  e.g. Geiger _Zeitschrift f. J\u00fcdische Theologie_ VI. p. 20 sq.; Zunz\n  _Gottesdienstliche Vortr\u00e4ge_ p. 108 sq.: comp. Steinschneider _Catal.\n  Heb. Bibl. Bodl._ col. 2032 sq. These two last references are given by\n  Dr Ginsburg himself.\n\nFootnote 361:\n\n  _Essenes_ p. 30; comp. _Kitto's Cyclop\u00e6dia_, s.v. Essenes.\n\nFootnote 362:\n\n  It is given by Landsberg in the _Allgemeine Zeitung des Judenthums_\n  1862, no. 33, p. 459, a reference pointed out to me by a friend.\n\n                  *       *       *       *       *\n\n[Sidenote: Are the Essenes alluded to, though not named, in the Talmud?]\n\nBut, though we have not succeeded in finding any direct mention of this\nsect by name in the Talmud, and all the identifications of the word\nEssene with diverse expressions occurring there have failed us on\nexamination, it might still happen that allusions to them were so\nfrequent as to leave no doubt about the persons meant. Their\norganisation or their practices or their tenets might be precisely\ndescribed, though their name was suppressed. Such allusions Frankel\nfinds scattered up and down the Talmud in great profusion.\n\n[Sidenote: (1) The _chaber_ or Associate.]\n\n(1) He sees a reference to the Essenes in the \u05d7\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u05d0 _ch\u0103b\u016bra_ or\n'Society,' which is mentioned several times in talmudical writers[363].\nThe _ch\u0101ber_ (\u05d4\u05d1\u05e8) or 'Associate' is, he supposes, a member of this\nbrotherhood. He is obliged to confess that the word cannot always have\nthis sense, but still he considers this to be a common designation of\nthe Essenes. The chaber was bound to observe certain rules of ceremonial\npurity, and a period of probation was imposed upon him before he was\nadmitted. With this fact Frankel connects the passage in Mishna\n_Chagigah_ ii. 5, 6, where several degrees of ceremonial purity are\nspecified. Having done this, he considers that he has the explanation of\nthe statement in Josephus (_B.J._ ii. 8. 7, 10), that the Essenes were\ndivided into four different grades or orders according to the time of\ntheir continuance in the ascetic practices demanded by the sect.\n\nFootnote 363:\n\n  _Zeitschr_. p. 450 sq., _Monatschr._ pp. 31, 70.\n\n[Sidenote: A passage in _Chagigah_ considered.]\n\nBut in the first place there is no reference direct or indirect to the\nchaber, or indeed to any organisation of any kind, in the passage of\n_Chagigah_. It simply contemplates different degrees of purification as\nqualifying for the performance of certain Levitical rites in an\nascending scale. There is no indication that these lustrations are more\nthan temporary and immediate in their application; and not the faintest\nhint is given of distinct orders of men, each separated from the other\nby formal barriers and each demanding a period of probation before\nadmission from the order below, as was the case with the grades of the\nEssene brotherhood described by Josephus. Moreover the orders in\nJosephus are four in number[364], while the degrees of ceremonial purity\nin _Chagigah_ are five. Frankel indeed is inclined to maintain that only\nfour degrees are intended in _Chagigah_, though this interpretation is\nopposed to the plain sense of the passage. But, even if he should be\nobliged to grant that the number of degrees is five[365], he will not\nsurrender the allusion to the Essenes, but meets the difficulty by\nsupposing (it is a pure hypothesis) that there was a fifth and highest\ndegree of purity among the Essenes, to which very few attained, and\nwhich, as I understand him, is not mentioned by Josephus on this\naccount. But enough has already been said to show, that this passage in\n_Chagigah_ can have no connexion with the Essenes and gives no\ncountenance to Frankel's views.\n\nFootnote 364:\n\n  As the notices in Josephus (_B.J._ ii. 8) relating to this point have\n  been frequently misunderstood, it may be well once for all to explain\n  his meaning. The grades of the Essene order are mentioned in two\n  separate notices, apparently, though not really, discordant. (1) In \u00a7\n  10 he says that they are 'divided into four sections according to the\n  duration of their discipline' (\u03b4\u03b9\u1fc4\u03c1\u03b7\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c7\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c3\u03ba\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2\n  \u03bc\u03bf\u03af\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u03ad\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2), adding that the older members are considered to be\n  defiled by contact with the younger, i.e. each superior grade by\n  contact with the inferior. So far his meaning is clear. (2) In \u00a7 8 he\n  states that one who is anxious to become a member of the sect\n  undergoes a year's probation, submitting to discipline but 'remaining\n  outside.' Then, 'after he has given evidence of his perseverance (\u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u1f70\n  \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03be\u03b9\u03bd), his character is tested for two years\n  more; and, if found worthy, he is accordingly admitted into the\n  society.' A comparison with the other passage shows that these two\n  years comprise the period spent in the second and third grades, each\n  extending over a year. After passing through these three stages in\n  three successive years, he enters upon the fourth and highest grade,\n  thus becoming a perfect member.\n\n  It is stated by Dr Ginsburg (_Essenes_ p. 12 sq., comp. Kitto's\n  _Cyclop\u00e6dia_ s.v. p. 828) that the Essenes passed through eight stages\n  'from the beginning of the noviciate to the achievement of the highest\n  spiritual state,' this last stage qualifying them, like Elias, to be\n  forerunners of the Messiah. But it is a pure hypothesis that the\n  Talmudical notices thus combined have anything to do with the Essenes;\n  and, as I shall have occasion to point out afterwards, there is no\n  ground for ascribing to this sect any Messianic expectations whatever.\n\nFootnote 365:\n\n  _Zeitschr._ p. 452, note.\n\n[Sidenote: Difference between]\n\nAs this artificial combination has failed, we are compelled to fall back\non the notices relating to the chaber, and to ask whether [Sidenote: the\nchaber and the Essene.] these suggest any connexion with the account of\nthe Essenes in Josephus. And the facts oblige us to answer this question\nin the negative. Not only do they not suggest such a connexion, but they\nare wholly irreconcilable with the account in the Jewish historian. This\nassociation or confraternity (if indeed the term is applicable to an\norganisation so loose and so comprehensive) was maintained for the sake\nof securing a more accurate study and a better observance of the\nceremonial law. Two grades of purity are mentioned in connexion with it,\ndesignated by different names and presenting some difficulties[366],\ninto which it is not necessary to enter here. A chaber, it would appear,\nwas one who had entered upon the second or higher stage. For this a\nperiod of a year's probation was necessary. The chaber enrolled himself\nin the presence of three others who were already members of the\nassociation. This apparently was all the formality necessary: and in the\ncase of a teacher even this was dispensed with, for being presumably\nacquainted with the law of things clean and unclean he was regarded as\n_ex officio_ a chaber. The chaber was bound to keep himself from\nceremonial defilements, and was thus distinguished from the _[\u0639am\nhaarets_ or common people[367]; but he was under no external\nsurveillance and decided for himself as to his own purity. Moreover he\nwas, or might be a married man: for the doctors disputed whether the\nwives and children of an associate were not themselves to be regarded as\nassociates[368]. In one passage, _Sanhedrin_ 41_a_, it is even assumed,\nas a matter of course, that a woman may be an associate (\u05d7\u05d1\u05e8\u05d4). In\nanother (_Niddah_ 33_b_)[369] there is mention of a Sadducee and even of\na Samaritan as a chaber. An organisation so flexible as this has\nobviously only the most superficial resemblances with the rigid rules of\nthe Essene order; and in many points it presents a direct contrast to\nthe characteristic tenets of that sect.\n\nFootnote 366:\n\n  The entrance into lower grade was described as 'taking \u05d1\u05e0\u05e4\u05d9\u05dd' or\n  'wings.' The meaning of this expression has been the subject of much\n  discussion; see e.g. Herzfeld II. p. 390 sq., Frankel _Monatschr._ p.\n  33 sq.\n\nFootnote 367:\n\n  The contempt with which a chaber would look down upon the vulgar herd,\n  the _\u0639am haarets_, finds expression in the language of the Pharisees,\n  Joh. vii. 49 \u1f41 \u1f44\u03c7\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f57\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f41 \u03bc\u1f74 \u03b3\u03b9\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03ba\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03ac\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03af \u03b5\u1f30\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd.\n  Again in Acts iv. 13, where the Apostles are described as \u1f30\u03b4\u03b9\u1ff6\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, the\n  expression is equivalent to _\u0639am haarets._ See the passages quoted in\n  Buxtorf, _Lex._ p. 1626.\n\nFootnote 368:\n\n  All these particulars and others may be gathered from _Bekhoroth_ 30\n  _b_, Mishna _Demai_ ii. 2, 3, Jerus. _Demai_ ii. 3, v. 1, Tosifta\n  _Demai_ 2, _Aboth R. Nathan_ c. 41.\n\nFootnote 369:\n\n  See Herzfeld II. p. 386.\n\n[Sidenote: (2) The _Bene hakkeneseth_.]\n\n(2) Having discussed Frankel's hypothesis respecting the chaber, I need\nhardly follow his speculations on the _B\u0115n\u0113-hakk\u0115neseth_, \u05d1\u05e0\u05d9 \u05d4\u05db\u05e0\u05e1\u05d7,\n'sons of the congregation' (_Zabim_ iii. 2), in which expression\nprobably few would discover the reference, which he finds, to the lowest\nof the Essene orders[370].\n\nFootnote 370:\n\n  _Monatschr._ p. 35.\n\n[Sidenote: (3) The 'holy congregation at Jerusalem']\n\n(3) But mention is also made of a 'holy congregation' or 'assembly' (\u05e2\u05d3\u05d4\n\u05e7\u05d3\u05d9\u05e9\u05d4 \u05e7\u05d4\u05dc\u05d0 \u05e7\u05d3\u05d9\u05e9\u05d0) 'in Jerusalem'; and, following Rapoport, Frankel sees\nin this expression also an allusion to the Essenes[371]. The grounds for\nthis identification are, that in one passage (_Berakhoth_ 9_b_) they are\nmentioned in connexion with prayer at day break, and in another (Midrash\n_Qoheleth_ ix. 9) two persons are stated to belong to this 'holy\ncongregation,' because they divided their day into three parts, devoting\none-third to learning, another to prayer, and another to work. The first\nnotice would suit the Essenes very well, though the practice mentioned\nwas not so distinctively Essene as to afford any safe ground for this\nhypothesis. Of the second it should be observed, that no such division\nof the day is recorded of the Essenes, and indeed both Josephus (_B.J._\nii. 8. 5) and Philo (_Fragm._ p. 633) describe them as working from\nmorning till night with the single interruption of their mid-day\nmeal[372]. But in fact the identification is beset with other and more\nserious difficulties. For this 'holy congregation' at Jerusalem is\nmentioned long [Sidenote: not an Essene community.] after the second\ndestruction of the city under Hadrian[373], when on Frankel's own\nshowing[374] the Essene society had in all probability ceased to exist.\nAnd again certain members of it, e.g. Jose ben Meshullam (Mishna\n_Bekhoroth_ iii. 3, vi. 1), are represented as uttering precepts\nrespecting animals fit for sacrifice, though we have it on the authority\nof Josephus and Philo that the Essenes avoided the temple sacrifices\naltogether. The probability therefore seems to be that this 'holy\ncongregation' was an assemblage of devout Jews who were drawn to the\nneighbourhood of the sanctuary after the destruction of the nation, and\nwhose practices were regarded with peculiar reverence by the later\nJews[375].\n\nFootnote 371:\n\n  _Zeitschr._ pp. 458, 461, _Monatschr._ pp. 32, 36.\n\nFootnote 372:\n\n  It is added however in Midrash _Qoheleth_ ix. 9 'Some say that they\n  (the holy congregation) devoted the whole of the winter to studying\n  the Scriptures and the summer to work.'\n\nFootnote 373:\n\n  _Monatschr._ p. 32.\n\nFootnote 374:\n\n  _Ib._ p. 70.\n\nFootnote 375:\n\n  See Derenbourg p. 175.\n\n[Sidenote: (4) The _Vethikin_.]\n\n(4) Neither can we with Frankel[376] discern any reference to the\nEssenes in those \u05d5\u05ea\u05d9\u05e7\u05d9\u05d5 _Vethikin_, 'pious' or 'learned' men (whatever\nmay be the exact sense of the word), who are mentioned in _Berakhoth_\n9_b_ as praying before sunrise; because the word itself seems quite\ngeneral, and the practice, though enforced among the Essenes, as we know\nfrom Josephus (_B.J._ ii. 8. 5), would be common to all devout and\nearnest Jews. If we are not justified in saying that these \u05d5\u05ea\u05d9\u05e7\u05d9\u05d5 were\nnot Essenes, we have no sufficient grounds for maintaining that they\nwere.\n\nFootnote 376:\n\n  _Monatschr._ p. 32.\n\n[Sidenote: (5) The 'primitive elders.']\n\n(5) Nor again can we find any such reference in the \u05d6\u05e7\u05e0\u05d9\u05dd or 'primitive\nelders[377].' It may readily be granted that this term is used\nsynonymously, or nearly so, with \u05d4\u05e8\u05d0\u05e9\u05d5\u05e0\u05d9\u05dd \u05d4\u05e1\u05d9\u05d3\u05d9\u05dd 'the primitive\nchasidim'; but, as we failed to see anything more than a general\nexpression in the one, so we are naturally led to take the other in the\nsame sense. The passages where the expression occurs (e.g. _Shabbath_\n64_b_) simply refer to the stricter observances of early times, and do\nnot indicate any reference to a particular society or body of men.\n\nFootnote 377:\n\n  _Monatschr._ pp. 32, 68.\n\n[Sidenote: (6) The 'morning bathers.']\n\n(6) Again Frankel finds another reference to this sect in the \u05d8\u05d1\u05dc\u05d9 \u05e9\u05d7\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\n_T\u014dbl\u0113-shach\u0103r\u012bth_, or 'morning-bathers,' mentioned in Tosifta _Yadayim_\nc. 2[378]. The identity of these with the \u1f21\u03bc\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03b2\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u1f76 of Greek\nwriters seems highly probable. The latter however, though they may have\nhad some affinities with Essene practices and tenets, are nevertheless\ndistinguished from this sect wherever they are mentioned[379]. But the\npoint to be observed is that, even though we should identify these\nToble-shacharith with the Essenes, the passage in Tosifta _Yadayim_, so\nfar from favouring, runs directly counter to Frankel's view which\nregards the Essenes as only a branch of Pharisees: for the two are here\nrepresented as in direct antagonism. The Toble-shacharith say, 'We\ngrieve over you, Pharisees, because you pronounce the (sacred) Name in\nthe morning without having bathed.' The Pharisees retort, 'We grieve\nover you, Toble-shacharith, because you pronounce the Name from this\nbody in which is impurity.'\n\nFootnote 378:\n\n  _Ib._ p. 67.\n\nFootnote 379:\n\n  See below, p. 166.\n\n[Sidenote: (7) The _Banaim_.]\n\n(7) In connexion with the Toble-shacharith we may consider another name,\n_Ban\u0101\u012bm_ (\u05d1\u05e0\u05d0\u05d9\u05dd), in which also Frankel discovers an allusion to the\nEssenes[380]. In Mishna _Mikvaoth_ ix. 6 the word is opposed to \u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\n_b\u014dr_, 'an ignorant or stupid person'; and this points to its proper\nmeaning 'the builders,' i.e. the edifiers or teachers, according to the\ncommon metaphor in Biblical language. The word is discussed in\n_Shabbath_ 114 and explained to mean 'learned.' But, because in\n_Mikvaoth_ it is mentioned in connexion with ceremonial purity, and\nbecause in Josephus the Essenes are stated to have carried an 'axe and\nshovel' (_B.J._ ii. 8. 7, 9), and because moreover the Jewish historian\nin another place (_Vit._ 2) mentions having spent some time with one\nBanus a dweller in the wilderness, who lived on vegetables and fruits\nand bathed often day and night for the sake of purity, and who is\ngenerally considered to have been an Essene; therefore Frankel holds\nthese Banaim to have been Essenes. This is a specimen of the misplaced\ningenuity which distinguishes Frankel's learned speculations on the\nEssenes. Josephus does [Sidenote: Josephus misinterpreted.] not mention\nan 'axe _and_ shovel,' but an axe only (\u00a7 7 \u1f00\u03be\u03b9\u03bd\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd), which he\nafterwards defines more accurately as a spade (\u00a7 9 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c3\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03af\u03b4\u03b9, \u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd\n\u03b3\u03ac\u03c1 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03be\u03b9\u03bd\u03af\u03b4\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bd\u03b5\u03bf\u03c3\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2) and which,\nas he distinctly states, was given them for the purpose of burying\nimpurities out of sight (comp. Deut. xxiii. 12\u201314). Thus it has no\nconnexion whatever with any 'building' implement. And again, it is true\nthat Banus has frequently been regarded as an Essene, but there is\nabsolutely no ground for this supposition. On the contrary the narrative\nof Josephus in his _Life_ seems to [Sidenote: Another derivation of\nBanaim.] exclude it, as I shall have occasion to show hereafter[381]. I\nshould add that Sachs interprets Banaim 'the bathers,' regarding the\nexplanation in _Shabbath_ l.c. as a 'later accommodation[382].' This\nseems to me very improbable; but, if it were conceded, the Banaim would\nthen apparently be connected not with the Essenes, but with the\nHemerobaptists.\n\nFootnote 380:\n\n  _Zeitschr._ p. 455.\n\nFootnote 381:\n\n  See below, p. 161.\n\nFootnote 382:\n\n  _Beitr\u00e4ge_ II. p. 199. In this derivation he is followed by Graetz\n  (III. p. 82, 468) and Derenbourg (p. 166).\n\n                  *       *       *       *       *\n\n[Sidenote: Results of this investigation.]\n\nFrom the preceding investigation it will have appeared how little\nFrankel has succeeded in establishing his thesis that 'the talmudical\nsources are acquainted with the Essenes and make mention of them\nconstantly[383].' We have seen not only that no instance of the name\nEssene has been produced, but that all those passages which are supposed\nto refer to them under other designations, or to describe their\npractices or tenets, fail us on closer examination. In no case can we\nfeel sure that there is any direct reference to this sect, while in most\ncases such reference seems to be excluded by the language or the\nattendant circumstances[384]. Thus we are [Sidenote: Philo and Josephus\nour main authorities.] obliged to fall back upon the representations of\nPhilo and Josephus. Their accounts are penned by eye-witnesses. They are\ndirect and explicit, if not so precise or so full as we could have\nwished. The writers obviously consider that they are describing a\ndistinct and exceptional phenomenon. And it would be a reversal of all\nestablished rules of historical criticism to desert the solid\nstanding-ground of contemporary history for the artificial combinations\nand shadowy hypotheses, which Frankel would substitute in its place.\n\nFootnote 383:\n\n  _Monatschr._ p. 31.\n\nFootnote 384:\n\n  'The attempt to point out the Essenes in our patristic (i.e.\n  rabbinical) literature,' says Herzfeld truly (II. p. 397), 'has led to\n  a splendid hypothesis-hunt (_einer stattlichen Hypothesenjagd_).'\n\n[Sidenote: Frankel's depreciation of them is unreasonable, and explains\n           nothing.]\n\nBut here we are confronted with Frankel's depreciation of these ancient\nwriters, which has been echoed by several later critics. They were\ninterested, it is argued, in making their accounts attractive to their\nheathen contemporaries, and they  them highly for this\npurpose[385]. We may readily allow that they would not be uninfluenced\nby such a motive, but the concession does not touch the main points at\nissue. This aim might have led Josephus, for example, to throw into bold\nrelief the coincidences between the Essenes and Pythagoreans; it might\neven have induced him to give a semi-pagan tinge to the Essene doctrine\nof the future state of the blessed (_B.J._ ii. 8. 11). But it entirely\nfails to explain those peculiarities of the sect, which marked them off\nby a sharp line from orthodox Judaism, and which fully justify the term\n'separatists' as applied to them by a recent writer. In three main\nfeatures especially the portrait of the Essenes retains its distinctive\ncharacter unaffected by this consideration.\n\nFootnote 385:\n\n  _Monatschr._ p. 31.\n\n[Sidenote: (i) The avoidance of sacrifices is not accounted for.]\n\n(i) How, for instance, could this principle of accommodation have led\nboth Philo and Josephus to lay so much stress on their divergence from\nJudaic orthodoxy in the matter of sacrifices? Yet this is perhaps the\nmost crucial note of heresy which is recorded of the Essenes. What was\nthe law to the orthodox Pharisee without the sacrifices, the\ntemple-worship, the hierarchy? Yet the Essene declined to take any part\nin the sacrifices; he had priests of his own independently of the\nLevitical priesthood. On Frankel's hypothesis that Essenism is merely an\nexaggeration of pure Pharisaism, no explanation of this abnormal\nphenomenon can be given. Frankel does indeed attempt to meet the case by\nsome speculations respecting the red-heifer[386], which are so obviously\ninadequate that they have not been repeated by later writers and may\nsafely be passed over in silence here. On this point indeed the language\nof Josephus is not [Sidenote: The notices of Josephus and Philo\nconsidered.] quite explicit. He says (Ant. xviii. 1. 5) that, though\nthey send offerings (\u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03b8\u1fc6\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1) to the temple, they perform no\nsacrifices, and he assigns as the reason their greater strictness as\nregards ceremonial purity (\u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f01\u03b3\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f03\u03c2 \u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03b6\u03bf\u03b9\u03b5\u03bd), adding\nthat 'for this reason being excluded from the common sanctuary\n(\u03c4\u03b5\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03af\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2) they perform their sacrifices by themselves (\u1f10\u03c6' \u03b1\u1f51\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd\n\u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03b8\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9).' Frankel therefore supposes that their only\nreason for abstaining from the temple sacrifices was that according to\ntheir severe notions the temple itself was profaned and therefore unfit\nfor sacrificial worship. But if so, why should it not vitiate the\nofferings, as well as the sacrifices, and make them also unlawful? And\nindeed, where Josephus is vague, Philo is explicit. Philo (II. p. 457)\ndistinctly states that the Essenes being more scrupulous than any in the\nworship of God (\u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bc\u03ac\u03bb\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b8\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03c5\u03c4\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6) do not sacrifice\nanimals (\u03bf\u1f50 \u03b6\u1ff6\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b8\u03cd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2), but hold it right to dedicate their own\nhearts as a worthy offering (\u1f00\u03bb\u03bb' \u1f31\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c0\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03af\u03b1\u03c2\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03c5\u03ac\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u1f00\u03be\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2). Thus the greater strictness, which Josephus\nascribes to them, consists in the abstention from shedding blood, as a\npollution in itself. And, when he speaks of their substituting private\nsacrifices, his own qualifications show that he does not mean the word\nto be taken literally. Their simple meals are their sacrifices; their\nrefectory is their sanctuary; their president is their priest[387]. It\nshould be added also that, though we once hear of an Essene apparently\nwithin the temple precincts (_B.J._ i. 3. 5, _Ant._ xiii. II. 2)[388],\nno mention is ever made of one offering sacrifices. Thus it is clear\nthat with the Essene it was the sacrifices which polluted the temple,\nand not the [Sidenote: Their statements confirmed by the doctrine of\nChristian Essenes.] temple which polluted the sacrifices. And this view\nis further recommended by the fact that it alone will explain the\nposition of their descendants, the Christianized Essenes, who condemned\nthe slaughter of victims on grounds very different from those alleged in\nthe Epistle to the Hebrews, not because they have been superseded by the\nAtonement, but because they are in their very nature repulsive to God;\nnot because they have ceased to be right, but because they never were\nright from the beginning.\n\nFootnote 386:\n\n  _Monatschr._ p. 64.\n\nFootnote 387:\n\n  _B.J._ ii. 8. 5 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03ac\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f05\u03b3\u03b9\u03cc\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9 \u03c4\u03ad\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03b3\u03af\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78\n  \u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03c0\u03bd\u03b7\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd: see also the passages quoted above p. 89, note 255.\n\nFootnote 388:\n\n  See below, p. 142.\n\nIt may be said indeed, that such a view could not be maintained without\nimpugning the authority, or at least disputing the integrity, of the Old\nTestament writings. The sacrificial system is so bound up with the\nMosaic law, that it can only be rejected by the most arbitrary excision.\nThis violent process however, uncritical as it is, was very likely to\nhave been adopted by the Essenes[389]. As a matter of fact, it did\nrecommend itself to those Judaizing Christians who reproduced many of\nthe Essene tenets, and who both theologically and historically may be\nregarded as the lineal [Sidenote: The Clementine Homilies justify this\ndoctrine by arbitrary excision of the Scriptures.] descendants of this\nJudaic sect[390]. Thus in the _Clementine Homilies_, an Ebionite work\nwhich exhibits many Essene features, the chief spokesman St Peter is\nrepresented as laying great stress on the duty of distinguishing the\ntrue and the false elements in the current Scriptures (ii. 38, 51, iii.\n4, 5, 10, 42, 47, 49, 50, comp. xviii. 19). The saying traditionally\nascribed to our Lord, 'Show yourselves approved money-changers' (\u03b3\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5\n\u03c4\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03b6\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b4\u03cc\u03ba\u03b9\u03bc\u03bf\u03b9), is more than once quoted by the Apostle as\nenforcing this duty (ii. 51, iii. 50, xviii. 20). Among these false\nelements he places all those passages which represent God as enjoining\nsacrifices (iii. 45, xviii. 19). It is plain, so he argues, that God did\nnot desire sacrifices, for did He not kill those who lusted after the\ntaste of flesh in the wilderness? and, if the slaughter of animals was\nthus displeasing to Him, how could He possibly have commanded victims to\nbe offered to Himself (iii. 45)? It is equally clear from other\nconsiderations that this was no part of God's genuine law. For instance,\nChrist declared that He came to fulfil every tittle of the Law; yet\nChrist abolished sacrifices (iii. 51). And again, the saying 'I will\nhave mercy and not sacrifice' is a condemnation of this practice (iii.\n56). The true prophet 'hates sacrifices, bloodshed, libations'; he\n'extinguishes the fire of altars' (iii. 26). The frenzy of the lying\nsoothsayer is a mere intoxication produced by the reeking fumes of\nsacrifice (iii. 13). When in the immediate context of these\ndenunciations we find it reckoned among the highest achievements of man\n'to know the _names of angels_, to drive away demons, to endeavour to\nheal diseases by charms (\u03c6\u03b1\u03c1\u03bc\u03b1\u03ba\u03af\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2), [Sidenote: Essene features in this\nwork.] and to find incantations (\u1f10\u03c0\u03b1\u03bf\u03b9\u03b4\u03ac\u03c2) against venomous serpents\n(iii. 36)'; when again St Peter is made to condemn as false those\nscriptures which speak of God swearing, and to set against them Christ's\ncommand 'Let your yea be yea' (iii. 55); we feel how thoroughly this\nstrange production of Ebionite Christianity is saturated with Essene\nideas[391].\n\nFootnote 389:\n\n  Herzfeld (II. p. 403) is unable to reconcile any rejection of the Old\n  Testament Scriptures with the reverence paid to Moses by the Essenes\n  (_B.J._ ii. 8. 9, 10). The Christian Essenes however did combine both\n  these incongruous tenets by the expedient which is explained in the\n  text. Herzfeld himself suggests that allegorical interpretation may\n  have been employed to justify this abstention from the temple\n  sacrifices.\n\nFootnote 390:\n\n  See _Galatians_, p. 310 sq.\n\nFootnote 391:\n\n  Epiphanius (_H\u00e6r._ xviii. I, p. 38) again describes, as the account\n  was handed down to him (\u1f61\u03c2 \u1f41 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bb\u03b8\u1f7c\u03bd \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03ad\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2), the\n  tenets of a Jewish sect which he calls the Nasareans, \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03bf\u1f50\n  \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b5\u03b4\u03ad\u03c7\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03b5\u03bd\u03c4\u03ac\u03c4\u03b5\u03c5\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd, \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u1f61\u03bc\u03bf\u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9, \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u039c\u03c9\u03cb\u03c3\u03ad\u03b1, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9\n  \u1f10\u03b4\u03ad\u03be\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf \u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03bf\u03b8\u03b5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c5\u03b5\u03bd, \u03bf\u1f50 \u03c4\u03b1\u03cd\u03c4\u03b7\u03bd \u03b4\u03ad \u03c6\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb' \u1f11\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd. \u1f45\u03b8\u03b5\u03bd \u03c4\u1f70\n  \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c6\u03c5\u03bb\u03ac\u03c4\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f38\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u03af\u03c9v \u1f38\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f44\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2, \u03b8\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f14\u03b8\u03c5\u03bf\u03bd\n  \u03bf\u1f54\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f10\u03bc\u03c8\u03cd\u03c7\u03c9\u03bd \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd, \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03b8\u03ad\u03bc\u03b9\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u1f26\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03ba\u03c1\u03b5\u1ff6\u03bd\n  \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03bc\u03b2\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u1f22 \u03b8\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03ac\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c2. \u1f14\u03c6\u03b1\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bb\u03ac\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c4\u1f70\n  \u03b2\u03b9\u03b2\u03bb\u03af\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bc\u03b7\u03b4\u1f72\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03c9\u03bd \u03b3\u03b5\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9. Here we have in\n  combination all the features which we are seeking. The cradle of this\n  sect is placed by him in Gilead and Bashan and 'the regions beyond the\n  Jordan.' He uses similar language also (xxx. 18, p. 142) in describing\n  the Ebionites, whom he places in much the same localities (naming Moab\n  also), and whose Essene features are unmistakeable: \u03bf\u1f54\u03c4\u03b5 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03b4\u03ad\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9\n  \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03b5\u03bd\u03c4\u03ac\u03c4\u03b5\u03c5\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd \u039c\u03c9\u03cb\u03c3\u03ad\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f45\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b1 \u1fe5\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b2\u03ac\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd. \u1f45\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72\n  \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f34\u03c0\u1fc3\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bc\u03c8\u03cd\u03c7\u03c9\u03bd \u03b2\u03c1\u03ce\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. These parallels will speak\n  for themselves.\n\n[Sidenote: (ii) The Essene worship of the Sun cannot be explained away.]\n\n(ii) Nor again is Frankel successful in explaining the Essene prayers to\nthe sun by rabbinical practices[392]. Following Rapoport, he supposes\nthat Josephus and Philo refer to the beautiful hymn of praise for the\ncreation of light and the return of day, which forms part of the\nmorning-prayer of the Jews to the present time[393], and which seems to\nbe enjoined in the Mishna itself[394]; and this view has been adopted by\nmany subsequent writers. But the language of Josephus is not satisfied\nby this explanation. For he says plainly (_B.J._ ii. 8. 5) that they\naddressed prayers to the sun[395], and it is difficult to suppose that\nhe has wantonly introduced a dash of paganism into his picture; nor\nindeed was there any adequate motive for his doing so. Similarly Philo\nrelates of the Therapeutes (_Vit. Cont._ II, II. p. 485), that they\n'stand with their faces and their whole body towards the East, and when\nthey see that the sun is risen, holding out their hands to heaven they\npray for a happy day (\u03b5\u1f50\u03b7\u03bc\u03b5\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03bd) and for truth and for keen vision of\nreason (\u1f40\u03be\u03c5\u03c9\u03c0\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u1fe6).' And here again it is impossible to overlook\nthe confirmation which these accounts receive from the history of\ncertain Christian heretics deriving their descent from this Judaic sect.\n[Sidenote: The Samps\u00e6ans are an Essene sect,] Epiphanius (_H\u00e6r._ xix. 2,\nxx. 3, pp. 40 sq., 47) speaks of a sect called the Samps\u00e6ans or\n'Sun-worshippers[396],' as existing in his own time in Per\u00e6a on the\nborders of Moab and on the shores of the Dead Sea. He describes them as\na remnant of the Ossenes (i.e. Essenes), who have accepted a spurious\nform of Christianity and are neither Jews nor Christians. This debased\nChristianity which they adopted is embodied, he tells us, in the\npretended revelation of the Book of Elchasai, and dates from the time of\nTrajan[397]. Elsewhere (xxx. 3, p. 127) he seems to use the terms\nSamps\u00e6an, Ossene, and Elchasaite as synonymous (\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03a3\u03b1\u03bc\u03c8\u03b7\u03bd\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u1f48\u03c3\u03c3\u03b7\u03bd\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f18\u03bb\u03ba\u03b5\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03af\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2). Now we happen to know something\nof this book of Elchasai, not only from Epiphanius himself (xix. 1 sq.,\np. 40 sq., xxx. 17, p. 141), but also from Hippolytus [Sidenote: as\nappears from their sacred book of Elchesai.] (_H\u00e6r._ ix. 13 sq.) who\ndescribes it at considerable length. From these accounts it appears that\nthe principal feature in the book was the injunction of frequent\nbathings for the remission of sins (Hipp. _H\u00e6r._ ix. 13, 15 sq.). We are\nlikewise told that it 'anathematizes immolations and sacrifices (\u03b8\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 (\u03b9\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03c1\u03b3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2) as being alien to God and certainly not offered to God\nby tradition from (\u1f10\u03ba) the fathers and the law,' while at the same time\nit 'says that men ought to pray there at Jerusalem, where the altar was\nand the sacrifices (were offered), prohibiting the eating of flesh which\nexists among the Jews, and the rest (of their customs), and the altar\nand the fire, as being alien to God' (Epiphan. xix. 3, p. 42).\nNotwithstanding, [Sidenote: Its Essene peculiarities.] we are informed\nthat the sect retained the rite of circumcision, the observance of the\nsabbath, and other practices of the Mosaic law (Hipp. _H\u00e6r._ ix. 14;\nEpiph. _H\u00e6r._ xix. 5, p. 43, comp. xxx. 17, p. 141). This inconsistency\nis explained by a further notice in Epiphanius (l.c.) that they treated\nthe Scriptures in the same way as the Nasar\u00e6ans[398]; that is, they\nsubmitted them to a process of arbitrary excision, as recommended in the\nClementine Homilies, and thus rejected as falsifications all statements\nwhich did not square with their own theory. Hippolytus also speaks of\nthe Elchasaites as studying astrology and magic, and as practising\ncharms and incantations on the sick and the demoniacs (\u00a7 14). Moreover\nin two formularies, one of expiation, another of purification, which\nthis father has extracted from the book, invocation is made to 'the holy\nspirits and the angels of prayer' (\u00a7 15, comp. Epiph. xix. 1). It should\nbe added that the word Elchasai probably signifies the 'hidden\npower'[399]; while the book itself directed that its mysteries should be\nguarded as precious pearls, and should not be communicated to the world\nat large, but only to the faithful few (Hipp. ix. 15, 17). It is hardly\nnecessary to call attention to the number of Essene features which are\nhere combined[400]. I would only remark that the value of the notice is\nnot at all diminished, but rather enhanced, by the uncritical character\nof Epiphanius' work; for this very fact prevents us from ascribing the\ncoincidences, which here reveal themselves, to this father's own\ninvention.\n\nFootnote 392:\n\n  _Zeitschr._ p. 458.\n\nFootnote 393:\n\n  See Ginsburg _Essenes_ p. 69 sq.\n\nFootnote 394:\n\n  _Berakhoth_ i. 4; see Derenbourg, p. 169 sq.\n\nFootnote 395:\n\n  See above, p. 87, note 249.\n\nFootnote 396:\n\n  See above, p. 83.\n\nFootnote 397:\n\n  _Galatians_ p. 311 sq. See also below, p. 167.\n\nFootnote 398:\n\n  See p. 136, note 391.\n\nFootnote 399:\n\n  _Galatians_ p. 312, note 1. For another derivation see below, p. 167.\n\nFootnote 400:\n\n  Celibacy however is not one of these: comp. Epiphan. _H\u00e6r._ xix. 1 (p.\n  40) \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03c7\u03b8\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b8\u03b5\u03bd\u03af\u1fb3, \u03bc\u03b9\u03c3\u03b5\u1fd6 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03b3\u03ba\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd, \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03b3\u03ba\u03ac\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72\n  \u03b3\u03ac\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd. In this respect they departed from the original principles of\n  Essenism, alleging, as it would appear, a special revelation (\u1f61\u03c2 \u03b4\u1fc6\u03b8\u03b5\u03bd\n  \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03cd\u03c8\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2) in justification. In like manner marriage is commended in\n  the Clementine Homilies.\n\n[Sidenote: Doubtful bearing of this Sun-worship.]\n\nIn this heresy we have plainly the dregs of Essenism, which has only\nbeen corrupted from its earlier and nobler type by the admixture of a\nspurious Christianity. But how came the Essenes to be called Samps\u00e6ans?\nWhat was the original meaning of this outward reverence which they paid\nto the sun? Did they regard it merely as the symbol of Divine\nillumination, just as Philo frequently treats it as a type of God, the\ncentre of all light (e.g. _de Somn._ i. 13 sq., I. p. 631 sq.), and even\ncalls the heavenly bodies 'visible and sensible gods' (_de Mund. Op._ 7,\nI. p. 6)[401]? Or did they honour the light, as the pure ethereal\nelement in contrast to gross terrestrial matter, according to a\nsuggestion of a recent writer[402]? [Sidenote: The practice repugnant to\nJewish orthodoxy.]Whatever may have been the motive of this reverence,\nit is strangely repugnant to the spirit of orthodox Judaism. In Ezek.\nviii. 16 it is denounced as an abomination, that men shall turn towards\nthe east and worship the sun; and accordingly in _Berakhoth_ 7_a_, a\nsaying of R. Meir is reported to the effect that God is angry when the\nsun appears and the kings of the East and the West prostrate themselves\nbefore this luminary[403]. We cannot fail therefore to recognise the\naction of some foreign influence in this Essene practice\u2014whether Greek\nor Syrian or Persian, it will be time to consider hereafter.\n\nFootnote 401:\n\n  The important place which the heavenly bodies held in the system of\n  Philo, who regarded them as animated beings, may be seen from\n  Gfr\u00f6rer's _Philo_ I. p. 349 sq.\n\nFootnote 402:\n\n  _Keim_ I. p. 289.\n\nFootnote 403:\n\n  See Wiesner Schol. zum _Babyl. Talm._ I. pp. 18, 20.\n\n[Sidenote: (iii) The depreciation of marriage not accounted for.]\n\n(iii) On the subject of marriage again, talmudical and rabbinical\nnotices contribute nothing towards elucidating the practices of this\nsect. Least of all do they point to any affinity between the Essenes and\nthe Pharisees. The nearest resemblance, which Frankel can produce, to\nany approximation in this respect is an injunction in Mishna _Kethuboth_\nv. 8 respecting the duties of the husband in providing for the wife in\ncase of his separating from her, and this he ascribes to Essene\ninfluences[404]; but this mishna does not express any approval of such a\nseparation. The direction seems to be framed entirely in the interests\nof the wife: nor can I see that it is at all inconsistent, as Frankel\nurges, with Mishna _Kethuboth_ vii. 1 which allows her to claim a\ndivorce under such circumstances. But however this may be, Essene and\nPharisaic opinion stand generally in the sharpest contrast to each other\nwith respect to marriage. The talmudic writings teem with passages\nimplying not only the superior sanctity, but even the imperative duty,\nof marriage. The words 'Be fruitful and multiply' (Gen. i. 28) were\nregarded not merely as a promise, but as a command, which was binding on\nall. It is a maxim of the Talmud that 'Any Jew who has not a wife is no\nman' (\u05d0\u05d9\u05e0\u05d5 \u05d0\u05d3\u05dd,) _Yebamoth_ 63_a_. The fact indeed is so patent, that\nany accumulation of examples would be superfluous, and I shall content\nmyself with referring to _Pesachim_ 113_a_, _b_, as fairly illustrating\nthe doctrine of orthodox Judaism on this point[405]. As this question\naffects the whole framework not only of religious, but also of social\nlife, the antagonism between the Essene and the Pharisee in a matter so\nvital could not be overlooked.\n\nFootnote 404:\n\n  _Monatschr._ p. 37.\n\nFootnote 405:\n\n  Justin Martyr more than once taunts the Jewish rabbis with their\n  reckless encouragement of polygamy. See _Dial._ 134, p. 363 D, \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2\n  \u1f00\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03ad\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03c5\u03c6\u03bb\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03b1\u03c3\u03ba\u03ac\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd, \u1f41\u03af\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b5\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bc\u03ad\u03c7\u03c1\u03b9 \u03bd\u1fe6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n  \u03c4\u03ad\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03b3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u1fd6\u03ba\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f15\u03ba\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03c3\u03c5\u03b3\u03c7\u03c9\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9\u00b7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u1f70\u03bd\n  \u03b5\u1f54\u03bc\u03bf\u03c1\u03c6\u03cc\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f30\u03b4\u1f7c\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03ae\u03c3\u1fc3 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., _ib._ 141, p. 371 A, B,\n  \u1f41\u03c0\u03bf\u1fd6\u03bf\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03bf\u1f31 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9, \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u03b3\u1fc6\u03bd \u1f14\u03bd\u03b8\u03b1\n  \u1f02\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b4\u03b7\u03bc\u03ae\u03c3\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f22 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03c0\u03b5\u03bc\u03c6\u03b8\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f40\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9 \u03b3\u03ac\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u1fd6\u03ba\u03b1\u03c2\n  \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., with Otto's note on the first passage.\n\n[Sidenote: (iv) The Essene practice of magic still a difficulty.]\n\n(iv) Nor again is it probable that the magical rites and incantations\nwhich are so prominent in the practice of the Essenes would, as a rule,\nhave been received with any favour by the Pharisaic Jew. In Mishna\n_Pesachim_ iv. 9 (comp. _Berakhoth_ 10_b_) it is mentioned with approval\nthat Hezekiah put away a 'book of healings'; where doubtless the author\nof the tradition had in view some volume of charms ascribed to Solomon,\nlike those which apparently formed part of the esoteric literature of\nthe Essenes[406]. In the same spirit in Mishna _Sanhedrin_ xi. 1 R.\nAkiba shuts out from the hope of eternal life any 'who read profane or\nforeign (i.e. perhaps, apocryphal) books, and who mutter over a wound'\nthe words of Exod. xv. 26. On this point of difference however no great\nstress can be laid. Though the nobler teachers among the orthodox Jews\nset themselves steadfastly against the introduction of magic, they were\nunable to resist the inpouring tide of superstition. In the middle of\nthe second century Justin Martyr alludes to exorcists and magicians\namong the Jews, as though they were neither few nor obscure[407].\nWhether these were a remnant of Essene Judaism, or whether such\npractices had by this time spread throughout the whole body, it is\nimpossible to say; but the fact of their existence prevents us from\nfounding an argument on the use of magic, as an absolutely distinctive\nfeature of Essenism.\n\nFootnote 406:\n\n  See above, p. 91, note 261.\n\nFootnote 407:\n\n  _Dial._ 85, p. 311 C, \u1f24\u03b4\u03b7 \u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9 \u03bf\u1f31 \u1f10\u03be \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03c1\u03ba\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c4\u03ad\u03c7\u03bd\u1fc3, \u1f65\u03c3\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\n  \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f14\u03b8\u03bd\u03b7, \u03c7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c1\u03ba\u03af\u03b6\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03b9\u03ac\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b4\u03ad\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2\n  \u03c7\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9.\n\n[Sidenote: General result.]\n\nOther divergences also have been enumerated[408]; but, as these do not\nfor the most part involve any great principles, and refer only to\npractical details in which much fluctuation was possible, they cannot\nunder any circumstances be taken as crucial tests, and I have not\nthought it worth while to discuss them. But the antagonisms on which I\nhave dwelt will tell their own tale. In three respects more especially,\nin the avoidance of marriage, in the abstention from the temple\nsacrifices, and (if the view which I have adopted be correct) in the\noutward reverence paid to the sun, we have seen that there is an\nimpassable gulf between the Essenes and the Pharisees. No known\ninfluences within the sphere of Judaism proper will serve to account for\nthe position of the Essenes in these respects; and we are obliged to\nlook elsewhere for an explanation.\n\nFootnote 408:\n\n  Herzfeld, II. p. 392 sq.\n\n                  *       *       *       *       *\n\n[Sidenote: Frankel has failed in establishing his point.]\n\nIt was shown above that the investigations of Frankel and others failed\nto discover in the talmudical writings a single reference to the\nEssenes, which is at once direct and indisputable. It has now appeared\nthat they have also failed (and this is the really important point) in\nshowing that the ideas and practices generally considered characteristic\nof the Essenes are recognised and incorporated in these representative\nbooks of Jewish orthodoxy; and thus the hypothesis that Essenism was\nmerely a type, though an exaggerated type, of pure Judaism falls to the\nground.\n\n[Sidenote: Affinities between Essenes and Pharisees confined to the\n           Judaic side.]\n\nSome affinities indeed have been made out by Frankel and by those who\nhave anticipated or followed him. But these are exactly such as we might\nhave expected. Two distinct features combine to make up the portrait of\nthe Essene. The Judaic element is quite as prominent in this sect as the\nnon-Judaic. It could not be more strongly emphasized than in the\ndescription given by Josephus himself. In everything therefore which\nrelates to the strictly Judaic side of their tenets and practices, we\nshould expect to discover not only affinities, but even close\naffinities, in talmudic and rabbinic authorities. And this is exactly\nwhat, as a matter of fact, we do find. The Essene rules respecting the\nobservance of the sabbath, the rites of lustration, and the like, have\noften very exact parallels in the writings of more orthodox Judaism. But\nI have not thought it necessary to dwell on these coincidences, because\nthey may well be taken for granted and my immediate purpose did not\nrequire me to emphasize them.\n\n[Sidenote: The divergence of the Essenes from the Pharisees gradual.]\n\nAnd again; it must be remembered that the separation between Pharisee\nand Essene cannot always have been so great as it appears in the\nApostolic age. Both sects apparently arose out of one great movement, of\nwhich the motive was the avoidance of pollution[409]. The divergence\ntherefore must have been gradual. At the same time, it does not seem a\nvery profitable task to write a hypothetical history of the growth of\nEssenism, where the data are wanting; and I shall therefore abstain from\nthe attempt. Frankel indeed has not been deterred by this difficulty;\nbut he has been obliged to assume his data by postulating that such and\nsuch a person, of whom notices are preserved, was an Essene, and thence\ninferring the character of Essenism at the period in question from his\nrecorded sayings or doings. But without attempting any such\nreconstruction of history, we may fairly allow that there must have been\na gradual development; and consequently in the earlier stages of its\ngrowth we should not expect to find that sharp antagonism between the\ntwo sects, which the principles of the Essenes when fully matured would\ninvolve. [Sidenote: Hence the possibility of their appearing in the\nrecords of orthodox Judaism.] If therefore it should be shown that the\ntalmudical and rabbinical writings here and there preserve with approval\nthe sayings of certain Essenes, this fact would present no difficulty.\nAt present however no decisive example has been produced; and the\ndiscoveries of Jellinek for instance[410], who traces the influence of\nthis sect in almost every page of _Pirke Aboth_, can only be regarded as\nanother illustration of the extravagance with which the whole subject\nhas been treated by a large section of modern Jewish writers. More to\nthe point is a notice of an earlier Essene preserved in Josephus\nhimself. We learn from this historian that one Judas, a member of the\nsect, who had prophesied the death of Antigonus, saw this prince\n'passing by through the temple[411],' when his prophecy was on the point\nof fulfilment (about B.C. 110). At this moment Judas is represented as\nsitting in the midst of his disciples, instructing them in the science\nof prediction. The expression quoted would seem to imply that he was\nactually teaching within the temple area. Thus he would appear not only\nas mixing in the ordinary life of the Jews, but also as frequenting the\nnational sanctuary. But even supposing this to be the right explanation\nof the passage, it will not present any serious difficulty. Even at a\nlater date, when (as we may suppose) the principles of the sect had\nstiffened, the scruples of the Essene were directed, if I have rightly\ninterpreted the account of Josephus, rather against the sacrifices than\nagainst the locality[412]. The temple itself, independently of its\naccompaniments, would not suggest any offence to his conscience.\n\nFootnote 409:\n\n  See above, p. 120.\n\nFootnote 410:\n\n  _Orient_ 1849, pp. 489, 537, 553.\n\nFootnote 411:\n\n  _B.J._ i. 3. 5 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f31\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6. In the parallel narrative,\n  _Ant._ xiii. II. 2, the expression is \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f31\u03b5\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd, which does\n  not imply so much; but the less precise notice must be interpreted by\n  the more precise. Even then however it is not directly stated that\n  Judas himself was within the temple area.\n\nFootnote 412:\n\n  See above, pp. 89, 134 sq.\n\n[Sidenote: The approbation of Philo and Josephus is no evidence of\n           orthodoxy.]\n\nNor again, is it any obstacle to the view which is here maintained, that\nthe Essenes are regarded with so much sympathy by Philo and Josephus\nthemselves. Even though the purity of Judaism might have been somewhat\nsullied in this sect by the admixture of foreign elements, this fact\nwould attract rather than repel an eclectic like Philo, and a\nlatitudinarian like Josephus. The former, as an Alexandrian, absorbed\ninto his system many and diverse elements of heathen philosophy,\nPlatonic, Stoic, and Pythagorean. The latter, though professedly a\nPharisee, lost no opportunity of ingratiating himself with his heathen\nconquerors, and would not be unwilling to gratify their curiosity\nrespecting a society with whose fame, as we infer from the notice of\nPliny, they were already acquainted.\n\n                  *       *       *       *       *\n\n[Sidenote: What was the foreign element in Essenism?]\n\nBut if Essenism owed the features which distinguished it from Pharisaic\nJudaism to an alien admixture, whence were these foreign influences\nderived? From the philosophers of Greece or from the religious mystics\nof the East? On this point recent writers are divided.\n\n[Sidenote: Theory of Neopythagorean influence.]\n\nThose who trace the distinctive characteristics of the sect to Greece,\nregard it as an offshoot of the Neopythagorean School grafted on the\nstem of Judaism. This solution is suggested by the statement of\nJosephus, that 'they practise the mode of life which among the Greeks\nwas introduced (\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b4\u03b5\u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03b3\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u1fc3) by Pythagoras[413].' It is thought to be\nconfirmed by the strong resemblances which as a matter of fact are found\nto exist between the institutions and practices of the two.\n\n[Sidenote: Statement of the theory by Zeller.]\n\nThis theory, which is maintained also by other writers, as for instance\nby Baur and Herzfeld, has found its ablest and most persistent advocate\nin Zeller, who draws out the parallels with great force and precision.\n'The Essenes,' he writes, 'like the Pythagoreans, desire to attain a\nhigher sanctity by an ascetic life; and the abstentions, which they\nimpose on themselves for this end, are the same with both. They reject\nanimal food and bloody sacrifices; they avoid wine, warm baths, and oil\nfor anointing; they set a high value on celibate life: or, so far as\nthey allow marriage, they require that it be restricted to the one\nobject of procreating children. Both wear only white garments and\nconsider linen purer than wool. Washings and purifications are\nprescribed by both, though for the Essenes they have a yet higher\nsignificance as religious acts. Both prohibit oaths and (what is more)\non the same grounds. Both find their social ideal in those institutions,\nwhich indeed the Essenes alone set themselves to realise\u2014in a corporate\nlife with entire community of goods, in sharply defined orders of rank,\nin the unconditional submission of all the members to their superiors,\nin a society carefully barred from without, into which new members are\nreceived only after a severe probation of several years, and from which\nthe unworthy are inexorably excluded. Both require a strict initiation,\nboth desire [Sidenote: Zeller's theory.] to maintain a traditional\ndoctrine inviolable; both pay the highest respect to the men from whom\nit was derived, as instruments of the deity: yet both also love\nfigurative clothing for their doctrines, and treat the old traditions as\nsymbols of deeper truths, which they must extract from them by means of\nallegorical explanation. In order to prove the later form of teaching\noriginal, newly-composed writings were unhesitatingly forged by the one\nas by the other, and fathered upon illustrious names of the past. Both\nparties pay honour to divine powers in the elements, both invoke the\nrising sun, both seek to withdraw everything unclean from his sight, and\nwith this view give special directions, in which they agree as well with\neach other as with older Greek superstition, in a remarkable way. For\nboth the belief in intermediate beings between God and the world has an\nimportance which is higher in proportion as their own conception of God\nis purer; both appear not to have disdained magic; yet both regard the\ngift of prophecy as the highest fruit of wisdom and piety, which they\npique themselves on possessing in their most distinguished members.\nFinally, both agree (along with the dualistic character of their whole\nconception of the world ...) in their tenets respecting the origin of\nthe soul, its relation to the body, and the life after death[414]....'\n\nFootnote 413:\n\n  _Ant._ xv. 10. 4.\n\nFootnote 414:\n\n  Zeller _Philosophie der Griechen_, Th. III. Abth. 2, p. 281.\n\n[Sidenote: Absence of distinctive Pythagorean features in the Essenes.]\n\nThis array of coincidences is formidable, and thus skilfully marshalled\nmight appear at first sight invincible. But a closer examination\ndetracts from its value. In the first place the two distinctive\ncharacteristics of the Pythagorean philosophy are wanting to the\nEssenes. The Jewish sect did not believe in the transmigration of souls;\nand the doctrine of numbers, at least so far as our information goes,\nhad no place in their system. Yet these constitute the very essence of\nthe Pythagorean teaching. In the next place several of the coincidences\nare more apparent than real. Thus [Sidenote: The coincidences are in\nsome cases only apparent,] for instance the demons who in the\nPythagorean system held an intermediate place between the Supreme God\nand man, and were the result of a compromise between polytheism and\nphilosophy, have no near relation to the angelology of the Essenes,\nwhich arose out of a wholly different motive. Nor again can we find\ndistinct traces among the Pythagoreans of any such reverence for the sun\nas is ascribed to the Essenes, the only notice which is adduced having\nno prominence whatever in its own context, and referring to a rule which\nwould be dictated by natural decency and certainly was not peculiar to\nthe Pythagoreans[415]. When these imperfect and (for the purpose)\nvalueless resemblances have been subtracted, the only basis on which the\ntheory of a direct affiliation can rest is withdrawn. All the remaining\ncoincidences are unimportant. Thus the respect paid to founders is not\nconfined to any one sect or any one age. The reverence of the Essenes\nfor Moses, and the reverence of the Pythagoreans for Pythagoras, are\nindications of a common humanity, but not of a common philosophy. And\nagain the forgery of supposititious documents is unhappily not the badge\nof any one school. The Solomonian books of the Essenes, so far as we can\njudge from the extant notices, were about as unlike the tracts ascribed\nto Pythagoras and his disciples by the Neopythagoreans as two such\nforgeries could well be. All or nearly all that remains in common to the\nGreek school and the Jewish sect after these deductions is [Sidenote:\nand in others do not suggest any historical connexion.] a certain\nsimilarity in the type of life. But granted that two bodies of men each\nheld an esoteric teaching of their own, they would secure it\nindependently in a similar way, by a recognised process of initiation,\nby a solemn form of oath, by a rigid distinction of orders. Granted\nalso, that they both maintained the excellence of an ascetic life, their\nasceticism would naturally take the same form; they would avoid wine and\nflesh; they would abstain from anointing themselves with oil; they would\ndepreciate, and perhaps altogether prohibit, marriage. Unless therefore\nthe historical conditions are themselves favourable to a direct and\nimmediate connexion between the Pythagoreans and the Essenes, this\ntheory of affiliation has little to recommend it.\n\nFootnote 415:\n\n  Diog. Laert. viii. 17; see Zeller l.c. p. 282, note 5. The precept in\n  question occurs among a number of insignificant details, and has no\n  special prominence given to it. In the _Life of Apollonius_ by\n  Philostratus (e.g. vi. 10) considerable stress is laid on the worship\n  of the sun (Zeller l.c. p. 137, note 6); but the syncretism of this\n  late work detracts from its value as representing Pythagorean\n  doctrine.\n\n[Sidenote: Twofold objection to this theory.]\n\nAnd a closer examination must pronounce them to be most unfavourable.\nChronology and geography alike present serious obstacles to any solution\nwhich derives the peculiarities of the Essenes from the Pythagoreans.\n\n[Sidenote: (i) Chronological facts are adverse.]\n\n(i) The priority of time, if it can be pleaded on either side, must be\nurged in favour of the Essenes. The Pythagoreans as a philosophical\nschool entirely disappear from history before the middle of the fourth\ncentury before Christ. The last Pythagoreans were scholars of Philolaus\nand Eurytus, the contemporaries of Socrates and Plato[416]. For nearly\ntwo centuries after their extinction we hear [Sidenote: Disappearance of\nthe Pythagoreans.] nothing of them. Here and there persons like Diodorus\nof Aspendus are satirised by the Attic poets of the middle comedy as\n'pythagorizers,' in other words, as total abstainers and\nvegetarians[417]; but the philosophy had wholly died or was fast dying\nout. This is the universal testimony of ancient writers. It is not till\nthe first century before Christ, that we meet with any distinct traces\nof a revival. In Alexander Polyhistor[418], a younger contemporary of\nSulla, for the first time we find references to certain writings, which\nwould seem to have emanated from this incipient Neopythagoreanism,\nrather than from the elder school of Pythagoreans. And a little later\nCicero commends his friend Nigidius Figulus as one specially raised up\nto revive the extinct philosophy[419]. But so slow or so chequered was\nits progress, that a whole century after Seneca can still speak of the\n[Sidenote: Priority of Essenism to Neopythagoreanism.] school as\npractically defunct[420]. Yet long before this the Essenes formed a\ncompact, well-organized, numerous society with a peculiar system of\ndoctrine and a definite rule of life. We have seen that Pliny the elder\nspeaks of this celibate society as having existed 'through thousands of\nages[421].' This is a gross exaggeration, but it must at least be taken\nto imply that in Pliny's time the origin of the Essenes was lost in the\nobscurity of the past, or at least seemed so to those who had not access\nto special sources of information. If, as I have given reasons for\nsupposing[422], Pliny's authority in this passage is the same Alexander\nPolyhistor to whom I have just referred, and if this particular\nstatement, however exaggerated in expression, is derived from him, the\nfact becomes still more significant. But on any showing the priority in\ntime is distinctly in favour of the Essenes as against the\nNeopythagoreans.\n\nFootnote 416:\n\n  Zeller l.c. p. 68 (comp. I. p. 242). While disputing Zeller's\n  position, I have freely made use of his references. It is impossible\n  not to admire the mastery of detail and clearness of exposition in\n  this work, even when the conclusions seem questionable.\n\nFootnote 417:\n\n  Athen. iv. p. 161, Diog. Laert. viii. 37. See the index to Meineke\n  _Fragm. Com._ s. vv. \u03c0\u03c5\u03b8\u03b1\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03b9\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2, etc. The words commonly used by\n  these satirists are \u03c0\u03c5\u03b8\u03b1\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, \u03c0\u03c5\u03b8\u03b1\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c2, \u03c0\u03c5\u03b8\u03b1\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2. The\n  persons so satirized were probably in many cases not more Pythagoreans\n  than modern teetotallers are Rechabites.\n\nFootnote 418:\n\n  Diog. Laert. viii. 24 sq.; see Zeller l.c. p. 74\u201378.\n\nFootnote 419:\n\n  Cic. _Tim._ I 'sic judico, post illos nobiles Pythagoreos quorum\n  disciplina _extincta est_ quodammodo, cum aliquot s\u00e6cula in Italia\n  Siciliaque viguisset, hunc exstitisse qui illam _renovaret_.'\n\nFootnote 420:\n\n  Sen. _N.Q._ vii. 32 'Pythagorica illa invidiosa turb\u00e6 schola\n  pr\u00e6ceptorem non invenit.'\n\nFootnote 421:\n\n  _N.H._ v. 15. The passage is at which Josephus thinks it necessary to\n  insert an account of the Essenes as already flourishing (_Ant._ xiii.\n  5. 9), is prior to the revival of the Neopythagorean school. How much\n  earlier the Jewish sect arose, we are without data for determining.\n\nFootnote 422:\n\n  See p. 83, note 240.\n\n[Sidenote: The Essene tenets more developed than the Neopythagorean.]\n\nAnd accordingly we find that what is only a tendency in the\nNeopythagoreans is with the Essenes an avowed principle and a definite\nrule of life. Such for instance is the case with celibacy, of which\nPliny says that it has existed as an institution among the Essenes _per\ns\u00e6culorum millia_, and which is a chief corner-stone of their practical\nsystem. The Pythagorean notices (whether truly or not, it is unimportant\nfor my purpose to enquire) speak of Pythagoras as having a wife and a\ndaughter[423]. Only at a late date do we find the attempt to represent\ntheir founder in another light; and if virginity is ascribed to\nApollonius of Tyana, the great Pythagorean of the first Christian\ncentury, in the fictitious biography of Philostratus[424], this\nrepresentation is plainly due to the general plan of the novelist, whose\nhero is intended to rival the Founder of Christianity, and whose work is\nsaturated with Christian ideas. In fact virginity can never be said to\nhave been a Pythagorean principle, though it may have been an exalted\nideal of some not very early adherents of the school. And the same\nremark applies to other resemblances between the Essene and\nNeopythagorean teaching. The clearness of conception and the\ndefiniteness of practice are in almost every instance on the side of the\nEssenes; so that, looking to the comparative chronology of the two, it\nwill appear almost inconceivable that they can have derived their\nprinciples from the Neopythagoreans.\n\nFootnote 423:\n\n  Diog. Laert. viii. 42.\n\nFootnote 424:\n\n  _Vit. Apoll._ i. 15 sq. At the same time Philostratus informs us that\n  the conduct of his hero in this respect had been differently\n  represented by others.\n\n[Sidenote: (ii) Geographical difficulties in the theory.]\n\n(ii) But the geographical difficulty also, which this theory of\naffiliation involves, must be added to the chronological. The home of\nthe Essene sect is allowed on all hands to have been on the eastern\nborders of Palestine, the shores of the Dead Sea, a region least of all\nexposed to the influences of Greek philosophy. It is true that we find\nnear Alexandria a closely allied school of Jewish recluses, the\nTherapeutes; and, as Alexandria may have been the home of\nNeopythagoreanism, a possible link of connexion is here disclosed. But,\nas Zeller himself has pointed out, it is not among the Therapeutes, but\namong the Essenes, that the principles in question appear fully\ndeveloped and consistently carried out[425]; and therefore, if there be\na relation of paternity between Essene and Therapeute, the latter must\nbe derived from the former and not conversely. How then can we suppose\nthis influence of Neopythagoreanism brought to bear on a Jewish\ncommunity in the south-eastern border of Palestine? Zeller's answer is\nas follows[426]. Jud\u00e6a was for more than a hundred and fifty years\nbefore the Maccabean period under the sovereignty first of the Egyptian\nand then of the Syrian Greeks. We know that at this time Hellenizing\ninfluences did infuse themselves largely into Judaism: and what more\nnatural than that among these the Pythagorean philosophy and discipline\nshould have recommended itself to a section of the Jewish people? It may\nbe said in reply, that at all events the special locality of the Essenes\nis the least favourable to such a solution: but, without pressing this\nfact, Zeller's hypothesis is open to two serious objections which\ncombined seem fatal to it, unsupported as it is by any historical\nnotice. First, this influence of Pythagoreanism is assumed to have taken\nplace at the very time when the Pythagorean school was practically\nextinct: and secondly, it is supposed to have acted upon that very\nsection of the Jewish community, which was the most vigorous advocate of\nnational exclusiveness and the most averse to Hellenizing influences.\n\nFootnote 425:\n\n  l.c. p. 288 sq.\n\nFootnote 426:\n\n  l.c. p. 290 sq.\n\n[Sidenote: The foreign element of Essenism to be sought in the East,]\n\nIt is not therefore to Greek but to Oriental influences that\nconsiderations of time and place, as well as of internal character, lead\nus to look for an explanation of the alien elements in Essene Judaism.\nAnd have we not here also the account of any real coincidences which may\nexist between Essenism and Neopythagoreanism? We should perhaps be\nhardly more justified in tracing Neopythagoreanism directly to Essenism\nthan conversely (though, if we had no other alternative, this would\nappear to be the more probable solution of the two): but were not both\nalike due to substantially the same influences acting in different\ndegrees? [Sidenote: to which also Pythagoreanism may have been\nindebted.]I think it will hardly be denied that the characteristic\nfeatures of Pythagoreanism, and especially of Neopythagoreanism, which\ndistinguish it from other schools of Greek philosophy, are much more\nOriental in type, than Hellenic. The asceticism, the magic, the\nmysticism, of the sect all point in the same direction. And history\nmoreover contains indications that such was the case. There seems to be\nsufficient ground for the statement that Pythagoras himself was indebted\nto intercourse with the Egyptians, if not with more strictly Oriental\nnations, for some leading ideas of his system. But, however this may be,\nthe fact that in the legendary accounts, which the Neopythagoreans\ninvented to do honour to the founder of the school, he is represented as\ntaking lessons from the Chaldeans, Persians, Brahmins, and others, may\nbe taken as an evidence that their own philosophy at all events was\npartially derived from eastern sources[427].\n\nFootnote 427:\n\n  See the references in Zeller I. p. 218 sq.; comp. III. 2, p. 67.\n\n                  *       *       *       *       *\n\nBut, if the alien elements of Essenism were borrowed not so much from\nGreek philosophy as from Oriental mysticism, to what nation or what\nreligion was it chiefly indebted? To this question it is difficult, with\nour very imperfect knowledge of the East at the Christian era, to reply\nwith any confidence. [Sidenote: Resemblances to Parsism.]Yet there is\none system to which we naturally look, as furnishing the most probable\nanswer. The Medo-Persian religion supplies just those elements which\ndistinguish the tenets and practices of the Essenes from the normal type\nof Judaism. [Sidenote: (i) Dualism.](1) First; we have here a very\ndefinite form of dualism, which exercised the greatest influence on\nsubsequent Gnostic sects, and of which Manicheism, the most mature\ndevelopment of dualistic doctrine in connexion with Christianity, was\nthe ultimate fruit. For though dualism may not represent the oldest\ntheology of the Zend-Avesta in its unadulterated form, yet long before\nthe era of which we are speaking it had become the fundamental principle\nof the Persian religion. [Sidenote: (ii) Sun-worship.](2) Again; the\nZoroastrian symbolism of light, and consequent worship of the sun as the\nfountain of light, will explain those anomalous notices of the Essenes\nin which they are represented as paying reverence to this luminary[428].\n[Sidenote: (iii) Angelolatry.](3) Moreover; the 'worship of angels' in\nthe Essene system has a striking parallel in the invocations of spirits,\nwhich form a very prominent feature in the ritual of the Zend-Avesta.\nAnd altogether their angelology is illustrated, and not improbably was\nsuggested, by the doctrine of intermediate beings concerned in the\ngovernment of nature and of man, such as the Amshaspands, which is an\nintegral part of the Zoroastrian system[429]. [Sidenote: (iv) Magic.](4)\nAnd once more; the magic, which was so attractive to the Essene, may\nhave received its impulse from the priestly caste of Persia, to whose\nworld-wide fame this form of superstition is indebted for its name.\n[Sidenote: (v) Striving after purity.](5) If to these parallels I\nventure also to add the intense striving after purity, which is the\nnoblest feature in the Persian religion, I do so, not because the\nEssenes might not have derived this impulse from a higher source, but\nbecause this feature was very likely to recommend the Zoroastrian system\nto their favourable notice, and because also the particular form which\nthe zeal for purity took among them was at all events congenial to the\nteaching of the Zend-Avesta, and may not have been altogether free from\nits influences.\n\nFootnote 428:\n\n  Keim (_Geschichte Jesu von Nazara_ I.<\/sc> p. 303) refers to Tac.\n  Hist. iii. 24 'Undique clamor; et _orientem solem_ (ita in Syria mos\n  est) tertiani salutavere,' as illustrating this Essene practice. The\n  commentators on Tacitus quote a similar notice of the Parthians in\n  Herodian iv. 15 _\u1f05\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f21\u03bb\u03af\u1ff3 \u1f00\u03bd\u03af\u03c3\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f10\u03c6\u03ac\u03bd\u03b7 \u1f08\u03c1\u03c4\u03ac\u03b2\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c3\u1f7a\u03bd \u03bc\u03b5\u03b3\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff3\n  \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03b8\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u00b7 \u1f00\u03c3\u03c0\u03b1\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f24\u03bb\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd, \u1f61\u03c2 \u1f14\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2, \u03bf\u1f31 \u03b2\u03ac\u03c1\u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9\n  \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb._\n\nFootnote 429:\n\n  See e.g. _Vendidad_ Farg. xix; and the liturgical portions of the book\n  are largely taken up with invocations of these intermediate beings.\n  Some extracts are given in Davies' _Colossians_ p. 146 sq.\n\n[Sidenote: Other coincidences accidental.]\n\nI have preferred dwelling on these broader resemblances, because they\nare much more significant than any mere coincidence of details, which\nmay or may not have been accidental. Thus for instance the magi, like\nthe Essenes, wore white garments, and eschewed gold and ornaments; they\npractised frequent lustrations; they avoided flesh, living on bread and\ncheese or on herbs and fruits; they had different orders in their\nsociety; and the like[430]. All these, as I have already remarked, may\nbe the independent out-growth of the same temper and direction of\nconduct, and need not imply any direct historical connexion. Nor is\nthere any temptation to press such resemblances; for even without their\naid the general connexion seems to be sufficiently established[431].\n\nFootnote 430:\n\n  Hilgenfeld (_Zeitschrift_ x. p. 99 sq.) finds coincidences even more\n  special than these. He is answered by Zeller (III. 2. p. 276), but\n  defends his position again (_Zeitschrift_ xi. p. 347 sq.), though with\n  no great success. Among other points of coincidence Hilgenfeld remarks\n  on the axe (Jos. _B.J._ ii. 8. 7) which was given to the novices among\n  the Essenes, and connects it with the \u1f00\u03be\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03af\u03b1 (Plin. _N.H._\n  xxxvi. 19) of the magi. Zeller contents himself with replying that the\n  use of the axe among the Essenes for purposes of divination is a pure\n  conjecture, not resting on any known fact. He might have answered with\n  much more effect that Josephus elsewhere (\u00a7 9) defines it as a spade\n  or shovel, and assigns to it a very different use. Hilgenfeld has\n  damaged his cause by laying stress on these accidental resemblances.\n  So far as regards minor coincidences, Zeller makes out as good a case\n  for his Pythagoreans, as Hilgenfeld for his magians.\n\nFootnote 431:\n\n  Those who allow any foreign Oriental element in Essenism most commonly\n  ascribe it to Persia: e.g. among the more recent writers, Hilgenfeld\n  (l.c.) and Lipsius _Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon_ s.v. Ess\u00e4er p. 189.\n\n[Sidenote: The destruction of the Persian empire not adverse]\n\nBut it is said, that the history of Persia does not favour the\nhypothesis of such an influence as is here assumed. The destruction of\nthe Persian empire by Alexander, argues Zeller[432], and the subsequent\nerection of the Parthian domination on its ruins, must have been fatal\nto the spread of Zoroastrianism. From the middle of the third century\nbefore Christ, when the Parthian empire was established, till towards\nthe middle of the third century of our era, when the Persian monarchy\nand religion were once more restored[433], its influence must have been\nreduced within the narrowest limits. [Sidenote: but favourable to the\nspread of Parsism.] But does analogy really suggest such an inference?\nDoes not the history of the Jews themselves show that the religious\ninfluence of a people on the world at large may begin just where its\nnational life ends? The very dispersion of Zoroastrianism, consequent on\nthe fall of the empire, would impregnate the atmosphere far and wide;\nand the germs of new religious developments would thus be implanted in\nalien soils. For in tracing Essenism to Persian influences I have not\nwished to imply that this Jewish sect consciously incorporated the\nZoroastrian philosophy and religion as such, but only that Zoroastrian\nideas were infused into its system by more or less direct contact. And,\nas a matter of fact, it seems quite certain that Persian ideas were\nwidely spread during this very interval, when the Persian nationality\nwas eclipsed. [Sidenote: Indications of its influence during this\nperiod.]It was then that Hermippus gave to the Greeks the most detailed\naccount of this religion which had ever been laid before them[434]. It\nwas then that its tenets suggested or moulded the speculations of the\nvarious Gnostic sects. It was then that the worship of the Persian\nMithras spread throughout the Roman Empire. It was then, if not earlier,\nthat the magian system took root in Asia Minor, making for itself (as it\nwere) a second home in Cappadocia[435]. It was then, if not earlier,\nthat the Zoroastrian demonology stamped itself so deeply on the\napocryphal literature of the Jews themselves, which borrowed even the\nnames of evil spirits[436] from the Persians. There are indeed abundant\nindications that Palestine was surrounded by Persian influences during\nthis period, when the Persian empire was in abeyance.\n\nFootnote 432:\n\n  l.c. p. 275.\n\nFootnote 433:\n\n  See Gibbon _Decline and Fall_ c. viii, Milman _History of\n  Christianity_ II. p. 247 sq. The latter speaks of this restoration of\n  Zoroastrianism, as 'perhaps the only instance of the vigorous revival\n  of a Pagan religion.' It was far purer and less Pagan than the system\n  which it superseded; and this may account for its renewed life.\n\nFootnote 434:\n\n  See M\u00fcller _Fragm. Hist. Gr\u00e6c._ III. p. 53 sq. for this work of\n  Hermippus \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u039c\u03ac\u03b3\u03c9\u03bd. He flourished about B.C. 200. See Max M\u00fcller\n  _Lectures on the Science of Language_ 1st ser. p. 86.\n\nFootnote 435:\n\n  Strabo xv. 3. 15 (p. 733) \u1f18\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u039a\u03b1\u03c0\u03c0\u03b1\u03b4\u03bf\u03ba\u03af\u1fb3 (\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u1f7a \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f10\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd\n  \u039c\u03ac\u03b3\u03c9\u03bd \u03c6\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd, \u03bf\u1f33 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03cd\u03c1\u03b1\u03b9\u03b8\u03bf\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9\u00b7 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03a0\u03b5\u03c1\u03c3\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b8\u03b5\u1ff6\u03bd\n  \u1f31\u03b5\u03c1\u03ac) \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\nFootnote 436:\n\n  At least in one instance, Asmodeus (Tob. iii. 17); see M. M\u00fcller\n  _Chips from a German Workshop_ I. p. 148 sq. For the different dates\n  assigned to the book of Tobit see Dr Westcott's article _Tobit_ in\n  Smith's _Dictionary of the Bible_ p. 1525.\n\nThus we seem to have ample ground for the view that certain alien\nfeatures in Essene Judaism were derived from the Zoroastrian religion.\n[Sidenote: Are Buddhist influences also perceptible?]But are we\njustified in going a step further, and attributing other elements in\nthis eclectic system to the more distant East? The monasticism of the\nBuddhist will naturally occur to our minds, as a precursor of the\ncenobitic life among the Essenes; and Hilgenfeld accordingly has not\nhesitated to ascribe this characteristic of Essenism directly to\nBuddhist influences[437]. But at the outset we are obliged to ask\nwhether history gives any such indication of the presence of Buddhism in\nthe West as this hypothesis requires. Hilgenfeld answers this question\nin the affirmative. [Sidenote: Supposed Buddhist establishment at\nAlexandria.]He points triumphantly to the fact that as early as the\nmiddle of the second century before Christ the Buddhist records speak of\ntheir faith as flourishing in Alasanda the chief city of the land of\nYavana. The place intended, he conceives, can be none other than the\ngreat Alexandria, the most famous of the many places bearing the\nname[438]. [Sidenote: The authority misinterpreted] In this opinion\nhowever he stands quite alone. Neither K\u00f6ppen[439], who is his authority\nfor this statement, nor any other Indian scholar[440], so far as I am\naware, for a moment contemplates this identification. Yavana, or Yona,\nwas the common Indian name for the Gr\u00e6co-Bactrian kingdom and its\ndependencies[441]; and to this region we naturally turn. The Alasanda or\nAlasadda therefore, which is here mentioned, will be one of several\nEastern cities bearing the name of the great conqueror, most probably\n_Alexandria ad Caucasum_. But indeed I hardly think that, if Hilgenfeld\nhad referred to the original authority for the statement, the great\nBuddhist history _Mahawanso_, he would have ventured to lay any stress\nat all on this notice, as supporting his theory. [Sidenote: and wholly\nuntrustworthy in itself.]The historian, or rather fabulist (for such he\nis in this earlier part of his chronicle), is relating the foundation of\nthe Mah\u00e1 th\u00fapo, or great tope, at Ruanwelli by the king Dutthag\u00e1mini in\nthe year B.C. 157. Beyond the fact that this tope was erected by this\nking the rest is plainly legendary. All the materials for the\nconstruction of the building, we are told, appeared spontaneously as by\nmiracle\u2014the bricks, the metals, the precious stones. The dewos, or\ndemons, lent their aid in the erection. In fact\n\n                                  the fabric huge\n                      Rose like an exhalation.\n\nPriests gathered in enormous numbers from all the great Buddhist\nmonasteries to do honour to the festival of the foundation. One place\nalone sent not less than 96,000. Among the rest it is mentioned that\n'Maha Dhammarakkito, th\u00e9ro (_i.e._ senior priest) of Y\u00f3na, accompanied\nby 30,000 priests from the vicinity of Alasadd\u00e1, the capital of the Y\u00f3na\ncountry, attended[442].' It is obvious that no weight can be attached to\na statement occurring as part of a story of which the other details are\nso manifestly false. An establishment of 30,000 Buddhist priests at\nAlexandria would indeed be a phenomenon of which historians have shown a\nstrange neglect.\n\nFootnote 437:\n\n  _Zeitschrift_ X. p. 103 sq.; comp. XI. p. 351. M. Renan also (_Langues\n  S\u00e9mitiques_ III. iv. 1, _Vie de J\u00e9sus_ p. 98) suggests that Buddhist\n  influences operated in Palestine.\n\nFootnote 438:\n\n  X. p. 105 'was schon an sich, zumal in dieser Zeit, schwerlich\n  Alexandria ad Caucasum, sondern nur Alexandrien in Aegypten bedeuten\n  kann.' Comp. XI. p. 351, where he repeats the same argument in reply\n  to Zeller. This is a very natural inference from a western point of\n  view; but, when we place ourselves in the position of a Buddhist\n  writer to whom Bactria was Greece, the relative proportions of things\n  are wholly changed.\n\nFootnote 439:\n\n  _Die Religion des Buddha_ I. p. 193.\n\nFootnote 440:\n\n  Comp. e.g. Weber _Die Verbindungen Indiens mit den L\u00e4ndern im Westen_\n  p.675 in the _Allgem. Monatschr. f. Wissensch. u. Literatur_,\n  Braunschweig 1853; Lassen _Indische Alterthumskunde_ II. p. 236; Hardy\n  _Manual of Budhism_ p. 516.\n\nFootnote 441:\n\n  For its geographical meaning in older Indian writers see K\u00f6ppen _l.c._\n  Since then it has entirely departed from its original signification,\n  and Yavana is now a common term used by the Hindoos to designate the\n  Mohammedans. Thus the Greek name has come to be applied to a people\n  which of all others is most unlike the Greeks. This change of meaning\n  admirably illustrates the use of \u1f19\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd among the Jews, which in like\n  manner, from being the name of an alien nation, became the name of an\n  alien religion, irrespective of nationality: see the note on Gal. ii.\n  3.\n\nFootnote 442:\n\n  _Mahawanso_ p. 171, Turnour's translation.\n\n[Sidenote: General ignorance of Buddhism in the West.]\n\nNor is the presence of any Buddhist establishment even on a much smaller\nscale in this important centre of western civilization at all\nreconcilable with the ignorance of this religion, which the Greeks and\nRomans betray at a much later date[443]. For some centuries after the\nChristian era we find that the information possessed by western writers\nwas most shadowy and confused; and in almost every instance we are able\nto trace it to some other cause than the actual presence of Buddhists in\nthe Roman Empire[444]. [Sidenote: Strabo.]Thus Strabo, who wrote under\nAugustus and Tiberius, apparently mentions the Buddhist priests, the\nsramanas, under the designation _sarman\u00e6_, (\u03a3\u03b1\u03c1\u03bc\u03ac\u03bd\u03b1\u03c2)[445]; but he\navowedly obtains his information from Megasthenes, who travelled in\nIndia somewhere about the year 300 B.C. and wrote a book on Indian\naffairs. [Sidenote: Bardesanes.]Thus too Bardesanes at a much later date\ngives an account of these Buddhist ascetics, without however naming the\nfounder of the religion; but he was indebted for his knowledge of them\nto conversations with certain Indian ambassadors who visited Syria on\ntheir way westward in the reign of one of the Antonines[446]. [Sidenote:\nClement of Alexandria.] Clement of Alexandria, writing in the latest\nyears of the second century or the earliest of the third, for the first\ntime[447] mentions Buddha by name; and even he betrays a strange\nignorance of this Eastern religion[448].\n\nFootnote 443:\n\n  How for instance, if any such establishment had ever existed at\n  Alexandria, could Strabo have used the language which is quoted in the\n  next note?\n\nFootnote 444:\n\n  Consistently with this view, we may allow that single Indians would\n  visit Alexandria from time to time for purposes of trade or for other\n  reasons, and not more than this is required by the rhetorical passage\n  in Dion Chrysost. Or. xxxii (p. 373) \u1f41\u03c1\u1ff6 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f14\u03b3\u03c9\u03b3\u03b5 \u03bf\u1f50 \u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u1f1d\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b1\u03c2\n  \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1' \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd ... \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u0392\u03b1\u03ba\u03c4\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03a3\u03ba\u03cd\u03b8\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03a0\u03ad\u03c1\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f38\u03bd\u03b4\u1ff6\u03bd\n  \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03ac\u03c2. The qualifying \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b1\u03c2 shows how very slight was the\n  communication between India and Alexandria. The mission of Pant\u00e6nus\n  may have been suggested by the presence of such stray visitors. Jerome\n  (_Vir. Ill._ 36) says that he went 'rogatus ab illius gentis legatis.'\n  It must remain doubtful however, whether some other region than\n  Hindostan, such as \u00c6thiopia for instance, is not meant, when Pant\u00e6nus\n  is said to have gone to India: see Cave's _Lives of the Primitive\n  Fathers_ p. 188 sq.\n\n  How very slight the communication was between India and the West in\n  the early years of the Christian era, appears from this passage of\n  Strabo XV. 1. 4 (p. 686); \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03bd\u1fe6\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f10\u03be \u0391\u1f30\u03b3\u03cd\u03c0\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ad\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bc\u03c0\u03bf\u03c1\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u1f76\n  \u03c4\u1ff7 \u039d\u03b5\u03af\u03bb\u1ff3 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f08\u03c1\u03b1\u03b2\u03af\u1ff3 \u03ba\u03cc\u03bb\u03c0\u1ff3 \u03bc\u03ad\u03c7\u03c1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f38\u03bd\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n  \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bb\u03b5\u03cd\u03ba\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9 \u03bc\u03ad\u03c7\u03c1\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0393\u03ac\u03b3\u03b3\u03bf\u03c5, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f57\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b4' \u1f30\u03b4\u03b9\u1ff6\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u1f72\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2\n  \u1f31\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u03cc\u03c0\u03c9\u03bd \u03c7\u03c1\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bc\u03bf\u03b9, after which he goes on to say that the\n  only instance of Indian travellers in the West was the embassy sent to\n  Augustus (see below p. 155), which came \u1f00\u03c6' \u1f11\u03bd\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u03cc\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1' \u1f11\u03bd\u1f78\u03c2\n  \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03ad\u03c9\u03c2.\n\n  The communications between India and the West are investigated by two\n  recent writers, Reinaud _Relations Politiques et Commerciales de\n  l'Empire Romain avec l'Asie Centrale_, Paris 1863, and Priaulx _The\n  Indian Travels of Apollonius of Tyana and the Indian Embassies to\n  Rome_, 1873. The latter work, which is very thorough and satisfactory,\n  would have saved me much labour of independent investigation, if I had\n  seen it in time.\n\nFootnote 445:\n\n  Strabo XV. 1. 59, p. 712. In the MSS it is written \u0393\u03b1\u03c1\u03bc\u03ac\u03bd\u03b1\u03c2, but this\n  must be an error either introduced by Strabo's transcribers or found\n  in the copy of Megasthenes which this author used. This is plain not\n  only from the Indian word itself, but also from the parallel passage\n  in Clement of Alexandria (_Strom._ i. 15). From the coincidences of\n  language it is clear that Clement also derived his information from\n  Megasthenes, whose name he mentions just below. The fragments of\n  Megasthenes relating to the Indian philosophers will be found in\n  M\u00fcller _Fragm. Hist. Gr\u00e6c._ II. p. 437. They were previously edited by\n  Schwanbeck, _Megasthenis Indica_ (Bonn\u00e6 1846).\n\n  For \u03a3\u03b1\u03c1\u03bc\u1fb6\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 we also find the form \u03a3\u03b1\u03bc\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03b9 in other writers; e.g.\n  Clem. Alex. l.c., Bardesanes in Porphyr. _de Abstin._ iv. 17, Orig.\n  _c. Cels._ i. 19 (I. p. 342). This divergence is explained by the fact\n  that the Pali word _sammana_ corresponds to the Sanskrit _sramana_.\n  See Schwanbeck, l.c. p. 17, quoted by M\u00fcller p. 437.\n\n  It should be borne in mind however, that several eminent Indian\n  scholars believe Megasthenes to have meant not Buddhists but Brahmins\n  by his \u03a3\u03b1\u03c1\u03bc\u03ac\u03bd\u03b1\u03c2. So for instance Lassen _Rhein. Mus._ 1833, p. 180\n  sq., _Ind. Alterth._ II. p. 700: and Prof. Max M\u00fcller (Pref. to\n  Rogers's _Translation of Buddhaghosha's Parables_, London 1870, p.\n  lii) says; 'That Lassen is right in taking the \u03a3\u03b1\u03c1\u03bc\u1fb6\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9, mentioned by\n  Megasthenes, for Brahmanic, not for Buddhist ascetics, might be proved\n  also by their dress. Dresses made of the bark of trees are not\n  Buddhistic.' If this opinion be correct, the earlier notices of\n  Buddhism in Greek writers entirely disappear, and my position is\n  strengthened. But for the following reasons the other view appears to\n  me more probable: (1) The term _sramana_ is the common term for the\n  Buddhist ascetic, whereas it is very seldom used of the Brahmin.\n\n  (2) The \u0396\u03ac\u03c1\u03bc\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 (another form of _sramana_), mentioned below p. 156,\n  note 450, appears to have been a Buddhist. This view is taken even by\n  Lassen, _Ind. Alterth._ III. p. 60.\n\n  (3) The distinction of \u0392\u03c1\u03b1\u03c7\u03bc\u1fb6\u03bd\u03b5\u03c2 and \u03a3\u03b1\u03c1\u03bc\u1fb6\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 in Megasthenes or the\n  writers following him corresponds to the distinction of \u0392\u03c1\u03b1\u03c7\u03bc\u1fb6\u03bd\u03b5\u03c2 and\n  \u03a3\u03b1\u03bc\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03b9 in Bardesanes, Origen, and others; and, as Schwanbeck has\n  shown (l.c.), the account of the \u03a3\u03b1\u03c1\u03bc\u1fb6\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 in Megasthenes for the most\n  part is a close parallel to the account of the \u03a3\u03b1\u03bc\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03b9 in Bardesanes\n  (or at least in Porphyry's report of Bardesanes). It seems more\n  probable therefore that Megasthenes has been guilty of confusion in\n  describing the dress of the \u03a3\u03b1\u03c1\u03bc\u1fb6\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9, than that Brahmins are intended\n  by the term.\n\n  The Pali form, \u03a3\u03b1\u03bc\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03b9, as a designation of the Buddhists, first\n  occurs in Clement of Alexandria or Bardesanes, whichever may be the\n  earlier writer. It is generally ascribed to Alexander Polyhistor, who\n  flourished B.C. 80\u201360, because his authority is quoted by Cyril of\n  Alexandria (c. _Julian_. iv. p. 133) in the same context in which the\n  \u03a3\u03b1\u03bc\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03b9 are mentioned. This inference is drawn by Schwanbeck, Max\n  M\u00fcller, Lassen, and others. An examination of Cyril's language however\n  shows that the statement for which he quotes the authority of\n  Alexander Polyhistor does not extend to the mention of the Saman\u00e6i.\n  Indeed all the facts given in this passage of Cyril (including the\n  reference to Polyhistor) are taken from Clement of Alexandria\n  (_Strom._ i. 15; see the next note), whose account Cyril has abridged.\n  It is possible indeed that Clement himself derived the statement from\n  Polyhistor, but nothing in Clement's own language points to this.\n\nFootnote 446:\n\n  The narrative of Bardesanes is given by Porphyry _de Abst._ iv. 17.\n  The Buddhist ascetics are there called \u03a3\u03b1\u03bc\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03b9 (see the last note).\n  The work of Bardesanes, recounting his conversations with these Indian\n  ambassadors, is quoted again by Porphyry in a fragment preserved by\n  Stob\u00e6us _Ecl._ iii. 56 (p. 141). In this last passage the embassy is\n  said to have arrived \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f08\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd\u03af\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03be \u1f18\u03bc\u03b9\u03c3\u1ff6\u03bd, by\n  which, if the words be correct, must be meant Elagabalus (A.D.\n  218\u2013222), the spurious Antonine (see Hilgenfeld _Bardesanes_ p. 12\n  sq.). Other ancient authorities however place Bardesanes in the reign\n  of one of the older Antonines; and, as the context is somewhat\n  corrupt, we cannot feel quite certain about the date. Bardesanes gives\n  by far the most accurate account of the Buddhists to be found in any\n  ancient Greek writer; but even here the monstrous stories, which the\n  Indian ambassadors related to him, show how little trustworthy such\n  sources of information were.\n\nFootnote 447:\n\n  Except possibly Arrian, _Ind._ viii. 1, who mentions an ancient Indian\n  king, Budyas (\u0392\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03cd\u03b1\u03c2) by name; but what he relates of him is quite\n  inconsistent with the history of Buddha, and probably some one else is\n  intended.\n\nFootnote 448:\n\n  In this passage (_Strom._ i. 15, p. 359) Clement apparently mentions\n  these same persons three times, supposing that he is describing three\n  different schools of Oriental philosophers. (1) He speaks of \u03a3\u03b1\u03bc\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03b9\n  \u0392\u03ac\u03ba\u03c4\u03c1\u03c9\u03bd (comp. Cyrill. Alex. l.c.); (2) He distinguishes two classes\n  of Indian gymnosophists, whom he calls \u03a3\u03b1\u03c1\u03bc\u1fb6\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 and \u0392\u03c1\u03b1\u03c7\u03bc\u1fb6\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9. These\n  are Buddhists and Brahmins respectively (see p. 153, note 445); (3) He\n  says afterwards \u03b5\u1f30\u03c3\u1f76 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f38\u03bd\u03b4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03bf\u1f31 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u0392\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03b8\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\n  \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03ad\u03bb\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, \u1f43\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9' \u1f51\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b2\u03bf\u03bb\u1f74\u03bd \u03c3\u03b5\u03bc\u03bd\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 [\u1f61\u03c2?] \u03b8\u03b5\u1f78\u03bd \u03c4\u03b5\u03c4\u03b9\u03bc\u03ae\u03ba\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9.\n  Schwanbeck indeed maintains that Clement here intends to describe the\n  same persons whom he has just mentioned as \u03a3\u03b1\u03c1\u03bc\u1fb6\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9; but this is not\n  the natural interpretation of his language, which must mean 'There are\n  also among the Indians those who obey the precepts of Buddha.'\n  Probably Schwanbeck is right in identifying the \u03a3\u03b1\u03c1\u03bc\u1fb6\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 with the\n  Buddhist ascetics, but Clement appears not to have known this. In fact\n  he has obtained his information from different sources, and so\n  repeated himself without being aware of it. Where he got the first\n  fact it is impossible to say. The second, as we saw, was derived from\n  Megasthenes. The third, relating to Buddha, came, as we may\n  conjecture, either from Pant\u00e6nus (if indeed Hindostan is really meant\n  by the India of his missionary labours) or from some chance Indian\n  visitor at Alexandria.\n\n  In another passage (_Strom._ iii. 7, p. 539) Clement speaks of certain\n  Indian celibates and ascetics, who are called \u03a3\u03b5\u03bc\u03bd\u03bf\u03af. As he\n  distinguishes them from the gymnosophists, and mentions the pyramid as\n  a sacred building with them, the identification with the Buddhists can\n  hardly be doubted. Here therefore \u03a3\u03b5\u03bc\u03bd\u03bf\u03af is a Grecized form of\n  \u03a3\u03b1\u03bc\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03b9; and this modification of the word would occur naturally to\n  Clement, because \u03c3\u03b5\u03bc\u03bd\u03bf\u03af, \u03c3\u03b5\u03bc\u03bd\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bf\u03bd, were already used of the ascetic\n  life: e.g. Philo _de Vit. Cont._ 3 (p. 475 M) \u1f31\u03b5\u03c1\u1f78\u03bd \u1f43 \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9\n  \u03c3\u03b5\u03bc\u03bd\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u1fa7 \u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03b5\u03bc\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b2\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u03bc\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03b1\n  \u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9.\n\n[Sidenote: Hippolytus.]\n\nStill later than this, Hippolytus, while he gives a fairly intelligent,\nthough brief, account of the Brahmins[449], says not a word about the\nBuddhists, though, if he had been acquainted with their teaching, he\nwould assuredly have seen in them a fresh support to his theory of the\naffinity between Christian heresies and pre-existing heathen\nphilosophies. [Sidenote: A Buddhist at Athens.]With one doubtful\nexception\u2014an Indian fanatic attached to an embassy sent by king Porus to\nAugustus, who astonished the Greeks and Romans by burning himself alive\nat Athens[450]\u2013there is apparently no notice in either heathen or\nChristian writers, which points to the presence of a Buddhist within the\nlimits of the Roman Empire, till long after the Essenes had ceased to\nexist[451].\n\nFootnote 449:\n\n  _H\u00e6r._ i. 24.\n\nFootnote 450:\n\n  The chief authority is Nicolaus of Damascus in Strabo xv. i. 73 (p.\n  270). The incident is mentioned also in Dion Cass. liv. 9. Nicolaus\n  had met these ambassadors at Antioch, and gives an interesting account\n  of the motley company and their strange presents. This fanatic, who\n  was one of the number, immolated himself in the presence of an\n  astonished crowd, and perhaps of the emperor himself, at Athens. He\n  anointed himself and then leapt smiling on the pyre. The inscription\n  on his tomb was \u0396\u03b1\u03c1\u03bc\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03c7\u03b7\u03b3\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f38\u03bd\u03b4\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u0392\u03b1\u03c1\u03b3\u03cc\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03c4\u03c1\u03b9\u03b1 \u1f38\u03bd\u03b4\u1ff6\u03bd\n  \u1f14\u03b8\u03b7 \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03b1\u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9. The tomb was visible at least as late\n  as the age of Plutarch, who recording the self-immolation of Calanus\n  before Alexander (_Vit. Alex._ 69) says, \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f14\u03c4\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f55\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\n  \u1f04\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f38\u03bd\u03b4\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f08\u03b8\u03ae\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2 \u039a\u03b1\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03af \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u1f7c\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b5\u03af\u03ba\u03bd\u03c5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03bc\u03ad\u03c7\u03c1\u03b9 \u03bd\u1fe6\u03bd\n  \u03c4\u1f78 \u03bc\u03bd\u03b7\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bf\u03bd \u1f38\u03bd\u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b1\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03b5\u03c5\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd. Strabo also places the two\n  incidents in conjunction in another passage in which he refers to this\n  person, xv. 1. 4 (p. 686) \u1f41 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f08\u03b8\u03ae\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f74\u03c2 \u1f38\u03bd\u03b4\u03cc\u03c2,\n  \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03ac\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f41 \u039a\u03ac\u03bb\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\n  The reasons for supposing this person to have been a Buddhist, rather\n  than a Brahmin, are: (1) The name \u0396\u03b1\u03c1\u03bc\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03c7\u03b7\u03b3\u1f70\u03c2 (which appears with\n  some variations in the MSS of Strabo), being apparently the Indian\n  _sramanakarja_, i.e. 'teacher of the ascetics,' in other words, a\n  Buddhist priest; (2) The place Bargosa, i.e. Barygaza, where Buddhism\n  flourished in that age. See Priaulx p. 78 sq. In Dion Cassius it is\n  written \u0396\u03ac\u03c1\u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2.\n\n  And have we not here an explanation of 1 Cor. xiii. 3, if \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1\n  \u03ba\u03b1\u03c5\u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9 be the right reading? The passage, being written before the\n  fires of the Neronian persecution, requires explanation. Now it is\n  clear from Plutarch that the 'Tomb of the Indian' was one of the\n  sights shown to strangers at Athens: and the Apostle, who observed the\n  altar ==\u03b1\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03f2\u03c4\u03c9\u03b9 \u03b8\u03b5\u03c9\u03b9==, was not likely to overlook the sepulchre\n  with the strange inscription ==\u03b5\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03b1\u03c0\u03b1\u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03f2\u03b1\u03f2 \u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9==. Indeed\n  the incident would probably be pressed on his notice in his\n  discussions with Stoics and Epicureans, and he would be forced to\n  declare himself as to the value of these Indian self-immolations, when\n  he preached the doctrine of self-sacrifice. We may well imagine\n  therefore that the fate of this poor Buddhist fanatic was present to\n  his mind when he penned the words \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u1f70\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03b4\u1ff6 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03ac \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 ...\n  \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03bc\u1f74 \u1f14\u03c7\u03c9, \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u1f72\u03bd \u1f60\u03c6\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9. Indeed it would furnish an almost\n  equally good illustration of the text, whether we read \u1f35\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03c5\u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9\n  or \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c5\u03c7\u03ae\u03c3\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9. Dion Cassius (l.c.) suggests that the deed was done\n  \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03c4\u03b9\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 or \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03b6\u03b9\u03bd. How much attention these religious\n  suicides of the Indians attracted in the Apostolic age (doubtless\n  because the act of this Buddhist priest had brought the subject\n  vividly before men's minds in the West), we may infer from the speech\n  which Josephus puts in the mouth of Eleazar (_B.J._ vii. 8. 7),\n  \u03b2\u03bb\u03ad\u03c8\u03c9\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f38\u03bd\u03b4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u1f00\u03c3\u03ba\u03ad\u03b9\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c7\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 ... \u03bf\u1f31 \u03b4\u1f72 ...\n  _\u03c0\u03c5\u03c1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03b4\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2_, \u1f45\u03c0\u03c9\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f74 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 _\u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03b1\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03ac\u03c4\u03b7\u03bd_\n  \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03c1\u03af\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03ae\u03bd, \u1f51\u03bc\u03bd\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03c5\u03c4\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9 ... \u1f06\u03c1' \u03bf\u1f56\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba\n  \u03b1\u1f30\u03b4\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03b8\u03b1 \u03c7\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u1f38\u03bd\u03b4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c6\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2;\n\nFootnote 451:\n\n  In the reign of Claudius an embassy arrived from Taprobane (Ceylon);\n  and from these ambassadors Pliny derived his information regarding the\n  island, _N.H._ vi. 24. Respecting their religion however he says only\n  two words 'coli Herculem,' by whom probably Rama is meant (Priaulx p.\n  116). From this and other statements it appears that they were Tamils\n  and not Singalese, and thus belonged to the non-Buddhist part of the\n  island; see Priaulx p. 91 sq.\n\n[Sidenote: The alleged coincidences prove nothing.]\n\nAnd, if so, the coincidences must be very precise, before we are\njustified in attributing any peculiarities of Essenism to Buddhist\ninfluences. This however is far from being the case. They both exhibit a\nwell-organized monastic society: but the monasticism of the Buddhist\npriests, with its systematized mendicancy, has little [Sidenote:\nMonasticism.] in common with the monasticism of the Essene recluse,\nwhose life was largely spent in manual labour. [Sidenote:\nAsceticism.]They both enjoin celibacy, both prohibit the use of flesh\nand of wine, both abstain from the slaughter of animals. But, as we have\nalready seen, such resemblances prove nothing, for they may be explained\nby the independent development of the same religious principles. One\ncoincidence, and one only, is noticed by Hilgenfeld, which at first\nsight seems more striking and might suggest a historical connexion.\n[Sidenote: Four orders and four steps.]He observes that the four orders\nof the Essene community are derived from the four steps of Buddhism.\nAgainst this it might fairly be argued that such coincidences of numbers\nare often purely accidental, and that in the present instance there is\nno more reason for connecting the four steps of Buddhism with the four\norders of Essenism than there would be for connecting the ten precepts\nof Buddha with the Ten Commandments of Moses. But indeed a nearer\nexamination will show that the two have nothing whatever in common\nexcept the number. The four steps or paths of Buddhism are not four\ngrades of an external order, but four degrees of spiritual progress on\nthe way to nirvana or annihilation, the ultimate goal of the Buddhist's\nreligious aspirations. They are wholly unconnected with the Buddhist\nmonastic system, as an organization. A reference to the Buddhist notices\ncollected in Hardy's _Eastern Monachism_ (p. 280 sq.) will at once\ndispel any suspicion of a resemblance. A man may attain to the highest\nof these four stages of Buddhist illumination instantaneously. He does\nnot need to have passed through the lower grades, but may even be a\nlayman at the time. Some merit obtained in a previous state of existence\nmay raise him _per saltum_ to the elevation of a rahat, when all earthly\ndesires are crushed and no future birth stands between him and nirvana.\n[Sidenote: Buddhist influences seen first in Manicheism.]There remains\ntherefore no coincidence which would suggest any historical connexion\nbetween Essenism and Buddhism. Indeed it is not till some centuries\nlater, when Manicheism starts into being, that we find for the first\ntime any traces of the influence of Buddhism on the religions of the\nWest[452].\n\nFootnote 452:\n\n  Even its influence on Manicheism however is disputed in a learned\n  article in the _Home and Foreign Review_ III. p. 143 sq. (1863), by Mr\n  P. Le Page Renouf (see _Academy_ 1873, p. 399).\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n                                   3.\n                       ESSENISM AND CHRISTIANITY.\n\n\n[Sidenote: The theory which explains Christianity as an outgrowth of\n           Essenism,]\n\nIt has become a common practice with a certain class of writers to\ncall Essenism to their aid in accounting for any distinctive features\nof Christianity, which they are unable to explain in any other way.\nWherever some external power is needed to solve a perplexity, here is\nthe _deus ex machina_ whose aid they most readily invoke. Constant\nrepetition is sure to produce its effect, and probably not a few\npersons, who want either the leisure or the opportunity to investigate\nthe subject for themselves, have a lurking suspicion that the Founder\nof Christianity may have been an Essene, or at all events that\nChristianity was largely indebted to Essenism for its doctrinal and\nethical teaching[453]. Indeed, when very confident and sweeping\nassertions are made, it is natural to presume that they rest on a\nsubstantial basis of fact. Thus for instance we are told by one writer\nthat Christianity is 'Essenism alloyed with foreign elements'[454]:\nwhile another, who however approaches the subject in a different\nspirit, says; 'It will hardly be doubted that our Saviour Himself\nbelonged to this holy brotherhood. This will especially be apparent,\nwhen we remember that _the whole Jewish community_ at the advent of\nChrist was divided into three parties, the Pharisees, the Sadducees,\nand the Essenes, and that _every Jew had to belong to one of these\nsects_. Jesus who in all things conformed to the Jewish law, and who\nwas holy, harmless, undefiled, and separate from sinners, would\ntherefore naturally associate Himself with that order of Judaism which\nwas most congenial to his nature'.[455][Sidenote: tested by facts.]I\npurpose testing these strong assertions by an appeal to facts.\n\nFootnote 453:\n\n  De Quincey's attempt to prove that the Essenes were actually\n  Christians (_Works_ VI p. 270 sq., IX p. 253 sq.), who used the\n  machinery of an esoteric society to inculcate their doctrines 'for\n  fear of the Jews,' is conceived in a wholly different spirit from the\n  theories of the writers mentioned in the text; but it is even more\n  untenable and does not deserve serious refutation.\n\nFootnote 454:\n\n  Gr\u00e4tz III p. 217.\n\nFootnote 455:\n\n  Ginsburg _Essenes_ p. 24.\n\n[Sidenote: Our Lord need not have belonged to any sect.]\n\nFor the statements involved in those words of the last extract which I\nhave underlined, no authority is given by the writer himself; nor have I\nbeen able to find confirmation of them in any quarter. On the contrary\nthe frequent allusions which we find to the vulgar herd, the \u03b9\u03b4\u03b9\u1ff6\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9,\nthe _\u0639am haarets_, who are distinguished from the disciples of the\nschools[456], suggest that a large proportion of the people was\nunattached to any sect. If it had been otherwise, we might reasonably\npresume that our Lord, as one who 'in all things conformed to the Jewish\nlaw,' would have preferred attaching Himself to the Pharisees who 'sat\nin Moses' seat' and whose precepts He recommended His disciples to\nobey[457], rather than to the Essenes who in one important respect at\nleast\u2014the repudiation of the temple sacrifices\u2014acted in flagrant\nviolation of the Mosaic ordinances.\n\nFootnote 456:\n\n  See above, p. 130.\n\nFootnote 457:\n\n  Matt. xxiii. 2, 3.\n\n[Sidenote: The argument from the silence of the New Testament answered.]\n\nThis preliminary barrier being removed, we are free to investigate the\nevidence for their presumed connexion. And here we are met first with a\nnegative argument, which obviously has great weight with many persons.\nWhy, it is asked, does Jesus, who so unsparingly denounces the vices and\nthe falsehoods of Pharisees and Sadducees, never once mention the\nEssenes by way of condemnation, or indeed mention them by name at all?\nWhy, except that He himself belonged to this sect and looked favourably\non their teaching? This question is best answered by another. How can we\nexplain the fact, that throughout the enormous mass of talmudical and\nearly rabbinical literature this sect is not once mentioned by name, and\nthat even the supposed allusions to them, which have been discovered for\nthe first time in the present century, turn out on investigation to be\nhypothetical and illusory? The difficulty is much greater in this latter\ninstance; but the answer is the same in both cases. The silence is\nexplained by the comparative insignificance of the sect, their small\nnumbers and their retired habits. Their settlements were far removed\nfrom the great centres of political and religious life. Their recluse\nhabits, as a rule, prevented them from interfering in the common\nbusiness of the world. Philo and Josephus have given prominence to them,\nbecause their ascetic practices invested them with the character of\nphilosophers and interested the Greeks and Romans in their history; but\nin the national life of the Jews they bore a very insignificant\npart[458]. If the Sadducees, who held the highest offices in the\nhierarchy, are only mentioned directly on three occasions in the\nGospels[459], it can be no surprise that the Essenes are not named at\nall.\n\nFootnote 458:\n\n  This fact is fully recognised by several recent writers, who will not\n  be suspected of any undue bias towards traditional views of Christian\n  history. Thus Lipsius writes (p. 190), 'In the general development of\n  Jewish life Essenism occupies a far more subordinate place than is\n  commonly ascribed to it.' And Keim expresses himself to the same\n  effect (I. p. 305). Derenbourg also, after using similar language,\n  adds this wise caution, 'In any case, in the present state of our\n  acquaintance with the Essenes, which is so imperfect and has no chance\n  of being extended, the greatest prudence is required of science, if\n  she prefers to be true rather than adventurous, if she has at heart\n  rather to enlighten than to surprise' (p. 461). Even Gr\u00e4tz in one\n  passage can write soberly on this subject: 'The Essenes had throughout\n  no influence on political movements, from which they held aloof as far\n  as possible' (III. p. 86).\n\nFootnote 459:\n\n  These are (1) Matt. iii. 7; (2) Matt. xvi. 1 sq.; (3) Matt. xxii. 23\n  sq., Mark xii. 18, Luke xx. 27.\n\n[Sidenote: The positive arguments for a connexion may be twofold.]\n\nAs no stress therefore can be laid on the argument for silence, any\nhypothesis of connexion between Essenism and Christianity must make good\nits claims by establishing one or both of these two points: _first_,\nthat there is direct historical evidence of close intercourse between\nthe two; and _secondly_, that the resemblances of doctrine and practice\nare so striking as to oblige, or at least to warrant, the belief in such\na connexion. If both these lines of argument fail, the case must be\nconsidered to have broken down.\n\n[Sidenote: 1. Absence of direct historical evidence of a connexion.]\n\n1. On the former point it must be premised that the Gospel narrative\ndoes not suggest any hint of a connexion. Indeed its general tenor is\ndirectly adverse to such a supposition. From first to last Jesus and his\ndisciples move about freely, taking part in the common business, even in\nthe common recreations, of Jewish life. The recluse ascetic brotherhood,\nwhich was gathered about the shores of the Dead Sea, does not once\nappear above the Evangelists' horizon. Of this close society, as such,\nthere is not the faintest indication. [Sidenote: Two individual cases\nalleged.] But two individuals have been singled out, as holding an\nimportant place either in the Evangelical narrative or in the Apostolic\nChurch, who, it is contended, form direct and personal links of\ncommunication with this sect. These are John the Baptist and James the\nLord's brother. The one is the forerunner of the Gospel, the first\nherald of the Kingdom; the other is the most prominent figure in the\nearly Church of Jerusalem.\n\n[Sidenote: (i) John the Baptist]\n\n(i) John the Baptist was an ascetic. His abode was the desert; his\nclothing was rough; his food was spare; he baptized his penitents.\nTherefore, it is argued, he was an Essene. Between the premisses and the\nconclusion however there is a broad gulf, which cannot very easily be\nbridged over. [Sidenote: not an Essene.]The solitary independent life,\nwhich John led, presents a type wholly different from the cenobitic\nestablishments of the Essenes, who had common property, common meals,\ncommon hours of labour and of prayer. It may even be questioned whether\nhis food of locusts would have been permitted by the Essenes, if they\nreally ate nothing which had life (\u1f14\u03bc\u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd[460]). And again; his baptism\nas narrated by the Evangelists, and their lustrations as described in\nJosephus, have nothing in common except the use of water for a religious\npurpose. When therefore we are told confidently that 'his manner of life\nwas altogether after the Essene pattern[461],' and that 'he without\ndoubt baptized his converts into the Essene order,' we know what value\nto attach to this bold assertion. If positive statements are allowable,\nit would be more true to fact to say that he could not possibly have\nbeen an Essene. The rule of his life was _isolation_; the principle of\ntheirs, _community_[462].\n\nFootnote 460:\n\n  See above p. 86.\n\nFootnote 461:\n\n  Gr\u00e4tz III. p. 220.\n\nFootnote 462:\n\n  \u03c4\u1f78 \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd\u03b7\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd, Joseph. _B.J._ ii. 8. 3. See also Philo _Fragm._ 632\n  \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u03c9\u03c6\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c2, and the context.\n\n[Sidenote: External resemblances to John in Banus,]\n\nIn this mode of life John was not singular. It would appear that not a\nfew devout Jews at this time retired from the world and buried\nthemselves in the wilderness, that they might devote themselves\nunmolested to ascetic discipline and religious meditation. One such\ninstance at all events we have in Banus the master of Josephus, with\nwhom the Jewish historian, when a youth, spent three years in the\ndesert. This anchorite was clothed in garments made of bark or of\nleaves; his food was the natural produce of the earth; he bathed day and\nnight in cold water for purposes of purification. To the careless\nobserver doubtless John and Banus would appear to be men of the same\nstamp. In their outward mode of life there was perhaps not very much\ndifference[463]. The consciousness of a divine mission, the gift of a\nprophetic insight, in John was the real and all-important distinction\nbetween the two. [Sidenote: who was not an Essene.]But here also the\nsame mistake is made; and we not uncommonly find Banus described as an\nEssene. It is not too much to say however, that the whole tenor of\nJosephus' narrative is opposed to this supposition[464]. He says that\nwhen sixteen years old he desired to acquire a knowledge of the three\nsects of the Jews before making his choice of one; that accordingly he\nwent through (\u03b4\u03b9\u1fc6\u03bb\u03b8\u03bf\u03bd) all the three at the cost of much rough\ndiscipline and toil; that he was not satisfied with the experience thus\ngained, and hearing of this Banus he attached himself to him as his\nzealous disciple (\u03b6\u03b7\u03bb\u03c9\u03c4\u1f74\u03c2 \u1f10\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6); that having remained three\nyears with him he returned to Jerusalem; and that then, being nineteen\nyears old, he gave in his adhesion to the sect of the Pharisees. Thus\nthere is no more reason for connecting this Banus with the Essenes than\nwith the Pharisees. The only natural interpretation of the narrative is\nthat he did not belong to any of the three sects, but represented a\ndistinct type of religious life, of which Josephus was anxious to gain\nexperience. And his hermit life seems to demand this solution, which the\nsequence of the narrative suggests.\n\nFootnote 463:\n\n  Ewald (VI. p. 649) regards this Banus as representing an extravagant\n  development of the school of John, and thus supplying a link between\n  the real teaching of the Baptist and the doctrine of the\n  Hemerobaptists professing to be derived from him.\n\nFootnote 464:\n\n  The passage is so important that I give it in full; Joseph. _Vit._ 2\n  \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u1f11\u03ba\u03ba\u03b1\u03af\u03b4\u03b5\u03ba\u03b1 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f14\u03c4\u03b7 \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03b2\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03ae\u03b8\u03b7\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1' \u1f21\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u03b1\u1f31\u03c1\u03ad\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03bd\n  \u1f10\u03bc\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03bb\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd. \u03c4\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b4' \u03b5\u1f30\u03c3\u1f76\u03bd \u03b1\u1f57\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9\u00b7 \u03a6\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03b1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u1f21 \u03c0\u03c1\u03ce\u03c4\u03b7, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n  \u03a3\u03b1\u03b4\u03b4\u03bf\u03c5\u03ba\u03b1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u1f21 \u03b4\u03b5\u03c5\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1, \u03c4\u03c1\u03af\u03c4\u03b7 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f21 \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b7\u03bd\u1ff6\u03bd, \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03ba\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f34\u03c0\u03b1\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd.\n  \u03bf\u1f55\u03c4\u03c9\u03c2 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1fa0\u03cc\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd \u03b1\u1f31\u03c1\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03c1\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03bd, \u03b5\u1f30 \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03bc\u03ac\u03b8\u03bf\u03b9\u03bc\u03b9.\n  \u03c3\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03b1\u03b3\u03c9\u03b3\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 \u03b3\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd \u1f10\u03bc\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bd\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u1f76\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03c4\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u1fc6\u03bb\u03b8\u03bf\u03bd. \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n  \u03bc\u03b7\u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u1fe6\u03b8\u03b5\u03bd \u1f10\u03bc\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u1f31\u03ba\u03b1\u03bd\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03bc\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9, \u03c0\u03c5\u03b8\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2\n  \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b1 \u0392\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd \u1f44\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03af\u03b2\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, \u1f10\u03c3\u03b8\u1fc6\u03c4\u03b9 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03b4\u03ad\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u03c9\u03bd\n  \u03c7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd, \u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u1f74\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03c2 \u03c6\u03c5\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03c6\u03b5\u03c1\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd, \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03c1\u1ff7 \u03b4\u1f72\n  \u1f55\u03b4\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03bd\u03cd\u03ba\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03ba\u03b9\u03c2 \u03bb\u03bf\u03c5\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f01\u03b3\u03bd\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd,\n  \u03b6\u03b7\u03bb\u03c9\u03c4\u1f74\u03c2 \u1f10\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6. \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03af\u03c8\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f10\u03bd\u03b9\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03c4\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n  \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03ce\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03b5\u03c6\u03bf\u03bd. \u1f10\u03bd\u03bd\u03b5\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03af\u03b4\u03b5\u03ba\u03b1 \u03b4' \u1f14\u03c4\u03b7\n  \u1f14\u03c7\u03c9\u03bd \u1f20\u03c1\u03be\u03ac\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd \u03c4\u03b5 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b9\u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03a6\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03b1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u03b1\u1f31\u03c1\u03ad\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5\u03b8\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\n[Sidenote: General result.]\n\nOf John himself therefore no traits are handed down which suggest that\nhe was a member of the Essene community. He was an ascetic, and the\nEssenes were ascetics; but this is plainly an inadequate basis for any\nsuch inference. Nor indeed is the relation of his asceticism to theirs a\nquestion of much moment for the matter in hand; since this was the very\npoint in which Christ's mode of life was so essentially different from\nJohn's as to provoke criticism and to point a contrast[465]. But the\nlater history of his real or supposed disciples has, or may seem to\nhave, some bearing on this investigation. [Sidenote: The\nHemerobaptists.]Towards the close of the first and the beginning of the\nsecond century we meet with a body of sectarians called in Greek\n_Hemerobaptists_[466], in Hebrew _Toble-shacharith_[467], 'day' or\n'morning bathers.' What were their relations to John the Baptist on the\none hand, and to the Essenes on the other? Owing to the scantiness of\nour information the whole subject is wrapped in obscurity, and any\nrestoration of their history must be more or less hypothetical; but it\nwill be possible at all events to suggest an account which is not\nimprobable in itself, and which does no violence to the extant notices\nof the sect.\n\nFootnote 465:\n\n  Matt. ix. 14 sq., xi. 17 sq., Mark ii. 18 sq., Luke v. 33, vii. 31 sq.\n\nFootnote 466:\n\n  The word \u1f21\u03bc\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03b2\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u1f76 is generally taken to mean 'daily-bathers,'\n  and this meaning is suggested by Apost. Const. vi. 6 \u03bf\u1f35\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b5\u03c2, \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8'\n  (\u03b5\u03ba\u03ac\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd \u1f10\u1f70\u03bd \u03bc\u1f74 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03c9\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f10\u03c3\u03b8\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, _ib._ 23 \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u1f76\n  \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03b7\u03bc\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f13\u03bd \u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c2 \u03b2\u03ac\u03c0\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1, Epiphan. _H\u00e6r._ xvii. 1 (p. 37) \u03b5\u1f30\n  \u03bc\u03ae \u03c4\u03b9 \u1f04\u03c0\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8' \u1f11\u03ba\u03ac\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd \u03b2\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03af\u03b6\u03bf\u03b9\u03c4\u03cc \u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f55\u03b4\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9. But, if the\n  word is intended as a translation of _Toble-shacharith_ 'morning\n  bathers,' as it seems to be, it must signify rather 'day-bathers'; and\n  this is more in accordance with the analogy of other compounds from\n  \u1f21\u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1, as \u1f21\u03bc\u03b5\u03c1\u03cc\u03b2\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2, \u1f21\u03bc\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03b4\u03c1\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2, \u1f21\u03bc\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03ba\u03cc\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2, etc.\n\n  Josephus (_B.J._ ii. 8. 5) represents the Essenes as bathing, not at\n  dawn, but at the fifth hour, just before their meal. This is hardly\n  consistent either with the name of the _Toble-shacharith_, or with the\n  Talmudical anecdote of them quoted above p. 132. Of Banus he reports\n  (_Vit._ 2) that he 'bathed often day and night in cold water.'\n\nFootnote 467:\n\n  See above p. 132.\n\n[Sidenote: (_a_) Their relation to John the Baptist.]\n\n(_a_) We must not hastily conclude, when we meet with certain persons at\nEphesus about the years A.D. 53, 54, who are described as 'knowing only\nthe baptism of John,' or as having been 'baptized unto John's\nbaptism[468],' that we have here some early representatives of the\nHemerobaptist sect. [Sidenote: John's disciples at Ephesus.]These were\nChristians, though imperfectly informed Christians. Of Apollos, who was\nmore fully instructed by Aquila and Priscilla, this is stated in the\nmost explicit terms[469]. Of the rest, who owed their fuller knowledge\nof the Gospel to St Paul, the same appears to be implied, though the\nlanguage is not free from ambiguity[470]. But these notices have an\nimportant bearing on our subject; for they show how profoundly the\neffect of John's preaching was felt in districts as remote as\nproconsular Asia, even after a lapse of a quarter of a century. With\nthese disciples it was the initial impulse towards Christianity; but to\nothers it represented a widely different form of belief and practice.\n[Sidenote: Professed followers at a later date.]The Gospel of St John\nwas written, according to all tradition, at Ephesus in the later years\nof the first century. Again and again the Evangelist impresses on his\nreaders, either directly by his own comments or indirectly by the course\nof the narrative, the transient and subordinate character of John's\nministry. He was not the light, says the Evangelist, but came to bear\nwitness of the light[471]. He was not the sun in the heavens: he was\nonly the waning lamp, which shines when kindled from without and burns\nitself away in shining. His light might well gladden the Jews while it\nlasted, but this was only 'for a season[472].' John himself lost no\nopportunity of bearing his testimony to the loftier claims of\nJesus[473]. From such notices it is plain that in the interval between\nthe preaching of St Paul and the Gospel of St John the memory of the\nBaptist at Ephesus had assumed a new attitude towards Christianity. His\nname is no longer the sign of imperfect appreciation, but the watchword\nof direct antagonism. John had been set up as a rival Messiah to Jesus.\nIn other words, this Gospel indicates the spread of Hemerobaptist\nprinciples, if not the presence of a Hemerobaptist community, in\nproconsular Asia, when it was written. In two respects these\nHemerobaptists distorted the facts of history. [Sidenote: The facts of\nhistory distorted by them.]They perverted John's teaching, and they\nmisrepresented his office. His baptism was no more a single rite, once\nperformed and initiating an amendment of life; it was a daily recurrence\natoning for sin and sanctifying the person[474]. He himself was no\nlonger the forerunner of the Messiah; he was the very Messiah[475].\n[Sidenote: Spread of Hemerobaptist principles.]In the latter half of the\nfirst century, it would seem, there was a great movement among large\nnumbers of the Jews in favour of frequent baptism, as the one\npurificatory rite essential to salvation. Of this superstition we have\nhad an instance already in the anchorite Banus to whom Josephus attached\nhimself as a disciple. Its presence in the western districts of Asia\nMinor is shown by a Sibylline poem, dating about A.D. 80, which I have\nalready had occasion to quote[476]. Some years earlier these sectarians\nare mentioned by name as opposing James the Lord's brother and the\nTwelve at Jerusalem[477]. Nor is there any reason for questioning their\nexistence as a sect in Palestine during the later years of the Apostolic\nage, though the source from which our information comes is legendary,\nand the story itself a fabrication. But when or how they first connected\nthemselves with the name of John the Baptist, and whether this\nassumption was made by all alike or only by one section of them, we do\nnot know. Such a connexion, however false to history, was obvious and\nnatural; nor would it be difficult to accumulate parallels to this false\nappropriation of an honoured name. Baptism was the fundamental article\nof their creed; and John was the Baptist of world-wide fame. [Sidenote:\nA wrong use made of John's name.]Nothing more than this was needed for\nthe choice of an eponym. From St John's Gospel it seems clear that this\nappropriation was already contemplated, if not completed, at Ephesus\nbefore the first century had drawn to a close. In the second century the\nassumption is recognised as a characteristic of these Hemerobaptists, or\nBaptists, as they are once called[478], alike by those who allow and\nthose who deny its justice[479]. Even in our age the name of 'John's\ndisciples' has been given, though wrongly given, to an obscure sect in\nBabylonia, the Mandeans, whose doctrine and practice have some\naffinities to the older sect, and of whom perhaps they are the\ncollateral, if not the direct, descendants[480].\n\nFootnote 468:\n\n  The former expression is used of Apollos, Acts xviii. 24; the latter\n  of 'certain disciples,' Acts xix. 1.\n\nFootnote 469:\n\n  This appears from the whole narrative, but is distinctly stated in\n  ver. 25, as correctly read, \u1f10\u03b4\u03af\u03b4\u03b1\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd \u1f00\u03ba\u03c1\u03b9\u03b2\u1ff6\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6, not\n  \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 as in the received text.\n\nFootnote 470:\n\n  The \u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 in xix. 1 is slightly ambiguous, and some expressions\n  in the passage might suggest the opposite: but \u03bc\u03b1\u03b8\u03b7\u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 seems decisive,\n  for the word would not be used absolutely except of Christian\n  disciples; comp. vi. 1, 2, 7, ix. 10, 19, 26, 38, and frequently.\n\nFootnote 471:\n\n  John i. 8.\n\nFootnote 472:\n\n  John v. 35 \u1f10\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f27\u03bd \u1f41 \u03bb\u03cd\u03c7\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f41 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c6\u03b1\u03af\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. The word\n  \u03ba\u03b1\u03af\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd is not only 'to burn,' but not unfrequently also 'to kindle, to\n  set on fire,' as e.g. Xen. _Anab._ iv. 4. 12 \u03bf\u1f31 \u1f04\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03c0\u1fe6\u03c1\n  \u1f14\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd, so that \u1f41 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 may mean either 'which burns away' or\n  'which is lighted.' With the former meaning it would denote the\n  _transitoriness_, with the latter the _derivative character_, of\n  John's ministry. There seems no reason for excluding either idea here.\n  Thus the whole expression would mean 'the lamp which is kindled and\n  burns away, and (only so) gives light.' For an example of two verbs or\n  participles joined together, where the second describes a result\n  conditional upon the first, see 1 Pet. ii. 20 \u03b5\u1f30 \u1f01\u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03ac\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n  \u03ba\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03c6\u03b9\u03b6\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b5 ... \u03b5\u1f30 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03b8\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2\n  \u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b5, 1 Thess. iv. 1 \u03c0\u1ff6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b5\u1fd6 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03c1\u03ad\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u0398\u03b5\u1ff7.\n\nFootnote 473:\n\n  See John i. 15\u201334, iii. 23\u201330, v. 33 sq.: comp. x. 41, 42. This aspect\n  of St John's Gospel has been brought out by Ewald _Jahrb. der Bibl.\n  Wissensch._ III. p. 156 sq.; see also _Geschichte_ VII. p. 152 sq.,\n  _die Johanneischen Schriften_ p. 13. There is perhaps an allusion to\n  these 'disciples of John' in 1 Joh. v. 6 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f55\u03b4\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9 \u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd, \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb'\n  \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f55\u03b4\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f05\u03b9\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u00b7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.; comp. Acts i. 5,\n  xi. 16, xix. 4.\n\nFootnote 474:\n\n  _Apost. Const._ vi. 6; comp. \u00a7 23. See p. 162, note 2.\n\nFootnote 475:\n\n  _Clem. Recogn._ i. 54 'ex discipulis Johannis, qui ... magistrum suum\n  veluti Christum praedicarunt,' _ib._ \u00a7 60 'Ecce unus ex discipulis\n  Johannis adfirmabat Christum Johannem fuisse, et non Jesum; in tantum,\n  inquit, ut et ipse Jesus omnibus hominibus et prophetis majorem esse\n  pronuntiaverit Johannem etc.'; see also \u00a7 63.\n\nFootnote 476:\n\n  See above p. 96.\n\nFootnote 477:\n\n  _Clem. Recogn._ l.c. This portion of the Clementine Recognitions is\n  apparently taken from an older Judaizing romance, the _Ascents of\n  James_ (see _Galatians_ pp. 316, 349). Hegesippus also (in Euseb.\n  _H.E._ iv. 22) mentions the Hemerobaptists in his list of Jewish\n  sects; and it is not improbable that this list was given as an\n  introduction to his account of the labours and martyrdom of St James\n  (see Euseb. _H.E._ ii. 23). If so, it was probably derived from the\n  same source as the notice in the Recognitions.\n\nFootnote 478:\n\n  They are called Baptists by Justin Mart. _Dial._ 10, p. 307 A. He\n  mentions them among other Jewish sects, without however alluding to\n  John.\n\nFootnote 479:\n\n  By the author of the _Recognitions_ (l.c.) who denies the claim; and\n  by the author of the _Homilies_ (see below p. 166, note 482), who\n  allows it.\n\nFootnote 480:\n\n  These Mandeans are a rapidly diminishing sect living in the region\n  about the Tigris and the Euphrates, south of Bagdad. Our most exact\n  knowledge of them is derived from Petermann (_Herzog's\n  Real-Encyklop\u00e4die_ s. vv. Mend\u00e4er, Zabier, and _Deutsche Zeitschrift_\n  1854 p. 181 sq. 1856 p. 331 sq., 342 sq., 363 sq., 386 sq.) who has\n  had personal intercourse with them; and from Chwolson (_die Ssabier u.\n  der Ssabismus_ I. p. 100 sq.) who has investigated the Arabic\n  authorities for their earlier history. The names by which they are\n  known are (1) _Mendeans_, or more properly _Mandeans_, \u05de\u05e0\u05d3\u05d9\u05d9\u05d0\n  _Mand\u0101y\u0113_, contracted from \u05de\u05e0\u05d3\u05d0 \u05d3\u05d7\u05d9\u05d9\u05d0 _Mand\u0101 d\u0115ch\u0101y\u0113_ 'the word of\n  life.' This is their own name among themselves, and points to their\n  Gnostic pretentions. (2) _Sabeans, Tsabiyun_, possibly from the root\n  \u05e6\u05d1\u05e2 'to dip' on account of their frequent lustrations (Chwolson I. p.\n  110; but see _Galatians_ p. 312), though this is not the derivation of\n  the word which they themselves adopt, and other etymologies have found\n  favour with some recent writers (see Petermann _Herzog's Real-Encykl_.\n  Suppl. XVIII. p. 342 s.v. Zabier). This is the name by which they are\n  known in the Koran and in Arabic writers, and by which they call\n  themselves when speaking to others. (3) _Nasoreans_, \u05e0\u05e6\u05d5\u05e8\u05d9\u05d9\u05d0\n  _N\u0101ts\u014dr\u0101y\u0113_. This term is at present confined to those among them who\n  are distinguished in knowledge or in business. (4) 'Christians of St\n  John, or Disciples of St John' (i.e. the Baptist). This name is not\n  known among themselves, and was incorrectly given to them by European\n  travellers and missionaries. At the same time John the Baptist has a\n  very prominent place in their theological system, as the one true\n  prophet. On the other hand they are not Christians in any sense.\n\n  These Mandeans, the true Sabeans, must not be confused with the false\n  Sabeans, polytheists and star-worshippers, whose locality is Northern\n  Mesopotamia. Chwolson (I. p. 139 sq.) has shown that these last\n  adopted the name in the 9th century to escape persecution from the\n  Mohammedans, because in the Koran the Sabeans, as monotheists, are\n  ranged with the Jews and Christians, and viewed in a more favourable\n  light than polytheists. The name however has generally been applied in\n  modern times to the false rather than to the true Sabeans.\n\n[Sidenote: (_b_) Their relation to the Essenes.]\n\n(_b_) Of the connexion between this sect and John the Baptist we have\nbeen able to give a probable, though necessarily hypothetical account.\nBut when we attempt to determine its relation to the Essenes, we find\nourselves entangled in a hopeless mesh of perplexities. The notices are\nso confused, the affinities so subtle, the ramifications so numerous,\nthat it becomes a desperate task to distinguish and classify these\nabnormal Jewish and Judaizing heresies. [Sidenote: They were at first\ndistinct, if not antagonistic.] One fact however seems clear that,\nwhatever affinities they may have had originally, and whatever relations\nthey may have contracted afterwards with one another, the\nHemerobaptists, properly speaking, were not Essenes. The Sibylline poem\nwhich may be regarded as in some respects a Hemerobaptist manifesto\ncontains, as we saw, many traits inconsistent with pure Essenism[481].\nIn two several accounts, the memoirs of Hegesippus and the Apostolic\nConstitutions, the Hemerobaptists are expressly distinguished from the\nEssenes[482]. In an early production of Judaic Christianity, whose\nJudaism has a strong Essene tinge, the Clementine Homilies, they and\ntheir eponym are condemned in the strongest language. The system of\nsyzygies, or pairs of opposites, is a favourite doctrine of this work,\nand in these John stands contrasted to Jesus, as Simon Magus to Simon\nPeter, as the false to the true; for according to this author's\nphilosophy of history the manifestation of the false always precedes the\nmanifestation of the true[483]. And again, Epiphanius speaks of them as\nagreeing substantially in their doctrines, not with the Essenes, but\nwith the Scribes and Pharisees[484]. His authority on such a point may\nbe worth very little; but connected with other notices, it should not be\npassed over in silence. Yet, whatever may have been their differences,\nthe Hemerobaptists and the Essenes had one point of direct contact,\ntheir belief in the moral efficacy of lustrations. When the temple and\npolity were destroyed, the shock vibrated through the whole fabric of\nJudaism, loosening and breaking up existing societies, and preparing the\nway for new combinations. [Sidenote: But after the destruction of the\nTemple]More especially the cessation of the sacrificial rites must have\nproduced a profound effect equally on those who, like the Essenes, had\ncondemned them already, and on those who, as possibly was the case with\nthe Hemerobaptists, had hitherto remained true to the orthodox ritual.\n[Sidenote: there may have been a fusion.]One grave obstacle to friendly\novertures was thus removed; and a fusion, more or less complete, may\nhave been the consequence. At all events the relations of the Jewish\nsects must have been materially affected by this great national crisis,\nas indeed we know to have been the case. In the confusion which follows,\nit is impossible to attain any clear view of their history. At the\nbeginning of the second century however this pseudo-baptist movement\nreceived a fresh impulse from the pretended revelation of Elchesai,\nwhich came from the farther East[485]. Henceforth Elchesai is the\nprominent name in the history of those Jewish and Judaizing sects whose\nproper home is east of the Jordan[486], and who appear to have\nreproduced, with various modifications derived from Christian and\nHeathen sources, the Gnostic theology and the pseudo-baptist ritual of\ntheir Essene predecessors. It is still preserved in the records of the\nonly extant people who have any claim to be regarded as the religious\nheirs of the Essenes. Elchesai is regarded as the founder of the sect of\nMandeans[487].\n\nFootnote 481:\n\n  See p. 96 sq.\n\nFootnote 482:\n\n  Hegesipp. in Euseb. _H.E._ iv. 22, _Apost. Const._ vi. 6. So also the\n  Pseudo-Hieronymus in the _Indiculus de H\u00e6resibus_ (_Corp. H\u00e6res._ I.\n  p. 283, ed. Oehler).\n\nFootnote 483:\n\n  Clem. Hom. ii. 23 \u1f38\u03c9\u03ac\u03bd\u03bd\u03b7\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf \u1f21\u03bc\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03b2\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c2, \u1f43\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n  \u03ba\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c5\u03b6\u03c5\u03b3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf \u03c0\u03c1\u03cc\u03bf\u03b4\u03bf\u03c2. It is\n  then stated that, as Christ had twelve leading disciples, so John had\n  thirty. This, it is argued, was a providential dispensation\u2014the one\n  number represents the solar, the other the lunar period; and so they\n  illustrate another point in this writer's theory, that in the syzygies\n  the true and the false are the male and female principle respectively.\n  Among these 30 disciples he places Simon Magus. With this the doctrine\n  of the Mandeans stands in direct opposition. They too have their\n  syzygies, but John with them represents the true principle.\n\nFootnote 484:\n\n  _H\u00e6r._ xvii. 1 (p. 37) \u1f34\u03c3\u03b1 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03bc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03ad\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03a6\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03b1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u03c6\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b1. But\n  he adds that they resemble the Sadducees 'not only in the matter of\n  the resurrection of the dead, but also in their unbelief and in the\n  other points.'\n\nFootnote 485:\n\n  See _Galatians_ p. 311 sq. on this Book of Elchesai.\n\nFootnote 486:\n\n  See above p. 137.\n\nFootnote 487:\n\n  See Chwolson I. p. 112 sq., II. p. 543 sq. The Arabic writer En-Nedim,\n  who lived towards the close of the tenth century, says that the\n  founder of the Sabeans (i.e. Mandeans) was _El-chasaich_ (\u0627\u0644\u062d\u0633\u064a\u062d) the\n  doctrine of two coordinate principles, the male and female. This\n  notice, as far as it goes, agrees with the account of Elchesai or\n  Elxai in Hippolytus (_H\u00e6r._ ix. 13 sq.) and Epiphanius (_H\u00e6r._ xix. 1\n  sq.). But the derivation of the name Elchesai given by Epiphanius\n  (_H\u00e6r._ xix. 2) \u03b4\u03cd\u03bd\u03b1\u03bc\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b5\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03c5\u03bc\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7 (\u05d7\u05d9\u05dc \u05db\u05e1\u05d9) is different and\n  probably correct (see _Galatians_ p. 312).\n\n[Sidenote: (ii) James the Lord's Brother]\n\n(ii) But, if great weight has been attached to the supposed connexion of\nJohn the Baptist with the Essenes, the case of James the Lord's brother\nhas been alleged with still more confidence. Here, it is said, we have\nan indisputable Essene connected by the closest family ties with the\nFounder of Christianity. [Sidenote: invested with Essene\ncharacteristics.]James is reported to have been holy from his birth; to\nhave drunk no wine nor strong drink; to have eaten no flesh; to have\nallowed no razor to touch his head, no oil to anoint his body; to have\nabstained from using the bath; and lastly to have worn no wool, but only\nfine linen[488]. Here we have a description of Nazarite practices at\nleast and (must it not be granted) of Essene tendencies also.\n\nBut what is our authority for this description? The writer, from whom\nthe account is immediately taken, is the Jewish-Christian historian\nHegesippus, who flourished about A.D. 170. He cannot therefore have been\nan eye-witness of the facts which he relates. [Sidenote: But the account\ncomes from untrustworthy sources.]And his whole narrative betrays its\nlegendary character. Thus his account of James's death, which follows\nimmediately on this description, is highly improbable and melodramatic\nin itself, and directly contradicts the contemporary notice of Josephus\nin its main facts[489]. From whatever source therefore Hegesippus may\nhave derived his information, it is wholly untrustworthy. Nor can we\ndoubt that he was indebted to one of those romances with which the\nJudaizing Christians of Essene tendencies loved to gratify the natural\ncuriosity of their disciples respecting the first founders of the\nChurch[490]. In like manner Essene portraits are elsewhere preserved of\nthe Apostles Peter[491] and Matthew[492], which represent them as living\non a spare diet of herbs and berries. I believe also that I have\nelsewhere pointed out the true source of this description in Hegesippus,\nand that it is taken from the 'Ascents of James[493],' a Jud\u00e6o-Christian\nwork stamped, as we happen to know, with the most distinctive Essene\nfeatures[494]. But if we turn from these religious novels of Judaic\nChristianity to earlier and more trustworthy sources of information\u2014to\nthe Gospels or the Acts or the Epistles of St Paul\u2014we fail to discover\nthe faintest traces of Essenism in James. [Sidenote: No Essene features\nin the true portraits of James or of the earliest disciples.]'The\nhistorical James,' says a recent writer, 'shows Pharisaic but not Essene\nsympathies[495].' This is true of James, as it is true of the early\ndisciples in the mother Church of Jerusalem generally. The\ntemple-ritual, the daily-sacrifices, suggested no scruples to them. The\nonly distinction of meats, which they recognised, was the distinction of\nanimals clean and unclean as laid down by the Mosaic law. The only\nsacrificial victims, which they abhorred, were victims offered to idols.\nThey took their part in the religious offices, and mixed freely in the\ncommon life, of their fellow-Israelites, distinguished from them only in\nthis, that to their Hebrew inheritance they superadded the knowledge of\na higher truth and the joy of a better hope. It was altogether within\nthe sphere of orthodox Judaism that the Jewish element in the Christian\nbrotherhood found its scope. Essene peculiarities are the objects\nneither of sympathy nor of antipathy. In the history of the infant\nChurch for the first quarter of a century Essenism is as though it were\nnot.\n\nFootnote 488:\n\n  Hegesippus in Euseb. _H.E._ ii. 23.\n\nFootnote 489:\n\n  See _Galatians_ p. 348 sq.\n\nFootnote 490:\n\n  See _Galatians_ p. 311.\n\nFootnote 491:\n\n  _Clem. Hom._ xii. 6, where St Peter is made to say \u1f04\u03c1\u03c4\u1ff3 \u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u1ff3 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n  \u1f10\u03bb\u03b1\u03af\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c7\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03af\u03c9\u03c2 \u03bb\u03b1\u03c7\u03ac\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2; comp. xv. 7 \u1f55\u03b4\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n  \u1f04\u03c1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5.\n\nFootnote 492:\n\n  Clem. Alex. _P\u00e6dag._ ii. 1 (p. 174) \u03c3\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u03b4\u03c1\u03cd\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n  \u03bb\u03b1\u03c7\u03ac\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd \u1f04\u03bd\u03b5\u03c5 \u03ba\u03c1\u03b5\u1ff6\u03bd \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03b1.\u03bc\u03b2\u03b1\u03bd\u03b5\u03bd.\n\nFootnote 493:\n\n  See _Galatians_ p. 349, note.\n\nFootnote 494:\n\n  Epiphanius (_H\u00e6r._ xxx. 16) mentions two points especially, in which\n  the character of this work is shown: (1) It represented James as\n  condemning the sacrifices and the fire on the altar (see above pp.\n  134\u2013136): (2) It published the most unfounded calumnies against St\n  Paul.\n\nFootnote 495:\n\n  Lipsius, _Schenkel's Bibel-Lexicon_, p. 191.\n\n[Sidenote: Essene influences visible before the close of the Apostolic\n           age.]\n\nBut a time came, when all this was changed. Even as early as the year\n58, when St Paul wrote to the Romans, we detect practices in the\nChristian community of the metropolis, which may possibly have been due\nto Essene influences[496]. Five or six years later, the heretical\nteaching which threatened the integrity of the Gospel at Coloss\u00e6 shows\nthat this type of Judaism was already strong enough within the Church to\nexert a dangerous influence on its doctrinal purity. Then came the great\nconvulsion\u2014the overthrow of the Jewish polity and nation. This was the\nturning-point in the relations between Essenism and Christianity, at\nleast in Palestine. [Sidenote: Consequences of the Jewish war.]The\nEssenes were extreme sufferers in the Roman war of extermination. It\nseems probable that their organization was entirely broken up. Thus cast\nadrift, they were free to enter into other combinations, while the shock\nof the recent catastrophe would naturally turn their thoughts into new\nchannels. At the same time the nearer proximity of the Christians, who\nhad migrated to Per\u00e6a during the war, would bring them into close\ncontact with the new faith and subject them to its influences, as they\nhad never been subjected before[497]. But, whatever may be the\nexplanation, the fact seems certain, that after the destruction of\nJerusalem the Christian body was largely reinforced from their ranks.\nThe Judaizing tendencies among the Hebrew Christians, which hitherto had\nbeen wholly Pharisaic, are henceforth largely Essene.\n\nFootnote 496:\n\n  Rom. xiv. 2, 21.\n\nFootnote 497:\n\n  See _Galatians_ p. 310 sq.\n\n[Sidenote: 2. Do the resemblances favour the theory of a connexion?]\n\n2. If then history fails to reveal any such external connexion with\nEssenism in Christ and His Apostles as to justify the opinion that\nEssene influences contributed largely to the characteristic features of\nthe Gospel, such a view, if tenable at all, must find its support in\nsome striking coincidence between the doctrines and practices of the\nEssenes and those which its Founder stamped upon Christianity. This\nindeed is the really important point; for without it the external\nconnexion, even if proved, would be valueless. The question is not\nwhether Christianity arose amid such and such circumstances, but how far\nit was created and moulded by those circumstances.\n\n[Sidenote: (i) Observance of the sabbath.]\n\n(i) Now one point which especially strikes us in the Jewish historian's\naccount of the Essenes, is their strict observance of certain points in\nthe Mosaic ceremonial law, more especially the ultra-Pharisaic rigour\nwith which they kept the sabbath. How far their conduct in this respect\nwas consistent with the teaching and practice of Christ may be seen from\nthe passages quoted in the parallel columns which follow:\n\n'Jesus went on the sabbath-day through the corn fields; and his\ndisciples began to pluck the ears of corn and to eat[498].... But when\nthe Pharisees saw it, they said unto him, 'Behold, thy disciples do that\nwhich it is not lawful to do upon the sabbath-day. But he said unto\nthem, Have ye not read what David did.... The sabbath was made for man,\nand not man for the sabbath. Therefore the Son of Man is Lord even of\nthe sabbath-day....'\n\n'It is lawful to do well on the sabbath-days' (Matt. xii. 1\u201312; Mark ii.\n23.-iii. 6; Luke vi. 1\u201311, xiv. 1\u20136. See also a similar incident in Luke\nxiii. 10\u201317). 'The Jews therefore said unto him that was cured; It is\nthe sabbath-day; it is not lawful for thee to carry thy bed. But he\nanswered them, He that made me whole, the same said unto me, Take up thy\nbed and walk.... Therefore the Jews did persecute Jesus and sought to\nslay him, because he did these things on the sabbath-day. But Jesus\nanswered them, My Father worketh hitherto, and I work, etc. (John v.\n10\u201318; comp. vii. 22, 23).' 'And it was the sabbath-day when Jesus made\nthe clay, and opened his eyes.... Therefore said some of the Pharisees,\nThis man is not of God, because he keepeth not the sabbath-day (John ix.\n14, 16).'\n\n'And they avoid ... touching any work (\u1f10\u03c6\u03ac\u03c0\u03c4\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f14\u03c1\u03b3\u03c9\u03bd) on the\nsabbath-day more scrupulously than any of the Jews (\u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03ce\u03c4\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f38\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd\n\u1f01\u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd); for they do not venture so much as to move a vessel[499], nor\nto perform the most necessary offices of life (_B.J._ ii. 8. 9).'\n\nFootnote 498:\n\n  Gr\u00e4tz (III. p. 233) considers this narrative an interpolation\n  made from a Pauline point of view ('eine paulinistische\n  Tendenz-interpolation'). This theory of interpolation,\n  interposing wherever the evidence is unfavourable, cuts up all\n  argument by the roots. In this instance however Gr\u00e4tz is\n  consistently carrying out a principle, which he broadly lays\n  down elsewhere. He regards it as the great merit of Baur and his\n  school, that they explained the origin of the Gospels by the\n  conflict of two opposing camps, the Ebionite and the Pauline.\n  'By this master-key,' he adds, 'criticism was first put in a\n  position to test what is historical in the Gospels, and what\n  bears the stamp of a polemical tendency (was einen tendenti\u00f6sen\n  polemischen Charakter hat). Indeed by this means the element of\n  trustworthy history in the Gospels melts down to a minimum'\n  (III. p. 224). In other words the judgment is not to be\n  pronounced upon the evidence, but the evidence must be mutilated\n  to suit the judgment. The method is not new. The sectarians of\n  the second century, whether Judaic or anti-Judaic, had severally\n  their 'master-key.' The master-key of Marcion was a conflict\n  also\u2014the antagonism of the Old and New Testaments. Under his\n  hands the historical element in the New Testament dissolved\n  rapidly. The master-key of the anti-Marcionite writer of the\n  Clementine Homilies was likewise a conflict, though of another\n  kind\u2014the conflict of fire and water, of the sacrificial and the\n  baptismal systems. Wherever sacrifice was mentioned with\n  approval, there was a 'Tendenz-interpolation' (see above p.\n  136). In this manner again the genuine element in the Old\n  Testament melted down to a minimum.\n\nFootnote 499:\n\n  Gr\u00e4tz however (III. p. 228) sees a coincidence between Christ's\n  teaching and Essenism in this notice. Not to do him injustice, I will\n  translate his own words (correcting however several misprints in the\n  Greek): 'For the connexion of Jesus with the Essenes compare moreover\n  Mark xi. 16 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f24\u03c6\u03b9\u03b5\u03bd \u1f41 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c2 \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b5\u03bd\u03ad\u03b3\u03ba\u1fc3 \u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n  \u1f31\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6 with Josephus _B.J._ ii. 8. 9 \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb' \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u1f72 \u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u1fe6\u03cc\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b9 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03ba\u03b9\u03bd\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9\n  \u03b8\u03b1\u03c1\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03bf\u1f35 \u1f18\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u1f30.' He does not explain what this notice, which\n  refers solely to the scrupulous observance of the sabbath, has to do\n  with the profanation of the temple, with which the passage in the\n  Gospel is alone concerned. I have seen Gr\u00e4tz's history described as a\n  'masterly' work. The first requisites in a historian are accuracy in\n  stating facts and sobriety in drawing inferences. Without these, it is\n  difficult to see what claims a history can have to this honourable\n  epithet: and in those portions of his work, which I have consulted, I\n  have not found either.\n\n[Sidenote: (ii) Lustrations and other ceremonial observances.]\n\n(ii) But there were other points of ceremonial observance, in which the\nEssenes superadded to the law. Of these the most remarkable was their\npractice of constant lustrations. In this respect the Pharisee was\nsufficiently minute and scrupulous in his observances; but with the\nEssene these ablutions were the predominant feature of his religious\nritual. Here again it will be instructive to compare the practice of\nChrist and His disciples with the practice of the Essenes.\n\n'And when they saw some of his disciples eat bread with defiled (that is\nto say, unwashen) hands; for the Pharisees and all the Jews, except they\nwash their hands oft (\u03c0\u03c5\u03b3\u03bc\u1fc7), eat not...The Pharisees and scribes asked\nhim, Why walk not thy disciples according to the tradition of the\nelders.... But he answered ... Ye hypocrites, laying aside the\ncommandment of God, ye hold the tradition of men....'\n\n'Not that which goeth into the mouth defileth the man; but that which\ncometh out of the mouth, this defileth the man.... Let them alone, they\nbe blind leaders of the blind....'\n\n'To eat with unwashen hands defileth not the man (Matt. xv. 1\u201320, Mark\nvii. 1\u201323).'\n\n'So they wash their whole body (\u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03cd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1) in cold water; and\nafter this purification (\u1f01\u03b3\u03bd\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd) ... being clean (\u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u1f76) they come to\nthe refectory (to dine).... And when they have returned (from their\nday's work) they sup in like manner (_B.J._ ii. 8. 5).'\n\n'After a year's probation (the novice) is admitted to closer intercourse\n(\u03c0\u03c1\u03cc\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f14\u03b3\u03b3\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03af\u03c4\u1fc3), and the lustral waters in which he\nparticipates have a higher degree of purity (\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03b1\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2\n\u1f01\u03b3\u03bd\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u1f51\u03b4\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03bc\u03b2\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9, \u00a7 7).'\n\n'It is a custom to wash after it, as if polluted by it (\u00a7 9).'\n\n'And when the Pharisee saw it, he marvelled that he had not first washed\nbefore dinner (\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f00\u03c1\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5). And the Lord said unto him: Now do ye\nPharisees make clean the outside of the cup and the platter.... Ye fools\n... behold all things are clean unto you (Luke xi. 38\u201341).'\n\n'Racked and dislocated, burnt and crushed, and subjected to every\ninstrument of torture ... to make them eat strange food (\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd\n\u1f00\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03ae\u03b8\u03c9\u03bd) ... they were not induced to submit (\u00a7 10).'\n\n'Exercising themselves in ... divers lustrations (\u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c6\u03cc\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f01\u03b3\u03bd\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2 ...\n\u1f10\u03bc\u03c0\u03b1\u03b9\u03b4\u03bf\u03c4\u03c1\u03b9\u03b2\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9, \u00a7 12).'\n\n[Sidenote: Avoidance of strangers.]\n\nConnected with this idea of external purity is the avoidance of contact\nwith strangers, as persons who would communicate ceremonial defilement.\nAnd here too the Essene went much beyond the Pharisee. The Pharisee\navoided Gentiles or aliens, or those whose profession or character\nplaced them in the category of 'sinners'; but the Essene shrunk even\nfrom the probationers and inferior grades of his own exclusive\ncommunity. Here again we may profitably compare the sayings and doings\nof Christ with the principles of this sect.\n\n'And when the scribes and Pharisees saw him eat with the publicans and\nsinners they said unto the disciples, Why eateth your Master with the\npublicans and the sinners....' (Mark ii. 15 sq.; Matth. ix. 10 sq., Luke\nv. 30 sq.)\n\n'They say ... a friend of publicans and sinners (Matth. xi. 19).'\n\n'The Pharisees and the scribes murmured, saying, This man receiveth\nsinners and eateth with them (Luke xv. 2).'\n\n'They all murmured saying that he was gone to be a guest with a man that\nis a sinner (Luke xix. 7).'\n\n'Behold, a woman in the city that was a sinner ... began to wash his\nfeet with her tears, and did wipe them with the hairs of her head and\nkissed his feet.... Now when the Pharisee which had bidden him saw it,\nhe spake within himself saying, This man, if he had been a prophet,\nwould have known who and what manner of woman this is that toucheth him;\nfor she is a sinner (Luke vii. 37 sq.).'\n\n'And after this purification they assemble in a private room, where no\nperson of a different belief (\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f11\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03b4\u03cc\u03be\u03c9\u03bd, i.e. not an Essene) is\npermitted to enter; and (so) being by themselves and clean (\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1f76\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u1f76) they present themselves at the refectory (\u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03c0\u03bd\u03b7\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd), as if\nit were a sacred precinct (\u00a7 5).'\n\n'And they are divided into four grades according to the time passed\nunder the discipline: and the juniors are regarded as so far inferior to\nthe seniors, that, if they touch them, the latter wash their bodies\nclean (\u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03cd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9), as if they had come in contact with a foreigner\n(\u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03ac\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03c6\u03cd\u03bb\u1ff3 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bc\u03c6\u03c5\u03c1\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2, \u00a7 10).'\n\nIn all these minute scruples relating to ceremonial observances, the\ndenunciations which are hurled against the Pharisees in the Gospels\nwould apply with tenfold force to the Essenes.\n\n[Sidenote: (iii) Asceticism.]\n\n(iii) If the lustrations of the Essenes far outstripped the enactments\nof the Mosaic law, so also did their asceticism. I have given reasons\nabove for believing that this asceticism was founded on a false\nprinciple, which postulates the malignity of matter and is wholly\ninconsistent with the teaching of the Gospel[500]. But without pressing\nthis point, of which no absolutely demonstrative proof can be given, it\nwill be sufficient to call attention to the trenchant contrast in\npractice which Essene habits present to the life of Christ. He who 'came\neating and drinking' and was denounced in consequence as 'a glutton and\na wine-bibber'[501], [Sidenote: Eating and drinking.]He whose first\nexercise of power is recorded to have been the multiplication of wine at\na festive entertainment, and whose last meal was attended with the\ndrinking of wine and the eating of flesh, could only have excited the\npity, if not the indignation, of these rigid abstainers. And again,\nattention should be directed to another kind of abstinence, where the\ncontrast is all the more speaking, because the matter is so trivial and\nthe scruple so minute.\n\nFootnote 500:\n\n  See above p. 87.\n\nFootnote 501:\n\n  Matt. xi. 19, Luke vii. 34.\n\n'My head with oil thou didst not anoint (Luke vii. 46).'\n\n'Thou, when thou fastest, anoint thy head (Matt. vi. 17).'\n\n'And they consider oil a pollution (\u03ba\u03b7\u03bb\u1fd6\u03b4\u03b1), and though one is smeared\ninvoluntarily, he rubs his body clean (\u03c3\u03bc\u03ae\u03c7\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1, \u00a7 3).'\n\nAnd yet it has been stated that 'the Saviour of the world ... showed\nwhat is required for a holy life in the Sermon on the Mount by a\ndescription of the Essenes[502].'\n\nFootnote 502:\n\n  Ginsburg _Essenes_ p. 14.\n\n[Sidenote: Celibacy.]\n\nBut much stress has been laid on the celibacy of the Essenes; and our\nLord's saying in Matt. xix. 12 is quoted to establish an identity of\ndoctrine. Yet there is nothing special in the language there used. Nor\nis there any close affinity between the stern invectives against\nmarriage which Josephus and Philo attribute to the Essene, and the\ngentle concession 'He that is able to receive it, let him receive it.'\nThe best comment on our Lord's meaning here is the advice of St\nPaul[503], who was educated not in the Essene, but in the Pharisaic\nschool. Moreover this saying must be balanced by the general tenour of\nthe Gospel narrative. When we find Christ discussing the relations of\nman and wife, gracing the marriage festival by His presence, again and\nagain employing wedding banquets and wedded life as apt symbols of the\nhighest theological truths, without a word of disparagement or rebuke,\nwe see plainly that we are confronted with a spirit very different from\nthe narrow rigour of the Essenes.\n\nFootnote 503:\n\n  1 Cor. vii. 26\u201331.\n\n[Sidenote: (iv) Avoidance of the Temple sacrifices.]\n\n(iv) But not only where the Essenes superadded to the ceremonial law,\ndoes their teaching present a direct contrast to the phenomena of the\nGospel narrative. The same is true also of those points in which they\nfell short of the Mosaic enactments. I have already discussed at some\nlength the Essene abstention from the temple sacrifices[504]. There can,\nI think, be little doubt that they objected to the slaughter of\nsacrificial victims altogether. But for my present purpose it matters\nnothing whether they avoided the temple on account of the sacrifices, or\nthe sacrifices on account of the temple. Christ did neither. Certainly\nHe could not have regarded the temple as unholy; for his whole time\nduring his sojourns at Jerusalem was spent within its precincts. It was\nthe scene of His miracles, of His ministrations, of His daily\nteaching[505]. And in like manner it is the common rendezvous of His\ndisciples after Him[506]. Nor again does He evince any abhorrence of the\nsacrifices. On the contrary He says that the altar consecrates the\ngifts[507]; He charges the cleansed lepers to go and fulfil the Mosaic\nordinance and offer the sacrificial offerings to the priests[508].\n[Sidenote: Practice of Christ and His disciples.]And His practice also\nis conformable to His teaching. He comes to Jerusalem regularly to\nattend the great festivals, where sacrifices formed the most striking\npart of the ceremonial, and He himself enjoins preparation to be made\nfor the sacrifice of the Paschal lamb. If He repeats the inspired\nwarning of the older prophets, that mercy is better than sacrifice[509],\nthis very qualification shows approval of the practice in itself. Nor is\nHis silence less eloquent than His utterances or His actions. Throughout\nthe Gospels there is not one word which can be construed as condemning\nthe sacrificial system or as implying a desire for its cessation until\neverything is fulfilled.\n\nFootnote 504:\n\n  See p. 134 sq.\n\nFootnote 505:\n\n  Matt. xxi. 12 sq., 23 sq., xxiv. 1 sq., xxvi. 55, Mark xi. 11, 15 sq.,\n  27, xii. 35, xiii. 1 sq., xiv. 49, Luke ii. 46, xix. 45, xx. 1 sq.,\n  xxi. 37 sq., xxii. 53, John ii. 14 sq., v. 14, vii. 14, viii. 2, 20,\n  59, x. 23, xi. 56, xviii. 20.\n\nFootnote 506:\n\n  Luke xxiv. 53, Acts ii. 46, iii. 1 sq., v. 20 sq., 42.\n\nFootnote 507:\n\n  Matt. xxiii. 18 sq.: comp. v. 23, 24.\n\nFootnote 508:\n\n  Matt. viii. 4, Mark i. 44, Luke v. 14.\n\nFootnote 509:\n\n  Matt. ix. 13, xii. 7.\n\n[Sidenote: (v) Denial of the resurrection of the body.]\n\n(v) This last contrast refers to the ceremonial law. But not wide is the\ndivergence on an important point of doctrine. The resurrection of the\nbody is a fundamental article in the belief of the early disciples. This\nwas distinctly denied by the Essenes[510]. However gross and sensuous\nmay have been the conceptions of the Pharisees on this point, still they\nso far agreed with the teaching of Christianity, as against the Essenes,\nin that the risen man could not, as they held, be pure soul or spirit,\nbut must necessarily be body and soul conjoint.\n\nFootnote 510:\n\n  See above p. 88.\n\n[Sidenote: Some supposed coincidences considered.]\n\nThus at whatever point we test the teaching and practice of our Lord by\nthe characteristic tenets of Essenism, the theory of affinity fails.\nThere are indeed several coincidences on which much stress has been\nlaid, but they cannot be placed in the category of distinctive features.\nThey are either exemplifications of a higher morality, which may indeed\nhave been honourably illustrated in the Essenes, but is in no sense\nconfined to them, being the natural outgrowth of the moral sense of\nmankind whenever circumstances are favourable. Or they are more special,\nbut still independent developments, which owe their similarity to the\nsame influences of climate and soil, though they do not spring from the\nsame root. To this latter class belong such manifestations as are due to\nthe social conditions of the age or nation, whether they result from\nsympathy with, or from repulsion to, those conditions.\n\n[Sidenote: Simplicity and brotherly love.]\n\nThus, for instance, much stress has been laid on the aversion to war and\nwarlike pursuits, on the simplicity of living, and on the feeling of\nbrotherhood which distinguished Christians and Essenes alike. But what\nis gained by all this? It is quite plain that Christ would have approved\nwhatever was pure and lovely in the morality of the Essenes, just as He\napproved whatever was true in the doctrine of the Pharisees, if any\noccasion had presented itself when His approval was called for. But it\nis the merest assumption to postulate direct obligation on such grounds.\nIt is said however, that the moral resemblances are more particular than\nthis. [Sidenote: Prohibition of oaths.]There is for instance Christ's\nprecept 'Swear not at all ... but let your communication be Yea, yea,\nNay, nay.' Have we not here, it is urged, the very counterpart to the\nEssene prohibition of oaths[511]? Yet it would surely be quite as\nreasonable to say that both alike enforce that simplicity and\ntruthfulness in conversation which is its own credential and does not\nrequire the support of adjuration, both having the same reason for\nlaying stress on this duty, because the leaders of religious opinion\nmade artificial distinctions between oath and oath, as regards their\nbinding force, and thus sapped the foundations of public and private\nhonesty[512]. And indeed this avoidance of oaths is anything but a\nspecial badge of the Essenes. It was inculcated by Pythagoreans, by\nStoics, by philosophers and moralists of all schools[513]. When Josephus\nand Philo called the attention of Greeks and Romans to this feature in\nthe Essenes, they were simply asking them to admire in these practical\nphilosophers among the 'barbarians' the realisation of an ideal which\ntheir own great men had laid down. Even within the circles of Pharisaism\nlanguage is occasionally heard, which meets the Essene principle\nhalf-way[514].\n\nFootnote 511:\n\n  Jos. _B.J._ ii. 8. 6 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u1fe5\u03b7\u03b8\u1f72\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f30\u03c3\u03c7\u03c5\u03c1\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u1f45\u03c1\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5\u00b7 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b4\u1f72\n  \u1f40\u03bc\u03bd\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u0390\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, \u03c7\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03bf\u03c1\u03ba\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03bc\u03b2\u03ac\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2\u00b7\n  \u1f24\u03b4\u03b7 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03af \u03c6\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03b4\u03af\u03c7\u03b1 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6, Philo _Omn. prob.\n  lib._ 12 (II. p. 458) \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03b8\u03ad\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b4\u03b5\u03af\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ad\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03bc\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03b1 ... \u03c4\u1f78\n  \u1f00\u03bd\u03ce\u03bc\u03bf\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. Accordingly Josephus relates (_Ant._ xv. 10. 4) that\n  Herod the Great excused the Essenes from taking the oath of allegiance\n  to him. Yet they were not altogether true to their principles; for\n  Josephus says (_B.J._ ii. 8. 7), that on initiation into the sect the\n  members were bound by fearful oaths (\u1f45\u03c1\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03c6\u03c1\u03b9\u03ba\u03ce\u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2) to fulfil\n  certain conditions; and he twice again in the same passage mentions\n  oaths (\u1f40\u03bc\u03bd\u03cd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9, \u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f45\u03c1\u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2) in this connexion.\n\nFootnote 512:\n\n  On the distinctions which the Jewish doctors made between the validity\n  of different kinds of oaths, see the passages quoted in Lightfoot and\n  Sch\u00f6ttgen on Matt. v. 33 sq. The Talmudical tract _Shebhuoth_ tells\n  its own tale, and is the best comment on the precepts in the Sermon on\n  the Mount.\n\nFootnote 513:\n\n  See e.g. the passages in Wetstein on Matt. v. 37.\n\nFootnote 514:\n\n  _Baba Metsia_ 49 _a_. See also Lightfoot on Matt. v. 34.\n\n[Sidenote: Community of goods.]\n\nAnd again; attention has been called to the community of goods in the\ninfant Church of Christ, as though this were a legacy of Essenism. But\nhere too the reasonable explanation is, that we have an independent\nattempt to realise the idea of brotherhood\u2014an attempt which naturally\nsuggested itself without any direct imitation, but which was soon\nabandoned under the pressure of circumstances. Indeed the communism of\nthe Christians was from the first wholly unlike the communism of the\nEssenes. The surrender of property with the Christians was not a\nnecessary condition of entrance into an order; it was a purely voluntary\nact, which might be withheld without foregoing the privileges of the\nbrotherhood[515]. And the common life too was obviously different in\nkind, at once more free and more sociable, unfettered by rigid\nordinances, respecting individual liberty, and altogether unlike a\nmonastic rule.\n\nFootnote 515:\n\n  514: Acts v. 4.\n\nNot less irrelevant is the stress, which has been laid on another point\nof supposed coincidence in the social doctrines of the two communities.\n[Sidenote: Prohibition of slavery.]The prohibition of slavery was indeed\na highly honourable feature in the Essene order[516], but it affords no\nindication of a direct connexion with Christianity. It is true that this\nsocial institution of antiquity was not less antagonistic to the spirit\nof the Gospel, than it was abhorrent to the feelings of the Essene; and\nultimately the influence of Christianity has triumphed over it. But the\nimmediate treatment of the question was altogether different in the two\ncases. The Essene brothers proscribed slavery wholly; they produced no\nappreciable results by the proscription. The Christian Apostles, without\nattempting an immediate and violent revolution in society, proclaimed\nthe great principle that all men are equal in Christ, and left it to\nwork. It did work, like leaven, silently but surely, till the whole lump\nwas leavened. In the matter of slavery the resemblance to the Stoic is\nmuch closer than to the Essene[517]. The Stoic however began and ended\nin barren declamation, and no practical fruits were reaped from his\ndoctrine.\n\nFootnote 516:\n\n  Philo _Omn. prob. lib._ \u00a7 12 (II. p. 458) \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03cc\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b5 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f30\u03b4\u1f72\n  \u03b5\u1f36\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb' \u1f10\u03bb\u03b5\u03cd\u03b8\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., _Fragm._ II. p. 632 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba\n  \u1f00\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u03ac\u03c0\u03bf\u03b4\u03bf\u03bd, Jos. _Ant._ xviii. I. 5 \u03bf\u1f54\u03c4\u03b5 \u03b4\u03bf\u03cd\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c4\u03b7\u03b4\u03b5\u03cd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9 \u03ba\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd.\n\nFootnote 517:\n\n  See for instance the passages from Seneca quoted in _Philippians_ p.\n  305.\n\n[Sidenote: Respect paid to poverty.]\n\nMoreover prominence has been given to the fact, that riches are decried,\nand a preference is given to the poor, in the teaching of our Lord and\nHis Apostles. Here again, it is urged, we have a distinctly Essene\nfeature. We need not stop to enquire with what limitations this\nprerogative of poverty, which appears in the Gospels, must be\ninterpreted; but, quite independently of this question, we may fairly\ndecline to lay any stress on such a coincidence, where all other\nindications of a direct connexion have failed. The Essenes, pursuing a\nsimple and ascetic life, made it their chief aim to reduce their\nmaterial wants as far as possible, and in doing so they necessarily\nexalted poverty. Ascetic philosophers in Greece and Rome had done the\nsame. Christianity was entrusted with the mission of proclaiming the\nequal rights of all men before God, of setting a truer standard of human\nworth than the outward conventions of the world, of protesting against\nthe tyranny of the strong and the luxury of the rich, of redressing\nsocial inequalities, if not always by a present compensation, at least\nby a future hope. The needy and oppressed were the special charge of its\npreachers. It was the characteristic feature of the 'Kingdom of Heaven,'\nas described by the prophet whose words gave the keynote to the\nMessianic hopes of the nation, that the glad-tidings should be preached\nto the poor[518]. The exaltation of poverty therefore was an absolute\ncondition of the Gospel.\n\nFootnote 518:\n\n  Is. lxi. I. \u03b5\u1f50\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c0\u03c4\u03c9\u03c7\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2, quoted in Luke iv. 18. There are\n  references to this particular part of the prophecy again in Matt. xi.\n  5, Luke vii. 22, and probably also in the beatitude \u03bc\u03b1\u03ba\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03c0\u03c4\u03c9\u03c7\u03bf\u03af\n  \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., Matt. v. 3, Luke vi. 20.\n\n[Sidenote: The preaching of the Kingdom wrongly ascribed to the\n           Essenes.]\n\nThe mention of the kingdom of heaven leads to the last point on which it\nwill be necessary to touch before leaving this subject. 'The whole\nascetic life of the Essenes,' it has been said, 'aimed only at\nfurthering the _Kingdom of Heaven_ and the _Coming Age_.' Thus John the\nBaptist was the proper representative of this sect. 'From the Essenes\nwent forth the first call that the Messiah must shortly appear, _The\nkingdom of heaven is at_ _hand_'[519]. 'The announcement of the kingdom\nof heaven unquestionably went forth from the Essenes'[520]. For this\nconfident assertion there is absolutely no foundation in fact; and, as a\nconjectural hypothesis, the assumption is highly improbable.\n\nFootnote 519:\n\n  Gr\u00e4tz _Gesch._ III. p. 219.\n\nFootnote 520:\n\n  _ib._ p. 470.\n\n[Sidenote: The Essenes not prophets, but fortune-tellers.]\n\nAs fortune-tellers or soothsayers, the Essenes might be called prophets;\nbut as preachers of righteousness, as heralds of the kingdom, they had\nno claim to the title. Throughout the notices in Josephus and Philo we\ncannot trace the faintest indication of Messianic hopes. Nor indeed was\ntheir position at all likely to foster such hopes[521]. The Messianic\nidea was built on a belief in the resurrection of the body. The Essenes\nentirely denied this doctrine. The Messianic idea was intimately bound\nup with the national hopes and sufferings, with the national life, of\nthe Jews. The Essenes had no interest in the Jewish polity; they\nseparated themselves almost entirely from public affairs. [Sidenote:\nThey had no vivid Messianic expectations.]The deliverance of the\nindividual is the shipwreck of the whole, it has been well said, was the\nplain watchword of Essenism[522]. How entirely the conception of a\nMessiah might be obliterated, where Judaism was regarded only from the\nside of a mystic philosophy, we see from the case of Philo. Throughout\nthe works of this voluminous writer only one or two faint and doubtful\nallusions to a personal Messiah are found[523]. The philosophical tenets\nof the Essenes no doubt differed widely from those of Philo; but in the\nsubstitution of the individual and contemplative aspect of religion for\nthe national and practical they were united; and the effect in obscuring\nthe Messianic idea would be the same. When therefore it is said that the\nprominence given to the proclamation of the Messiah's kingdom is a main\nlink which connects Essenism and Christianity, we may dismiss the\nstatement as a mere hypothesis, unsupported by evidence and improbable\nin itself.\n\nFootnote 521:\n\n  Lipsius Schenkel's _Bibel-Lexikon_ s.v. Ess\u00e4er p. 190, Keim _Jesus von\n  Nazara_ I. p. 305. Both these writers express themselves very\n  decidedly against the view maintained by Gr\u00e4tz. 'The Essene art of\n  soothsaying,' writes Lipsius, 'has absolutely nothing to do with the\n  Messianic prophecy. 'Of all this,' says Keim,'there is no trace.'\n\nFootnote 522:\n\n  Keim _l.c._\n\nFootnote 523:\n\n  How little can be made out of Philo's Messianic utterances by one who\n  is anxious to make the most possible out of them, may be seen from\n  Gfr\u00f6rer's treatment of the subject, Philo I. p. 486 sq. The treatises\n  which bear on this topic are the _de Pr\u00e6miis et P\u0153nis_ (I. p. 408,\n  ed. Mangey) and the _de Execrationibus_ (I. p. 429). They deserve to\n  be read, if only for the negative results which they yield.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n\n\n\n                                  III.\n                 CHARACTER AND CONTENTS OF THE EPISTLE.\n\n\n[Sidenote: The understanding of the heresy necessary.]\n\nWithout the preceding investigation the teaching of this epistle would\nbe very imperfectly understood; for its direction was necessarily\ndetermined by the occasion which gave rise to it. Only when we have once\ngrasped the nature of the doctrine which St Paul is combating, do we\nperceive that every sentence is instinct with life and meaning.\n\n[Sidenote: The errors though twofold sprang from one root.]\n\nWe have seen that the error of the heretical teachers was twofold. They\nhad a false conception in theology, and they had a false basis of\nmorals. It has been pointed out also, that these two were closely\nconnected together, and had their root in the same fundamental error,\nthe idea of matter as the abode of evil and thus antagonistic to God.\n\n[Sidenote: So the answer to both is in the same truth.]\n\nAs the two elements of the heretical doctrine were derived from the same\nsource, so the reply to both was sought by the Apostle in the same idea,\nthe conception of the Person of Christ as the one absolute mediator\nbetween God and man, the true and only reconciler of heaven and earth.\n\nBut though they are thus ultimately connected, yet it will be necessary\nfor the fuller understanding of St Paul's position to take them apart,\nand to consider first the theological and then the ethical teaching of\nthe epistle.\n\n[Sidenote: 1. The _theological_ teaching of the heretics.]\n\n1. This Colossian heresy was no coarse and vulgar development of\nfalsehood. It soared far above the Pharisaic Judaism which St Paul\nrefutes in the Epistle to the Galatians. The questions in which it was\ninterested lie at the very root of our religious consciousness.\n[Sidenote: Its lofty motive,]The impulse was given to its speculations\nby an overwhelming sense of the unapproachable majesty of God, by an\ninstinctive recognition of the chasm which separates God from man, from\nthe world, from matter. Its energy was sustained by the intense yearning\nafter some mediation which might bridge over this chasm, might establish\ninter-communion between the finite and the Infinite. Up to this point it\nwas deeply religious in the best sense of the term.\n\n[Sidenote: but complete failure.]\n\nThe answer which it gave to these questions we have already seen. In two\nrespects this answer failed signally. On the one hand it was drawn from\nthe atmosphere of mystical speculation. It had no foundation in history,\nand made no appeal to experience. On the other hand, notwithstanding its\ncomplexity, it was unsatisfactory in its results; for in this plurality\nof mediators none was competent to meet the requirements of the case.\nGod here and man there\u2014no angel or spirit, whether one or more, being\nneither God nor man, could truly reconcile the two. Thus as regards\ncredentials it was without a guarantee; while as regards efficiency it\nwas wholly inadequate.\n\n[Sidenote: The Apostle's answer is in the Person of Christ.]\n\nThe Apostle pointed out to the Colossians a more excellent way. It was\nthe one purpose of Christianity to satisfy those very yearnings which\nwere working in their hearts, to solve that very problem which had\nexercised their minds. In Christ they would find the answer which they\nsought. His life\u2014His cross and resurrection\u2014was the guarantee;\n[Sidenote: The mediator in the world and in the Church.]His Person\u2014the\nWord Incarnate\u2014was the solution. He alone filled up, He alone could fill\nup, the void which lay between God and man, could span the gulf which\nseparated the Creator and creation. This solution offered by the Gospel\nis as simple as it is adequate. To their cosmical speculations, and to\ntheir religious yearnings alike, Jesus Christ is the true answer. In the\nWorld, as in the Church, He is the one only mediator, the one only\nreconciler. This two-fold idea runs like a double thread through the\nfabric of the Apostle's teaching in those passages of the epistle where\nhe is describing the Person of Christ.\n\nIt will be convenient for the better understanding of St Paul's teaching\nto consider these two aspects of Christ's mediation apart\u2014its function\nin the natural and in the spiritual order respectively.\n\n[Sidenote: (i) In the _Universe_.]\n\n(i) The heresy of the Colossian teachers took its rise, as we saw, in\ntheir cosmical speculations. It was therefore natural that the Apostle\nin replying should lay stress on the function of the Word in the\ncreation and government of the world. This is the aspect of His work\nmost prominent in the first of the two distinctly Christological\npassages. The Apostle there predicates of the Word, not only prior, but\nabsolute existence. All things were created through Him, are sustained\nin Him, are tending towards Him. Thus He is the beginning, middle, and\nend, of creation. This He is, because He is the very _image_ of the\nInvisible God, because in Him dwells the _plenitude_ of Deity.\n\n[Sidenote: Importance of this aspect of the Person of Christ,]\n\nThis creative and administrative work of Christ the Word in the natural\norder of things is always emphasized in the writings of the Apostles,\nwhen they touch upon the doctrine of His Person. It stands in the\nforefront of the prologue to St John's Gospel: it is hardly less\nprominent in the opening of the Epistle to the Hebrews. His mediatorial\nfunction in the Church is represented as flowing from His mediatorial\nfunction in the world. With ourselves this idea has retired very much\ninto the background. Though in the creed common to all the Churches we\nprofess our belief in Him, as the Being 'through whom all things were\ncreated,' yet in reality this confession seems to exercise very little\ninfluence on our thoughts. And the loss is serious. How much our\ntheological conceptions suffer in breadth and fulness by the neglect, a\nmoment's reflexion will show. How much more hearty would be the sympathy\nof theologians with the revelations of science and the developments of\nhistory, if they habitually connected them with the operation of the\nsame Divine Word who is the centre of all their religious aspirations,\nit is needless to say. Through the recognition of this idea with all the\nconsequences which flow from it, as a living influence, more than in any\nother way, may we hope to strike the chords of that 'vaster music,'\nwhich results only from the harmony of knowledge and faith, of reverence\nand research.\n\n[Sidenote: notwithstanding difficulties yet unsolved.]\n\nIt will be said indeed, that this conception leaves untouched the\nphilosophical difficulties which beset the subject; that creation still\nremains as much a mystery as before. This may be allowed. But is there\nany reason to think that with our present limited capacities the veil\nwhich shrouds it ever will be or can be removed? The metaphysical\nspeculations of twenty-five centuries have done nothing to raise it. The\nphysical investigations of our own age from their very nature can do\nnothing; for, busied with the evolution of phenomena, they lie wholly\noutside this question, and do not even touch the fringe of the\ndifficulty. But meanwhile revelation has interposed and thrown out the\nidea, which, if it leaves many questions unsolved, gives a breadth and\nunity to our conceptions, at once satisfying our religious needs and\nlinking our scientific instincts with our theological beliefs.\n\n[Sidenote: (ii) In the _Church_.]\n\n(ii) But, if Christ's mediatorial office in the physical creation was\nthe starting point of the Apostle's teaching, His mediatorial office in\nthe spiritual creation is its principal theme. The cosmogonies of the\nfalse teachers were framed not so much in the interests of philosophy as\nin the interests of religion; and the Apostle replies to them in the\nsame spirit and with the same motive. If the function of Christ is\nunique in the Universe, so is it also in the Church. [Sidenote: Its\nabsolute character.]He is the sole and absolute link between God and\nhumanity. Nothing short of His personality would suffice as a medium of\nreconciliation between the two. Nothing short of His life and work in\nthe flesh, as consummated in His passion, would serve as an assurance of\nGod's love and pardon. His cross is the atonement of mankind with God.\nHe is the Head with whom all the living members of the body are in\ndirect and immediate communication, who suggests their manifold\nactivities to each, who directs their several functions in subordination\nto the healthy working of the whole, from whom they individually receive\ntheir inspiration and their strength.\n\n[Sidenote: Hence angelic mediations are fundamentally wrong.]\n\nAnd being all this He cannot consent to share His prerogative with\nothers. He absorbs in Himself the whole function of mediation. Through\nHim alone, without any interposing link of communication, the human soul\nhas access to the Father. Here was the true answer to those deep\nyearnings after spiritual communion with God, which sought, and could\nnot find, satisfaction in the manifold and fantastic creations of a\ndreamy mysticism. The worship of angels might have the semblance of\nhumility; but it was in fact a contemptuous defiance of the fundamental\nidea of the Gospel, a flat denial of the absolute character of Christ's\nPerson and office. It was a severance of the proper connexion with the\nHead, an amputation of the disordered limb, which was thus disjoined\nfrom the source of life and left to perish for want of spiritual\nnourishment.\n\n[Sidenote: Christ's mediation in the Church justified by His mediation\n           in the World.]\n\nThe language of the New Testament writers is beset with difficulties, so\nlong as we conceive of our Lord only in connexion with the Gospel\nrevelation: but, when with the Apostles we realise in Him the same\nDivine Lord who is and ever has been the light of the whole world, who\nbefore Christianity wrought first in mankind at large through the\navenues of the conscience, and afterwards more particularly in the Jews\nthrough a special though still imperfect revelation, then all these\ndifficulties fall away. Then we understand the significance, and we\nrecognise the truth, of such passages as these: 'No man cometh unto the\nFather, but by me': 'There is no salvation in any other'; 'He that\ndisbelieveth the Son shall not see life, but the wrath of God abideth\nupon him[524].' The exclusive claims advanced in Christ's name have\ntheir full and perfect justification in the doctrine of the Eternal\nWord.\n\nFootnote 524:\n\n  Joh. xiv. 6, Acts iv. 12, Joh. iii. 36.\n\n[Sidenote: Relation of the doctrine of the Word]\n\nThe old dispensation is primarily the revelation of the absolute\nsovereignty of God. It vindicates this truth against two opposing forms\nof error, which in their extreme types are represented by Pantheism and\nManicheism respectively. [Sidenote: to the monotheism of the Old\nTestament.]The Pantheist identifies God with the world: the Manichee\nattributes to the world an absolute existence, independent of God. With\nthe Pantheist sin ceases to have any existence: for it is only one form\nof God's working. With the Manichee sin is inherent in matter, which is\nantagonistic to God. The teaching of the Old Testament, of which the\nkey-note is struck in the opening chapters of Genesis, is a refutation\nof both these errors. God is distinct from the world, and He is the\nCreator of the world. Evil is not inherent in God, but neither is it\ninherent in the material world. Sin is the disobedience of intelligent\nbeings whom He has created, and whom He has endowed with a free-will,\nwhich they can use or misuse.\n\n[Sidenote: The New Testament is complementary to the Old.]\n\nThe revelation of the New Testament is the proper complement to the\nrevelation of the Old. It holds this position in two main respects. If\nthe Old Testament sets forth the absolute unity of God\u2014His distinctness\nfrom and sovereignty over His creatures\u2014the New Testament points out how\nHe holds communion with the world and with humanity, how man becomes one\nwith Him. And again, if the Old Testament shows the true character of\nsin, the New Testament teaches the appointed means of redemption. On the\none hand the monotheism of the Old Testament is supplemented by the\ntheanthropism[525] of the New. Thus the _theology_ of revelation is\ncompleted. On the other hand, the hamartiology of the Old Testament has\nits counterpart in the soteriology of the New. Thus the _economy_ of\nrevelation is perfected.\n\nFootnote 525:\n\n  I am indebted for the term _theanthropism_, as describing the\n  substance of the new dispensation, to an article by Prof. Westcott in\n  the _Contemporary Review_ IV. p. 417 (December, 1867); but it has been\n  used independently, though in very rare instances, by other writers.\n  The value of terms such as I have employed here in fixing ideas is\n  enhanced by their strangeness, and will excuse any appearance of\n  affectation.\n\n  In applying the terms _theanthropism_ and _soteriology_ to the New\n  Testament, as distinguished from the Old, it is not meant to suggest\n  that the ideas involved in them were wholly wanting in the Old, but\n  only to indicate that the conceptions, which were inchoate and\n  tentative and subsidiary in the one, attain the most prominent\n  position and are distinctly realised in the other.\n\n[Sidenote: 2. The _ethical_ error of the heretics.]\n\n2. When we turn from the theology of these Colossian heretics to their\nethical teaching, we find it characterised by the same earnestness. Of\nthem it might indeed be said that they did 'hunger and thirst after\nrighteousness.' [Sidenote: Their practical earnestness,]Escape from\nimpurity, immunity from evil, was a passion with them. But it was no\nless true that notwithstanding all their sincerity they 'went astray in\nthe wilderness'; 'hungry and thirsty, their soul fainted within them.'\nBy their fatal transference of the abode of sin from the human heart\nwithin to the material world without, they had incapacitated themselves\nfrom finding the true antidote. [Sidenote: but fundamental misconception\nand consequent failure.] Where they placed the evil, there they\nnecessarily sought the remedy. Hence they attempted to fence themselves\nabout, and to purify their lives by a code of rigorous prohibitions.\nTheir energy was expended on battling with the physical conditions of\nhuman life. Their whole mind was absorbed in the struggle with imaginary\nforms of evil. Necessarily their character was moulded by the thoughts\nwhich habitually engaged them. Where the 'elements of the world,' the\n'things which perish in the using[526],' engrossed all their attention,\nit could not fail but that they should be dragged down from the serene\nheights of the spiritual life into the cloudy atmosphere which shrouds\nthis lower earth.\n\nFootnote 526:\n\n  ii. 20, 22.\n\n[Sidenote: St Paul substitutes a principle for ordinances.]\n\nSt Paul sets himself to combat this false tendency. For negative\nprohibitions he substitutes a positive principle; for special\nenactments, a comprehensive motive. He tells them that all their\nscrupulous restrictions are vain, because they fail to touch the springs\nof action. If they would overcome the evil, they must strike at the root\nof the evil. Their point of view must be entirely changed. They must\ntransfer themselves into a wholly new sphere of energy. This\ntransference is nothing less than a migration from earth to heaven\u2014from\nthe region of the external and transitory to the region of the spiritual\nand eternal[527]. For a code of rules they must substitute a principle\nof life, which is one in its essence but infinite in its application,\nwhich will meet every emergency, will control every action, will resist\nevery form of evil.\n\nFootnote 527:\n\n  iii. 1 sq.\n\n[Sidenote: This principle is the heavenly life in Christ.]\n\nThis principle they have in Christ. With Him they have died to the\nworld; with Him they have risen to God. Christ, the revelation of God's\nholiness, of God's righteousness, of God's love, is light, is life, is\nheaven. With Him they have been translated into a higher sphere, have\nbeen brought face to face with the Eternal Presence. Let them only\nrealise this translation. It involves new insight, new motives, new\nenergies. They will no more waste themselves upon vexatious special\nrestrictions: for they will be furnished with a higher inspiration which\nwill cover all the minute details of action. They will not exhaust their\nenergies in crushing this or that rising desire but they will kill the\nwhole body[528] of their earthly passions through the strong arm of this\npersonal communion with God in Christ.\n\nFootnote 528:\n\n  ii. 11 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03ba\u03b4\u03cd\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2, iii. 5 \u03bd\u03b5\u03ba\u03c1\u03ce\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5 \u03bf\u1f56\u03bd \u03c4\u1f70\n  \u03bc\u03ad\u03bb\u03b7 with ver. 8 \u03bd\u03c5\u03bd\u1f76 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f00\u03c0\u03cc\u03b8\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1, and ver. 9\n  \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03ba\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03b9\u1f78\u03bd \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd. See the notes on the several\n  passages.\n\n[Sidenote: St Paul's doctrine of faith and works considered in the light\n           of this principle.]\n\nWhen we once grasp this idea, which lies at the root of St Paul's\nethical teaching, the moral difficulty which is supposed to attach to\nhis doctrine of faith and works has vanished. It is simply an\nimpossibility that faith should exist without works. Though in form he\nstates his doctrine as a relation of contrast between the two, in\nsubstance it resolves itself into a question of precedence. Faith and\nworks are related as principle and practice. Faith\u2014the repose in the\nunseen, the recognition of eternal principles of truth and right, the\nsense of personal obligations to an Eternal Being who vindicates these\nprinciples\u2014must come first. Faith is not an intellectual assent, nor a\nsympathetic sentiment merely. It is the absolute surrender of self to\nthe will of a Being who has a right to command this surrender. It is\nthis which places men in personal relation to God, which (in St Paul's\nlanguage) justifies them before God. For it touches the springs of their\nactions; it fastens not on this or that detail of conduct, but extends\nthroughout the whole sphere of moral activity; and thus it determines\ntheir character as responsible beings in the sight of God.\n\n                  *       *       *       *       *\n\n[Sidenote: The Christology of this epistle]\n\nFrom the above account it will have appeared that the distinctive\nfeature of this epistle is its Christology. The doctrine of the Person\nof Christ is here stated with greater precision and fulness than in any\nother of St Paul's epistles. It is therefore pertinent to ask (even\nthough the answer must necessarily be brief) what relation this\nstatement bears to certain other enunciations of the same doctrine;\n[Sidenote: considered in relation to]to those for instance which occur\nelsewhere in St Paul's own letters, to those which are found in other\nApostolic writings, and to those which appear in the fathers of the\nsucceeding generations.\n\n[Sidenote: 1. The Christology of St Paul's earlier epistles]\n\n1. The Christology of the Colossian Epistle is in no way different from\nthat of the Apostle's earlier letters. It may indeed be called a\ndevelopment of his former teaching, but only as exhibiting the doctrine\nin fresh relations, as drawing new deductions from it, as defining what\nhad hitherto been left undefined, not as superadding any foreign element\nto it. The doctrine is practically involved in the opening and closing\nwords of his earliest extant epistle: 'The Church which is in God the\nFather and the Lord Jesus Christ'; 'The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ\nbe with you[529].' The main conception of the Person of Christ, as\nenforced in the Colossian Epistle, alone justifies and explains this\nlanguage, which otherwise would be emptied of all significance. And\nagain; it had been enunciated by the Apostle explicitly, though briefly,\nin the earliest directly doctrinal passage which bears on the subject;\n'One Lord Jesus Christ, through whom are all things and we through\nHim[530].' [Sidenote: the same in substance but]The absolute universal\nmediation of the Son is declared as unreservedly in this passage from\nthe First Epistle to the Corinthians, as in any later statement of the\nApostle: and, [Sidenote: less fully developed]if all the doctrinal and\npractical inferences which it implicitly involves were not directly\nemphasized at this early date, it was because the circumstances did not\nyet require explicitness on these points. New forms of error bring into\nprominence new aspects of the truth. The heresies of Laodicea and\nColoss\u00e6 have been invaluable to the later Church in this respect. The\nApostle himself, it is not too much to say, realised with ever\nincreasing force the manifoldness, the adaptability, the completeness of\nthe Christian idea, notwithstanding its simplicity, as he opposed it to\neach successive development of error. The Person of Christ proved the\ncomplete answer to false speculations at Coloss\u00e6, as it had been found\nthe sovereign antidote to false practices at Corinth. All these\nunforeseen harmonies must have appeared to him, as they will appear to\nus, fresh evidences of its truth.\n\nFootnote 529:\n\n  1 Thess. i. 1, v. 28.\n\nFootnote 530:\n\n  1 Cor. viii. 6 \u03b4\u03b9' \u03bf\u1f57 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f21\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6. The expression \u03b4\u03b9'\n  \u03bf\u1f57 implies the conception of the Logos, even where the term itself is\n  not used. See the dissertation on the doctrine of the Logos in the\n  Apostolic writers.\n\n[Sidenote: 2. The Christology of other Apostolic writings.]\n\n[Sidenote: Their fundamental identity.]\n\n2. And when we turn from St Paul to the other Apostolic writings which\ndwell on the Person of Christ from a doctrinal point of view, we find\nthem enunciating it in language which implies the same fundamental\nconception, though they may not always present it in exactly the same\naspect. More especially in the Epistle to the Hebrews first, and in the\nGospel of St John afterwards, the form of expression is identical with\nthe statement of St Paul. In both these writings the universe is said to\nhave been created or to exist _by_ or _through_ Him. This is the crucial\nexpression, which involves in itself all the higher conceptions of the\nPerson of Christ[531]. The Epistle to the Hebrews seems to have been\nwritten by a disciple of St Paul immediately after the Apostle's death,\nand therefore within some five or six years from the date which has been\nassigned to the Colossian letter. The Gospel of St John, if the\ntraditional report may be accepted, dates about a quarter of a century\nlater; but it is linked with our epistle by the fact that the readers\nfor whom it was primarily intended belonged to the neighbouring\ndistricts of Proconsular Asia. Thus it illustrates, and is illustrated\nby, the teaching of St Paul in this letter. More especially by the\nemphatic use of the term _Logos_, which St Paul for some reason has\nsuppressed, it supplies the centre round which the ideas gather, and\nthus gives unity and directness to the conception.\n\nFootnote 531:\n\n  Joh. i. 3 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b4\u03b9' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., Heb. i. 2 \u03b4\u03b9' \u03bf\u1f57 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n  \u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f30\u1ff6\u03bd\u03b1\u03c2.\n\n[Sidenote: Firmness of the apostolic idea.]\n\nIn the Christology of these Apostolic writings there is a firmness and\nprecision which leaves no doubt about the main conception present to the\nmind of the writers. The idea of Christ as an intermediate being,\nneither God nor man, is absolutely and expressly excluded. On the one\nhand His humanity is distinctly emphasized. On the other He is\nrepresented as existing from eternity, as the perfect manifestation of\nthe Father, as the absolute mediator in the creation and government of\nthe world.\n\n[Sidenote: 3. The Christology of the succeeding ages.]\n\n3. But, when we turn from these Apostolic statements to the writings of\nsucceeding generations, we are struck with the contrast[532]. A\nvagueness, a flaccidity, of conception betrays itself in their language.\n\nFootnote 532:\n\n  The remarks on the theology of the Apostolic Fathers, as compared with\n  the Apostles, in Dorner's _Lehre von der Person Christi_ I. p. 130 sq.\n  seem to me perfectly just and highly significant. See also de\n  Pressens\u00e9 _Trois Premiers Si\u00e8cles_ II. p. 406 sq. on the unsystematic\n  spirit of the Apostolic Fathers.\n\n[Sidenote: Its looseness of conception.]\n\nIn the Apostolic Fathers and in the earlier Apologists we find indeed\nfor the most part a _practical_ appreciation of the Person of Christ,\nwhich leaves nothing to be desired; but as soon as they venture upon any\ndirectly dogmatic statement, we miss at once the firmness of grasp and\nclearness of conception which mark the writings of the Apostles. If they\ndesire to emphasize the majesty of His Person, they not unfrequently\nfall into language which savours of patripassianism[533]. If on the\nother hand they wish to present Him in His mediatorial capacity, they\nuse words which seem to imply some divine being, who is God and yet not\nquite God, neither Creator nor creature[534].\n\nFootnote 533:\n\n  See for instance the passages quoted in the note on Clem. Rom. 2 \u03c4\u1f70\n  \u03c0\u03b1\u03b8\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6.\n\nFootnote 534:\n\n  The unguarded language of Justin for instance illustrates the\n  statement in the text. On the one hand Petavius, _Theol. Dogm._ de\n  Trin. ii. 3. 2, distinctly accuses him of Arianism: on the other Bull,\n  _Def. Fid. Nic._ ii. 4. 1 sq., indignantly repudiates the charge and\n  claims him as strictly orthodox. Petavius indeed approaches the\n  subject from the point of view of later Western theology and, unable\n  to appreciate Justin's doctrine of the Logos, does less than justice\n  to this father; but nevertheless Justin's language is occasionally\n  such as no Athanasian could have used. The treatment of this father by\n  Dorner (_Lehre_ I. p. 414 sq.) is just and avoids both extremes.\n\n[Sidenote: The Apostolic idea applied in later ages.]\n\nThe Church needed a long education, before she was fitted to be the\nexpositor of the true Apostolic doctrine. A conflict of more than two\ncenturies with Gnostics, Ebionites, Sabellians, Arians, supplied the\nnecessary discipline. The true successors of the Apostles in this\nrespect are not the fathers of the second century, but the fathers of\nthe third and fourth centuries. In the expositors of the Nicene age we\nfind indeed technical terms and systematic definitions, which we do not\nfind in the Apostles themselves; but, unless I have wholly misconceived\nthe nature of the heretical teaching at Coloss\u00e6 and the purport of St\nPaul's reply, the main idea of Christ's Person, with which he here\nconfronts this Gnostic Judaism, is essentially the same as that which\nthe fathers of these later centuries opposed to the Sabellianism and the\nArianism of their own age. If I mistake not, the more distinctly we\nrealise the nature of the heresy, the more evident will it become that\nany conception short of the perfect deity and perfect humanity of Christ\nwould not have furnished a satisfactory answer; and this is the reason\nwhy I have dwelt at such length on the character of the Colossian false\nteaching, and why I venture to call especial attention to this part of\nmy subject.\n\n                  *       *       *       *       *\n\n[Sidenote: Style of this epistle.]\n\nOf the style of the letter to the Colossians I shall have occasion to\nspeak hereafter, when I come to discuss its genuineness. It is\nsufficient to say here, that while the hand of St Paul is unmistakable\nthroughout this epistle, we miss the flow and the versatility of the\nApostle's earlier letters.\n\n[Sidenote: Its ruggedness and compression,]\n\nA comparison with the Epistles to the Corinthians and to the Philippians\nwill show the difference. It is distinguished from them by a certain\nruggedness of expression, a 'want of finish' often bordering on\nobscurity. What account should be given of this characteristic, it is\nimpossible to say. The divergence of style is not greater than will\nappear in the letters of any active-minded man, written at different\ntimes and under different circumstances. The epistles which I have\nselected for contrast suggest that the absence of all personal connexion\nwith the Colossian Church will partially, if not wholly, explain the\ndiminished fluency of this letter. [Sidenote: but essential vigour.]At\nthe same time no epistle of St Paul is more vigorous in conception or\nmore instinct with meaning. It is the very compression of the thoughts\nwhich creates the difficulty. If there is a want of fluency, there is no\nwant of force. Feebleness is the last charge which can be brought\nagainst this epistle.\n\n                  *       *       *       *       *\n\n[Sidenote: Analysis.]\n\nThe following is an analysis of the epistle:\n\nI. INTRODUCTORY (i. 1\u201313).\n\n  (1) i. 1, 2. Opening salutation.\n\n  (2) i. 3\u20138. Thanksgiving for the progress of the Colossians hitherto.\n\n  (3) i. 9\u201313. Prayer for their future advance in knowledge and\n          well-doing through Christ.\n\n        [This leads the Apostle to speak of Christ as the only path of\n          progress.]\n\nII. DOCTRINAL (i. 13-ii. 3).\n\n    The Person and Office of Christ.\n\n  (1) i. 13, 14. Through the Son we have our deliverance, our\n      redemption.\n\n  (2) i. 15\u201319. The _Preeminence_ of the Son;\n\n      (i) As the Head of the natural Creation, the Universe (i. 15\u201317);\n\n      (ii) As the Head of the new moral Creation, the Church (i. 18).\n\n      Thus He is first in all things; and this, because the pleroma has\n        its abode in Him (i. 19).\n\n  (3) i. 20-ii. 3. The _Work_ of the Son\u2014a work of reconciliation;\n\n      (i) Described generally (i. 20).\n\n      (ii) Applied specially to the Colossians (i. 21\u201323).\n\n      (iii) St Paul's own part in carrying out this work. His sufferings\n        and preaching. The 'mystery' with which he is charged (i.\n        24\u201327).\n\n        His anxiety on behalf of all (i. 28, 29): and more especially of\n          the Colossian and neighbouring Churches (ii. 1\u20133).\n\n        [This expression of anxiety leads him by a direct path to the\n          next division of the epistle.]\n\nIII. POLEMICAL (ii. 4-iii. 4).\n\n  Warning against errors.\n\n  (1) ii. 4\u20138. The Colossians charged to abide in the truth of the\n      Gospel as they received it at first, and not to be led astray by a\n      strange philosophy which the new teachers offer.\n\n  (2) ii. 9\u201315. The truth stated first positively and then negatively.\n\n    [In the passage which follows (ii. 9\u201323) it will be observed how St\n      Paul vibrates between the theological and practical bearings of\n      the truth, marked \u03b1, \u03b2, respectively.]\n\n    (i) _Positively._\n\n      (\u03b1) The _pleroma_ dwells wholly in Christ and is communicated\n        through Him (ii. 9, 10).\n\n      (\u03b2) The true circumcision is a spiritual circumcision (ii. 11,\n        12).\n\n    (ii) _Negatively_. Christ has\n\n      (\u03b2) annulled the law of ordinances (ii. 14);\n\n      (\u03b1) triumphed over all spiritual agencies, however powerful (ii.\n        15).\n\n  (3) ii. 16-iii. 4. Obligations following thereupon.\n\n    (i) Consequently the Colossians must not\n\n      (\u03b2) either submit to ritual prohibitions (ii. 16, 17),\n\n      (\u03b1) or substitute the worship of inferior beings for allegiance to\n        the Head (ii. 18, 19).\n\n    (ii) On the contrary this must henceforth be their rule:\n\n      1. They have _died_ with Christ; and with Him they have died to\n        their old life, to earthly _ordinances_ (ii. 20\u201323).\n\n      2. They have _risen_ with Christ; and with Him they have risen to\n        a new life, to heavenly _principles_ (iii. 1\u20134).\n\nIV. HORTATORY (iii. 5-iv. 6).\n\n  Practical application of this death and this resurrection.\n\n  (1) iii. 5\u201312. _Comprehensive_ rules.\n\n      (i) What vices are to be put off, being mortified in this death\n        (iii. 5\u201311).\n\n      (ii) What graces are to be put on, being quickened through this\n        resurrection (iii. 12\u201317).\n\n  (2) iii. 13-iv. 6. _Special_ precepts.\n\n      (_a_) The obligations\n\n          Of wives and husbands (iii. 18, 19);\n\n          Of children and parents (iii. 20, 21);\n\n          Of slaves and masters (iii. 22-iv. 1).\n\n      (_b_) The duty of prayer and thanksgiving; with special\n          intercession on the Apostle's behalf (iv. 2\u20134).\n\n      (_c_) The duty of propriety in behaviour towards the unconverted\n          (iv. 5, 6).\n\nV. PERSONAL (iv. 7\u201318).\n\n  (1) iv. 7\u20139. Explanations relating to the letter itself.\n\n  (2) iv. 10\u201314. Salutations from divers persons.\n\n  (3) iv. 15\u201317. Salutations to divers persons. A message relating to\n      Laodicea.\n\n  (4) iv. 18. Farewell.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n\n\n\n                            \u03a0\u03a1\u039f\u03a3 \u039a\u039f\u039b\u0391\u03a3\u03a3\u0391\u0395\u0399\u03a3.\n\n\n\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n\n\n\n              WE SPEAK WISDOM AMONG THEM THAT ARE PERFECT.\n\n                   YET NOT THE WISDOM OF THIS WORLD.\n\n              BUT WE SPEAK THE WISDOM OF GOD IN A MYSTERY.\n\n\n                             --------------\n\n                      _Iste vas electionis\n                      Vires omnes rationis\n                        Human\u00e6 transgreditur:\n                      Super choros angelorum\n                      Raptus, c\u0153li secretorum\n                        Doctrinis imbuitur._\n\n                      _De hoc vase tam fecundo,\n                      Tam electo et tam mundo,\n                        Tu nos, Christe, complue;\n                      Nos de luto, nos de f\u00e6ce,\n                      Tua sancta purga prece,\n                        Regno tuo statue._\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n\n\n\n                            \u03a0\u03a1\u039f\u03a3 \u039a\u039f\u039b\u0391\u03a3\u03a3\u0391\u0395\u0399\u03a3.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI. 1, 2]\n\n\u03a0\u0391\u03a5\u039b\u039f\u03a3 \u1f00\u03c0\u03cc\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bb\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03a4\u03b9\u03bc\u03cc\u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f41\n\u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03cc\u03c2, ^2\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 >\n\n\n1, 2. 'PAUL, an apostle of Christ Jesus by no personal merit but by\nGod's gracious will alone, and TIMOTHY, our brother in the faith, to the\nconsecrated people of God in Coloss\u00e6, the brethren who are stedfast in\ntheir allegiance and faithful in Christ. May grace the well-spring of\nall mercies, and peace the crown of all blessings, be bestowed upon you\nfrom God our Father.'\n\n1. \u1f00\u03c0\u03cc\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2] On the exceptional omission of this title in some of St\nPaul's epistles see Phil. i. 1. Though there is no reason for supposing\nthat his authority was directly impugned in the Colossian Church, yet he\ninterposes by virtue of his Apostolic commission and therefore uses his\nauthoritative title.\n\n\u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bb\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6] As in 1 Cor. i. 1, 2 Cor. i. 1, Ephes. i. 1, 2 Tim.\ni. 1. These passages show that the words cannot have a polemical\nbearing. If they had been directed against those who questioned his\nApostleship, they would probably have taken a stronger form. The\nexpression must therefore be regarded as a renunciation of all personal\nworth, and a declaration of God's unmerited grace; comp. Rom. ix. 16 \u1f04\u03c1\u03b1\n\u03bf\u1f56\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b8\u03ad\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u03c1\u03ad\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03bb\u03b5\u1ff6\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6. The same\nwords \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bb\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 are used in other connexions in Rom. xv. 32, 2\nCor. viii. 5, where no polemical reference is possible.\n\n\u03a4\u03b9\u03bc\u03cc\u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u03c2] The name of this disciple is attached to the Apostle's own in\nthe heading of the Philippian letter, which was probably written at an\nearlier stage in his Roman captivity. It appears also in the same\nconnexion in the Epistle to Philemon, but not in the Epistle to the\nEphesians, though these two letters were contemporaneous with one\nanother and with the Colossian letter. For an explanation of the\nomission, see the introduction to that epistle.\n\nIn the Epistles to the Philippians and to Philemon the presence of\nTimothy is forgotten at once (see Phil. i. 1). In this epistle the\nplural is maintained throughout the thanksgiving (vv. 3, 4, 7, 8, 9),\nbut afterwards dropped, when the Apostle begins to speak in his own\nperson (i. 23, 24), and so he continues to the end. The exceptions (i.\n28, iv. 3) are rather apparent than real.\n\n\u1f41 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03cc\u03c2] Timothy is again designated simply 'the brother' in 2 Cor. i.\n1, Philem. 1, but not in Heb. xiii. 23, where the right reading is \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd\n\u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u1f78\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd. The same designation is used of Quartus (Rom. xvi. 23), of\nSosthenes (1 Cor. i. 1), of Apollos (1 Cor. xvi. 12); comp. 2 Cor. viii.\n18, ix. 3, 5, xii. 18. As some designation seemed to be required, and as\nTimothy could not be called an Apostle (see _Galatians_, p. 96, note 2),\nthis, as the simplest title, would naturally suggest itself.\n\n2. \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2] For the reasons why this form is preferred here, while\n\u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 is adopted in the heading of the epistle, see above, p. 16\nsq.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI. 3]\n\n\u1f01\u03b3\u03af\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7\u00b7 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c1\u03ae\u03bd\u03b7 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd.\n\n^3\u0395\u1f50\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u0398\u03b5\u1ff7 [\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76] \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\n\n\n\u1f01\u03b3\u03af\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2] '_saints_,' i.e. the people consecrated to God, the Israel of\nthe new covenant; see the note on Phil. i. 1. This mode of address marks\nthe later epistles of St Paul. In his earlier letters (1, 2 Thess., 1, 2\nCor., Gal.) he writes \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f10\u03ba\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u1fb3, \u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03ba\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2. The change begins\nwith the Epistle to the Romans, and from that time forward the Apostle\nalways uses \u1f01\u03b3\u03af\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 in various combinations in addressing Churches (Rom.,\nPhil., Col., Ephes.). For a similar phenomenon, serving as a\nchronological mark, see the note on \u1f21 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2, iv. 18. The word \u1f01\u03b3\u03af\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2\nmust here be treated as a substantive in accordance with its usage in\nparallel passages, and not as an adjective connected with \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2. See\nthe next note.\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2] This unusual addition is full of meaning. Some\nmembers of the Colossian Church were shaken in their allegiance, even if\nthey had not fallen from it. The Apostle therefore wishes it to be\nunderstood that, when he speaks of the saints, he means the true and\nstedfast members of the brotherhood. In this way he obliquely hints at\nthe defection. Thus the words \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 are a supplementary\nexplanation of \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f01\u03b3\u03af\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2. He does not directly exclude any, but he\nindirectly warns all. The epithet \u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 cannot mean simply 'believing';\nfor then it would add nothing which is not already contained in \u1f01\u03b3\u03af\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2\nand \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2. Its passive sense, 'trustworthy, stedfast, unswerving,'\nmust be prominent here, as in Acts xvi. 15 \u03b5\u1f30 \u03ba\u03b5\u03ba\u03c1\u03af\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03ad \u03bc\u03b5 \u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7\n\u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3 \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9. See _Galatians_ p. 155.\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7] most naturally connected with both words \u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2,\nthough referring chiefly to \u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2; comp. Ephes. vi. 21 \u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2\n\u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3, 1 Tim. i. 2 \u03b3\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u1ff3 \u03c4\u03ad\u03ba\u03bd\u1ff3 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9. For the expression \u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7, \u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3, see also 1 Cor. iv. 17, Ephes. i. 1. The Apostle\nassumes that the Colossian brethren are 'stedfast in Christ.' Their\nstate thus contrasts with the description of the heretical teacher, who\n(ii. 19) \u03bf\u1f50 \u03ba\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03ba\u03b5\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u03ae\u03bd.\n\n\u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] On this form of salutation see the note to 1 Thess. i. 1.\n\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd] The only instance in St Paul's epistles, where the name of\nthe Father stands alone in the opening benediction without the addition\nof Jesus Christ. The omission was noticed by Origen (_Rom._ 1. \u00a7 8, IV.\np. 467), and by Chrysostom (_ad loc._ XI. p. 324, _Hom. in 2 Cor._ XXX,\nx. p. 651). But transcribers naturally aimed at uniformity, and so in\nmany copies we find the addition \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6. The only\nother exception to the Apostle's usual form is in 1 Thessalonians, where\nthe benediction is shorter still, \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c1\u03ae\u03bd\u03b7, and where\nlikewise the copyists have supplied words to lengthen it out in\naccordance with St Paul's common practice.\n\n3\u20138. 'We never cease to pour forth our thanksgiving to God the Father of\nour Lord Jesus Christ on your account, whensoever we pray to Him. We are\nfull of thankfulness for the tidings of the _faith_ which ye have in\nChrist Jesus, and the _love_ which ye show towards all the people of\nGod, while ye look forward to the _hope_ which is stored up for you in\nheaven as a treasure for the life to come. This hope was communicated to\nyou in those earlier lessons, when the Gospel was preached to you in its\npurity and integrity\u2014the one universal unchangeable Gospel, which was\nmade known to you, even as it was carried throughout the world,\napproving itself by its fruits wheresoever it is planted. For, as\nelsewhere, so also in you, these fruits were manifested from the first\nday when ye received your lessons in, and apprehended the power of, the\ngenuine Gospel, which is not a law of ordinances but a dispensation of\ngrace, not a device of men but a truth of God. Such was the word\npreached to you by Epaphras, our beloved fellow-servant in our Master's\nhousehold, who in our absence and on our behalf has ministered to you\nthe Gospel of Christ, and who now brings back to us the welcome tidings\nof the love which ye show in the Spirit.'\n\n3. \u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd] See the notes on 1 Thess. i. 2.\n\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u1f76] If the \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 be omitted, as the balance of authorities appears to\nsuggest, the form of words here is quite exceptional. Elsewhere it runs\n\u1f41 \u03b8\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u1f74\u03c1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5, Rom. XV. 6, 2 Cor. i. 3, xi. 31, Ephes. i.\n3 (v.l.), 1 Pet. i. 3; comp. Rev. i. 6: and in analogous cases, such as\n\u1f41 \u03b8\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u1f74\u03c1 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd, the rule is the same. See the note on Clem. Rom.\n\u00a7 7. In iii. 17 however we have \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b8\u03b5\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03af, where the evidence is more\ndecisive and the expression quite as unusual. On the authorities for the\nvarious readings here see the detached note.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI. 4, 5]\n\n\u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b5\u03c5\u03c7\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u00b7 ^4 \u1f00\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd\n\u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03bd [\u1f23\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5] \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2\n\u1f01\u03b3\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2, ^5 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd\n\n\n\u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] We here meet the same difficulty about the connexion of\nthe clauses, which confronts us in several of St Paul's opening\nthanksgivings. The words \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c4\u03b5 and \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd must clearly be taken\ntogether, because the emphasis of \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd would be inexplicable, if it\nstood at the beginning of a clause. But are they to be attached to the\npreceding or to the following sentence? The connexion with the previous\nwords is favoured by St Paul's usual conjunction of \u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c4\u03b5\n(see the note on Phil. i. 3), and by the parallel passage \u03bf\u1f50 \u03c0\u03b1\u03cd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9\n\u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd in Ephes. i. 16. Thus the words will mean '_We give\nthanks for you always in our prayers_.' For this absolute use of\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b5\u03c5\u03c7\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 see Matt. vi. 7, Acts xvi. 25.\n\n4. \u1f00\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2] '_having heard_' from Epaphras (ver. 8); for the Apostle\nhad no direct personal knowledge of the Colossian Church: see the\nintroduction, p. 27 sq.\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6] to be connected with \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd. The strict\nclassical language would require \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03a7. \u1f38., but the omission of the\narticle is common to the New Testament (e.g. ver. 8); see the note on 1\nThess. i. 1, and Winer \u00a7 xx. p. 169 (ed. Moulton). The preposition \u1f10\u03bd\nhere and in the parallel passage, Ephes. i. 15, denotes the sphere in\nwhich their faith moves, rather than the object to which it is directed\n(comp. 1 Cor. iii. 5); for, if the object had been meant, the natural\npreposition would have been \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 or \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 (e.g. ii. 5). This is probably\nthe case also in the passages where at first sight it might seem\notherwise, e.g. 1 Tim. iii. 13, 2 Tim. iii. 15; for compare 2 Tim. i. 13\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u1fc3 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f10\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6, where the meaning is\nunambiguous. There is however authority in the LXX for the use of \u1f10\u03bd\nwith \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03c2, \u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, to denote the object, in Jer. xii. 6, Ps.\nlxxviii. 22, and perhaps in Mark i. 15, Rom. iii. 25, and (more\ndoubtfully still) in Joh. iii. 15.\n\n\u1f23\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5] See the detached note on the various readings.\n\n5. \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03bb\u03c0\u03af\u03b4\u03b1] '_for the hope_,' i.e. looking to the hope. The\nfollowing reasons seem decisive in favour of connecting \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03bb\u03c0\u03af\u03b4\u03b1,\nnot with \u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd, but with \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., whether \u1f23\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 be\nretained or not. (1) The great distance of \u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd is against the\nformer connexion; (2) The following clause, \u1f23\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03b7\u03ba\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.,\nsuggests that the words \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03bb\u03c0\u03af\u03b4\u03b1 describe the motives of the\nColossians for well-doing, rather than the reasons of the Apostle for\nthanksgiving: (3) The triad of Christian graces, which St Paul delights\nto associate together, would otherwise be broken up. This last argument\nseems conclusive; see especially the corresponding thanksgiving in 1\nThess. i. 3, \u03bc\u03bd\u03b7\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f14\u03c1\u03b3\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 _\u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2_ \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03ba\u03cc\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 _\u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03c2_ \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 _\u1f10\u03bb\u03c0\u03af\u03b4\u03bf\u03c2_ \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., with\nthe note there. The order is the same here, as there; and it is the\nnatural sequence. Faith rests on the past; love works in the present;\nhope looks to the future. They may be regarded as the efficient,\nmaterial, and final causes respectively of the spiritual life. Compare\nPolycarp _Phil._ 3 \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f25\u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u1f76 \u03bc\u03ae\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd, \u1f10\u03c0\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5\u03b8\u03bf\u03cd\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2\n\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bb\u03c0\u03af\u03b4\u03bf\u03c2, \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03b1\u03b3\u03bf\u03cd\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03c2.\n\nThe hope here is identified with the object of the hope: see the\npassages quoted on Gal. v. 5. The sense of \u1f10\u03bb\u03c0\u03af\u03c2, as of the\ncorresponding words in any language, oscillates between the subjective\nfeeling and the objective realisation; comp. Rom. viii. 24 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f10\u03bb\u03c0\u03af\u03b4\u03b9\n\u1f10\u03c3\u03ce\u03b8\u03b7\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u00b7 \u1f10\u03bb\u03c0\u1f76\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03b2\u03bb\u03b5\u03c0\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f10\u03bb\u03c0\u03af\u03c2\u00b7 \u1f43 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03b2\u03bb\u03ad\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.,\nwhere it passes abruptly from the one to the other.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI. 6]\n\n\u1f10\u03bb\u03c0\u03af\u03b4\u03b1 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2, \u1f23\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03b7\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u1ff3\n\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b5\u1f50\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03af\u03bf\u03c5, ^6 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2, \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u1ff3 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\n\n\n\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd] '_which is stored up_.' It is the \u03b8\u03b7\u03c3\u03b1\u03c5\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u1ff7 of\nthe Gospels (Matt. vi. 20, 21, Luke xii. 34, xviii. 22).\n\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03b7\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5] '_of which ye were told in time past_.' The preposition\nseems intended to contrast their earlier with their later lessons\u2014the\ntrue Gospel of Epaphras with the false gospel of their recent teachers\n(see the next note). The expression would gain force, if we might\nsuppose that the heretical teachers obscured or perverted the doctrine\nof the resurrection (comp. 2 Tim. ii. 18); and their speculative tenets\nwere not unlikely to lead to such a result. But this is not necessary;\nfor under any circumstances the false doctrine, as leading them astray,\ntended to cheat them of their hope; see ver. 23. The common\ninterpretations, which explain \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf- as meaning either 'before its\nfulfilment' or 'before my writing to you,' seem neither so natural in\nthemselves nor so appropriate to the context.\n\n\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b5\u1f50\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03af\u03bf\u03c5] '_the truth of the Gospel_,' i.e. the true\nand genuine Gospel as taught by Epaphras, and not the spurious\nsubstitute of these later pretenders: comp. ver. 6 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f00\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u1fb3. See also\nGal. ii. 5, 14, where a similar contrast is implied in the use of \u1f21\n\u1f00\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b5\u1f50\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03af\u03bf\u03c5.\n\n6. \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 '_which reached you_.' The expression \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9\n\u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 is not uncommon in classical writers; comp. \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 in Acts\nxii. 20, Gal. iv. 18, 20. So also \u03b5\u1f51\u03c1\u03b5\u03b8\u1fc6\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 (Acts viii. 40),\n\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03ad\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 (e.g. Acts xxv. 15), and even \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 (Luke xi. 7). See\nWiner \u00a7 l. p. 516 sq.\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u1ff3] For a similar hyperbole see Rom. i. 8 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f45\u03bb\u1ff3 \u03c4\u1ff7\n\u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u1ff3; comp. 1 Thess. i. 8, 2 Cor. ii. 14, \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u1f76 \u03c4\u03cc\u03c0\u1ff3. More lurks\nunder these words than appears on the surface. The true Gospel, the\nApostle seems to say, proclaims its truth by its universality. The false\ngospels are the outgrowths of local circumstances, of special\nidiosyncrasies; the true Gospel is the same everywhere. The false\ngospels address themselves to limited circles; the true Gospel proclaims\nitself boldly throughout the world. Heresies are at best ethnic: truth\nis essentially catholic. See ver. 23 \u03bc\u1f74 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03ba\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bb\u03c0\u03af\u03b4\u03bf\u03c2\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b5\u1f50\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f41\u1fe6 \u1f20\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5, _\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6_ \u03ba\u03b7\u03c1\u03c5\u03c7\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 _\u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u1fc3 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9_\n\u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u03cc\u03bd.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI. 6]\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03c0\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f50\u03be\u03b1\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd, \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd, \u1f00\u03c6' \u1f27\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2\n\u1f20\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03c0\u03ad\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\n\n\u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u1f76\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03c0\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd] '_is constantly bearing fruit_.' The fruit, which\nthe Gospel bears without fail in all soils and under every climate, is\nits credential, its verification, as against the pretensions of spurious\ncounterfeits. The substantive verb should here be taken with the\nparticiple, so as to express _continuity_ of present action; as in 2\nCor. ix. 12 \u03bf\u1f50 \u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u1f76\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b1 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., Phil. ii. 26 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c0\u03bf\u03b8\u1ff6\u03bd\n\u1f26\u03bd. It is less common in St Paul than in some of the Canonical writers,\ne.g. St Mark and St Luke; but probably only because he deals less in\nnarrative.\n\nOf the middle \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03c0\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 no other instance has been found. The voice\nis partially illustrated by \u03ba\u03c9\u03b4\u03c9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, \u03c3\u03b9\u03b4\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9,\n\u03c4\u03c5\u03bc\u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, though, as involving a different sense of -\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9\n'to wear,' these words are not exact parallels. Here the use of the\nmiddle is the more marked, inasmuch as the active occurs just below\n(ver. 10) in the same connexion, \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03c0\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f50\u03be\u03b1\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9. This\nfact however points to the force of the word here. The middle is\n_intensive_, the active _extensive_. The middle denotes the inherent\nenergy, the active the external diffusion. The Gospel is essentially a\nreproductive organism, a plant whose 'seed is in itself.' For this\n'dynamic' middle see Moulton's note on Winer \u00a7 xxxviii. p. 319.\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f50\u03be\u03b1\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd] The Gospel is not like those plants which exhaust\nthemselves in bearing fruit and wither away. The external growth keeps\npace with the reproductive energy. While \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03c0\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd describes the\ninner working, \u03b1\u1f50\u03be\u03b1\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd gives the outward extension of the Gospel.\nThe words \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f50\u03be\u03b1\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd are not found in the received text, but the\nauthority in their favour is overwhelming.\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd The comparison is thus doubled back, as it were, on\nitself. This irregularity disappears in the received text, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u1f76\u03bd\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03c0\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd, where the insertion of \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 before\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03c0\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd straightens the construction. For a similar irregularity\nsee 1 Thess. iv. 1 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1, \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b5\u03bb\u03ac\u03b2\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1' \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u1ff6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b5\u1fd6 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03c0\u03ad\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03b8\u03b5\u1ff7, \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b5, \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c3\u03b5\u1fe6\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5 \u03bc\u1fb6\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd, where again the received text\nsimplifies the construction, though in a different way, by omitting the\nfirst \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 and the words \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b5. In both cases the\nexplanation of the irregularity is much the same; the clause\nreciprocating the comparison (here \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd, there \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b5) is an afterthought springing out of the Apostle's anxiety\nnot to withhold praise where praise can be given.\n\nFor the appearance of \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 in both members of the comparison, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u1ff3 ... \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76, comp. Rom. i. 13 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03c0\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f15\u03b8\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd; and in the reversed order below, iii. 13 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u1f41 \u039a\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd, \u1f45\u03c5\u03c4\u03c9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 (with the note): see also Winer\nliii. p. 549 (ed. Moulton). The correlation of the clauses is thus\nrendered closer, and the comparison emphasized.\n\n\u1f20\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03c0\u03ad\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c4\u03b5] The accusative is governed by both verbs equally,\n'Ye were instructed in and fully apprehended the grace of God.' For this\nsense of \u1f00\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd see below, ver. 23. For \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b3\u03b9\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd as denoting\n'advanced knowledge, thorough appreciation,' see the note on \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2,\nver. 9.\n\n\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6] St Paul's synonyme for the Gospel. In Acts xx. 24 he\ndescribes it as his mission to preach \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b5\u1f50\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03af\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6.\nThe true Gospel as taught by Epaphras was an offer of free grace, a\nmessage from God; the false gospel, as superposed by the heretical\nteachers, was a code of rigorous prohibitions, a system of human\ndevising. It was not \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2 but \u03b4\u03cc\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 (ii. 14); not \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 but \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5, \u03c4\u1ff6\u03c5 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03c9\u03bd (ii. 8, 20, 22). For God's power and goodness it\nsubstituted self-mortification and self-exaltation. The Gospel is called\n\u1f21 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 again in 2 Cor. vi. 1, viii. 9, with reference to the\nsame leading characteristic which the Apostle delights to dwell upon\n(e.g. Rom. iii. 24, v. 15, Eph. ii. 5, 8), and which he here tacitly\ncontrasts with the doctrine of the later intruders. The false teachers\nof Coloss\u00e6, like those of Galatia, would lead their hearers \u1f00\u03b8\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd\n\u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 (Gal. ii. 21); to accept their doctrine was \u1f10\u03ba\u03c0\u03af\u03c0\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2\n\u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 (Gal. v. 4).\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI. 7, 8]\n\n\u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f00\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u1fb3, ^7\u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bc\u03ac\u03b8\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u1f18\u03c0\u03b1\u03c6\u03c1\u1fb6 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b4\u03bf\u03cd\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5\n\u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd, \u1f45\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03ac\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, ^8 \u1f41 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b7\u03bb\u03ce\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2\n\u1f21\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9.\n\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u1f00\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u1fb3 i.e. 'in its genuine simplicity, without adulteration': see\nthe note on \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b5\u1f50\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03af\u03bf\u03c5, ver. 5.\n\n7. \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bc\u03ac\u03b8\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5] '_even as ye were instructed_ in it,' the clause being\nan explanation of the preceding \u1f10\u03bd \u1f00\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u1fb3; comp. ii. 7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2\n\u1f10\u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03ac\u03c7\u03b8\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5. On the insertion of \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 before \u1f10\u03bc\u03ac\u03b8\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 in the received text,\nand the consequent obscuration of the sense, see above, p. 29 sq. The\ninsertion however was very natural, inasmuch as \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 is an ordinary\ncollocation of particles and has occurred twice in the preceding verse.\n\n\u1f18\u03c0\u03b1\u03c6\u03c1\u1fb6] On the notices of Epaphras, and on his work as the evangelist of\nthe Colossians, see above, p. 29 sq., p. 34 sq., and the note on iv. 12.\n\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b4\u03bf\u03cd\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5] See iv. 7. The word does not occur elsewhere in St Paul.\n\n\u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd] As the evangelist of Coloss\u00e6, Epaphras had _represented_ St\nPaul there and preached in his stead; see above, p. 30. The other\nreading \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd might be interpreted in two ways: either (1) It might\ndescribe the personal ministrations of Epaphras to St Paul as the\nrepresentative of the Colossians (see a similar case in Phil. ii. 25,\niv. 18), and so it might be compared with Philem. 13 \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bc\u03bf\u03b9\n\u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u1fc7; but this interpretation is hardly consistent with \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6.\nOr (2) It might refer to the preaching of Epaphras for the good of the\nColossians; but the natural construction in this case would hardly be\n\u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd (of which there is no direct example), but either \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd (Rom.\nxv. 8) or \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd (1 Pet. i. 12). The balance of external authority however\nis against it. Partly by the accidental interchange of similar sounds,\npartly by the recurrence of \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd in the context (vv. 3, 9), and\npartly also from ignorance of the historical circumstances, \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd would\nreadily be substituted for \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd. See the detached note on various\nreadings.\n\n8. \u1f41 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b7\u03bb\u03ce\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2] 'As he preached to you from us, so _also_ he brought\nback to us from you the tidings, etc.'\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9] to be connected with \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03bd. 'The fruit of the\nSpirit is love,' Gal. v. 22. For the omission of the article, \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd\n\u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9, see the note on ver. 4.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI. 9]\n\n^9\u0394\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f21\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2, \u1f00\u03c6' \u1f27\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f20\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd, \u03bf\u1f50 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c5\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03b8\u03b1 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b5\u03c5\u03c7\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f30\u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03c9\u03b8\u1fc6\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bb\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03bd\n\n\n9\u201314. 'Hearing then that ye thus abound in works of faith and love, we\non our part have not ceased, from the day when we received the happy\ntidings, to pray on your behalf. And this is the purport of our\npetitions; that ye may grow more and more in knowledge, till ye attain\nto the perfect understanding of God's will, being endowed with all\nwisdom to apprehend His verities and all intelligence to follow His\nprocesses, living in the mind of the Spirit\u2014to the end that knowledge\nmay manifest itself in practice, that your conduct in life may be worthy\nof your profession in the Lord, so as in all ways to win for you the\ngracious favour of God your King. Thus, while ye bear fruit in every\ngood work, ye will also grow as the tree grows, being watered and\nrefreshed by this knowledge, as by the dew of heaven: thus will ye be\nstrengthened in all strength, according to that power which centres in\nand spreads from His glorious manifestation of Himself, and nerved to\nall endurance under affliction and all long-suffering under provocation,\nnot only without complaining, but even with joy: thus finally (for this\nis the crown of all), so rejoicing ye will pour forth your thanksgiving\nto the Universal Father, who prepared and fitted us all\u2014you and us\nalike\u2014to take possession of the portion which His goodness has allotted\nto us among the saints in the kingdom of light. Yea, by a strong arm He\nrescued us from the lawless tyranny of Darkness, removed us from the\nland of our bondage, and settled us as free citizens in our new and\nglorious home, where His Son, the offspring and the representative of\nHis love, is King; even the same, who paid our ransom and thus procured\nour redemption from captivity\u2014our redemption, which (be assured) is\nnothing else than the remission of our sins.'\n\n9. \u0394\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf] '_for this cause_,' i.e. 'by reason of your progressive\nfaith and love,' referring not solely to \u1f41 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b7\u03bb\u03ce\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. but to the\nwhole of the preceding description. For \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f21\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 in an\nexactly similar connexion, see 1 Thess. ii. 13; comp. Ephes. i. 15 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf \u03ba\u1f00\u03b3\u1f7c \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. In all these cases the \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 denotes the _response_ of\nthe Apostle's personal feeling to the favourable character of the news;\n'we on our part.' This idea of correspondence is still further\nemphasized by the repetition of the same words: \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u1f00\u03c6' \u1f27\u03c2\n\u1f21\u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f20\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5 (ver. 6), \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f21\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c6' \u1f27\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f20\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd (ver. 9).\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f30\u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9] The words have an exact parallel in Mark xi. 24 (as\ncorrectly read) \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f45\u03c3\u03b1 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b5\u03cd\u03c7\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f30\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5.\n\n\u1f35\u03bd\u03b1] With words like \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b5\u03cd\u03c7\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, \u03b1\u1f30\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, etc., the earlier and\nstronger force of \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1, implying _design_, glides imperceptibly into its\nlater and weaker use, signifying merely _purport_ or _result_, so that\nthe two are hardly separable, unless one or other is directly indicated\nby something in the context. See the notes on Phil. i. 9, and comp.\nWiner \u00a7 xliv. p. 420 sq.\n\n\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd] A favourite word in the later epistles of St Paul; see\nthe note on Phil. i. 9. In all the four epistles of the first Roman\ncaptivity it is an element in the Apostle's opening prayer for his\ncorrespondents' well-being (Phil. i. 9, Ephes. i. 17, Philem. 6, and\nhere). The greater stress which is thus laid on the contemplative\naspects of the Gospel may be explained partly by St Paul's personal\ncircumstances, partly by the requirements of the Church. His enforced\nretirement and comparative leisure would lead his own thoughts in this\ndirection, while at the same time the fresh dangers threatening the\ntruth from the side of mystic speculation required to be confronted by\nan exposition of the Gospel from a corresponding point of view.\n\nThe compound \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 is an advance upon \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2, denoting a larger and\nmore thorough knowledge. So Chrysostom here, \u1f14\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c4\u03b5, \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03b4\u03b5\u1fd6 \u03c4\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9. Comp. Justin Mart. _Dial._ 3. p. 221 A, \u1f21 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ad\u03c7\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03af\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03c9\u03bd _\u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd_, \u1f14\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03b8\u03b5\u03b9\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b7\u03c2 _\u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd_. So too St Paul himself contrasts\n\u03b3\u03b9\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2, with \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b3\u03b9\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2, as the partial with the\ncomplete, in two passages, Rom. i. 21, 38, 1 Cor. xiii. 12. With this\nlast passage (\u1f04\u03c1\u03c4\u03b9 \u03b3\u03b9\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03ba\u03c9 \u1f10\u03ba \u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2, \u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b3\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9) compare Clem.\nAlex. _Strom._ i. 17, p. 369, \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u1f70 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f19\u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03ca\u03ba\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03b7\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd _\u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b7_ \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2\n\u1f00\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4' _\u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd_ \u03bb\u03b1\u03b2\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2, where \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4' \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd is\ncommonly but wrongly translated 'without proper recognition' (comp.\nTatian _ad Gr\u00e6c._ 40). Hence also \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 is used especially of the\nknowledge of God and of Christ, as being the perfection of knowledge:\ne.g. Prov. ii. 5, Hos. iv. 1, vi. 6, Ephes. i. 17, iv. 13, 2 Pet. i. 2,\n8, ii. 20, Clem. Alex. _P\u00e6d._ ii. 1, p. 173.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI. 10]\n\n\u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u1fc3 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u1fb3 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03ad\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1fc7, ^{10}\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f00\u03be\u03af\u03c9\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2\n\u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u1f00\u03c1\u03ad\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd\u00b7 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u1f76 \u1f14\u03c1\u03b3\u1ff3\n\n\n\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u1fb3 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03ad\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9] '_wisdom and intelligence_.' The two words are\nfrequently found together: e.g. Exod. xxxi. 3, Deut. iv. 6, 1 Chron.\nxxii. 12, 2 Chron. i. 10 sq., Is. xi. 2, xxix. 14, Dan. ii. 20, Baruch\niii. 23, 1 Cor. i. 19, Clem. Rom. 32. So too \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u1f76 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf\u03af, Prov.\nxvi. 21, Matt. xi. 25, and elsewhere. In the parallel passage, Eph. i.\n8, the words are \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u1fc3 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u1fb3 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c6\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9, and the substitution of\n\u03c6\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 for \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 there is instructive. The three words are mentioned\ntogether, Arist. _Eth. Nic._ i. 13, as constituting the intellectual\n(\u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03b7\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76) virtues. \u03a3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1 is mental excellence in its highest and\nfullest sense; Arist. _Eth. Nic._ vi. 7 \u1f21 \u1f00\u03ba\u03c1\u03b9\u03b2\u03b5\u03c3\u03c4\u03ac\u03c4\u03b7 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd ...\n\u1f65\u03c3\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u03ba\u03b5\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u1f74\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b1 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03bc\u03b7 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9\u03bc\u03b9\u03c9\u03c4\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd (see Waitz on Arist.\n_Organ._ II. p. 295 sq.), Cicero _de Off._ i. 43 'princeps omnium\nvirtutum,' Clem. Alex. _P\u00e6d._ ii. 2, p. 181, \u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03b1 ... \u1f10\u03bc\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03bb\u03b1\u03b2\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b1 \u03c4\u1f70\n\u1f45\u03bb\u03b1. The Stoic definition of \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1, as \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03bc\u03b7 \u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03af\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03b1\u1f30\u03c4\u03b9\u1ff6\u03bd, is repeated by various writers: e.g. Cic. _de Off._\nii. 5, Philo. _Congr. erud. grat._ 14, p. 530, [Joseph.] _Macc._ 2,\nClem. Alex. _P\u00e6d._ ii. 2, p. 181, _Strom._ i. 5, p. 333, Aristob. in\nEus. _Pr\u00e6p. Ev._ xiii. 12 p. 667). And the glorification of \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1 by\nheathen writers was even surpassed by its apotheosis in the Proverbs and\nin the Wisdom of Solomon. While \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1 'wisdom' is thus primary and\nabsolute (_Eth. Nic._ vi. 7 \u03bc\u1f74 \u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f10\u03ba \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03b4\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd), both \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 'intelligence' and \u03c6\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2\n'prudence' are derivative and special (_Eth. Nic._ vi. 12 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03c3\u03c7\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8' \u1f15\u03ba\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd). They are both applications of \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1 to details,\nbut they work on different lines; for, while \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 is critical,\n\u03c6\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 is practical; while \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 apprehends the bearings of things,\n\u03c6\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 suggests lines of action: see Arist. _Eth. Nic._ vi. 11 \u1f21 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd\n\u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03c6\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c4\u03b1\u03ba\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03ae \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd ... \u1f21 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03ae. For \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 see\n2 Tim. ii. 7 _\u03bd\u03cc\u03b5\u03b9_ \u1f43 \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03c9, \u03b4\u03ce\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03b3\u03ac\u03c1 \u03c3\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f41 \u039a\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 _\u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd_\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd. This relation of \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1 to \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 explains why in almost every\ncase \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1 (\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03cc\u03c2) precedes \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 (\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2), where they are found\ntogether, and also why in Baruch iii. 23 \u03bf\u1f31 \u1f10\u03ba\u03b6\u03b7\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03ad\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2, \u1f41\u03b4\u1f78\u03bd\n\u03b4\u1f72 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f14\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd, we find \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 implying a tentative, partial,\napproach to \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1. The relation of \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1 to \u03c6\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 will be considered\nmore at length in the note on the parallel passage, Ephes. i. 8.\n\n\u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1fc7] The word is emphatic from its position. The false teachers\nalso offered a \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1, but it had only a show of wisdom (ii. 23); it was\nan empty counterfeit calling itself philosophy (ii. 8); it was the\noffspring of vanity nurtured by the mind of the _flesh_ (ii. 18). See 2\nCor. i. 12 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f10\u03bd \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u1fb3 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03b9\u03ba\u1fc7, where a similar contrast is implied,\nand 1 Cor. i. 20, ii. 5, 6, 13, iii. 19, where it is directly expressed\nby \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5, \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03c9\u03bd, \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b1\u1f30\u1ff6\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5, \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03af\u03bd\u03b7\n\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1, etc.\n\n10. \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f00\u03be\u03af\u03c9\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] So 1 Thess. ii. 12, Ephes. iv. i; comp.\nPhil. i. 27. The infinitive here denotes the consequence (not\nnecessarily the purpose) of the spiritual enlightenment described in \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1\n\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03c9\u03b8\u1fc6\u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.; see Winer \u00a7 xliv. p. 399 sq. With the received text\n_\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6_ \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03be\u03af\u03c9\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. the connexion might be\ndoubtful; but this reading is condemned by external evidence. The\nemphasis of the sentence would be marred by the insertion of \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2. The\nend of all knowledge, the Apostle would say, is conduct.\n\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5] i.e. 'of Christ.' In 1 Thess. ii. 12 indeed we have\n\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u1f00\u03be\u03af\u03c9\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6; but St Paul's common, and apparently\nuniversal, usage requires us to understand \u1f41 \u039a\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 of Christ.\n\n\u1f00\u03c1\u03ad\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd] i.e. 'to please _God_ in all ways'; comp. 1 Thess. iv. 1 \u03c0\u1ff6\u03c2\n\u03b4\u03b5\u1fd6 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u03c1\u03ad\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u0398\u03b5\u1ff7. As this word was commonly used to\ndescribe the proper attitude of men towards God, the addition of \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 would not be necessary: Philo _Quis rer. <DW37>. her._ 24 (I. p. 490)\n\u1f61\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b4\u03b5\u03c7\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5 (\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1f56 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f11\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f00\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, _de Abrah._ 25\n(II. p. 20) \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c1\u03ad\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd \u1f41\u03c1\u03bc\u03ac\u03c2, _de Vict. Off._ 8 (II. p. 257) \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03c3\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f30\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c1\u03ad\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd \u1f41\u03b4\u1ff6\u03bd, with other passages quoted by\nLoesner. Otherwise it is used especially of ingratiating oneself with a\nsovereign or potentate, e.g. Polyb. vi. 2. 12; and perhaps in the higher\nconnexion, in which it occurs in the text, the idea of a king is still\nprominent, as e.g. Philo _de Mund. Op._ 50 (I. p. 34) \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u1f10\u03c3\u03c0\u03bf\u03cd\u03b4\u03b1\u03b6\u03b5\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c1\u03ad\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03ad\u03c9\u03c2. Towards\nmen this complaisance is always dangerous and most commonly vicious;\nhence \u1f00\u03c1\u03ad\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 is a bad quality in Aristotle [?] (_Eth. Eud._ ii. 3 \u03c4\u1f78\n\u03bb\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f21\u03b4\u03bf\u03bd\u03ae\u03bd) as also in Theophrastus (_Char._ 5 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b2\u03b5\u03bb\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff3\n\u1f21\u03b4\u03bf\u03bd\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03c5\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03ae), but towards the King of kings no obsequiousness\ncan be excessive. The \u1f00\u03c1\u03ad\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 of Aristotle and Theophrastus presents\nthe same moral contrast to the \u1f00\u03c1\u03ad\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 here, as \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c1\u03ad\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd to\n\u0398\u03b5\u1ff7 \u1f00\u03c1\u03ad\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd in such passages as 1 Thess. ii. 4, Gal. i. 10. Opposed to\nthe \u1f00\u03c1\u03ad\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 commended here is \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ad\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 condemned below, iii. 22.\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u1f76 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] i.e. 'not only showing the fruits of your faith before\nmen (Matt. vii. 16), but yourselves growing meanwhile in moral stature\n(Eph. iv. 13).'\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI. 11]\n\n\u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03b8\u1ff7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03c0\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f50\u03be\u03b1\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b3\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6\u00b7 ^{11}\u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u1fc3\n\u03b4\u03c5\u03bd\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03b9 \u03b4\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03bc\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f78\n\n\n\u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b3\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9] '_by the knowledge_.' The other readings, \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b3\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9,\n\u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, are unsuccessful attempts to define the construction.\nThe simple instrumental dative represents the knowledge of God as the\ndew or the rain which nurtures the growth of the plant; Deut. xxxii. 2,\nHos. xiv. 5.\n\n11. \u03b4\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03bc\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9] A word found more than once in the Greek versions of\nthe Old Testament, Ps. lxvii (lxviii). 29 (LXX), Eccles. x. 10 (LXX),\nDan. ix. 27 (Theod.), Ps. lxiv (lxv). 4 (Aq.), Job xxxvi. 9 (Aq.), but\nnot occurring elsewhere in the New Testament, except in Heb. xi. 34 and\nas a various reading in Ephes. vi. 10. The compound \u1f10\u03bd\u03b4\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03bc\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd however\nappears several times in St Paul and elsewhere.\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03ba\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2] The power communicated to the faithful corresponds to,\nand is a function of, the Divine might whence it comes. Unlike \u03b4\u03cd\u03bd\u03b1\u03bc\u03b9\u03c2\nor \u1f30\u03c3\u03c7\u1f7a\u03c2, the word \u03ba\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 in the New Testament is applied solely to God.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI. 12]\n\n\u03ba\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03cc\u03be\u03b7\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u1f74\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bc\u03b1\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u1fb6\u03c2\u00b7\n^{12} \u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f31\u03ba\u03b1\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9\n\n                     12 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f31\u03ba\u03b1\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9 _\u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2_.\n\n\n\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03cc\u03be\u03b7\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6] The 'glory' here, as frequently, stands for the majesty\nor the power or the goodness of God, as _manifested_ to men; e.g. Eph.\ni. 6, 12, 17, iii. 16; comp. ver. 27, below. The \u03b4\u03cc\u03be\u03b1, the bright light\nover the mercy-seat (Rom. ix. 4), was a symbol of such manifestations.\nGod's revelation of Himself to us, however this revelation may be made,\nis the one source of all our highest strength (\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03ba\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.).\n\n\u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u1f74\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bc\u03b1\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03bd] '_endurance and long-suffering_.' The two\nwords occur in the same context in 2 Cor. vi. 4, 6, 2 Tim. iii. 10,\nJames v. 10, 11, Clem. Rom. 58, Ign. _Ephes._ 3. They are distinguished\nin Trench _Synon._ \u00a7 liii. p. 184 sq. The difference of meaning is best\nseen in their opposites. While \u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u1f74 is the temper which does not\neasily succumb under suffering, \u03bc\u03b1\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1 is the self-restraint which\ndoes not hastily retaliate a wrong. The one is opposed to _cowardice_ or\n_despondency_, the other to _wrath_ or _revenge_ (Prov. xv. 18, xvi. 32;\nsee also the note on iii. 12). While \u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u1f74 is closely allied to _hope_\n(1 Thess. i. 3), \u03bc\u03b1\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1 is commonly connected with _mercy_ (e.g.\nExod. xxxiv. 6). This distinction however, though it applies generally,\nis not true without exception. Thus in Is. lvii. 15 \u03bc\u03b1\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1 is\nopposed to \u1f40\u03bb\u03b9\u03b3\u03bf\u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03af\u03b1, where we should rather have expected \u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03ae; and\n\u03bc\u03b1\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd is used similarly in James v. 7.\n\n\u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u1fb6\u03c2] So James i. 2, 3, \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd _\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u1f70\u03bd_ \u1f21\u03b3\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 ... \u1f45\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\n\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03b1\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c0\u03ad\u03c3\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03af\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2, \u03b3\u03b9\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b4\u03bf\u03ba\u03af\u03bc\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2\n\u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03ac\u03b6\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03ad\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.: comp. 1 Pet. iv. 13, and see below\ni. 24. This parallel points to the proper connexion of \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u1fb6\u03c2, which\nshould be attached to the preceding words. On the other hand some would\nconnect it with \u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 for the sake of preserving the balance of\nthe three clauses, \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u1f76 \u1f14\u03c1\u03b3\u1ff3 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03b8\u1ff7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03c0\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2, \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u1fc3 \u03b4\u03c5\u03bd\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03b9\n\u03b4\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03bc\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9, \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2; and this seems to be favoured\nby Phil. i. 4 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b4\u03ad\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2: but when it is so\nconnected, the emphatic position of \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u1fb6\u03c2 cannot be explained; nor\nindeed would these words be needed at all, for \u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03af\u03b1 is in itself\nan act of rejoicing.\n\n12. \u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2] most naturally coordinated with the preceding\nparticiples and referred to the Colossians. The duty of thanksgiving is\nmore than once enforced upon them below, ii. 7, iii. 17, iv. 2; comp. 1\nThess. v. 18. On the other hand the first person \u1f21\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2, which follows,\nhas led others to connect \u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 with the primary verb of the\nsentence, \u03bf\u1f50 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c5\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03b8\u03b1 ver. 9. But the sudden transition from the second\nto the first person is quite after St Paul's manner (see the note on ii.\n13, 14, \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03b6\u03c9\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 ... \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd), and cannot create any\ndifficulty.\n\n\u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f31\u03ba\u03b1\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9] '_who made us competent_'; comp. 2 Cor. iii. 6. On the\nvarious readings see the detached note.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI. 13]\n\n\u1f21\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03bc\u03b5\u03c1\u03af\u03b4\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f01\u03b3\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c6\u03c9\u03c4\u03af\u00b7 ^{13}\u1f43\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c1\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf \u1f21\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2\n\u1f10\u03ba \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\n\n\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03bc\u03b5\u03c1\u03af\u03b4\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5] '_the parcel of the lot_,' 'the portion which\nconsists in the lot,' \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5 being the genitive of apposition: see\nWiner \u00a7 lix. p. 666 sq., and comp. Ps. xv (xvi). 5 \u039a\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2\n\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5. In Acts viii. 21 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76\u03c2 and \u03ba\u03bb\u1fc6\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 are coordinated; in\nGen. xxxi. 14, Num. xviii. 20, Is. lvii. 6, \u03bc\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76\u03c2 and \u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03b1. The\ninheritance of Canaan, the allotment of the promised land, here presents\nan analogy to, and supplies a metaphor for, the higher hopes of the new\ndispensation, as in Heb. iii. 7-iv. 11. See also below, iii. 24 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c0\u03cc\u03b4\u03bf\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, and Ephes. i. 18. St Chrysostom writes, \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70\n\u03c4\u03af _\u03ba\u03bb\u1fc6\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd_ \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03b5\u1fd6\u00b7 \u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03ba\u03bd\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u1f72\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c1\u03b8\u03c9\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03c9\u03bd\n\u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u03c5\u03b3\u03c7\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9, referring to Luke xvii. 10. It is not won by us, but\nallotted to us.\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c6\u03c9\u03c4\u03af] best taken with the expression \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03bc\u03b5\u03c1\u03af\u03b4\u03b1 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. For the\nomission of the definite article, [\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd] \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c6\u03c9\u03c4\u1f76, see above, vv. 2, 4,\n8. The portion of the saints is situated in the kingdom of light. For\nthe whole context compare St Paul's narrative in Acts xxvi. 18 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03ad\u03c8\u03b1\u03b9 _\u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c3\u03ba\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c6\u1ff6\u03c2_ \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 _\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2_ \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a3\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u1fb6\n\u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u0398\u03b5\u03cc\u03bd, \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bb\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 _\u1f04\u03c6\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f01\u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03b9\u1ff6\u03bd_ \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 _\u03ba\u03bb\u1fc6\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f21\u03b3\u03b9\u03b1\u03c3\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2_, where all the ideas and many of the expressions\nrecur. See also Acts xx. 32, in another of St Paul's later speeches. As\na classical parallel, Plato _Resp._ vii. p. 518 A, \u1f14\u03ba \u03c4\u03b5 \u03c6\u03c9\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2\n\u03c3\u03ba\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b5\u03b8\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03ba \u03c3\u03ba\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c6\u1ff6\u03c2, is quoted.\n\n13. 'We were slaves in the land of darkness. God rescued us from this\nthraldom. He transplanted us thence, and settled us as free colonists\nand citizens in the kingdom of His Son, in the realms of light.'\n\n\u1f10\u03c1\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf] '_rescued, delivered us_' by His strong arm, as a mighty\nconqueror: comp. ii. 15 \u03b8\u03c1\u03b9\u03b1\u03bc\u03b2\u03b5\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2. On the form \u1f10\u03c1\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf see A.\nButtmann, p. 29: comp. Clem. Rom. 55, and see the note on \u1f10\u03be\u03b5\u03c1\u03af\u03b6\u03c9\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd,\n_ib._ 6.\n\n\u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2] here 'arbitrary power, tyranny.' The word \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1 properly\nsignifies 'liberty of action' (\u1f14\u03be\u03b5\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9), and thence, like the\ncorresponding English word 'license,' invokes two secondary ideas, of\nwhich either may be so prominent as to eclipse the other; (1)\n'authority,' '_delegated_ power' (e.g. Luke xx. 2); or (2) 'tyranny,'\n'lawlessness,' '_unrestrained_ or _arbitrary_ power.' For this second\nsense comp. e.g. Demosth. _F.L._ p. 428 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f04\u03b3\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u03b1\u03cd\u03c4\u03b7\u03bd \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03bd,\nXenoph. _Hiero_ 5 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u1f78\u03bd \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f15\u03bd\u03b5\u03ba\u03b1 (speaking of tyrants),\nPlut. _Vit. Eum._ 13 \u1f00\u03bd\u03ac\u03b3\u03c9\u03b3\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bc\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u1f76 \u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03af\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2,\n_Vit. Alex._ 33 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f44\u03b3\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f08\u03bb\u03b5\u03be\u03ac\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b4\u03c5\u03bd\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2,\nHerodian ii. 4 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03b1\u03af\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03ad\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2. This latter idea of a\ncapricious unruly rule is prominent here. The expression \u1f21 \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03c3\u03ba\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 occurs also in Luke xxii. 53, where again the idea of disorder\nis involved. The transference from darkness to light is here represented\nas a transference from an arbitrary tyranny, an \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1, to a\nwell-ordered sovereignty, a \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03b1. This seems also to be St\nChrysostom's idea; for he explains \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 by \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c4\u03c5\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u03bd\u03af\u03b4\u03bf\u03c2,\nadding \u03c7\u03b1\u03bb\u03b5\u03c0\u1f78\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bb\u1ff6\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03b2\u03cc\u03bb\u1ff3\u00b7 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4'\n\u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf \u03c7\u03b1\u03bb\u03b5\u03c0\u03ce\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd.\n\n\u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd] '_removed_,' when they were baptized, when they accepted\nChrist. The image of \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd is supplied by the wholesale\ntransportation of peoples (\u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 or \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd), of which\nthe history of oriental monarchies supplied so many examples. See\nJoseph. _Ant._ ix. 11. 1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03ae\u03c4\u03bf\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f30\u03c7\u03bc\u03b1\u03bb\u03c9\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd, speaking of Tiglath-Pileser and the Transjordanic\ntribes.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI. 13]\n\n\u03c3\u03ba\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c5\u1f31\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2\n\n\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c5\u1f31\u03bf\u1fe6] Not of inferior angels, as the false teachers would have it\n(ii. 18), but of His own Son. The same contrast between a dispensation\nof angels and a dispensation of the Son underlies the words here, which\nis explicitly brought out in Heb. i. 1-ii. 8; see especially i. 2\n\u1f10\u03bb\u03ac\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c5\u1f31\u1ff7, compared with ii. 5 \u03bf\u1f50 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b3\u03ad\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c0\u03ad\u03c4\u03b1\u03be\u03b5\u03bd \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd\n\u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03bc\u03ad\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd. Severianus has rightly caught the idea\nunderlying \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c5\u1f31\u03bf\u1fe6 here; \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03c3\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd, \u03bf\u1f50\u03c7 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2\n\u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03ad\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2.\n\n\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6] '_of His love_.' As love is the essence of the Father\n(1 Joh. iv. 8, 16), so is it also of the Son. The mission of the Son is\nthe revelation of the Father's love; for as He is the \u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03ae\u03c2, the\nFather's love is perfectly represented in Him (see 1 Joh. iv. 9). St\nAugustine has rightly interpreted St Paul's words here, _de Trin._ XV.\n19 (VIII. p. 993) 'Caritas quippe Patris ... nihil est quam ejus ipsa\nnatura atque substantia ... ac per hoc filius caritatis ejus nullus est\nalius quam qui de ejus substantia est genitus.' Thus these words are\nintimately connected with the expressions which follow, \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u1f7c\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f00\u03bf\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 (ver. 15), and \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b5\u1f50\u03b4\u03cc\u03ba\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9\n(ver. 19). The loose interpretation, which makes \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c5\u1f31\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03c2\nequivalent to \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c5\u1f31\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f20\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5, destroys the whole force of the\nexpression.\n\nIn the preceding verses we have a striking illustration of St Paul's\nteaching in two important respects. _First._ The reign of Christ has\nalready begun. His kingdom is a present kingdom. Whatever therefore is\n_essential_ in the kingdom of Christ must be capable of realisation now.\nThere may be some exceptional manifestation in the world to come, but\nthis cannot alter its inherent character. In other words the sovereignty\nof Christ is essentially a moral and spiritual sovereignty, which has\nbegun now and will only be perfected hereafter. _Secondly._\nCorresponding to this, and equally significant, is his language in\nspeaking of individual Christians. He regards them as already rescued\nfrom the power of darkness, as already put in possession of their\ninheritance as saints. They are _potentially_ saved, because the\nknowledge of God is itself salvation, and this knowledge is within their\nreach. Such is St Paul's constant mode of speaking. He uses the language\nnot of exclusion, but of comprehension. He prefers to dwell on their\npotential advantages, rather than on their actual attainments. He hopes\nto make them saints by dwelling on their calling as saints. See\nespecially Ephes. ii. 6 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03ae\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03b5\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03ba\u03ac\u03b8\u03b9\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u03af\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI. 14]\n\n\u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, ^14\u1f10\u03bd \u1fa7 \u1f14\u03c7\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03cd\u03c4\u03c1\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f04\u03c6\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f01\u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03b9\u1ff6\u03bd\u00b7\n\n                        14 \u1f10\u03bd \u1fa7 _\u1f14\u03c3\u03c7\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd_.\n\n\n14. \u1f14\u03c7\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd] For the reading \u1f14\u03c3\u03c7\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd, which is possibly correct here, and\nwhich carries out the idea enforced in the last note, see the detached\nnote on the various readings. In the parallel passage, Ephes. i. 7,\nthere is the same variation of reading.\n\n\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03cd\u03c4\u03c1\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd] '_ransom, redemption_.' The image of a captive and\nenslaved people is still continued: Philo _Omn. prob. lib._ 17 (II. p.\n463) \u03b1\u1f30\u03c7\u03bc\u03ac\u03bb\u03c9\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03ae\u03c7\u03b8\u03b7 ... \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b3\u03bd\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03cd\u03c4\u03c1\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, Plut. _Vit. Pomp._ 24\n\u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b5\u03c9\u03bd \u03b1\u1f30\u03c7\u03bc\u03b1\u03bb\u03ce\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03c5\u03c4\u03c1\u03ce\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2. The metaphor however has changed from\nthe victor who rescues the captive by force of arms (ver. 13 \u1f10\u03c1\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf) to\nthe philanthropist who releases him by the payment of a ransom. The\nclause which follows in the received text, \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f01\u03af\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, is\ninterpolated from the parallel passage, Ephes. i. 7.\n\n\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f04\u03c6\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f01\u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03b9\u1ff6\u03bd] So in the parallel passage Ephes. i. 7 the\nApostle defines \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03cd\u03c4\u03c1\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd as \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f04\u03c6\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03c9\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd. May not\nthis studied precision point to some false conception of \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03cd\u03c4\u03c1\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 put\nforward by the heretical teachers? Later Gnostics certainly perverted\nthe meaning of the term, applying it to their own formularies of\ninitiation. This is related of the Marcosians by Iren\u00e6us i. 13. 6 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70\n\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03cd\u03c4\u03c1\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f00\u03ba\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03ae\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03bf\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03b3\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03ba\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u1fc7 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., i. 21.\n1 \u1f45\u03c3\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b3\u03ac\u03c1 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c4\u03b1\u03cd\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u03bd\u03ce\u03bc\u03b7\u03c2 \u03bc\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03b3\u03c9\u03b3\u03bf\u03af, \u03c4\u03bf\u03c3\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03c5\u03c4\u03c1\u03ce\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2,\n_ib._ \u00a7 4 \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03cd\u03c4\u03c1\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c1\u03ae\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\n\u03bc\u03b5\u03b3\u03ad\u03b8\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 (with the whole context), and Hippolytus _H\u00e6r._ vi. 41 \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\n\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c6\u03c9\u03bd\u1fc7 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c1\u03ae\u03c4\u1ff3, \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c4\u03b9\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03c7\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c1\u03b1 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03cd\u03c4\u03c1\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03bb\u03b1\u03b2\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n(comp. ix. 13). In support of their nomenclature they perverted such\npassages as the text, Iren. i. 21. 2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03a0\u03b1\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u1fe5\u03b7\u03c4\u1ff6\u03c2 \u03c6\u03ac\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd\n\u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03cd\u03c4\u03c1\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd _\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03ba\u03b9\u03c2_ \u03bc\u03b5\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd\u03c5\u03ba\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9. It seems not\nimprobable that the communication of similar mystical secrets, perhaps\nconnected with their angelology (ii. 18), was put forward by these\nColossian false teachers as an \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03cd\u03c4\u03c1\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2. Compare the words in the\nbaptismal formula of the Marcosians as given in Iren. i. 21. 3 (comp.\nTheodt. _H\u00e6r. Fab._ i. 9) \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f15\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03cd\u03c4\u03c1\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd\n\u03b4\u03c5\u03bd\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03c9\u03bd, where the last words (which have been differently interpreted)\nmust surely mean 'communion with the (spiritual) powers.' Thus it is a\nparallel to \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03bb\u03cd\u03c4\u03c1\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03b9\u03ba\u03ae\u03bd, which appears in an alternative\nformula of these heretics given likewise by Iren\u00e6us in the context; for\nthis latter is explained in Clem. Alex. _Exc. Theod._ p. 974, \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2\n\u03bb\u03cd\u03c4\u03c1\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03b9\u03ba\u03ae\u03bd, \u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c4\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd, \u1f23\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f04\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f14\u03c7\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd. Any direct\nhistorical connexion between the Colossian heretics and these later\nGnostics of the Valentinian school is very improbable; but the passages\nquoted will serve to show how a false idea of \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03cd\u03c4\u03c1\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 would\nnaturally be associated with an esoteric doctrine of angelic powers. See\nthe note on i. 28 \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03c9\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI. 15]\n\n^{15}\u1f45\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u1f7c\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f00\u03bf\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5, \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2\n\n\n15 sq. In the passage which follows St Paul defines the Person of\nChrist, claiming for Him the absolute supremacy,\n\n  (1) In relation to the _Universe_, the _Natural_ Creation (vv. 15\u201317);\n\n  (2) In relation to the _Church_, the new _Moral_ Creation (ver. 18);\n\nand he then combines the two, \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 _\u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd_ \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03c9\u03bd, explaining this twofold sovereignty by the absolute indwelling\nof the _pleroma_ in Christ, and showing how, as a consequence, the\nreconciliation and harmony of all things must be effected in Him (vv.\n19, 20).\n\nAs the idea of the _Logos_ underlies the whole of this passage, though\nthe term itself does not appear, a few words explanatory of this term\nwill be necessary by way of preface. The word \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 then, denoting both\n'reason' and 'speech,' was a philosophical term adopted by Alexandrian\nJudaism before St Paul wrote, to express the _manifestation_ of the\nUnseen God, the Absolute Being, in the creation and government of the\nWorld. It included all modes by which God makes himself known to man. As\nHis _reason_, it denoted His purpose or design; as His _speech_, it\nimplied His revelation. Whether this \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 was conceived merely as the\ndivine energy personified, or whether the conception took a more\nconcrete form, I need not stop now to enquire. A fuller account of the\nmatter will be found in the dissertation at the end of this volume. It\nis sufficient for the understanding of what follows to say that\nChristian teachers, when they adopted this term, exalted and fixed its\nmeaning by attaching to it two precise and definite ideas: (1) 'The Word\nis a Divine Person,' \u1f41 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f26\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u0398\u03b5\u03cc\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u0398\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f26\u03bd \u1f41 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2; and\n(2) 'The Word became incarnate in Jesus Christ,' \u1f41 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c3\u1f70\u03c1\u03be \u1f10\u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf.\nIt is obvious that these two propositions must have altered materially\nthe significance of all the subordinate terms connected with the idea of\nthe \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2; and that therefore their use in Alexandrian writers, such as\nPhilo, cannot be taken to _define_, though it may be brought to\n_illustrate_, their meaning in St Paul and St John. With these cautions\nthe Alexandrian phraseology, as a providential preparation for the\nteaching of the Gospel, will afford important aid in the understanding\nof the Apostolic writings.\n\n15\u201317. 'He is the perfect image, the visible representation, of the\nunseen God. He is the Firstborn, the absolute Heir of the Father,\nbegotten before the ages; the Lord of the Universe by virtue of\nprimogeniture, and by virtue also of creative agency. For in and through\nHim the whole world was created, things in heaven and things on earth,\nthings visible to the outward eye and things cognisable by the inward\nperception. His supremacy is absolute and universal. All powers in\nheaven and earth are subject to Him. This subjection extends even to the\nmost exalted and most potent of angelic beings, whether they be called\nThrones or Dominations or Princedoms or Powers, or whatever title of\ndignity men may confer upon them. Yes: He is first and He is last.\nThrough Him, as the mediatorial Word, the universe has been created; and\nunto Him, as the final goal, it is tending. In Him is no before or\nafter. He is pre-existent and self-existent before all the worlds. And\nin Him, as the binding and sustaining power, universal nature coheres\nand consists.'\n\n15. \u1f45\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] The Person of Christ is described _first_ in\nrelation more especially to Deity, as \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u1f7c\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f00\u03bf\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5, and\n_secondly_ in relation more especially to created things, as \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2\n\u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2. The fundamental conception of the Logos involves the idea\nof _mediation_ between God and creation. A perverted view respecting the\nnature of the mediation between the two lay, as we have seen, at the\nroot of the heretical teaching at Coloss\u00e6 (p. 34, p. 101 sq., p. 181\nsq.), and required to be met by the true doctrine of Christ as the\nEternal Logos.\n\n\u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03ce\u03bd] '_the image_.' This expression is used repeatedly by Philo, as a\ndescription of the Logos; _de Mund. Op._ 8 (I. p. 6) \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f00\u03cc\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03bd\u03bf\u03b7\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b8\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bf\u03bd \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd\u03b1 \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6, _de Confus. ling._ 20 (I. p. 419)\n\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd\u03b1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f31\u03b5\u03c1\u03ce\u03c4\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd, _ib._ \u00a7 28 (I. p. 427) \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03ca\u03b4\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\n\u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f31\u03b5\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., _de Profug._ 19 (I. p. 561) \u1f41\n\u1f51\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03ac\u03bd\u03c9 \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b8\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2 ... \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u1f7c\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u03ac\u03c1\u03c7\u03c9\u03bd \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6, _de Monarch._\nii. 5 (II. p. 225) \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b4\u03ad \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u1f7c\u03bd \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b4\u03b9' \u1f41\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03cd\u03bc\u03c0\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f41 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2\n\u1f10\u03b4\u03b7\u03bc\u03b9\u03bf\u03c5\u03c1\u03b3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03bf, _de Somn._ i. 41 (I. p. 656), etc. For the use which\nPhilo made of the text Gen. i. 26, 27, \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4' \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd\u03b1 \u1f21\u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd, \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4' \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd\u03b1\n\u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6, see the note on iii. 10. Still earlier than Philo, before the idea\nof the \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 had assumed such a definite form, the term was used of the\nDivine \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1 personified in Wisd. vii. 26 \u1f00\u03c0\u03b1\u03cd\u03b3\u03b1\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b3\u03ac\u03c1 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c6\u03c9\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2\n\u1f00\u03ca\u03b4\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 ... \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u1f7c\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03b8\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6. St Paul himself applies the\nterm to our Lord in an earlier epistle, 2 Cor. iv. 4 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03cc\u03be\u03b7\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f45\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u1f7c\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 (comp. iii. 18 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd\u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd\u03b1\n\u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03bc\u03bf\u03c1\u03c6\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03b8\u03b1). Closely allied to \u03b5\u1f76\u03ba\u1f7c\u03bd also is \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1, which appears\nin the same connexion in Heb. i. 3 \u1f62\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03b1\u03cd\u03b3\u03b1\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03cc\u03be\u03b7\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03c4\u1f74\u03c1\n\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03c3\u03c4\u03ac\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, a passage illustrated by Philo _de Plant._ 5 (I.\np. 332) \u03c3\u03c6\u03c1\u03b1\u03b3\u1fd6\u03b4\u03b9 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f27\u03c2 \u1f41 \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f00\u0390\u03b4\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2. See also Phil.\nii. 6 \u1f10\u03bd \u03bc\u03bf\u03c1\u03c6\u1fc7 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f51\u03c0\u03ac\u03c1\u03c7\u03c9\u03bd.\n\nBeyond the very obvious notion of _likeness_, the word \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03ce\u03bd involves\ntwo other ideas;\n\n(1) _Representation._ In this respect it is allied to \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1, and\ndiffers from (\u03bf\u03bc\u03bf\u03af\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1. In \u1f41\u03bc\u03bf\u03af\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 the resemblance may be accidental, as\none egg is like another; but \u03b5\u1f31\u03ba\u03ce\u03bd implies an archetype of which it is a\n_copy_, as Greg. Naz. _Orat._ 30 (I. p. 554) says \u1f05\u03c5\u03c4\u03b7 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c6\u03cd\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2\n_\u03bc\u03af\u03bc\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1_ \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 _\u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03b5\u03c4\u03cd\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5_. So too Io. Damasc. _de Imag._\ni. 9 (I. p. 311) \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03ce\u03bd \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f41\u03bc\u03bf\u03af\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 _\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03af\u03b6\u03bf\u03bd_ \u03c4\u1f78\n_\u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03c5\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd_; comp. Philo _de Mund. Op. 23_ (I. p. 16). On this\ndifference see Trench _N. T. Synon._ \u00a7 xv. p. 47. The \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u1f7c\u03bd might be the\nresult of direct imitation (\u03bc\u03b9\u03bc\u03b7\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03ae) like the head of a sovereign on a\ncoin, or it might be due to natural causes (\u03c6\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03ba\u03ae) like the parental\nfeatures in the child, but in any case it was _derived_ from its\nprototype: see Basil. _de Spir. Sanct._ 18 \u00a7 45 (III. p. 38). The word\nitself however does not necessarily imply _perfect_ representation. Thus\nman is said to be the image of God; 1 Cor. xi. 7 \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u1f7c\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03cc\u03be\u03b1 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u1f51\u03c0\u03ac\u03c1\u03c7\u03c9\u03bd, Clem. Rom. 33 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd ... \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c1\u03b1. Thus\nagain an early Jud\u00e6o-Christian writer so designates the duly appointed\nbishop, as the representative of the divine authority; _Clem. Hom._ iii.\n62 \u1f61\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd\u03b1 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c4\u03b9\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2. The idea of _perfection_ does not lie in\nthe word itself, but must be sought from the context (e.g. \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\n\u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 ver. 19). The use which was made of this expression, and\nespecially of this passage, in the Christological controversies of the\nfourth and fifth centuries may be seen from the patristic quotations in\nPetav. _Theol. Dogm._ de Trin. ii. 11. 9 sq., vi. 5. 6.\n\n(2) _Manifestation._ This idea comes from the implied contrast to \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n_\u1f00\u03bf\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5_ \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6. St Chrysostom indeed maintains the direct opposite,\narguing that, as the archetype is invisible, so the image must be\ninvisible also, \u1f21 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f00\u03bf\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u1f7c\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f74 \u1f00\u03cc\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f41\u03bc\u03bf\u03af\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f00\u03cc\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2.\nSo too Hilary _c. Const. Imp._ 21 (II. p. 378) 'ut imago invisibilis\nDei, etiam per id quod ipse invisibilis est, invisibilis Dei imago\nesset.' And this was the view of the Nicene and post-Nicene fathers\ngenerally. But the underlying idea of the \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03ce\u03bd, and indeed of the \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2\ngenerally, is the manifestation of the hidden: comp. Philo _de Vit.\nMoys._ ii. 12 (II. p. 144) \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u1f7c\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bf\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c6\u03cd\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bc\u03c6\u03b1\u03bd\u03ae\u03c2. And adopted\ninto Christian theology, the doctrine of the \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 expresses this\nconception still more prominently by reason of the Incarnation; comp.\nTertull. _adv. Marc._ v. 19 'Scientes filium semper retro visum, si\nquibus visus est in Dei nomine, ut imaginem ipsius,' Hippol. _c. Noet._\n7 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f41\u03bc\u03bf\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u03c5\u03b3\u03c7\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03cd\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 _\u03b5\u1f54\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2_ \u1f41 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u1f74\u03c1\n\u03b3\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, _ib._ \u00a7 12, 13, Orig. _in Ioann._ vi. \u00a7 2 (IV. p. 104). Among\nthe post-Nicene fathers too St Basil has caught the right idea, _Epist._\nxxxviii. 8 (III. p. 121) \u1f41 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03ac\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03af\u1fb3 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03b5\u03c4\u03cd\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b3\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 ... \u03b2\u03bb\u03ad\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f10\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd ... \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f00\u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03bd\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03ac\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03bd\u03b7\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c0\u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2. The Word, whether pre-incarnate or incarnate,\nis the revelation of the unseen Father: comp. John i. 18 \u0398\u03b5\u1f78\u03bd _\u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u03b5\u1f76\u03c2\n\u1f11\u03ce\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd_ \u03c0\u03ce\u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u03b5\u00b7 \u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u1f74\u03c2 \u0398\u03b5\u03cc\u03c2, \u1f41 \u1f62\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03ba\u03cc\u03bb\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2,\n\u1f10\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 _\u1f10\u03be\u03b7\u03b3\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf_, xiv. 9, 10 _\u1f41 \u1f11\u03c9\u03c1\u03ac\u03ba\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bc\u1f72 \u1f11\u03ce\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03ad\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1_\u00b7 \u03c0\u1ff6\u03c2 \u03c3\u1f7a \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2, _\u0394\u03b5\u1fd6\u03be\u03bf\u03bd_ \u1f21\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1; (compared with\nvi. 46 \u03bf\u1f50\u03c7 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1 \u1f11\u03ce\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03ad\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.). The epithet \u1f00\u03bf\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\nhowever must not be confined to the apprehension of the bodily senses,\nbut will include the cognisance of the inward eye also.\n\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2] '_the First-born of all creation_.' The word\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 has a twofold parentage:\n\n(1) Like \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03ce\u03bd it is closely connected with and taken from the\nAlexandrian vocabulary of the Logos. The word however which Philo\napplies to the \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 is not \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 but \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2: _de Agric._ 12\n(I. p. 308) \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f40\u03c1\u03b8\u1f78\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u1f51\u03af\u03bf\u03bd, _de\nSomn._ i. 37 (I. p. 653) \u1f41 \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b8\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2, _de Confus.\nling._ i. 28 (I. p. 427) \u03c3\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u03b6\u03ad\u03c4\u03c9 \u03ba\u03bf\u03c3\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd: comp. _ib._ i. 14 (I. p. 414) \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03cd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03c5\u1f31\u1f78\u03bd \u1f41 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f44\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03ad\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1, \u1f43\u03bd \u1f11\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03c9\u03b8\u03b9 \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u1f60\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b5: and this designation\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03cd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c5\u1f31\u1f78\u03c2 is several times applied to the \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2. Again in _Quis\nrer. <DW37>. her._ \u00a7 24 (I. p. 489) the language of Exod. xiii. 2 \u1f01\u03b3\u03af\u03b1\u03c3\u03cc\u03bd\n\u03bc\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03bf\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03ad\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. is so interpreted as to apply to\nthe Divine Word. These appellations, 'the first-begotten, the eldest\nson,' are given to the Logos by Philo, because in his philosophy it\nincludes the original conception, the archetypal idea, of creation,\nwhich was afterwards realised in the material world. Among the early\nChristian fathers Justin Martyr again and again recognises the\napplication of the term \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 to the Word; _Apol._ i. 23 (p. 68)\n\u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f51\u03c0\u03ac\u03c1\u03c7\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03cd\u03bd\u03b1\u03bc\u03b9\u03c2, _ib._ \u00a7 46 (p. 83) \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd\n\u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 ... \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u1f44\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03bf\u1f57 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03c9\u03bd\n\u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03ad\u03c3\u03c7\u03b5, _ib._ \u00a7 33 (p. 75 C) \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u1f43\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u0398\u03b5\u1ff7 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9.\nSo too Theophilus _ad Antol._ ii. 22 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03b9\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd, \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2.\n\n(2) The word \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 had also another not less important link of\nconnexion with the past. The Messianic reference of Ps. lxxxix. 28, \u1f10\u03b3\u1f7c\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd \u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., seems to have been generally allowed.\nSo at least it is interpreted by R. Nathan in _Shemoth Rabba_ 19, fol.\n118. 4, 'God said, As I made Jacob a first-born (Exod. iv. 22), so also\nwill I make king Messiah a first-born (Ps. lxxxix. 28).' Hence 'the\nfirst-born' \u1f41 \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 (\u05d1\u05db\u05d5\u05e8), used absolutely, became a recognised\ntitle of Messiah. The way had been paved for this Messianic reference of\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 by its prior application to the Israelites, as the\nprerogative race, Exod. iv. 22 'Israel is my son, my first-born': comp.\nPsalm. Salom. xviii. 4 \u1f21 \u03c0\u03b1\u03b9\u03b4\u03b5\u03af\u03b1 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f10\u03c6' \u1f21\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f61\u03c2 \u03c5\u1f31\u1f78\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\n\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u1fc6, 4 Esdr. vi. 58 'nos populus tuus, quem vocasti primogenitum,\nunigenitum,' where the combination of the two titles applied in the New\nTestament to the Son is striking. Here, as elsewhere (see the note on\nGal. iii. 16 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c0\u03ad\u03c1\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.), the terms are transferred from\nthe race to the Messiah, as the representative, the embodiment, of the\nrace.\n\nAs the Person of Christ was the Divine response alike to the\nphilosophical questionings of the Alexandrian Jew and to the patriotic\nhopes of the Palestinian, these two currents of thought meet in the term\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 as applied to our Lord, who is both the true Logos and the\ntrue Messiah. For this reason, we may suppose, as well as for others,\nthe Christian Apostles preferred \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 to \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2, which (as we\nmay infer from Philo) was the favourite term with the Alexandrians,\nbecause the former alone would include the Messianic reference as well.\n\nThe main ideas then which the word involves are twofold; the one more\ndirectly connected with the Alexandrian conception of the Logos, the\nother more nearly allied to the Palestinian conception of the Messiah.\n\n(1) _Priority_ to all creation. In other words it declares the absolute\npre-existence of the Son. At first sight it might seem that Christ is\nhere regarded as one, though the earliest, of created things. This\ninterpretation however is not required by the expression itself. The\nfathers of the fourth century rightly called attention to the fact that\nthe Apostle writes not \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03ba\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, but \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2; e.g. Basil, _c.\nEunom._ iv (p. I. p. 292). Much earlier, in Clem. Alex. _Exc. Theod._ 10\n(p. 970), though without any direct reference to this passage, the\n\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u1f74\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 is contrasted with the \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03ba\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9, the\nhighest order of angelic beings; and the word \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03ba\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 occurs more\nthan once elsewhere in his writings (e.g. _Strom._ v. 14, p. 699). Nor\nagain does the genitive case necessarily imply that the \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2\nHimself belonged to the \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2, as will be shown presently. And if this\nsense is not required by the words themselves, it is directly excluded\nby the context. It is inconsistent alike with the universal agency in\ncreation which is ascribed to Him in the words following, \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7\n\u1f10\u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b8\u03b7 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1, and with the absolute pre-existence and self-existence\nwhich is claimed for Him just below, \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd. We may add\nalso that it is irreconcileable with other passages in the Apostolic\nwritings, while it contradicts the fundamental idea of the Christian\nconsciousness. More especially the description \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2\nmust be interpreted in such a way that it is not inconsistent with His\nother title of \u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03ae\u03c2, _unicus_, alone of His kind and therefore\ndistinct from created things. The two words express the same eternal\nfact; but while \u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03ae\u03c2 states it in itself, \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 places it in\nrelation to the Universe. The correct interpretation is supplied by\nJustin Martyr, _Dial._ \u00a7 100 (p. 326 D) \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\n\u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd. He does not indeed mention this passage, but it\nwas doubtless in his mind, for he elsewhere uses the very expression\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2, _Dial._ \u00a7 85 (p. 311 B), \u00a7 138 (p. 367 D);\ncomp. also \u00a7 84 (p. 310 B), where the words \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd\n\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b7\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd occur.\n\n(2) _Sovereignty_ over all creation. God's 'first-born' is the natural\nruler, the acknowledged head, of God's household. The right of\nprimogeniture appertains to Messiah over all created things. Thus in Ps.\nlxxxix. 28 after \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd \u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd the explanation is added,\n\u1f51\u03c8\u03b7\u03bb\u1f78\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2, i.e. (as the original implies)\n'above all the kings of the earth.' In its Messianic reference this\nsecondary idea of sovereignty predominated in the word \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2, so\nthat from this point of view \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 would mean\n'Sovereign Lord over all creation by virtue of primogeniture.' The\n\u1f14\u03b8\u03b7\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd \u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd of the Apostolic writer (Heb. i. 2) exactly\ncorresponds to the \u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd of the Psalmist (lxxxix. 28), and\ndoubtless was tacitly intended as a paraphrase and application of this\nMessianic passage. So again in Heb. xii. 23, \u1f10\u03ba\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u1fb3 \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03bf\u03c4\u03cc\u03ba\u03c9\u03bd, the\nmost probable explanation of the word is that which makes it equivalent\nto 'heirs of the kingdom,' all faithful Christians being _ipso facto_\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03b9, because all are kings. Nay, so completely might this idea of\ndominion by virtue of priority eclipse the primary sense of the term\n'first-born' in some of its uses, that it is given as a title to God\nHimself by R. Bechai on the Pentateuch, fol. 124. 4, 'Who is\n_primogenitus mundi_,' \u05e9\u05d4\u05d5\u05d0 \u05d1\u05db\u05d5\u05e8\u05d9 \u05e9\u05dc \u05e2\u05d5\u05dc\u05dd, i.e. \u1f45\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5, as it would be rendered in Greek. In this same work again, fol.\n74. 4, Exod. xiii. 2 is falsely interpreted so that God is represented\nas calling Himself 'primogenitus': see Sch\u00f6ttgen p. 922. For other\ninstances of secondary uses of \u05d1\u05db\u05d5\u05e8 in the Old Testament, where the idea\nof 'priority of birth' is over-shadowed by and lost in the idea of\n'pre-eminence,' see Job xviii. 13 'the first-born of death,' Is. xiv. 30\n'the first-born of the poor'.\n\n\u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 '_of all creation_,' rather than '_of every created\nthing_.' The three senses of \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 in the New Testament; are (1)\ncreation, as the act of creating, e.g. Rom. i. 20 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5:\n(2) creation, as the aggregate of created things, Mark xiii. 19 \u1f00\u03c0'\n\u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f23\u03bd \u1f14\u03ba\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u1f41 \u0398\u03b5\u03cc\u03c2 (where the parallel passage, Matt. xxiv.\n21, has \u1f00\u03c0' \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5), Rom. viii. 22 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b1 \u1f21 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03bd\u03ac\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9: (3) a\ncreation, a single created thing, a creature, e.g. Rom. viii. 39 \u03bf\u1f54\u03c4\u03b5\n\u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f11\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1, Heb. iv. 13 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c6\u03b1\u03bd\u03ae\u03c2. As \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 without\nthe definite article is sometimes used of the created world generally\n(e.g. Mark xiii. 19), and indeed belongs to the category of anarthrous\nnouns like \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2, \u03b3\u1fc6, \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2, etc. (see Winer \u00a7 xix. p. 149 sq.), it\nis best taken so here. Indeed \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2, in the sense of \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2\n\u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, would be awkward in this connexion; for \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 seems to\nrequire either a collective noun, or a plural \u03c0\u03b1\u03c3\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03bd. In ver.\n23 the case is different (see the note there). The anarthrous \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b1\n\u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 is found in Judith ix. 12 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c3\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03ce\u03c2 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5, while \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b1 \u1f21\n\u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 occurs in Judith xvi. 14, Mark xvi. 15, Rom. viii. 22, Clem. Rom.\n19, _Mart. Polyc._ 14. For \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c2, signifying '_all_,' and not '_every_,'\nwhen attached to this class of nouns, see Winer \u00a7 xviii. p. 137.\n\nThe genitive case must be interpreted so as to include the full meaning\nof \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2, as already explained. It will therefore signify: 'He\nstands in the relation of \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 to all creation,' i.e. 'He is the\nFirstborn, and, as the Firstborn, the absolute Heir and sovereign Lord,\nof all creation.' The connexion is the same as in the passage of R.\nBechai already quoted, where God is called _primogenitus mundi_. Another\nexplanation which would connect the genitive with the first part of the\ncompound alone (\u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc-), comparing Joh. i. 15, 30, \u03c0\u03c1\u1ff6\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2 \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f26\u03bd, unduly\nstrains the grammar, while it excludes the idea of 'heirship,\nsovereignty.'\n\nThe history of the patristic exegesis of this expression is not without\na painful interest. All the fathers of the second and third centuries\nwithout exception, so far as I have noticed, correctly refer it to the\nEternal Word and not to the Incarnate Christ, to the Deity and not to\nthe humanity of our Lord. So Justin _l.c._, Theophilus _l.c._, Clement\nof Alexandria _Exc. Theod._ 7, 8, 19 (pp. 967, 973), Tertullian _adv.\nPrax._ 7, _adv. Marc._ v. 19, Hippolytus _H\u00e6r._ x. 33, Origen _c. Cels._\nvi. 47, 63, 64, _in Ioann._ i. \u00a7 22 (IV. p. 21), xix. \u00a7 5 (p. 305),\nxxviii. \u00a7 14 (p. 392), Cyprian _Test._ ii. 1, Novatian _de Trin._ 16,\nand the Synod of Antioch (Routh's _Rel. Sacr._ III. pp. 290, 293). The\nArian controversy however gave a different turn to the exegesis of the\npassage. The Arians fastened upon the expression \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2\n\u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2, and drew from it the inference that the Son was a created\nbeing. The great use which they made of the text appears from the\ndocument in Hilary, _Fragm. Hist._ Op. II. p. 644. The right answer to\nthis false interpretation we have already seen. Many orthodox fathers\nhowever, not satisfied with this, transferred the expression into a new\nsphere, and maintained that \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 describes the\nIncarnate Christ. By so doing they thought to cut up the Arian argument\nby the roots. As a consequence of this interpretation, they were obliged\nto understand the \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 and the \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 in the context of the new\nspiritual creation, the \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u1f74 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 of 2 Cor. v. 17, Gal. vi. 15. Thus\ninterpreted, \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 here becomes nearly equivalent to\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 in Rom. viii. 29. The arguments alleged\nin favour of this interpretation are mainly twofold: (1) That, if\napplied to the Divine nature, \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 would contradict \u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u1f74\u03c2\nwhich elsewhere describes the nature of the Eternal Son. But those who\nmaintained, and rightly maintained, that \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 (Luke ii. 7) did not\nnecessarily imply that the Lord's mother had other sons, ought not to\nhave been led away by this fallacy. (2) That \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 in other\npassages (e.g. Rom. viii. 29, Rev. i. 5, and just below, ver. 18) is\napplied to the humanity of Christ. But elsewhere, in Heb. i. 6 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72\n\u03c0\u03ac\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c3\u03b1\u03b3\u03ac\u03b3\u1fc3 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., the term must almost necessarily\nrefer to the pre-existence of the Son; and moreover the very point of\nthe Apostle's language in the text (as will be seen presently) is the\nparallelism in the two relations of our Lord\u2014His relation to the natural\ncreation, as the Eternal Word, and His relation to the spiritual\ncreation, as the Head of the Church\u2014so that the same word (\u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2\n\u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 ver. 15, \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03ba \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03bd\u03b5\u03ba\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bd ver. 18) is studiously\nused of both. A false exegesis is sure to bring a nemesis on itself.\nLogical consistency required that this interpretation should be carried\nfarther; and Marcellus, who was never deterred by any considerations of\nprudence, took this bold step. He extended the principle to the whole\ncontext, including even \u03b5\u1f76\u03ba\u1f7c\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f00\u03bf\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6, which likewise he\ninterpreted of our Lord's humanity. In this way a most important\nChristological passage was transferred into an alien sphere; and the\nstrongest argument against Arianism melted away in the attempt to combat\nArianism on false grounds. The criticisms of Eusebius on Marcellus are\nperfectly just: _Eccl. Theol._ i. 20 (p. 96) \u03c4\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b8\u03b5\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03c5\u1f31\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6, \u03ba\u1f02\u03bd \u03bc\u1f74 \u039c\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03ad\u03bb\u03bb\u1ff3 \u03b4\u03bf\u03ba\u1fc7, \u03b5\u1f34\u03c1\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9\u00b7 \u03bf\u1f50 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f02\u03bd \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u1f78\u03c2\n\u1f02\u03bd \u03b5\u1f36\u03c0\u03b5\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u03c3\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f41 \u03b8\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03cc\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.; comp. _ib._ ii. 9 (p. 67),\niii. 6 sq. (p. 175), _c. Marcell._ i. 1 (p. 6), i. 2 (p. 12), ii. 3 (pp.\n43, 46 sq., 48). The objections to this interpretation are threefold:\n(1) It disregards the history of the terms in their connexion with the\npre-Christian speculations of Alexandrian Judaism. These however, though\ndirectly or indirectly they were present to the minds of the earlier\nfathers and kept them in the right exegetical path, might very easily\nhave escaped a writer in the fourth century. (2) It shatters the\ncontext. To suppose that such expressions as \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f10\u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b8\u03b7 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\n[\u03c4\u1f70] \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 [[\u03c4\u1f70] \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2, or \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b4\u03b9' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 ...\n\u1f14\u03ba\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, or \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd, refer to the work of the\nIncarnation, is to strain language in a way which would reduce all\ntheological exegesis to chaos; and yet this, as Marcellus truly saw, is\na strictly logical consequence of the interpretation which refers\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 to Christ's humanity. (3) It takes no account\nof the cosmogony and angelology of the false teachers against which the\nApostle's exposition here is directed (see above, pp. 101 sq., 110 sq.,\n181 sq.). This interpretation is given by St Athanasius _c. Arian._ ii.\n62 sq. (I. p. 419 sq.) and appears again in Greg. Nyss. _c. Eunom._ ii\n(II. pp. 451\u2013453, 492), _ib._ iii (II. p. 540\u2013545), _de Perf._ (III. p.\n290 sq.), Cyril Alex. _Thes._ 25, p. 236 sq., _de Trin. Dial._ iv. p.\n517 sq., vi. p. 625 sq., Anon. _Chrysost. Op._ VIII. p. 223, appx.\n(quoted as Chrysostom by Photius _Bibl._ 277). So too Cyril expresses\nhimself at the Council of Ephesus, Labb. _Conc._ III. p. 652 (ed.\nColet.). St Athanasius indeed does not confine the expression to the\ncondescension (\u03c3\u03c5\u03b3\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03ac\u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2) of the Word in the Incarnation, but\nincludes also a prior condescension in the Creation of the world (see\nBull _Def. Fid. Nic._ iii. 9. \u00a7 1, with the remarks of Newman _Select\nTreatises of S. Athanasius_ I. pp. 278, 368 sq.). This double reference\nhowever only confuses the exegesis of the passage still further, while\ntheologically it might lead to very serious difficulties. In another\nwork, _Expos. Fid._ 3 (I. p. 80), he seems to take a truer view of its\nmeaning. St Basil, who to an equally clear appreciation of doctrine\ngenerally unites a sounder exegesis than St Athanasius, while mentioning\nthe interpretation which refers the expression to Christ's human nature,\nhimself prefers explaining it of the Eternal Word; _c. Eunom._ iv (I. p.\n292). Of the Greek commentators on this passage, Chrysostom's view is\nnot clear; Severianus (Cram. _Cat._ p. 303) and Theodoret understand it\nrightly of the Eternal Word; while Theodore of Mopsuestia (Cram. _Cat._\npp. 306, 308, 309, Rab. Maur. _Op._ VI. p. 511 sq. ed. Migne) expresses\nhimself very strongly on the opposite side. Like Marcellus, he carries\nthe interpretation consistently into the whole context, explaining \u1f10\u03bd\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 to refer not to the original creation (\u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2) but to the moral\nre-creation (\u1f00\u03bd\u03ac\u03ba\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2), and referring \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03ce\u03bd to the Incarnation in the\nsame way. At a later date, when the pressure of an immediate controversy\nhas passed away, the Greek writers generally concur in the earlier and\ntruer interpretation of the expression. Thus John Damascene (_de Orthod.\nFid._ iv. 8, I. p. 258 sq.), Theophylact (_ad loc._), and [OE]cumenius\n(_ad loc._), all explain it of Christ's Divine Nature. Among Latin\nwriters, there is more diversity of interpretation. While Marius\nVictorinus (_adv. Arium_ i. 24, p. 1058, ed. Migne), Hilary of Poictiers\n(_Tract. in ii Ps._ \u00a7 28 sq. I. p. 47 sq. _de Trin._ viii. 50, II. p.\n248 sq.), and Hilary the commentator (_ad loc._), take it of the Divine\nNature, Augustine (_Expos. ad Rom._ 56, III. p. 914) and Pelagius (_ad\nloc._) understand it of the Incarnate Christ. This sketch of the history\nof the interpretation of the expression would not be complete without a\nreference to another very different explanation. Isidore of Pelusium,\n_Epist._ iii. 31 (p. 268), would strike out a new path of interpretation\naltogether (\u03b5\u1f30 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03cc\u03be\u03b1\u03b9\u03bc\u03af \u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd \u1f11\u03c1\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c4\u03ad\u03bc\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u1f41\u03b4\u03cc\u03bd),\nand for the passive \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 suggests reading the active \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03bf\u03c4\u03cc\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2,\nalluding to the use of this latter word in Homer (_Il._ xvii. 5 \u03bc\u03ae\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03bf\u03c4\u03cc\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 ... \u03bf\u1f50 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f76\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03b4\u03c5\u1fd6\u03b1 \u03c4\u03cc\u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf: comp. Plat. _The\u00e6t._ 151 C \u1f65\u03c3\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\n\u03b1\u1f31 \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03bf\u03c4\u03cc\u03ba\u03bf\u03b9). Thus St Paul is made to say that Christ \u03c0\u03c1\u1ff6\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd\n\u03c4\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9, \u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c4\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9, \u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b7\u03ba\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI. 16]\n\n\u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2\u00b7 ^{16} \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f10\u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b8\u03b7 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1, [\u03c4\u1f70]\n\n\n16. \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] We have in this sentence the justification of the title\ngiven to the Son in the preceding clause, \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2. It\nmust therefore be taken to explain the sense in which this title is\nused. Thus connected, it shows that the \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 Himself is not\nincluded in \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b1 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2; for the expression used is not \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f04\u03bb\u03bb\u03b1 or \u03c4\u1f70\n\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03c0\u03ac, but \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f10\u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b8\u03b7\u2013words which are absolute and comprehensive,\nand will admit no exception.\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7] '_in Him_,' as below ver. 17 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd. For the\npreposition comp. Acts xvii, 28 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03b6\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03b8\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u03af\n\u1f10\u03c3\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd. All the laws and purposes which guide the creation and government\nof the Universe reside in Him, the Eternal Word, as their meeting-point.\nThe Apostolic doctrine of the Logos teaches us to regard the Eternal\nWord as holding the same relation to the Universe which the Incarnate\nChrist holds to the Church. He is the source of its life, the centre of\nall its developments, the mainspring of all its motions. The use of \u1f10\u03bd\nto describe His relations to the Church abounds in St Paul (e.g. Rom.\nviii. 1, 2, xii. 5, xvi. 3, 7, 9, etc., 1 Cor. i. 30, iv. 15, 17, vii.\n39, xv. 18, 22, etc.), and more especially in the Epistles to the\nColossians and Ephesians (e.g. below ii. 7, 10). In the present passage,\nas in ver. 17, the same preposition is applied also to His relations to\nthe Universe; comp. Joh. i. 4 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b6\u03c9\u1f74 \u1f26\u03bd (more especially if we\nconnect the preceding \u1f43 \u03b3\u03ad\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03bd with it).\n\nThus it is part of the parallelism which runs through the whole passage,\nand to which the occurrence of \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 in both relations gives the\nkey. The Jud\u00e6o-Alexandrian teachers represented the Logos, which in\ntheir view was nothing more than the Divine mind energizing, as the\n\u03c4\u03cc\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2 where the eternal ideas, the \u03bd\u03bf\u03b7\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2, had their abode; Philo\n_de Mund. Op._ 4 (I. p. 4) \u1f45\u03c3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03bd\u1ff3 \u03bd\u03cc\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1, _ib._ \u00a7 5 (p. 4) \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u1f72\n\u1f41 \u1f10\u03ba \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f30\u03b4\u03b5\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f04\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u1f02\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c4\u03cc\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd \u1f23 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b8\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bf\u03bd \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c4\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c4\u03b1\n\u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03c3\u03bc\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1, _ib._ \u00a7 10 (p. 8) \u1f41 \u1f00\u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 ... \u1f31\u03b4\u03c1\u03c5\u03b8\u03b5\u1f76\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7\n\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u1ff3 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u1ff3; and see especially _de Migr. Abr._ I. p. 437) \u03bf\u1f36\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u1fa7\n\u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03b9\u03c4\u1fb6\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 ... \u1f45\u03c3\u03b1 \u1f02\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c4\u03ad\u03ba\u03b7, \u1f65\u03c3\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u1f10\u03bd \u03bf\u1f34\u03ba\u1ff3 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u1ff3 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03c2. The\nApostolic teaching is an enlargement of this conception, inasmuch as the\nLogos is no longer a philosophical abstraction but a Divine Person: see\nHippol. _H\u00e6r._ x. 33 \u1f04\u03b9\u03c4\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b3\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u039b\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f26\u03bd, \u1f10\u03bd \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c6\u03ad\u03c1\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\n\u03b8\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b3\u03b5\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03bd\u03b7\u03ba\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 ... \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03b5\u03bd\u03bd\u03bf\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2\n\u1f30\u03b4\u03ad\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f45\u03b8\u03b5\u03bd \u03ba\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03cd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b3\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u1f12\u03bd \u039b\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03bf\n\u1f00\u03c1\u03ad\u03c3\u03ba\u03c9\u03bd \u0398\u03b5\u1ff7: comp. Orig. _in Ioann._ i. \u00a7 22, IV. p. 21.\n\n\u1f10\u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b8\u03b7] The aorist is used here; the perfect below. \u1f18\u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b8\u03b7 describes\nthe definite historical act of creation; \u1f14\u03ba\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 the continuous and\npresent relations of creation to the Creator: comp. Joh. i. 3 \u03c7\u03c9\u03c1\u1f76\u03c2\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 _\u1f10\u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf_ \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u1f72 \u1f14\u03bd with _ib._ _\u1f43 \u03b5\u03b3\u03ad\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03bd_, 1 Cor. ix. 22\n\u1f10\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c3\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f00\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5\u03bd\u03ae\u03c2 with ib. \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03b3\u03ad\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03b1 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1, 2 Cor.\nxii. 17 \u03bc\u03ae \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b1 \u1f67\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03ba\u03b1 with ver. 18 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9\u03bb\u03b1 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03cc\u03bd,\n1 Joh. iv. 9 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u1fc6 _\u1f00\u03c0\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd_ \u1f41 \u0398\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1\n\u03b6\u03ae\u03c3\u03c9\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 with ver. 10 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f20\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n_\u1f00\u03c0\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u03bd_ \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f51\u03b9\u1f78\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6.\n\n\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1] '_the universe of things_,' not \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 'all things severally,'\nbut \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 'all things collectively.' With very few exceptions,\nwherever this phrase occurs elsewhere, it stands in a similar connexion;\nsee below, vv. 17, 20, iii. 11, Rom. xi. 36, 1 Cor. viii. 6, xi. 12,\nxii. 6, xv. 27, 28, 2 Cor. v. 18, Eph. i. 10, 11, 23, iv. 10, Heb. i. 3,\nii. 8, Rev. iv. 11. Compare Rom. viii. 32 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f21\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, 2\nCor. iv. 15 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b4\u03b9' \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2, with 1 Cor. iii. 22 \u1f14\u03b9\u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 ... \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd;\nand Phil. iii. 8 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b5\u03b6\u03b7\u03bc\u03b9\u03ce\u03b8\u03b7\u03bd with Matt. xvi. 26 \u1f10\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\n\u1f45\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b5\u03c1\u03b4\u03ae\u03c3\u1fc3. Thus it will appear that \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 is nearly equivalent to\n'the universe.' It stands midway between \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 and \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd. The last\nhowever is not a scriptural phrase; for, while with \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 it involves\nthe idea of connexion, it suggests also the unscriptural idea of\n_self-contained_ unity, the great world-soul of the Stoic pantheist.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI. 16]\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 [\u03c4\u1f70] \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2, \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f41\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03b1\n\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2, \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] This division of the universe is not the same\nwith the following, as if [\u03c4\u1f70] \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 were equivalent to \u03c4\u1f70\n\u1f00\u03cc\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 and [\u03c4\u1f70] \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2 to \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f41\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03ac. It should rather be compared\nwith Gen. i. 1 \u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u1f41 \u0398\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u1f78\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b3\u1fc6\u03bd, ii. 1\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03ad\u03c3\u03b8\u03b7\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u1f41 \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u1f78\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f21 \u03b3\u1fc6 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f41 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd, xiv. 19 \u1f43\u03c2\n\u1f14\u03ba\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u1f78\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b3\u1fc6\u03bd, Rev. x. 6 \u1f43\u03c2 \u1f14\u03ba\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u1f78\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff3 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b3\u1fc6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1fc3. It is a classification by\n_locality_, as the other is a classification by _essences_. Heaven and\nearth together comprehend all space; and all things whether material or\nimmaterial are conceived for the purposes of the classification as\nhaving their abode in space. Thus the sun and the moon would belong to\n\u1f41\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03ac, but they would be \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2; while the human soul would be\nclassed among \u1f00\u03cc\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 but would be regarded as \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2; see below\nver. 20.\n\nIt is difficult to say whether \u03c4\u1f70 ... \u03c4\u03b1 should be expunged or retained.\nThe elements in the decision are; (1) The facility either of omission or\nof addition in the first clause, owing to the termination of \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1: (2)\nThe much greater authority for the omission in the first clause than in\nthe second. These two combined suggest that \u03c4\u1f70 was omitted accidentally\nin the first clause, and then expunged purposely in the second for the\nsake of uniformity. On the other hand there is (3) The possibility of\ninsertion in both cases either for the sake of grammatical completeness\nor owing to the parallel passages, ver. 20, Ephes. i. 10. On the whole\nthe reasons for their omission preponderate. At all events we can hardly\nretain the one without the other.\n\n\u03c4\u1f70 \u1f40\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] 'Things material and immaterial,' or, according to the\nlanguage of philosophy, \u03c6\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03b1 and \u03bd\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03b1: comp. Plato _Ph\u00e6d._ 79 A\n\u03b8\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd \u03bf\u1f56\u03bd, \u03b5\u1f30 \u03b2\u03bf\u03cd\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9, \u1f14\u03c6\u03b7, \u03b4\u03cd\u03bf \u03b5\u1f34\u03b4\u03b7 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f44\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd, \u03c4\u1f78 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u1f41\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd, \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b4\u1f72\n\u1f00\u03b5\u03b9\u03b4\u03ad\u03c2, \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n\n\u1f00\u03cc\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1, \u03b5\u1f34\u03c4\u03b5 \u03b8\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b5\u1f34\u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03c5\u03c1\u03b9\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2, \u03b5\u1f34\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f34\u03c4\u03b5\n\n\n\u03b5\u1f34\u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] '_whether they be thrones or lordships, etc._' The\nsubdivision is no longer exhaustive. The Apostle singles out those\ncreated beings that from their superior rank had been or might be set in\nrivalry with the Son.\n\nA comparison with the parallel passage Ephes. i. 21, \u1f51\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03ac\u03bd\u03c9 \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1fc6\u03c2\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03c5\u03bd\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03c5\u03c1\u03b9\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., brings out\nthe following points:\n\n(1) No stress can be laid on the sequence of the names, as though St\nPaul were enunciating with authority some precise doctrine respecting\nthe grades of the celestial hierarchy. The names themselves are not the\nsame in the two passages. While \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03ae, \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1, \u03ba\u03c5\u03c1\u03b9\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2, are common to\nboth, \u03b8\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 is peculiar to the one and \u03b4\u03cd\u03bd\u03b1\u03bc\u03b9\u03c2 to the other. Nor again\nis there any correspondence in the sequence. Neither does \u03b4\u03cd\u03bd\u03b1\u03bc\u03b9\u03c2 take\nthe place of \u03b8\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2, nor do the three words common to both appear in the\nsame order, the sequence being \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7. \u1f10\u03be. [\u03b4\u03cd\u03bd.] \u03ba\u03c5\u03c1. in Eph. i. 21, and\n[\u03b8\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd.] \u03ba\u03c5\u03c1. \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7. \u1f10\u03be. here.\n\n(2) An expression in Eph. i. 21 shows the Apostle's _motive_ in\nintroducing these lists of names: for he there adds \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f40\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2\n\u1f40\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03b6\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50 \u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b1\u1f30\u1ff6\u03bd\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u1ff3 \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03bc\u03ad\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9, i.e.\n'of every dignity or title (whether real or imaginary) which is\nreverenced,' etc.; for this is the force of \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f40\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f40\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03b6\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd\n(see the notes on Phil. ii. 9, and Eph. _l.c._). Hence it appears that\nin this catalogue St Paul does not profess to describe objective\nrealities, but contents himself with repeating subjective opinions. He\nbrushes away all these speculations without enquiring how much or how\nlittle truth there may be in them, because they are altogether beside\nthe question. His language here shows the same spirit of impatience with\nthis elaborate angelology, as in ii. 18.\n\n(3) Some commentators have referred the terms used here solely to\nearthly potentates and dignities. There can be little doubt however that\ntheir chief and primary reference is to the orders of the celestial\nhierarchy, as conceived by these Gnostic Judaizers. This appears from\nthe context; for the words \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f00\u03cc\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 immediately precede this list of\nterms, while in the mention of \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 and in other expressions\nthe Apostle clearly contemplates the rivalry of _spiritual_ powers with\nChrist. It is also demanded by the whole design and purport of the\nletter, which is written to combat the worship paid to angels. The names\ntoo, more especially \u03b8\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9, are especially connected with the\nspeculations of Jewish angelology. But when this is granted, two\nquestions still remain. First; are evil as well as good spirits\nincluded, demons as well as angels? And next; though the primary\nreference is to spiritual powers, is it not possible that the expression\nwas intended to be comprehensive and to include earthly dignities as\nwell? The clause added in the parallel passage, \u03bf\u1f50 \u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b1\u1f30\u1ff6\u03bd\u03b9\n\u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u1ff3 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., encourages us thus to extend the Apostle's meaning; and we\nare led in the same direction by the comprehensive words which have\npreceded here, [\u03c4\u1f70] \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. Nor is there anything in the\nterms themselves which bars such an extension; for, as will be seen, the\ncombination \u1f00\u03c0\u03c7\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03b9 is applied not only to good angels but to\nbad, not only to spiritual powers but to earthly. Compare Ignat.\n_Smyrn._ 6 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5\u03c1\u03ac\u03bd\u03b9\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f21 \u03b4\u03cc\u03be\u03b1 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03b3\u03ad\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f31 \u1f04\u03c1\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f40\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03af \u03c4\u03b5\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03cc\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9.\n\nThus guided, we may paraphrase the Apostle's meaning as follows: 'You\ndispute much about the successive grades of angels; you distinguish each\ngrade by its special title; you can tell how each order was generated\nfrom the preceding; you assign to each its proper degree of worship.\nMeanwhile you have ignored or you have degraded Christ. I tell you, it\nis not so. He is first and foremost, Lord of heaven and earth, far above\nall thrones or dominations, all princedoms or powers, far above every\ndignity and every potentate\u2014whether earthly or heavenly\u2014whether angel or\ndemon or man\u2014that evokes your reverence or excites your fear.' See\nabove, pp. 103 sq.\n\nJewish and Jud\u00e6o-Christian speculations respecting the grades of the\ncelestial hierarchy took various forms. In the _Testaments of the Twelve\nPatriarchs_ (Levi 3), which as coming near to the Apostolic age supplies\na valuable illustration (see _Galatians_ p. 307 sq.), these orders are\narranged as follows: (1) \u03b8\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9, \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03b9, these two in the highest or\nseventh heaven; (2) \u03bf\u1f31 \u1f04\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03c6\u03ad\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03c1\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b3\u03ad\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03ce\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5 in the sixth heaven; (3) \u03bf\u1f31 \u1f04\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03ce\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5 in the\nfifth heaven; (4) \u03bf\u1f31 \u1f04\u03b3\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9 in the fourth heaven; (5) \u03b1\u1f31 \u03b4\u03c5\u03bd\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b5\u03bc\u03b2\u03bf\u03bb\u1ff6\u03bd in the third heaven; (6) \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03b1\u03b3\u03c9\u03b3\u1ff6\u03bd (i.e. of\nvisitations, retributions) in the second heaven: or perhaps the denizens\nof the sixth and fifth heavens, (2) and (3), should be transposed. The\nlowest heaven is not peopled by any spirits. In Origen _de Princ._ i. 5.\n3, _ib._ i. 6. 2, I. pp. 66, 70 (comp. i. 8. 1, _ib._ p. 74), we have\nfive classes, which are given in an ascending scale in this order; (1)\nangels (_sancti angeli_, \u03c4\u03ac\u03be\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03b9\u03ba\u03ae); (2) princedoms (_principatus_,\n\u03b4\u03cd\u03bd\u03b1\u03bc\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03b9\u03ba\u03ae, \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03b1\u03af); (3) powers (_potestates_, \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03b9); (4) thrones\n(_throni vel sedes_, \u03b8\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9); (5) dominations (_dominationes_,\n\u03ba\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2); though elsewhere, _in Ioann._ i. \u00a7 34, IV. p. 34, he seems\nto have a somewhat different classification in view. In Ephrem Syrus\n_Op. Syr._ I. p. 270 (where the translation of Benedetti is altogether\nfaulty and misleading) the ranks are these: (1) \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u03af, \u03b8\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9,\n\u03ba\u03c5\u03c1\u03b9\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2; (2) \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03ac\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9, \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03b1\u03af, \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03b9; (3) \u1f04\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9, \u03b4\u03c5\u03bd\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2,\n\u03c7\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03b2\u03af\u03bc, \u03c3\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u03af\u03bc; these three great divisions being represented by the\n\u03c7\u03b9\u03bb\u03af\u03b1\u03c1\u03c7\u03bf\u03b9, the \u1f10\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c1\u03c7\u03bf\u03b9, and the \u03c0\u03b5\u03bd\u03c4\u03b7\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c1\u03c7\u03bf\u03b9 respectively in\nDeut. i. 15, on which passage he is commenting. The general agreement\nbetween these will be seen at once. This grouping also seems to underlie\nthe conception of Basil of Seleucia _Orat._ 39 (p. 207), who mentions\nthem in this order; \u03b8\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9, \u03ba\u03c5\u03c1\u03b9\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2, \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03b1\u03af, \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03b9, \u03b4\u03c5\u03bd\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2,\n\u03c7\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03b2\u03af\u03bc, \u03c3\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u03af\u03bc. On the other hand the arrangement of the\npseudo-Dionysius, who so largely influenced subsequent speculations, is\nquite different and probably later (Dion. Areop. _Op._ I. p. 75, ed.\nCord.); (1) \u03b8\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9, \u03c7\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03b2\u03af\u03bc, \u03c3\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u03af\u03bc; (2) \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03b9, \u03ba\u03c5\u03c1\u03b9\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2,\n\u03b4\u03c5\u03bd\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2; (3) \u1f04\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9, \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03ac\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9, \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03b1\u03b9. But the earlier lists for the\nmost part seem to suggest as their common foundation a classification in\nwhich \u03b8\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9, \u03ba\u03c5\u03c1\u03b9\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2, belonged to the highest order, and \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03b1\u03af,\n\u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03b9 to the next below. Thus it would appear that the Apostle takes\nas an illustration the titles assigned to the two highest grades in a\nsystem of the celestial hierarchy which he found current, and which\nprobably was adopted by these Gnostic Judaizers. See also the note on\nii. 18.\n\n\u03b8\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9] In all systems alike these 'thrones' belong to the highest grade\nof angelic beings, whose place is in the immediate presence of God. The\nmeaning of the name however is doubtful: (1) It may signify the\n_occupants of thrones_ which surround the throne of God; as in the\nimagery of Rev. iv. 4 \u03ba\u03cd\u03ba\u03bb\u03bf\u03b8\u03b5\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b8\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b8\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b5\u1f34\u03ba\u03bf\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c4\u03ad\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03b5\u03c2 (comp.\nxi. 16, xx. 4). The imagery is there taken from the court of an earthly\nking: see Jer. lii. 32. This is the interpretation given by Origen _de\nPrinc._ i. 5. 3 (p. 66), i. 6. 2 (p. 70) 'judicandi vel regendi ...\nhabentes officium.' Or (2) They were so called, as _supporting or\nforming the throne of God_; just as the chariot-seat of the Almighty is\nrepresented as resting on the cherubim in Ezek. i. 26, ix. 3, x. 1 sq.,\nxi. 22, Ps. xviii. 10, 1 Chron. xxviii. 18. So apparently Clem. Alex.\n_Proph. Ecl._ 57 (p. 1003) \u03b8\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f02\u03bd \u03b5\u1f36\u03b5\u03bd ... \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03b1\u03cd\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f10\u03bd\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u0398\u03b5\u03cc\u03bd. From this same imagery of the prophet the later\nmysticism of the Kabbala derived its name 'wheels,' which it gave to one\nof its ten orders of Sephiroth. Adopting this interpretation, several\nfathers identify the 'thrones' with the cherubim: e.g. Greg. Nyss. _ad\nEunom._ i (II. p. 349 sq.), Chrysost. _de Incompr. Nat._ iii. 5 (I. p.\n467), Theodoret (_ad loc._), August. _in Psalm._ xcviii. \u00a7 3 (iv. p.\n1061). This explanation was adopted also by the pseudo-Dionysius _de\nC\u0153l. Hier._ 7 (I. p. 80), without however identifying them with the\ncherubim; and through his writings it came to be generally adopted. The\nformer interpretation however is more probable; for (1) This highly\nsymbolical nomenclature accords better with a later stage of mystic\nspeculation, like the Kabbala; and (2) It seems natural to treat \u03b8\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\nas belonging to the same category with \u03ba\u03c5\u03c1\u03b9\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2, \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03b1\u03af, \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03b9,\nwhich are concrete words borrowed from different grades of human rank\nand power. As implying _regal_ dignity, \u03b8\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 naturally stands at the\nhead of the list.\n\n\u03ba\u03c5\u03c1\u03b9\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2] '_dominations_,' as Ephes. i. 21. These appear to have been\nregarded as belonging to the first grade, and standing next in dignity\nto the \u03b8\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9. This indeed would be suggested by their name.\n\n\u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03b1\u03af, \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03b9 as Ephes. i. 21. These two words occur very frequently\ntogether. In some places they refer to human dignities, as Luke xii. 11,\nTit. iii. 1 (comp. Luke xx. 20); in others to a spiritual hierarchy. And\nhere again there are two different uses: sometimes they designate good\nangels, e.g. below ii. 10, Ephes. iii. 10; sometimes evil spirits, e.g.\nii. 15, Ephes. vi. 12: while in one passage at least (1 Cor. xv. 24)\nboth may be included. In Rom. viii. 38 we have \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03b1\u1f76 without \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03b9\n(except as a v. l.), and in 1 Pet. iii. 22 \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03b9 without \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03b1\u03af, in\nconnexion with the angelic orders.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI. 16]\n\n\u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03b9\u00b7 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b4\u03b9' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f14\u03ba\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9\u00b7\n\n\n\u03b4\u03b9' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] 'As all creation passed out from Him, so does it all\nconverge again towards Him.' For the combination of prepositions see\nRom. xi. 36 \u1f10\u03be \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b9' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1. He is not\nonly the ==\u03b1== but also the ==\u03c9==, not only the \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03ae but also the\n\u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 of creation, not only the first but also the last in the history\nof the Universe: Rev. xxii. 13. For this double relation of Christ to\nthe Universe, as both the initial and the final cause, see Heb. ii. 10\n\u03b4\u03b9' \u1f43\u03bd \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b9' \u03bf\u1f57 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1, where \u03b4\u03b9' \u1f43\u03bd is nearly equivalent\nto \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd of the text.\n\nIn the Judaic philosophy of Alexandria the preposition \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 with the\ngenitive was commonly used to describe the function of the Logos in the\ncreation and government of the world; e.g. _de Cherub._ 35 (I. p. 162)\nwhere Philo, enumerating the causes which combine in the work of\nCreation, describes God as \u1f51\u03c6' \u03bf\u1f57, matter as \u1f10\u03be \u03bf\u1f57, and the Word as \u03b4\u03b9'\n\u03bf\u1f57; comp. _de Mon._ ii. 5 (II. p. 225) \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 ... \u03b4\u03b9' \u03bf\u1f57 \u03c3\u03cd\u03bc\u03c0\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f41 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2\n\u1f10\u03b4\u03b7\u03bc\u03b9\u03bf\u03c5\u03c1\u03b3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03bf. The Christian Apostles accepted this use of \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 to\ndescribe the mediatorial function of the Word in creation; e.g. John i.\n3 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b4\u03b9' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., _ib._ ver. 10 \u1f41 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u1f10\u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf, Heb. i. 2 \u03b4\u03b9' \u03bf\u1f57 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f30\u1ff6\u03bd\u03b1\u03c2. This mediatorial\nfunction however has entirely changed its character. To the Alexandrian\nJew it was the work of a passive tool or instrument (_de Cherub._ l.c.\n\u03b4\u03b9' \u03bf\u1f57, _\u03c4\u1f78 \u1f10\u03c1\u03b3\u03b1\u03bb\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bf\u03bd_, \u1f44\u03c1\u03b3\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd ... \u03b4\u03b9' \u03bf\u1f57); but to the Christian\nApostle it represented a cooperating agent. Hence the Alexandrian Jew\nfrequently and consistently used the simple instrumental dative \u1fa7 to\ndescribe the relation of the Word to the Creator, e.g. _Quod Deus\nimmut._ 12 (I. p. 281) \u1fa7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c1\u03b3\u03ac\u03b6\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf, _Leg. All._ i. 9 (I.\np. 47) \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c6\u03b1\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03c4\u03ac\u03c4\u1ff3 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03b7\u03bb\u03b1\u03c5\u03b3\u03b5\u03c3\u03c4\u03ac\u03c4\u1ff3 \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u1ff3 \u1fe5\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f41 \u0398\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2\n\u1f00\u03bc\u03c6\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1 \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b5\u1fd6, comp. _ib._ iii. 31 (I. p. 106) \u1f41 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 ... \u1fa7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03ac\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\n\u1f40\u03c1\u03b3\u03ac\u03bd\u1ff3 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2. This mode of speaking is not found in the New\nTestament.\n\n\u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd] '_unto Him_.' As of the Father it is said elsewhere, 1 Cor.\nviii. 6 \u1f10\u03be \u1f41\u1fe6 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f21\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd, so here of the Son we read\n\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b4\u03b9' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd. All things must find their\nmeeting-point, their reconciliation, at length in Him from whom they\ntook their rise\u2014in the Word as the mediatorial agent, and through the\nWord in the Father as the primary source. The Word is the final cause as\nwell as the creative agent of the Universe. This ultimate goal of the\npresent dispensation in time is similarly stated in several passages.\nSometimes it is represented as the birth-throe and deliverance of all\ncreation through Christ; as Rom. viii. 19 sq. \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f74 \u1f21 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2\n\u1f10\u03bb\u03b5\u03c5\u03b8\u03b5\u03c1\u03c9\u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b1 \u1f21 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 ... \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03c9\u03b4\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9. Sometimes it is the\nabsolute and final subjection of universal nature to Him; as 1 Cor. xv.\n28 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u03b1\u03b3\u1fc7 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1. Sometimes it is the reconciliation of all\nthings through Him; as below, ver. 20 \u03b4\u03b9' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03be\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1.\nSometimes it is the recapitulation, the gathering up in one head, of the\nUniverse in Him; as Ephes. i. 10 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03ba\u03b5\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03b9\u03ce\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7\n\u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7. The image involved in this last passage best illustrates the\nparticular expression in the text \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd ... \u1f14\u03ba\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9; but all alike\nenunciate the same truth in different terms. The Eternal Word is the\ngoal of the Universe, as He was the starting-point. It must end in\nunity, as it proceeded from unity: and the centre of this unity is\nChrist. This expression has no parallel, and could have none, in the\nAlexandrian phraseology and doctrine.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI. 17]\n\n^{17}\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7\n\n\n17. \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] '_and HE IS before all things_': comp. Joh. viii.\n58 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f76\u03bd \u1f08\u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u1f70\u03bc \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03ad\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, _\u1f10\u03b3\u1f7c \u03b5\u1f30\u03bc\u1f76_ (and perhaps also viii. 24, 28,\nxiii. 19). The imperfect \u1f26\u03bd might have sufficed (comp. Joh. i. 1), but\nthe present \u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd declares that this pre-existence is absolute\nexistence. The ==\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u03f2 \u03b5\u03f2\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd== here corresponds exactly to the ==\u03b5\u03b3\u03c9\n\u03b5\u03b9\u03bc\u03b9== in St John, and this again is illustrated by Exod. iii. 14. The\nverb therefore is not an enclitic, but should be accentuated \u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd. See\nBasil _adv. Eunom._ iv (I. p. 294) \u1f41 \u1f00\u03c0\u03cc\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c0\u03ce\u03bd, \u03a0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b4\u03b9' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f14\u03ba\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, \u1f64\u03c6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c0\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, \u039a\u1f70\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 _\u1f10\u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf_ \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\n\u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd, \u03b5\u1f30\u03c0\u1f7c\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72, \u039a\u03b1\u03af \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 _\u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9_ \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd, \u1f14\u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03be\u03b5 \u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u1f00\u03b5\u1f76\n\u1f44\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd. The \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2 is as necessary for the\ncompleteness of the meaning, as the \u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd. The one emphasizes the\n_personality_, as the other declares the _pre-existence_. For this\nemphatic \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2 see again ver. 18; comp. Ephes. ii. 14, iv. 10, 11, 1\nJoh. ii. 2, and esp. Rev. xix. 15 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03bc\u03b1\u03bd\u03b5\u1fd6 ... \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6. The other interpretation which explains \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd of superiority\nin rank, and not of priority in time, is untenable for several reasons.\n(1) This would most naturally be expressed otherwise in Biblical\nlanguage, as \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd (e.g. Rom. ix. 5, Eph. iv. 6), or \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\n(Eph. i. 22), or \u1f51\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03ac\u03bd\u03c9 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd (Eph. i. 21, iv. 10). (2) The key to the\ninterpretation is given by the analogous words in the context, esp.\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2, vv. 15, 18. (3) Nothing short of this declaration of\nabsolute pre-existence would be adequate to introduce the statement\nwhich follows, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd.\n\n\u03c0\u03c1\u1f78 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd] '_before all things_.' In the Latin it was translated 'ante\nomnes,' i.e. thronos, dominationes, etc.; and so Tertullian _adv. Marc._\nv. 19 'Quomodo enim ante omnes, si non ante omnia? Quomodo ante omnia,\nsi non primogenitus conditionis?' But the neuter \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1, standing in\nthe context before and after, requires the neuter here also.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI. 18]\n\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd. ^{18} \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f21 \u03ba\u03b5\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u1f74 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2,\n\n\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd] '_hold together, cohere_.' He is the principle of cohesion\nin the universe. He impresses upon creation that unity and solidarity\nwhich makes it a cosmos instead of a chaos. Thus (to take one instance)\nthe action of gravitation, which keeps in their places things fixed and\nregulates the motions of things moving, is an expression of His mind.\nSimilarly in Heb. i. 3 Christ the Logos is described as \u03c6\u03ad\u03c1\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\n(_sustaining_ the universe) \u03c4\u1ff7 \u1fe5\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03c5\u03bd\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6. Here again the\nChristian Apostles accept the language of Alexandrian Judaism, which\ndescribes the Logos as the \u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u1f78\u03c2 of the Universe; e.g. Philo _de\nProfug._ 20 (I. p. 562) \u1f45 \u03c4\u03b5 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f44\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 _\u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f62\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd\n\u1f01\u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd_ ... \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 _\u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b5\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9_ \u03c4\u1f70 \u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b7 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03c6\u03af\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03c9\u03bb\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f70 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03bb\u03cd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, _de Plant._ 2 (I. p. 331) _\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03ac\u03b3\u03c9\u03bd_\n\u03c4\u1f70 \u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b7 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03c6\u03af\u03b3\u03b3\u03c9\u03bd\u00b7 _\u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u1f78\u03bd_ \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f04\u03c1\u03c1\u03b7\u03ba\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f41\n\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03bd\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1, _Quis rer. <DW37>. her._ 38 (I. p. 507) \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u1ff3\n\u03c3\u03c6\u03af\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u1ff3\u00b7 \u03ba\u03cc\u03bb\u03bb\u03b1 \u03b3\u03ac\u03c1 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 _\u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u1f78\u03c2_ \u03bf\u1f57\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2\n\u03bf\u1f50\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f10\u03ba\u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03c9\u03ba\u03ce\u03c2: and for the word itself see _Quis rer. <DW37>. her._\n12 (I. p. 481) _\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03ba\u03b5_ \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b6\u03c9\u03c0\u03c5\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03af\u1fb3 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6, Clem. Rom.\n27 \u1f10\u03bd \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u1ff3 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b5\u03b3\u03b1\u03bb\u03c9\u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b7\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1. In the same\nconnexion \u03c3\u03cd\u03b3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 is used, Ecclus. xliii. 26. The indices to Plato and\nAristotle amply illustrate this use of \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd. This mode of\nexpression was common also with the Stoics.\n\n18. 'And not only does He hold this position of absolute priority and\nsovereignty over the Universe\u2014the natural creation. He stands also in\nthe same relation to the Church\u2014the new spiritual creation. He is its\nhead, and it is His body. This is His prerogative, because He is the\nsource and the beginning of its life, being the First-born from the\ndead. Thus in all things\u2014in the spiritual order as in the natural\u2014in the\nChurch as in the World\u2014He is found to have the pre-eminence.'\n\nThe elevating influence of this teaching on the choicest spirits of the\nsubapostolic age will be seen from a noble passage in the noblest of\nearly Christian writings, _Epist. ad Diogn._ \u00a7 7 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f05\u03b3\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd ...\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd\u03af\u03b4\u03c1\u03c5\u03c3\u03b5 ... \u03bf\u1f50, \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03ac\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u1f04\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03ac\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03b5\u03bd, \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c0\u03b7\u03c1\u03ad\u03c4\u03b7\u03bd\n\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ad\u03bc\u03c8\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f22 \u1f04\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u1f22 \u1f04\u03c1\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f24 \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b1 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03b5\u03c0\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 \u1f24 \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b1\n\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c5\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u03bf\u03ba\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2, \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c4\u03b5\u03c7\u03bd\u03af\u03c4\u03b7\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03b4\u03b7\u03bc\u03b9\u03bf\u03c5\u03c1\u03b3\u1f78\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f45\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd ... \u1fa7 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c4\u03ad\u03c4\u03b1\u03ba\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b9\u03ce\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u03ad\u03c4\u03b1\u03ba\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u1f76 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2, \u03b3\u1fc6 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03b3\u1fc7 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\nSee the whole context.\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2] '_and He_,' repeated from the preceding verse, to emphasize\nthe identity of the Person who unites in Himself these prerogatives: see\non ver. 17, and comp. ver. 18 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2, ver. 19 \u03b4\u03b9' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6. The Creator of\nthe World is also the Head of the Church. There is no blind ignorance,\nno imperfect sympathy, no latent conflict, in the relation of the\ndemiurgic power to the Gospel dispensation, as the heretical teachers\nwere disposed consciously or unconsciously to assume (see above, p. 101\nsq., p. 110 sq.), but an absolute unity of origin.\n\n\u1f21 \u03ba\u03b5\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u03ae] '_the head_,' the inspiring, ruling, guiding, combining,\nsustaining power, the mainspring of its activity, the centre of its\nunity, and the seat of its life. In his earlier epistles the relations\nof the Church to Christ are described under the same image (1 Cor. xii.\n12\u201327; comp. vi. 15, x. 17, Rom. xii. 4 sq.); but the Apostle there\ntakes as his starting-point the various functions of the members, and\nnot, as in these later epistles, the originating and controlling power\nof the Head. Comp. i. 24, ii. 19, Eph. i. 22 sq., ii. 16, iv. 4, 12, 15\nsq., v. 23, 30.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI. 18]\n\n\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03ba\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2\u00b7 \u1f45\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03ae, \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2\n\n\n\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03ba\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2] in apposition with \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2: comp. i. 24 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, \u1f45 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f21 \u1f10\u03ba\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03b1, Eph. i. 23.\n\n\u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03ae] '_the origin_, _the beginning_.' The term is here applied to the\nIncarnate Christ in relation to the Church, because it is applicable to\nthe Eternal Word in relation to the Universe, Rev. iii. 14 \u1f21 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1f74 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2\n\u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6. The parallelism of the two relations is kept in view\nthroughout. The word \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03ae here involves two ideas: (1) Priority in time;\nChrist was the first-fruits of the dead, \u1f00\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03c7\u03ae (1 Cor. xv. 20, 23): (2)\nOriginating power; Christ was also the source of life, Acts iii. 14 \u1f41\n\u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03b7\u03b3\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b6\u03c9\u1fc6\u03c2; comp. Acts v. 31, Heb. ii. 10. He is not merely the\n_principium principiatum_ but the _principium principians_ (see Trench\n_Epistles to the Seven Churches_ p. 183 sq.). He rose first from the\ndead, that others might rise through Him.\n\nThe word \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03ae, like \u03c0\u03c1\u1ff6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 (see the note on Phil. i. 5), being absolute\nin itself, does not require the definite article. Indeed the article is\nmost commonly omitted where \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03ae occurs as a predicate, as will appear\nfrom several examples to be gathered from the extracts in Plut. _Mor._\np. 875 sq., Stob. _Ecl. Phys._ i. 10. 12 sq. Comp. also Aristot. _Met._\nx. 7, p. 1064, \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b8\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bf\u03bd ... \u1f02\u03bd \u03b5\u1f34\u03b7 \u03c0\u03c1\u03ce\u03c4\u03b7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03c5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c9\u03c4\u03ac\u03c4\u03b7 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03ae, Onatas in\nStob. _Ecl. Phys._ i. 2. 39 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 [\u03b8\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2] \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1f70 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03c1\u1fb6\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd, Tatian.\n_ad Gr\u00e6c._ 4 \u0398\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 ... \u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b1\u03c1\u03c7\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f62\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c0\u03ac\u03c1\u03c7\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f45\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03ae,\nClem. Alex. _Strom._ iv. 25, p. 638, \u1f41 \u0398\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b1\u03c1\u03c7\u03bf\u03c2, \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1f74 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f45\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03ae\u03c2, \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b7\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2, Method. _de Creat._ 3 (p. 100, ed. Jahn)\n\u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c1\u03b5\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1f74\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b7\u03b3\u1f74\u03bd ... \u1f21\u03b3\u1fc7 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u0398\u03b5\u03cc\u03bd, pseudo-Dionys. _de <DW37>.\nNom._ v. \u00a7 6 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1f74 \u03b3\u03ac\u03c1 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f44\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd, \u00a7 10 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03bf\u1f56\u03bd \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1f74 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03c5\u03c4\u1f74\n\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f44\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u1f41 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03ce\u03bd.\n\nThe text is read with the definite article, \u1f21 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03ae, in one or two\nexcellent authorities at least; but the obvious motive which would lead\na scribe to aim at greater distinctness renders the reading suspicious.\n\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2] Comp. Rev. i. 5 \u1f41 \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03bd\u03b5\u03ba\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f41 \u1f04\u03c1\u03c7\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd\n\u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03ad\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2. His resurrection from the dead is His title to the\nheadship of the Church; for 'the power of His resurrection' (Phil. iii.\n10) is the life of the Church. Such passages as Gen. xlix. 3, Deut. xxi.\n17, where the \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 is called \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1f74 \u03c4\u03ad\u03ba\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd and superior privileges\nare claimed for him as such, must necessarily be only very faint and\npartial illustrations of the connexion between \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1f74 and \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 here,\nwhere the subject-matter and the whole context point to a fuller meaning\nof the words. The words \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03ba \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03bd\u03b5\u03ba\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bd here correspond to\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 ver. 15, so that the parallelism between\nChrist's relations to the Universe and to the Church is thus emphasized.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI. 19]\n\n\u1f10\u03ba \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03bd\u03b5\u03ba\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bd, \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03c9\u03bd\u00b7 ^{19} \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7\n\u03b5\u1f50\u03b4\u03cc\u03ba\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9,\n\n\n\u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] As He _is_ first with respect to the Universe, so it\nwas ordained that He should _become_ first with respect to the Church as\nwell. The _\u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9_ here answers in a manner to the _\u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd_ of\nver. 17. Thus \u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd and \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 are contrasted as the absolute being and\nthe historical manifestation. The relation between Christ's headship of\nthe Universe by virtue of His Eternal Godhead and His headship of the\nChurch by virtue of His Incarnation and Passion and Resurrection is\nsomewhat similarly represented in Phil. ii. 6 sq. \u1f10\u03bd \u03bc\u03bf\u03c1\u03c6\u1fc7 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f55\u03b1\u03c1\u03c7\u03c9\u03bd\n... \u03bc\u03bf\u03c1\u03c6\u1f74\u03bd \u03b4\u03bf\u03cd\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5 \u03bb\u03b1\u03b2\u03ce\u03bd ... \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c0\u03ae\u03ba\u03bf\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bc\u03ad\u03c7\u03c1\u03b9 \u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 ...\n_\u03b4\u03b9\u1f78_ \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f41 \u0398\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03cd\u03c8\u03c9\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd] '_in all things_' not in the Universe only but in the Church\nalso. \u039a\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b3\u03ac\u03c1, writes Theodoret, \u1f61\u03c2 \u0398\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2, \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u1f76 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u1f7a\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03af \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f61\u03c2 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2, \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03ba \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03bd\u03b5\u03ba\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2\n\u03ba\u03b5\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u03ae. Thus \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd is neuter and not masculine, as it is sometimes\ntaken. Either construction is grammatically correct, but the context\npoints to the former interpretation here; and this is the common use of\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, e.g. iii. 11, Eph. i. 23, Phil. iv. 12. For the neuter compare\nPlut. _Mor._ p. 9 \u03c3\u03c0\u03b5\u03cd\u03b4\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u1fd6\u03b4\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c4\u03ac\u03c7\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03b5\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9. On\nthe other hand in [Demosth.] _Amat._ p. 1416 \u03ba\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u1f05\u03c0\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9 the context shows that \u1f05\u03c0\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9 is masculine.\n\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2] '_He Himself_'; see the note on \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 above.\n\n19, 20. 'And this absolute supremacy is His, because it was the Father's\ngood pleasure that in Him all the plenitude of Deity should have its\nhome; because He willed through Him to reconcile the Universe once more\nto Himself. It was God's purpose to effect peace and harmony through the\nblood of Christ's cross, and so to restore all things, whatsoever and\nwheresoever they be, whether on the earth or in the heavens.'\n\n19. \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] The eternal indwelling of the Godhead explains\nthe headship of the Church, not less than the headship of the Universe.\nThe resurrection of Christ, whereby He became the \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1f74 of the Church,\nwas the result of and the testimony to His deity; Rom. i. 4 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u1f41\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c5\u1f31\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 ... \u1f10\u03be \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ac\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u03bd\u03b5\u03ba\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bd.\n\n\u03b5\u1f50\u03b4\u03cc\u03ba\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd] sc. \u1f41 \u0398\u03b5\u03cc\u03c2, the nominative being understood; see Winer \u00a7\nlviii. p. 655 sq., \u00a7 lxiv. p. 735 sq.; comp. James i. 12 (the right\nreading), iv. 6. Here the omission is the more easy, because \u03b5\u1f50\u03b4\u03bf\u03ba\u03af\u03b1,\n\u03b5\u1f50\u03b4\u03bf\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd etc. (like \u03b8\u03ad\u03bb\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1) are used absolutely of God's good purpose,\ne.g. Luke ii. 14 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u1ff6\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f50\u03b4\u03bf\u03ba\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 (or \u03b5\u1f50\u03b4\u03bf\u03ba\u03af\u03b1), Phil. ii. 13 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1\n\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f50\u03b4\u03bf\u03ba\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, Clem. Rom. \u00a7 40 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03b3\u03b9\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03b1 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b5\u1f50\u03b4\u03bf\u03ba\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9; see the\nnote in Clem. Rom. \u00a7 2. For the expression generally comp. 2 Macc. xiv.\n35 \u03c3\u03cd, \u039a\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03b5, \u03b5\u1f50\u03b4\u03cc\u03ba\u03b7\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 \u03bd\u03b1\u1f78\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03c3\u03ba\u03b7\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03ad\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9. The\nalternative is to consider \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 personified as the nominative;\nbut it is difficult to conceive St Paul so speaking, more especially as\nwith \u03b5\u1f50\u03b4\u03cc\u03ba\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd personification would suggest personality. The \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\nindeed is personified in Clem. Alex. _Exc. Theod._ 43 (p. 979)\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03ad\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, and in Iren. i. 2. 6 \u03b2\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u1fc7 \u03bc\u03b9\u1fb7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03b3\u03bd\u03ce\u03bc\u1fc3 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b1\u1f30\u03ce\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., i. 12. 4 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\n\u03b7\u1f50\u03b4\u03cc\u03ba\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd [\u03b4\u03b9' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b4\u03bf\u03be\u03ac\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1]; but the phraseology of the\nValentinians, to which these passages refer, cannot be taken as an\nindication of St Paul's usage, since their view of the \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 was\nwholly different. A third interpretation is found in Tertullian _adv.\nMarc._ v. 19, who translates \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 _in semetipso_, taking \u1f41 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 as\nthe nominative to \u03b5\u1f50\u03b4\u03cc\u03ba\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd: and this construction is followed by some\nmodern critics. But, though grammatically possible, it confuses the\ntheology of the passage hopelessly.\n\n\u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1] '_the plenitude_,' a recognised technical term in theology,\ndenoting the totality of the Divine powers and attributes; comp. ii. 9.\nSee the detached note on \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1. On the relation of this statement to\nthe speculations of the false teachers at Coloss\u00e6 see the introduction,\npp. 102, 112. Another interpretation, which explains \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 as\nreferring to the Church (comp. Ephes. i. 22), though adopted by several\nfathers, is unsuited to the context and has nothing to recommend it.\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9] '_should have its permanent abode_.' The word occurs again\nin the same connexion, ii. 9. The false teachers probably, like their\nlater counterparts, maintained only a partial and transient connexion of\nthe \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 with the Lord. Hence St Paul declares in these two passages\nthat it is not a \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03af\u03b1 but a \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03af\u03b1. The two words \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd,\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, occur in the LXX as the common renderings of \u05d9\u05e9\u05d1 and \u05e0\u05d5\u05e8\nrespectively, and are distinguished as the _permanent_ and the\n_transitory_; e.g. Gen. xxxvi. 44 (xxxvii. 1) \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1ff7\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f38\u03b1\u03ba\u1f7c\u03b2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03b3\u1fc7\n\u03bf\u1f57 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u1ff4\u03ba\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u1f41 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b3\u1fc7 \u03a7\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03ac\u03bd (comp. Hos. x. 5), Philo _Sacr.\nAb. et Ca._ 10 (I. p. 170 M) \u1f41 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03b3\u03ba\u03c5\u03ba\u03bb\u03af\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03ad\u03c7\u03c9\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\n\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u1fb3, \u03bf\u1f50 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6, Greg. Naz. _Orat._ xiv. (I. p. 271 ed. Caillau) \u03c4\u03af\u03c2\n\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03ba\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9 \u03c3\u03ba\u03b7\u03bd\u1f74\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f04\u03bd\u03c9 \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd; \u03c4\u03af\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03af\u03b1\u03bd; comp.\n_Orat._ vii. (I. p. 200). See also the notes on Ephes. ii. 19, and on\nClem. Rom. \u00a7 1.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI. 20]\n\n^{20}\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b9' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03be\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2\n\n\n20. The false teachers aimed at effecting a partial reconciliation\nbetween God and man through the interposition of angelic mediators. The\nApostle speaks of an absolute and complete reconciliation of universal\nnature to God, effected through the mediation of the Incarnate Word.\nTheir mediators were ineffective, because they were neither human nor\ndivine. The true mediator must be both human and divine. It was\nnecessary that in Him all the plenitude of the Godhead should dwell. It\nwas necessary also that He should be born into the world and should\nsuffer as a man.\n\n\u03b4\u03b9' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6] i.e. \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, as appears from the preceding \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7, and\nthe following \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b1\u1f35\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03c5\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, [\u03b4\u03b9' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6]. This\nexpression \u03b4\u03b9' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 has been already applied to the Preincarnate Word\nin relation to the Universe (ver. 16); it is now used of the Incarnate\nWord in relation to the Church.\n\n\u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03be\u03b1\u03b9] sc. \u03b5\u1f50\u03b4\u03cc\u03ba\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u1f41 \u0398\u03b5\u03cc\u03c2. The personal pronoun \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd, instead\nof the reflexive \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd, is no real obstacle to this way of connecting\nthe words (see the next note). The alternative would be to take \u03c4\u1f78\n\u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 as governing \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03be\u03b1\u03b9, but this mode of expression is harsh\nand improbable.\n\nThe same double compound \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03c3\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd is used below, ver. 21 and\nEphes. ii. 16, in place of the usual \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03c3\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd. It may be compared\nwith \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03ac\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2, Acts iii. 21. Tertullian, arguing against the\ndualism of Marcion who maintained an antagonism between the demiurge and\nthe Christ, lays stress on the compound, _adv. Marc._ v. 19\n'_conciliari_ extraneo possent, _reconciliari_ vero non alii quam suo.'\nThe word \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03c3\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd corresponds to \u1f00\u03c0\u03b7\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03c4\u03c1\u03b9\u03c9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 here and in\nEphes. ii. 16, implying a _restitution_ to a state from which they had\nfallen, or which was potentially theirs, or for which they were\ndestined. Similarly St Augustine on Gal. iv. 5 remarks that the word\nused of the \u03c5\u1f31\u03bf\u03b8\u03b5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1 is not _accipere_ (\u03bb\u03b1\u03bc\u03b2\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd) but _recipere_\n(\u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03bc\u03b2\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd). See the note there.\n\n\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1] The whole universe of things, material as well as spiritual,\nshall be restored to harmony with God. How far this restoration of\nuniversal nature maybe subjective, as involved in the changed\nperceptions of man thus brought into harmony with God, and how far it\nmay have an objective and independent existence, it were vain to\nspeculate.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI. 21]\n\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd, \u03b5\u1f30\u03c1\u03b7\u03bd\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f05\u03b9\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03c5\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, \u03b4\u03b9' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f14\u03b9\u03c4\u03b5\n\u03c4\u1f70 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f14\u03b9\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2, ^{21}\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u1f72 \u1f44\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2\n\u1f00\u03c0\u03ae\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03c4\u03c1\u03b9\u03c9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 >\n\n\n\u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd] '_to Him_,' i.e. 'to Himself.' The reconciliation is always\nrepresented as made to the Father. The reconciler is sometimes the\nFather Himself (2 Cor. v. 18, 19 \u1f10\u03ba \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03be\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2\n\u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 ... \u0398\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03c3\u03c3\u03c9\u03bd \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u1ff7),\nsometimes the Son (Ephes. ii. 16: comp. Rom. v. 10, 11). Excellent\nreasons are given (Bleek _Hebr._ II. p. 69, A. Buttmann _Gramm._ p. 97)\nfor supposing that the reflexive pronoun \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 etc. is never contracted\ninto \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 etc. in the Greek Testament. But at the same time it is quite\nclear that the oblique cases of the personal pronoun \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2 are there\nused very widely, and in cases where we should commonly find the\nreflexive pronoun in classical authors: e.g. Ephes. i. 4, 5 \u1f10\u03be\u03b5\u03bb\u03ad\u03be\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\n\u1f21\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 ... \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f21\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f01\u03b3\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03bc\u03ce\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03bd\u03ce\u03c0\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd _\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6_ ...\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f51\u03b9\u03bf\u03b8\u03b5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 _\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd_. See\nalso the instances given in A. Buttmann p. 98. It would seem indeed that\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 etc. may be used for \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 etc. in almost every connexion, except\nwhere it is the direct object of the verb.\n\n\u03b5\u1f30\u03c1\u03b7\u03bd\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2] The word occurs in the LXX, Prov. x. 10, and in Hermes in\nStob. _Ecl. Phys._ xli. 45. The substantive \u03b5\u1f30\u03c1\u03b7\u03bd\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03cc\u03c2 (see Matt. v. 9)\nis found several times in classical writers.\n\n\u03b4\u03b9' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6] The external authority for and against these words is nearly\nevenly balanced: but there would obviously be a tendency to reject them\nas superfluous. They are a resumption of the previous \u03b4\u03b9' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6. For\nother examples see ii. 13 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2, Rom. viii. 23 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1f76, Gal. ii. 15, 16\n\u1f21\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2, Ephes. i. 13 \u1f10\u03bd \u1fa7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03af, iii. 1, 14 \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03bd, where words are\nsimilarly repeated for the sake of emphasis or distinctness. In 2 Cor.\nxii. 7 there is a repetition of \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03bc\u1f74 \u1f51\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1\u03af\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9, where again it is\nomitted in several excellent authorities.\n\n21\u201323. 'And ye too\u2014ye Gentiles\u2014are included in the terms of this peace.\nIn times past ye had estranged yourselves from God. Your hearts were\nhostile to Him, while ye lived on in your evil deeds. But now, in\nChrist's body, in Christ's flesh which died on the Cross for your\natonement, ye are reconciled to Him again. He will present you a living\nsacrifice, an acceptable offering unto Himself, free from blemish and\nfree even from censure, that ye may stand the piercing glance of Him\nwhose scrutiny no defect can escape. But this can only be, if ye remain\ntrue to your old allegiance, if ye hold fast (as I trust ye are holding\nfast) by the teaching of Epaphras, if the edifice of your faith is built\non solid foundations and not reared carelessly on the sands, if ye\nsuffer not yourselves to be shifted or shaken but rest firmly on the\nhope which ye have found in the Gospel\u2014the one universal unchangeable\nGospel, which was proclaimed to every creature under heaven, of which I\nPaul, unworthy as I am, was called to be a minister.'\n\n21. \u1f00\u03c0\u03b7\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03c4\u03c1\u03b9\u03c9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2] '_estranged_,' not \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03c4\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2, '_strangers_';\ncomp. Ephes. ii. 12, iv. 18. See the note on \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03be\u03b1\u03b9 ver. 20.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI. 22]\n\n\u1f10\u03c7\u03b8\u03c1\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03af\u1fb3 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f14\u03c1\u03b3\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bd\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2, \u03bd\u03c5\u03bd\u1f76 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b7\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5\n^{22}\u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70\n\n                    21 \u03bd\u03c5\u03bd\u1f76 \u03b4\u1f72 _\u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03ae\u03bb\u03bb\u03b1\u03be\u03b5\u03bd._\n\n\n\u1f10\u03c7\u03b8\u03c1\u03bf\u03cd\u03c2] '_hostile_ to God,' as the consequence of \u1f00\u03c0\u03b7\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03c4\u03c1\u03b9\u03c9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2, not\n'_hateful_ to God,' as it is taken by some. The active rather than the\npassive sense of \u1f10\u03c7\u03b8\u03c1\u03bf\u03cd\u03c2 is required by the context, which (as commonly\nin the New Testament) speaks of the sinner as reconciled to God, not of\nGod as reconciled to the sinner: comp. Rom. v. 10 \u03b5\u1f30 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f10\u03c7\u03b8\u03c1\u03bf\u1f76 \u1f44\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b7\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03b7\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u0398\u03b5\u1ff7 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. It is the mind of man, not the mind of God,\nwhich must undergo a change, that a reunion may be effected.\n\n\u03c4\u1fc7 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9|\u1fb3] '_in your mind, intent_.' For the dative of the part\naffected compare Ephes. iv. 18 \u1f10\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03c4\u03c9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03af\u1fb3, Luke i. 51\n\u1f51\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b7\u03c6\u03ac\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03af\u1fb3 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd. So \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u1fb3, \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2, Matt. v. 8, xi.\n29, Acts vii. 51, 2 Cor. ix. 7, 1 Thess. ii. 17; \u03c6\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03af\u03bd, 1 Cor. xiv. 20.\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f14\u03c1\u03b3\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] '_in_ the midst of, _in_ the performance of _your\nwicked works_'; the same use of the preposition as e.g. ii. 23, iv. 2.\n\n\u03bd\u03c5\u03bd\u03af] Here, as frequently, \u03bd\u1fe6\u03bd (\u03bd\u03c5\u03bd\u03af) admits an aorist, because it\ndenotes not 'at the present _moment_,' but 'in the present\n_dispensation_, the present _order of things_': comp. e.g. ver. 26, Rom.\nv. 11, vii. 6, xi. 30, 31, xvi. 26, Ephes. ii. 13, iii. 5, 2 Tim. i. 10,\n1 Pet. i. 12, ii. 10, 25. In all these passages there is a direct\ncontrast between the old dispensation and the new, more especially as\naffecting the relation of the Gentiles to God. The aorist is found also\nin Classical writers, where a similar contrast is involved; e.g. Plato\n_Symp._ 193 A \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, \u1f65\u03c3\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03c9, \u1f13\u03bd \u1f26\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u00b7 \u03bd\u03c5\u03bd\u1f76 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03af\u03b1\u03bd\n\u03b4\u03b9\u1ff3\u03ba\u03af\u03c3\u03b8\u03b7\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6, Is\u00e6us _de Cleon. her._ 20 \u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd ... \u03bd\u03c5\u03bd\u1f76 \u03b4\u1f72\n... \u1f10\u03b2\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03ae\u03b8\u03b7.\n\n\u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b7\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5] The reasons for preferring this reading, though the\ndirect authority for it is so slight, are given in the detached note on\nthe various readings. But, whether \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b7\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5 or \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03ae\u03bb\u03bb\u03b1\u03be\u03b5\u03bd be\npreferred, the construction requires explanation. If \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03ae\u03bb\u03bb\u03b1\u03be\u03b5\u03bd be\nadopted, it is perhaps best to treat \u03b4\u1f72 as introducing the apodosis, the\nforegoing participial clause serving as the protasis: '_And you, though\nye were once estranged ... yet now hath he reconciled_,' in which case\nthe first \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 will be governed directly by \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03ae\u03bb\u03bb\u03b1\u03be\u03b5\u03bd; see Winer\n_Gramm._ \u00a7 liii. p. 553. If this construction be adopted, \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9\n\u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 will describe the result of \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03ae\u03bb\u03bb\u03b1\u03be\u03b5\u03bd, 'so as _to present\nyou_'; but \u1f41 \u0398\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 will still be the nominative to \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03ae\u03bb\u03bb\u03b1\u03be\u03b5\u03bd as in 2\nCor. v. 19. If on the other hand \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b7\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5 be taken, it is best to\nregard \u03bd\u03c5\u03bd\u1f76 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b7\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5 as a direct indicative clause substituted\nfor the more regular participial form \u03bd\u03c5\u03bd\u1f76 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03bb\u03b1\u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2 for the\nsake of greater emphasis: see the note on ver. 26 \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b5\u03ba\u03c1\u03c5\u03bc\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd ...\n\u03bd\u1fe6\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f10\u03c6\u03b1\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03ce\u03b8\u03b7. In this case \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 will be governed directly by\n\u03b5\u1f50\u03b4\u03cc\u03ba\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd, and will itself govern \u1f51\u03bc\u03b1^\u03c2 \u03c0\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f44\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., the second\n\u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 being a repetition of the first; '_And you who once were estranged\n... but now ye have been reconciled ... to present you_, I say, _holy\nand without blemish_.' For the repetition of \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2, which was needed to\ndisentangle the construction, see the note on \u03b4\u03b9' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 ver. 20.\n\n22. \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6] It has been supposed that St Paul added these\nwords, which are evidently emphatic, with a polemical aim either; (1) To\ncombat docetism. Of this form of error however there is no direct\nevidence till a somewhat later date: or (2) To combat a false\nspiritualism which took offence at the doctrine of an atoning sacrifice.\nBut for this purpose they would not have been adequate, because not\nexplicit enough. It seems simpler therefore to suppose that they were\nadded for the sake of greater clearness, to distinguish the natural body\nof Christ intended here from the mystical body mentioned just above ver.\n18. Similarly in Ephes. ii. 14 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 is used rather than \u1f10\u03bd\n\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, because \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1 occurs in the context (ver. 16) of\nChrist's mystical body. The same expression, \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2, which\nwe have here, occurs also below, ii. 11, but with a different emphasis\nand meaning. There the emphasis is on \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1, the contrast lying\nbetween the whole _body_ and a single _member_ (see the note); whereas\nhere \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u1f78\u03c2 is the emphatic part of the expression, the antithesis\nbeing between the _material_ and the _spiritual_. Compare also Ecclus.\nxxiii. 16 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c0\u03cc\u03c1\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6.\n\nMarcion omitted \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u1f78\u03c2 as inconsistent with his views, and explained\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9 to mean the Church. Hence the comment of Tertullian _adv.\nMarc._ v. 19, 'utique in eo corpore, in quo mori potuit per carnem,\nmortuus est, non per ecclesiam sed propter ecclesiam, corpus commutando\npro corpore, carnale pro spiritali.'\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI. 23]\n\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 [\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6], \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f01\u03b3\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03bc\u03ce\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b5\u03b3\u03ba\u03bb\u03ae\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03bd\u03ce\u03c0\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, ^{23} \u03b5\u1f34 \u03b3\u03b5 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u03b5\u03b8\u03b5\u03bc\u03b5\u03bb\u03b9\u03c9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u1f11\u03b4\u03c1\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bc\u1f74 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03ba\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\n\n\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9] If the construction which I have adopted be correct, this is\nsaid of God Himself, as in 2 Cor. iv. 14 \u1f41 \u1f10\u03b3\u03ad\u03b9\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u039a\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u1f21\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03c3\u1f7a\u03bd \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03b3\u03b5\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 _\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9_ \u03c3\u1f7a\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd. This construction\nseems in all respects preferable to connecting \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 directly with\n\u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b7\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5 and interpreting the words, _'Ye have been reconciled so\nthat ye should present yourselves_ (\u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2) ... _before Him_.' This latter\ninterpretation leaves the \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u1f72 \u1f44\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. without a\ngovernment, and it gives to the second \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 a reflexive sense (as if\n\u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 or \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c2), which is at least harsh.\n\n\u1f00\u03bc\u03ce\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2] _'without blemish_' rather than '_without blame_,' in the\nlanguage of the New Testament; see the noteon Ephes. i. 4. It is a\nsacrificial word, like \u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2, \u1f40\u03bb\u03cc\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2, etc. The verb \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03ac\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 also\nis used of presenting a sacrifice in Rom. xii. 1 _\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9_ \u03c4\u1f70\n\u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b8\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03b6\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u1f01\u03b3\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., Lev. xvi. 7 (v. l.): comp. Luke\nii. 22.\n\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03b5\u03b3\u03ba\u03bb\u03ae\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2] an advance upon \u1f00\u03bc\u03ce\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2, 'in whom not only no blemish is\nfound, but against whom no charge is brought': comp. 1 Tim. vi. 14\n\u1f04\u03c3\u03c0\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd, \u1f00\u03bd\u03b5\u03c0\u03af\u03bb\u03b7\u03bc\u03c0\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd. The word \u1f00\u03bd\u03ad\u03b3\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 occurs again in 1 Cor. i. 8,\n1 Tim. iii. 10, Tit. i. 6, 7.\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03bd\u03ce\u03c0\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6] '_before Him_,' i.e. 'Himself,' as in the parallel\npassage, Ephes. i. 4; if the construction here adopted be correct. For\nthis use of the personal pronoun instead of the reflexive see the note\non \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd, ver. 20. But does \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03bd\u03ce\u03c0\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 refer to God's future\njudgment or His present approbation? The latter seems more probable,\nboth because the expression certainly has this meaning in the parallel\npassage, Ephes. i. 4, and because \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03bd\u03ce\u03c0\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd, \u1f10\u03bd\u03ce\u03c0\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd, \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9, etc.,\nare commonly so used; e.g. Rom. xiv. 22, 1 Cor. i. 29, 2 Cor. ii. 17,\niv. 2, vii. 12, xii. 19, etc. On the other hand, where the future\njudgment is intended, a different expression is found, 2 Cor. v. 10\n\u1f14\u03bc\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b2\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6. Thus God is here regarded, not as the\njudge who tries the accused, but as the \u03bc\u03c9\u03bc\u03bf\u03c3\u03ba\u03cc\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2 who examines the\nvictims (Polyc. _Phil._ 4, see the note on Ephes. i. 4). Compare Heb.\niv. 12, 13 for a closely allied metaphor. The passage in Jude 24, \u03c3\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03bd\u03ce\u03c0\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03cc\u03be\u03b7\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f00\u03bc\u03ce\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03bb\u03bb\u03b9\u03ac\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9, though perhaps\nreferring to final approval, is too different in expression to influence\nthe interpretation of Paul's language here.\n\n23. \u03b5\u1f34 \u03b3\u03b5] On the force of these particles see Gal. iii. 4. They express\na pure hypothesis in themselves, but the indicative mood following\nconverts the hypothesis into a hope.\n\n\u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5] '_ye abide by, ye adhere to_,' with a dative; the common\nconstruction of \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd in St Paul: see the note on Phil. i. 24. In\nthis connexion \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9 is perhaps '_your_ faith,' rather than '_the_\nfaith.'\n\n\u03c4\u03b5\u03b8\u03b5\u03bc\u03b5\u03bb\u03b9\u03c9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] '_built on a foundation and so firm_'; not like\nthe house of the foolish man in the parable who built \u03c7\u03c9\u03c1\u1f76\u03c2 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bc\u03b5\u03bb\u03af\u03bf\u03c5,\nLuke vi. 49. For \u03c4\u03b5\u03b8\u03b5\u03bc\u03b5\u03bb\u03b9\u03c9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 comp. Ephes. iii. 17. The consequence of\n\u03c4\u03b5\u03b8\u03b5\u03bc\u03b5\u03bb\u03b9\u03c9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 is \u1f11\u03b4\u03c1\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03b9: Clem. Rom. 33 _\u1f25\u03b4\u03c1\u03b1\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd_ \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f00\u03c3\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u1fc6\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f30\u03b4\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b2\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 _\u03b8\u03b5\u03bc\u03ad\u03bb\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd_. The words \u1f11\u03b4\u03c1\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2, \u1f11\u03b4\u03c1\u03ac\u03b6\u03c9, etc.,\nare not uncommonly applied to buildings, e.g. \u1f11\u03b4\u03c1\u03b1\u03af\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 1 Tim. iii. 15.\nComp. Ign. _Ephes._ 10 \u1f51\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f11\u03b4\u03c1\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9.\n\n\u03bc\u1f74 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03ba\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9] '_not constantly shifting_,' a present tense; the\nsame idea as \u1f11\u03b4\u03c1\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03b9 expressed from the negative side, as in 1 Cor. xv.\n58 \u1f11\u03b4\u03c1\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b3\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5, \u1f00\u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03ba\u03af\u03bd\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9, Polyc. _Phil._ 10 'firmi in fide et\nimmutabiles.'\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI. 23]\n\n\u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bb\u03c0\u03af\u03b4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b5\u1f50\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u03bf\u1f57 \u1f20\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5, \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03b7\u03c1\u03c5\u03c7\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u1fc3\n\u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u03cc\u03bd, \u03bf\u1f57 \u1f10\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd \u1f10\u03b3\u1f7c \u03a0\u03b1\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u03ac\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2.\n\n\n\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bb\u03c0\u03af\u03b4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] '_the hope held out by the Gospel_,' \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b5\u1f50\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\nbeing a subjective genitive, as in Ephes. i. 18 \u1f21 \u1f10\u03bb\u03c0\u1f76\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03bb\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2\n(comp. iv. 4).\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u1fc3 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9] '_among every creature_,' in fulfilment of the Lord's\nlast command, Mark xvi. 15 \u03ba\u03b7\u03c1\u03cd\u03be\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b5\u03c5\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03ad\u03bb\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u1fc3 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9. Here\nhowever the definitive article, though found in the received text, \u1f10\u03bd\n\u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u1fc3 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9, must be omitted in accordance with the best authorities.\nFor the meanings of \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b1 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2, \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b1 \u1f21 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2, see the note on ver. 15.\nThe expression \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b1 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 must not be limited to man. The statement is\ngiven in the broadest form, all creation animate and inanimate being\nincluded, as in Rev. v. 13 _\u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1_ ... \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2\n_\u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1_ \u1f25\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b1 \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. For the hyperbole \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u1fc3 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\ncompare 1 Thess. i. 8 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u1f76 \u03c4\u03cc\u03c0\u1ff3. To demand statistical exactness in\nsuch a context would be to require what is never required in similar\ncases. The motive of the Apostle here is at once to emphasize the\nuniversality of the genuine Gospel, which has been offered without\nreserve to all alike, and to appeal to its publicity, as the credential\nand guarantee of its truth: see the notes on ver. 6 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u1ff3\nand on ver. 28 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd.\n\n\u03bf\u1f56 \u1f10\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] Why does St Paul introduce this mention of himself\nso abruptly? His motive can hardly be the assertion of his Apostolic\nauthority, for it does not appear that this was questioned; otherwise he\nwould have declared his commission in stronger terms. We can only answer\nthat impressed with the dignity of his office, as involving the offer of\ngrace to the Gentiles, he cannot refrain from magnifying it. At the same\ntime this mention enables him to link himself in bonds of closer\nsympathy with the Colossians, and he passes on at once to his relations\nwith them: comp. Ephes. iii. 2\u20139, 1 Tim. i. 11 sq., in which latter\npassage the introduction of his own name is equally abrupt.\n\n\u1f10\u03b3\u1f7c \u03a0\u03b1\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2] i.e. 'weak and unworthy as I am': comp. Ephes. iii. 8 \u1f10\u03bc\u03bf\u1f76\n\u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f10\u03bb\u03b1\u03c7\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c4\u03ad\u03bc\u03c9 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u1f01\u03b3\u03af\u03c9\u03bd.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI. 24]\n\n^{24}\u039d\u1fe6\u03bd \u03c7\u03b1\u03af\u03c1\u03c9 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03b8\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\n\n24\u201327. '_Now_ when I see the full extent of God's mercy, _now_ when I\nponder over His mighty work of reconciliation, I cannot choose but\nrejoice in my sufferings. Yes, I Paul the persecutor, I Paul the feeble\nand sinful, am permitted to supplement\u2014I do not shrink from the word\u2014to\nsupplement the afflictions of Christ. Despite all that He underwent, He\nthe Master has left something still for me the servant to undergo. And\nso my flesh is privileged to suffer for His body\u2014His spiritual body, the\nChurch. I was appointed a minister of the Church, a steward in God's\nhousehold, for this very purpose, that I might administer my office on\nyour behalf, might dispense to you Gentiles the stores which His\nbountiful grace has provided. Thus I was charged to preach without\nreserve the whole Gospel of God, to proclaim the great mystery which had\nremained a secret through all the ages and all the generations from the\nbeginning, but which now in these last times was revealed to His holy\npeople. For such was His good pleasure. God willed to make known to\nthem, in all its inexhaustible wealth thus displayed through the call of\nthe Gentiles, the glorious revelation of this mystery\u2014Christ not the\nSaviour of the Jews only, but Christ dwelling in _you_, Christ become to\n_you_ the hope of glory.'\n\n24. \u039d\u1fe6\u03bd \u03c7\u03b1\u03af\u03c1\u03c9] A sudden outburst of thanksgiving, that he, who was less\nthan the least, who was not worthy to be called an Apostle, should be\nallowed to share and even to supplement the sufferings of Christ. The\nrelative \u1f45\u03c2, which is found in some authorities, is doubtless the\nrepetition of the final syllable of \u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2; but its insertion would be\nassisted by the anxiety of scribes to supply a connecting link between\nthe sentences. The genuine reading is more characteristic of St Paul.\nThe abruptness, which dispenses with a connecting particle, has a\nparallel in Tim. i. 12 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03c9 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f10\u03bd\u03b4\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03bc\u03ce\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03af \u03bc\u03b5 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.,\nwhere also the common text inserts a link of connexion, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03c9\n\u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. Compare also 2 Cor. vii. 9 \u03bd\u1fe6\u03bd \u03c7\u03b1\u03af\u03c1\u03c9, \u03bf\u1f50\u03c7 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., where again\nthere is no connecting particle.\n\nThe thought underlying \u03bd\u1fe6\u03bd seems to be this: 'If ever I have been\ndisposed to repine at my lot, if ever I have felt my cross almost too\nheavy to bear, yet _now_\u2013now, when I contemplate the lavish wealth of\nGod's mercy\u2014now when I see all the glory of bearing a part in this\nmagnificent work\u2014my sorrow is turned to joy.'\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI. 24]\n\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u1ff6 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f51\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b8\u03bb\u03af\u03c8\u03b5\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\n\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u1ff6] '_I fill up on my part_', '_I supplement_.' The single\ncompound \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd occurs several times (e.g. 1 Cor. xiv. 16, xvi. 17,\nGal. vi. 2); another double compound \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd twice (2 Cor. ix.\n12, xi. 9; comp. Wisd. xix. 4, v.l.); but \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd only here in the\nLXX or New Testament. For this verb compare Demosth. _de Symm._ p. 182\n\u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c3\u03c5\u03bc\u03bc\u03bf\u03c1\u03b9\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f11\u03ba\u03ac\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03cd\u03c9 \u03c0\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5 \u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03b4\u03ce\u03b4\u03b5\u03ba\u03b1\n\u1f04\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2, \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2 _\u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b5\u1f50\u03c0\u03bf\u03c1\u03ce\u03c4\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd_ \u1f00\u03b5\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2\n\u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 (where \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 should be taken as the subject to\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2), Dion Cass. xliv. 48 \u1f35\u03bd' \u1f45\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd ... \u1f10\u03bd\u03ad\u03b4\u03b5\u03b9, \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf \u1f10\u03ba \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2\n_\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u1f70 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f04\u03bb\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd_ \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03c9\u03b8\u1fc7, Clem. Alex. _Strom._\nvii. 12 p. 878 \u03bf\u1f57\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 ... \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd _\u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u03b9\u03ba\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03bd_ \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fd6,\nApollon. _Constr. Or._ i. 3 (p. 13 sq.) \u1f21 \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd\u03c5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1 \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b8\u03ad\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f40\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c4\u03ac\u03be\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1fe5\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, Ptol. _Math. Comp._\nvi. 9 (I. p. 435 ed. Halma) \u1f10\u03c0\u03b5\u1f76 \u03b4' \u1f21 _\u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u1f10\u03bb\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd_ \u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd\n\u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03ac\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f21 _\u03b4\u1f72 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b5\u03bf\u03bd\u03ac\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd_ \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03ac \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b1 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03c4\u03c5\u03c7\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u1f23\u03bd \u1f34\u03c3\u03c9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f41\n\u1f3d\u03c0\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03c7\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd \u03c0\u03c9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03ae\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. The substantive\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 occurs in Diog. Laert. x. 48. So too \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03b8\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd Xen.\n_Hell._ ii. 4. 11, 12 \u03be\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03ac\u03be\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf, \u1f65\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5 _\u1f11\u03bc\u03c0\u03bb\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f41\u03b4\u03cc\u03bd_ ... \u03bf\u1f31\n\u03b4\u1f72 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c6\u03c5\u03bb\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03ad\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd ... \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f41\u03b4\u03cc\u03bd. Compare also \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03b9\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\nThemist. _Paraphr. Arist._ 43 B \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u1f72\u03bd \u03ba\u03c9\u03bb\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd _\u1f04\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03b8\u03af \u03c0\u03bf\u03c5\n\u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b2\u03ac\u03bb\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd_ \u1f00\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f55\u03b4\u03c9\u03c1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03b9\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c3\u03cd\u03bc\u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f44\u03b3\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd, and\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03af\u03c3\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 Joseph. _Ant._ xviii. 9. 7. The meaning of \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u1f76 in this\ncompound will be plain from the passages quoted. It signifies that the\nsupply comes _from an opposite quarter_ to the deficiency. This idea is\nmore or less definitely expressed in the context of all the passages, in\nthe words which are spaced. The force of \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd in St Paul is\noften explained as denoting simply that the supply _corresponds in\nextent_ to the deficiency. This interpretation practically deprives \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03af\nof any meaning, for \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd alone would denote as much. If indeed the\nsupply had been the subject of the verb, and the sentence had run \u03c4\u1f70\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03b8\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03ac \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fd6 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f51\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., this idea might perhaps\nbe reached without sacrificing the sense of \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03af; but in such a passage\nas this, where one personal agent is mentioned in connexion with the\nsupply and another in connexion with the deficiency, the one forming the\nsubject and the other being involved in the object of the verb, the \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u1f76\ncan only describe the correspondence of these personal agents. So\ninterpreted, it is eminently expressive here. The point of the Apostle's\nboast is that Christ the sinless Master should have _left_ something for\nPaul the unworthy servant to suffer. The right idea has been seized and\nis well expressed by Photius _Amphil._ 121 (I. p. 709 Migne) \u03bf\u1f50 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1\n\u1f01\u03c0\u03bb\u1ff6\u03c2 \u03c6\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f08\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u1ff6, \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb' \u1f08\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u1ff6, \u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c4\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd, \u1f08\u03bd\u03c4\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03c0\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03b1\u03c3\u03ba\u03ac\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f41 \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03b3\u1f7c \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bc\u03b1\u03b8\u03b7\u03c4\u1f74\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. Similar in meaning, though\nnot identical, is the expression in 2 Cor. i. 5, where the sufferings of\nChrist are said to 'overflow' (\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c3\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd) upon the Apostle. The\ntheological difficulty which this plain and natural interpretation of\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd is supposed to involve will be considered in the note on\n\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b8\u03bb\u03af\u03c8\u03b5\u03c9\u03bd.\n\n\u03c4\u1f70 \u1f51\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1] '_the things lacking_.' This same word \u1f51\u03c3\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1\n'deficiency' occurs with \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd 1 Cor. xvi. 17, Phil. ii. 30, and\nwith \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd 2 Cor. ix. 12, xi. 9. Its direct opposite is\n\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03af\u03c3\u03c3\u03b5\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1 'abundance, superfluity,' 2 Cor. viii. 13, 14; comp. Luke\nxxi. 4. Another interpretation, which makes \u1f51\u03c3\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1 an antithesis to\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1, explaining it as 'the later' as opposed to the earlier\n'sufferings of Christ,' is neither supported by the usage of the word\nnor consistent with \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u1ff6.\n\n\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b8\u03bb\u03af\u03c8\u03b5\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6] '_of the afflictions of Christ_,' i.e. which\nChrist endured. This seems to be the only natural interpretation of the\nwords. Others have explained them as meaning 'the afflictions imposed by\nChrist,' or 'the afflictions endured for Christ's sake,' or 'the\nafflictions which resemble those of Christ.' All such interpretations\nput a more or less forced meaning on the genitive. All alike ignore the\nmeaning of \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u1f76 in \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u1ff6 which points to a _distinction_ of\npersons suffering. Others again suppose the words to describe St Paul's\nown afflictions regarded as Christ's, because Christ suffers in His\nsuffering Church; e.g. Augustine _in Psalm._ cxlii. \u00a7 3 (IV. p. 1590)\n'Patitur, inquit, adhuc Christus pressuram, non in carne sua in qua\nascendit in c\u00e6lum, sed in carne mea qu\u00e6 adhuc laborat in terra,' quoting\nGal. ii. 20. This last is a very favourite explanation, and has much to\nrecommend it. It cannot be charged with wresting the meaning of \u03b1\u1f31\n\u03b8\u03bb\u03af\u03c8\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6. Moreover it harmonizes with St Paul's mode of\nspeaking elsewhere. But, like the others, it is open to the fatal\nobjection that it empties the first preposition in \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u1ff6 of any\nforce. The central idea in this interpretation is the _identification_\nof the suffering Apostle with the suffering Christ, whereas \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u1ff6\nemphasizes the _distinction_ between the two. It is therefore\ninconsistent with this context, however important may be the truth which\nit expresses.\n\nThe theological difficulty, which these and similar explanations are\nintended to remove, is imaginary and not real. There is a sense in which\nit is quite legitimate to speak of Christ's afflictions as _incomplete_,\na sense in which they may be, and indeed must be, _supplemented_. For\nthe sufferings of Christ may be considered from two different points of\nview. They are either _satisfactori\u00e6_ or _\u00e6dificatori\u00e6_. They have their\nsacrificial efficacy, and they have their ministerial utility. (1) From\nthe former point of view the Passion of Christ was the one full perfect\nand sufficient sacrifice, oblation, and satisfaction for the sins of the\nwhole world. In this sense there could be no \u1f51\u03c3\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1 of Christ's\nsufferings; for, Christ's sufferings being different _in kind_ from\nthose of His servants, the two are incommensurable. But in this sense\nthe Apostle would surely have used some other expression such as \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03c5\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6 (i. 20, Eph. ii. 16 etc.), or \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 (i. 22, Rom. v. 10,\nHeb. ii. 14, etc.), but hardly \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b8\u03bb\u03af\u03c8\u03b5\u03c9\u03bd. Indeed \u03b8\u03bb\u03af\u03c8\u03b9\u03c2, 'affliction,'\nis not elsewhere applied in the New Testament in any sense to Christ's\nsufferings, and certainly would not suggest a sacrificial act. (2) From\nthe latter point of view it is a simple matter of fact that the\nafflictions of every saint and martyr do supplement the afflictions of\nChrist. The Church is built up by repeated acts of self-denial in\nsuccessive individuals and successive generations. They continue the\nwork which Christ began. They bear their part in the sufferings of\nChrist (2 Cor. i. 7 \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd\u03bf\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03b8\u03b7\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd, Phil. iii. 10 \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03b8\u03b7\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd); but St Paul would have been the last to say that they bear\ntheir part in the atoning sacrifice of Christ. This being so, St Paul\ndoes not mean to say that his own sufferings filled up all the\n\u1f51\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1, but only that they _went towards_ filling them up. The\npresent tense \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u1ff6 denotes an inchoate, and not a complete act.\nThese \u1f51\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 will never be fully supplemented, until the struggle of\nthe Church with sin and unbelief is brought to a close.\n\nThus the idea of expiation or satisfaction is wholly absent from this\npassage; and with it is removed the twofold temptation which has beset\ntheologians of opposite schools. (1) On the one hand Protestant\ncommentators, rightly feeling that any interpretation which infringed\nthe completeness of the work wrought by Christ's death must be wrong,\nbecause it would make St Paul contradict himself on a cardinal point of\nhis teaching, have been tempted to wrest the sense of the words. They\nhave emptied \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u1ff6 of its proper force; or they have assigned a\nfalse meaning to \u1f51\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1; or they have attached a non-natural sense\nto the genitive \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6. (2) On the other hand Romanist\ncommentators, while protesting (as they had a right to do) against these\nmethods of interpretation, have fallen into the opposite error. They\nhave found in this passage an assertion of the merits of the saints, and\n(as a necessary consequence) of the doctrine of indulgences. They have\nnot observed that, if the idea of vicarious satisfaction comes into the\npassage at all, the satisfaction of St Paul is represented here as the\nsame in kind with the satisfaction of Christ, however different it may\nbe in degree; and thus they have truly exposed themselves to the\nreproach which Estius indignantly repudiates on their behalf, 'quasi\nChristus non satis passus sit ad redemptionem nostram, ideoque\nsupplemento martyrum opus habeat; quod impium est sentire, quodque\nCatholicos dicere non minus impie calumniantur h\u00e6retici.' It is no part\nof a commentator here to enquire generally whether the Roman doctrine of\nthe satisfaction of the saints can in any way be reconciled with St\nPaul's doctrine of the satisfaction of Christ. It is sufficient to say\nthat, so far as regards this particular passage, the Roman doctrine can\nonly be imported into it at the cost of a contradiction to the Pauline\ndoctrine. It is only fair to add however that Estius himself says, 'qu\u00e6\nquidem doctrina, etsi Catholica et Apostolica sit, atque aliunde satis\nprobetur, ex hoc tamen Apostoli loco nobis non videtur admodum solide\nstatui posse.' But Roman Catholic commentators generally find this\nmeaning in the text, as may be seen from the notes of \u00e0 Lapide.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI. 25]\n\n \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03af \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, \u1f45 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f21 \u1f10\u03ba\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u00b7 ^{25}\u1f27\u03c2\n\u1f10\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd \u1f10\u03b3\u1f7c \u03b4\u03b9\u03ac\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd\n\n\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 An antithesis of the Apostle's own flesh and Christ's\nbody. This antithetical form of expression obliges St Paul to explain\nwhat he means by the body of Christ, \u1f45 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f21 \u1f10\u03ba\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03b1; comp. ver. 18.\nContrast the explanation in ver. 22 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, and\nsee the note there.\n\n25. \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] '_stewardship in the house of God_.' The word\n\u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03b1 seems to have two senses: (1) 'The actual administration of a\nhousehold'; (2) 'The office of the administrator.' For the former\nmeaning see the note on Ephes. i. 10; for the latter sense, which it has\nhere, compare 1 Cor. ix. 17 \u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9, Luke xvi. 2\u20134,\nIsaiah xxii. 19, 21. So the Apostles and ministers of the Church are\ncalled \u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03b9, 1 Cor. iv. 1, 2, Tit. i. 7: comp. 1 Pet. iv. 10.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI.26]\n\n\u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b4\u03bf\u03b8\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03ac\u03bd \u03bc\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2, \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6, ^{26} \u03c4\u1f78 \u03bc\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b5\u03ba\u03c1\u03c5\u03bc\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd\n\n\n\u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2] '_to youward_,' i.e. 'for the benefit of you, the Gentiles';\n\u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 being connected with \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b4\u03bf\u03b8\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03ac\u03bd \u03bc\u03bf\u03b9, as in Ephes. iii. 2 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd\n\u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03bf\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u03bc\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2; comp. Rom.\nxv. 16 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b4\u03bf\u03b8\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03ac\u03bd \u03bc\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03af \u03bc\u03b5\n\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c1\u03b3\u1f78\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6 _\u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f14\u03b8\u03bd\u03b7_.\n\n\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9] '_to fulfil_,' i.e. 'to preach fully,' 'to give its complete\ndevelopment to'; as Rom. xv. 19 \u1f65\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5 \u03bc\u03b5 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u1f38\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b1\u03bb\u1f74\u03bc \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03cd\u03ba\u03bb\u1ff3 \u03bc\u03ad\u03c7\u03c1\u03b9\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f38\u03bb\u03bb\u03c5\u03c1\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03c9\u03ba\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b5\u1f50\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03af\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6. Thus 'the word of\nGod' here is 'the Gospel,' as in most places (1 Cor. xiv. 36, 2 Cor. ii.\n17, iv. 2, etc.), though not always (e.g. Rom. ix. 6), in St Paul, as\nalso in the Acts. The other interpretation, 'to accomplish the promise\nof God,' though suggested by such passages as 1 Kings ii. 27 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03c9\u03b8\u1fc6\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9\n\u03c4\u1f78 \u1fe5\u1fc6\u03bc\u03b1 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5, 2 Chron. xxxvi. 21 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03c9\u03b8\u1fc6\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5, etc., is\nalien to the context here.\n\n26. \u03c4\u1f78 \u03bc\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd] This is not the only term borrowed from the ancient\nmysteries, which St Paul employs to describe the teaching of the Gospel.\nThe word \u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd just below, ver. 28, seems to be an extension of the\nsame metaphor. In Phil. iv. 12 again we have the verb \u03bc\u03b5\u03bc\u03cd\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9: and in\nEphes. i. 14 \u03c3\u03c6\u03c1\u03b1\u03b3\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 is perhaps an image derived from the same\nsource. So too the Ephesians are addressed as \u03a0\u03b1\u03cd\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bc\u03bc\u03cd\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 in Ign.\n_Ephes._ 12. The Christian teacher is thus regarded as a \u1f31\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 (see\nEpict. iii. 21. 13 sq.) who initiates his disciples into the rites.\nThere is this difference however; that, whereas the heathen mysteries\nwere strictly confined to a narrow circle, the Christian mysteries are\nfreely communicated to all. There is therefore an intentional paradox in\nthe employment of the image by St Paul. See the notes on \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd\n\u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd below.\n\nThus the idea of _secresy_ or _reserve_ disappears when \u03bc\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd is\nadopted into the Christian vocabulary by St Paul: and the word signifies\nsimply 'a truth which was once hidden but now is revealed,' 'a truth\nwhich without special revelation would have been unknown.' Of the nature\nof the truth itself the word says nothing. It may be transcendental,\nincomprehensible, mystical, mysterious, in the modern sense of the term\n(1 Cor. xv. 51, Eph. v. 32): but this idea is quite accidental, and must\nbe gathered from the special circumstances of the case, for it cannot be\ninferred from the word itself. Hence \u03bc\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd is almost universally\nfound in connexion with words denoting revelation or publication; e.g.\n\u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03cd\u03c0\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03ac\u03bb\u03c5\u03c8\u03b9\u03c2, Rom. xvi. 25, Ephes. iii. 3, 5, 2 Thess. ii.\n7; \u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c1\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd Rom. xvi. 26, Ephes. i. 9, iii. 3, 10, vi. 19; \u03c6\u03b1\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\nCol. iv. 3, Rom. xvi. 26, 1 Tim. iii. 16; \u03bb\u03b1\u03bb\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd iv. 3, 1 Cor. ii. 7,\nxiv. 2; \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, 1 Cor. xv. 51.\n\nBut the one special 'mystery' which absorbs St Paul's thoughts in the\nEpistles to the Colossians and Ephesians is the free admission of the\nGentiles on equal terms to the privileges of the covenant. For this he\nis a prisoner; this he is bound to proclaim fearlessly (iv. 3, Ephes.\nvi. 19); this, though hidden from all time, was communicated to him by a\nspecial revelation (Ephes. iii. 3 sq.); in this had God most signally\ndisplayed the lavish wealth of His goodness (ver. 27, ii. 2 sq., Ephes.\ni. 6 sq., iii. 8 sq.). In one passage only throughout these two epistles\nis \u03bc\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd applied to anything else, Ephes. v. 32. The same idea of\nthe \u03bc\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd appears very prominently also in the thanksgiving (added\napparently later than the rest of the letter) at the end of the Epistle\nto the Romans, xvi. 25 sq. \u03bc\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 ... \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c0\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\n\u03c4\u1f70 \u1f14\u03b8\u03bd\u03b7 \u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI. 27]\n\n\u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b1\u1f34\u03c9\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u1ff6\u03bd, \u03bd\u1fe6\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f10\u03c6\u03b1\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03ce\u03b8\u03b7 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f01\u03b3\u03af\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6,\n^{27}\u03bf\u1f37\u03c2 \u1f20\u03b8\u03ad\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u1f41 \u0398\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c1\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u03af \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03cc\u03be\u03b7\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bc\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\n\u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2\n\n\n\u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b1\u1f34\u03c9\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] The preposition is doubtless temporal here, being\nopposed to \u03bd\u1fe6\u03bd, as in the parallel passage, Ephes. iii. 9: comp. Rom.\nxvi. 25 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03ac\u03bb\u03c5\u03c8\u03b9\u03bd \u03bc\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03af\u03c9\u03c5 _\u03c7\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f30\u03c9\u03bd\u03af\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2_ \u03c3\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03b3\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5, 1\nCor. ii. 7 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03bc\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b5\u03ba\u03c1\u03c5\u03bc\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd \u1f23\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03ce\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u1f41\n\u0398\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 _\u03c0\u03c1\u1f78 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b1\u1f30\u03ce\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd_. So too \u1f00\u03c0' \u03b1\u1f30\u1ff6\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2, Acts iii. 21, xv. 18, Ps.\nxcii. 3, etc.; \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b2\u03bf\u03bb\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5, Matt. xiii. 35, xxv. 34, etc.\n\n\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u1ff6\u03bd] An \u03b1\u1f32\u03c9\u03bd is made up of many \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u03b1\u03af; comp. Ephes. iii. 21 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2\n\u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u1f70\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b1\u1f30\u1ff6\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b1\u1f30\u03ce\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd, Is. li. 9 \u1f61\u03c2 \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u1f70 \u03b1\u1f30\u1ff6\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 (where\nthe Hebrew has the plural 'generations'). Hence the order here. Not only\nwas this mystery unknown in remote periods of antiquity, but even in\nrecent generations. It came upon the world as a sudden surprise. The\nmoment of its revelation was the moment of its fulfilment.\n\n27. \u1f20\u03b8\u03ad\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd] '_willed_,' '_was pleased_.' It was God's grace: it was no\nmerit of their own. See the note on i. 1 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bb\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6.\n\n\u03bd\u1fe6\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] An indicative clause is substituted for a participial,\nwhich would otherwise have been more natural, for the sake of\nemphasizing the statement; comp. ver. 22 \u03bd\u03c5\u03bd\u1f76 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b7\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5, and see\nWiner \u00a7 lxiii. p. 717.\n\n\u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2] The '_wealth_ of God,' as manifested in His dispensation of\ngrace, is a prominent idea in these epistles; comp. ii. 2, Ephes. i. 7,\n18, iii. 8, 16; comp. Rom. xi. 33. See above p. 43 sq. St Paul uses the\nneuter and the masculine forms indifferently in these epistles (e.g. \u03c4\u1f78\n\u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 Ephes. i. 7, \u1f41 \u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 Ephes. i. 18), as in his other letters\n(e.g. \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 2 Cor. viii. 2, \u1f41 \u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 Rom. ix. 23). In most\npassages however there are various readings. On the neuter forms \u03c4\u1f78\n\u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b6\u1fc6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2, etc., see Winer \u00a7 ix. p. 76.\n\n\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03cc\u03be\u03b7\u03c2] i.e. 'of the glorious manifestation.' This word in\nHellenistic Greek is frequently used of a bright light; e.g. Luke ii. 9\n\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03af\u03b5\u03bb\u03b1\u03bc\u03c8\u03b5\u03bd, Acts xxii. 11 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c6\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2, 1 Cor. xv. 41 \u1f21\u03bb\u03af\u03bf\u03c5, \u03c3\u03b5\u03bb\u03ae\u03bd\u03b7\u03c2, etc.\n2 Cor. iii. 7 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03ce\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5 [\u039c\u03c9\u03c5\u03c3\u03ad\u03c9\u03c2]. Hence it is applied generally to a\ndivine _manifestation_, even where there is no physical accompaniment of\nlight; and more especially to the revelation of God in Christ (e.g. Joh.\ni. 14, 2 Cor. iv. 4, etc.). The expression \u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03cc\u03be\u03b7\u03c2 occurs\nagain, Rom. ix. 23, Ephes. i. 18, iii. 16. See above ver. 11 with the\nnote.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI. 28]\n\n\u1f14\u03b8\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, \u1f45 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd, \u1f21 \u1f10\u03bb\u03c0\u1f76\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03cc\u03be\u03b7\u03c2\u00b7 ^{28} \u1f43\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03ad\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd \u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03b8\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd\n\n                             ^{27} \u1f45\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd.\n\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f14\u03b8\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd] i.e. 'as exhibited among the Gentiles.' It was just\nhere that this 'mystery,' this dispensation of grace, achieved its\ngreatest triumphs and displayed its transcendant glory; \u03c6\u03b1\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f11\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2, writes Chrysostom, \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u1ff7 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ad\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f21 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u1f74 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03bc\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b4\u03cc\u03be\u03b1. Here too was its _wealth_; for it overflowed all\nbarriers of caste or race. Judaism was 'beggarly' (Gal. iv. 9) in\ncomparison, since its treasures sufficed only for a few.\n\n\u1f45 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd] The antecedent is probably \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bc\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5; comp. ii. 2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03bc\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6, \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03bd \u1fa7 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\n\u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd] '_Christ in you_,' i.e. 'you Gentiles.' Not Christ, but\nChrist given freely to the Gentiles, is the 'mystery' of which St Paul\nspeaks; see the note on \u03bc\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd above. Thus the various reading, \u1f43\u03c2\nfor \u1f45, though highly supported, interferes with the sense. With \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2\n\u1f10\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd compare \u03bc\u03b5\u03b8' \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u0398\u03b5\u03cc\u03c2 Matt. i. 23. It may be a question\nhowever, whether \u1f10\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd means '_within you_' or '_among you_.' The\nformer is perhaps the more probable interpretation, as suggested by Rom.\nviii. 10, 2 Cor. xiii. 5, Gal. iv. 19; comp. Ephes. iii. 17 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9\n\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd.\n\n\u1f21 \u1f10\u03bb\u03c0\u03af\u03c2] comp. 1 Tim. i. 2; so \u1f21 [\u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u1f74] \u1f10\u03bb\u03c0\u1f76\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd Ign. _Eph._ 21,\n_Magn. Philad._ 5, etc., applied to our Lord.\n\n28, 29. 'This Christ we, the Apostles and Evangelists, proclaim without\ndistinction and without reserve. We know no restriction either of\npersons or of topics. We admonish every man and instruct every man. We\ninitiate every man in all the mysteries of wisdom. It is our single aim\nto present every man fully and perfectly taught in Christ. For this end\nI train myself in the discipline of self-denial; for this end I commit\nmyself to the arena of suffering and toil, putting forth in the conflict\nall that energy which He inspires, and which works in me so powerfully.'\n\n28. \u1f21\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2] '_we_,' the preachers; the same opposition as in 1 Cor. iv.\n8, 10, ix. 11, 2 Cor. xiii. 5 sq., 1 Thess. ii. 13 sq., etc. The Apostle\nhastens, as usual, to speak of the part which he was privileged to bear\nin this glorious dispensation. He is constrained to magnify his office.\nSee the next note, and comp. ver. 23.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI. 28]\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03ac\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u1fc3 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u1fb3, \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03c9\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\n\u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7\u00b7\n\n\n\u1f43\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] as in St Paul's own language at Thessalonica, Acts\nxvii. 3 \u1f43\u03bd \u1f10\u03b3\u1f7c \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03ad\u03bb\u03bb\u03c9 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd, and at Athens, Acts xvii. 23 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf \u1f10\u03b3\u1f7c\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03ad\u03bb\u03bb\u03c9 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd, in both which passages, as here, emphasis is laid on\nthe person of the preacher.\n\n\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03b8\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2] '_admonishing_.' The two words \u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03b8\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd and \u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03ac\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\npresent complementary aspects of the preacher's duty, and are related\nthe one to the other, as \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03ac\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03b1 to \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03c2, '_warning_ to repent,\n_instructing_ in the faith.' For the relation of \u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03b8\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd to \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03ac\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03b1\nSee Plut. _Mor._ p. 68 \u1f15\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03b8\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03ac\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd \u1f10\u03bc\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd, p.\n452 \u1f21 \u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03b8\u03b5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f41 \u03c8\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bc\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b5\u1fd6 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03ac\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f30\u03c3\u03c7\u03cd\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd. The two verbs\n\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03b8\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd and \u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03ac\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd are connected in Plato _Protag._ 323 D, _Legg._\n845 B, Plut. _Mor._ p. 46 (comp. p. 39), Dion Chrys. _Or._ xxxiii. p.\n369; the substantives \u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03b1\u03c7\u1f74 and \u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03b8\u03ad\u03c4\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 in Plato _Resp._ 399 B.\nSimilarly \u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03b8\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd and \u03c0\u03b5\u03af\u03b8\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd occur together in Arist. _Rhet._ ii. 18.\nFor the two functions of the preacher's office, corresponding\nrespectively to the two words, see St Paul's own language in Acts xx. 21\n\u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03c5\u03c1\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 ... \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u0398\u03b5\u1f78\u03bd \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03ac\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u039a\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd\n\u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd.\n\n\u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd] three times repeated for the sake of emphasizing the\n_universality_ of the Gospel. This great truth, for which St Paul gave\nhis life, was now again endangered by the doctrine of an intellectual\nexclusiveness taught by the Gnosticizers at Coloss\u00e6, as before it had\nbeen endangered by the doctrine of a ceremonial exclusiveness taught by\nthe Judaizers in Galatia. See above pp. 77, 92, 98 sq. For the\nrepetition of \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 compare especially 1 Cor. x. 1 sq., where \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 is\nfive times, and _ib._ xii. 29, 30, where it is seven times repeated; see\nalso Rom. ix. 6, 7, xi. 32, 1 Cor. xii. 13, xiii. 7, xiv. 31, etc.\nTranscribers have been offended at this characteristic repetition here,\nand consequently have omitted \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd in one place or other.\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u1fc3 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u1fb3] The Gnostic spoke of a blind faith for the many, of a\nhigher \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 for the few. St Paul declares that the fullest wisdom is\noffered to all alike. The character of the teaching is as free from\nrestriction, as are the qualifications of the recipients. Comp. ii. 2, 3\n\u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03ad\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 ... \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03b8\u03b7\u03c3\u03b1\u03c5\u03c1\u03bf\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2\n\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b3\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2.\n\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03c9\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd] See the note on \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9, ver. 22.\n\n\u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd] So 1 Cor. ii. 6, 7 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03bb\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 ... \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03bc\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b5\u03ba\u03c1\u03c5\u03bc\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd. In both these passages the\nepithet \u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 is probably a metaphor borrowed from the ancient\nmysteries, where it seems to have been applied to the fully instructed,\nas opposed to the novices: comp. Plato _Ph\u00e6dr._ 249 C \u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03ad\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u1f00\u03b5\u1f76\n\u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f44\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03c2 \u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b3\u03af\u03b3\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9... 250 B, C \u03b5\u1f36\u03b4\u03cc\u03bd \u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u1f10\u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf \u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f23\u03bd \u03b8\u03ad\u03bc\u03b9\u03c2 \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03bc\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c9\u03c4\u03ac\u03c4\u03b7\u03bd ... \u03bc\u03c5\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03af \u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03c0\u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f52\u03b3\u1fc7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03b1\u03c1\u1fb7, _Symp._ 209 E \u03c4\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c4\u03b1 ... \u03ba\u1f02\u03bd \u03c3\u1f7a \u03bc\u03c5\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03b7\u03c2\u00b7 \u03c4\u1f70\n\u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03c0\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac ... \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u03bf\u1f37 \u03b4' \u03b5\u1f30 \u03bf\u1f37\u03cc\u03c2 \u03c4' \u1f02\u03bd \u03b5\u1f34\u03b7\u03c2, Plut. _Fragm. de\nAn._ vi. 2 (v. p. 726 Wyttenb.) \u1f41 \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u1f74\u03c2 \u1f24\u03b4\u03b7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bc\u03b5\u03bc\u03c5\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 (with the\ncontext), Dion Chrys. _Or._ xii. p. 203 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f41\u03bb\u03cc\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f44\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9\n\u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03bc\u03c5\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd; see Valcknaer on Eurip. _Hippol._ 25, and\nLobeck _Aglaoph._ p. 33 sq., p. 126 sq. Somewhat similarly in the LXX 1\nChron. xxv. 8 \u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03ad\u03b9\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bc\u03b1\u03bd\u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd stands for 'the teachers (or the\nwise) and the scholars.' So also in 2 Pet. i. 16 _\u1f10\u03c0\u03cc\u03c0\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9_\n\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03b7\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5 \u03bc\u03b5\u03b3\u03b1\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 we seem to have the same metaphor.\nAs an illustration it may be mentioned that Plato and Aristotle called\nthe higher philosophy \u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03c0\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd, because those who have transcended the\nbounds of the material, \u03bf\u1f37\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u1fc6 [l. \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03c4\u1fc7] \u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\n\u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03bd [\u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03c2] \u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03b6\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9, Plut. _Mor._ 382 D, E. For other\nmetaphorical expressions in St Paul, derived from the mysteries, see\nabove on \u03bc\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd ver. 26. Influenced probably by this heathen use of\n\u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2, the early Christians applied it to the baptized, as opposed to\nthe catechumens: e.g. Justin _Dial._ 8 (p. 225 C) \u03c0\u03ac\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b3\u03bd\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c3\u03bf\u03b9\n\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u1ff3 \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u1ff3 \u03b5\u1f50\u03b4\u03b1\u03b9\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, _Clem. Hom._ iii.\n29 \u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03c7\u03c9\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u03bc\u03bf\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2, \u1f61\u03c2 \u03bc\u03ae\u03c0\u03c9 \u03b5\u1f30\u03bb\u03b7\u03c6\u03cc\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c9\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03b2\u03ac\u03c0\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1,\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f24\u03b4\u03b7 \u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f14\u03c6\u03b7 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., xi. 36 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 ... \u1f24\u03b4\u03b7 \u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03c0\u1f78\u03bd \u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd\n\u1f44\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.; and for later writers see Suicer _Thes._ s. vv. \u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03cc\u03c9,\n\u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2. At all events we may ascribe to its connexion with the\nmysteries the fact that it was adopted by Gnostics at a later date, and\nmost probably by the Gnosticizers at this time, to distinguish the\npossessors of the higher \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 from the vulgar herd of believers: see\nthe passages quoted in the note on Phil. iii. 15. While employing the\nfavourite Gnostic term, the Apostle strikes at the root of the Gnostic\ndoctrine. The language descriptive of the heathen mysteries is\ntransferred by him to the Christian dispensation, that he may thus more\neffectively contrast the things signified. The true Gospel also has its\nmysteries, its hierophants, its initiation: but these are open to all\nalike. In Christ every believer is \u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2, for he has been admitted as\n\u1f10\u03c0\u03cc\u03c0\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 of its most profound, most awful, secrets. See again the note on\n\u1f00\u03c0\u03cc\u03ba\u03c1\u03c5\u03c6\u03bf\u03b9, ii. 3.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nI. 29]\n\n^{29}\u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f43 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03bf\u03c0\u03b9\u1ff6 \u1f00\u03b3\u03c9\u03bd\u03b9\u03b6\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd\u03ad\u03c1\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd\n\u1f10\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03bf\u03c5\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u1f11\u03bc\u03bf\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b4\u03c5\u03bd\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03b9.\n\n\n29. \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f43] i.e. \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd, 'that I may\ninitiate all mankind in the fulness of this mystery,' 'that I may preach\nthe Gospel to all without reserve.' If St Paul had been content to\npreach an exclusive Gospel, he might have saved himself from more than\nhalf the troubles of his life.\n\n\u03ba\u03bf\u03c0\u03b9\u1ff6] This word is used especially of the labour undergone by the\nathlete in his training, and therefore fitly introduces the metaphor of\n\u1f00\u03b3\u03c9\u03bd\u03b9\u03b6\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2: comp. 1 Tim. iv. 10 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03ba\u03bf\u03c0\u03b9\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03b3\u03c9\u03bd\u03b9\u03b6\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03b8\u03b1\n(the correct reading), and see the passages quoted on Phil. ii. 16.\n\n\u1f00\u03b3\u03c9\u03bd\u03b9\u03b6\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2] '_contending in the lists_,' the metaphor being continued\nin the next verse (ii. 1), \u1f21\u03bb\u03af\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u1ff6\u03bd\u03b1; comp. iv. 12. These words \u1f00\u03b3\u03ce\u03bd,\n\u1f00\u03b3\u03c9\u03bd\u03af\u03b1, \u1f00\u03b3\u03c9\u03bd\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, are only found in St Paul and the Pauline writings\n(Luke, Hebrews) in the New Testament. They occur in every group of St\nPaul's Epistles. The use here most resembles 1 Thess. ii. 2 \u03bb\u03b1\u03bb\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2\n\u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b5\u1f50\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03ad\u03bb\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u1ff7 \u1f00\u03b3\u1ff6\u03bd\u03b9.\n\n\u1f10\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03bf\u03c5\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd] Comp. Eph. iii. 20. For the difference between \u1f10\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd\nand \u1f10\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 see the note on Gal. v. 6.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 1, 2]\n\nII. ^1 \u0398\u03ad\u03bb\u03c9 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03b4\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9, \u1f21\u03bb\u03af\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u1ff6\u03bd\u03b1 \u1f14\u03c7\u03c9 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd\n\u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03af\u1fb3 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f45\u03c3\u03bf\u03b9 \u03bf\u1f50\u03c7 \u1f11\u03ce\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03c1\u03cc\u03c3\u03c9\u03c0\u03cc\u03bd \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03af, ^2 \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03b1\u1f31 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03b9\n\n\nII. 1\u20133. 'I spoke of an _arena_ and a _conflict_ in describing my\napostolic labours. The image was not lightly chosen. I would have you\nknow that my care is not confined to my own direct and personal\ndisciples. I wish you to understand the magnitude of the struggle, which\nmy anxiety for you costs me\u2014for you and for your neighbours of Laodicea\nand for all who, like yourselves, have never met me face to face in the\nflesh. I am constantly wrestling in spirit, that the hearts of all such\nmay be confirmed and strengthened in the faith; that they may be united\nin love; that they may attain to all the unspeakable wealth which comes\nfrom the firm conviction of an understanding mind, may be brought to the\nperfect knowledge of God's mystery, which is nothing else than\nChrist\u2014Christ containing in Himself all the treasures of wisdom and\nknowledge hidden away.'\n\n1. \u0398\u03ad\u03bb\u03c9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] as in 1 Cor. xi. 3. The corresponding negative form, \u03bf\u1f50\n\u03b8\u03ad\u03bb\u03c9 [\u03b8\u03ad\u03bb\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd] \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03b3\u03bd\u03bf\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, is the more common expression in St Paul;\nRom. i. 13, xi. 25, 1 Cor. x. 1, xii. 1, 2 Cor. i. 8, 1 Thess. iv. 13.\n\n\u1f00\u03b3\u1ff6\u03bd\u03b1] The arena of the contest to which \u1f00\u03b3\u03c9\u03bd\u03b9\u03b6\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 in the preceding\nverse refers may be either outward or inward. It will include the\n'fightings without,' as well as the 'fears within.' Here however the\ninward struggle, the wrestling in prayer, is the predominant idea, as in\niv. 12 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f00\u03b3\u03c9\u03bd\u03b9\u03b6\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u1f51\u03bc\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b5\u03c5\u03c7\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03b8\u1fc6\u03c4\u03b5\n\u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\n\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03af\u1fb3] The Laodiceans were exposed to the same doctrinal\nperils as the Colossians: see above pp. 2, 41 sq. The Hierapolitans are\ndoubtless included in \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f45\u03c3\u03bf\u03b9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. (comp. iv. 13), but are not\nmentioned here by name, probably because they were less closely\nconnected with Coloss\u00e6 (see iv. 15 sq.), and perhaps also because the\ndanger was less threatening there.\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f45\u03c3\u03bf\u03b9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] '_and all who_, like yourselves, _have not seen_,\netc.'; where the \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f45\u03c3\u03bf\u03b9 introduces the whole class to which the\npersons previously enumerated belong; so Acts iv. 6 \u1f0c\u03bd\u03bd\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f41 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03b9\u03b5\u03c1\u1f72\u03c5\u03c2\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u039a\u03b1\u0390\u03b1\u03c6\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f3c\u03c9\u03b1\u03bd\u03bd\u03b7\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f08\u03bb\u03ad\u03be\u03b1\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 _\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f45\u03c3\u03bf\u03b9_ \u1f26\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2\n\u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03b9\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u1fe6, Rev. xviii. 17 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03c5\u03b2\u03b5\u03c1\u03bd\u03ae\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f41 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u03cc\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd\n\u03c0\u03bb\u03ad\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bd\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 _\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f45\u03c3\u03bf\u03b9_ \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b8\u03ac\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u1f10\u03c1\u03b3\u03ac\u03b6\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9. Even a simple\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 will sometimes introduce the general after the particular, e.g. Acts\nv. 29 \u1f41 \u03a0\u03ad\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f31 \u1f00\u03c0\u03cc\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9, Ar. _Nub._ 413 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f08\u03b8\u03b7\u03bd\u03b1\u03af\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2\n\u1f1d\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9, etc.; see K\u00fchner _Gramm._ \u00a7 521, II. p. 791. On the other hand\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f45\u03c3\u03bf\u03b9, occurring in an enumeration, sometimes introduces a different\nclass from those previously mentioned, as e.g. in Herod, vii. 185. As a\npure grammatical question therefore it is uncertain whether St Paul's\nlanguage here implies his personal acquaintance with his correspondents\nor the contrary. But in all such cases the sense of the context must be\nour guide. In the present instance \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f45\u03c3\u03bf\u03b9 is quite out of place,\nunless the Colossians and Laodiceans also were personally unknown to the\nApostle. There would be no meaning in singling out _individuals_ who\nwere known to him, and then mentioning comprehensively _all_ who were\nunknown to him: see above p. 28, note 84. Hence we may infer from the\nexpression here, that St Paul had never visited Coloss\u00e6\u2013an inference\nwhich has been already shown (p. 23 sq.) to accord both with the\nincidental language of this epistle elsewhere and with the direct\nhistorical narrative of the Acts.\n\n\u1f11\u03ce\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03bd] For this ending of the 3rd pers. plur. perfect in -\u03b1\u03bd see Winer\n\u00a7 xiii. p. 90. The received text reads \u1f11\u03c9\u03c1\u03ac\u03ba\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9. In this passage the \u03c9\nform has the higher support; but below in ver. 18 the preponderance of\nauthority favours \u1f11\u03cc\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd rather than \u1f11\u03ce\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd. On the use of the form in\n\u03bf see Buttmann _Ausf. Griech. Sprachl._ \u00a7 84, I. p. 325.\n\n2. \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd] '_encouraged_, _confirmed_,' i.e. 'comforted' in the\nolder and wider meaning of the word, ('confortati'), but not with its\nmodern and restricted sense: see \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ac\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 Phil. ii. 1. For \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd\n\u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 comp. iv. 8, Ephes. vi. 22, 2 Thess. ii. 17.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 3]\n\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd, \u03c3\u03c5\u03bc\u03b2\u03b9\u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u1fc3 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03ad\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2, \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bc\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6, \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 ^3\u1f10\u03bd \u1fa7 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c3\u1f76\u03bd\n\u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03b8\u03b7\u03c3\u03b1\u03c5\u03c1\u03bf\u1f76\n\n\n\u03b1\u1f31 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03b9] They met the Apostle heart to heart, though not face to\nface. We have here the same opposition of \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u03b1 and \u03c0\u03c1\u03cc\u03c3\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd as in 1\nThess. ii. 17, though less directly expressed; see ver. 5.\n\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd] where we should expect \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd, but the substitution of the third\nperson for the second is suggested by the immediately preceding \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u1f45\u03c3\u03bf\u03b9. This substitution confirms the interpretation of \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f45\u03c3\u03bf\u03b9 already\ngiven. Unless the Colossians are included in \u1f45\u03c3\u03bf\u03b9, they must be excluded\nby \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd. Yet this exclusion is hardly conceivable in such a context.\n\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bc\u03b2\u03b9\u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2] '_they being united_, _compacted_,' for \u03c3\u03c5\u03bc\u03b2\u03b9\u03b2\u03ac\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd must\nhere have its common meaning, as it has elsewhere in this and the\ncompanion epistle: ver. 19 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f01\u03c6\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b4\u03ad\u03c3\u03bc\u03c9\u03bd ...\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bc\u03b2\u03b9\u03b2\u03b1\u03b6\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd, Ephes. iv. 16 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03c1\u03bc\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bc\u03b2\u03b9\u03b2\u03b1\u03b6\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd. Otherwise we might be disposed to assign to this verb\nhere the sense which it always bears in the LXX (e.g. in Is. xl. 13, 14,\nquoted in 1 Cor. ii. 16), 'instructed, taught,' as it is rendered in the\nVulgate. Its usage in the Acts is connected with this latter sense; e.g.\nix. 22 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bc\u03b2\u03b9\u03b2\u03ac\u03b6\u03c9\u03bd 'proving,' xvi. 10 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bc\u03b2\u03b9\u03b2\u03ac\u03b6\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 'concluding'; and so\nin xix. 33 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03b2\u03af\u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u1f08\u03bb\u03ad\u03be\u03b1\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd (the best supported reading) can only\nmean 'instructed Alexander.' For the different sense of the nominative\nabsolute see the note on iii. 16. The received text substitutes\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bc\u03b2\u03b9\u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd here. ` \u1f10\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u1fc3] for love is the \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 (iii. 14) of\nperfection.\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2] '_and brought unto_,' the thought being supplied from the\npreceding \u03c3\u03c5\u03bc\u03b2\u03b9\u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2, which involves an idea of motion, comp. Joh.\nxx. 7 \u1f10\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c4\u03c5\u03bb\u03b9\u03b3\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f15\u03bd\u03b1 \u03c4\u03cc\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd.\n\n\u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2] This reading is better supported than either \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2\nor \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd, while, as the intermediate reading, it also explains\nthe other two.\n\n\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03c2] '_the full assurance_,' for such seems to be the\nmeaning of the substantive wherever it occurs in the New Testament; 1\nThess. i. 5 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u1fb3 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u1fc7, Heb. vi. 11 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2\n\u1f10\u03bb\u03c0\u03af\u03b4\u03bf\u03c2, x. 22 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u1fb3 \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2, comp. Clem. Rom. 42 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u1f70\n\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f01\u03b3\u03af\u03bf\u03c5. With the exception of 1 Thess. i. 5\nhowever, all the Biblical passages might bear the other sense 'fulness':\nsee Bleek on Heb. vi. 11. For the verb see the note on \u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\nbelow, iv. 12.\n\n\u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd] See the note on i. 9.\n\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bc\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] '_the mystery of God_, even _Christ in whom_,\netc.,' \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 being in apposition with \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bc\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5; comp. i. 27 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03bc\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 ... \u1f45 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd, 1 Tim. iii. 16 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2\n\u03b5\u1f50\u03c3\u03b5\u03b2\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03bc\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd, \u1f4d\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c6\u03b1\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03ce\u03b8\u03b7 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. The reasons for adopting the\nreading \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 are given in the detached note on various\nreadings. Other interpretations of this reading are; (1) 'the God\nChrist,' taking \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 in apposition with \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6; or (2) 'the God of\nChrist,' making it the genitive after \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6: but both expressions are\nwithout a parallel in St Paul. The mystery here is not 'Christ,' but\n'Christ as containing in Himself all the treasures of wisdom'; see the\nnote on i. 27 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd. For the form of the sentence comp. Ephes.\niv. 15, 16 \u1f21 \u03ba\u03b5\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u03ae, \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f10\u03be \u03bf\u1f57 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\n3. \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2] So \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 ver. 2, \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u1fc3 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u1fb3 ii. 28. These repetitions\nserve to emphasize the character of the Gospel, which is as complete in\nitself, as it is universal in its application.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 4]\n\n\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b3\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03cc\u03ba\u03c1\u03c5\u03c6\u03bf\u03b9. ^4\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\n\n\n\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b3\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2] The two words occur together again Rom. xi. 33 \u1f66\n\u03b2\u03ac\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b3\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6, 1 Cor. xii. 8. They are found\nin conjunction also several times in the LXX of Eccles. i. 7, 16, 18,\nii. 21, 26, ix. 10, where \u05d7\u05d1\u05db\u05d5\u05d4 is represented by \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1 and \u05d3\u05e2\u05ea by\n\u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2. While \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 is simply _intuitive_, \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1 is _ratiocinative_\nalso. While \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 applies chiefly to the apprehension of truths, \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\nsuperadds the power of reasoning about them and tracing their relations.\nWhen Bengel on 1 Cor. xii. 8 sq. says, 'Cognitio [\u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2] est quasi\nvisus; sapientia [\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1] visus cum sapore,' he is so far right; but when\nhe adds, 'cognitio, rerum agendarum; sapientia, rerum aeternarum,' he is\nquite wide of the mark. Substantially the same, and equally wrong, is St\nAugustine's distinction _de Trin._ xii. 20, 25 (VIII. pp. 923, 926)\n'intelligendum est ad contemplationem sapientiam [\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03bd], ad actionem\nscientiam [\u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd] pertinere ... quod alia [\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1] sit intellectualis\ncognitio aeternarum rerum, alia [\u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2] rationalis temporalium' (comp.\nxiv. 3, p. 948), and again _de <DW37>. Qu\u00e6st. ad Simpl._> ii. 2 \u00a7 3 (VI. p.\n114) 'ita discerni probabiliter solent, ut sapientia pertineat ad\nintellectum \u00e6ternorum, scientia vero ad ea qu\u00e6 sensibus corporis\nexperimur.' This is directly opposed to usage. In Aristotle _Eth. Nic._\ni. 1 \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 is opposed to \u03c0\u03c1\u1fb6\u03be\u03b9\u03c2. In St Paul it is connected with the\napprehension of eternal mysteries, 1 Cor. xiii. 2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03b4\u1ff6 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03bc\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03b1 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd. On the relation of \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1 to \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 see above, i.\n9.\n\n\u1f00\u03c0\u03cc\u03ba\u03c1\u03c5\u03c6\u03bf\u03b9] So 1 Cor. ii. 7 \u03bb\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03bc\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3, \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd\n\u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b5\u03ba\u03c1\u03c5\u03bc\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd. As before in \u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 (i. 28), so here again in \u1f00\u03c0\u03cc\u03ba\u03c1\u03c5\u03c6\u03bf\u03b9\nthe Apostle adopts a favourite term of the Gnostic teachers, only that\nhe may refute a favourite doctrine. The word _apocrypha_ was especially\napplied to those esoteric writings, for which such sectarians claimed an\n_auctoritas secreta_ (Aug. _c. Faust._ xi. 2, VIII. p. 219) and which\nthey carefully guarded from publication after the manner of their Jewish\nprototypes the Essenes (see above p. 89 sq.): comp. Iren. i. 20. 1\n\u1f00\u03bc\u03cd\u03b8\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u1fc6\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03c1\u03cd\u03c6\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bd\u03cc\u03b8\u03c9\u03bd \u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u1ff6\u03bd, Clem. Alex. _Strom._ i. 15\n(p. 357) \u03b2\u03af\u03b2\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03c1\u03cd\u03c6\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f00\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03b4\u03b5 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03a0\u03c1\u03bf\u03b4\u03af\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03b9\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2\n\u1f05\u03b9\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd _\u03b1\u1f50\u03c7\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9_ \u03ba\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, _ib._ iii. 4 (p. 524) \u1f10\u03c1\u03c1\u03cd\u03b7 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2\n\u03c4\u1f78 \u03b4\u03cc\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1 \u1f14\u03ba \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03c1\u03cd\u03c6\u03bf\u03c5. See also the application of the text Prov.\nix. 17 \u1f04\u03c1\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u03c1\u03c5\u03c6\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u1f21\u03b4\u03ad\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f05\u03c8\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 to these heretics in _Strom._ i. 19\n(p. 375). Thus the word _apocrypha_ in the first instance was an\nhonourable appellation applied by the heretics themselves to their\nesoteric doctrine and their secret books; but owing to the general\ncharacter of these works the term, as adopted by orthodox writers, got\nto signify 'false,' 'spurious.' The early fathers never apply it, as it\nis now applied, to _deutero-canonical_ writings, but confine it to\n_supposititious_ and _heretical_ works: see Smith's _Dictionary of the\nBible_ s.v. In the text St Paul uses it \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03c2, as he uses\n\u03bc\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd. 'All the richest treasures of that secret wisdom,' he would\nsay, 'on which you lay so much stress, are buried in Christ, and being\nburied there are accessible to all alike who seek Him.' But, while the\nterm \u1f00\u03c0\u03cc\u03ba\u03c1\u03c5\u03c6\u03bf\u03c2 is adopted because it was used to designate the secret\ndoctrine and writings of the heretics, it is also entirely in keeping\nwith the metaphor of the 'treasure'; e.g. Is. xlv. 3 \u03b4\u03ce\u03c3\u03c9 \u03c3\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b8\u03b7\u03c3\u03b1\u03c5\u03c1\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2\n\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03c1\u03cd\u03c6\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2, 1 Macc. i. 23 \u1f14\u03bb\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03b8\u03b7\u03c3\u03b1\u03c5\u03c1\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2\n\u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03c1\u03cd\u03c6\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2, Dan. xi. 43 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03c1\u03cd\u03c6\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c7\u03c1\u03c5\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b1\u03c1\u03b3\u03cd\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5:\ncomp. Matt. xiii. 44.\n\nThe stress thus laid on \u1f00\u03c0\u03cc\u03ba\u03c1\u03c5\u03c6\u03bf\u03b9 will explain its position. It is not\nconnected with \u03b5\u1f30\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, but must be taken apart as a secondary predicate:\ncomp. ver. 10 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u1f72 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9, iii. 1 \u03bf\u1f57 \u1f41 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd\n\u03b4\u03b5\u03be\u03b9\u1fb7 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03ae\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2, James i. 17 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03b4\u03ce\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u1f04\u03bd\u03c9\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd,\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b2\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\n4\u20137. 'I do not say this without a purpose. I wish to warn you against\nany who would lead you astray by specious argument and persuasive\nrhetoric. For I am not an indifferent spectator of your doings. Although\nI am absent from you in my flesh, yet I am present with you in my\nspirit. I rejoice to behold the orderly array and the solid phalanx\nwhich your faith towards Christ presents against the assaults of the\nfoe. I entreat you therefore not to abandon the Christ, as you learnt\nfrom Epaphras to know Him, even Jesus the Lord, but to walk still in Him\nas heretofore. I would have you firmly rooted once for all in Him. I\ndesire to see you built up higher in Him day by day, to see you growing\never stronger and stronger through your faith, while you remain true to\nthe lessons taught you of old, so that you may abound in it, and thus\nabounding may pour forth your hearts in gratitude to God the giver of\nall.'\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 5]\n\n#\u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03c9, \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03bc\u03b7\u03b4\u03b5\u1f76\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03af\u03b6\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03b9\u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03af\u1fb3\u00b7 ^5\u03b5\u1f30 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc7\n\u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u1f76 \u1f04\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03bc\u03b9, \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c3\u1f7a\u03bd\n\n\n4. \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03c9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] 'I say all this to you, lest you should be led\nastray by those false teachers who speak of another knowledge, of other\nmysteries.' In other connexions \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03c9 will frequently refer to the\nwords following (e.g. Gal. iii. 17, 1 Cor. i. 12); but with \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 it\npoints to what has gone before, as in Joh. v. 34 \u03c4\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c4\u03b1 \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03c9 \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u1f51\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2\n\u03c3\u03c9\u03b8\u1fc6\u03c4\u03b5.\n\nThe reference in \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03c9 extends over vv. 1\u20133, and involves two\nstatements; (1) The declaration that all knowledge is comprehended in\nChrist, vv. 2, 3; (2) The expression of his own personal anxiety that\nthey should remain stedfast in this conviction, vv. 1, 2. This last\npoint explains the language which follows, \u03b5\u1f30 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u1f76 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03af\u03b6\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9] '_lead you astray by false reasoning_', as in Daniel xiv.\n7 \u03bc\u03b7\u03b4\u03ad\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b5 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03b9\u03b6\u03ad\u03c3\u03b8\u03c9 (LXX): comp. James i. 22, Ign. _Magn._ 3. It\nis not an uncommon word either in the LXX or in classical writers. The\nsystem against which St Paul here contends professed to be a \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\n(ver. 8) and had a \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 (ver. 23).\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03b9\u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03af\u1fb3] The words \u03c0\u03b9\u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd (Arist. _Eth. Nic._ i. 1),\n\u03c0\u03b9\u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03af\u03b1 (Plat. _The\u00e6t._ 162 E), \u03c0\u03b9\u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03b9\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2 (Epictet. i. 8. 7),\noccur occasionally in classical writers, but do not bear a bad sense,\nbeing most frequently opposed to \u1f00\u03c0\u03cc\u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03be\u03b9\u03c2, as probable argument to\nstrict mathematical demonstration. This contrast probably suggested St\nPaul's language in 1 Cor. ii. 4 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f10\u03bd _\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03b8\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2_ \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03c2\n_\u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2_ \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb' \u1f10\u03bd _\u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b4\u03b5\u03af\u03be\u03b5\u03b9_ \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., and may\npossibly have been present to his mind here.\n\n5. \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70] frequently introduces the apodosis after \u03b5\u1f30 or \u03b5\u1f30 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 in St\nPaul; e.g. Rom. vi. 5, 1 Cor. ix. 2, 2 Cor. iv. 16, v. 16, xi. 6, xiii.\n4 (v. l.).\n\n\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9] '_in my spirit_', not '_by the Spirit_'. We have here the\ncommon antithesis of flesh and spirit, or body and spirit: comp. 1 Cor.\nv. 3 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f7c\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9, \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u1f7c\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9. St Paul elsewhere uses\nanother antithesis, \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03ce\u03c0\u1ff3 and \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u1fb3, to express this same thing; 1\nThess. ii. 17.\n\n\u03c7\u03b1\u03af\u03c1\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b2\u03bb\u03ad\u03c0\u03c9\u03bd] '_rejoicing and beholding_'. This must not be\nregarded as a logical inversion. The contemplation of their orderly\narray, though it might have been first the cause, was afterwards the\nconsequence, of the Apostle's rejoicing. He looked, because it gave him\nsatisfaction to look.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 6]\n\n\u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03bc\u03af, \u03c7\u03b1\u03af\u03c1\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b2\u03bb\u03ad\u03c0\u03c9\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c4\u03ac\u03be\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03ad\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2\n\u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd. ^6\u1f61\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f56\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b5\u03bb\u03ac\u03b2\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd, \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd\n\u039a\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd, \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b5,\n\n\n\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c4\u03ac\u03be\u03b9\u03bd] '_your orderly array_', a military metaphor: comp. e.g. Xen.\n_Anab._ i. 2. 18 \u1f30\u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b1 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03bb\u03b1\u03bc\u03c0\u03c1\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c4\u03ac\u03be\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2\n\u1f10\u03b8\u03b1\u03cd\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b5, Plut. _Vit. Pyrrh._ 16 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03b4\u1f7c\u03bd \u03c4\u03ac\u03be\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c6\u03c5\u03bb\u03b1\u03ba\u1f70\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u03c7\u1fc6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c0\u03b5\u03b4\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f10\u03b8\u03b1\u03cd\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b5. The enforced\ncompanionship of St Paul with the soldiers of the pr\u00e6torian guard at\nthis time (Phil. i. 13) might have suggested this image. At all events\nin the contemporary epistle (Ephes. vi. 14 sq.) we have an elaborate\nmetaphor from the armour of a soldier.\n\n\u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03ad\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1] '_solid front_, _close phalanx_', a continuation of the\nmetaphor: comp. 1 Macc. ix. 14 \u03b5\u1f36\u03b4\u03b5\u03bd \u1f38\u03bf\u03cd\u03b4\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u0392\u03b1\u03ba\u03c7\u03af\u03b4\u03b7\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03ad\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\n\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b5\u03bc\u03b2\u03bf\u03bb\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b5\u03be\u03b9\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2. Somewhat similar are the expressions\n\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b5\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd 1 Macc. x. 50, \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03ad\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03bc\u03ac\u03c7\u03b7\u03c2 Ecclus.\nxxviii. 10. For the connexion here compare 1 Pet. v. 9 \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03b5\u03bf\u1f76\n\u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9, Acts xvi. 5 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9.\n\n6. \u1f61\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f56\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b5\u03bb\u03ac\u03b2\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] i.e. 'Let your conviction and conduct be in\nperfect accordance with the doctrines and precepts of the Gospel as it\nwas taught to you'. For this use of \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b5\u03bb\u03ac\u03b2\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 'ye received from your\nteachers, were instructed in', comp. 1 Cor. xv. 1, 3, Gal. i. 9, Phil.\niv. 9, 1 Thess. ii. 13, iv. 1, 2 Thess. iii. 6. The word \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03bc\u03b2\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\nimplies either 'to receive as transmitted', or 'to receive for\ntransmission': see the note on Gal. i. 12. The \u1f61\u03c2 of the protasis\nsuggests a \u03bf\u1f55\u03c4\u03c9\u03c2 in the apodosis, which in this case is unexpressed but\nmust be understood. The meaning of \u1f61\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b5\u03bb\u03ac\u03b2\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 here is explained by\nthe \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bc\u03ac\u03b8\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u1f18\u03c0\u03b1\u03c6\u03c1\u1fb6 in i. 7; see the note there, and comp.\nbelow ver. 7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 \u1f10\u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03ac\u03c7\u03b8\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5.\n\n\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd] '_the Christ_', rather than 'the Gospel', because the\ncentral point in the Colossian heresy was the subversion of the true\nidea of the Christ.\n\n\u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u039a\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd] 'even _Jesus the Lord_', in whom the true conception\nof the Christ is realised: comp. Ephes. iv. 20, 21, \u1f51\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03bf\u1f50\u03c7 \u03bf\u1f55\u03c4\u03c9\u03c2\n\u1f10\u03bc\u03ac\u03b8\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 _\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd_, \u03b5\u1f34\u03b3\u03b5 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f20\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f10\u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03ac\u03c7\u03b8\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5,\n_\u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03ce\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f00\u03bb\u03ae\u03b8\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6_, where the same idea is more\ndirectly expressed. The genuine doctrine of the Christ consists in (1)\nthe recognition of the historical person _Jesus_, and (2) the acceptance\nof Him as _the Lord_. This doctrine was seriously endangered by the\nmystic theosophy of the false teachers. The same order which we have\nhere occurs also in Ephes. iii. 11 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd (the\ncorrect reading).\n\n7. \u1f10\u03c1\u03c1\u03b9\u03b6\u03c9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9] Two points may be noticed here; (1) The expressive\nchange of tenses; \u1f10\u03c1\u03c1\u03b9\u03b6\u03c9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 'firmly rooted' _once for all_,\n\u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03b4\u03bf\u03bc\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9, \u03b2\u03b5\u03b2\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9, 'built up and strengthened' _from hour\nto hour_. (2) The rapid transition of metaphor, \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b5,\n\u1f10\u03c1\u1fe5\u03b9\u03b6\u03c9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9, \u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03b4\u03bf\u03bc\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9, the path, the tree, the building: comp.\nEphes. iii. 17 \u1f10\u03c1\u03c1\u03b9\u03b6\u03c9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03b5\u03b8\u03b5\u03bc\u03b5\u03bb\u03b9\u03c9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9. The metaphors of the\nplant and the building occur together in 1 Cor. iii. 9 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b3\u03b5\u03ce\u03c1\u03b3\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd,\n\u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03bf\u03b4\u03bf\u03bc\u03ae. The transition in this passage is made easier by the fact\nthat \u1fe5\u03b9\u03b6\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd (Plut. _Mor._ 321 D), \u1f10\u03ba\u03c1\u03b9\u03b6\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd (Jer. i. 10, 1 Macc. v. 51),\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03cc\u03c1\u03c1\u03b9\u03b6\u03bf\u03c2 (Jos. _B.J._ vii. 8. 7), etc., are not uncommonly used of\ncities and buildings.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 7]\n\n^7\u1f10\u03c1\u03c1\u03b9\u03b6\u03c9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03b4\u03bf\u03bc\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b2\u03b5\u03b2\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9,\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 \u1f10\u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03ac\u03c7\u03b8\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5, \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c3\u03b5\u03cd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03af\u1fb3.\n\n\n\u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03b4\u03bf\u03bc\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9] '_being built up_,' as in 1 Cor. iii. 10\u201314. After\nthis verb we might have expected \u1f10\u03c0' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 or \u1f10\u03c0' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd (1 Cor. iii. 12)\nrather than \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7; but in this and the companion epistle Christ is\nrepresented rather as the binding element than as the foundation of the\nbuilding: e.g. Ephes. ii. 20 \u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03b4\u03bf\u03bc\u03b7\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bc\u03b5\u03bb\u03af\u1ff3 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd\n\u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03b7\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd, \u1f44\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 _\u1f00\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u03b3\u03c9\u03bd\u03b9\u03b1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5_ \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6,\n_\u1f10\u03bd_ \u1fa7 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b1 [\u1f21] \u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03bf\u03b4\u03bf\u03bc\u1f74 \u03b1\u1f54\u03be\u03b5\u03b9 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03bd\u03b1\u1f78\u03bd \u1f05\u03b3\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd _\u1f10\u03bd_ \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3,\n_\u1f10\u03bd_ \u1fa7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03b4\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5. The \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 in \u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03b4\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd does not\nnecessarily refer to the original foundation, but may point to the\ncontinued progress of the building by successive layers, as e.g.\n[Aristot.] _Rhet. ad Alex._ 4 (p. 1426) \u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03b4\u03bf\u03bc\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f15\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u1f61\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76\n\u03c4\u1f78 \u1f15\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u03b1\u1f54\u03be\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd. Hence \u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03b4\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd is frequently used absolutely, '_to\nbuild up_' (e.g. Jude 20, Polyb. iii. 27, 4), as here. The repetition of\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 emphasizes the main idea of the passage, and indeed of the whole\nepistle.\n\n\u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9] '_by your faith_', the dative of the instrument; comp. Heb.\nxiii. 9 \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u1f78\u03bd \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03b9 \u03b2\u03b5\u03b2\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03bd. Faith is, as it were,\nthe cement of the building: comp. Clem. Rom. 22 \u03c4\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b2\u03b5\u03b2\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u1fd6 \u1f21 \u1f10\u03bd\n\u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03c2.\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 \u1f10\u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03ac\u03c7\u03b8\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5] i.e. 'remaining true to the lessons which you received\nfrom Epaphras, and not led astray by any later pretenders': comp. i. 6,\n7 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f00\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u1fb3, \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bc\u03ac\u03b8\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u1f18\u03c0\u03b1\u03c6\u03c1\u1fb6.\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1fc7 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] The same ending occurs in iv. 2. Thanksgiving is the end\nof all human conduct, whether exhibited in words or in works. For the\nstress laid on thanksgiving in St Paul's epistles generally, see the\nnote on Phil. iv. 6. The words \u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, \u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, \u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03af\u03b1,\noccur in St Paul's writings alone of the Apostolic epistles. In this\nepistle especially the duty of thanksgiving assumes a peculiar\nprominence by being made a refrain, as here and in iii. 15, 17, iv. 2:\nsee also i. 12.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 8]\n\n^8 \u0392\u03bb\u03ad\u03c0\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u03bc\u03ae \u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f41 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bb\u03b1\u03b3\u03c9\u03b3\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70\n\n                      8. \u03bc\u03ae \u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 _\u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2_.\n\n\n8\u201315. 'Be on your guard; do not suffer yourselves to fall a prey to\ncertain persons who would lead you captive by a hollow and deceitful\nsystem, which they call philosophy. They substitute the traditions of\nmen for the truth of God. They enforce an elementary discipline of\nmundane ordinances fit only for children. Theirs is not the Gospel of\nChrist. In Christ the entire fulness of the Godhead abides for ever,\nhaving united itself with man by taking a human body. And so in Him\u2014not\nin any inferior mediators\u2014ye have your life, your being, for ye are\nfilled from His fulness. He, I say, is the Head over all spiritual\nbeings\u2014call them principalities or powers or what you will. In Him too\nye have the true circumcision\u2014the circumcision which is not made with\nhands but wrought by the Spirit\u2014the circumcision which divests not of a\npart only but of the whole carnal body\u2014the circumcision which is not of\nMoses but of Christ. This circumcision ye have, because ye were buried\nwith Christ to your old selves beneath the baptismal waters, and were\nraised with Him from those same waters to a new and regenerate life,\nthrough your faith in the powerful working of God who raised Him from\nthe dead. Yes, you\u2014you Gentiles who before were dead, when ye walked in\nyour transgressions and in the uncircumcision of your unchastened carnal\nheathen heart\u2014even you did\n\nGod quicken into life together with Christ; then and there freely\nforgiving all of us\u2014Jews and Gentiles alike\u2014all our transgressions; then\nand there cancelling the bond which stood valid against us (for it bore\nour own signature), the bond which engaged us to fulfil all the law of\nordinances, which was our stern pitiless tyrant. Ay, this very bond hath\nChrist put out of sight for ever, nailing it to His cross and rending it\nwith His body and killing it in His death. Taking upon Him our human\nnature, He stripped off and cast aside all the powers of evil which\nclung to it like a poisonous garment. As a mighty conqueror He displayed\nthese His fallen enemies to an astonished world, leading them in triumph\non His cross.'\n\n8. \u0392\u03bb\u03ad\u03c0\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] The form of the sentence is a measure of the\nimminence of the peril. The usual construction with \u03b2\u03bb\u03ad\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03bc\u1f74 is a\nconjunctive; e.g. in Luke xxi. 8 \u03b2\u03bb\u03ad\u03c0\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u03bc\u1f74 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b1\u03bd\u03b7\u03b8\u1fc6\u03c4\u03b5. Here the\nsubstitution of an indicative shows that the danger is real; comp. Heb.\niii. 12 \u03b2\u03bb\u03ad\u03c0\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u03bc\u03ae\u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f15\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b9 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u03b1 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bd\u03b7\u03c1\u1f70 \u1f00\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03af\u03b1\u03c2. For\nother instances of \u03bc\u1f74 with a future indicative comp. Mark xiv. 2 \u03bc\u03ae\u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u03b5\n\u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b8\u03cc\u03c1\u03c5\u03b2\u03bf\u03c2, Rom. xi. 21 \u03bc\u03ae\u03c0\u03c9\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u1f72 \u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c6\u03b5\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9; and see Winer \u00a7 lvi.\np. 631 sq.\n\n\u03c4\u03b9\u03c2] This indefinite \u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 is frequently used by St Paul, when speaking of\nopponents whom he knows well enough but does not care to name: see the\nnote on Gal. i. 7. Comp. Ign. _Smyrn._ 5 \u1f45\u03bd _\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b5\u03c2_ \u1f00\u03b3\u03bd\u03bf\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2\n\u1f00\u03c1\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 ... \u03c4\u1f70 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f40\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd, \u1f44\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f04\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1, \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f14\u03b4\u03bf\u03be\u03ad \u03bc\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f10\u03b3\u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03c8\u03b1\u03b9.\n\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bb\u03b1\u03b3\u03c9\u03b3\u1ff6\u03bd] '_makes you his prey_, carries you off body and soul'. The\nword appears not to occur before St Paul, nor after him, independently\nof this passage, till a late date: e.g. Heliod. _Aeth._ x. 35 \u03bf\u1f57\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2\n\u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f41 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03bc\u1f74\u03bd \u03b8\u03c5\u03b3\u03ac\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bb\u03b1\u03b3\u03c9\u03b3\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2. In Tatian _ad Gr\u00e6c._ 22 \u1f51\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72\n\u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03c3\u03c5\u03bb\u03b1\u03b3\u03c9\u03b3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 it seems to be a reminiscence of St Paul. Its\nfull and proper meaning, as appears from the passages quoted, is not 'to\ndespoil,' but 'to carry off as spoil', in accordance with the analogous\ncompounds, \u03b4\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03b1\u03b3\u03c9\u03b3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, \u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03c5\u03b1\u03b3\u03c9\u03b3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd. So too the closely allied word\n\u03bb\u03b1\u03c6\u03c5\u03c1\u03b1\u03b3\u03c9\u03b3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd in Plut. _Mor._ p. 5 \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b5\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03bf\u1f50 \u03bb\u03b1\u03c6\u03c5\u03c1\u03b1\u03b3\u03c9\u03b3\u03b5\u1fd6 \u1f00\u03c1\u03b5\u03c4\u03ae\u03bd,\n_Vit. Galb._ 5 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u0393\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd, \u1f45\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03c7\u03b5\u03af\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9,\n\u03bb\u03b1\u03c6\u03c5\u03c1\u03b1\u03b3\u03c9\u03b3\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9. The Colossians had been rescued from the bondage of\ndarkness; they had been transferred to the kingdom of light; they had\nbeen settled there as free citizens (i. 12, 13); and now there was\ndanger that they should fall into a state worse than their former\nslavery, that they should be carried off as so much booty. Comp. 2 Tim.\niii. 6 \u03b1\u1f30\u03c7\u03bc\u03b1\u03bb\u03c9\u03c4\u03af\u03b6\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03b3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03b1.\n\nFor the construction \u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f41 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bb\u03b1\u03b3\u03c9\u03b3\u1ff6\u03bd see the notes on Gal. i. 7, iii.\n21. The former passage is a close parallel to the words here, \u03b5\u1f30 \u03bc\u03ae\n\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03ad\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03bf\u1f31 \u03c4\u03b1\u03c1\u03ac\u03c3\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. The expression \u1f41 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bb\u03b1\u03b3\u03c9\u03b3\u1ff6\u03bd gives\na directness and individuality to the reference, which would have been\nwanting to the more natural construction \u1f43\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bb\u03b1\u03b3\u03c9\u03b3\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9.\n\n\u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] '_through his philosophy which is an empty\ndeceit_'. The absence of both preposition and article in the second\nclause shows that \u03ba\u03b5\u03bd\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03ac\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 describes and qualifies \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03c2.\nClement therefore (_Strom._ vi. 8, p. 771) had a right to contend that\nSt Paul does not here condemn 'philosophy' absolutely. The \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd\u1f74 \u1f00\u03c0\u03ac\u03c4\u03b7 of this passage corresponds to the \u03c8\u03b5\u03c5\u03b4\u03ce\u03bd\u03c5\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 of 1\nTim. vi. 20.\n\nBut though 'philosophy' is not condemned, it is disparaged by the\nconnexion in which it is placed. St Chrysostom's comment is not\naltogether wrong, \u1f10\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03b4\u1f74 \u03b4\u03bf\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6 \u03c3\u03b5\u03bc\u03bd\u1f78\u03bd \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03ad\u03b8\u03b7\u03ba\u03b5\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03b5\u03bd\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03ac\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2. The term was doubtless used by the false teachers\nthemselves to describe their system. Though essentially Greek as a name\nand as an idea, it had found its way into Jewish circles. Philo speaks\nof the Hebrew religion and Mosaic law as \u1f21 \u03c0\u03ac\u03c4\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1 (_Leg. ad\nCai._ 23, II. p. 568, _de Somn._ ii. 18, I. p. 675) or \u1f21 \u1f38\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u03ca\u03ba\u1f74\n\u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1 (_Leg. ad Cai._ 33, II. p. 582) or \u1f21 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u039c\u03c9\"\u03c5\u03c3\u1fc6\u03bd \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\n(_de Mut. Nom._ 39, I. p. 612). The system of the Essenes, the probable\nprogenitors of the false teachers at Coloss\u00e6, he describes as \u1f21 \u03b4\u03af\u03c7\u03b1\n\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f19\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f40\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1 (_Omn. prob. lib._ 13, II. p.\n459). So too Josephus speaks of the three Jewish sects as \u03c4\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2\n\u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03b9 (_Ant._ xviii. 1. 2, comp. _B.J._ ii. 8. 2). It should be\nremembered also, that in this later age, owing to Roman influence, the\nterm was used to describe practical not less than speculative systems,\nso that it would cover the ascetic life as well as the mystic theosophy\nof these Colossian heretics. Hence the Apostle is here flinging back at\nthese false teachers a favourite term of their own, 'their vaunted\n_philosophy_, which is hollow and misleading'.\n\nThe word indeed could claim a truly noble origin; for it is said to have\narisen out of the humility of Pythagoras, who called himself 'a lover of\nwisdom', \u03bc\u03b7\u03b4\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u1f78\u03bd \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb' \u1f22 \u0398\u03b5\u03cc\u03bd (Diog. Laert.\nPro\u0153m. \u00a7 12; comp. Cic. _Tusc._ v. 3). In such a sense the term would\nentirely accord with the spirit and teaching of St Paul; for it bore\ntestimony to the insufficiency of the human intellect and the need of a\nrevelation. But in his age it had come to be associated generally with\nthe idea of subtle dialectics and profitless speculation; while in this\nparticular instance it was combined with a mystic cosmogony and\nangelology which contributed a fresh element of danger. As contrasted\nwith the power and fulness and certainty of revelation, all such\nphilosophy was 'foolishness' (1 Cor. i. 20). It is worth observing that\nthis word, which to the Greeks denoted the highest effort of the\nintellect, occurs here alone in St Paul, just as he uses \u1f00\u03c1\u03b5\u03c4\u03ae, which\nwas their term to express the highest moral excellence, in a single\npassage only (Phil. iv. 8; see the note there). The reason is much the\nsame in both cases. The Gospel had deposed the terms as inadequate to\nthe higher standard, whether of knowledge or of practice, which it had\nintroduced.\n\nOn the attitude of the fathers towards philosophy, while philosophy was\na living thing, see Smith's _Dictionary of the Bible_ s.v. Clement, who\nwas followed in the main by the earlier Alexandrian fathers, regards\nGreek philosophy not only as a preliminary training (\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c0\u03b1\u03b9\u03b4\u03b5\u03af\u03b1) for the\nGospel, but even as in some sense a covenant (\u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03b8\u03ae\u03ba\u03b7) given by God to\nthe Greeks (_Strom._ i. 5, p. 331, vi. 5, p. 761, _ib._ \u00a7 8, p. 771\nsq.). Others, who were the great majority and of whom Tertullian may be\ntaken as an extreme type, set their faces directly against it, seeing in\nit only the parent of all heretical teaching: e.g. _de Anim._ 2, 3,\n_Apol._ 46, 47. In the first passage, referring to this text, he says,\n'Ab apostolo jam tunc philosophia concussio veritatis providebatur'; in\nthe second he asks, 'Quid simile philosophus et Christianus?' St Paul's\nspeech at Athens, on the only occasion when he is known to have been\nbrought into direct personal contact with Greek philosophers (Acts xvii.\n18), shows that his sympathies would have been at least as strong with\nClement's representations as with Tertullian's.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 8]\n\n\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03b5\u03bd\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03ac\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2, \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ac\u03b4\u03bf\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd\n\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] The false teaching is described (1) As regards its\nsource\u2013'the traditions of _men_'; (2) As regards its subject matter\u2013'the\nrudiments of _the world_'.\n\n\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ac\u03b4\u03bf\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] Other systems, as for instance the ceremonial\nmishna of the Pharisees, might fitly be described in this way (Matt.\nxv. 2 sq., Mark vii. 3 sq.): but such a description was peculiarly\nappropriate to a mystic theosophy like this of the Colossian false\nteachers. The teaching might be oral or written, but it was\nessentially esoteric, essentially traditional. It could not appeal to\nsacred books which had been before all the world for centuries. The\nEssenes, the immediate spiritual progenitors of these Colossian\nheretics, distinctly claimed to possess such a source of knowledge,\nwhich they carefully guarded from divulgence; _B.J._ ii. 8. 7\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u1f41\u03bc\u03bf\u03af\u03c9\u03c2 \u03c4\u03ac \u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f31\u03c1\u03ad\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b2\u03b9\u03b2\u03bb\u03af\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03b3\u03ad\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd\n\u1f40\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 (see above pp. 89, 90 sq., 95). The various Gnostic sects,\ntheir direct or collateral spiritual descendants, almost without\nexception traced their doctrines to a similar source: e.g. Hippol.\n_H\u00e6r._ v. 7 \u1f03 \u03c6\u03b7\u03c3\u1f76 _\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03b4\u03b5\u03b4\u03c9\u03ba\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9_ \u039c\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03ac\u03bc\u03bd\u1fc3 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f38\u03ac\u03ba\u03c9\u03b2\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03cc\u03bd, vii. 20 \u03c6\u03b1\u03c3\u1f76\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c1\u03b7\u03ba\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u039c\u03b1\u03c4\u03b8\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2\n\u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03c1\u03cd\u03c6\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f53\u03c2 \u1f24\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b5 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03c9\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2, Clem. Alex. _Strom._ vii. 17\n(p. 898) \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03ac\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u1f41 \u0392\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03b4\u03b7\u03c2, \u03ba\u1f02\u03bd \u0393\u03bb\u03b1\u03c5\u03ba\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03c6\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03ac\u03c3\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd, \u1f61\u03c2\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c7\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u03af, \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03a0\u03ad\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f11\u03c1\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd\u03ad\u03b1\u00b7 \u1f61\u03c3\u03b1\u03cd\u03c4\u03c9\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u039f\u1f50\u03b1\u03bb\u03b5\u03bd\u03c4\u1fd6\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u03b4\u1fb6\n\u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03ba\u03b7\u03ba\u03bf\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c6\u03ad\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, \u03b3\u03bd\u03ce\u03c1\u03b9\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03bf\u1f57\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03b3\u03b5\u03b3\u03cc\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9 \u03a0\u03b1\u03cd\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5. So too a\nlater mystic theology of the Jews, which had many affinities with the\nteaching of the Christianized Essenes at Coloss\u00e6, was self-designated\n_Kabbala_ or 'tradition', professing to have been handed down orally\nfrom the patriarchs. See the note on \u1f00\u03c0\u03cc\u03ba\u03c1\u03c5\u03c6\u03bf\u03b9, ii. 3.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 8]\n\n\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03c9\u03bd, \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c7\u03b5\u1fd6\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5,\n\n\n\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c7\u03b5\u1fd6\u03b1] '_the rudiments_, _the elementary teaching_'; comp. ver.\n20. The same phrase occurs again Gal. iv. 3 (comp. ver. 9). As \u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c7\u03b5\u1fd6\u03b1\nsignifies primarily 'the letters of the alphabet', so as a secondary\nmeaning it denotes 'rudimentary instruction'. Accordingly it is\ncorrectly interpreted by Clement _Strom._ vi. 8 (p. 771) \u03a0\u03b1\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 ... \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba\n\u1f14\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c0\u03b1\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u1f00\u03be\u03b9\u03bf\u1fd6 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f19\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u1f74\u03bd \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03bd, \u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c7\u03b5\u1fd6\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5\n\u03c4\u03ac\u03c5\u03c4\u03b7\u03bd \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bd, \u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c9\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03ae\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b1 \u03bf\u1f56\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd (i.e. elementary) \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c0\u03b1\u03b9\u03b4\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 (comp. _ib._ vi. 15, p. 799), and by Tertullian\n_adv. Marc._ v. 19 '_secundum elementa mundi_, non secundum c\u00e6lum et\nterram dicens, sed secundum literas seculares'. A large number of the\nfathers however explained the expression to refer to the heavenly bodies\n(called \u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c7\u03b5\u1fd6\u03b1), as marking the seasons, so that the observance of\n'festivals and new-moons and sabbaths' was a sort of bondage to them. It\nwould appear from Tertullian's language that Marcion also had so\ninterpreted the words. On this false interpretation see the note on Gal.\niv. 3. It is quite out of place here: for (1) The context suggests some\n_mode of instruction_, e.g. \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ac\u03b4\u03bf\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03c9\u03bd here, and\n\u03b4\u03bf\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 in ver. 20; (2) The keeping of days and seasons is quite\nsubordinate to other external observances. The rite of circumcision\n(ver. 11), and the distinction of meats (ver. 21) respectively, are\nplaced in close and immediate connexion with \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c7\u03b5\u1fd6\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 in\nthe two places where it occurs, whereas the observance of days and\nseasons (ver. 16) stands apart from either.\n\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5] '_of the world_', that is, 'belonging to the sphere of\nmaterial and external things'. See the notes on Gal. iv. 3, vi. 14.\n\n'In Christ', so the Apostle seems to say, 'you have attained the liberty\nand the intelligence of manhood; do not submit yourselves again to a\nrudimentary discipline fit only for children (\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c7\u03b5\u1fd6\u03b1). In Christ\nyou have been exalted into the sphere of the Spirit: do not plunge\nyourselves again into the atmosphere of material and sensuous things\n(\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5).'\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 9, 10]\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f50 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd\u00b7 ^9\u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b8\u03b5\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2\n\u03c3\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03c2, ^{10}\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u1f72 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7\n\n\n\u03bf\u1f50 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd] '_not after Christ_'. This expression is wide in\nitself, and should be interpreted so as to supply the negative to both\nthe preceding clauses; 'Christ is neither the author nor the substance\nof their teaching: not the author, for they listen to human traditions\n(\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ac\u03b4\u03bf\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03c9\u03bd); not the substance, for they replace\nHim by formal ordinances (\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c7\u03b5\u1fd6\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5) and by angelic\nmediators'.\n\n9 sq. In explaining the true doctrine which is 'after Christ', St Paul\ncondemns the two false principles, which lay at the root of this\nheretical teaching; (1) The _theological_ error of substituting inferior\nand created beings angelic mediators for the divine Head Himself (vv. 9,\n10); and (2) The _practical_ error of insisting upon ritual and ascetic\nobservances, as the foundation of their moral teaching (vv. 11\u201314).\nTheir theological speculations and their ethical code alike were at\nfault. On the intimate connexion between these two errors, as springing\nout of a common root, the Gnostic dualism of these false teachers, see\nthe introduction, pp. 33 sq., 79, 87, 180 sq.\n\n\u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] The Apostle justifies the foregoing charge that this\ndoctrine was not \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd; 'In Christ dwells the whole pleroma, the\nentire fulness of the Godhead, whereas they represent it to you as\ndispersed among several spiritual agencies. Christ is the one\nfountain-head of all spiritual life, whereas they teach you to seek it\nin communion with inferior creatures.' The same truths have been stated\nbefore (i. 14 sq.) more generally and they are now restated with direct\nand immediate reference to the heretical teaching.\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6] '_has its fixed abode_'. On the force of this compound in\nrelation to the false teaching, see the note on i. 19.\n\n\u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1] '_all the plenitude_', 'the totality of the divine\npowers and attributes'. On this theological term see i. 19, and the\ndetached note at the end of the epistle.\n\n\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b8\u03b5\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2] '_of the Godhead_'. 'Non modo divin\u00e6 virtutes, sed ipsa\ndivina natura', writes Bengel. For the difference between \u03b8\u03ad\u03bf\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2\n'_deitas_', the essence, and \u03b8\u03b5\u03b9\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 '_divinitas_', the quality, see\nTrench _N. T. Syn._ \u00a7 ii. p. 6. The different force of the two words may\nbe seen by a comparison of two passages in Plutarch, _Mor._ p. 857 A\n\u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u0391\u1f30\u03b3\u03c5\u03c0\u03c4\u03af\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b8\u03b5\u03b9\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u1f74\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd \u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03c5\u03c1\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 (where it\nmeans a divine inspiration or faculty, and where no one would have used\n\u03b8\u03b5\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1), and _Mor._ 415 C \u1f10\u03ba \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f21\u03c1\u03ce\u03c9\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b1\u03af\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03b1\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f31 \u03b2\u03b5\u03bb\u03c4\u03af\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03c2 \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b2\u03bf\u03bb\u1f74\u03bd \u03bb\u03b1\u03bc\u03b2\u03ac\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, \u1f10\u03ba \u03b4\u1f72 \u03b4\u03b1\u03b9\u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd \u1f40\u03bb\u03af\u03b3\u03b1\u03b9 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u1f14\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c7\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u1ff3 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u1ff7 \u03b4\u03b9'\n\u1f00\u03c1\u03b5\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03b1\u03c1\u03b8\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03ac\u03c0\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9 \u03b8\u03b5\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03ad\u03c3\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd (where \u03b8\u03b5\u03b9\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 would be\nquite out of place, because all \u03b4\u03b1\u03af\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03c2 without exception were \u03b8\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bf\u03b9,\nthough they only became \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u03af in rare instances and after long probation\nand discipline). In the New Testament the one word occurs here alone,\nthe other in Rom. i. 20 alone. So also \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b8\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bf\u03bd, a very favourite\nexpression in Greek philosophy, is found once only, in Acts xvii. 29,\nwhere it is used with singular propriety; for the Apostle is there\nmeeting the heathen philosophers on their own ground and arguing with\nthem in their own language. Elsewhere he instinctively avoids a term\nwhich tends to obscure the idea of a personal God. In the Latin\nversions, owing to the poverty of the language, both \u03b8\u03ad\u03bf\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 and \u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03bf\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2\nare translated by the same term _divinitas_; but this was felt to be\ninadequate, and the word _deitas_ was coined at a later date to\nrepresent \u03b8\u03ad\u03bf\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2: August. _de Civ. Dei_ vii. \u00a7 1, VII. p. 162 (quoted in\nTrench) 'Hanc divinitatem vel, ut sic dixerim, _deitatem_: nam et hoc\nverbo uti jam nostros non piget, ut de Gr\u00e6co expressius transferant id\nquod illi \u03b8\u03b5\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1 appellant etc.'\n\n\u03c3\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03c2] '_bodily-wise_', '_corporeally_', i.e. 'assuming a bodily\nform, becoming incarnate'. This is an addition to the previous statement\nin i. 19 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b5\u1f50\u03b4\u03cc\u03ba\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9. The indwelling of\nthe pleroma refers to the Eternal Word, and not to the Incarnate Christ;\nbut \u03c3\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03c2 is added to show that the Word, in whom the pleroma thus\nhad its abode from all eternity, crowned His work by the Incarnation.\nThus while the main statement \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b8\u03b5\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 of St\nPaul corresponds to the opening sentence \u1f41 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f26\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u0398\u1f72\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u0398\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f26\u03bd \u1f41 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 of St John, the subsidiary adverb \u03c3\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03c2 of St Paul\nhas its counterpart in the additional statement \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f41 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c3\u1f70\u03c1\u03be \u1f10\u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf\nof St John. All other meanings which have been assigned to \u03c3\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03c2\nhere, as 'wholly' (Hieron. _in Is._ xi. 1 sq., IV. p. 156, 'nequaquam\nper partes, ut in ceteris sanctis'), or 'really' (Aug. _Epist._ cxlix,\nII. p. 513 'Ideo corporaliter dixit, quia illi umbratiliter\nseducebant'), or 'essentially' (Hilar. _de Trin._ viii. 54, II. p. 252\n'Dei ex Deo significat veritatem etc.', Cyril. Alex. in Theodoret. _Op._\nV. p. 34 \u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c4\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd, \u03bf\u1f50 \u03c3\u03c7\u03b5\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03c2, Isid. Pelus. _Ep._ iv. 166 \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03bf\u1f50\u03c3\u03b9\u03c9\u03b4\u1ff6\u03c2), are unsupported by usage. Nor again can the body be\nunderstood of anything else but Christ's human body; as for instance of\nthe created World (Theod. Mops. in Rab. _Op._ VI. p. 522) or of the\nChurch (Anon. in Chrysost. _ad loc._). According to these two last\ninterpretations \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b8\u03b5\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 is taken to mean the Universe\n('universam naturam repletam ab eo') and the Church (\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03bd\n\u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b8\u03b5\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, see Ephes. i. 23) respectively,\nbecause either of these may be said to reside in Him, as the source of\nits life, and to stand to Him in the relation of the body to the head\n(\u03c3\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03c2). But these forced interpretations have nothing to recommend\nthem.\n\nSt Paul's language is carefully guarded. He does not say \u1f10\u03bd \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9, for\nthe Godhead cannot be confined to any limits of space; nor \u03c3\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03b5\u03b9\u03b4\u1ff6\u03c2,\nfor this might suggest the unreality of Christ's human body; but\n\u03c3\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03c2, 'in bodily wise', 'with a bodily manifestation'. The relation\nof \u03c3\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03c2 to the clause which it qualifies will depend on the\ncircumstances of the case: comp. e.g. Plut. _Mor._ p. 424 E \u03bb\u03ad\u03b9\u03c0\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9\n\u03c4\u03bf\u03af\u03bd\u03c5\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03bc\u03ad\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50 \u03c4\u03bf\u03c0\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03c3\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03c2 \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, i.e. 'ratione\ncorporis habita', Athan. _Exp. Fid._ 4 (I. p. 81) \u1f11\u03ba\u03ac\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u03af\u03bd\u03c5\u03bd \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76\n\u03c4\u1f78 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1 \u1fe5\u03b7\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c3\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd \u03b3\u03ad\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, i.e. 'secundum\ncorpus', Ptolem. in Epiphan. _H\u00e6r._ xxxiii. 5 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c6\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03c3\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03ba\u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f00\u03bd\u1fc3\u03c1\u03ad\u03b8\u03b7.\n\n10. \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u1f72 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7] '_and ye are in Him_', where \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u1f72 should be\nseparated from the following \u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9; comp. John xvii. 21, Acts\nxvii. 28. True life consists in union with Him, and not in dependence on\nany inferior being; comp. ver. 19 \u03bf\u1f50 \u03ba\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03ba\u03b5\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u03ae\u03bd, \u1f10\u03be \u1f41\u1fe6 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 10]\n\n\u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9, \u1f45\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f21 \u03ba\u03b5\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u1f74 \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\n\n\u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9] '_being fulfilled_', with a direct reference to the\npreceding \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1; 'Your fulness comes from His fulness; His \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 is\ntransfused into you by virtue of your incorporation in Him'. So too John\ni. 16 \u1f10\u03ba \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f21\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bb\u03ac\u03b2\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd, Ephes. iii. 19 \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1\n\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03c9\u03b8\u1fc6\u03c4\u03b5 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6, iv. 13 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03bc\u03ad\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u1f21\u03bb\u03b9\u03ba\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, comp. Ign. _Ephes._ init. \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03b5\u1f50\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u1fc3 \u1f10\u03bd\n\u03bc\u03b5\u03b3\u03ad\u03b8\u03b5\u03b9 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9. Hence also the Church, as ideally\nregarded, is called the \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 of Christ, because all His graces and\nenergies are communicated to her; Ephes. i. 23 \u1f25\u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u1f76\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6,\n\u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5.\n\n\u1f45\u03c2] For the various reading \u1f45 see the detached note. It was perhaps a\ncorrection made on the false supposition that \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 referred to the\n\u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1. At all events it must be regarded as an impossible reading; for\nthe image would be altogether confused and lost, if the \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 were\nrepresented as the head. And again \u1f21 \u03ba\u03b5\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u1f74 is persistently said\nelsewhere of Christ; i. 18, ii. 19, Ephes. i. 22, iv. 15, v. 23. Hilary\n_de Trin._ ix. 8 (II. p. 264) explains the \u1f45 as referring to the whole\nsentence \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2, but this also is an\ninconceivable sense. Again it has been suggested that \u1f45 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd (like\n\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c4\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd) may be taken as equivalent to _scilicet_ (comp. Clem. _Hom._\nviii. 22); but this would require \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03ba\u03b5\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u1fc7, even if it were otherwise\nadmissible here.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 11]\n\n\u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2\u00b7 ^{11}\u1f10\u03bd \u1fa7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03b5\u03c4\u03bc\u03ae\u03b8\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03bf\u03bc\u1fc7 \u1f00\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03ae\u03c4\u1ff3,\n\n\n\u1f21 \u03ba\u03b5\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u1f74] The image expresses much more than the idea of sovereignty:\nthe head is also the centre of vital force, the source of all energy and\nlife: see the note on ver. 19.\n\n\u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] '_of every principality and power_', and therefore\nof those angelic beings whom the false teachers adopted as mediators,\nthus transferring to the inferior members the allegiance due to the\nHead: comp. ver. 18 sq. For \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, see the note on i. 16.\n\n11. The previous verses have dealt with the theological tenets of the\nfalse teachers. The Apostle now turns to their practical errors; 'You do\nnot need the circumcision of the flesh; for you have received the\ncircumcision of the heart. The distinguishing features of this higher\ncircumcision are threefold. (1) It is not external but inward, not made\nwith hands but wrought by the Spirit. (2) It divests not of a part only\nof the flesh, but of the whole body of carnal affections. (3) It is the\ncircumcision not of Moses or of the patriarchs, but of Christ'. Thus it\nis distinguished, as regards _first_ its character, _secondly_ its\nextent, and _thirdly_ its author.\n\n\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03b5\u03c4\u03bc\u03ae\u03b8\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5] The moment at which this is conceived as taking place is\ndefined by the other aorists, \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c6\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2, \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b7\u03b3\u03ad\u03c1\u03b8\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5, etc., as the\ntime of their baptism, when they 'put on Christ'.\n\n\u1f00\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03ae\u03c4\u1ff3] i.e. 'immaterial', 'spiritual', as Mark xiv. 58, 2 Cor. v.\n1. So \u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, which is used in the N. T. of material temples and\ntheir furniture (Acts vii. 48, xvii. 24, Heb. ix. 11, 24, comp. Mark\n_l.c._), and of the material circumcision (Ephes. ii. 11 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03bb\u03b5\u03b3\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03c2\n\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03bf\u03bc\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u1f76 \u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03ae\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5). In the LXX \u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1 occurs\nexclusively as a rendering of idols (\u05d0\u05dc\u05d9\u05dc\u05dd, e.g. Lev. xxvi. 1, Is. ii.\n18, etc.), false gods (\u05d0\u05dc\u05d4\u05d9\u05dd Is. xxi. 9, where perhaps they read\n\u05d0\u05dc\u05d9\u05dc\u05d9\u05dd), or images (\u05d7\u05de\u05e0\u05d9\u05dd Lev. xxvi. 30), except in one passage, Is.\nxvi. 12, where it is applied to an idol's sanctuary. Owing to this\nassociation of the word the application which we find in the New\nTestament would sound much more depreciatory to Jewish ears than it does\nto our own; e.g. \u1f10\u03bd \u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03ae\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6 in St Stephen's speech, where\nthe force of the passage is broken in the received text by the\ninterpolation of \u03bd\u03b1\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2.\n\nFor illustrations of the typical significance of circumcision, as a\nsymbol of purity, see the note on Phil. iii. 3.\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] The words are chosen to express the _completeness_ of the\nspiritual change. (1) It is not an \u1f14\u03ba\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 nor an \u1f00\u03c0\u03cc\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2, but an\n\u1f00\u03c0\u03ad\u03ba\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2. The word \u1f00\u03c0\u03ad\u03ba\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 is extremely rare, and no earlier\ninstances of it are produced; see the note on ver. 15 \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03ba\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2. (2)\nIt is not a single member but the whole body, which is thus cast aside;\nsee the next note. Thus the idea of completeness is brought out both in\nthe energy of the action and in the extent of its operation, as in iii.\n9 \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03ba\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03b9\u1f78\u03bd _\u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd_.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 12]\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03ba\u03b4\u03cd\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2, \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03bf\u03bc\u1fc7 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6,\n^{12}\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c6\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f10\u03bd\n\n\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] '_the whole body_ which consists _of the flesh_',\ni.e. 'the body with all its corrupt and carnal affections'; as iii. 5\n\u03bd\u03b5\u03ba\u03c1\u03ce\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5 \u03bf\u1f56\u03bd _\u03c4\u1f70 \u03bc\u03ad\u03bb\u03b7_. For illustrations of the expression see\nRom. vi. 6 \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03c1\u03b3\u03b7\u03b8\u1fc7 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f01\u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, vii. 24 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5, Phil. iii. 21 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd. Thus \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1\n\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2 here means 'the fleshly body' and not 'the entire mass of the\nflesh'; but the contrast between the whole and the part still remains.\nIn i. 22 the same expression \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2 occurs, but with a\ndifferent emphasis and meaning: see the note there.\n\nThe words \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f01\u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03b9\u1ff6\u03bd, inserted between \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 and \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2 in\nthe received text, are clearly a gloss, and must be omitted with the\nvast majority of ancient authorities.\n\n12. Baptism is the grave of the old man, and the birth of the new. As he\nsinks beneath the baptismal waters, the believer buries there all his\ncorrupt affections and past sins; as he emerges thence, he rises\nregenerate, quickened to new hopes and a new life. This it is, because\nit is not only the crowning act of his own faith but also the seal of\nGod's adoption and the earnest of God's Spirit. Thus baptism is an image\nof his participation both in the death and in the resurrection of\nChrist. See _Apost. Const._ iii. 17 \u1f21 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03ac\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bf\u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, \u1f21\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03ac\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u1fc6\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9. For this twofold image, as it presents itself\nto St Paul, see especially Rom. vi. 3 sq.\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u1ff7] '_in the act of baptism_'. A distinction seems to be\nobserved elsewhere in the New Testament between \u03b2\u03ac\u03c0\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1 'baptism'\nproperly so called, and \u03b2\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2 'lustration' or 'washing' of divers\nkinds, e.g. of vessels (Mark vii. 4, [8,] Heb. ix. 10). Even Heb. vi. 2\n\u03b2\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03b1\u03c7\u1fc6\u03c2, which at first sight might seem to be an exception to\nthis rule, is perhaps not really so (Bleek _ad loc._). Here however,\nwhere the various readings \u03b2\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u1ff7 and \u03b2\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9 appear in\ncompetition, the preference ought probably to be given to \u03b2\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u1ff7 as\nbeing highly supported in itself (see the detached note on various\nreadings) and as the less usual word in this sense. There is no _a\npriori_ reason why St Paul should not have used \u03b2\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2 with this\nmeaning, for it is so found in Josephus _Ant._ xviii. 5. 2 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u1ff7\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b9\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 (of John the Baptist). Doubtless the form \u03b2\u03ac\u03c0\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1 was more\nappropriate to describe the one final and complete act of Christian\nbaptism, and it very soon obtained exclusive possession of the ground in\nGreek; but in St Paul's age the other form \u03b2\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2 may not yet have\nbeen banished. In the Latin Version _baptisma_ and _baptismus_ are used\nindiscriminately: and this is the case also with the Latin fathers. The\nsubstantive 'baptism' occurs so rarely in any sense in St Paul (only\nRom. vi. 4, Eph. iv. 5, besides this passage), or indeed elsewhere in\nthe N. T. of Christian baptism (only in 1 Pet. iii. 21), that we have\nnot sufficient data for a sound induction. So far as the two words have\nany inherent difference of meaning, \u03b2\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2 denotes rather the act in\nprocess and \u03b2\u03ac\u03c0\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1 the result.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 12]\n\n\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u1ff7, \u1f10\u03bd \u1fa7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b7\u03b3\u03ad\u03c1\u03b8\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03b3\u03b5\u03af\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba [\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd]\n\n                           12. \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9.\n\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u1fa7] i.e. \u03b2\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u1ff7. Others would understand \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7 for the sake of\nthe parallelism with ver. 11 \u1f10\u03bd h\u1ff7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 ... \u03b5\u03bd \u1fa7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03af. But this\nparallelism is not suggested by the sense: while on the other hand\nthere is obviously a very close connexion between \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c6\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 and\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b7\u03b3\u03ad\u03c1\u03b8\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5 as the two complementary aspects of baptism; comp. Rom.\nvi. 4 sq. _\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03ac\u03c6\u03b7\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd_ \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u1f65\u03c3\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\n_\u1f10\u03b3\u03ad\u03c1\u03b8\u03b7_ \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 ... \u1f45\u03c5\u03c4\u03c9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f21\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 ... \u03b5\u1f30 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03c3\u03cd\u03bc\u03c6\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\n\u03b3\u03b5\u03b3\u03cc\u03bd\u03b1\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f41\u03bc\u03bf\u03af\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9 _\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5_ \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 _\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ac\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2_ \u1f10\u03c3\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03b8\u03b1, 2 Tim. ii. 11 \u03b5\u1f30 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 _\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03b8\u03ac\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd_, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n_\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b6\u03ae\u03c3\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd_. In fact the idea of \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7 must be reserved for\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b7\u03b3\u03ad\u03c1\u03b8\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5 where it is wanted, '_ye were raised together with Him_'.\n\n\u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] '_through your faith in the operation_,'\n\u1f10\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 being the objective genitive. So St Chrysostom, \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f45\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd\n\u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03af\u03bd\u00b7 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03b4\u03cd\u03bd\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f41 \u0398\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f10\u03b3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c1\u03b1\u03b9, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f55\u03c4\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f20\u03b3\u03ad\u03c1\u03b8\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5. Only\nby a belief in the resurrection are the benefits of the resurrection\nobtained, because only so are its moral effects produced. Hence St Paul\nprays that he may 'know the _power_ of Christ's resurrection' (Phil.\niii. 10). Hence too he makes this the cardinal article in the\nChristian's creed, 'If thou ... believest in thy heart that God raised\nHim from the dead, thou shalt be saved' (Rom. x. 9). For the influence\nof Christ's resurrection on the moral and spiritual being, see the note\non Phil. _l.c._ Others take \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 as the subjective genitive,\n'faith which comes from the operation etc.', arguing from a mistaken\ninterpretation of the parallel passage Ephes. i. 19 (where \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03bd\n\u1f10\u03bd\u03ad\u03c1\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd should be connected, not with \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2, but with \u03c4\u03af \u03c4\u1f78\n\u1f51\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b2\u03ac\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u03bc\u03ad\u03b3\u03b5\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.). The former explanation however yields a\nbetter sense, and the genitive after \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 far more commonly describes\nthe object than the source of the faith, e.g. Rom. iii. 22, 26, Gal.\niii. 22, Ephes. iii. 12, Phil. i. 27, iii. 9, 2 Thess. ii. 13.\n\n13. In the sentence which follows it seems necessary to assume a change\nof subject. There can be little doubt that \u1f41 \u0398\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 is the nominative to\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03b6\u03c9\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd: for (1) The parallel passage Ephes. ii. 4, 5 directly\nsuggests this. (2) This is uniformly St Paul's mode of speaking\nelsewhere. It is always God who \u1f10\u03b3\u03ad\u03b9\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9, \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03b3\u03ad\u03b9\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9, \u03b6\u03c9\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b5\u1fd6,\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b6\u03c9\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b5\u1fd6, etc., with or in or through Christ. (3) Though it might be\npossible to assign \u03c3\u1f7a\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 to the subject of \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03b6\u03c9\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd (see the\nnote on i. 20), yet a reference to some other person is more natural.\nThese reasons seem to decide the subject of \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03b6\u03c9\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd. But at the\nsame time it appears quite impossible to continue the same subject, \u1f41\n\u0398\u03b5\u03cc\u03c2, to the end of the sentence. No grammatical meaning can be assigned\nto \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03ba\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2, by which it could be understood of God the Father. We\nmust suppose therefore that a new subject, \u1f41 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2, is introduced\nmeanwhile, either with \u1f26\u03c1\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd or with \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03ba\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 itself; and of the\ntwo the former seems the easier point of transition. For a similar\ninstance of abrupt transition, which is the more natural owing to the\nintimate connexion of the work of the Son with the work of the Father,\nsee e.g. i. 17 sq.\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2] i.e. 'you Gentiles'. This will appear from a study of the\nparallel passages iii. 7, 8, Ephes. i. 13, ii. 1 sq., 11, 13, 17, 22,\niii. 2, iv. 17; see the notes on Ephes. i. 13, and on \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f00\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u03b2\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03af\u1fb3 just\nbelow.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 13]\n\n\u03bd\u03b5\u03ba\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bd\u00b7 ^{13}\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03bd\u03b5\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f44\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f00\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u03b2\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03af\u1fb3\n\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd, \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03b6\u03c9\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd\n\n\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] '_by reason of your transgressions etc._' The\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 are the actual definite transgressions, while the \u1f00\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u03b2\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03af\u03b1\n\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2 is the impure carnal disposition which prompts to them. For\nthe dative comp. Ephes. ii. 1, 5, where the same expression occurs; see\nWiner _Gramm._ \u00a7 xxxi. p. 270. On the other hand in Rom. vi. 11 \u03bd\u03b5\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2\n\u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f01\u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03af\u1fb3, \u03b6\u1ff6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u0398\u03b5\u1ff7, the dative has a wholly different\nmeaning, as the context shows. The \u1f10\u03bd of the received text, though\nhighly supported, is doubtless an interpolation for the sake of\ngrammatical clearness.\n\n\u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f00\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u03b2\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03af\u1fb3 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] The external fact is here mentioned, not for its\nown sake but for its symbolical meaning. The outward uncircumcision of\nthe Gentiles is a type of their unchastened carnal mind. In other words,\nthough the literal meaning is not excluded, the spiritual reference is\nmost prominent, as appears from ver. 11 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03b9 \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03ba\u03b4\u03cd\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2.\nHence Theodore's comment, \u1f00\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u03b2\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03af\u03b1\u03bd (\u1f10\u03ba\u03ac\u03bb\u03b5\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd) \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f14\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd\n\u03b8\u03bd\u03b7\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1. At the same time the choice of the expression shows that the\nColossian converts addressed by St Paul were mainly Gentiles.\n\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03b6\u03c9\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd] It has been questioned whether the life here spoken of\nshould be understood in a spiritual sense of the regeneration of the\nmoral being, or in a literal sense of the future life of immortality\nregarded as conferred on the Christian potentially now, though only to\nbe realised hereafter. But is not such an issue altogether superfluous?\nIs there any reason to think that St Paul would have separated these two\nideas of life? To him the future glorified life is only the continuation\nof the present moral and spiritual life. The two are the same in\nessence, however the accidents may differ. Moral and spiritual\nregeneration is salvation, is life.\n\n\u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2] The pronoun is repeated for the sake of emphasis. The omission in\nsome good copies is doubly explained; (1) By the desire to simplify the\ngrammar; (2) By the wish to relieve the awkwardness of the close\nproximity between \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 and \u1f21\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd. This latter consideration has led a few\ngood authorities to substitute \u1f21\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 for \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2, and others to substitute\n\u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd for \u1f21\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd. For instances of those emphatic repetitions in St Paul\nsee the note on i. 20 \u03b4\u03b9' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6.\n\n\u03c3\u1f7a\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff3] 'with Christ', as in Ephes. ii. 5 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03b6\u03c9\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7. On\nthe inadmissibility of the reading \u1f01\u03c5\u03c4\u1ff7 see the note on \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd i. 20.\n\n\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2] '_having forgiven_', as in Luke vii. 42 sq., 2 Cor. ii. 7,\n10, xii. 13, Ephes. iv. 32; see also the note on iii. 13 below. The idea\nof sin as a debt incurred to God (Matt. vi. 12 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f40\u03c6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bb\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd, comp.\nLuke xi. 4) underlies this expression, as it does also the commoner term\nfor pardon, \u1f04\u03c6\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 'remission'. The image is carried out in the\ncancelled bond, ver. 14.\n\n\u1f21\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd] The person is changed; 'not to you Gentiles only, but to us all\nalike'. St Paul is eager to claim his share in the transgression, that\nhe may claim it also in the forgiveness. For other examples of the\nchange from the second to the first person, see i. 10\u201313, iii. 3, 4,\nEphes. ii. 2, 3, 13, 14, iv. 31, 32, v. 2 (the correct reading), 1\nThess. v. 5, where the motive of the change is similar. See also Gal.\niii. 25, 26, iv. 5, 6, where there is the converse transition.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 14]\n\n\u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03c3\u1f7a\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7, \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1, ^{14}\u1f10\u03be\u03b1\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03c8\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03b8' \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03cc\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2\n\n\n14. \u1f10\u03be\u03b1\u03bb\u03ad\u03b9\u03c8\u03b1\u03c2] '_having cancelled_'. The word \u1f10\u03be\u03b1\u03bb\u03ad\u03b9\u03c6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, like\n\u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03c6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, signifying 'to blot out, to erase', is commonly opposed to\n\u1f10\u03b3\u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03c6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd 'to enter a name, etc.'; e.g. Arist. _Pax_ 1181, Lysias _c.\nNicom._ p. 183, Plato _Resp._ vi. p. 501 B. More especially is it so\nused in reference to an _item_ in an account, e.g. Demosth. _c.\nAristog._ i. p. 791 \u1f10\u03b3\u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03c6\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f31 \u1f40\u03c6\u03bb\u03b9\u03c3\u03ba\u03ac\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 ... \u1f10\u03be\u03b1\u03bb\u03ae\u03bb\u03b9\u03c0\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9\n\u03c4\u1f78 \u1f44\u03c6\u03bb\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1.\n\n\u03c4\u1f78 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8' \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] '_the bond standing against us_'. The word\n\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03cc\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u03bf\u03bd, which means properly an autograph of any kind, is used\nalmost exclusively for a note of hand, a bond or obligation, as having\nthe 'sign-manual' of the debtor or contractor: e.g. Tobit v. 3 (comp.\nix. 5) \u1f14\u03b4\u03c9\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03cc\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u03bf\u03bd, Plut. _Mor._ p. 829 A \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03bf\u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03c6\u03c9\u03bd\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bc\u03b2\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd. It is more common in Latin than in Greek, e.g. Cic.\n_Fam._ vii. 18 'Misi cautionem chirographi mei', Juv. _Sat._ xvi. 41\n'Debitor aut sumptos pergit non reddere nummos, vana supervacui dicens\nchirographa ligni' (comp. xiii. 137). Hence chirographum,\nchirographarius, are frequent terms in the Roman law-books; see Hesse\n_Handlexicon zu den Quellen des r\u00f6mischen Rechts_ s.v. p. 74.\n\nIn the case before us the Jewish people might be said to have signed the\ncontract when they bound themselves by a curse to observe all the\nenactments of the law (Deut. xxvii. 14\u201326; comp. Exod. xxiv. 3); and the\nprimary reference would be to them. But \u1f21\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd, \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd, seem to include\nGentiles as well as Jews, so that a wider reference must be given to the\nexpression. The \u03b4\u03cc\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 therefore, though referring primarily to the\nMosaic ordinances, will include all forms of positive decrees in which\nmoral or social principles are embodied or religious duties defined; and\nthe 'bond' is the moral assent of the conscience, which (as it were)\nsigns and seals the obligation. The Gentiles, though 'not having a law,\nare a law to themselves', \u1f45\u03b9\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd\u03b4\u03b5\u03af\u03ba\u03bd\u03c5\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f14\u03c1\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5\n_\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd_ \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd, _\u03c3\u03c5\u03bc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03c5\u03c1\u03bf\u03cd\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2_ \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03b4\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2, Rom. ii. 14, 15. See the notes on Gal. ii. 19, iv. 11.\nComp. Orig. _Hom. in Gen._ xiii. 4 (II. p. 96).\n\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03cc\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd] '_consisting in ordinances_': comp. Ephes. ii. 15 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd\n\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03b4\u03cc\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd. The word \u03b4\u03cc\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1 is here used in its proper\nsense of a 'decree', 'ordinance', corresponding to \u03b4\u03bf\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 below,\nver. 20. This is its only sense in the N. T.; e.g. Luke ii. 1, Acts\nxvii. 7, of the Emperor's decrees; Acts xvi. 4 of the Apostolic\nordinances. Here it refers especially to the Mosaic law, as in Joseph.\n_Ant._ xv. 5. 3 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03ba\u03ac\u03bb\u03bb\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b4\u03bf\u03b3\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f41\u03c3\u03b9\u03ce\u03c4\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2\n\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2, Philo _Leg. All._ i. 16 (I. p. 54) \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f01\u03b3\u03af\u03c9\u03bd\n\u03b4\u03bf\u03b3\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd, 3 Macc. i. 3 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u03b4\u03bf\u03b3\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd. Comp. Iren. _Fragm._ 38 (p.\n855 Stieren) where, immediately after a reference to our text, \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd\n\u1f38\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u03b4\u03cc\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03ad\u03c1\u03c7\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 is opposed to \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03c2 \u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c1\u03b3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd. In\nthe parallel passage, Ephes. ii. 15, this is the exclusive reference;\nbut here (for reasons explained in the last note) it seems best to give\nthe term a secondary and more extensive application.\n\nThe dative is perhaps best explained as governed by the idea of\n\u03b3\u03b5\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03bc\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd involved in \u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03cc\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u03bf\u03bd (comp. Plat. _Ep._ vii. p. 243 A \u03c4\u1f70\n\u03b3\u03b5\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03bc\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1 \u03c4\u03cd\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2); as in 1 Tim. ii. 6 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f30\u03b4\u03af\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2,\nwhere \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 depends on an implied \u03bc\u03b5\u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03c5\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd. Otherwise it is\ntaken as closely connected with \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8' \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd, 'the bond which was in force\nagainst us by reason of the ordinances': see Winer \u00a7 xxxi. p. 273, A.\nButtmann p. 80. Possibly an \u1f10\u03bd has dropped out of the text before \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2\n\u03b4\u03cc\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, owing to the similar ending ==\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03bf\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03bd== (comp. Ephes.\nii. 15); but, if so, the omission must date from the earliest age, since\nno existing authorities exhibit any traces of such a reading; see the\nnote on ver. 18 \u1f03 \u1f11\u03cc\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd, and comp. Phil. ii. 1 \u03b5\u1f34 \u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c0\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03c7\u03bd\u03b1.\n\nA wholly different interpretation however prevails universally among\nGreek commentators both here and in Ephes. ii. 15. They take \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2\n\u03b4\u03cc\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, \u1f10\u03bd \u03b4\u03cc\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, to mean the 'doctrines or precepts of the\nGospel', and so to describe the instrument by which the abrogation of\nthe law was effected. So Chrysostom, Severianus, Theodore of Mopsuestia,\nand Theodoret, followed by the later commentators [OE]cumenius and\nTheophylact. Strangely enough they do not allude to the correct\ninterpretation; nor (with the exception of the passage ascribed to\nIren\u00e6us which is quoted above) have I found any distinct traces of it in\nany Greek father. The grammatical difficulty would be taken to favour\nthis interpretation, which moreover was characteristic of the age when\nthe battle of creeds was fought. But it has been universally abandoned\nby modern interpreters, as plainly inappropriate to the context and also\nas severing the substantive \u03b4\u03cc\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1 here from the verb \u03b4\u03bf\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd in ver.\n20. The Latin fathers, who had either _decretis_ or _sententiis_ in\ntheir version, were saved from this false interpretation; e.g. Hilar.\n_de Trin._ i. 12 (II. p. 10), ix. 10 (II. p. 265 sq.), Ambros. _Apol.\nDav._ 13 (I. p. 698), _de Fid._ iii. 2 (II. p. 499), August. _de Pecc.\nMer._ i. 47 (X. p. 26): though they very commonly took \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03cc\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, \u1f10\u03bd\n\u03b4\u03cc\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, to refer to the decree of condemnation. Jerome however on\nEphes. ii. 15 (VII. p. 581) follows the Greeks. The later Christian\nsense of \u03b4\u03cc\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1, meaning 'doctrine', came from its secondary classical\nuse, where it was applied to the authoritative and categorical\n'sentences' of the philosophers: comp. Just. Mart. _Apol._ i. 7 (p. 56\nD) \u03bf\u1f31 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f1d\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03c4\u1f70 \u03b4\u03bf\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03ba \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f11\u03bd\u1f76 \u1f40\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\n\u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b1\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03b5\u03cd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, \u03ba\u03b1\u03af\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b4\u03bf\u03b3\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u1f44\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd, Cic.\n_Acad._ ii. 9 'de suis decretis qu\u00e6 philosophi vocant \u03b4\u03cc\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1', Senec.\n_Epist._ xcv. 10 'Nulla ars contemplativa sine decretis suis est, qu\u00e6\nGr\u00e6ci vocant _dogmata_, nobis vel _decreta_ licet adpellare vel _scita_\nvel _placita_'. See the indices to Plutarch, Epictetus, etc., for\nillustrations of the use of the term. There is an approach towards the\necclesiastical meaning in Ignat. _Magn._ 13 \u03b2\u03b5\u03b2\u03b1\u03b9\u03c9\u03b8\u1fc6\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03cc\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd, Barnab. \u00a7 1 \u03c4\u03c1\u03af\u03b1 \u03bf\u1f56\u03bd \u03b4\u03cc\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03ac \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\n(comp. \u00a7 9, 10).\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 14]\n\n\u03b4\u03cc\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, \u1f43 \u1f26\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u03b5\u03bd\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03af\u03bf\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd\u00b7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78 \u1f26\u03c1\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba\n\n\n\u1f43 \u1f26\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] '_which was directly opposed to us_'. The former\nexpression, \u03c4\u1f78 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8' \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd, referred to the _validity_ of the bond; the\npresent, \u1f43 \u1f26\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u03b5\u03bd\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03af\u03bf\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd, describes its _active hostility_. It is\nquite a mistake to suppose that the first preposition in \u1f51\u03c0\u03b5\u03bd\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03af\u03bf\u03c2\nmitigates its force, as in \u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03b4\u03ae\u03bb\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2, \u1f51\u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b5\u03c5\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2, \u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03af\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9,\n\u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03c3\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, etc. Neither in classical writers nor in the LXX has the\nword any shade of this meaning. It is very commonly used for instance,\nof things which are directly antagonistic and mutually exclusive: e.g.\nAristot. _de Gen. et Corr._ i. 7 (p. 323) \u0394\u03b7\u03bc\u03cc\u03ba\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 ... \u03c6\u03b7\u03c3\u1f76 ... \u03c4\u1f78\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f45\u03bc\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u03cc \u03c4\u03b5 \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd ... \u1f10\u03bf\u03af\u03ba\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03bf\u1f31\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c4\u03c1\u03cc\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c0\u03b5\u03bd\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03af\u03b1 (i.e. self-contradictory) \u03c6\u03b1\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9\n\u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\u00b7 \u03b1\u1f34\u03c4\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., [Plato] _Alcib. Sec._ 138 C\n\u03a3\u03a9. \u03a4\u1f78 \u03bc\u03b1\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f06\u03c1\u03b1 \u1f51\u03c0\u03b5\u03bd\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03af\u03bf\u03bd \u03c3\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b4\u03bf\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c6\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd; \u0391\u039b. \u03a0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c5 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd\n\u03bf\u1f56\u03bd.... 139 B \u03a3\u03a9. \u039a\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bc\u1f74\u03bd \u03b4\u03cd\u03bf \u03b3\u03b5 \u1f51\u03c0\u03b5\u03bd\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03af\u03b1 \u1f11\u03bd\u1f76 \u03c0\u03c1\u03ac\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c0\u1ff6\u03c2 \u1f02\u03bd \u03b5\u1f34\u03b7;\n(i.e. how can one thing have two direct opposites?), where the whole\nargument depends on this sense of \u1f51\u03c0\u03b5\u03bd\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03af\u03bf\u03c2. In compounds with \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 the\nforce of the preposition will generally be determined by the meaning of\nthe other element in the compound; and, as \u1f10\u03bd\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03af\u03bf\u03c2 (\u1f14\u03bd\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9) implies\nlocality, a local sense is communicated to \u1f51\u03c0\u03cc. Thus \u1f51\u03c0\u03b5\u03bd\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03af\u03bf\u03c2 may be\ncompared with \u1f51\u03c0\u03b1\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03c3\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, \u1f51\u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u1fb6\u03bd, \u1f51\u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9\u03ac\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, \u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u03c1\u03ad\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd (Xen.\n_Cyrop._ i. 2. 12 \u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03b4\u03c1\u03b1\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, 'to hunt down'), \u1f51\u03c0\u03b5\u03bb\u03ac\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd (Xen.\n_Anab._ i. 8. 15 \u1f51\u03c0\u03b5\u03bb\u03ac\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f61\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9, 'riding up'), \u1f51\u03c6\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03ac\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 (Polyb.\ni. 50. 6 \u1f51\u03c0\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bd\u03b1\u1fe6\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03af\u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b5\u03bc\u03af\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2, 'he brought\nup' his own ship). With this meaning, 'over against,' 'close in upon,'\nthe preposition does not weaken but enhance the force of \u1f10\u03bd\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03af\u03bf\u03c2, so\nthat the compound will denote 'direct,' 'close,' or 'persistent\nopposition.'\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78 \u1f26\u03c1\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] '_and He_, i.e. Christ, _hath taken it away_'.\nThere is a double change in this clause: (1) The participles\n(\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2, \u1f10\u03be\u03b1\u03bb\u03ad\u03b9\u03c8\u03b1\u03c2) are replaced by a finite verb. (2) The aorists\n(\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03b6\u03c9\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd, \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2, \u1f10\u03be\u03b1\u03bb\u03ad\u03b9\u03c8\u03b1\u03c2) are replaced by a perfect. The\nsubstitution of \u1f96\u03c1\u03b5\u03bd for \u1f26\u03c1\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd in some copies betrays a consciousness on\nthe part of the scribes of the dislocation produced by the new tense. As\na new subject, \u1f41 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2, must be introduced somewhere (see the note on\nver. 13), the severance thus created suggests this as the best point of\ntransition. The perfect \u1f26\u03c1\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd, 'He hath removed it', is suggested by the\nfeeling of relief and thanksgiving, which rises up in the Apostle's mind\nat this point. For the strong expression \u1f04\u03b9\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba [\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6] \u03bc\u03ad\u03c3\u03bf\u03c5, 'to\nremove and put out of sight', comp. LXX Is. lvii. 2, Epictet. iii. 3.\n15, Plut. _Mor._ p. 519 D; so 2 Thess. ii. 7 \u1f10\u03ba \u03bc\u03ad\u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 15]\n\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bc\u03ad\u03c3\u03bf\u03c5, \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b7\u03bb\u03ce\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03c5\u03c1\u1ff7\u00b7 ^{15}\u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03ba\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2\n\n\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b7\u03bb\u03ce\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] 'The abrogation was even more emphatic. Not only was\nthe writing erased, but the document itself was torn up and cast aside.'\nBy \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b7\u03bb\u03ce\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 is meant that the law of ordinances was nailed to the\ncross, rent with Christ's body, and destroyed with His death: see the\nnotes on Gal. vi. 14 \u03b4\u03b9' \u03bf\u1f57 [\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6] \u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03c5\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f11\u03bc\u03bf\u1f76 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 (the world, the\nsphere of material ordinances) \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03cd\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba\u1f00\u03b3\u1f7c \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u1ff3, where the idea is\nthe same. It has been supposed that in some cities the abrogation of a\ndecree was signified by running a nail through it and hanging it up in\npublic. The image would thus gain force, but there is no distinct\nevidence of such a custom.\n\n15. \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03ba\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] This word appears not to occur at all before\nSt Paul, and rarely if ever after his time, except in writers who may be\nsupposed to have his language before them; e.g. Hippol. _H\u00e6r._ i. 24\n\u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03ba\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1 \u1f43 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9. In Joseph. _Ant._ vi. 14. 2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03ba\u03b4\u1f7a\u03c2\nis only a variation for \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5\u03ba\u03b4\u1f7a\u03c2 which seems to be the correct reading.\nThe word also appears in some texts of Babrius _Fab._ xviii. 3, but it\nis merely a conjectural emendation. Thus the occurrence of \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03ba\u03b4\u03cd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9\nhere and in iii. 9, and of \u1f00\u03c0\u03ad\u03ba\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 above in ver. 11, is remarkable;\nand the choice of an unusual, if not a wholly new, word must have been\nprompted by the desire to emphasize the _completeness_ of the action.\nThe force of the double compound may be inferred from a passage of\nLysias, where the two words \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b4\u03cd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 and \u1f10\u03ba\u03b4\u03cd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 occur together; _c.\nTheomn._ i. 10 (p. 117) \u03c6\u03ac\u03c3\u03ba\u03c9\u03bd \u03b8\u03bf\u03b9\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b4\u03b5\u03b4\u03cd\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f22 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c7\u03b9\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd\u03af\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\n\u1f10\u03ba\u03b4\u03b5\u03b4\u03cd\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9. Here however the sense of \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03ba\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 is difficult. The\nmeaning generally assigned to it, 'having spoiled, stripped of their\narms', disregards the middle voice. St Jerome is chiefly responsible for\nthis common error of interpretation: for in place of the Old Latin\n'exuens se', which was grammatically correct, he substituted\n'exspolians' in his revised version. In his interpretation however he\nwas anticipated by the commentator Hilary, who read 'exuens' for 'exuens\nse' in his text. Discarding this sense, as inconsistent with the voice,\nwe have the choice of two interpretations.\n\n(1) The common interpretation of the Latin fathers, '_putting off_ the\nbody', thus separating \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03ba\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 from \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1f70\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. and\nunderstanding \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c3\u03ac\u03c1\u03ba\u03b1 or \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1 with it; comp. 2 Cor. v. 3\n\u1f10\u03bd\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9. So Novat. _de Trin._ 16 'exutus carnem'; Ambros. _Expos.\nLuc._ v. \u00a7 107 (I. p. 1381) 'exuens se carnem', comp. _de Fid._ iii. 2\n(II. p. 499); Hilar. _de Trin._ i. 13 (II. p. 10) 'exutus carnem' (comp.\nix. 10, p. 265), x. 48 (p. 355) 'spolians se carne' (comp. ix. 11, p.\n266); Augustin. _Epist._ 149 (II. p. 513) 'exuens se carne', etc. This\nappears to have been the sense adopted much earlier in a Docetic work\nquoted by Hippol. _H\u00e6r._ viii. 10 \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u1f74 \u1f10\u03ba\u03ad\u03b9\u03bd\u03b7 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c4\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b1,\n\u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03ba\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03b1\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b7\u03bb\u03ce\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03b1 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03be\u03cd\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b8\u03c1\u03b9\u03b1\u03bc\u03b2\u03b5\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03b1\n\u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. It is so paraphrased likewise in the Peshito Syriac and the\nGothic. The reading \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03ba\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c3\u03ac\u03c1\u03ba\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 (omitting\n\u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1f70\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76), found in some ancient authorities, must be a corruption\nfrom an earlier text, which had inserted the gloss \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c3\u03ac\u03c1\u03ba\u03b1 after\n\u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03ba\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2, while retaining \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1f70\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76, and which seems to have\nbeen in the hands of some of the Latin fathers already quoted. This\ninterpretation has been connected with a common metaphorical use of\n\u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b4\u03cd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, signifying 'to strip' and so 'to prepare for a contest';\ne.g. Plut. _Mor._ 811 E \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b4\u03cd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b9\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u1fb6\u03be\u03b9\u03bd,\nDiod. Sic. ii. 29 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b4\u03cd\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2. The serious objection to\nthis rendering is, that it introduces an isolated metaphor which is not\nexplained or suggested by anything in the context.\n\n(2) The common interpretation of the Greek fathers; '_having stripped\noff and put away the powers_ of evil', making \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03ba\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 govern \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2\n\u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1f70\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. So Chrysostom, Severianus, Theodore of Mopsuestia, and\nTheodoret. This also appears to have been the interpretation of Origen,\n_in Matt._ xii. \u00a7 25 (III. p. 544), _ib._ \u00a7 40 (p. 560), _in Ioann._ vi.\n\u00a7 37 (IV. p. 155), _ib._ xx. \u00a7 29 (p. 356), though his language is not\nexplicit, and though his translators, e.g. _in Libr. Ies. Hom._ vii. \u00a7 3\n(II. p. 413), make him say otherwise. The meaning then will be as\nfollows. Christ took upon Himself our human nature with all its\ntemptations (Heb. iv. 15). The powers of evil gathered about Him. Again\nand again they assailed Him; but each fresh assault ended in a new\ndefeat. In the wilderness He was tempted by Satan; but Satan retired for\nthe time baffled and defeated (Luke iv. 13 \u1f00\u03c0\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7 \u1f00\u03c0' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f04\u03c7\u03c1\u03b9\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6). Through the voice of His chief disciple the temptation was\nrenewed, and He was entreated to decline His appointed sufferings and\ndeath. Satan was again driven off (Matt. xvi. 23 \u1f55\u03c0\u03b1\u03b3\u03b5 \u1f40\u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c9 \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5,\n\u03a3\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u1fb6, \u03c3\u03ba\u03ac\u03bd\u03b4\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u03b5\u1f36 \u1f10\u03bc\u03bf\u1fe6: comp. Matt. viii. 31). Then the last hour\ncame. This was the great crisis of all, when 'the power of darkness'\nmade itself felt (Luke xxii. 53 _\u1f21 \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1_ \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03ba\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2; see above\ni. 13), when the prince of the world asserted his tyranny (Joh. xii. 30\n_\u1f41 \u1f04\u03c1\u03c7\u03c9\u03bd_ \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5). The final act in the conflict began with the\nagony of Gethsemane; it ended with the cross of Calvary. The victory was\ncomplete. The enemy of man was defeated. The powers of evil, which had\nclung like a Nessus robe about His humanity, were torn off and cast\naside for ever. And the victory of mankind is involved in the victory of\nChrist. In His cross we too are divested of the poisonous clinging\ngarments of temptation and sin and death; \u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b8\u03ad\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b8\u03bd\u03b7\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1,\nsays Theodore, \u1f23\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c6\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bb\u03b5\u03bd \u03b5\u1f50\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03b5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03b4\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf \u03ba\u1f00\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd\n(i.e. \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd \u03b4\u03c5\u03bd\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03c9\u03bd) \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03b8\u03b5\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u1f97\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u1f10\u03ba\u03ad\u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8'\n\u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd. For the image of the garments comp. Is. lxiv. 6, but especially\nZech. iii. 1 sq., 'And he showed me Joshua the high-priest standing\nbefore the angel of the Lord and _Satan standing at his right hand to\nresist him_. And the Lord said unto Satan, The Lord rebuke thee, O\nSatan.... Now Joshua was clothed with filthy garments.... And He\nanswered and spake unto those that stood before Him saying _Take away\nthe filthy garments_ from him. And unto him He said Behold, _I have\ncaused thine iniquity to pass from thee_'. In this prophetic passage the\nimage is used of His type and namesake, the Jesus of the Restoration,\nnot in his own person, but as the high-priest and representative of a\nguilty but cleansed and forgiven people, with whom he is identified. For\nthe metaphor of \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03ba\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 more especially, see Philo _Quod det. pot.\nins._ 13 (I. p. 199) \u1f10\u03be\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b5\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd\u03c4\u03ad\u03c7\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u03ba\u1f70\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f50\u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u1ff6\u03c2 _\u1f10\u03ba\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03b8\u03b1_, where the image in the\ncontext is that of a wrestling bout.\n\nThis interpretation is grammatical; it accords with St Paul's teaching;\nand it is commended by the parallel uses of the substantive in ver. 11\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03ba\u03b4\u03cd\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2, and of the verb in iii. 9\n\u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03ba\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03bb\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. The \u1f00\u03c0\u03ad\u03ba\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 accomplished in\nus when we are baptized into His death is a counterpart to the \u1f00\u03c0\u03ad\u03ba\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2\nwhich He accomplished by His death. With Him indeed it was only the\ntemptation, with us it is the sin as well as temptation; but otherwise\nthe parallel is complete. In both cases it is a divestiture of the\npowers of evil, a liberation from the dominion of the flesh. On the\nother hand the common explanation 'spoiling' is not less a violation of\nSt Paul's usage (iii. 9) than of grammatical rule.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 15]\n\n\u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1f70\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f10\u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03b3\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd\n\n\n\u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1f70\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] What powers are especially meant here will appear from\nEphes. vi. 12 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03ac\u03c2, \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03ba\u03bf\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03ba\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03ba\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5, \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1f70 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bd\u03b7\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. See the note\non i. 16.\n\n\u1f10\u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03b3\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd] '_displayed_', as a victor displays his captives or\ntrophies in a triumphal procession: Hor. _Epist._ i. 17. 33 'captos\nostendere civibus hostes'. The word is extremely rare; Matt. i. 19 \u03bc\u1f74\n\u03b8\u03ad\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 (where it ought probably to be read for the more\ncommon word \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9), _Act. Paul. et Petr._ 33 \u1f14\u03bb\u03b5\u03b3\u03b5 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd\n\u03bb\u03b1\u1f78\u03bd \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03bc\u1f74 \u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a3\u03af\u03bc\u03c9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03ac\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 \u03c6\u03cd\u03b3\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd. Nowhere does the word convey the idea of 'making\nan example' (\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9) but signifies simply 'to display, publish,\nproclaim'. In the context of the last passage we have as the\nconsequence, \u1f65\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f50\u03bb\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 \u03b2\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03cd\u03c4\u03c4\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03a3\u03af\u03bc\u03c9\u03bd\u03b1 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd\n\u03bc\u03ac\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03bd\u03cc\u03c3\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd _\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03ad\u03bb\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd_, i.e. to _proclaim_ his\nimpieties. The substantive occurs on the Rosetta stone l. 30 (Boeckh,\n_C. I._ 4697) \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u1f78\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03ac\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03b1.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 15]\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u1fb3, \u03b8\u03c1\u03b9\u03b1\u03bc\u03b2\u03b5\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7.\n\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u1fb3] '_boldly_', not '_publicly_'. As \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03b1 is\n'unreservedness, plainness of speech' (\u03c0\u03b1\u03bd-\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03b1, its opposite being\n\u1f00\u03c1\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03b1 'silence'), so while applied still to language, it may be\nopposed either (1) to 'fear', as John vii. 13, Acts iv. 29, or (2) to\n'ambiguity, reserve', Joh. xi. 14, xvi. 25, 29; but 'misgiving,\napprehension' in some form or other seems to be always the correlative\nidea. Hence, when it is transferred from words to actions, it appears\nalways to retain the idea of 'confidence, boldness'; e.g. 1 Macc. iv. 18\n\u03bb\u03ae\u03c8\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c3\u03ba^\u03c5\u03bb\u03b1 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u1fe5\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, _Test. xii. Patr._ Rub. 4 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u03b5\u1f36\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u1fe5\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u1f00\u03c4\u03b5\u03bd\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u03cc\u03c3\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd \u1f38\u03b1\u03ba\u03ce\u03b2, Jos. _Ant._ ix. 1O. 4 \u1f51\u03c0'\n\u03b1\u1f30\u03c3\u03c7\u03cd\u03bd\u03b7\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bc\u03b2\u03b5\u03b2\u03b7\u03ba\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bc\u03b7\u03ba\u03ad\u03c4' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u1fe5\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9.\nThe idea of publicity may sometimes be connected with the word as a\nsecondary notion, e.g. in Joh. vii. 4, where \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u1fb3 \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 'to\nassume a bold attitude' is opposed to \u1f10\u03bd \u03ba\u03c1\u03c5\u03c0\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd (comp. xviii.\n20); but it does not displace the primary sense.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 16]\n\n^{16}\u039c\u1f74 \u03bf\u1f56\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03c1\u03b9\u03bd\u03ad\u03c4\u03c9 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b2\u03c1\u03ce\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03cc\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u1f22 >\n\n                            16. \u1f22 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03cc\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9.\n\n\n\u03b8\u03c1\u03b9\u03b1\u03bc\u03b2\u03b5\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2] '_leading them in triumph_', the same metaphor as in 2 Cor.\nii. 14 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c4\u03b5 \u03b8\u03c1\u03b9\u03b1\u03bc\u03b2\u03b5\u03cd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f21\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., where it is\nwrongly translated in the A. V. 'causeth us to triumph'. Here however it\nis the defeated powers of evil, there the subjugated persons of men, who\nare led in public, chained to the triumphal car of Christ. This is the\nproper meaning and construction of \u03b8\u03c1\u03b9\u03b1\u03bc\u03b2\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, as found elsewhere. This\nverb takes an accusative (1) of the person over whom the triumph is\ncelebrated, e.g. Plut. _Vit. Arat._ 54 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u0391\u1f30\u03bc\u03af\u03bb\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03b8\u03c1\u03b9\u03ac\u03bc\u03b2\u03b5\u03c5\u03c3\u03b5,\n_Thes. et Rom. Comp._ 4 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03b8\u03c1\u03b9\u03ac\u03bc\u03b2\u03b5\u03c5\u03c3\u03b5: (2) of the spoils\nexhibited in the triumph, e.g. Tatian _c. Gr\u00e6c._ 26 \u03c0\u03b1\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2\n\u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03c4\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03b8\u03c1\u03b9\u03b1\u03bc\u03b2\u03b5\u03cd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03af, \u1f65\u03c3\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u1f41 \u03ba\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03cc\u03c2, \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f30\u03b4\u03af\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\n\u03c0\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2: (3) more rarely of the substance of the triumph, e.g. _Vit.\nCamill._ 30 \u1f41 \u03b4\u1f72 \u039a\u03ac\u03bc\u03b9\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03b8\u03c1\u03b9\u03ac\u03bc\u03b2\u03b5\u03c5\u03c3\u03b5 ... \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03c9\u03bb\u03c5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c9\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c1\u03b1 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03af\u03b4\u03bf\u03c2\n\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd, i.e. 'in the character of his country's saviour'. The passive\n\u03b8\u03c1\u03b9\u03b1\u03bc\u03b2\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 is 'to be led in triumph', 'to be triumphed over', e.g.\n_Vit. C. Marc._ 35. So the Latins say 'triumphare aliquem' and\n'triumphari'.\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7] i.e. \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03c5\u03c1\u1ff7: comp. Ephes. ii. 16 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03be\u1fc3 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2\n\u1f00\u03bc\u03c6\u03bf\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 ... \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03c5\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6. The violence of the metaphor is its\njustification. The paradox of the crucifixion is thus placed in the\nstrongest light\u2014triumph in helplessness and glory in shame. The\nconvict's gibbet is the victor's car.\n\n16\u201319. 'Seeing then that the bond is cancelled, that the law of\nordinances is repealed, beware of subjecting yourselves to its tyranny\nagain. Suffer no man to call you to account in the matter of eating or\ndrinking, or again of the observance of a festival or a new moon or a\nsabbath. These are only shadows thrown in advance, only types of things\nto come. The substance, the reality, in every case belongs to the Gospel\nof Christ. The prize is now fairly within your reach. Do not suffer\nyourselves to be robbed of it by any stratagem of the false teachers.\nTheir religion is an officious humility which displays itself in the\nworship of angels. They make a parade of their visions, but they are\nfollowing an empty phantom. They profess humility, but they are puffed\nup with their vaunted wisdom, which is after all only the mind of the\nflesh. Meanwhile they have substituted inferior spiritual agencies for\nthe One true Mediator, the Eternal Word. Clinging to these lower\nintelligences, they have lost their hold of the Head; they have severed\ntheir connexion with Him, on whom the whole body depends; from whom it\nderives its vitality, and to whom it owes its unity, being supplied with\nnourishment and knit together in one by means of the several joints and\nattachments, so that it grows with a growth which comes from God\nHimself.'\n\n16 sq. The two main tendencies of the Colossian heresy are discernible\nin this warning (vv. 16\u201319), as they were in the previous statement (vv.\n9\u201315). Here however the order is reversed. The practical error, an\nexcessive ritualism and ascetic rigour, is first dealt with (vv. 16,\n17); the theological error, the interposition of angelic mediators,\nfollows after (vv. 18, 19). The first is the substitution of a shadow\nfor the substance; the second is the preference of an inferior member to\nthe head. The reversal of order is owing to the connexion of the\nparagraphs; the opening subject in the second paragraph being a\ncontinuation of the concluding subject in the first, by the figure\ncalled chiasm: comp. Gal. iv. 5.\n\n\u03ba\u03c1\u03b9\u03bd\u03ad\u03c4\u03c9] not '_condemn you_', but '_take you to task_'; as e.g. Rom.\nxiv. 3 sq. The judgment may or may not end in an acquittal; but in any\ncase it is wrong, since these matters ought not to be taken as the basis\nof a judgment.\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03b2\u03c1\u03ce\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] '_in eating and in drinking_'; Rom. xiv. 17 \u03bf\u1f50 \u03b3\u03ac\u03c1\n\u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f21 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b2\u03c1\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03cc\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2, \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b7 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., Heb.\nix. 10 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03b2\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03cc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c6\u03cc\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2, \u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03af\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\n\u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2, comp. 1 Cor. viii. 8 \u03b2\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f21\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u0398\u03b5\u1ff7 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\nThe first indication that the Mosaic distinctions of things clean and\nunclean should be abolished is given by our Lord Himself: Mark vii. 14\nsq. (the correct reading in ver. 19 being \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03b1\u03c1\u03af\u03b6\u03c9\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03b2\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1).\nThey were afterwards formally annulled by the vision which appeared to\nSt Peter: Acts x. 11 sq. The ordinances of the Mosaic law applied almost\nexclusively to meats. It contained no prohibitions respecting drinks\nexcept in a very few cases; e.g. of the priests ministering in the\ntabernacle (Lev. x. 9), of liquids contained in unclean vessels etc.\n(Lev. xi. 34, 36), and of Nazarite vows (Num. vi. 3). These directions,\ntaken in connexion with the rigid observances which the later Jews had\ngrafted on them (Matt. xxiii. 24), would be sufficient to explain the\nexpression, when applied to the Mosaic law by itself, as in Heb. _l.c._\nThe rigour of the Colossian false teachers however, like that of their\nJewish prototypes the Essenes, doubtless went far beyond the injunctions\nof the law. It is probable that they forbad wine and animal food\naltogether: see the introduction pp. 86, 104 sq. For allusions in St\nPaul to similar observances not required by the law, see Rom. xiv. 2 \u1f41\n\u03b4\u1f72 \u1f00\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5\u03bd\u1ff6\u03bd \u03bb\u03ac\u03c7\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1 \u1f10\u03c3\u03b8\u03af\u03b5\u03b9, ver. 21 \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u1f78\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03bc\u1f74 \u03c6\u03b1\u03b3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u03ba\u03c1\u03ad\u03b1 \u03bc\u03b7\u03b4\u1f72 \u03c0\u03b9\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd\n\u03bf\u1f36\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., 1 Tim. iv. 2, 3 \u03ba\u03c9\u03bb\u03c5\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd ... \u1f00\u03c0\u03ad\u03c7\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b2\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u1f03 \u1f41 \u0398\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2\n\u1f14\u03ba\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., Tit. i. 14 \u03bc\u1f74 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03ad\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 ... \u1f10\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03c9\u03bd ...\n\u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03b1\u03c1\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2. The correct reading seems to be _\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76_\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03cc\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9, thus connecting together the words between which there is a\nnatural affinity. Comp. Philo _Vit. Moys._ i. \u00a7 33 (II. p. 110)\n\u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c7\u03b1\u03bb\u03b5\u03c0\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03b6\u03b5\u03c5\u03b3\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b2\u03c1\u03ce\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03cc\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9, Ign. _Trall._ 2 \u03bf\u1f50\n\u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03b2\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c3\u1f76\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03ac\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 17]\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9 \u1f11\u03bf\u03c1\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f22 \u03bd\u03b5\u03bf\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f22 \u03c3\u03b1\u03b2\u03b2\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd, ^{17}\u1f05 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03c3\u03ba\u1f76\u03b1\n\n                            17 \u1f45 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03c3\u03ba\u03b9\u1f70.\n\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9] '_in the matter of_,' etc.; comp. 2 Cor. iii. 10, ix. 3 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7\n\u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u1ff3. The expression seems originally to mean 'in the division or\ncategory', and in classical writers most commonly occurs in connexion\nwith such words as \u03c4\u03b9\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9, \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, \u1f00\u03c1\u03b9\u03b8\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, etc.: comp. Demosth.\n_c. Aristocr._ \u00a7 148 \u1f45\u03c3\u03b1 ... \u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03af\u03c9\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 \u1f62\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c3\u03c6\u03b5\u03bd\u03b4\u03bf\u03bd\u03ae\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c8\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9 ... \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03b5\u03c5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, i.e. 'in the capacity of.' Hence it gets to\nsignify more widely, as here, 'with respect to', 'by reason of': comp.\nPhilo _Quod det. pot. ins._ \u00a7 2 (I. p. 192) \u1f10\u03bd \u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03ba\u03cc\u03c0\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1 \u03ba\u03bf\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, _in Flacc._ 20 (II. p. 542) \u1f45\u03c3\u03b1\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03c9\u03c1\u03b5\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f14\u03bb\u03b1\u03b2\u03bf\u03bd. But \u00c6lian _V. H._ viii. 3 \u03ba\u03c1\u03af\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2\n\u1f15\u03ba\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c6\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5, quoted by the commentators, is a false\nparallel: for \u03c6\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5 is there governed by \u03ba\u03c1\u03af\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 and \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9 means\n'in his turn'.\n\n\u1f11\u03bf\u03c1\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] The same three words occur together, as an exhaustive\nenumeration of the sacred times among the Jews, in 1 Chron. xxiii. 31, 2\nChron. ii. 4, xxxi. 3, Ezek. xlv. 17, Hos. ii. 11, Justin _Dial._ 8, p.\n226; comp. Is. i. 13, 14. See also Gal. iv. 10 \u1f21\u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03bc\u1fc6\u03bd\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd\u03b9\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c2, where the first three words correspond\nto the three words used here, though the order is reversed. The \u1f11\u03bf\u03c1\u03c4\u03ae\nhere, like the \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u03bf\u03af there, refers chiefly to the _annual_ festivals,\nthe passover, pentecost, etc. The \u03bd\u03b5\u03bf\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd\u03af\u03b1 here describes more precisely\nthe _monthly_ festival, which is there designated more vaguely as \u03bc\u1fc6\u03bd\u03b5\u03c2.\nThe \u03c3\u03ac\u03b2\u03b2\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 here gives by name the _weekly_ holy-day, which is there\nindicated more generally by \u1f21\u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03b9.\n\n\u03bd\u03b5\u03bf\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd\u03af\u03b1\u03c2] See Num. xxviii. 11 sq. The forms \u03bd\u03b5\u03bf\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd\u03af\u03b1 and \u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd\u03af\u03b1 seem\nto be used indifferently in the common dialect, though the latter is\nmore common. In the Attic \u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd\u03af\u03b1 alone was held to be correct; see\nLobeck _Phryn._ p. 148. On the whole the preference should perhaps be\ngiven to \u03bd\u03b5\u03bf\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 here, as supported by some authorities which are\ngenerally trustworthy in matters of orthography, and as being the less\nusual form in itself.\n\n\u03c3\u03b1\u03b2\u03b2\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd] '_a sabbath-day_', not, as the A.V., '_sabbath days_'; for the\ncoordinated words \u1f11\u03bf\u03c1\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2, \u03bd\u03b5\u03bf\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, are in the singular. The word\n\u03c3\u03ac\u03b2\u03b2\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 is derived from the Aramaic (as distinguished from the Hebrew)\nform \u05e9\u05d1\u05ea\u05d0, and accordingly preserves the Aramaic termination in \u03b1. Hence\nit was naturally declined as a plural noun, \u03c3\u03ac\u03b2\u03b2\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1, \u03c3\u03b1\u03b2\u03b2\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd. The\ngeneral use of \u03c3\u03ac\u03b2\u03b2\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1, when a single sabbath-day was meant, will appear\nfrom such passages as Jos. _Ant._ i. 1. 1 \u1f04\u03b3\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd,\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b1\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03b5\u03cd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c3\u03ac\u03b2\u03b2\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1, _ib._ iii. 10. 1 \u1f11\u03b2\u03b4\u03cc\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd \u1f25\u03c4\u03b9\u03c2\n\u03c3\u03ac\u03b2\u03b2\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, Plut. _Mor._ 169 C \u1f38\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c3\u03b1\u03b2\u03b2\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u1f44\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd\n\u1f00\u03b3\u03bd\u03ac\u03bc\u03c0\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03b5\u03b6\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9, _ib._ 671 F \u03bf\u1f36\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c3\u03b1\u03b2\u03b2\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u1f11\u03bf\u03c1\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd\n\u03bc\u1f74 \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03ac\u03c0\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b4\u03af\u03bf\u03bd\u03c5\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9, Hor. _Sat._ i. 9. 69 'hodie tricesima\nsabbata'. In the New Testament \u03c3\u03ac\u03b2\u03b2\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 is only once used distinctly of\nmore than a single day, and there the plurality of meaning is brought\nout by the attached numeral; Acts xvii. 2 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c3\u03ac\u03b2\u03b2\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c4\u03c1\u03af\u03b1.\n\nOn the observance of days and seasons see again Gal. iv. 10, Rom. xiv.\n5, 6. A strong anti-Judaic view on the subject is expressed in the\n_Epist. ad Diogn._ \u00a7 4. Origen _c. Cels._ viii. 21, 22, after referring\nto Thucyd. i. 70 \u03bc\u03ae\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f11\u03bf\u03c1\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f04\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf \u03c4\u03b9 \u1f21\u03b3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f22 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03b4\u03ad\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c0\u03c1\u1fb6\u03be\u03b1\u03b9,\nsays \u1f41 \u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2, \u1f00\u03b5\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f62\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f14\u03c1\u03b3\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2\n\u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c6\u03cd\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03ba\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c5 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6, \u1f00\u03b5\u03af \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2\n\u1f21\u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03b5\u1f76 \u1f04\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03ba\u03c5\u03c1\u03b9\u03b1\u03ba\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2, and he then goes on to explain\nwhat is the \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03c5\u03ae, the \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03c7\u03b1, the \u03c0\u03b5\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03ba\u03bf\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae, of such a man. The\nobservance of sacred times was an integral part of the old dispensation.\nUnder the new they have ceased to have any value, except as a means to\nan end. The great principle that 'the sabbath was made for man and not\nman for the sabbath', though underlying the Mosaic ordinances, was first\ndistinctly pronounced by our Lord. The setting apart of special days for\nthe service of God is a confession of our imperfect state, an avowal\nthat we cannot or do not devote our whole time to Him. Sabbaths will\nthen ultimately be superseded, when our life becomes one eternal\nsabbath. Meanwhile the Apostle's rebuke warns us against attributing to\nany holy days whatever a meaning and an importance which is alien to the\nspirit of the New Covenant. Bengel on the text writes, 'Sabbatum non\nlaudatur, non imperatur; dominica memoratur, non pr\u00e6cipitur. Qui\nprofundius in mundi negotiis h\u00e6rent, his utilis et necessarius est dies\ndefinitus: qui semper sabbatizant, majori libertate gaudent'. Yes: but\nthese last are just they who will most scrupulously restrict their\nliberty, so as \u1f00\u03c0\u03c1\u03cc\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b3\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9.\n\n17. Two ideas are prominent in this image. (1) The contrast between the\nordinances of the Law and the teaching of the Gospel, as the shadow and\nthe substance respectively; Philo _de Conf. ling._ 37 (I. p. 434)\n\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u1fe4\u03b7\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c3\u03ba\u03b9\u03ac\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f61\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03b5\u1f76 _\u03c3\u03c9\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd_\n\u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9, Joseph. _B.J._ ii. 2. 5 \u03c3\u03ba\u03b9\u1f70\u03bd \u03b1\u1f30\u03c4\u03b7\u03c3\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f27\u03c2 \u1f25\u03c1\u03c0\u03b1\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd\n\u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1; comp. Philo _in Flacc._ 19 (II. p. 541) \u03c3\u03ba\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c0\u03c1\u03b1\u03b3\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd\n\u1f04\u03c1' \u1f26\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd, \u03bf\u1f50 \u03c0\u03c1\u03ac\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1. (2) The conception of the shadow as thrown before\nthe substance (\u1f21 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c3\u03ba\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c4\u03c1\u03ad\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, says a Greek\ncommentator), so that the Law was a type and presage of the Gospel; Heb.\nx. 1 \u03c3\u03ba\u03b9\u1f70\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03c9\u03bd \u1f41 \u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03bc\u03b5\u03bb\u03bb\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03b8\u1ff6\u03bd (comp. viii. 5). Thus it\nimplies both the _unsubstantiality_ and the _supersession_ of the Mosaic\nritual.\n\n\u1f05] '_which things_', whether distinctions of meats or observances of\ntimes. If the other reading \u1f45 be taken, it will refer to the preceding\nsentence generally, as if the antecedent were 'the whole system of\nordinances'.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 18]\n\n\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03bc\u03b5\u03bb\u03bb\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd, \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6. ^{18}\u03bc\u03b7\u03b4\u03b5\u1f76\u03c2\n\n\n\u03c4\u1f78 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] As the shadow belonged to Moses, so '_the substance\nbelongs to Christ_'; i.e. the reality, the antitype, in each case is\nfound in the Christian dispensation. Thus the passover typifies the\natoning sacrifice; the unleavened bread, the purity and sincerity of the\ntrue believer; the pentecostal feast, the ingathering of the first\nfruits; the sabbath, the rest of God's people; etc.\n\n18. The Christian's career is the contest of the stadium (\u03b4\u03c1\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2, Acts\nxx. 24, 2 Tim. iv. 7); Christ is the umpire, the dispenser of the\nrewards (2 Tim. iv. 8); life eternal is the bay wreath, the victor's\nprize (\u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bf\u03bd, 1 Cor. ix. 24, Phil. iii. 14). The Colossians were in a\nfair way to win this prize; they had entered the lists duly; they were\nrunning bravely: but the false teachers, thrusting themselves in the\nway, attempted to trip them up or otherwise impede them in the race, and\nthus to rob them of their just reward. For the idea of \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03c4\u03c9\ncompare especially Gal. v. 7 \u1f10\u03c4\u03c1\u03ad\u03c7\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u1ff6\u03c2\u00b7 \u03c4\u03af\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd\u03ad\u03ba\u03bf\u03c8\u03b5\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 18]\n\n\u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u03c5\u03ad\u03c4\u03c9 \u03b8\u03ad\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c6\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u1fc3 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u03c5\u03ad\u03c4\u03c9] '_rob of the prize, the_ \u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bf\u03bd'; comp. Demosth. _Mid._\np. 544 (one of the documents) \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03b8\u03b1 \u03a3\u03c4\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd\u03b1 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 \u039c\u03b5\u03b9\u03b4\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\n_\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u03c5\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1_ \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03b4\u03af\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03b1 \u1f00\u03c4\u03b9\u03bc\u03c9\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1, which\npresents a close parallel to the use of \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd here. See also\nEustath. _in Il._ i. 403 sq. (p. 43) \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd, \u1f65\u03c2 \u03c6\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03bf\u1f31\n\u03c0\u03ac\u03bb\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9, ib. _Opusc._ 277, etc. The false teachers at Coloss\u00e6 are not\nregarded as umpires nor as successful rivals, but simply as persons\nfrustrating those who otherwise would have won the prize. The word\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd is wide enough to include such. The two compounds\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd and \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd (Plut. _Mor._ p. 535 C \u03bf\u1f31\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u03cd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03b3\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9) only differ in this respect, that\n_deprivation_ is the prominent idea in the former word and _trickery_ in\nthe latter. Jerome, _Epist._ cxxi. _ad Algas._ (I. p. 879), sets down\nthis word, which he wrongly interprets 'bravium accipiat adversum vos',\nas one of St Paul's Cilicisms. The passages quoted (whether the document\nin the Midias be authentic or not) are sufficient to show that this\nstatement is groundless.\n\n\u03b8\u03ad\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd] '_taking delight in_', '_devoting himself to_'. The expression\nis common in the LXX, most frequently as a translation of \u05d7\u05e4\u05e5 \u05d1\u05f4, 1\nSam.\u05d7\u05e4\u05e5 xviii. 22, 2 Sam. xv. 26, 1 Kings x. 9, 2 Chron. ix. 8, Ps. cxi.\n1, cxlvi. 10, but in one passage of \u05e8\u05e6\u05d4 \u05d1\u05f4, 1 Chron. xxviii. 4. So too\n_Test. xii. Patr._ Asher 1 \u1f10\u1f70\u03bd \u03bf\u1f56\u03bd \u1f21 \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u1f74 \u03b8\u03ad\u03bb\u1fc3 \u1f10\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u1ff7. Comp. also 1\nMacc. iv. 42 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bb\u03b7\u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5, and see \u1f10\u03b8\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u03b8\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03b1 below. Against this\nconstruction no valid objection has been urged. Otherwise \u03b8\u03ad\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd is taken\nabsolutely, and various senses have been assigned to it, such as\n'imperiously' or 'designedly' or 'wilfully' or 'gladly, readily'; but\nthese are either unsupported by usage or inappropriate to the context.\nLeclerc (_ad loc._) and Bentley (_Crit. Sacr._ p. 59) conjectured\n\u03b8\u03ad\u03bb\u03b3\u03c9\u03bd; Toup (_Emend. in Suid._ II. p. 63) more plausibly \u1f10\u03bb\u03b8\u03ce\u03bd; but the\npassages quoted show that no correction is needed.\n\n\u03c4\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c6\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u1fc3] Humility is a vice with heathen moralists, but a virtue\nwith Christian Apostles; see the note on Phil. ii. 3. In this passage,\nwhich (with ver. 23) forms the sole exception to the general language of\nthe Apostles, the divergence is rather apparent than real. The\ndisparagement is in the accompaniments and not in the word itself.\nHumility, when it becomes self-conscious, ceases to have any value; and\nself-consciousness at least, if not affectation, is implied by \u03b8\u03ad\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd.\nMoreover the character of the \u03c4\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c6\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b7 in this case is further\ndefined as \u03b8\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03b1 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03b3\u03ad\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd, which was altogether a perversion of\nthe truth.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 18]\n\n\u03b8\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u1fb3 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03b3\u03ad\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd, \u1f03 \u1f11\u03cc\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd \u1f10\u03bc\u03b2\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03c9\u03bd, \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u1fc7 \u03c6\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2\n\n\n\u03b8\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u1fb3] This word is closely connected with the preceding by the\nvinculum of the same preposition. There was an officious parade of\nhumility in selecting these lower beings as intercessors, rather than\nappealing directly to the throne of grace. The word refers properly to\nthe external rites of religion, and so gets to signify an\nover-scrupulous devotion to external forms; as in Philo _Quod det. pot.\nins._ 7 (i. p. 195) \u03b8\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u1f76 \u1f41\u03c3\u03af\u03bf\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f21\u03b3\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2, Plut. _Vit.\nAlex._ 2 \u03b4\u03bf\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b8\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u1f44\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 _\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03ba\u03cc\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2_ \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03ad\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 _\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03ad\u03c1\u03b3\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2_ \u1f31\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03c1\u03b3\u03af\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2: comp. Acts xxvi. 5, and see the\nwell-known remarks of Coleridge on James i. 26, 27, in _Aids to\nReflection_ p. 14. In the LXX \u03b8\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, \u03b8\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03b1, together occur four\ntimes (Wisd. xi. 16, xiv. 16, 18, 27), and in all these examples the\nreference is to idolatrous or false worship. Indeed generally the usage\nof the word exhibits a tendency to a bad sense.\n\n\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03b3\u03ad\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd] For the angelology and angelolatry of these Colossian false\nteachers, more especially in its connexion with Essene teaching, see the\nintroduction, pp. 89 sq., 101 sq., 110, 181 sq. For the prominence which\nwas given to angelology in the speculations of the Jews generally, see\nthe _Preaching of Peter_ quoted in Clem. Alex. _Strom._ vi. 5 (p. 760)\n\u03bc\u03b7\u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u1f38\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03c3\u03ad\u03b2\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03b5\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 ... \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9\n\u03bb\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03b5\u03cd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b3\u03ad\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03ad\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2, Celsus in Orig. _c. Cels._ v. 6\n(i. p. 580) \u03c0\u03c1\u1ff6\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03bf\u1f56\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f38\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u03b8\u03b1\u03c5\u03bc\u03ac\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u1f04\u03be\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd, \u03b5\u1f30 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u1f78\u03bd\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7\u03b4\u03b5 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b3\u03ad\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03c3\u03ad\u03b2\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., comp. _ib._ i. 26 (p. 344).\nFrom Jews it naturally spread to Judaizing Christians; e.g. _Clem. Hom._\niii. 36 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b3\u03ad\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd \u1f40\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c1\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, viii. 12 sq., _Test. xii. Patr._ Levi\n3 (quoted above on i. 16). The interest however extended to more\northodox circles, as appears from the strange passage in Ignat. _Trall._\n5 \u03bc\u1f74 \u03bf\u1f50 \u03b4\u03cd\u03bd\u03b1\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5\u03c1\u03ac\u03bd\u03b9\u03b1 \u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03c8\u03b1\u03b9; ... \u03b4\u03cd\u03bd\u03b1\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9 \u03bd\u03bf\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5\u03c1\u03ac\u03bd\u03b9\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03b8\u03b5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03b9\u03ba\u1f70\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03ac\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. Of\nangelology among Gnostic sects see Iren. ii. 30. 6, ii. 32. 5, Orig. _c.\nCels._ vi. 30 sq. (I. p. 653), Clem. Alex. _Exc. Theod._ p. 970 sq.,\n_Pistis Sophia_ pp. 2, 19, 23, etc.\n\n\u1f03 \u1f11\u03cc\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] literally '_invading what he has seen,_' which is\ngenerally explained to mean 'parading' or 'poring over his visions'. For\nthis sense of \u1f10\u03bc\u03b2\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, which takes either a genitive or a dative or\nan accusative, comp. Philo _de Plant. Noe_ ii. 19 (i. p. 341) \u03bf\u1f31\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03c9\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03c9 \u03c7\u03c9\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ad\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03bc\u03b2\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2, 2\nMacc. ii. 30 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u1f10\u03bc\u03b2\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03af \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03c5\u03c0\u03c1\u03b1\u03b3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2. At a later date this sense becomes\ncommon, e.g. Nemesius _de Nat. Hom._ p. 64 (ed. Matth\u00e6i) \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u1f78\u03bd\n\u1f10\u03bc\u03b2\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03b8\u03b5\u03c9\u03c1\u03af\u1fb3. In Xen. _Symp._ iv. 27 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b2\u03b9\u03b2\u03bb\u03af\u1ff7 \u1f00\u03bc\u03c6\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9\n\u1f10\u03bc\u03b2\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03c4\u03ad \u03c4\u03b9, the reading may be doubtful. But though \u1f03 \u1f11\u03cc\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd singly\nmight mean 'his visions', and \u1f10\u03bc\u03b2\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03c9\u03bd 'busying himself with', the\ncombination 'invading what he has seen', thus interpreted, is so harsh\nand incongruous as to be hardly possible; and there was perhaps some\ncorruption in the text prior to all existing authorities (see the note\non Phil. ii. 1 for a parallel case). Did the Apostle write )\u03ad\u03c9\u03c1\u1fb3 (or\n\u03b1\u1f34\u03c9\u03c1\u1fb3) \u03ba\u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u03bc\u03b2\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03c9\u03bd? In this case the existing text ==\u03b1\u03b5\u03c9\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u03bc\n\u03b2\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03c5\u03c9\u03bd== might be explained partly by an attempt to correct the form\n)\u03b5\u03ce\u03c1\u1fb3 into \u03b1\u1f30\u03ce\u03c1\u1fb3 or conversely, and partly by the perplexity of\ntranscribers when confronted with such unusual words. This reading had\nsuggested itself to me independently without the knowledge that, so far\nas regards the latter word, it had been anticipated by others in the\nconjecture \u1f03 \u1f11\u03ce\u03c1\u03b1 (or \u1f03 \u1f11\u03ce\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd) \u03ba\u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u03bc\u03b2\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03c9\u03bd. The word \u03ba\u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u03bc\u03b2\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd 'to\nwalk on emptiness', 'to tread the air', and so metaphorically (like\n\u03b1\u1f10\u03c1\u03bf\u03b2\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, \u03b1\u1f30\u03b8\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03b2\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, \u03b1\u1f30\u03b8\u03b5\u03c1\u03b5\u03bc\u03b2\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, etc.) 'to indulge in vain\nspeculations', is not an uncommon word. For its metaphorical sense\nespecially see Plut. _Mor._ p. 336 F \u03bf\u1f55\u03c4\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c1\u03ad\u03bc\u03b2\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf \u03ba\u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u03bc\u03b2\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03c3\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u03bb\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0' \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c1\u03c7\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03bc\u03ad\u03b3\u03b5\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2, Basil. _Op._ I. p. 135 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd\n\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd ... \u03bc\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03b1 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b1\u03bd\u03b7\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03ba\u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u03bc\u03b2\u03b1\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., _ib._ I. p.\n596 \u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03bc\u1f74 \u03ba\u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u03bc\u03b2\u03b1\u03c4\u03ad\u03b9\u03c4\u03c9 \u1f41 \u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c2, Synes. _de Insomn._ p. 156 \u03bf\u1f54\u03c4\u03b5 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1\n\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u03bc\u03b2\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03be\u03ae\u03bd\u03b5\u03b3\u03ba\u03b1\u03bd. Though the precise form\n\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u03bc\u03b2\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd does not occur, yet it is unobjectionable in itself. For\nthe other word which I have ventured to suggest, \u1f10\u03ce\u03c1\u1fb3 or \u03b1\u1f30\u03ce\u03c1\u1fb3, see\nPhilo _de Somn._ ii. 6 (I. p. 665) _\u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u03c5\u03c6\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2_ \u1f51\u03c0' \u03b1\u1f30\u03ce\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2\n\u03c6\u03c1\u03b5\u03bd\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 _\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6_ \u03c6\u03c5\u03c3\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, _ib._ \u00a7 9 (p. 667) \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0'\n_\u03b1\u1f30\u03ce\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2_ \u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd _\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd\u1f74\u03bd_ \u03b4\u03cc\u03be\u03b1\u03bd, _Quod Deus immut._ \u00a7 36 (I.\np. 298) \u1f61\u03c3\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u1f10\u03c0' \u03b1\u1f30\u03ce\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c8\u03b5\u03c5\u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03b2\u03b5\u03b2\u03b1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b4\u03cc\u03be\u03b7\u03c2 \u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9\n_\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03ba\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b2\u03b1\u03af\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1_. The first and last passages more especially\npresent striking parallels, and show how germane to St Paul's subject\nthese ideas of 'suspension or balancing in the air' (\u1f10\u03ce\u03c1\u03b1 or \u03b1\u1f30\u03ce\u03c1\u03b1) and\n'treading the void' (\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u03bc\u03b2\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd) would be, as expressing at once the\nspiritual pride and the emptiness of these speculative mystics; see also\n_de Somn._ ii. 2 (p. 661) \u1f10\u03bc\u03c6\u03b1\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 _\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd\u1fc6\u03c2_ \u03b4\u03cc\u03be\u03b7\u03c2, \u1f10\u03c6'\n\u1f23\u03bd, \u1f61\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c6' \u1f05\u03c1\u03bc\u03b1, \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03ba\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c6\u03bf\u03bd _\u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03b2\u03b1\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9, \u03c6\u03c5\u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2_ \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03ad\u03c9\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\n_\u1f90\u03c9\u03c1\u03b7\u03ba\u1f7c\u03c2_ \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd. The substantive, \u1f10\u03ce\u03c1\u03b1 or \u03b1\u1f30\u03ce\u03c1\u03b1, is used sometimes\nof the instrument for suspending, sometimes of the position of\nsuspension. In this last sense it describes the poising of a bird, the\nfloating of a boat on the waters, the balancing on a rope, and the like.\nHence its expressiveness when used as a metaphor.\n\nIn the received text a negative is inserted, \u1f03 \u03bc\u1f74 \u1f11\u03ce\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd \u1f10\u03bc\u03b2\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03c9\u03bd.\nThis gives a very adequate sense '_intruding into those things which he\nhas not seen_'; \u03bf\u1f50 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03b5\u1f36\u03b4\u03b5\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03b3\u03ad\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2, says Chrysostom, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f55\u03c4\u03c9\n\u03b4\u03b9\u03ac\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f61\u03c2 \u1f30\u03b4\u03ce\u03bd: comp. Ezek. xiii. 3 \u03bf\u1f50\u1f70\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03cc\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5 \u03bc\u1f74 \u03b2\u03bb\u03ad\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd. But, though the difficulty is\nthus overcome, this cannot be regarded as the original reading of the\ntext, the authorities showing that the negative was an after insertion.\nSee the detached note on various readings.\n\nFor the form \u1f11\u03cc\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd, which is better supported here than \u1f11\u03ce\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd, see\nthe note on ii. 1.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 19]\n\n\u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bd\u03bf\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, ^{19}\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f50\n\n\n\u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u1fc7 \u03c6\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2] '_vainly puffed up_.' Their profession of humility was\na cloke for excessive pride: for, as St Paul says elsewhere (1 Cor.\nviii. 1), \u1f21 \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c6\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bf\u1fd6. It may be questioned whether \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u1fc7 should be\nconnected with the preceding or the following words. Its usual position\nin St Paul, before the words which it qualifies (Rom. xiii. 4, 1 Cor.\nxv. 2, Gal. iv. 11; there is an exceptional reason for the exceptional\nposition in Gal. iii. 4), points to the latter construction.\n\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bd\u03bf\u1f78\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] '_the mind of his flesh_', i.e. unenlightened by the\nSpirit; comp. Rom. viii. 7 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c6\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2. It would seem that the\nApostle is here taking up some watchword of the false teachers. They\ndoubtless boasted that they were directed \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bd\u03cc\u03bf\u03c2. Yes, he answers,\nbut it is \u1f41 \u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd. Compare Rev. ii. 24, where the\nfavourite Gnostic boast \u03b3\u03b9\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1f70 \u03b2\u03b1\u03b8\u03ad\u03b1 is characterized by the\naddition of \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a3\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u1fb6 (see _Galatians_ p. 298 note 3). Comp. August.\n_Conf._ x. 67 'Quem invenirem qui me reconciliaret tibi? Ambiendum mihi\nfuit ad angelos? Qua prece? quibus sacramentis? Multi conantes ad te\nredire, neque per se ipsos valentes, sicut audio, tentaverunt h\u00e6c et\ninciderunt in desiderium curiosarum visionum et digni habiti sunt\nillusionibus. Elati enim te qu\u00e6rebant doctrin\u00e6 fastu, etc.'\n\n19. \u03bf\u1f50 \u03ba\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd] '_not holding fast_.' This is the most common\nconstruction and meaning of \u03ba\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd in the New Testament; e.g. Mark vii.\n8 _\u1f00\u03c6\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2_ \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u1f74\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 _\u03ba\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b5_ \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ac\u03b4\u03bf\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03c9\u03bd; comp. Cant. iii. 4 \u1f11\u1fe6\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u1f43\u03bd \u1f20\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u1f21 \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03ae \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5, \u1f10\u03ba\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03b7\u03c3\u03b1\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f00\u03c6\u1fc6\u03ba\u03b1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 19]\n\n\u03ba\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03ba\u03b5\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u03ae\u03bd, \u1f10\u03be \u03bf\u1f57 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f01\u03c6\u1ff6\u03bd\n\n\n\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03ba\u03b5\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u03ae\u03bd] '_the Head_' regarded as a title, so that a person is at\nonce suggested, and the relative which follows is masculine, \u1f10\u03be \u03bf\u1f57;\ncomp. the parallel passage, Ephes. iv. 16 \u1f45\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f21 \u03ba\u03b5\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u03ae, \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f10\u03be\n\u03bf\u1f57 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. The supplication and worship of angels is a\nsubstitution of inferior members for the Head, which is the only source\nof spiritual life and energy. See the introduction pp. 34, 78, 101 sq.,\n181 sq.\n\n\u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f01\u03c6\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] '_through the junctures and ligaments_.' Galen,\nwhen describing the structure of the human frame, more than once\nspecifies the elements of union as twofold: the body owes its\ncompactness partly to the _articulation_, partly to the _attachment_;\ne.g. _Op._ II. p. 734 (ed. K\u00fchn) \u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f41 \u03c4\u03c1\u03cc\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b8\u03ad\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd\n\u03b4\u03b9\u03c4\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2, \u1f41 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u1f15\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 _\u1f04\u03c1\u03b8\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd_, \u1f41 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f15\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70\n_\u03c3\u03cd\u03bc\u03c6\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd_. Similarly, though with a more general reference,\nAristotle speaks of two kinds of union, which he describes as \u1f01\u03c6\u03ae\n'contact' and \u03c3\u03cd\u03bc\u03c6\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 'cohesion' respectively; _Metaph._ iv. 4 (p.\n1014) \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c6\u03ad\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72 _\u03c3\u03cd\u03bc\u03c6\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f01\u03c6\u1fc6\u03c2_\u00b7 \u1f15\u03bd\u03b8\u03b1 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03bf\u1f50\u03b8\u1f72\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f01\u03c6\u1f74\u03bd\n\u1f15\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03ac\u03b3\u03ba\u03b7 \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9, \u1f10\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bc\u03c0\u03b5\u03c6\u03cd\u03ba\u03bf\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03af \u03c4\u03b9 \u1f13\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78 \u1f10\u03bd\n\u1f00\u03bc\u03c6\u03bf\u1fd6\u03bd \u1f43 \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b5\u1fd6 \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f05\u03c0\u03c4\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bc\u03c0\u03b5\u03c6\u03c5\u03ba\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f13\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.,\n_Phys. Ausc._ iv. 6 (p. 213) \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f01\u03c6\u03ae \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u00b7 \u03c3\u03cd\u03bc\u03c6\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b4\u03ad, \u1f45\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd \u1f04\u03bc\u03c6\u03c9\n\u1f10\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03b5\u03af\u1fb3 \u1f13\u03bd \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 (comp. _ib._ v. 3, p. 227), _Metaph._ x. 3 (p.\n1071) \u1f45\u03c3\u03b1 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f01\u03c6\u1fc7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bc\u1f74 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bc\u03c6\u03cd\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9. The relation of contiguous surfaces\nand the connexion of different parts together effect structural unity.\nThis same distinction appears in the Apostle's language here. Contact\nand attachment are the primary ideas in \u1f01\u03c6\u03b1\u03af and \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03b9 respectively.\n\nOf the function of \u1f01\u03c6\u03ae, 'contact', in physiology (\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u1f01\u03c6\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2\n\u03c6\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2) Aristotle speaks at some length in one passage, _de Gen. et\nCorr._ i. 6 (p. 322 sq.). It may be mentioned, as illustrating St Paul's\nimage, that Aristotle in this passage lays great stress on the mutual\nsympathy and influence of the parts in contact, describing them as\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03b8\u03b7\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1f70 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b7\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac and as \u03ba\u03b9\u03bd\u03b7\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1f70 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03b9\u03bd\u03b7\u03c4\u1f70 \u1f51\u03c0' \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bb\u1ff6\u03bd. Elsewhere,\nlike St Paul here, he uses the plural \u03b1\u1f31 \u1f01\u03c6\u03b1\u03af; _de C\u00e6lo_ i. 11 (p. 280)\n\u03c4\u1f78 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b5\u03c5 \u03c6\u03b8\u03bf\u03c1\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f41\u03c4\u1f72 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u1f42\u03bd \u1f41\u03c4\u1f72 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03bc\u1f74 \u1f44\u03bd, \u03bf\u1f37\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f01\u03c6\u03ac\u03c2, \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b5\u03c5 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03c6\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c0\u03c1\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u03bf\u1f56\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f55\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u03b5\u1f30\u03c3\u03af\u03bd, _de Gen. et Corr._ i. 8 (p.\n326) \u1f44\u03c5\u03c4\u03b5 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 _\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f01\u03c6\u1f70\u03c2_ \u1f10\u03bd\u03b4\u03ad\u03c7\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b9\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c6\u03b1\u03bd\u1ff6\u03bd\n\u1f44\u03c5\u03c4\u03b5 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd _\u03c0\u03cc\u03c1\u03c9\u03bd_, _ib._ \u00a7 9 (p. 327) \u03b5\u1f30 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03ba\u03c1\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9\n\u03b4\u03cd\u03bd\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 19]\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b4\u03ad\u03c3\u03bc\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c7\u03bf\u03c1\u03b7\u03b3\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b2\u03b9\u03b2\u03b1\u03b6\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd\n\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 _\u1f01\u03c6\u03ac\u03c2_, \u1f65\u03c3\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u03c6\u03b1\u03c3\u03af \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b5\u03c2, \u03ba\u1f02\u03bd \u03bc\u03ae\u03c0\u03c9 \u1f96 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b7\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd, \u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9\n\u03b4\u03b9\u03b7\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd\u00b7 \u03b4\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u03b5\u03b8\u1fc6\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9: comp. [Plat.] _Axioch._ p. 365 A\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u03b3\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f01\u03c6\u1f70\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9 \u1fe5\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\u03bb\u03ad\u03bf\u03bd. It is quite clear from\nthese passages of Aristotle, more especially from the distinction of\n\u1f01\u03c6\u03b1\u03af and \u03c0\u03cc\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9, that \u03b1\u1f31 \u1f01\u03c6\u03b1\u03af are the joinings, the junctures. When\napplied to the human body they would be 'joints,' provided that we use\nthe word accurately of the relations between contiguous limbs, and not\nloosely (as it is often used) of the parts of the limbs themselves in\nthe neighbourhood of the contact. Hippocrates indeed used \u1f01\u03c6\u03b1\u03af as a\nphysiological term in a different sense, employing it as a synonyme for\n\u1f05\u03bc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 i.e. the fasciculi of muscles (see Galen _Op._ XIX. p. 87), but\nthis use was quite exceptional and can have no place here. Thus \u03b1\u1f31 \u1f01\u03c6\u03b1\u03af\nwill be almost a synonyme for \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f04\u03c1\u03b8\u03c1\u03b1, differing however (1) as being\nmore wide and comprehensive, and (2) as not emphasizing so strongly the\n_adaptation_ of the contiguous parts.\n\nThe considerations just urged seem decisive as to the meaning of the\nword. Some eminent modern critics however explain \u03b1\u1f31 \u1f01\u03c6\u03b1\u03af to be 'the\nsenses', following Theodoret on Ephes. iv. 16 \u1f01\u03c6\u1f74\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f04\u03b9\u03c3\u03b8\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b7\u03b3\u03cc\u03c1\u03b5\u03c5\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd, \u1f10\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03b4\u1f74 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f55\u03c4\u03b7 \u03bc\u03af\u03b1 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5 \u03b1\u1f30\u03c3\u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03bd, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u1f60\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b5. St Chrysostom had led the way to this\ninterpretation, though his language is less explicit than Theodoret's.\nTo such a meaning however there are fatal objections. (1) This sense of\n\u1f01\u03c6\u03ae is wholly unsupported. It is true that touch lies at the root of all\nsensations, and that this fact was recognised by ancient physiologists:\ne.g. Aristot. _de Anim._ i. 13 (p. 435) \u1f04\u03bd\u03b5\u03c5 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f01\u03c6\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u03b5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03bd\n\u1f10\u03bd\u03b4\u03ad\u03c7\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f04\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd \u1f04\u03b9\u03c3\u03b8\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd. But here the connexion ends; and unless\nmore cogent examples not hitherto adduced are forthcoming, we are\njustified in saying that \u03b1\u1f31 \u1f01\u03c6\u03b1\u03af could no more be used for \u03b1\u1f31 \u03b1\u1f30\u03c3\u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2,\nthan in English 'the touches' could be taken as a synonyme for 'the\nsenses.' (2) The image would be seriously marred by such a meaning. The\n\u1f01\u03c6\u03b1\u03af and \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03b9 would no longer be an exhaustive description of the\nelements of union in the anatomical structure; the conjunction of things\nso incongruous under the vinculum of the same article and preposition,\n_\u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd_ \u1f01\u03c6\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b4\u03ad\u03c3\u03bc\u03c9\u03bd, would be unnatural; and the intrusion\nof the 'senses' would be out of place, where the result specified is the\nsupply of nourishment (\u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c7\u03bf\u03c1\u03b7\u03b3\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd) and the compacting of the parts\n(\u03c3\u03c5\u03bc\u03b2\u03b9\u03b2\u03b1\u03b6\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd). (3) All the oldest versions, the Latin, the Syriac,\nand the Memphitic, explain it otherwise, so as to refer in some way to\nthe connexion of the parts of the body; e.g. in the Old Latin it is\nrendered _nexus_ here and _junctura_ in Ephes. iv. 16.\n\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b4\u03ad\u03c3\u03bc\u03c9\u03bd] '_bands_,' '_ligaments_.' The Greek \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2, like the\nEnglish 'ligament,' has a general and a special sense. In its general\nand comprehensive meaning it denotes any of the connecting bands which\nstrap the body together, such as muscles or tendons or ligaments\nproperly so called; in its special and restricted use it is a 'ligament'\nin the technical sense; comp. Galen _Op._ IV. p. 369 \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b3\u03ac\u03c1\n\u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd, \u1f41 \u03b3\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd \u1f30\u03b4\u03af\u03c9\u03c2, \u03bf\u1f50 \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c2 \u1f40\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03b6\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2, \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03bd\u03b5\u03c5\u03c1\u1ff6\u03b4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03be \u1f40\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd\n\u1f41\u03c1\u03bc\u03ce\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03c6\u03c5\u03ba\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f22 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f40\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd \u1f22 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03bc\u1fe6\u03bd. Of the \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03b9\nor ligaments properly so called Galen describes at length the several\nfunctions and uses, more especially as binding and holding together the\n\u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c1\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2; _Op._ I. 236, II. 268, 739, III. 149, IV. 2, etc., comp.\nTim. Locr. _de An. Mund._ p. 557 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b4\u03ad\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u03c4\u1f70\u03bd \u03ba\u03af\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u1fb6\u03c8\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f04\u03c1\u03b8\u03c1\u03b1 (_Opusc. Mythol._ etc. ed. Gale). In our text indeed\n\u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03b9 must be taken in its comprehensive sense; but the relation of\nthe \u1f01\u03c6\u03b1\u03af to the \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03b9 in St Paul still remains the same as that of\nthe \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c1\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 to the \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03b9 in Galen.\n\n\u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c7\u03bf\u03c1\u03b7\u03b3\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] The two functions performed by the \u1f01\u03c6\u03b1\u03af and\n\u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03b9 are _first_ the supply of nutriment etc. (\u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c7\u03bf\u03c1\u03b7\u03b3\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd),\nand _secondly_ the compacting of the frame (\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b2\u03b9\u03b2\u03b1\u03b6\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd). In other\nwords they are the communication of life and energy, and the\npreservation of unity and order. The _source_ of all (\u1f10\u03be \u03bf\u1f57) is Christ\nHimself the Head; but the _channels_ of communication (\u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.)\nare the different members of His body, in their relation one to another.\nFor \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c7\u03bf\u03c1\u03b7\u03b3\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd 'bountifully furnished' see the note on Gal. iii. 5.\nSomewhat similarly Aristotle speaks of \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03ba\u03ac\u03bb\u03bb\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c6\u03c5\u03ba\u1f78\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03ba\u03b5\u03c7\u03bf\u03c1\u03b7\u03b3\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd, _Pol._ iv. 1 (p. 1288). For examples of \u03c7\u03bf\u03c1\u03b7\u03b3\u03af\u03b1 applied\nto functions of the bodily organs, see Galen _Op._ III. p. 617 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2\n\u03b5\u1f30\u03c3\u03c0\u03bd\u03bf\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c7\u03bf\u03c1\u03b7\u03b3\u03af\u1fb3 \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03c1\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03bf\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, Alex. _Probl._ i. 81 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2\n\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03be\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03c7\u03bf\u03c1\u03b7\u03b3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03ac\u03b8\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2. For\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b2\u03b9\u03b2\u03b1\u03b6\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd, 'joined together, compacted', see the note on ii. 2. In\nthe parallel passage, Ephes. iv. 16, this part of the image is more\ndistinctly emphasized, \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03c1\u03bc\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b2\u03b9\u03b2\u03b1\u03b6\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd. The\ndifference corresponds to the different aims of the two epistles. In the\nColossian letter the vital connexion with the Head is the main theme; in\nthe Ephesian, the unity in diversity among the members.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 20]\n\n\u03b1\u1f54\u03be\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b1\u1f54\u03c5\u03be\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6. ^{20}\u03b5\u1f30 \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03b8\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c3\u1f7a\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7\n\n\n\u03b1\u1f54\u03be\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b1\u1f55\u03be\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] By the two-fold means of contact and\nattachment nutriment has been diffused and structural unity has been\nattained, but these are not the ultimate result; they are only\nintermediate processes; the end is _growth_. Comp. Arist. _Metaph._ iv.\n4 (p. 1014) _\u03b1\u1f54\u03be\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03b4'_ \u1f11\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c4\u1ff7 _\u1f05\u03c0\u03c4\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9_ \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n_\u03c3\u03c5\u03bc\u03c0\u03b5\u03c6\u03c5\u03ba\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9_ ... \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c6\u03ad\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c3\u03cd\u03bc\u03c6\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f01\u03c6\u1fc6\u03c2, where growth is\nattributed to the same two physiological conditions as here.\n\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6] i.e. 'which partakes of God, which belongs to God, which has\nits abode in God.' Thus the finite is truly united with the Infinite;\nthe end which the false teachers strove in vain to compass is attained;\nthe Gospel vindicates itself as the true theanthropism, after which the\nhuman heart is yearning and the human intellect is feeling. See above p.\n183 sq. With this conclusion of the sentence contrast the parallel\npassage Ephes. iv. 16 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b1\u1f54\u03be\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 _\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03bf\u03b4\u03bf\u03bc\u1f74\u03bd\n\u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u1fc3_, where again the different endings are determined by\nthe different motives of the two epistles.\n\nThe discoveries of modern physiology have invested the Apostle's\nlanguage with far greater distinctness and force than it can have worn\nto his own contemporaries. Any exposition of the nervous system more\nespecially reads like a commentary on his image of the relations between\nthe body and the head. At every turn we meet with some fresh\nillustration which kindles it with a flood of light. The volition\ncommunicated from the brain to the limbs, the sensations of the\nextremities telegraphed back to the brain, the absolute mutual sympathy\nbetween the head and the members, the instantaneous paralysis ensuing on\nthe interruption of continuity, all these add to the completeness and\nlife of the image. But the following passages will show how even ancient\nscientific speculation was feeling after those physiological truths\nwhich the image involves; Hippocr. _de Morb. Sacr._ p. 309 (ed Foese)\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c4\u03b1 \u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03b6\u03c9 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f10\u03b3\u03ba\u03ad\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u03b4\u03cd\u03bd\u03b1\u03bc\u03b9\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b7\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u1ff3 ...\n\u03bf\u1f31 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f40\u03c6\u03b8\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03bf\u1f76 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03bf\u1f54\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f21 \u03b3\u03bb\u1ff6\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f31 \u03c7\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c1\u03b5\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03c0\u03cc\u03b4\u03b5\u03c2, \u03bf\u1f37\u03b1\n\u1f02\u03bd \u1f41 \u1f10\u03b3\u03ba\u03ad\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b3\u03b9\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03ba\u1fc3, \u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f51\u03c0\u03b7\u03c1\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9 ... \u1f10\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f41\n_\u1f10\u03b3\u03ba\u03ad\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2_ \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u1f76\u03bd \u1f41 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03ad\u03bb\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd ... \u03b4\u03b9\u03cc\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c6\u03b7\u03bc\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f10\u03b3\u03ba\u03ad\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9\n\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f11\u03c1\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, \u03b1\u1f31 \u03b4\u1f72 _\u03c6\u03c1\u03ad\u03bd\u03b5\u03c2_ \u1f04\u03bb\u03bb\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f44\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1 \u1f14\u03c7\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c4\u1fc7\n\u03c4\u03cd\u03c7\u1fc3 \u03ba\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd ... \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9 \u03b4\u03ad \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f61\u03c2 \u03c6\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03ad\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 _\u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u1fc3_ \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03c4\u1f78 \u1f00\u03bd\u03af\u03c9\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c6\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03af\u03b6\u03bf\u03bd\u00b7 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03bf\u1f50\u03c7 \u03bf\u1f55\u03c4\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9 ... \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2\n... \u03c6\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03ae\u03c3\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u03b5\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u1ff3 \u03bc\u03ad\u03c4\u03b5\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c4\u03ad\u03c9\u03bd \u1f41 \u1f10\u03b3\u03ba\u03ad\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f34\u03c4\u03b9\u03cc\u03c2\n\u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd ... \u03c0\u03c1\u1ff6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f30\u03c3\u03b8\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f41 \u1f10\u03b3\u03ba\u03ad\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f10\u03bd\u03b5\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd (where\nthe theory is mixed up with some curious physiological speculations),\nGalen _Op._ I. 235 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f41 \u1f10\u03b3\u03ba\u03ad\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1f74 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f05\u03c0\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\n\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03c5\u03bd\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03ce\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd, \u1f10\u03bd\u03b1\u03c1\u03b3\u1ff6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bc\u03ac\u03b8\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd ... \u03c0\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f61\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2\n\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2, \u03bf\u1f55\u03c4\u03c9 \u1f10\u03ba\u03ad\u03b9\u03bd\u1ff3 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd \u1f15\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9 \u03bc\u03cc\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c0\u03ad\u03bc\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9, \u1f22 \u03c0\u03b7\u03b3\u03ae \u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd\n\u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03af\u03bd, \u1f14\u03c4' \u1f04\u03b4\u03b7\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd, _ib._ IV. p. 11 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1f74 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd (i.e. \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03c1\u03c9\u03bd)\n\u1f41 \u1f10\u03b3\u03ba\u03ad\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u03cc\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03b8\u03b7 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c6\u03ad\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9, \u03bf\u1f37\u03bf\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f04\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03c1\u03ac\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2\n\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u1fc6\u03c2\u00b7 \u1f14\u03ba\u03c6\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b4' \u1f10\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u1fe6\u03b8\u03b5\u03bd, \u03bf\u1f37\u03bf\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03ad\u03bc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b4\u03ad\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03ae\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bc\u03ad\u03b3\u03b1, \u1f41 \u03bd\u03c9\u03c4\u03b9\u03b1\u1fd6\u03cc\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9 \u03bc\u03c5\u03b5\u03bb\u1f78\u03c2 ... \u03c3\u03cd\u03bc\u03c0\u03b1\u03bd \u03b4' \u03bf\u1f55\u03c4\u03c9 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1\n\u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03bc\u03b2\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9 \u03b4\u03b9' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03ce\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bc\u03ac\u03bb\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b9\u03bd\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2, \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u03ac\u03c5\u03c4\u1fc3 \u03b4'\n\u03b1\u1f30\u03c3\u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2, XIV. p. 313 h\u03ac\u03c5\u03c4\u03b7 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 (i.e. \u1f21 \u03ba\u03b5\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u03ae) \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03ac\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f00\u03ba\u03c1\u03cc\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03af\u03c2\n\u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9\u03bc\u03b9\u03c9\u03c4\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03b3\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c4\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2\n\u03b1\u1f30\u03c3\u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03bd \u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03b7\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd. Plato had made the head the central organ of the\nreason (_Tim._ 69 sq.: see Grote's _Plato_ III. pp. 272, 287,\n_Aristotle_ II. p. 179 sq.), if indeed the speculations of the Tim\u00e6us\nmay be regarded as giving his serious physiological views; but he had\npostulated other centres of the emotions and appetites, the heart and\nthe abdomen. Aristotle, while rightly refusing to localize the mind as\nmind, had taken a retrograde step physiologically, when he transferred\nthe centre of sensation from the brain to the heart; e.g. _de Part.\nAnim._ ii. 10 (p. 656). Galen, criticizing his predecessors, says of\nAristotle \u03b4\u1fc6\u03bb\u03cc\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03ba\u1f7c\u03c2 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 (i.e. \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03b3\u03ba\u03b5\u03c6\u03ac\u03bb\u03bf\u1f50 \u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03ad\u03b1\u03bd\n\u1f00\u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03c4\u03af\u03b1\u03bd, \u03c6\u03b1\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u1ff6\u03c2 \u03b4' \u1f41\u03bc\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u03b1\u1f30\u03b4\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 (_Op._ III. p. 625). The\nStoics however (\u0396\u03ae\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03a7\u03c1\u03cd\u03c3\u03b9\u03c0\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f05\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c3\u03c6\u03b5\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u1ff3 \u03c7\u03bf\u03c1\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03af) were even\nworse offenders; and in reply to them more especially Galen elsewhere\ndiscusses the question \u03c0\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03b3\u03ba\u03ad\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f22 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u03b1 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1f74\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9, _Op._\nV. p. 213 sq. Bearing in mind all this diversity of opinion among\nancient physiologists, we cannot fail to be struck in the text not only\nwith the correctness of the image but also with the propriety of the\nterms; and we are forcibly reminded that among the Apostle's most\nintimate companions at this time was one whom he calls 'the beloved\nphysician' (iv. 14).\n\n20\u201323. 'You died with Christ to your old life. All mundane relations\nhave ceased for you. Why then do you\u2014you who have attained your\nspiritual manhood\u2014submit still to the rudimentary discipline of\nchildren? Why do you\u2014you who are citizens of heaven\u2014bow your necks\nafresh to the tyranny of material ordinances, as though you were still\nliving in the world? It is the same old story again; the same round of\nhard, meaningless, vexatious prohibitions, 'Handle not,' 'Taste not,'\n'Touch not.' What folly! When all these things\u2014these meats and drinks\nand the like\u2014are earthly, perishable, wholly trivial and unimportant!\nThey are used, and there is an end of them. What is this, but to draw\ndown upon yourselves the denunciations uttered by the prophet of old?\nWhat is this but to abandon God's word for precepts which are issued by\nhuman authority and inculcated by human teachers? All such things have a\nshow of wisdom, I grant. There is an officious parade of religious\ndevotion, an eager affectation of humility; there is a stern ascetic\nrigour, which ill-treats the body; but there is nothing of any real\nvalue to check indulgence of the flesh.'\n\n20. From the theological tenets of the false teachers the Apostle turns\nto the ethical\u2014from the objects of their worship to the principles of\ntheir conduct. The baptism into Christ, he argues, is death to the\nworld. The Christian has passed away to another sphere of existence.\nMundane ordinances have ceased to have any value for him, because his\nmundane life has ended. They belong to the category of the perishable;\nhe has been translated to the region of the eternal. It is therefore a\ndenial of his Christianity to subject himself again to their tyranny, to\nreturn once more to the dominion of the world. See again the note on\niii. 1.\n\n\u03b5\u1f30 \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03b8\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5] '_if ye died_, when ye were baptized into Christ.' For\nthis connexion between baptism and death see the notes on ii. 11, iii.\n3. This death has many aspects in St Paul's teaching. It is not only a\ndying _with_ Christ, 2 Tim. ii. 11 \u03b5\u1f30 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03b8\u03ac\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd; but it is also\na dying to or from something. This is sometimes represented as _sin_,\nRom. vi. 2 \u1f41\u03af\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03b8\u03ac\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 _\u1f01\u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03af\u1fb3_ (comp. vv. 7, 8);\nsometimes as _self_, 2 Cor. v. 14, 15 \u1f04\u03c1\u03b1 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03ad\u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd ... \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03bf\u1f31\n\u03b6\u1ff6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03bc\u03ae\u03ba\u03b5\u03c4\u03b9 _\u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2_ \u03b6\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd; sometimes as the _law_, Rom. vii. 6\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03b3\u03ae\u03b8\u03b7\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2, Gal. ii. 19 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u1ff3\n\u1f00\u03c0\u03ad\u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd; sometimes still more widely as the _world_, regarded as the\nsphere of all material rules and all mundane interests, so here and iii.\n3 \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03b8\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u03b3\u03ac\u03c1. In all cases St Paul uses the aorist \u1f00\u03c0\u03ad\u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd, never\nthe perfect \u03c4\u03ad\u03b8\u03bd\u03b7\u03ba\u03b1; for he wishes to emphasize the one absolute\n_crisis_, which was marked by the change of changes. When the aorist is\nwanted, the compound verb \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b8\u03bd\u03ae\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd is used; when the perfect, the\nsimple verb \u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd; see Buttmann _Ausf. Gramm._ \u00a7 114. This rule holds\nuniversally in the Greek Testament.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 20]\n\n\u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c7\u03ad\u03b9\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5, \u03c4\u03af \u1f61\u03c2 \u03b6\u1ff6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u1ff3\n\n\n\u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c7\u03b5\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] i.e. 'from the rudimentary, disciplinary,\nordinances, whose sphere is the mundane and sensuous': see the note on\nver. 8. For the pregnant expression \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 comp. Gal. v. 4\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03b3\u03ae\u03b8\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 (so too Rom. vii. 2, 6), 2 Cor. xi. 3 \u03c6\u03b8\u03b1\u03c1\u1fc7 ...\n\u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f01\u03c0\u03bb\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, and see A. Buttmann p. 277 note.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 21, 22]\n\n\u03b4\u03bf\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5; ^{21}\u039c\u1f74 \u1f05\u03c8\u1fc3 \u03bc\u03b7\u03b4\u1f72 \u03b3\u03b5\u03cd\u03c3\u1fc3 \u03bc\u03b7\u03b4\u1f72 \u03b8\u03af\u03b3\u1fc3\u03c2 ^{22}\u1f05\n\n\n\u03b4\u03bf\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5] '_are ye overridden with precepts, ordinances_.' In the\nLXX the verb \u03b4\u03bf\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd is used several times, meaning 'to issue a\ndecree,' Esth. iii. 9, 1 Esdr. vi. 33, 2 Macc. x. 8, xv. 36, 3 Macc. iv.\n11. Elsewhere it is applied most commonly to the precepts of\nphilosophers; e.g. Justin _Apol._ i. 7 \u03bf\u1f31 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f1d\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03c4\u1f70\n_\u03b4\u03bf\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2_ \u1f10\u03ba \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f11\u03bd\u1f76 \u1f40\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9 _\u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03c2_\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b1\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03b5\u03cd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 (comp. \u00a7 4), Epict. iii. 7. 17 sq. \u03b5\u1f30 \u03b8\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9\n\u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03cc\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c2 ... \u03b4\u03bf\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03af\u03b6\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u1f70 \u03b1\u1f30\u03c3\u03c7\u03c1\u03ac. Here it would include alike the\n\u03b4\u03cc\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 of the Mosaic law (ver. 14) and the \u03b4\u03cc\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 of the 'philosophy'\ndenounced above (ver. 8). Both are condemned; the one as superseded\nthough once authoritative, the other as wholly vexatious and\nunwarrantable. Examples are given in the following verse, \u03bc\u1f74 \u1f05\u03c8\u1fc3 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\nFor the construction here, where the more remote object, which would\nstand in the dative with the active voice (2 Macc. x. 8 \u1f10\u03b4\u03bf\u03b3\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd ...\n\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f38\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u1f14\u03b8\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9), becomes the nominative of the passive, compare\n\u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 Matt. ii. 12, 22, \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 Mark x. 45, and see Winer \u00a7\nxxxix. p. 326, A. Buttmann p. 163, K\u00fchner \u00a7 378, II. p. 109.\n\n21. \u039c\u1f74 \u1f05\u03c8\u1fc3 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] The Apostle disparagingly repeats the prohibitions of\nthe false teachers in their own words, 'Handle not, neither taste,\nneither touch.' The rabbinical passages quoted in Sch\u00f6ttgen show how\nexactly St Paul's language reproduces, not only the spirit, but even the\nform, of these injunctions. The Latin commentators, Hilary and Pelagius,\nsuppose these prohibitions to be the Apostle's own, thus making a\ncomplete shipwreck of the sense. So too St Ambrose _de Noe et Arca_ 25\n(I. p. 267), _de Abr._ i. 6 (I. p. 300). We may infer from the language\nof St Augustine who argues against it, that this was the popular\ninterpretation in his day: _Epist._ cxix. (II. p. 512) 'tanquam\npr\u00e6ceptum putatur apostoli, nescio quid tangere, gustare, attaminare,\nprohibentis.' The ascetic tendency of the age thus fastened upon a\nslight obscurity in the Greek and made the Apostle recommend the very\npractices which he disparaged. For a somewhat similar instance of a\nmisinterpretation commonly received see the note on \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03cc\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd ver.\n14. Jerome however (I. p. 878) had rightly interpreted the passage,\nillustrating it by the precepts of the Talmud. At a still earlier date\nTertullian, _Adv. Marc._ v. 19, gives the correct interpretation.\n\nThese prohibitions relate to defilement contracted in divers ways by\ncontact with impure objects. Some were doubtless reenactments of the\nMosaic law; while others would be exaggerations or additions of a\nrigorous asceticism, such as we find among the Essene prototypes of\nthese Colossian heretics, e.g. the avoidance of oil, of wine, or of\nflesh-meat, the shunning of contact with a stranger or a religious\ninferior, and the like; see pp. 85 sq. For the religious bearing of this\nasceticism, as springing from the _dualism_ of these heretical teachers,\nsee above pp. 79, 104 sq.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 22]\n\n\u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c6\u03b8\u03bf\u03c1\u1f70\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c7\u03c1\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u1f30, \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f70\n\n\n\u1f05\u03c8\u1fc3] The difference between \u1f05\u03c0\u03c4\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 and \u03b8\u03b9\u03b3\u03b3\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd is not great, and in\nsome passages where they occur together, it is hard to distinguish them:\ne.g. Exod. xix. 12 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03ad\u03c7\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03b2\u1fc6\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f44\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n_\u03b8\u03b9\u03b3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd_ \u03c4\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u00b7 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f41 _\u1f01\u03c8\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2_ \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f44\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03ac\u03c4\u1ff3\n\u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03c5\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9, Eur. _Bacch._ 617 \u03bf\u1f54\u03c4' _\u1f14\u03b8\u03b9\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd_ \u03bf\u1f54\u03b8' _\u1f23\u03c8\u03b1\u03b8'_ \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd,\nArist. _de Gen. et Corr._ i. 8 (p. 326) \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u03af \u03bf\u1f50 \u03b3\u03af\u03b3\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9\n_\u1f01\u03c8\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03b1_ \u1f15\u03bd, \u1f65\u03c3\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u1f55\u03b4\u03c9\u03c1 \u1f55\u03b4\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd _\u03b8\u03af\u03b3\u03b7_|; Dion Chrys.\n_Or._ xxxiv. (II. p. 50) \u03bf\u1f31 \u03b4' \u1f10\u03ba \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ad\u03c1\u03b3\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f01\u03c0\u03c4\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03ac\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, \u1f65\u03c3\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03c3\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd\u03b4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b8\u03b9\u03b3\u03b3\u03ac\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2, Themist. _Paraphr. Arist._ 95\n\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f01\u03c6\u1f74\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f05\u03c0\u03c4\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b1\u1f30\u03c3\u03b8\u03b7\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd _\u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03b3\u03ba\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03bd_\u00b7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1f54\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03ba \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 _\u1f05\u03c0\u03c4\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9_ \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 _\u03b8\u03b9\u03b3\u03b3\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd_. But \u1f05\u03c0\u03c4\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9\nis the stronger word of the two. This arises from the fact that it\nfrequently suggests, though it does not necessarily involve, the idea of\na voluntary or conscious effort, 'to take hold of'\u2013a suggestion which is\nentirely wanting to the colourless word \u03b8\u03b9\u03b3\u03b3\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd; comp. Themist.\n_Paraphr. Arist._ 94 \u1f21 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b6\u03ce\u03c9\u03bd _\u1f01\u03c6\u1f74_ \u03ba\u03c1\u03af\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u1f76 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03af\u03bb\u03b7\u03c8\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n_\u03b8\u03b9\u03b3\u03b3\u03ac\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2_. Hence in Xen. _Cyrop._ i. 3. 5 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c3\u03b5, \u03c6\u03ac\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9, \u1f41\u03c1\u1ff6,\n\u1f45\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f04\u03c1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f05\u03c8\u1fc3, \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u1f72\u03bd \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c7\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c1\u03b1 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c8\u03ce\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd, \u1f45\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd\n\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u1f78\u03c2 _\u03b8\u03af\u03b3\u1fc3\u03c2_, \u03b5\u1f50\u03b8\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03b1\u03af\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c7\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c1\u03b1 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03cc\u03bc\u03b1\u03ba\u03c4\u03c1\u03b1\n\u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. Thus the words chosen in the Latin Versions, _tangere_ for\n\u1f05\u03c0\u03c4\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 and _attaminare_ or _contrectare_ for \u03b8\u03b9\u03b3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, are unfortunate,\nand ought to be transposed. Our English Version, probably influenced by\nthe Latin, has erred in the same direction, translating \u1f05\u03c0\u03c4\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 by\n'touch' and \u03b8\u03b9\u03b3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd by 'handle'. Here again they must be transposed.\n'Handle' is too strong a word for either; though in default of a better\nit may stand for \u1f05\u03c0\u03c4\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, which it more nearly represents. Thus the two\nwords \u1f05\u03c8\u1fc3 and \u03b8\u03af\u03b3\u1fc3\u03c2 being separate in meaning, \u03b3\u03b5\u03cd\u03c3\u1fc3 may well interpose;\nand the three together will form a descending series, so that, as Beza\n(quoted in Trench _N. T. Syn._ \u00a7 xvii. p. 57) well expresses it,\n'decrescente semper oratione, intelligatur crescere superstitio'.\n\nOn the other hand \u1f05\u03c8\u1fc3 has been interpreted here as referring to the\nrelation of husband and wife, as e.g. in 1 Cor. vii. 1 \u03b3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9\u03ba\u1f78\u03c2 \u03bc\u1f74\n\u1f05\u03c0\u03c4\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9; and the prohibition would then be illustrated by the teaching\nof the heretics in 1 Tim. iv. 3 \u03ba\u03c9\u03bb\u03cd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03b3\u03b1\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd. But, whatever\nlikelihood there may be that the Colossian false teachers also held this\ndoctrine (see above p. 85 sq.), it nowhere appears in the context, and\nwe should not expect so important a topic to be dismissed thus\ncursorily. Moreover \u03b8\u03b9\u03b3\u03b3\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd is used as commonly in this meaning as\n\u1f05\u03c0\u03c4\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 (see Gataker _Op. Crit._ p. 79, and examples might be\nmultiplied); so that all ground for assigning it to \u1f05\u03c0\u03c4\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 especially\nis removed. Both \u1f05\u03c0\u03c4\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 and \u03b8\u03b9\u03b3\u03b3\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd refer to defilement incurred\nthrough the sense of touch, though in different degrees; 'Handle not,\nnor yet taste, nor even touch.'\n\n22. 'Only consider what is the real import of this scrupulous avoidance.\nWhy, you are attributing an inherent value to things which are fleeting;\nyou yourselves are citizens of eternity, and yet your thoughts are\nabsorbed in the perishable'.\n\n\u1f05] '_which things_', i.e. the meats and drinks and other material\nobjects, regarded as impure to the touch. The antecedent to \u1f05 is\nimplicitly involved in the prohibitions \u03bc\u1f74 \u1f05\u03c8\u1fc3 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\n\u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c6\u03b8\u03bf\u03c1\u1f70\u03bd] '_are destined for corruption_'. For similar\nexpressions see Acts viii. 20 \u1f14\u03b9\u03b7 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03c9\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd (comp. ver. 23 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c7\u03bf\u03bb\u1f74\u03bd\n\u03c0\u03b9\u03ba\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd \u1f00\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 ... \u1f44\u03bd\u03c4\u1f00, 2 \u03a0\u03b5\u03c4. \u03b9\u03b9. 12 [\u0393\u03c1\u03b5\u03b5\u03ba:\n\u03b3\u03b5\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03bd\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1 ... \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f05\u03bb\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c6\u03b8\u03bf\u03c1\u03ac\u03bd. For the word \u03c6\u03b8\u03bf\u03c1\u03ac, involving the\nidea of 'decomposition', see the note on Gal. vi. 8. The expression here\ncorresponds to \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c6\u03b5\u03b4\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bd\u03b1 \u1f10\u03ba\u03b2\u03ac\u03bb\u03bb\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 (\u1f10\u03ba\u03c0\u03bf\u03c1\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u1f30, Matt. xv. 17, Mark\nvii. 19.\n\n\u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c7\u03c1\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9] '_in the consuming_'. While the verb \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c7\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9 is common,\nthe substantive \u1f00\u03c0\u03cc\u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 is extremely rare: Plut. _Mor._ p. 267 F\n\u03c7\u03b1\u03af\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03ac\u03c5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c7\u03c1\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd (i.e. 'by\nsuch modes of consuming and abridging superfluities'), Dion. Hal. _A.\nR._ i. 58 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c7\u03c1\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03bc\u03bf\u03af\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2. The unusual word was chosen for its\nexpressiveness: the \u03c7\u03c1\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 here was an \u1f00\u03c0\u03cc\u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2; the things could not\nbe used without rendering them unfit for further use. The subtlety of\nthe expression in the original cannot be reproduced in any translation.\n\nOn the other hand the clause is sometimes interpreted as a continuation\nof the language of the ascetic teachers; 'Touch not things which all\nlead to ruin by their abuse'. This interpretation however has nothing to\nrecommend it. It loses the point of the Apostle's argument; while it\nputs upon \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c6\u03b8\u03bf\u03c1\u03ac\u03bd a meaning which is at least not natural.\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] connected directly with vv. 20, 21, so that the words \u1f05\n\u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd ... \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c7\u03c1\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 are a parenthetical comment.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 22]\n\n\u1f10\u03bd\u03c4\u03ac\u03bb\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03b1\u03c3\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03c9\u03bd\u00b7\n\n\n\u03c4\u1f70 \u1f10\u03bd\u03c4\u03ac\u03bb\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] The absence of both preposition and article before\n\u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03b1\u03c3\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 shows that the two words are closely connected. They are\nplaced here in their proper order; for \u1f10\u03bd\u03c4\u03ac\u03bb\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 describes the source of\nauthority and \u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03b1\u03c3\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 the medium of communication. The expression is\ntaken ultimately from Isaiah xxix. 13, where the words run in the LXX,\n\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03b7\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c3\u03ad\u03b2\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03af \u03bc\u03b5, \u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03ac\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd\u03c4\u03ac\u03bb\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03b1\u03c3\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03af\u03b1\u03c2.\nThe Evangelists (Matt. xv. 9, Mark vii. 7), quoting the passage,\nsubstitute in the latter clause \u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03ac\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03b1\u03c3\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd\u03c4\u03ac\u03bb\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03c9\u03bd.\n\nThe coincidences in St Paul's language here with our Lord's words as\nrelated in the Gospels (Matt. xv. 1\u201320, Mark vii. 1\u201323) are striking,\nand suggest that the Apostle had this discourse in his mind. (1) Both\nalike argue against these vexatious ordinances from the _perishableness_\nof meats. (2) Both insist upon the indifference of such things in\nthemselves. In Mark vii. 19 the Evangelist emphasizes the importance of\nour Lord's words on this occasion, as practically abolishing the Mosaic\ndistinction of meats by declaring all alike to be clean (\u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03b1\u03c1\u03af\u03b6\u03c9\u03bd; see\nthe note on ver. 16). (3) Both alike connect such ordinances with the\npractices condemned in the prophetic denunciation of Isaiah.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nII. 23]\n\n^{23}\u1f05\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03ac \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f10\u03b8\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u03b8\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u1fb3\n\n\n23. 'All such teaching is worthless. It may bear the semblance of\nwisdom; but it wants the reality. It may make an officious parade of\nreligious service; it may vaunt its humility; it may treat the body with\nmerciless rigour; but it entirely fails in its chief aim. It is\npowerless to check indulgence of the flesh.'\n\n\u1f05\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b1] '_which sort of things_'. Not only these particular precepts, \u03bc\u1f74\n\u1f05\u03c8\u1fc3 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., but all precepts falling under the same category are\ncondemned. For this force of \u1f05\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b1 as distinguished from \u1f05, see the\nnotes on Gal. iv. 24, v. 19, Phil. iv. 3. The antecedent here is not\n\u1f10\u03bd\u03c4\u03ac\u03bb\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03b1\u03c3\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., but the prohibitions given in ver. 21.\n\n\u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] '_having a reputation for wisdom_', but not the\nreality. The corresponding member, which should be introduced by \u03b4\u03ad, is\nsuppressed; the oppositive clause being postponed and appearing later in\na new form, \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9\u03bc\u1fc7 \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. Such suppressions are common in\nclassical writers, more especially in Plato; see K\u00fchner \u00a7 531, II. p.\n813 sq., Jelf \u00a7 766, and comp. Winer \u00a7 lxiii. p. 719 sq. St Jerome\ntherefore is not warranted in attributing St Paul's language here to\n'imperitia artis grammatic\u00e6' (_Epist._ cxxi, _Op._ II. p. 884). On the\ncontrary it is just the license which an adept in a language would be\nmore likely to take than a novice.\n\nIn this sentence \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 is best taken as a single\npredicate, so that \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd is disconnected from \u1f14\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1. Otherwise the\nconstruction \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 (for \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9) would be supported by many\nparallels in the Greek Testament; see Winer \u00a7 xlv. p. 437.\n\nThe phrase \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2, so far as I have observed, has four\nmeanings. (A) Two as applied to the _thinking subject_. (i) 'To take\naccount of, to hold in account, to pay respect to': e.g. \u00c6sch. _Prom._\n231 \u03b2\u03c1\u03bf\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03b9\u03c0\u03ce\u03c1\u03c9\u03bd \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f14\u03c3\u03c7\u03b5\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1, Demosth. _de\nCoron._ \u00a7 199 )\u03ad\u03b9\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u1f22 \u03b4\u03cc\u03be\u03b7\u03c2 \u1f22 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03b3\u03cc\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd \u1f22 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bc\u03ad\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f30\u1ff6\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f36\u03c7\u03b5\n\u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd, Plut. _Vit. Philop._ 18 \u03c0\u1ff6\u03c2 \u1f04\u03be\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba\u03ad\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2\n\u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. (ii) 'To possess the reason or account or definition of', 'to\nhave a scientific knowledge of'; Plato _Gorg._ p. 465 A \u03c4\u03ad\u03c7\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd\n\u03bf\u1f54 \u03c6\u03b7\u03bc\u03b9 \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb' \u1f10\u03bc\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03bd, \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1 h\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03c6\u03ad\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9,\n\u1f41\u03c0\u03bf\u1fd6\u03b1 \u1f04\u03c4\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c6\u03cd\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03af\u03bd, and so frequently. These two senses are\nrecognised by Aristotle, _Eth. Nic._ i. 13 (p. 1102), where he\ndistinguishes the meaning of the expressions \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f22\n\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c6\u03af\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd and \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03bc\u03b1\u03b8\u03b7\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03bd. (B) Two as applied to the\n_object of thought_. (iii) 'To have the credit or reputation of', as\nhere. This sense of \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd, 'to be reputed', is more commonly found\nwith an infinitive: e.g. Plato _Epin._ 987 B \u03b1\u1f51\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f08\u03c6\u03c1\u03bf\u03b4\u03af\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9\n\u03c3\u03c7\u03ad\u03b4\u03bf\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd. (iv) 'To fulfil the definition of, to possess the\ncharacteristics, to have the nature of'; e.g. Philo _Vit. Cont._ 4 (II.\np. 477) \u1f11\u03ba\u03ac\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c0\u03b7\u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd, Plut. _Mor._ p. 637 D \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f62\u03bf\u03bd\n\u03bf\u1f54\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd, \u03bf\u1f50 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f51\u03c6\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c0\u03c1\u1ff6\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd, \u03bf\u1f54\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f45\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c6\u03cd\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, \u1f00\u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u1f72\u03c2\n\u03b3\u03ac\u03c1 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd, ib. 640 F \u03b4\u03b5\u1fd6 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f10\u03bc\u03c6\u03c5\u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03c7\u03ce\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\n\u03b4\u03b5\u03be\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd. The senses of \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd with other constructions, or as\nused absolutely, are very various, e.g. 'to be reasonable', 'to hold\ndiscourse', 'to bear a ratio', etc., but do not come under consideration\nhere. Nor again does such an expression as Plut. _Mor._ p. 550 C \u03bc\u03ae\u03c4\u03b5\n\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03bf\u03b8\u03ad\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5, 'not being in possession of, not knowing,\nthe intention of the legislator'; for the definite article removes it\nfrom the category of the cases considered.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c6\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u1fc3 [\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76] \u1f00\u03c6\u03b5\u03b9\u03b4\u03b5\u03af\u1fb3 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba\n\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u1f10\u03b8\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u03b8\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u1fb3] '_in volunteered_, self-imposed, officious,\nsupererogatory _service_'. One or both of these two ideas, (i)\n'excessive readiness, officious zeal,' (ii) 'affectation, unreality,'\nare involved in this and similar compounds; e.g. \u1f10\u03b8\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u03b4\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03b1,\n\u1f10\u03b8\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u03ba\u03ac\u03ba\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2, \u1f10\u03b8\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u03ba\u03af\u03bd\u03b4\u03c5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2, \u1f10\u03b8\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u03ba\u03c9\u03c6\u03ad\u03b9\u03bd, \u1f10\u03b8\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u03c1\u03ae\u03c4\u03c9\u03c1, \u1f10\u03b8\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u03c0\u03c1\u03cc\u03be\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2:\nthese compounds being used most frequently, though not always (as this\nlast word shows), in a bad sense. This mode of expression was\nnaturalised in Latin, as appears from Augustine _Epist._ cxlix. 27 (II.\np. 514) 'Sic enim et vulgo dicitur qui divitem affectat thelodives, et\nqui sapientem thelosapiens, et cetera hujusmodi'. Epiphanius, when\nwriting of the Pharisees, not content with the word here supplied by St\nPaul, coins a double compound \u1f10\u03b8\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c3\u03bf\u03b8\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03b1, _H\u00e6r._ i. 16 (p.\n34).\n\n\u03c4\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c6\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u1fc3] The word is here disparaged by its connexion, as in ver.\n18 (see the note there). The force of \u1f10\u03b8\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf- may be regarded as carried\non to it. Real genuine \u03c4\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c6\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b7 is commended below; iii. 12.\n\n\u1f00\u03c6\u03b5\u03b9\u03b4\u03b5\u03af\u1fb3 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2] '_hard treatment of the body_'. The expression\n\u1f00\u03c6\u03b5\u03b9\u03b4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 is not uncommon, being used most frequently, not as\nhere of ascetic discipline, but rather of courageous exposure to\nhardship and danger in war, e.g. Lysias _Or. Fun._ 25, Joseph. _B.J._\niii. 7. 18, Lucian _Anach._ 24, Plut. _Vit. Pericl._ 10; in Plut. _Mor._\np. 137 C however of a student's toil, and _ib._ p. 135 E, more generally\nof the rigorous demands made by the soul on the body. The substantive\n\u1f00\u03c6\u03ad\u03b9\u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 or \u1f00\u03c6\u03b5\u03b9\u03b4\u03af\u03b1 does not often occur. On the forms in -\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 and -\u03af\u03b1\nderived from adjectives in -\u03b7\u03c2 see Buttmann _Ausf. Gramm._ \u00a7 119, II. p.\n416 sq. The great preponderance of manuscript authority favours the form\n\u1f00\u03c6\u03b5\u03b9\u03b4\u03b5\u03af\u1fb3 here: but in such questions of orthography the fact carries\nless weight than in other matters. The \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 before \u1f00\u03c6\u03b5\u03b9\u03b4\u03b5\u03af\u1fb3 should\nprobably be omitted; in which case \u1f00\u03c6\u03b5\u03b9\u03b4\u03b5\u03af\u1fb3 becomes an instrumental\ndative, explaining \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03c2. While the insertion would\nnaturally occur to scribes, the omission gives more point to the\nsentence. The \u1f10\u03b8\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u03b8\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c6\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b7 as the religious elements\nare thus separated from the \u1f00\u03c6\u03b5\u03af\u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 as the practical rule.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9\u03bc\u1fc7 \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u1f76 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u1f74\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2.\n\n\n\u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9\u03bc\u1fc7 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] 'yet _not_ really _of any value to remedy indulgence\nof the flesh_.' So interpreted the words supply the oppositive clause to\n\u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, as the presence of the negative \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba naturally\nsuggests. If the sentence had been undisturbed, this oppositive clause\nwould naturally have been introduced by \u03b4\u03ad, but the interposition of \u1f10\u03bd\n\u1f10\u03b8\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u03b8\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u1fb3 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. has changed its form by a sort of attraction. For\nthis sense of \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9\u03bc\u1fc7 comp. Lucian _Merc. cond._ 17 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u1f70 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd\n\u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03b4\u03b7\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9\u03bc\u1fc7 \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03bc\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u1fb3 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03af\u03bd: similarly Hom. _Il._ ix.\n319 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f30\u1fc7 \u03c4\u03b9\u03bc\u1fc7 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. The preposition \u03c0\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2, like our English '_for_',\nwhen used after words denoting utility, value, sufficiency, etc., not\nuncommonly introduces the object to _check_ or _prevent_ or _cure_ which\nthe thing is to be employed. And even though utility may not be directly\nexpressed in words, yet if the idea of a something to be _remedied_ is\npresent, this preposition is freely used notwithstanding. See Isocr.\n_Phil._ 16 (p. 85) \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03b2\u03ac\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03c7\u03c1\u03ae\u03c3\u03b9\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd, Arist. _H. A._ iii. 21\n(p. 522) \u03c3\u03c5\u03bc\u03c6\u03ad\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c1\u1fe5\u03bf\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f21 \u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03ac\u03c5\u03c4\u03b7 \u03bc\u03ac\u03bb\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1, _de Respir._ 8\n(p. 474) \u1f00\u03bd\u03ac\u03b3\u03ba\u03b7 \u03b3\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03ac\u03c8\u03c5\u03be\u03b9\u03bd, \u03b5\u1f30 \u03bc\u03ad\u03bb\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03be\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c3\u03c9\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03c2\u00b7 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\n\u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03b2\u03bf\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u1fd6 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u03ac\u03c5\u03c4\u03b7\u03bd \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c6\u03b8\u03bf\u03c1\u03ac\u03bd, Lucian _Pisc._ 27 \u03c7\u03c1\u03ae\u03c3\u03b9\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd \u03b3\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f10\u03ba\u03ad\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd, Galen _Op._ XII. p. 399 \u03c7\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u1ff3 \u03b3\u03b5 \u03c4\u03af\u03bd\u03b9 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2\n\u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03ac\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c1\u03ba\u03c4\u03ad\u03b9\u1ff3 \u03c3\u03c4\u03ad\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9, \u03c0. 420 [\u0393\u03c1\u03b5\u03b5\u03ba: \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b4\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bb\u03c9\u03c0\u03b5\u03ba\u03af\u03b1\u03c2\n\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03ba\u03c1\u03ce\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., p. 430 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03ad\u03b8\u03b7\u03ba\u03b1\u03bd ... \u03c6\u03ac\u03c1\u03bc\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u1fe5\u03b5\u03bf\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u03c1\u03af\u03c7\u03b1\u03c2, p.\n476 \u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03c7\u03c5\u03c4\u03ac\u03c4\u03b7\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9 \u03b4\u03cd\u03bd\u03b1\u03bc\u03b9\u03bd \u1f61\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03ba\u03ad\u03b9\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03c3\u03cd\u03bc\u03c0\u03c4\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1, p. 482\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f45\u03bb\u1ff3 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f10\u03be\u03b1\u03bd\u03b8\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c3\u03c6\u03cc\u03b4\u03c1\u03b1 \u03c7\u03c1\u03ae\u03c3\u03b9\u03bc\u03cc\u03bd \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd,\np. 514 \u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03c4\u03ad\u03bf\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03b3\u03b5\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03bc\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b2\u03bf\u03b7\u03b8\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2\n\u03b3\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9' \u1f15\u03b3\u03ba\u03b1\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b5\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03bb\u03b3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, p. 601 \u03ba\u03ac\u03bb\u03bb\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c6\u03ac\u03c1\u03bc\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\n\u1f10\u03b3\u03c7\u03ad\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03bd\u03ac\u03c1\u03b4\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03bc\u03cd\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd. These examples from Galen are only a few out\nof probably some hundreds, which might be collected from the treatise in\nwhich they occur, the _de Compositione Medicamentorum_.\n\nThe language, which the Colossian false teachers would use, may be\ninferred from the account given by Philo of a Judaic sect of mystic\nascetics, who may be regarded, not indeed as their direct, but as their\ncollateral ancestors (see p. 86, note 246, p. 94), the Therapeutes of\nEgypt; _de Vit. Cont._ \u00a7 4 (II. p. 476 sq.) \u03c4\u03c1\u03c5\u03c6\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 _\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03c2_\n\u1f11\u03c3\u03c4\u03af\u03c9\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03c9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03c6\u03b8\u03cc\u03bd\u03c9\u03c2 _\u03c4\u1f70 \u03b4\u03cc\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1_ \u03c7\u03bf\u03c1\u03b7\u03b3\u03bf\u03cd\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2, \u1f61\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 ...\n_\u03bc\u03cc\u03bb\u03b9\u03c2_ \u03b4\u03b9' \u1f13\u03be \u1f21\u03bc\u03b5\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bd _\u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b3\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9_ \u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03b3\u03ba\u03b1\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 ...\n\u03c3\u03b9\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72 ... \u1f04\u03c1\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03b5\u1f50\u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u1fc6, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f44\u03c8\u03bf\u03bd \u1f05\u03bb\u03b5\u03c2 ... \u03c0\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u1f55\u03b4\u03c9\u03c1 \u03bd\u03b1\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03bd\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03af\u03bd ... _\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u1f74\u03bd_ \u1f61\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c7\u03b8\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd \u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b2\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd\n\u1f10\u03ba\u03c4\u03c1\u03b5\u03c0\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2. St Paul apparently has before him some\nsimilar exposition of the views of the Colossian heretics, either in\nwriting or (more probably) by report from Epaphras. In reply he\naltogether denies the claims of this system to the title of \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1; he\ndisputes the value of these \u03b4\u03cc\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1; he allows that this \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03ae is the\ngreat evil to be checked, the fatal disease to be cured; but he will not\nadmit that the remedies prescribed have any substantial and lasting\nefficacy.\n\nThe interpretation here offered is not new, but it has been strangely\noverlooked or despised. The passages adduced will I trust show the\ngroundlessness of objections which have been brought against it owing to\nthe use of the preposition; and in all other respects it seems to be far\npreferable to any rival explanation which has been suggested. The\nfavourite interpretations in ancient or modern times divide themselves\ninto two classes, according to the meaning assigned to \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u1f74\u03bd\n\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2. (1) It is explained in a good sense: 'to satisfy the\nreasonable wants of the body'. In this case \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9\u03bc\u1fc7 \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03af is\ngenerally interpreted, '_not_ holding it (the body) _in any honour_'. So\nthe majority of the fathers, Greek and Latin. This has the advantage of\npreserving the continuity of the words \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9\u03bc\u1fc7 \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b9 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u1f74\u03bd\n\u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.: but it assigns an impossible sense to \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u1f74 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2. For\n\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03ae always denotes 'repletion', 'surfeiting', 'excessive\nindulgence', and cannot be used of a reasonable attention to the\nphysical cravings of nature; as Galen says, _Op._ XV. p. 113 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd\n\u03b5\u1f30\u03c9\u03b8\u03cc\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50 \u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u1f30\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f04\u03bb\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd \u1f19\u03bb\u03bb\u03ae\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u1fc6\u03c2\n\u1f44\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1 \u03bc\u1fb6\u03bb\u03bb\u03cc\u03bd \u03c0\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c6\u03ad\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd _\u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b2\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bc\u03bc\u03ad\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\n\u03c0\u03bf\u03c3\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2_: and certainly neither the Apostle nor the Colossian\nascetics were likely to depart from this universal rule. To the long\nlist of passages quoted in Wetstein may be added such references as\nPhilo _Leg. ad. Cai._ \u00a7 1 (II. p. 546), _Clem. Hom._ viii. 15, Justin\n_Dial._ 126, Dion. Alex. in Euseb. _H.E._ vii. 25; but they might be\nincreased to any extent. (2) A bad sense is attached to \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03ae, as\nusage demands. And here two divergent interpretations have been put\nforward. (i) The proper continuity of the sentence is preserved, and the\nwords \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9\u03bc\u1fc7 \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u1f76 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u1f74\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2 are regarded as an\nexposition of the doctrine of the false teachers from _their own point\nof view_. So Theodore of Mopsuestia, \u03bf\u1f50 \u03c4\u03af\u03bc\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03b6\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd\n\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c3\u03ac\u03c1\u03ba\u03b1, \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03bc\u1fb6\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u03b1\u1f31\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03ad\u03c7\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70\n\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ac\u03b4\u03bf\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd. This able expositor however is evidently\ndissatisfied, for he introduces his explanation with the words \u1f00\u03c3\u03b1\u03c6\u1f72\u03c2\n\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9, \u03b2\u03bf\u03cd\u03bb\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c0\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.; and his explanation has not been\nadopted by others. Either the sentence, so interpreted, becomes flat and\nunmeaning, though it is obviously intended to clinch the whole matter;\nor the Apostle is made to confirm the value of the very doctrines which\nhe is combating. (ii) The sentence is regarded as discontinuous; and it\nis interpreted, '_not of any real value_' (or '_not_ consisting _in\nanything commendable_', or '_not_ holding the body _in any honour_') but\n'_tending to gratify the carnal_ desires' (or 'mind'). This in some form\nor other is almost universally adopted by modern interpreters, and among\nthe ancients is found in the commentator Hilary. The objections to it\nare serious. (\u03b1) The dislocation of the sentence is inexplicable. There\nis no indication either in the grammar or in the vocabulary that a\nseparate and oppositive clause begins with \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u1f74\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., but on\nthe contrary everything points to an unbroken continuity. (\u03b2) The sense\nwhich it attaches to \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u1f74 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2 is either forced and unnatural,\nor it makes the Apostle say what he could not have said. If \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u1f74 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2\n\u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2 could have the sense which Hilary assigns to it, 'sagina carnalis\nsensus traditio humana est', or indeed if it could mean 'the _mind_ of\nthe flesh' in any sense (as it is generally taken by modern\ncommentators), this is what St Paul might well have said. But obviously\n\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u1f74 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2 conveys a very different idea from such expressions\nas \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c6\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bd\u03bf\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2 (ver. 18) or \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c6\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2\n\u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2 (Rom. viii. 6, 7), which include pride, self-sufficiency, strife,\nhatred, bigotry, and generally everything that is earth-bound and\nselfish. On the other hand, if \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u1f74 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2 be taken in its\nnatural meaning, as applying to coarse sensual indulgences, then St Paul\ncould not have said without qualification, that this rigorous asceticism\nconduced \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u1f74\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2. Such language would defeat its own\nobject by its extravagance.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIII. 1]\n\nIII. ^1\u0395\u1f30 \u03bf\u1f56\u03bd \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b7\u03b3\u03ad\u03c1\u03b8\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7, \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f04\u03bd\u03c9 \u03b6\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b5, \u03bf\u1f57 \u1f41 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03b4\u03b5\u03be\u03b9\u1fb7 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03ae\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2\u00b7\n\n\nIII. 1\u20134. 'If this be so; if ye were raised with Christ, if ye were\ntranslated into heaven, what follows? Why you must realise the change.\nAll your aims must centre in heaven, where reigns the Christ who has\nthus exalted you, enthroned on God's right hand. All your thoughts must\nabide in heaven, not on the earth. For, I say it once again, you have\nnothing to do with mundane things: you _died_, died once for all to the\nworld: you are living another life. This life indeed is hidden now: it\nhas no outward splendour as men count splendour; for it is a life with\nChrist, a life in God. But the veil will not always shroud it. Christ,\nour life, shall be manifested hereafter; then ye also shall be\nmanifested with Him and the world shall see your glory'.\n\n1. \u03b5\u1f30 \u03bf\u1f56\u03bd \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b7\u03b3\u03ad\u03c1\u03b8\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] '_If then ye were raised_', not '_have\nbeen raised_'. The aorist \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b7\u03b3\u03ad\u03c1\u03b8\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5, like \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03b8\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 (ii. 20), refers\nto their baptism; and the \u03b5\u1f30 \u03bf\u1f56\u03bd here is a resumption of the \u03b5\u1f30 in ii.\n20. The sacrament of baptism, as administered in the Apostolic age,\ninvolved a twofold symbolism, a death or burial and a resurrection: see\nthe note on ii. 12. In the rite itself these were represented by two\ndistinct acts, the disappearance beneath the water and the emergence\nfrom the water: but in the change typified by the rite they are two\naspects of the same thing, 'like the concave and convex in a circle', to\nuse an old simile. The negative side\u2014the death and burial\u2014implies the\npositive side\u2014the resurrection. Hence the form of the Apostle's\nresumption, \u03b5\u1f30 \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03b8\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5, \u03b5\u1f30 _\u03bf\u1f56\u03bd_ \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b7\u03b3\u03ad\u03c1\u03b8\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5.\n\nThe change involved in baptism, if truly realised, must pervade a man's\nwhole nature. It affects not only his practical conduct, but his\nintellectual conceptions also. It is nothing less than a removal into a\nnew sphere of being. He is translated from earth to heaven; and with\nthis translation his point of view is altered, his standard of judgment\nis wholly changed. Matter is to him no longer the great enemy; his\nposition towards it is one of absolute neutrality. Ascetic rules, ritual\nordinances, have ceased to have any absolute value, irrespective of\ntheir effects. All these things are of the earth, earthy. The material,\nthe transitory, the mundane, has given place to the moral, the eternal,\nthe heavenly.\n\n\u03c4\u1f70 \u1f04\u03bd\u03c9 \u03b6\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] 'Cease to concentrate your energies, your\nthoughts, on mundane ordinances, and realise your new and heavenly life,\nof which Christ is the pole-star'.\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03b4\u03b5\u03be\u03b9\u1fb7 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] '_being seated on the right hand of God_', where\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03ae\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 must not be connected with \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd; see the note on \u1f00\u03c0\u03cc\u03ba\u03c1\u03c5\u03c6\u03bf\u03b9,\nii. 3. This participial clause is pertinent and emphatic, for the\nsession of Christ implies the session of the believer also; Ephes. ii.\n4\u20136 \u1f41 \u03b4\u1f72 \u0398\u03b5\u03cc\u03c2 ... \u1f21\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 ... \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03b6\u03c9\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd ... \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03ae\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03b5\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n_\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03ba\u03ac\u03b8\u03b9\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd_ \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u03af\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.; comp.\nRev. iii. 21 \u1f41 \u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03bd, \u03b4\u03ce\u03c3\u03c9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4' \u1f10\u03bc\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b8\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u1ff3 \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5, \u1f61\u03c2\n\u03ba\u1f00\u03b3\u1f7c \u1f10\u03bd\u03af\u03ba\u03b7\u03c3\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03ba\u03ac\u03b8\u03b9\u03c3\u03b1 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2 \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b8\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u1ff3 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, in the\nmessage addressed to the principal church of this district: see above p.\n42. \u0392\u03b1\u03b2\u03b1\u03af, says Chrysostom, \u03c0\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03ae\u03b3\u03b1\u03b3\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u03ad\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd; \u03c0\u1ff6\u03c2\n\u03c6\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03c3\u03b5 \u03bc\u03b5\u03b3\u03ac\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5; \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f24\u03c1\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9 \u03a4\u1f70 \u1f04\u03bd\u03c9 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c0\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u1f72, \u039f\u1f57 \u1f41\n\u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd, \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03c4\u03af; \u1f18\u03bd \u03b4\u03b5\u03be\u03b9\u1fb7 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03ae\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2. \u1f10\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03b8\u03b5\u03bd \u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03c0\u1f78\u03bd \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd\n\u03b3\u1fc6\u03bd \u1f41\u03c1\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03cd\u03b1\u03b6\u03b5.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIII. 2, 3]\n\n^2\u03c4\u1f70 \u1f04\u03bd\u03c9 \u03c6\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b5, \u03bc\u1f74 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2. ^3\u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03b8\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u03b3\u03ac\u03c1, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f21 \u03b6\u03c9\u1f74 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd\n\u03ba\u03ad\u03ba\u03c1\u03c5\u03c0\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c3\u1f7a\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u0398\u03b5\u1ff7\u00b7\n\n\n2. \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f04\u03bd\u03c9] The same expression repeated for emphasis; 'You must not only\n_seek_ heaven; you must also _think_ heaven.' For the opposition of \u03c4\u1f70\n\u1f04\u03bd\u03c9 and \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2 in connexion with \u03c6\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, comp. Phil. iii. 19,\n20 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03c4\u1f70 _\u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 \u03c6\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2_, \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03af\u03c4\u03b5\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1 _\u1f10\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2\n\u1f51\u03c0\u03ac\u03c1\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9_; see also Theoph. _ad Autol._ ii. 17. Extremes meet. Here\nthe Apostle points the antithesis to controvert a Gnostic asceticism: in\nthe Philippian letter he uses the same contrast to denounce an Epicurean\nsensualism. Both alike are guilty of the same fundamental error; both\nalike concentrate their thoughts on material, mundane things.\n\n3. \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03b8\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5] '_ye died_' in baptism. The aorist \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03b8\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 denotes the\npast act; the perfect \u03ba\u03ad\u03ba\u03c1\u03c5\u03c0\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 the permanent effects. For \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03b8\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 see\nthe notes on ii. 12, 20.\n\n\u03ba\u03ad\u03ba\u03c1\u03c5\u03c0\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9] '_is hidden_, is buried out of sight, to the world'. The\nApostle's argument is this: 'When you sank under the baptismal water,\nyou disappeared for ever to the world. You rose again, it is true, but\nyou rose only to God. The world henceforth knows nothing of your new\nlife, and (as a consequence) your new life must know nothing of the\nworld.' 'Neque Christum', says Bengel, 'neque Christianos novit mundus;\nac ne Christiani quidem plane seipsos'; comp. Joh. xiv. 17\u201319 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1\n\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f43 \u1f41 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50 \u03b4\u03cd\u03bd\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03bb\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 _\u03bf\u1f50 \u03b8\u03b5\u03c9\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78 \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u1f72\n\u03b3\u03b9\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9_ \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78, \u1f51\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 [\u03b4\u1f72] \u03b3\u03b9\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc ... \u1f41 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b5 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f14\u03c4\u03b9\n\u03b8\u03b5\u03c9\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6 \u1f51\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03b8\u03b5\u03c9\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03ad \u03bc\u03b5\u00b7 _\u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f10\u03b3\u1f7c \u03b6\u1ff6, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b6\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5_.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIII. 4]\n\n^4\u1f45\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd \u1f41 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c6\u03b1\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03c9\u03b8\u1fc7, \u1f21 \u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03c9\u1f74 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd, \u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c3\u1f7a\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7\n\u03c6\u03b1\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03c9\u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b4\u03cc\u03be\u1fc3.\n\n                          4 \u1f21 \u03b6\u03c9\u1f74 _\u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd_.\n\n\n4. \u1f41 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2] A fourth occurrence of the name of Christ in this context;\ncomp. ver. 2 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7, \u1f41 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2, ver. 3 \u03c3\u1f7a\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7. A pronoun would\nhave been more natural, but less emphatic.\n\n\u1f21 \u03b6\u03c9\u1f74 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd] This is an advance on the previous statement, \u1f21 \u03b6\u03c9\u1f74 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd\n\u03ba\u03ad\u03ba\u03c1\u03c5\u03c0\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c3\u1f7a\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7, in two respects: (1) It is not enough to have\nsaid that the life is shared _with_ Christ. The Apostle declares that\nthe life _is_ Christ. Comp. 1 Joh. v. 12 \u1f41 \u1f14\u03c7\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f51\u1f76\u03bf\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b6\u03ce\u03b7\u03bd,\nIgn. _Ephes._ 7 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03ac\u03c4\u1ff3 \u03b6\u03c9\u1f74 \u1f00\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u03b9\u03bd\u03ae (of Christ), _Smyrn._ 4 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c2\n\u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f00\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u03b9\u03bd\u1f78\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b6\u1fc6\u03bd, _Ephes._ 3 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c2 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b9\u03ac\u03ba\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd\n\u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b6\u1fc6\u03bd, _Magn._ 1 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b6\u1fc6\u03bd. (2) For \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd\nis substituted \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd. The Apostle hastens to include himself among the\nrecipients of the bounty. For this characteristic transition from the\nsecond person to the first see the note on ii. 13. The reading \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd here\nhas very high support, and on this account I have given it as an\nalternative; but it is most probably a transcriber's correction, for the\nsake of uniformity with the preceding.\n\n\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] 'The veil which now shrouds your higher life from\nothers, and even partly from yourselves, will then be withdrawn. The\nworld which persecutes, despises, ignores now, will then be blinded,\nwith the dazzling glory of the revelation'. Comp. 1 Joh. iii. 1, 2 \u1f41\n\u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50 \u03b3\u03b9\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9 \u1f21\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2, \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f14\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd. \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03af, \u03bd\u1fe6\u03bd \u03c4\u03ad\u03ba\u03bd\u03b1 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u1f10\u03c3\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f54\u03c0\u03c9 \u1f10\u03c6\u03b1\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03ce\u03b8\u03b7 \u03c4\u03af \u1f10\u03c3\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03b8\u03b1\u00b7 \u03bf\u1f35\u03b4\u03b1\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f10\u1f70\u03bd \u03c6\u03b1\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03c9\u03b8\u1fc7, \u1f45\u03bc\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f10\u03c3\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03b8\u03b1 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., Clem. Rom. 50 \u03bf\u1f33 \u03c6\u03b1\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03c9\u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 (or \u03c6\u03b1\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u1f76\n\u1f14\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9) \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03c0\u1fc7 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6.\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03b4\u03cc\u03be\u1fc3] Joh. xvii. 22 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b4\u03cc\u03be\u03b1\u03bd \u1f23\u03bd \u03b4\u03ad\u03b4\u03c9\u03ba\u03ac\u03c2 \u03bc\u03bf\u03b9, \u03b4\u03ad\u03b4\u03c9\u03ba\u03b1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2, Rom.\nviii. 17 \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b4\u03bf\u03be\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIII. 5]\n\n^5\u039d\u03b5\u03ba\u03c1\u03ce\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5 \u03bf\u1f56\u03bd \u03c4\u1f70 \u03bc\u03ad\u03bb\u03b7 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2\u00b7 \u03c0\u03bf\u03c1\u03bd\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd, \u1f00\u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03b1\u03c1\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03bd, \u03c0\u03ac\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2,\n\u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03ba\u03ae\u03bd, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03b5\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03be\u03af\u03b1\u03bd,\n\n\n5\u201311. 'So then realise this death to the world; kill all your earthly\nmembers. Is it fornication, impurity of whatever kind, passion, evil\ndesire? Or again, is it that covetousness which makes a religion, an\nidolatry, of greed? Do not deceive yourselves. For all these things\nGod's wrath will surely come. In these sins ye, like other Gentiles,\nindulged in times past, when your life was spent amidst them. But now\neverything is changed. Now you also must put away not this or that\ndesire, but all sins whatsoever. Anger, wrath, malice, slander, filthy\nabuse; banish it from your lips. Be not false one to another in word or\ndeed; but cast off for ever the old man with his actions, and put on the\nnew, who is renewed from day to day, growing unto perfect knowledge and\nrefashioned after the image of his Creator. In this new life, in this\nregenerate man, there is not, there cannot be, any distinction of Greek\nor Jew, of circumcision or uncircumcision; there is no room for\nbarbarian, for Scythian, for bond or free. Christ has displaced, has\nannihilated, all these; Christ is Himself all things and in all things'.\n\n5. The false doctrine of the Gnostics had failed to check sensual\nindulgence (ii. 23). The true doctrine of the Apostle has power to kill\nthe whole carnal man. The substitution of a comprehensive principle for\nspecial precepts\u2014of the heavenly life in Christ for a code of minute\nordinances\u2014at length attains the end after which the Gnostic teachers\nhave striven, and striven in vain.\n\n\u03bd\u03b5\u03ba\u03c1\u03ce\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5 \u03bf\u1f56\u03bd] i.e. 'Carry out this principle of _death_ to the world\n(ii. 20 \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03b8\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5, iii. 3 \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03b8\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5), and kill everything that is\nmundane and carnal in your being'.\n\n\u03c4\u1f70 \u03bc\u03ad\u03bb\u03b7 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] Each person has a twofold moral personality. There is in\nhim the 'old man', and there is in him also 'the new' (vv. 9, 10). The\nold man with all his members must be pitilessly slain. It is plain that\n\u03c4\u1f70 \u03bc\u03ad\u03bb\u03b7 here is used, like \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2 in ver. 9, not physically, but\nmorally. Our actual limbs may be either \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2 or \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2\n\u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03ac\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2, according as they are made instruments for the world or for\nChrist: just as we\u2014our whole being\u2014may identify ourselves with the\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03b9\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2 or with the \u03bd\u03ad\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2 of our twofold potentiality.\nFor this use of the physical, as a symbol of the moral of which it is\nthe potential instrument, compare Matt. v. 29 sq. \u03b5\u1f30 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f41 \u1f40\u03c6\u03b8\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f41\n\u03b4\u03b5\u03be\u03b9\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c3\u03ba\u03b1\u03bd\u03b4\u03b1\u03bb\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c3\u03b5, \u1f14\u03be\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\nI have ventured to punctuate after \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2. Thus \u03c0\u03bf\u03c1\u03bd\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\nare prospective accusatives, which should be governed directly by some\nsuch word as \u1f00\u03c0\u03cc\u03b8\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5. But several dependent clauses interpose; the last\nof these incidentally suggests a contrast between the past and the\npresent; and this contrast, predominating in the Apostle's mind, leads\nto an abrupt recasting of the sentence, _\u03bd\u03c5\u03bd\u1f76 \u03b4\u1f72_ \u1f00\u03c0\u03cc\u03b8\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u1f51\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 _\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1_ in disregard of the original construction. This\nopposition of \u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u03ad and \u03bd\u1fe6\u03bd has a tendency to dislocate the construction\nin St Paul, as in i. 22 \u03bd\u03c5\u03bd\u1f76 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b7\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5 (or \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03ae\u03bb\u03bb\u03b1\u03be\u03b5\u03bd), i. 26\n\u03bd\u1fe6\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f10\u03c6\u03b1\u03bd\u03ad\u03c1\u03c9\u03b8\u03b7: see the note on this latter passage. For the whole run\nof the sentence (the parenthetic relative clauses, the contrast of past\nand present, and the broken construction) compare Ephes. ii. 1\u20135 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 ... \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f37\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u03ad ... \u1f10\u03bd \u03bf\u1f37\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 ... \u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u03b5 ... \u1f41 \u03b4\u1f72 \u0398\u03b5\u03cc\u03c2 ... \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f44\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2\n\u1f21\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03b6\u03c9\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd.\n\nWith the common punctuation the interpretation is equally awkward,\nwhether we treat \u03c4\u1f70 \u03bc\u03ad\u03bb\u03b7 and \u03c0\u03bf\u03c1\u03bd\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. as in direct apposition, or\nas double accusatives, or in any other way. The case is best put by\nSeverianus, \u03c3\u03ac\u03c1\u03ba\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03b5\u1fd6 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f01\u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03af\u03b1\u03bd, \u1f27\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03bc\u03ad\u03bb\u03b7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03b8\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6 ... \u1f41\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03b9\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03cc\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c6\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f01\u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, \u03bc\u03ad\u03bb\u03b7 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b1\u1f31\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03ac\u03be\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f01\u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03b7\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd; but this is an evasion of the difficulty, which\nconsists in the direct apposition of the instruments and the activities,\nfrom whatever point they are viewed.\n\n\u03c0\u03bf\u03c1\u03bd\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] The general order is from the less comprehensive to the\nmore comprehensive. Thus \u03c0\u03bf\u03c1\u03bd\u03b5\u03af\u03b1 is a special kind of uncleanness, while\n\u1f00\u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03b1\u03c1\u03c3\u03af\u03b1 is uncleanness in any form, Ephes. v. 3 \u03c0\u03bf\u03c1\u03bd\u03b5\u03af\u03b1 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u1f00\u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03b1\u03c1\u03c3\u03af\u03b1 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b1; comp. Gal. v. 19 \u03c0\u03bf\u03c1\u03bd\u03b5\u03af\u03b1, \u1f00\u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03b1\u03c1\u03c3\u03af\u03b1, \u1f00\u03c3\u03ad\u03bb\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1, with the\nnote there. Thus again \u03c0\u03ac\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2, though frequently referring to this class\nof sins (Rom. i. 26, 1 Thess. iv. 5), would include other base passions\nwhich do not fall under the category of \u1f00\u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03b1\u03c1\u03c3\u03af\u03b1, as for instance\ngluttony and intemperance.\n\n\u03c0\u03ac\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2, \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03bd] The two words occur together in 1 Thess. iv. 5 \u03bc\u1f74 \u1f10\u03bd\n\u03c0\u03ac\u03b8\u03b5\u03b9 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03c2. So in a passage closely resembling the text, Gal. v. 24\n\u03bf\u1f31 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c3\u03ac\u03c1\u03ba\u03b1 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03ac\u03c5\u03c1\u03c9\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u03c3\u1f7a\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03b8\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2\n\u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2. The same vice may be viewed as a \u03c0\u03ac\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2 from its passive and\nan \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1 from its active side. The word \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1 is not used here in\nthe restricted sense which it has e.g. in Arist. _Eth. Nic._ ii. 4,\nwhere it ranges with anger, fear, etc., being related to \u03c0\u03ac\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2 as the\nspecies to the genus (see Gal. l.c. note). In the Greek Testament\n\u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1 has a much more comprehensive sense; e.g. Joh. viii. 44 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2\n\u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b8\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd. Here, if anything, \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1 is\nwider than \u03c0\u03ac\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2. While \u03c0\u03ac\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2 includes all ungovernable affections,\n\u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u03ba\u03ae reaches to all evil longings. \u1f38\u03b4\u03bf\u03cd, says Chrysostom,\n\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03b5\u1f36\u03c0\u03b5\u00b7 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u03ba\u03ae, \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03ba\u03b1\u03bd\u03af\u03b1, \u1f40\u03c1\u03b3\u03ae, \u03bb\u03cd\u03c0\u03b7. The\nepithet is added because \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1 is capable of a good sense: comp. 1\nCor. x. 6 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03b7\u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03ba\u1ff6\u03bd.\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03b5\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03be\u03af\u03b1\u03bd] '_and_ especially _covetousness_'. Impurity and\ncovetousness may be said to divide between them nearly the whole domain\nof human selfishness and vice; 'Si avaritia prostrata est, exsurgit\nlibido' (Cypr. _de Mort._ 3). The one has been already dealt with; the\nother needs now to be specially denounced; comp. Ephes. v. 3 \u03c0\u03bf\u03c1\u03bd\u03b5\u03af\u03b1 \u03b4\u1f72\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03b1\u03c1\u03c3\u03af\u03b1 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b1 \u1f22 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b5\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03be\u03af\u03b1. '<DW25> extra Deum', says Bengel (on Rom.\ni. 29), 'qu\u00e6rit pabulum in creatura materiali vel per voluptatem vel per\navaritiam.' Comp. _Test. xii Patr._ Jud. 18 \u03c6\u03c5\u03bb\u03ac\u03be\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 \u03bf\u1f56\u03bd, \u03c4\u03ad\u03ba\u03bd\u03b1 \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5,\n\u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bf\u03c1\u03bd\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03b1\u03c1\u03b3\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 ... \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c4\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f00\u03c6\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1fb7 \u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6.\nSimilarly Lysis Pythag. 4 (_Epistol. Gr\u00e6c._ p. 602, ed. Hercher)\n\u1f40\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03ac\u03be\u03b1\u03b9\u03bc\u03b9 \u03b4' \u1f02\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd [i.e. the vices] \u03c0\u03c1\u1fb6\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03b5\u03bb\u03b8\u1f7c\u03bd \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2,\n\u1f00\u03ba\u03c1\u03b1\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b5\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03be\u03af\u03b1\u03bd\u00b7 \u1f04\u03bc\u03c6\u03c9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03cd\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c6\u03cd\u03ba\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9. It must be\nremembered that \u03c0\u03bb\u03b5\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03be\u03af\u03b1 is much wider than \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03b1\u03c1\u03b3\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03b1 (see Trench _N.\nT. Syn._ \u00a7 xxiv, p. 77 sq.), which itself is called \u1fe5\u03af\u03b6\u03b1 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03ba\u1ff6\u03bd (1 Tim. vi. 10).\n\nThe attempt to give \u03c0\u03bb\u03b5\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03be\u03af\u03b1 here and in other passages the sense of\n'impurity' (see e.g. Hammond on Rom. i. 29) is founded on a\nmisconception. The words \u03c0\u03bb\u03b5\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, \u03c0\u03bb\u03b5\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03be\u03af\u03b1, will sometimes be used\nin relation to sins of uncleanness, because such may be acts of\ninjustice also. Thus adultery is not only impurity, but it is robbery\nalso: hence 1 Thess. iv. 6 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03bc\u1f74 \u1f51\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b2\u03b1\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b5\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03ac\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u1f78\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 (see the note there). In other passages again\nthere will be an accidental connexion; e.g. Ephes. iv. 19 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c1\u03b3\u03b1\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03bd\n\u1f00\u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03b1\u03c1\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03b5\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03be\u03af\u1fb3, i.e. 'with greediness', 'with entire\ndisregard for the rights of others'. But no where do the words in\nthemselves suggest this meaning. Here the particles \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd show that a\nnew type of sin is introduced with \u03c0\u03bb\u03b5\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03be\u03af\u03b1\u03bd: and in the parallel\npassage Ephes. v. 3 (quoted above) the same distinction is indicated by\nthe change from the conjunctive particle \u03ba\u03b1\u03af to the disjunctive \u1f24. It is\nan error to suppose that this sense of \u03c0\u03bb\u03b5\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03be\u03af\u03b1 is supported by Clem.\nAlex. _Strom._ iii. 12 (p. 551 sq.) \u1f61\u03c2 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f21 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b5\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03be\u03af\u03b1 \u03c0\u03bf\u03c1\u03bd\u03b5\u03af\u03b1 \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9,\n\u03c4\u1fc7 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u1fb3 \u1f10\u03bd\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9\u03bf\u03c5\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7. On the converse error of explaining \u1f00\u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03b1\u03c1\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\nto mean 'greediness', 'covetousness', see the note on 1 Thess. ii. 3.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIII. 6]\n\n\u1f25\u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u1f76\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03b4\u03c9\u03bb\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03b5\u03af\u03b1, ^6\u03b4\u03b9' \u1f03 \u1f10\u03c1\u03c7\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f21 \u1f40\u03c1\u03b3\u1f74\n\n\n\u1f25\u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] '_for it is idolatry_': comp. Ephes. v. 5 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b5\u03bf\u03bd\u03ad\u03ba\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2, \u1f45 (or\n\u1f45\u03c2) \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03b4\u03c9\u03bb\u03bf\u03bb\u03ac\u03c4\u03c1\u03b7\u03c2, Polyc. _Phil._ 11 'Si quis non abstinuerit se ab\navaritia, ab idololatria coinquinabitur' (see _Philippians_ p. 63 on the\nmisunderstanding of this passage). The covetous man sets up another\nobject of worship besides God. There is a sort of religious purpose, a\ndevotion of the soul, to greed, which makes the sin of the miser so\nhateful. The idea of avarice as a _religion_ may have been suggested to\nSt Paul by our Lord's words, Matt. vi. 24 \u03bf\u1f50 \u03b4\u03cd\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 \u0398\u03b5\u1ff7 \u03b4\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03bc\u03b1\u03bc\u03c9\u03bd\u1fb7, though it is a mistake to suppose that Mammon was the name of a\nSyrian deity. It appears however elsewhere in Jewish writers of this and\nlater ages: e.g. Philo _de Mon._ i. 2 (II. p. 214 sq.) \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c7\u03cc\u03b8\u03b5\u03bd \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd\n\u1f00\u03c1\u03b3\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c7\u03c1\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba\u03c0\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u03b6\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9, \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c0\u03bf\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03b8\u1f72\u03bd \u1f61\u03c2 \u1f04\u03b3\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b8\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd\n\u1f00\u03b4\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b8\u03b7\u03c3\u03b1\u03c5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03c5\u03bb\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd (with the whole context), and _Shemoth Rabba_\nfol. 121. 3 'Qui opes suas multiplicat per f\u0153nus, ille est\nidololatra' (with other passages quoted by Wetstein and Sch\u00f6ttgen on\nEphes. v. 5). St Chrysostom, _Hom. in Johann. lxv_ (VIII. p. 392 sq.),\nenlarges on the cult of wealth\u2014the consecration of it, the worship paid\nto it, the sacrifices demanded by it: \u1f21 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03b1\u03c1\u03b3\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03b1 \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9, \u0398\u1fe6\u03c3\u03cc\u03bd \u03bc\u03bf\u03b9\n\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c3\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03ae\u03bd, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b5\u03af\u03b8\u03b5\u03b9\u00b7 \u1f41\u03c1\u1fb7\u03c2 \u1f45\u03b9\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9 \u03b2\u03c9\u03bc\u03bf\u03cd\u03c2, \u03bf\u1f37\u03b1 \u03b4\u03ad\u03c7\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b8\u03cd\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\n(p. 393). The passage in _Test. xii Patr._ Jud. 18 \u1f21 \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03b1\u03c1\u03b3\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03b1 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2\n\u1f14\u03b9\u03b4\u03c9\u03bb\u03b1 \u1f41\u03b4\u03b7\u03b3\u03b5\u1fd6 is no real parallel to St Paul's language, though at first\nsight it seems to resemble it. For \u1f25\u03c4\u03b9\u03c2, 'seeing that it', see the note\non Phil. iv. 3.\n\n6, 7. \u03b4\u03b9' \u1f05 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] The received text requires correction in two points.\n(1) It inserts the words \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f51\u03b9\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 after \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6.\nThough this insertion has preponderating support, yet the words are\nevidently interpolated from the parallel passage, Ephes. v. 6 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c4\u03b1\n\u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f10\u03c1\u03c7\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f21 \u1f40\u03c1\u03b3\u1f74 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f51\u03b9\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2. We are\ntherefore justified in rejecting them with other authorities, few in\nnumber but excellent in character. See the detached note on various\nreadings. When the sentence is thus corrected, the parallelism of \u03b4\u03b9' \u1f05\n... \u03b5\u03bd \u03bf\u1f37\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03af ... may be compared with Ephes. i. 11 \u1f10\u03bd h\u1ff7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03b8\u03b7\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd ... \u1f10\u03bd h\u1ff7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 ... \u1f10\u03bd h\u1ff7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c6\u03c1\u03b1\u03b3\u03af\u03c3\u03b8\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5,\nand ii. 21, 22 \u1f10\u03bd h\u1ff7 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b1 [\u1f21] \u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03bf\u03b4\u03bf\u03bc\u1f74 ... \u1f10\u03bd \u1fa7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03b4\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5. (2) The vast preponderance of authority obliges us to\nsubstitute \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 for \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2.\n\n6. \u1f10\u03c1\u03c7\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9] This may refer either to the present and continuous\ndispensation, or to the future and final judgment. The present \u1f10\u03c1\u03c7\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9\nis frequently used to denote the _certainty_ of a future event, e.g.\nMatt. xvii. 11, Joh. iv. 21, xiv. 3, whence \u1f41 \u1f10\u03c1\u03c7\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 is a designation\nof the Messiah: see Winer \u00a7 xl. p. 332.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIII. 7, 8]\n\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6\u00b7 ^7\u1f10\u03bd \u03bf\u1f37\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03b5\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03ad \u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u03b5, \u1f45\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f10\u03b6\u1fc6\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2\u00b7\n^8\u03bd\u03c5\u03bd\u1f76 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f00\u03c0\u03cc\u03b8\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1,\n\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03bf\u1f37\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] The clause \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f51\u03b9\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 having been\nstruck out, \u1f10\u03bd \u03bf\u1f37\u03c2 must necessarily be neuter and refer to the same as\n\u03b4\u03b9' \u1f05. Independently of the rejection of the clause, this neuter seems\nmore probable in itself than the masculine: for (1) The expression\n\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd is most commonly used of things, not of persons,\nespecially in this and the companion epistle; iv. 5, Ephes. ii. 2, 10,\niv. 17, v. 2; (2) The Apostle would hardly denounce it as a sin in his\nColossian converts that they 'walked _among_ the sons of disobedience';\nfor the Christian, though not of the world, is necessarily in the world:\ncomp. 1 Cor. v. 10. The apparent parallel, Ephes. ii. 3 \u1f10\u03bd \u03bf\u1f37\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f21\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2\n\u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03ac\u03c6\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd \u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd (where \u03bf\u1f37\u03c2\nseems to be masculine), does not hold, because the addition \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2\n\u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. makes all the difference. Thus the rejection of the\nclause, which was decided by textual considerations, is confirmed by\nexegetical reasons.\n\n7. \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2] '_ye_, like the other heathen' (i. 6 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd), but in\nthe next verse \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 is rather 'ye yourselves', 'ye notwithstanding\nyour former lives'.\n\n\u1f45\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f10\u03b6\u1fc6\u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] 'When _ye_ lived in this atmosphere of sin, when ye\nhad not yet died to the world'.\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2] '_in these things_.' We should have expected \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2, but\n\u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 is substituted as more emphatic and condemnatory: comp. Ephes.\nv. 6 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f10\u03c1\u03c7\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. The two expressions \u03b6\u1fc6\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd and\n\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd involve two distinct ideas, denoting the condition of\ntheir life and the character of their practice respectively. Their\nconduct was conformable to their circumstances. Comp. Gal. v. 25 \u03b5\u1f30\n\u03b6\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9, \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c7\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd.\n\n8. The errors of the past suggest the obligations of the present. Thus\nthe Apostle returns to the topic with which the sentence commenced. But\nthe violence of the contrast has broken up the grammar of the sentence:\nsee the note on ver. 5.\n\n\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1] 'not only those vices which have been specially named before\n(ver. 5), but _all_ of whatever kind.' The Apostle accordingly goes on\nto specify sins of a wholly different type from those already mentioned,\nsins of uncharitableness, such as anger, detraction, malice, and the\nlike.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIII. 9]\n\n\u1f40\u03c1\u03b3\u03ae\u03bd, \u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03cc\u03bd, \u03ba\u03b1\u03ba\u03af\u03b1\u03bd, \u03b2\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c6\u03b7\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03bd, \u03b1\u1f30\u03c3\u03c7\u03c1\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd\u00b7\n^9\u03bc\u1f74 \u03c8\u03b5\u03cd\u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u03ae\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2\u00b7 \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03ba\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\n\n\n\u1f40\u03c1\u03b3\u03ae\u03bd, \u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03cc\u03bd] '_anger_, _wrath_'. The one denotes a more or less settled\nfeeling of hatred, the other a tumultuous outburst of passion. This\ndistinction of the two words was fixed chiefly by the definitions of the\nStoics: Diog. Laert. vii. 114 \u1f41 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f40\u03c1\u03b3\u1f74 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7. So\nAmmianus \u03b8\u1f7a\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bc\u03ad\u03bd \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c0\u03c1\u03cc\u03c3\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2, \u1f40\u03c1\u03b3\u1f74 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03c5\u03c7\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bc\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03ba\u03af\u03b1,\nGreg. Naz. _Carm._ 34 (II. p. 612) \u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u1f78\u03c2 \u03bc\u03ad\u03bd \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f00\u03b8\u03c1\u03cc\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b6\u03ad\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c6\u03c1\u03b5\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2,\n\u1f40\u03c1\u03b3\u1f74 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bc\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd. They may be represented in Latin by _ira_ and\n_furor_; Senec. _de Ira_ ii. 36 'Ajacem in mortem egit furor, in furorem\nira', and Jerome in Ephes. iv. 31 'Furor incipiens ira est': see Trench\n_N. T. Syn._ \u00a7 xxxvii, p. 123 sq. On other synonymes connected with\n\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2 and \u1f40\u03c1\u03b3\u03ae see the note on Ephes. iv. 31.\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03ba\u03af\u03b1\u03bd] '_malice_', or '_malignity_', as it may be translated in default\nof a better word. It is not (at least in the New Testament) vice\ngenerally, but the vicious nature which is bent on _doing harm to\nothers_, and is well defined by Calvin (on Ephes. iv. 31) 'animi\npravitas, qu\u00e6 _humanitati et \u00e6quitati_ est opposita'. This will be\nevident from the connexion in which it appears, e.g. Rom. i. 29, Eph.\niv. 31, Tit. iii. 3. Thus \u03ba\u03b1\u03ba\u03af\u03b1 and \u03c0\u03bf\u03bd\u03b7\u03c1\u03af\u03b1 (which frequently occur\ntogether, e.g. 1 Cor. v. 8) only differ in so far as the one denotes\nrather the vicious disposition, the other the active exercise of it. The\nword is carefully investigated in Trench _N. T. Syn._ \u00a7 xi. p. 35 sq.\n\n\u03b2\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c6\u03b7\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03bd] '_evil speaking_, _railing_, _slandering_', as frequently,\ne.g. Rom. iii. 8, xiv. 16, 1 Cor. iv. 13 (v.l.), x. 30, Ephes. iv. 31,\nTit. iii. 2. The word has the same twofold sense, 'evil speaking' and\n'blasphemy', in classical writers, which it has in the New Testament.\n\n\u03b1\u1f30\u03c3\u03c7\u03c1\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03af\u03b1\u03bd] '_foul-mouthed abuse_'. The word, as used elsewhere, has\ntwo meanings: (1) '_Filthy-talking_', as defined in Clem. Alex. _P\u00e6d._\nii. 6 (p. 189 sq.), where it is denounced at length: comp. Arist. _Pol._\nvii. 17, Epict. _Man._ 33, Plut. _Mor._ 9, and so commonly; (2)\n'_Abusive language_', as e.g. Polyb. viii. 13. 8, xii. 13. 3, xxxi. 10.\n4. If the two senses of the word had been quite distinct, we might have\nhad some difficulty in choosing between them here. The former sense is\nsuggested by the parallel passage Ephes. v. 4 \u03b1\u1f30\u03c3\u03c7\u03c1\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bc\u03c9\u03c1\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03af\u03b1 \u1f24\n\u03b5\u1f50\u03c4\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03bb\u03af\u03b1; the second by the connexion with \u03b2\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c6\u03b7\u03bc\u03af\u03b1 here. But the\nsecond sense is derived from the first. The word can only mean 'abuse',\nwhen the abuse is 'foul-mouthed'. And thus we may suppose that both\nideas, 'filthiness' and 'evil-speaking', are included here.\n\n9. \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03ba\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] '_putting off_'. Do these aorist participles\ndescribe an action coincident with or prior to the \u03c8\u03b5\u03cd\u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5? In other\nwords are they part of the command, or do they assign the reason for the\ncommand? Must they be rendered 'putting off', or 'seeing that ye did (at\nyour baptism) put off'? The former seems the more probable\ninterpretation: for (1) Though both ideas are found in St Paul, the\nimperative is the more usual; e.g. Rom. xiii. 12 sq. \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b8\u03ce\u03bc\u03b5\u03b8\u03b1 \u03bf\u1f56\u03bd \u03c4\u1f70\n\u1f10\u03c1\u03b3\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03ba\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2, \u1f10\u03bd\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b5\u03b8\u03b1 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f45\u03c0\u03bb\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c6\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2 ... \u1f10\u03bd\u03b4\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd\n\u039a\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd, Ephes. vi. 11 \u1f10\u03bd\u03b4\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03c0\u03bb\u03af\u03b1\u03bd with ver.\n14 \u03c3\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c4\u03b5 \u03bf\u1f56\u03bd ... \u1f10\u03bd\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., 1 Thess. V. 8 \u03bd\u03ae\u03c6\u03c9\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\n\u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. The one exception is Gal. iii. 27 \u1f45\u03c3\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd\n\u1f10\u03b2\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b8\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5, \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd\u03b5\u03b4\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5. (2) The 'putting on' in the parallel\npassage, Ephes. iv. 24, is imperative, not affirmative, whether we read\n\u1f10\u03bd\u03b4\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 or \u1f10\u03bd\u03b4\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5. (3) The participles here are followed\nimmediately by an imperative in the context, ver. 12 \u1f10\u03bd\u03b4\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 \u03bf\u1f56\u03bd,\nwhere the idea seems to be the same. For the synchronous aorist\nparticiple see Winer \u00a7 xlv. p. 430. St Paul uses \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03ba\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9,\n\u1f10\u03bd\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 (not \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03ba\u03b4\u03cd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9, \u1f10\u03bd\u03b4\u03cd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9), for the same reason for\nwhich he uses \u1f10\u03bd\u03b4\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 (not \u1f10\u03bd\u03b4\u03cd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5), because it is a thing to be done\n_once for all_. For the double compound \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03ba\u03b4\u03cd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 see the notes on ii.\n11, 15.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIII. 10, 11]\n\n\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u1f76\u03bf\u03bd \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd \u03c3\u1f7a\u03bd \u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u03ac\u03be\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, ^{10}\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd\n\u03bd\u03ad\u03bf\u03bd, \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4' \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd\u00b7\n^{11}\u1f45\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5\n\n\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u1f76\u03bf\u03bd \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd] as Rom. vi. 6, Ephes. iv. 22. With this expression\ncompare \u1f41 \u1f14\u03be\u03c9, \u1f41 \u1f14\u03c3\u03c9 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2, Rom. vii. 22, 2 Cor. iv. 16, Ephes. iii.\n16; \u1f41 \u03ba\u03c1\u03c5\u03c0\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2, 1 Pet. iii. 4; \u1f41 \u03bc\u03b9\u03ba\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2 \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5\n\u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2, 'my insignificance', Polycr. in Euseb. _H.E._ v. 24.\n\n10. \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03bd\u03ad\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] In Ephes. iv. 24 it is \u1f10\u03bd\u03b4\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 _\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u1f78\u03bd_\n\u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd. Of the two words \u03bd\u03ad\u03bf\u03c2 and \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2, the former refers solely to\ntime, the other denotes quality also; the one is new as being _young_,\nthe other new as being _fresh_: the one is opposed to long duration, the\nother to effeteness; see Trench _N. T. Syn._ \u00a7 lx. p. 206. Here the idea\nwhich is wanting to \u03bd\u03ad\u03bf\u03c2, and which \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u1f78\u03c2 gives in the parallel\npassage, is more than supplied by the addition \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\nThe \u03bd\u03ad\u03bf\u03c2 or \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2 in these passages is not Christ Himself, as\nthe parallel expression \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd\u03b4\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 might suggest, and as it is\nactually used in Ign. _Ephes._ 20 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u1f78\u03bd \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\n\u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd, but the regenerate man formed after Christ. The idea here is\nthe same as in \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u1f74 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2, 2 Cor. v. 17, Gal. vi. 15: comp. Rom. vi. 4\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 \u03b6\u03c9\u1fc6\u03c2, Barnab. 16 \u1f10\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03b8\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03af, \u03c0\u03ac\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd \u1f10\u03be \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03c4\u03b9\u03b6\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9.\n\n\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd] '_which is_ ever _being renewed_'. The force of\nthe present tense is explained by 2 Cor. iv. 16 \u1f41 \u1f14\u03c3\u03c9 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd [\u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2]\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 _\u1f21\u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u1fb3 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f21\u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u1fb3_. Compare also the use of the\ntenses in the parallel passage, Ephes. iv. 22 sq. \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b8\u03ad\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9,\n_\u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03bd\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9_, \u1f10\u03bd\u03b4\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9. For the opposite see Ephes. iv. 22 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u1f76\u03bf\u03bd \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd _\u03c6\u03b8\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd_ \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\n\u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd] '_unto perfect knowledge_', the true knowledge in Christ,\nas opposed to the false knowledge of the heretical teachers. For the\nimplied contrast see above pp. 44, 99 sq. (see the notes on i. 9, ii.\n3), and for the word \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 the note on i. 9. The words here are to\nbe connected closely with \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd: comp. Heb. vi. 6 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd\n_\u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd_ \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03ac\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd.\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4' \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd\u03b1 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] The reference is to Gen. i. 26 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f36\u03c0\u03b5\u03bd \u1f41 \u0398\u03b5\u03cc\u03c2\n\u03a0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03c3\u03c9\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4' \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd\u03b1 \u1f21\u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.; comp. ver. 28 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4'\n\u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd\u03b1 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd. See also Ephes. iv. 24 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u1f78\u03bd \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd\n\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u0398\u1f72\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1. This reference however does not imply an\nidentity of the creation here mentioned with the creation of Genesis,\nbut only an analogy between\n\nthe two. The spiritual man in each believer's heart, like the primal man\nin the beginning of the world, was created after God's image. The \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u1f74\n\u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 in this respect resembles the \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03b1\u03af\u03b1 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2. The pronoun \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd\ncannot be referred to anything else but the \u03bd\u03ad\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2, the\nregenerate man; and the aorist \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 (compare \u03ba\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 in the\nparallel passage Ephes. iv. 24) refers to the time of this \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2\nin Christ. See Barnab. 6 _\u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2_ \u1f21\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f00\u03c6\u03ad\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd\n\u1f01\u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03b9\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f04\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u03cd\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd ... \u1f61\u03c3\u1f70\u03bd \u03b4\u1f74 _\u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03ac\u03c3\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2_\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f21\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2, after which Gen. i. 26 is quoted. The new birth was a\nrecreation in God's image; the subsequent life must be a deepening of\nthis image thus stamped upon the man.\n\nThe allusion to Genesis therefore requires us to understand \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 of God, and not of Christ, as it is taken by St Chrysostom and\nothers; and this seems to be demanded also by the common use of \u1f41\n\u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2. But if Christ is not \u1f41 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2, may He not be intended by the\n\u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2? In favour of this interpretation it may be urged\n(1) That Christ elsewhere is called the \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u1f7c\u03bd of God, i. 15, 2 Cor. iv.\n4; (2) That the Alexandrian school interpreted the term in Gen. i. 26 as\ndenoting the Logos; thus Philo _de Mund._ Op. 6 (I. p. 5 M) \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03ad\u03c4\u03c5\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ac\u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1, \u1f30\u03b4\u03ad\u03b1 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f30\u03b4\u03b5\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f41 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 (comp. ib. \u00a7\u00a7 7, 23, 24, 48),\n_Fragm._ II. p. 625 M \u03b8\u03bd\u03b7\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u1f72\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03b9\u03c3\u03b8\u1fc6\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03c9\u03c4\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f45\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03b4\u03cd\u03bd\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf, \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b4\u03b5\u03cd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u0398\u1f72\u03bf\u03bd \u1f45\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\n\u1f10\u03ba\u03ad\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. _Leg. Alleg._ i. 31, 32 (I. p. 106 sq.). Hence\nPhilo speaks of the first man as \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u1f7c\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 (_de Mund. Op._ 6), and\nas \u03c0\u03b1\u03b3\u03ba\u03ac\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03b4\u03ad\u03b9\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c0\u03ac\u03b3\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u03bc\u03af\u03bc\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1 (ib. \u00a7 48). A pregnant meaning\nis thus given to \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70, and \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4' \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd\u03b1 is rendered 'after the fashion\n(or pattern) of the Image'. But this interpretation seems very\nimprobable in St Paul; for (1) In the parallel passage Ephes. iv. 24 the\nexpression is simply \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u0398\u03b5\u03cc\u03bd, which may be regarded as equivalent to\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4' \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 here; (2) The Alexandrian explanation of Gen.\ni. 26 just quoted is very closely allied to the Platonic doctrine of\nideas (for the \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03ce\u03bd, so interpreted, is the archetype or ideal pattern\nof the sensible world), and thus it lies outside the range of those\nconceptions which specially recommended the Alexandrian terminology of\nthe Logos to the Apostles, as a fit vehicle for communicating the truths\nof Christianity.\n\n11. \u1f45\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5] i.e. 'in this regenerate life, in this spiritual region into\nwhich the believer is transferred in Christ.'\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIII. 11]\n\n\u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f15\u03bd\u03b9 \u1f1d\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f38\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2, \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03bf\u03bc\u1f74 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u03b2\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03af\u03b1,\n\n\n\u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f15\u03bd\u03b9] 'Not only does the distinction not exist, but it _cannot_\nexist.' It is a mundane distinction, and therefore it has disappeared.\nFor the sense of \u1f15\u03bd\u03b9, negativing not merely the fact but the\npossibility, see the note on Gal. iii. 28.\n\n\u1f1d\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] Comparing the enumeration here with the parallel passage\nGal. iii. 28, we mark this difference. In Galatians the abolition of all\ndistinctions is stated in the broadest way by the selection of three\ntypical instances; religious prerogative (\u1f38\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2, \u1f1d\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd), social caste\n(\u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2, \u1f10\u03bb\u03b5\u03cd\u03b8\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2), natural sex (\u1f04\u03c1\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd, \u03b8\u1fc6\u03bb\u03c5). Here on the other hand\nthe examples are chosen with special reference to the immediate\ncircumstances of the Colossian Church. (1) The Judaism of the Colossian\nheretics is met by \u1f1d\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f38\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2, and as it manifested itself\nespecially in enforcing circumcision, this is further emphasized by\n\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03bf\u03bc\u1f74 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u03b2\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03af\u03b1 (see above, p. 73). (2) Their Gnosticism again\nis met by \u03b2\u03ac\u03c1\u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2, \u03a3\u03ba\u03cd\u03b8\u03b7\u03c2. They laid special stress on intelligence,\npenetration, gnosis. The Apostle offers the full privileges of the\nGospel to barbarians and even barbarians of the lowest type (see p. 99\nsq.). In Rom. i. 14, the division \u1f1d\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03bd \u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 is almost\nsynonymous with \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03bd\u03cc\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2. (3) Special circumstances,\nconnected with an eminent member of the Church of Coloss\u00e6, had directed\nhis attention at this moment to the relation of masters and slaves.\nHence he cannot leave the subject without adding \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2, \u1f10\u03bb\u03b5\u03cd\u03b8\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2,\nthough this has no special bearing on the Colossian heresy. See above p.\n33, and the note on iii. 22, together with the introduction to the\nEpistle to Philemon.\n\n\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03bf\u03bc\u1f74 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] Enforcing and extending the lesson of the previous\nclause. This abolition of distinctions applies to religious privilege,\nnot only as inherited by birth (\u1f1d\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f38\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2), but also as assumed\nby adoption (\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03bf\u03bc\u1f74 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u03b2\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03af\u03b1). If it is no advantage to be born\na Jew, it is none to become as a Jew; comp. 1 Cor. vii. 19, Gal. v. 6,\nvi. 15.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIII. 11]\n\n\u03b2\u03ac\u03c1\u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2, \u03a3\u03ba\u03cd\u03b8\u03b7\u03c2, \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2, \u1f10\u03bb\u03b5\u03cd\u03b8\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2, \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\n\n\n\u03b2\u03ac\u03c1\u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2] To the Jew the whole world was divided into \u1f38\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03b9 and\n\u1f1d\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b5\u03c2, the privileged and unprivileged portions of mankind, religious\nprerogative being taken as the line of demarcation (see notes Gal. ii.\n3). To the Greek and Roman it was similarly divided into \u1f1d\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b5\u03c2 and\n\u03b2\u03ac\u03c1\u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9, again the privileged and unprivileged portion of the human\nrace, civilization and culture being now the criterion of distinction.\nThus from the one point of view the \u1f1d\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd is contrasted\ndisadvantageously with the \u1f38\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2, while from the other he is\ncontrasted advantageously with the \u03b2\u03ac\u03c1\u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2. Both distinctions are\nequally antagonistic to the Spirit of the Gospel. The Apostle declares\nboth alike null and void in Christ. The twofold character of the\nColossian heresy enables him to strike at these two opposite forms of\nerror with one blow.\n\nThe word \u03b2\u03ac\u03c1\u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 properly denoted one who spoke an inarticulate,\nstammering, unintelligible language; see Max M\u00fcller _Lectures on the\nScience of Language_ 1st ser. p. 81 sq., 114 sq., Farrar _Families of\nSpeech_ p. 21: comp. 1 Cor. xiv. 11. Hence it was adopted by Greek\nexclusiveness and pride to stigmatize the rest of mankind, a feeling\nembodied in the proverb \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03bc\u1f74 \u1f1d\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd \u03b2\u03ac\u03c1\u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 (Servius on Verg. _\u00c6n._\nii. 504); comp. Plato _Polit._ 262 E \u03c4\u1f78 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u1f19\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u1f78\u03bd \u1f61\u03c2 h\u1f72\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd\n\u1f00\u03c6\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03c7\u03c9\u03c1\u03af\u03c2, \u03c3\u03cd\u03bc\u03c0\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f04\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd ... \u03b2\u03ac\u03c1\u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u03bc\u03b9\u1fb7\n\u03ba\u03bb\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03ad\u03b9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., Dionys. Hal. _Rhet._ xi. 5 \u03b4\u03b9\u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72\n\u03c4\u1f78 \u1f14\u03b8\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2, \u1f1d\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd \u1f22 \u03b2\u03ac\u03c1\u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. So Philo _Vit. Moys._ ii. 5 (II. p.\n138) speaks of \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f25\u03bc\u03b9\u03c3\u03c5 \u03c4\u03bc\u1fc6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03c9\u03bd \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2, \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd, as\nopposed to \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f19\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd. It is not necessary to suppose that they\nadopted it from the Egyptians, who seem to have called non-Egyptian\npeoples _berber_ (see Sir G. Wilkinson in Rawlinson's Herod. ii. 158);\nfor the onomatop\u0153ia will explain its origin independently, Strabo\nxiv. 2. 28 (p. 662) \u03bf\u1f36\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b2\u03ac\u03c1\u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4' \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f10\u03ba\u03c0\u03b5\u03c6\u03c9\u03bd\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03bf\u1f55\u03c4\u03c9\u03c2\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4' \u1f40\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03b5\u03ba\u03c6\u03cc\u03c1\u03c9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u1ff6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03c1\u03b1\u03c7\u03ad\u03c9\u03c2 \u03bb\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03cd\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd,\n\u1f61\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c4\u03c4\u03b1\u03c1\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. The Latins, adopting the Greek culture, adopted\nthe Greek distinction also, e.g. Cic. _de Fin._ ii. 15 'Non solum Gr\u00e6cia\net Italia, sed etiam omnis barbaria': and accordingly Dionysius, _Ant.\nRom._ i. 69, classes the Romans with the Greeks as distinguished from\nthe 'barbarians'\u2014this twofold division of the human race being taken for\ngranted as absolute and final. So too in v. 8, having mentioned the\nRomans, he goes on to speak of \u03bf\u1f31 \u1f04\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f1d\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b5\u03c2. The older Roman poets\nhowever, writing from a Greek point of view, (more than half in irony)\nspeak of themselves as _barbari_ and of their country as _barbaria_;\ne.g. Plaut. _Mil. Glor._ ii. 2. 58 'poeta barbaro' (of N\u00e6vius), _Asin._\nProl. II. 'Maccus vortit barbare', _P\u0153n._ iii. 2. 21 'in barbaria\nboves'.\n\nIn this classification the Jews necessarily ranked as 'barbarians'. At\ntimes Philo seems tacitly to accept this designation (_Vit. Moys._\nl.c.); but elsewhere he resents it, _Leg. ad Cai._ 31 (II. p. 578) \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78\n\u03c6\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, \u1f61\u03c2 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u1f15\u03bd\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03b2\u03b1\u03bb\u03bb\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u1f14\u03b9\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b5\u03bd \u1f02\u03bd, \u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u1fe6, \u1f61\u03c2 \u03b4'\n\u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f00\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u03ad\u03c2, \u1f10\u03bb\u03b5\u03c5\u03b8\u03b5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f50\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c2. On the other hand the Christian\nApologists with a true instinct glory in the 'barbarous' origin of their\nreligion: Justin _Apol._ i. 5 (p. 56 A) \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03b2\u03ac\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c0' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u039b\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c5 \u03bc\u03bf\u03c1\u03c6\u03c9\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5, ib. \u00a7 46 (p. 83 D) \u1f10\u03bd\n\u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03b2\u03ac\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f08\u03b2\u03c1\u03ac\u03b1\u03bc \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., Tatian. _ad Gr\u00e6c._ 29 \u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u1f76\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd\u03c4\u03c5\u03c7\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd\n\u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2, ib. 31 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 (\u039c\u03c9\u03c5\u03c3\u1fc6\u03bd) \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03b2\u03ac\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03b7\u03b3\u03cc\u03bd, ib.\n35 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8' \u1f21\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03b2\u03ac\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03c2. By glorying in the name they gave\na practical comment on the Apostle's declaration, that the distinction\nof Greek and barbarian was abolished in Christ. In a similar spirit\nClem. Alex. _Strom._ i. 16 (p. 361) endeavours to prove that \u03bf\u1f50 \u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd\n\u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c7\u03b5\u03b4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c4\u03ad\u03c7\u03bd\u03b7\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f51\u03c1\u03b5\u03c4\u1f70\u03b9 \u03b2\u03ac\u03c1\u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9.\n\n'Not till that word _barbarian_', writes Prof. Max M\u00fcller (l.c. p. 118),\n'was struck out of the dictionary of mankind and replaced by _brother_,\nnot till the right of all nations of the world to be classed as members\nof one genus or kind was recognised, can we look even for the first\nbeginnings of our science. This change was effected by Christianity....\n_Humanity_ is a word which you look for in vain in Plato or Aristotle;\nthe idea of mankind as one family, as the children of one God, is an\nidea of Christian growth: and the science of mankind, and of the\nlanguages of mankind, is a science which, without Christianity, would\nnever have sprung into life. When people had been taught to look upon\nall men as brethren, then and then only, did the variety of human speech\npresent itself as a problem that called for a solution in the eyes of\nthoughtful observers: and I therefore date the real beginning of the\nscience of language from the first day of Pentecost.... The common\norigin of mankind, the differences of race and language, the\nsusceptibility of all nations of the highest mental culture, these\nbecome, in the new world in which we live, problems of scientific,\nbecause of more than scientific interest'. St Paul was the great\nexponent of the fundamental principle in the Christian Church which was\nsymbolized on the day of Pentecost, when he declared, as here, that in\nChrist there is neither \u1f1d\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd nor \u03b2\u03ac\u03c1\u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2, or as in Rom. i. 14 that he\nhimself was a debtor equally \u1f1d\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03bd \u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03b2\u03ac\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2.\n\nThe only other passage in the New Testament (besides those quoted) in\nwhich \u03b2\u03ac\u03c1\u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 occurs is Acts xxviii. 2, 4, where it is used of the\npeople of Melita. If this Melita be Malta, they would be of Ph\u0153nician\ndescent.\n\n\u03a3\u03ba\u03cd\u03b8\u03b7\u03c2] the lowest type of barbarian. There is the same collocation of\nwords in Dionys. Halic. _Rhet._ xi. 5, 6 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1, \u03b2\u03ac\u03c1\u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2, \u03a3\u03ba\u03cd\u03b8\u03b7\u03c2, \u03bd\u03ad\u03bf\u03c2,\n\u00c6sch. _c. Ctes._ 172 \u03a3\u03ba\u03cd\u03b8\u03b7\u03c2, \u03b2\u03ac\u03c1\u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2, \u1f11\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03af\u03b6\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c6\u03c9\u03bd\u1fc7 (of\nDemosthenes). The savageness of the Scythians was proverbial. The\nearlier Greek writers indeed, to whom _omne ignotum_ was _pro\nmagnifico_, had frequently spoken of them otherwise (see Strabo vii. 3.\n7 sq., p. 300 sq.). \u00c6schylus for instance called them \u1f14\u03c5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03bf\u03b9 \u03a3\u03ba\u03cd\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9,\n_Fragm._ 189 (comp. _Eum._ 703). Like the other Hyperboreans, they were\na simple, righteous people, living beyond the vices and the miseries of\ncivilisation. But the common estimate was far different, and probably\nfar more true: e.g. 3 Macc. vii. 5 \u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u03a3\u03ba\u03c5\u03b8\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03c1\u03b9\u03c9\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd ... \u1f60\u03bc\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1\n(comp. 2 Macc. iv. 47), Joseph. _c. Ap._ ii. 37 \u03a3\u03ba\u03cd\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 ... \u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03c7\u1f7a \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd\n\u03b8\u03b7\u03c1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c6\u03ad\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2, Philo _Leg. ad Cai._ 2 (II p. 547) \u03a3\u03b1\u03c1\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03a3\u03ba\u03c5\u03b8\u1ff6\u03bd, \u1f05\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u03bf\u1f50\u03c7 \u1f27\u03c4\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03be\u03b7\u03b3\u03c1\u03af\u03c9\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u0393\u03b5\u03c1\u03bc\u03b1\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03bd, Tertull. _adv. Marc._\ni. 1 'Scytha tetrior'. In _Vit. Moys._ ii. 4 (I. p. 137) Philo seems to\nplace the Egyptians and the Scythians at the two extremes in the scale\nof barbarian nations. The passages given in Wetstein from classical\nwriters are hardly less strong in the same direction. Anacharsis the\nScythian is said to have retorted \u1f11\u03bc\u03bf\u1f76 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f1d\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b5\u03c2 \u03c3\u03ba\u03c5\u03b8\u03af\u03b6\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd,\nClem. _Strom._ i. 16 (p. 364).\n\nThe Jews had a special reason for their unfavourable estimate of the\nScythians. In the reign of Josiah hordes of these northern barbarians\nhad deluged Palestine and a great part of Western Asia (Herod. i.\n103\u2013106). The incident indeed is passed over in silence in the\nhistorical books; but the terror inspired by these invaders has found\nexpression in the prophets (Ezek. xxxviii, xxxix, Jer. i. 13 sq., vi. 1\nsq.), and they left behind them a memorial in the Greek name of\nBeth-shean, \u03a3\u03ba\u03c5\u03b8\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b9\u03c2 (Judith iii. 10, 2 Macc. xii. 29: comp. Judges\ni. 27 LXX) or \u03a3\u03ba\u03c5\u03b8\u03cc\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b9\u03c2, which seems to have been derived from a\nsettlement on this occasion (Plin. _N.H._ v. 16; see Ewald. _Gesch._\nIII. p. 689 sq., Grove s.v. _Scythopolis_ in Smith's _Bibl. Dict._).\n\nHence Justin, _Dial._ \u00a7 28 (p. 246 A), describing the largeness of the\nnew dispensation, says \u03ba\u1f02\u03bd \u03a3\u03ba\u03cd\u03b8\u03b7\u03c2 \u1f96 \u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f22 \u03a0\u03ad\u03c1\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2, \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c6\u03c5\u03bb\u03ac\u03c3\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03b1\u1f34\u03c9\u03bd\u03b9\u03b1 \u03b4\u03af\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03b1 ... \u03c6\u03af\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2\n\u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u0398\u03b5\u1ff7, where he singles out two different but equally low types of\nbarbarians, the Scythians being notorious for their ferocity, the\nPersians for their licentiousness (Clem. Alex. _P\u00e6d._ i. 7, p. 131,\n_Strom._ iii. 2, p. 515, and the Apologists generally). So too the\nPseudo-Lucian, _Philopatris_ 17, satirising Christianity, \u039a\u03a1. \u03c4\u03cc\u03b4\u03b5 \u03b5\u1f36\u03c0\u03b5,\n\u03b5\u1f30 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03a3\u03ba\u03c5\u03b8\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u1ff7 \u1f10\u03b3\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9. \u03a4\u03a1. \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1, \u03b5\u1f30 \u03c4\u03cd\u03c7\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b3\u03b5\n\u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f14\u03b8\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9. From a misconception of this passage in the\nColossians, heresiologers distinguished four main forms of heresy in the\npre-Christian world, \u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2, \u03c3\u03ba\u03c5\u03b8\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2, \u1f11\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2, \u1f30\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u03ca\u03c3\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2; so\nEpiphan. _Epist. ad. Acac._ 2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c6\u1ff6\u03c2 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u03b5\u03c3\u03c3\u03ac\u03c1\u03c9\u03bd\n\u03b1\u1f31\u03c1\u03ad\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03bd \u1f41 \u1f00\u03c0\u03cc\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c4\u03b5\u03bc\u1f7c\u03bd \u1f14\u03c6\u03b7, \u1f18\u03bd \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bf\u1f50 \u03b2\u03ac\u03c1\u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2, \u03bf\u1f50\n\u03a3\u03ba\u03cd\u03b8\u03b7\u03c2, \u03bf\u1f50\u03c7 \u1f1d\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd, \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f38\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2, \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u1f74 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2: comp. _H\u00e6r._ i. 4, 7\nsq., I. p. 5, 8 sq., _Anaceph._ II. pp. 127, 129 sq.\n\n\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u1f70 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] '_Christ is all things and in all things._' Christ has\ndispossessed and obliterated all distinctions of religious prerogative\nand intellectual preeminence and social caste; Christ has substituted\nHimself for all these; Christ occupies the whole sphere of human life\nand permeates all its developments; comp. Ephes. i. 23 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f10\u03bd\n\u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5. For \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1, which is stronger than \u03bf\u1f31 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2, see\nGal. iii. 22 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03ad\u03ba\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u1f21 \u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u1f74 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 \u1f01\u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03af\u03b1\u03bd with the note. In\nthis passage \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd is probably neuter, as in 2 Cor. xi. 6, Phil. iv.\n12, 1 Tim. iii. II, 2 Tim. ii. 7, iv. 5, Ephes. iv. 6, vi. 16.\n\nIn the parallel passage Gal. iii. 28 the corresponding clause is \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2\n\u1f51\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f11\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u1f72 \u1f10\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6. The inversion here accords with a chief\nmotive of the epistle, which is to assert the absolute and universal\nsupremacy of Christ; comp. i. 17 sq., ii. 10 sq., 19. The two parts of\nthe antithesis are combined in our Lord's saying, Joh. xiv. 20 \u1f51\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd\n\u1f10\u03bc\u03bf\u03af, \u03ba\u1f00\u03b3\u1f7c \u1f10\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIII. 12]\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2. ^{12}\u1f10\u03bd\u03b4\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 \u03bf\u1f56\u03bd, \u1f61\u03c2 \u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u03bf\u1f76\n\n\n12\u201315. 'Therefore, as the elect of God, as a people consecrated to His\nservice and specially endowed with His love, array yourselves in hearts\nof compassion, in kindliness and humility, in a gentle and yielding\nspirit. Bear with one another: forgive freely among yourselves. As your\nMaster forgave you His servants, so ought ye to forgive your\nfellow-servants. And over all these robe yourselves in love; for this is\nthe garment which binds together all the graces of perfection. And let\nthe one supreme umpire in your hearts, the one referee amidst all your\ndifficulties, be the peace of Christ, which is the destined goal of your\nChristian calling, in which is realised the unity belonging to members\nof one body. Lastly of all; show your gratitude by your thanksgiving.'\n\n12. \u1f10\u03bd\u03b4\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 \u03bf\u1f56\u03bd] '_Put on therefore_', as men to whom Christ has\nbecome all in all. The incidental mention of Christ as superseding all\nother relations gives occasion to this argumentative \u03bf\u1f56\u03bd: comp. iii. 1,\n5.\n\n\u1f61\u03c2 \u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u03bf\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6] '_as elect ones of God._' Comp. Rom. viii. 33,\nTit. i. 1. In the Gospels \u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03af and \u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u03bf\u03af are distinguished as an\nouter and an inner circle (Matt. xxii. 14 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u1f76 \u03b3\u03ac\u03c1 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03af,\n\u1f40\u03bb\u03af\u03b3\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u03bf\u03af), \u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03af being those summoned to the privileges of\nthe Gospel and \u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u03bf\u03af those appointed to final salvation (Matt. xxiv.\n22, 24, 31, Mark xiii. 20, 22, 27, Luke xviii. 7). But in St Paul no\nsuch distinction can be traced. With him the two terms seem to be\ncoextensive, as two aspects of the same process, \u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03af having special\nreference to the goal and \u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u03bf\u03af to the starting-point. The same\npersons are 'called' to Christ, and 'chosen out' from the world. Thus in\n1 Thess. i. 4 \u03b5\u1f30\u03b4\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u1f74\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. the word clearly denotes\nelection to Church-membership. Thus also in 2 Tim. ii. 10, where St Paul\nsays that he endures all things \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c2, adding \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03b9\n\u03c3\u03c9\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u03cd\u03c7\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., the uncertainty implied in these last words\nclearly shows that election to final salvation is not meant. In the same\nsense he speaks of an individual Christian as 'elect', Rom. xvi. 13. And\nagain in 1 Cor. i. 26, 27 \u03b2\u03bb\u03ad\u03c0\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03ba\u03bb\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd ... \u03c4\u1f70 \u03bc\u1ff6\u03c1\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5\n\u1f10\u03be\u03b5\u03bb\u03ad\u03be\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf, the words appear as synonymes. The same is also the usage of\nSt Peter. Thus in an opening salutation he addresses whole Christian\ncommunities as \u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u03bf\u03af (1 Pet. i. 1; comp. v. 13 \u1f21 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03ba\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u1f74 \u1f10\u03bd\n\u0392\u03b1\u03b2\u03c5\u03bb\u1ff6\u03bd\u03b9, i.e. probably \u1f10\u03ba\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03b1), as St Paul under similar\ncircumstances (Rom. i. 6, 7, 1 Cor. i. 2) designates them \u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03af; and in\nanother passage (2 Pet. i. 10) he appeals to his readers to make their\n\u03ba\u03bb\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 and \u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03ae sure. The use of \u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2 in 2 Joh. 1. 13 is\napparently the same; and in Apoc. xvii. 14 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u1f76 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u03bf\u1f76 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03af this is also the case, as we may infer from the\naddition of \u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03af, which points to those who have been _true_ to their\n'calling and election'. Thus the Gospels stand alone in this respect. In\nfact \u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03ae denotes election by God not only to final salvation, but to\n_any_ special privilege or work, whether it be (1) Church-membership, as\nin the passages cited from the epistles; or (2) The work of preaching,\nas when St Paul (Acts ix. 15) is called \u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2, the object of\nthe 'election' being defined in the words following, \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ac\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78\n\u1f44\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03ac \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f10\u03bd\u03ce\u03c0\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd [\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd] \u1f10\u03b8\u03bd\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03ad\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.; or (3) The\nMessiahship, 1 Pet. ii. 4, 6; or (4) The fatherhood of the chosen\npeople, as in the case of Isaac and Jacob, Rom. ix. 11; or (5) The\nfaithful remnant under the theocracy, Rom. xi. 5, 7, 28. This last\napplication presents the closest analogy to the idea of final salvation:\nbut even here St Paul treats \u03ba\u03bb\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 and \u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03ae as coextensive, Rom. xi.\n28, 29 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2\u00b7 \u1f00\u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03bc\u03ad\u03bb\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03c4\u1f70\n\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03af\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f21 \u03ba\u03bb\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIII. 12]\n\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6, \u1f05\u03b3\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9 [\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76] \u1f20\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9, \u03c3\u03c0\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03c7\u03bd\u03b1 \u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03c4\u03b9\u03c1\u03bc\u03bf\u1fe6,\n\n\n\u1f05\u03b3\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] These are not to be taken as vocatives, but as predicates\nfurther defining the meaning of \u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u03bf\u03af. All the three terms \u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u03bf\u03af,\n\u1f05\u03b3\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9, \u1f20\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9, are transferred from the Old Covenant to the New,\nfrom the Israel after the flesh to the Israel after the Spirit. For the\ntwo former comp. 1 Pet. ii. 9 \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd ... \u1f14\u03b8\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f05\u03b3\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd; and for\nthe sense of \u1f05\u03b3\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9, 'the consecrated people of God', see the note on\nPhil. i. 1. For the third word, \u1f20\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9, see Is. v. 1 \u1f0c\u03c3\u03c9 \u03b4\u1f74 \u03c4\u1ff7\n\u1f20\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u1ff3 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., Hos. ii. 25 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f20\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd \u1f20\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd (as quoted\nin Rom. ix. 25). In the New Testament it seems to be used always of the\nobjects of _God's_ love: e.g. 1 Thess. i. 4 \u03b5\u1f30\u03b4\u03bf\u03c4\u03ad\u03c2, \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03bf\u1f76 \u1f20\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\n\u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6, \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u1f74\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd, 2 Thess. ii. 13 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03bf\u1f76 \u1f20\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78\n\u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 (comp. Jude 1); and so probably Rev. xx. 9 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd\n\u1f20\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd. For the connexion of God's election and God's love see Rom.\nxi. 28 (quoted above), 1 Thess. _l.c._ The \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 is omitted in one or two\nexcellent copies (though it has the great preponderance of authorities\nin its favour), and it is impossible not to feel how much the sentence\ngains in force by the omission, \u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u03bf\u1f76 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6, \u1f05\u03b3\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9, )\u03b7\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9; comp.\n1 Pet. ii. 6.\n\n\u03c3\u03c0\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03c7\u03bd\u03b1 \u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03c4\u03b9\u03c1\u03bc\u03bf\u1fe6] '_a heart of pity_'. For the meaning of \u03c3\u03c0\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03c7\u03bd\u03b1 see\nthe note on Phil. i. 8, and for the whole expression comp. \u03c3\u03c0\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03c7\u03bd\u03b1\n\u1f10\u03bb\u03ad\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 Luke i. 78, _Test. xii Patr._ Zab. 7, 8.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIII. 12]\n\n\u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1, \u03c4\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c6\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd, \u03c0\u03c1\u03ac\"\u03c5\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1, \u03bc\u03b1\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03bd\u00b7\n\n\n\u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] The two words \u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 and \u03c4\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c6\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b7,\n'kindliness' and 'humility', describe the Christian _temper of mind_\ngenerally, and this in two aspects, as it affects either (1) our\nrelation to others (\u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2), or (2) our estimate of self\n(\u03c4\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c6\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b7). For \u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 see the note on Gal. v. 22; for\n\u03c4\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c6\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b7, the note on Phil. ii. 3.\n\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03ac\"\u03c5\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] These next two words, \u03c0\u03c1\u03ac\"\u03c5\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 and \u03bc\u03b1\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1, denote\nthe _exercise_ of the Christian temper in its outward bearing towards\nothers. They are best distinguished by their opposites. \u03c0\u03c1\u03ac\"\u03c5\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 is\nopposed to 'rudeness, harshness', \u1f00\u03b3\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 (Plato _Symp._ 197 D),\n\u03c7\u03b1\u03bb\u03b5\u03c0\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 (Arist. _H. A._ ix. i); \u03bc\u03b1\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1 to 'resentment, revenge,\nwrath,' \u1f40\u03c1\u03b3\u03ae (Prov. xvi. 32), \u1f40\u03be\u03c5\u03c7\u03bf\u03bb\u03af\u03b1 (Herm. _Mand._ v. 1, 2). For the\nmeaning of \u03bc\u03b1\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1 see above, on i. 11; for the form of \u03c0\u03c1\u03ac\"\u03c5\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2\n(\u03c0\u03c1\u03ac\u03bf\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2), on Gal. v. 23. The words are discussed in Trench _N. T. Syn._\n\u00a7 xlii. p. 140 sq., \u00a7 xliii. p. 145 sq., \u00a7 liii. p. 184 sq. They appear\nin connexion Ephes. iv. 2, Ign. _Polyc._ 6 \u03bc\u03b1\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5 \u03bf\u1f56\u03bd \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4'\n\u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u03ae\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03ac\"\u03c5\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b9.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIII. 13]\n\n^{13}\u1f00\u03bd\u03b5\u03c7\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u03ae\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03b6\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2,\n\n\n13. \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u03ae\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd, \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2] The pronoun is varied, as in Ephes. iv. 32 \u03b3\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5\n\u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 _\u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u03ae\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2_ \u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03af ... \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03b6\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 _\u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2_ \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., 1\nPet. iv. 8\u201310 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 _\u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2_ \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba\u03c4\u03b5\u03bd\u1fc6 \u1f14\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 ... \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03cc\u03be\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\n\u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 _\u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u03ae\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2_ ... \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78 [\u03c4\u1f78 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1] \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2. The\nreciprocal \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd differs from the reciprocal \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u03ae\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd in emphasizing the\nidea of _corporate unity_: hence it is more appropriate here (comp.\nEphes. iv. 2, 32) with \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03b6\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 than with \u1f00\u03bd\u03b5\u03c7\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9; comp. Xen.\n_Mem._ iii. 5. 16 \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u1f76 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd _\u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2_ \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bc\u03c6\u03ad\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1,\n\u1f10\u03c0\u03b7\u03c1\u03ad\u03b1\u03b6\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd _\u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u03ae\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2_, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c6\u03b8\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd _\u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2_ \u03bc\u1fb6\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u1f22 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2\n\u1f04\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 ... \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03bc\u1fb6\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u03bf\u1f55\u03c4\u03c9 \u03ba\u03b5\u03c1\u03b4\u03b1\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0'\n_\u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u03ae\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd_ \u1f22 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03c9\u03c6\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 _\u03b1\u1f51\u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c2_, where the propriety of the\ntwo words in their respective places will be evident; and ib. ii. 7. 12\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u1f76 \u1f51\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f21\u03b4\u03ad\u03c9\u03c2 _\u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u03ae\u03bb\u03b1\u03c2_ h\u03ad\u03c9\u03c1\u03c9\u03bd, where the variation\nis more subtle but not less appropriate. For instances of this use of\n\u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd see Bleek _Hebr\u00e4erbrief_ iii. 13 (p. 453 sq.), K\u00fchner _>Griech.\nGramm._ \u00a7 455 (II. p. 497 sq.).\n\n\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03b6\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9] i.e. 'forgiving'; see the note on ii. 13. An _a fortiori_\nargument lurks under the use of \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 (rather than \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u03ae\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2): if\nChrist forgave them, much more should they forgive _themselves_.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIII. 14]\n\n\u1f10\u03ac\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b1 \u1f14\u03c7\u1fc3 \u03bc\u03bf\u03bc\u03c6\u03ae\u03bd\u00b7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f41 \u039a\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd, \u03bf\u1f55\u03c4\u03c9\u03c2\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2\u00b7 ^{14}\u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2\n\n\n\u03bc\u03bf\u03bc\u03c6\u03ae\u03bd] '_a complaint_'. As \u03bc\u03ad\u03bc\u03c6\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 is 'to find _fault_ with',\nreferring most commonly to errors of omission, so \u03bc\u03bf\u03bc\u03c6\u03ae here is regarded\nas a _debt_, which needs to be remitted. The rendering of the A. V. 'a\nquarrel' (= querela) is only wrong as being an archaism. The phrase\n\u03bc\u03bf\u03bc\u03c6\u1f74\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd occurs several times in classical Greek, but generally in\npoetry: e.g. Eur. _Orest._ 1069, Arist. _Pax_ 664.\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] This must not be connected with the preceding words,\nbut treated as an independent sentence, the \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03af being answered by\nthe \u03bf\u1f55\u03c4\u03c9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03af. For the presence of \u03ba\u03b1\u03af in both clauses of the comparison\nsee the note on i. 6. The phenomenon is common in the best classical\nwriters, e.g. Xen. _Mem._ i. 6. 3 \u1f65\u03c3\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f04\u03bb\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03c1\u03b3\u03c9\u03bd \u03bf\u1f31\n\u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03ac\u03c3\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9 ... \u03bf\u1f55\u03c4\u03c9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03cd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.; see the references in Heindorf on\nPlato _Ph\u00e6do_ 64 C, _Sophist._ 217 B, and K\u00fchner _Griech. Gramm._ \u00a7 524\n(II. p. 799).\n\n\u1f41 \u039a\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2] This reading, which is better supported than \u1f41 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2, is\nalso more expressive. It recalls more directly the lesson of the parable\nwhich enforces the duty of fellow-servant to fellow-servant; Matt.\nxviii. 27 \u03c3\u03c0\u03bb\u03b1\u03b3\u03c7\u03bd\u03b9\u03c3\u03b8\u1f72\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f41 \u03ba\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b4\u03bf\u03cd\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f10\u03ba\u03ad\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f00\u03c0\u03ad\u03bb\u03c5\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b4\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u1f00\u03c6\u1fc6\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.: comp. below iv. 1 \u03b5\u1f30\u03b4\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u1f51\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u1ff7. The reading \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 perhaps comes from the\nparallel passage Ephes. iv. 32 \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03b6\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2, \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f41 \u0398\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd\n\u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f10\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf \u1f21\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd (or \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd).\n\n\u03bf\u1f55\u03c4\u03c9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2] sc. \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2.\n\n14. \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd] '_over and above all these_', comp. Luke iii. 20\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03ad\u03b8\u03b7\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd. In Luke xvi. 26, Ephes. vi. 16, the\ncorrect reading is probably \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd. Love is the outer garment which\nholds the others in their places.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIII. 15]\n\n\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03bd, \u1f45 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03bf\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2. ^{15}\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f21 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c1\u03ae\u03bd\u03b7 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03c4\u03c9 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd, \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f23\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03ae\u03b8\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f11\u03bd\u1f76\n\u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9. \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\n\n\n\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03bd] sc. \u1f10\u03bd\u03b4\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5, from ver. 12.\n\n\u1f45] '_which thing_', i.e. 'love'; comp. Ephes. v. 5 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b5\u03bf\u03bd\u03ad\u03ba\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2, \u1f45 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\n\u03b5\u1f30\u03b4\u03c9\u03bb\u03bf\u03bb\u03ac\u03c4\u03c1\u03b7\u03c2, Ign. _Rom._ 7 \u1f05\u03c1\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b8\u03ad\u03bb\u03c9, \u1f45 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03c3\u1f70\u03c1\u03be \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6,\n_Magn._ 10 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03ac\u03b2\u03ac\u03bb\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03bd\u03ad\u03b1\u03bd \u03b6\u03cd\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd \u1f45 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c2 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2, _Trall._ 7\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03ba\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9 \u1f45 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03c3\u1f70\u03c1\u03be \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5. Though there are\nvarious readings in the passages of the Ignatian Epistles, the \u1f45 seems\nto be right in every case. These instances will show that \u1f45 may be\nreferred to \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03bd alone. Otherwise we might suppose the antecedent\nto be \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f10\u03bd\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03bd, but this hardly suits the sense. The\ncommon reading \u1f25\u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 is obviously a scribe's correction.\n\n\u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] '_the bond of perfection_', i.e. the power, which\nunites and holds together all those graces and virtues, which together\nmake up perfection. \u03a0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f10\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd\u03b1, says Chrysostom, h\u03ac\u03c5\u03c4\u03b7 \u03c3\u03c5\u03c3\u03c6\u03af\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9\u00b7 \u1f45\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\n\u1f02\u03bd \u03b5\u1f34\u03c0\u1fc3\u03c2 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03b8\u03cc\u03bd, \u03c4\u03ac\u03c5\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03cd\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u03ad\u03bd \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c1\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6: comp. Clem.\nRom. 49 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u1f78\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u03af\u03c2 \u03b4\u03cd\u03bd\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f10\u03be\u03b7\u03b3\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9; Thus the\nPythagoreans (Simplic. _in Epictet._ p. 208 A) \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c3\u1ff6\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f04\u03bb\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd \u1f00\u03c1\u03b5\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd\n\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u1f10\u03c4\u03af\u03bc\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c3\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03c1\u03b5\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f14\u03bb\u03b5\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd. So too\nThemist. _Orat._ i. (p. 5 C) \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b9\u03ba\u1f74 (\u1f00\u03c1\u03b5\u03c4\u1f74) \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f04\u03bb\u03bb\u03b1\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f23\u03bd\n\u03be\u03c5\u03bd\u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f31 \u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03c0\u03b1\u03af, \u1f65\u03c3\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03ba\u03bf\u03c1\u03c5\u03c6\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03b7\u03bc\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9. The word\nwill take a genitive either of the object bound or of the binding force:\ne.g. Plato _Polit._ 310 A \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03b8\u03b5\u03b9\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03be\u03cd\u03bd\u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd \u1f00\u03c1\u03b5\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2\n\u03bc\u03b5\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c6\u03cd\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03b9\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03af\u03b1 \u03c6\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd, where the \u1f00\u03c1\u03b5\u03c4\u1f74 \u03be\u03c5\u03bd\u03b4\u03b5\u1fd6\nand the \u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b7 \u03c6\u03cd\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u03be\u03c5\u03bd\u03b4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9. We have an instance of the one genitive\n(the objective) here, of the other (the subjective) in Ephes. iv. 3 \u1f10\u03bd\n\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b4\u03ad\u03c3\u03bc\u1ff3 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c1\u03ae\u03bd\u03b7\u03c2 (see the note there).\n\nAnother explanation makes \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 = \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b8\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 here, 'the bundle, the\ntotality', as e.g. Herodian. iv. 12 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u1ff6\u03bd\n(comp. Ign. _Trall._ 3 \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd); but this unusual metaphor\nis highly improbable and inappropriate here, not to mention that we\nshould expect the definite article \u1f41 \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 in this case. With either\ninterpretation, the function assigned to \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7 here is the same as when\nit is declared to be \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5, Rom. xiii. 10 (comp. Gal. v. 14).\nSee also the all-embracing office which is assigned to it in 1 Cor.\nxiii.\n\n15. \u1f21 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c1\u03ae\u03bd\u03b7 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6] '_Christ's peace_', which He left as a legacy\nto His disciples: Joh. xiv. 27 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c1\u03ae\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd \u1f00\u03c6\u03af\u03b7\u03bc\u03b9 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd, \u03b5\u1f30\u03c1\u03ae\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd _\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd\n\u1f10\u03bc\u1f74\u03bd_ \u03b4\u03af\u03b4\u03c9\u03bc\u03b9 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd; comp. Ephes. ii. 14 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b3\u03ac\u03c1 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f21 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c1\u03ae\u03bd\u03b7 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd\nwith the context. The common reading \u1f21 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c1\u03ae\u03bd\u03b7 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 has a parallel in\nPhil. iv. 7.\n\n\u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03c4\u03c9] '_be umpire_', for the idea of a contest is only less\nprominent here, than in \u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bf\u03bd 1 Cor. ix. 24, Phil. iii. 14 (see the\nnote there). \u03a3\u03c4\u03ac\u03b4\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u1f15\u03bd\u03b4\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2, writes\nChrysostom, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03b3\u1ff6\u03bd\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f04\u03b8\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u03c5\u03c4\u03ae\u03bd. Wherever there is a\nconflict of motives or impulses or reasons, the peace of Christ must\nstep in and decide which is to prevail; \u039c\u1f74 \u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03c4\u03c9, says\nChrysostom again, \u03bc\u1f74 \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03ba\u03af\u03b1, \u03bc\u1f74 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03af\u03bd\u03b7 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c1\u03ae\u03bd\u03b7\u00b7 \u1f21 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03af\u03bd\u03b7\n\u03b5\u1f30\u03c1\u03ae\u03bd\u03b7 \u1f10\u03ba \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f00\u03bc\u03cd\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b3\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, \u1f10\u03ba \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bc\u03b7\u03b4\u1f72\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\u03cc\u03bd.\n\nFor this metaphor of some one paramount consideration acting as umpire,\nwhere there is a conflict of internal motives, see Polyb. ii. 35. 3 \u1f05\u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\n\u03c4\u1f78 \u03b3\u03b9\u03b3\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u0393\u03b1\u03bb\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u1ff7 \u03bc\u1fb6\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u1f22 _\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u1ff7_ \u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9,\nPhilo _de Migr. Abr._ 12 (I[. p. 446) \u03c0\u03bf\u03c1\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f41 \u1f04\u03c6\u03c1\u03c9\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9' \u1f00\u03bc\u03c6\u03bf\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03c9\u03bd\n\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 )\u03b1\u1f72\u03b9 ... \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f21\u03bd\u03af\u03bf\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u03c5\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b2\u03b1\u03bb\u03ce\u03bd\n(comp. _de Ebriet._ 19, I. p. 368), Jos. B. J. vi. 2. 6 \u1f10\u03b2\u03c1\u03ac\u03b2\u03b5\u03c5\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2\n\u03c4\u03cc\u03bb\u03bc\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f41 ... \u03c6\u03cc\u03b2\u03bf\u03c2. Somewhat similarly \u03c4\u03cd\u03c7\u03b7 (Polyb. xxvii. 14. 4) or\n\u03c6\u03cd\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 (Athen. xv. p. 670 A) are made \u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd. In other passages, where\n\u1f41 \u0398\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 or \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b8\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bf\u03bd is said \u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, this implies that, while man\nproposes, God _disposes_. In Philo \u1f00\u03bb\u03ae\u03b8\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 \u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u03cd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b1 (_Qui rer. <DW37>.\nher._ 19, I. p. 486) is a rough synonyme for \u1f00\u03bb\u03ae\u03b8\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 \u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac\u03b6\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b1 (_de\nAbrah._ 14, II. p. 10, etc.): and in Josephus (_Ant._ vi. 3. 1) \u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\nand \u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd are used together of the same action. In all such cases it\nappears that the idea of a _decision_ and an _award_ is prominent in the\nword, and that it must not be taken to denote simply _rule_ or _power_.\n\n\u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f23\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] Comp. 1 Cor. vii. 15 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c1\u03ae\u03bd\u1fc3 \u03ba\u03ad\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f41 \u0398\u03b5\u03cc\u03c2.\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u1f11\u03bd\u1f76 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9] 'As ye were called as members of one body, so let there\nbe one spirit animating that body': Ephes. iv. 4 h\u1f72\u03bd \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 h\u1f72\u03bd\n\u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1. This passage strikes the keynote of the companion Epistle to the\nEphesians (see esp. ii. 16 sq., iv. 3 sq.).\n\n\u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9] 'And to crown all forget yourselves in thanksgiving towards\nGod': see the notes on i. 12, ii. 7. The adjective \u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, though\nnot occurring elsewhere in the Greek Bible, is not uncommon in classical\nwriters, and like the English 'grateful', has two meanings; either (1)\n'pleasurable' (e.g. Xen. _Cyr._ ii. 2. 1); or (2) 'thankful' (e.g.\nBoeckh _C. I._ no. 1625), as here.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIII. 16]\n\n\u03b3\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5. ^{16}\u1f49 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03ad\u03b9\u03c4\u03c9 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u1fc3\n\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u1fb3\u00b7 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03ac\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03b8\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2\n\n\n16, 17. 'Let the inspiring word of Christ dwell in your hearts,\nenriching you with its boundless wealth and endowing you with all\nwisdom. Teach and admonish one another with psalms, with hymns of\npraise, with spiritual songs of all kinds. Only let them be pervaded\nwith grace from heaven. Sing to God in your hearts and not with your\nlips only. And generally; whatever ye do, whether in word or in deed,\nlet everything be done in the name of Jesus Christ. And (again I repeat\nit) pour out your thanksgiving to God the Father through Him'.\n\n16. \u1f49 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6] '_the word of Christ_', \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 being the\nsubjective genitive, so that Christ is the speaker. Though \u1f41 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 and \u1f41 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 occur frequently, \u1f41 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 is\nfound here only. There seems to be no direct reference in this\nexpression to any definite body of truths either written or oral, but \u1f41\n\u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 denotes the presence of Christ in the heart, as an\ninward monitor: comp. 1 Joh. ii. 14 \u1f41 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9, with\n_ib._ i. 10 \u1f41 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd, and so perhaps Acts xviii.\n5 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03ad\u03b9\u03c7\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u1ff3 (the correct reading).\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd] '_in your hearts_', not '_among you_'; comp. Rom. viii. 9, 11\n\u03c4\u1f78 \u1f10\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd, 2 Tim. i. 5, 14, and Lev. xxvi. 12, as\nquoted in 2 Cor. vi. 16, \u1f10\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03ae\u03c3\u03c9 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2.\n\n\u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03c9\u03c2] See above p. 43 sq., and the note on i. 27.\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u1fc3 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u1fb3] '_in every kind of wisdom_'. It seems best to take these\nwords with the preceding clause, though Clem. Alex. _P\u00e6d._ ii. 4 (p.\n194) attaches them to what follows. For this position of \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u1fc3 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u1fb3,\nat the end of the sentence to which it refers, comp. i. 9, Ephes. i. 8.\nThe connexion here adopted is also favoured by the parallel passage\nEphes. v. 18, 19 (see the note below). Another passage i. 28\n\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03b8\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03ac\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u1fc3 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u1fb3\nhas a double bearing: while the _connexion_ favours our taking \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u1fc3\n\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u1fb3 here with the following words, the _order_ suggests their being\nattached to the preceding clause.\n\n\u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03ac\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] The participles are here used for imperatives, as\nfrequently in hortatory passages, e.g. Rom. xii. 9 sq., 16 sq., Ephes.\niv. 2, 3, Hebr. xiii. 5, 1 Pet. ii. 12[?], iii. 1, 7, 9, 15, 16. It is\nnot, as some insist, that the participle itself has any imperatival\nforce; nor, as maintained by others, that the construction should be\nexplained by the hypothesis of a preceding parenthesis or of a verb\nsubstantive understood or by any other expedient to obtain a regular\ngrammatical structure (see Winer, \u00a7 xlv. p. 441 sq., \u00a7 lxii. p. 707, \u00a7\nlxiii. p. 716, \u00a7 lxiv. p. 732). But the absolute participle, being (so\nfar as regards mood) neutral in itself, takes its colour from the\ngeneral complexion of the sentence. Thus it is sometimes indicative\n(e.g. 2 Cor. vii. 5, and frequently), sometimes imperative (as in the\npassages quoted), sometimes optative (as above, ii. 2, 2 Cor. ix. 11,\ncomp. Ephes. iii. 17). On the distinction of \u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03ac\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd and \u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03b8\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd see\nthe note on i. 28; they describe respectively the positive and the\nnegative side of instruction. On the reciprocal \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c2 see the note on\niii. 13.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIII. 16]\n\n\u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03c8\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f55\u03bc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u1fa0\u03b4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7\n\n\n\u03c8\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] to be connected with the preceding sentence, as\nsuggested by Ephes. v. 18 sq. \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9, \u03bb\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2\n\u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 [\u1f10\u03bd] \u03c8\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03bc\u03bd\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1fa0\u03b4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 [\u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2], \u1f84\u03b4\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03c8\u03ac\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u1fb3 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3. The datives describe the instruments\nof the \u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03b1\u03c7\u03ae and \u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03b8\u03b5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1.\n\nThe three words \u03c8\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2, \u1f55\u03bc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2, \u1fa0\u03b4\u03ae, are distinguished, so far as they\nare distinguishable, in Trench _N.T. Syn._ \u00a7 lxxviii. p. 279 sq. They\nare correctly defined by Gregory Nyssen _in Psalm._ c. iii (I. p. 295)\n\u03c8\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u1f78\u03c2 \u03bc\u03ad\u03bd \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f21 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f40\u03c1\u03b3\u03ac\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bc\u03b5\u03bb\u03c9\u03b4\u03af\u03b1, \u1fa0\u03b4\u1f74 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f21 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70\n\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bc\u03ad\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u1f70 \u1fe5\u03b7\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c6\u03ce\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 ... \u1f55\u03bc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f21 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c0\u03ac\u03c1\u03c7\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03b8\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03b8\u03b5\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u0398\u03b5\u1ff7 \u03b5\u1f50\u03c6\u03b7\u03bc\u03af\u03b1; see also\nHippol. p. 191 sq. (ed. de Lagarde). In other words, while the leading\nidea of \u03c8\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2 is a musical accompaniment and that of \u1f55\u03bc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 praise to\nGod, \u1fa0\u03b4\u03ae is the general word for a song, whether accompanied or\nunaccompanied, whether of praise or on any other subject. Thus it was\nquite possible for the same song to be at once \u03c8\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2, \u1f55\u03bc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2, and \u1fa0\u03b4\u03ae.\nIn the text the reference in \u03c8\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2, we may suppose, is specially,\nthough not exclusively (1 Cor. xiv. 26), to the Psalms of David, which\nwould early form part of the religious worship of the Christian\nbrotherhood. On the other hand \u1f55\u03bc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 would more appropriately designate\nthose hymns of praise which were composed by the Christians themselves\non distinctly Christian themes, being either set forms of words or\nspontaneous effusions of the moment. The third word \u1fa0\u03b4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 gathers up the\nother two, and extends the precept to all forms of song, with the\nlimitation however that they must be \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03af. St Chrysostom treats\n\u1f55\u03bc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 here as an advance upon \u03c8\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03bf\u03af, which in one aspect they are; \u03bf\u1f31\n\u03c8\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03bf\u03af, he says, \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f14\u03c7\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, \u1f41\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f55\u03bc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u1f72\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd\u00b7 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c8\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bc\u03ac\u03b8\u1fc3, _\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5_ \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f55\u03bc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f34\u03c3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, \u1f05\u03c4\u03b5 \u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03bf\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\n\u03c0\u03c1\u1fb6\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1.\n\nPsalmody and hymnody were highly developed in the religious services of\nthe Jews at this time: see Philo _in Flacc._ 14 (II. p. 535) \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03bd\u03c5\u03c7\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72\n\u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03ad\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f55\u03bc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1fa0\u03b4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2, _de Vit. Cont._ \u00a7 3 (II. p. 476)\n\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f84\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f55\u03bc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u0398\u03b5\u1f78\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u03bc\u03ad\u03c4\u03c1\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bc\u03b5\u03bb\u1ff6\u03bd, \u1f03\n\u1fe5\u03c5\u03b8\u03bc\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b5\u03bc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03b3\u03ba\u03b1\u03af\u03c9\u03c2 \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9, \u00a7 10 (p. 484) \u1f41 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f55\u03bc\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd\n\u1f84\u03b4\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u0398\u03b5\u03cc\u03bd, \u1f22 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u1f78\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b7\u03ba\u1f7c\u03c2 \u1f22 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03b1\u1fd6\u03cc\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b1\n\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03bb\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b7\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd\u00b7 \u03bc\u03ad\u03c4\u03c1\u03b1 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bc\u03ad\u03bb\u03b7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u03af\u03c0\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u1f10\u03c0\u1ff6\u03bd\n\u03c4\u03c1\u03b9\u03bc\u03ad\u03c4\u03c1\u03c9\u03bd, \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03bf\u03b4\u03af\u03c9\u03bd, \u1f55\u03bc\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd, \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c3\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd\u03b4\u03b5\u03af\u03c9\u03bd, \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03b2\u03c9\u03bc\u03af\u03c9\u03bd, \u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03c3\u03af\u03bc\u03c9\u03bd,\n\u03c7\u03bf\u03c1\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03bd, \u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03cc\u03c6\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f56 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03bc\u03b5\u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., \u00a7 11 (p. 485)\n\u1f84\u03b4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u0398\u03b5\u1f78\u03bd \u1f55\u03bc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bc\u03ad\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bc\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\n\u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., with the whole context. They would thus find their way into the\nChristian Church from the very beginning. For instances of singing hymns\nor psalms in the Apostolic age see Acts iv. 24, xvi. 25, 1 Cor. xiv. 15,\n26. Hence even in St Paul's epistles, more especially his later\nepistles, fragments of such hymns appear to be quoted; e.g. Ephes. v. 14\n(see the note there). For the use of hymnody in the early Church of the\nsucceeding generations see Plin. _Epist._ x. 97 'Ante lucem convenire,\ncarmenque Christo quasi Deo dicere secum invicem,' Anon. [Hippolytus] in\nEuseb. _H.E._ v. 28 \u03c8\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03bf\u1f76 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f45\u03c3\u03bf\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1fa0\u03b4\u1f70\u03b9 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0' _)\u03b1\u03c1\u03c7\u1fc6\u03c2_\n\u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u039b\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9\n\u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2. The reference in the text is not solely or chiefly to\npublic worship as such. Clem. Alex. _P\u00e6d._ ii. 4 (p. 194) treats it as\napplying to social gatherings; and again Tertullian says of the agape,\n_Apol._ 39 'Ut quisque de scripturis sanctis vel de proprio ingenio\npotest, provocatur in medium Deo canere,' and of the society of husband\nand wife, _Ad Uxor._ ii. 8 'Sonant inter duos psalmi et hymni, et mutuo\nprovocant quis melius Domino suo cantet.' On the psalmody etc. of the\nearly Christians see Bingham _Antiq._ xiv. c. 1, and especially Probst\n_Lehre und Gebet_ p. 256 sq.\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03b9] '_in_ God's _grace_'; comp. 2 Cor. i. 12 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f10\u03bd \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\n\u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03b9\u03ba\u1fc7 \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb' \u1f10\u03bd \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03b9 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6. These words are perhaps best connected with\nthe preceding clause, as by Chrysostom. Thus the parallelism with \u1f10\u03bd\n\u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u1fc3 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u1fb3 is preserved. The correct reading is \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03b9, not \u1f10\u03bd\n\u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03b9. For \u1f21 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2, 'divine grace', see Phil. i. 7 \u03c3\u03c5\u03b3\u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd\u03bf\u03cd\u03c2 \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2\n\u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 with the note. The definite article seems to exclude all lower\nsenses of \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2 here, such as 'acceptableness', 'sweetness' (see iv. 6).\nThe interpretation 'with gratitude', if otherwise tenable (comp. 1 Cor.\nx. 30), seems inappropriate here, because the idea of thanksgiving is\nintroduced in the following verse.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIII. 17, 18]\n\n\u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03b9, \u1f84\u03b4\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u0398\u03b5\u1ff7\u00b7 ^{17}\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u1f45 \u03c4\u03b9 \u1f10\u1f70\u03bd\n\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u1fc6\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f10\u03bd \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u1ff3 \u1f22 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f14\u03c1\u03b3\u1ff3, \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f40\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6, \u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2\n\u03c4\u1ff7 \u0398\u03b5\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b9' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6.\n\n^{18}\u0391\u1f31 \u03b3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u1fd6\u03ba\u03b5\u03c2, \u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u03ac\u03c3\u03c3\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u03ac\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, \u1f61\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u1fc6\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd\n\n\n\u1f04\u03b4\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] This external manifestation must be accompanied by the\ninward emotion. There must be the thanksgiving of the heart, as well as\nof the lips; comp. Ephes. v. 19 \u1f04\u03b4\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c8\u03ac\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u1fb3\n(probably the correct reading), where \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u1fb3 '_with_ the heart'\nbrings out the sense more distinctly.\n\n17. \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u1f45 \u03c4\u03b9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] This is probably a nominative absolute, as Matt. x.\n32 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f56\u03bd \u1f45\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f41\u03bc\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 ... \u1f41\u03bc\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03ae\u03c3\u03c9 \u03ba\u1f00\u03b3\u1f7c \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 (comp. Luke xii.\n8), Luke xii. 10 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f43\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd ... \u1f00\u03c6\u03b5\u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7, John xvii. 2 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd\n\u1f43 \u03b4\u03ad\u03b4\u03c9\u03ba\u03b1\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7, \u03b4\u03ce\u03c3\u1fc3 _\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2_ \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.; comp. Matt. vii. 24 (v.l.).\n\n\u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1] sc. \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b5, as the following \u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 suggests; comp. ver.\n23.\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u1f40\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] This is the great practical lesson which flows from\nthe theological teaching of the epistle. Hence the reiteration of \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3,\n\u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3, etc., vv. 18, 20, 22, 23, 24. See above p. 104.\n\n\u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2] On this refrain see the notes on i. 12, ii. 7.\n\n\u03c4\u1ff7 \u0398\u03b5\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u1f76] This, which is quite the best authenticated reading, gives\na very unusual, if not unique, collocation of words, the usual form\nbeing either \u1f41 \u0398\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1 or \u0398\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1. The \u03ba\u03b1\u03af before \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03af in the\nreceived text is an obvious emendation. See the note on i. 3, and the\nappendix on various readings.\n\n18\u201321. 'Ye wives, be subject to your husbands, for so it becomes you in\nChrist. Ye husbands, love and cherish your wives, and use no harshness\ntowards them. Ye children, be obedient to your parents in all things;\nfor this is commendable and lovely in Christ. Ye parents, vex not your\nchildren, lest they lose heart and grow sullen'.\n\n18 sq. These precepts, providing for the conduct of Christians in\nprivate households, should be compared with Ephes. v. 22\u2013vi. 9, 1 Pet.\nii. 18\u2013iii. 7, Tit. ii. 1 sq.; see also Clem. Rom. 1, Polyc. _Phil._ 4\nsq.\n\n\u0391\u1f31 \u03b3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u1fd6\u03ba\u03b5\u03c2] '_Ye wives_', the nominative with the definite article\nbeing used for a vocative, as frequently in the New Testament, e.g.\nMatt. xi. 26, Mark v. 41, Luke viii. 54; see Winer \u00a7 xxix. p. 227 sq.\nThe frequency of this use is doubtless due to the fact that it is a\nreproduction of the Hebrew idiom. In the instances quoted from classical\nwriters (see Bernhardy _Syntax_ p. 67) the address is not so directly\nvocative, the nominative being used rather to _define_ or _select_ than\nto _summon_ the person in question.\n\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u03ac\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd] The \u1f30\u03b4\u03af\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 of the received text may have been inserted\n(as it is inserted also in Ephes. v. 24) from Ephes. v. 22, Tit. ii. 5,\n1 Pet. iii. 1, 5, in all which passages this same injunction occurs. The\nscribes however show a general fondness for this adjective; e.g. Mark\nxv. 20, Luke ii. 3, Acts i. 19, Ephes. iv. 28, 1 Thess. ii. 15, iv. 11.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIII. 19\u201322]\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3. ^{19}\u039f\u1f31 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u03b5\u03c2, \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u1fb6\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03b3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u1fd6\u03ba\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bc\u1f74 \u03c0\u03b9\u03ba\u03c1\u03b1\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03ac\u03c2. ^{20}\u03a4\u1f70 \u03c4\u03ad\u03ba\u03bd\u03b1, \u1f51\u03c0\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u00b7 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1\n\u03b5\u1f50\u03ac\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3. ^{21}\u039f\u1f31 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b5\u03c2, \u03bc\u1f74 \u1f10\u03c1\u03b5\u03b8\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u03ad\u03ba\u03bd\u03b1 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd,\n\u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03bc\u1f74 \u1f00\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd. ^{22}\u039f\u1f31 \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9, \u1f51\u03c0\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\n\n\n\u1f00\u03bd\u1fc6\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd] The imperfect, as Ephes. v. 4 \u1f03 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f00\u03bd\u1fc6\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd (the correct\nreading); comp. _Clem. Hom._ Contest. 3 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03b4\u03b5 \u03bc\u1f74 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03bd, \u1f61\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u1fc6\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd, Xen. _de Re Equestr._ xii. 14 \u1f03 \u1f31\u03c0\u03c0\u03ac\u03c1\u03c7\u1ff3 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u1fc6\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03b4\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u03b5\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd; and see D'Orville on Charito viii. 2 (p. 699 sq.). The\ncommon uses of the imperfect \u1f14\u03b4\u03b5\u03b9, \u1f14\u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c0\u03b5\u03bd, etc., in classical writers\ndo not present a very exact parallel; for they imply that the thing\nwhich ought to have been done has been left undone. And so we might\ninterpret Acts xxii. 22 \u03bf\u1f50 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1fc6\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b6\u1fc6\u03bd (the correct reading).\nHere however there can hardly be any such reference; and the best\nillustration is the English past tense 'ought' (= 'owed'), which is used\nin the same way. The past tense perhaps implies an essential _\u00e0 priori_\nobligation. The use of \u03c7\u03c1\u1fc6\u03bd, \u1f14\u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03bd, occasionally approximates to this;\ne.g. Eur. _Andr._ 423.\n\nThe idea of 'propriety' is the link which connects the primary meaning\nof such words as \u1f00\u03bd\u03ae\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03ae\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03ae\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, 'aiming at or pertaining\nto', with their ultimate meaning of moral obligation. The word \u1f00\u03bd\u03ae\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\noccurs in the New Testament only here and in the contemporary epistles,\nEphes. v. 4, Philem. 8.\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3] probably to be connected with \u1f61\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u1fc6\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd, rather than with\n\u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u03ac\u03c3\u03c3\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5; comp. ver. 20 \u03b5\u1f50\u03ac\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3.\n\n19. \u03bc\u1f74 \u03c0\u03b9\u03ba\u03c1\u03b1\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] '_show no bitterness, behave not harshly_';\ncomp. Lynceus in Athen. vi. p. 242 C \u03c0\u03b9\u03ba\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03b7 \u03c0\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b1 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c3\u03c5\u03b6\u03ce\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd,\nJoseph. _Ant._ v. 7. I \u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03ca\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2\n\u1f10\u03ba\u03c0\u03b9\u03ba\u03c1\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2, Plut. _Mor._ p. 457 A \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9\u03b1 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c0\u03b9\u03ba\u03c1\u03b1\u03af\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9. So\nalso \u03c0\u03b9\u03ba\u03c1\u03b1\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f10\u03c0\u03af \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b1 in the LXX, Jerem. xliv (xxxvii). 15, 3 Esdr.\niv. 31. This verb \u03c0\u03b9\u03ba\u03c1\u03b1\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 and its compounds occur frequently in\nclassical writers.\n\n20. \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1] as ver. 22. The rule is stated absolutely, because the\nexceptions are so few that they may be disregarded.\n\n\u03b5\u1f50\u03ac\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd] '_is well pleasing, commendable_'. The received text\nsupplies this adjective with a dative of reference \u03c4\u1ff7 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3 (from Ephes.\nv. 10), but \u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3 is unquestionably the right reading. With the\nreading thus corrected \u03b5\u1f50\u03ac\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd, like \u1f00\u03bd\u1fc6\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd ver. 18, must be taken\nabsolutely, as perhaps in Rom. xii. 2 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b8\u03ad\u03bb\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u1f11\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03b8\u1f78\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03b5\u1f50\u03ac\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd: comp. Phil. iv. 8 \u1f45\u03c3\u03b1 \u03c3\u03b5\u03bc\u03bd\u03ac ... \u1f45\u03c3\u03b1 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u1fc6. The\nqualification \u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3 implies 'as judged by a Christian standard', 'as\njudged by those who are members of Christ's body.'\n\n21. \u1f10\u03c1\u03b5\u03b8\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5] '_provoke, irritate_'. The other reading \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03c1\u03b3\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 has\nhigher support, but is doubtless taken from the parallel passage, Ephes.\nvi. 4. 'Irritation' is the first consequence of being too exacting with\nchildren, and irritation leads to moroseness (\u1f00\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1). In 2 Cor. IX. 2\n\u1f10\u03c1\u03b5\u03b8\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd is used in a good sense and produces the opposite result, not\ndespondency but energy.\n\n\u1f00\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd] '_lose heart, become spiritless_', i.e. 'go about their task\nin a listless, moody, sullen frame of mind'. '_Fractus animus_', says\nBengel, 'pestis juventutis'. In Xen. _Cyr._ i. 6. 13 \u1f00\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1 is opposed\nto \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1, and in Thuc. ii. 88 and elsewhere \u1f00\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd is opposed to\n\u03b8\u03b1\u03c1\u03c3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIII. 23]\n\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c3\u03ac\u03c1\u03ba\u03b1 \u03ba\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2, \u03bc\u1f74 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f40\u03c6\u03b8\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03bf\u03b4\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u1fb3 \u1f61\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03ac\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03b9, \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb' \u1f10\u03bd\n\u1f01\u03c0\u03bb\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, \u03c6\u03bf\u03b2\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u039a\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd. ^{23}\u1f43 \u1f10\u1f70\u03bd \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u1fc6\u03c4\u03b5, \u1f10\u03ba \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u1fc6\u03c2\n\u1f10\u03c1\u03b3\u03ac\u03b6\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 \u1f61\u03c2\n\n                        22. \u1f10\u03bd \u1f40\u03c6\u03b8\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03bf\u03b4\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2.\n\n\n22.\u2013iv. 1. 'Ye slaves, be obedient in all things to the masters set over\nyou in the flesh, not rendering them service only when their eyes are\nupon you, as aiming merely to please men, but serving in all sincerity\nof heart, as living in the sight of God and standing in awe of Him. And\nin every thing that ye do, work faithfully and with all your soul, as\nlabouring not for men, but for the great Lord and Master Himself;\nknowing that ye have a Master, from whom ye will receive the glorious\ninheritance as your recompense, whether or not ye may be defrauded of\nyour due by men. Yes, Christ is your Master and ye are his slaves. He\nthat does a wrong shall be requited for his wrong-doing. I say not this\nof slaves only, but of masters also. There is no partiality, no respect\nof persons, in God's distribution of rewards and punishments. Therefore,\nye masters, do ye also on your part deal justly and equitably by your\nslaves, knowing that ye too have a Master in heaven'.\n\n22. \u039f\u1f31 \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9] The relations of masters and slaves, both here and in the\ncompanion epistle (Ephes. vi. 5\u20139), are treated at greater length than\nis usual with St Paul. Here especially the expansion of this topic,\ncompared with the brief space assigned to the duties of wives and\nhusbands (vv. 18, 19), or of children and parents (vv. 20, 21), deserves\nto be noticed. The fact is explained by a contemporary incident in the\nApostle's private life. His intercourse with Onesimus had turned his\nthoughts in this direction. See above, p. 33, and the introduction to\nthe Epistle to Philemon: comp. also the note on ver. 11.\n\n\u1f40\u03c6\u03b8\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03bf\u03b4\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u1fb3] '_eye-service_', as Ephes. vi. 6: comp. _Apost. Const._\niv. 12 \u03bc\u1f74 \u1f61\u03c2 \u1f40\u03c6\u03b8\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03cc\u03b4\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb' \u1f61\u03c2 \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03b4\u03ad\u03c3\u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2. This happy expression\nwould seem to be the Apostle's own coinage. At least there are no traces\nof it earlier. Compare \u1f10\u03b8\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u03b8\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03b1 ii. 23. The reading \u1f40\u03c6\u03b8\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03bf\u03b4\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u1fb3\nis better supported than \u1f40\u03c6\u03b8\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03bf\u03b4\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2, though the plural is rendered\nslightly more probable in itself by its greater difficulty.\n\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03ac\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03b9] again in Ephes. vi. 6. It is a LXX word, Ps. lii. 6,\nwhere the Greek entirely departs from the Hebrew: comp. also\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd Ign. _Rom._ 2, \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ad\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 Justin _Apol._ i. 2 (p. 53\nE). So \u1f40\u03c7\u03bb\u03bf\u03b1\u03c1\u03ad\u03c3\u03ba\u03b7\u03c2 or \u1f40\u03c7\u03bb\u03cc\u03b1\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2, Timo Phlias. in Diog. Laert. iv. 42\n(vv. 11.).\n\n\u1f01\u03c0\u03bb\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03c2] as in Ephes. vi. 5, i.e. 'with _undivided_ service'; a\nLXX expression, 1 Chron. xxix. 17, Wisd. i. 1.\n\n\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u039a\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd] '_the_ one _Lord_ and Master', as contrasted with \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70\n\u03c3\u03ac\u03c1\u03ba\u03b1 \u03ba\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2: the idea being carried out in the following verses. The\nreceived text, by substituting \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u0398\u03b5\u03cc\u03bd, blunts the edge of the\ncontrast.\n\n23. \u1f10\u03c1\u03b3\u03ac\u03b6\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5] i.e. 'do it diligently', an advance upon \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5.\n\n\u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2] For the use of \u03bf\u1f50 rather than \u03bc\u1f74 in antitheses, see Winer\n\u00a7 lv. p. 601 sq. The negative here is wholly unconnected with the\nimperative, and refers solely to \u03c4\u1ff7 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIII. 24, 25]\n\n\u03c4\u1ff7 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2,] ^{24}\u03b5\u1f30\u03b4\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03ae\u03bc\u03c8\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c0\u03cc\u03b4\u03bf\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03c2\u00b7 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b4\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5\u00b7 ^{25}\u1f41 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03bd\n\u03ba\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f43\n\n\n24. \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 'However you may be treated by your earthly masters, you\nhave still _a_ Master who will recompense you.' The absence of the\ndefinite article here (comp. iv. 1) is the more remarkable, because it\nis studiously inserted in the context, vv. 22\u201324, \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u039a\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd, \u03c4\u1ff7 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3,\n\u03c4\u1ff7 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3. In the parallel passage Ephes. vi. 8 it is \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u1f70 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5: for\nthe difference between the two see Gal. i. 12.\n\n\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c0\u03cc\u03b4\u03bf\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd] '_the just recompense_', a common word both in the lxx\nand in classical writers, though not occurring elsewhere in the New\nTestament; comp. \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c0\u03cc\u03b4\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1 Luke xiv. 12, Rom. xi. 9. The double\ncompound involves the idea of 'exact requital'.\n\n\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03c2] '_which consists in the inheritance_', the genitive of\napposition: see the note on \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03bc\u03b5\u03c1\u03af\u03b4\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5, i. 12. There is a\nparadox involved in this word: elsewhere the \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 and the \u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2\nare contrasted (Matt. xxi. 35\u201338, etc., Rom. viii. 15\u201317, Gal. iv. 1,\n7), but here the \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 is the \u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2. This he is because, though\n\u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03c9\u03bd, he is \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03cd\u03b8\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 (1 Cor. vii. 22) and thus\n\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 (Gal. iv. 7); comp. Hermas _Sim._ v. 2 \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03b3\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f41 \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f51\u03b9\u1ff7 (with the context).\n\n\u03c4\u1ff7 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] i.e. '_you serve_ as your master _the_ great _Master\nChrist_.' This clause is added to explain who is meant by the preceding\n\u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5. For this application of \u039a\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 compare (besides the parallel\npassage, Ephes. vi. 6\u20139) 1 Cor. vii. 22 \u1f41 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3 \u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u1f72\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2\n\u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03cd\u03b8\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03af\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. It seems best to take \u03b4\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 here as\nan indicative, rather than as an imperative; for (1) The indicative is\nwanted to explain the previous \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5; (2) The imperative would seem\nto require \u1f61\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3, as in Ephes. vi. 7 (the correct text). On the\nother hand see Rom. xii. 11.\n\n25. \u1f41 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] Who is this unrighteous person ? The slave who\ndefrauds his master of his service, or the master who defrauds his slave\nof his reward? Some interpreters confine it exclusively to the former;\nothers to the latter. It seems best to suppose that both are included.\nThe connexion of the sentence \u1f41 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03bd (where \u03b3\u03ac\u03c1, not \u03b4\u03ad, is\ncertainly the right reading) points to the slave. On the other hand the\nexpression which follows, \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b4\u03af\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f30\u03c3\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., suggests\nthe master. Thus there seems to be a twofold reference; the warning is\nsuggested by the case of the slave, but it is extended to the case of\nthe master; and this accords with the parallel passage, Ephes. vi. 8\n\u1f15\u03ba\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f43 \u1f02\u03bd \u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03c3\u1fc3 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03b8\u1f78\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf \u03ba\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u1f70 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5, _\u03b5\u1f34\u03c4\u03b5 \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2\n\u03b5\u1f34\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f10\u03bb\u03b5\u03cd\u03b8\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2_.\n\nThe recent fault of Onesimus would make the Apostle doubly anxious to\nemphasize the duties of the slave towards the master, lest in his love\nfor the offender he should seem to condone the offence. This same word\n\u1f20\u03b4\u03af\u03ba\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd is used by St Paul to describe the crime of Onesimus in Philem.\n18. But on the other hand it is the Apostle's business to show that\njustice has a double edge. There must be a _reciprocity_ between the\nmaster and the slave. The philosophers of Greece taught, and the laws of\nRome assumed, that the slave was a chattel. But a chattel could have no\nrights. It would be absurd to talk of treating a chattel with justice.\nSt Paul places the relations of the master and the slave in a wholly\ndifferent light. Justice and equity are the expression of the Divine\nmind: and with God there is no \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b7\u03bc\u03c8\u03af\u03b1. With Him the claims of the\nslave are as real as the claims of the master.\n\n\u03ba\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9] For this sense of the middle, 'to recover', 'to get back',\nand so (with an accusative of the thing to be recompensed), 'to be\nrequited for', see e.g. Lev. xx. 17 \u1f01\u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03ba\u03bf\u03bc\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, 2 Cor. v. 10\n\u03ba\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03c3\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f15\u03ba\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2; comp. Barnab.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIV. 1]\n\n\u1f20\u03b4\u03af\u03ba\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b7\u03bc\u03c8\u03af\u03b1. IV. ^1\u039f\u1f31 \u03ba\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9, \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b4\u03af\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f30\u03c3\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03bf\u03cd\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ad\u03c7\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5, \u03b5\u1f30\u03b4\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u039a\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u1ff7.\n\n\n\u00a7 4 \u1f41 \u039a\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03ae\u03bc\u03c0\u03c4\u03c9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03c1\u03b9\u03bd\u03b5\u1fd6 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5\u00b7 \u1f15\u03ba\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd,\n\u03ba\u03bf\u03bc\u03b9\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9. In the parallel passage Ephes. vi. 8, the form is certainly\n\u03ba\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9: here it is more doubtful, the authorities being more equally\ndivided between \u03ba\u03bf\u03bc\u03b9\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 and \u03ba\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9. See however the note on\n\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c1\u03af\u03c3\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd iv. 9.\n\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b7\u03bc\u03c8\u03af\u03b1] On this word see the note Gal. ii. 6. This \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b7\u03bc\u03c8\u03af\u03b1,\nthough generally found on the side of rank and power, may also be\nexercised in favour of the opposite; Levit. xix. 15 \u03bf\u1f50 \u03bb\u03ae\u03c8\u1fc3 \u03c0\u03c1\u03cc\u03c3\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd\n\u03c0\u03c4\u03c9\u03c7\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u1f72 \u03bc\u1f74 \u03b8\u03b1\u03c5\u03bc\u03ac\u03c3\u1fc3\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u03cc\u03c3\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd \u03b4\u03c5\u03bd\u03ac\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5. There would be a tendency in\nthe mind of the slave to assume that, because the \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b7\u03bc\u03c8\u03af\u03b1 of man\nwas on the side of the master, there must be a corresponding\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b7\u03bc\u03c8\u03af\u03b1 of God on the side of the slave. This assumption is\ncorrected by St Paul.\n\nIV. 1. \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f30\u03c3\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1] '_equity_', '_fairness_'; comp. Plut. _Sol. et Popl.\nComp._ 3 \u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03c9\u03bd \u1f30\u03c3\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b5\u03c7\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd. Somewhat similarly Lysias _Or. Fun._\n77 (speaking of death) \u03bf\u1f54\u03c4\u03b5 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bd\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c1\u1fb7 \u03bf\u1f54\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03b8\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2\n\u03b8\u03b1\u03c5\u03bc\u03ac\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9, \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb' _\u1f34\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ad\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9_ \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd. It seems a mistake to\nsuppose that \u1f30\u03c3\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 here has anything to do with the treatment of slaves\n_as equals_ (comp. Philem. 16). When connected with \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b4\u03af\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd, the word\nnaturally suggests an even-handed, impartial treatment, and is\nequivalent to the Latin _\u00e6quitas_: comp. Arist. _Top._ vi. 5 (p. 143) \u1f41\n\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd (\u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03c9\u03bd) \u1f15\u03be\u03b9\u03bd \u1f30\u03c3\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b7\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1f74\u03bd \u1f22 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd\u03b5\u03bc\u03b7\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1f74\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f34\u03c3\u03bf\u03c5,\nPhilo _de Creat. Princ._ 14 (II. p. 373) \u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f30\u03c3\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 ... \u03bc\u03ae\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\n\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b7\u03c2, Clem. Alex. _Strom._ vi. 6 (p. 764) \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u1f70 \u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b7\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u1f30\u03c3\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03b5\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03ad\u03c6\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2. Thus in Arist. _Eth. Nic._ v. 1 \u03c4\u1f78\n\u03b4\u03af\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd and \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f34\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd are regarded as synonymes, and in Plut. _Mor._ p.\n719 the relation of \u1f30\u03c3\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 to \u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03af\u03bf\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 is discussed. The word here is\nused in the same sense in which the adjective occurs in the common\nexpressions \u1f34\u03c3\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c2, \u1f34\u03c3\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f00\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u03b1\u03c4\u03ae\u03c2, etc. Philo, describing the\nEssene condemnation of slavery, says, _Omn. prob. lib._ 12 (II. p. 457)\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b3\u03b9\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af \u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd, \u03bf\u1f50 \u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u1f61\u03c2 \u1f00\u03b4\u03af\u03ba\u03c9\u03bd, \u1f30\u03c3\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1\n\u03bb\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd, \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f61\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c3\u03b5\u03b2\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., but he possibly does mean\n'equality' rather than 'equity.'\n\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ad\u03c7\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5] '_exhibit on your part_.' The middle \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ad\u03c7\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, 'to afford\nfrom oneself,' will take different shades of meaning according to the\ncontext, as 'to furnish one's _quota_' (e.g. Herod. viii. 1, 2) or 'to\nput forward one's _representative_' (esp. of witnesses, e.g. Plato\n_Apol._ 19 D). Here the idea is 'reciprocation', the master's duty as\ncorresponding to the slave's.\n\n\u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u039a\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd] as Ephes. vi. 9; comp. 1 Cor. vii. 22 \u1f41 \u1f10\u03bb\u03b5\u03cd\u03b8\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u1f72\u03b9\u03c2\n\u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03cc\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIV. 2\u20134]\n\n^2\u03a4\u1fc7 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b5\u03c5\u03c7\u1fc7 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b5, \u03b3\u03c1\u03b7\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03af\u1fb3\u00b7\n^3\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b5\u03c5\u03c7\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f05\u03bc\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd, \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u1f41 \u0398\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03bf\u03af\u03be\u1fc3 \u1f21\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u03b8\u03cd\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c5, \u03bb\u03b1\u03bb\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03bc\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, \u03b4\u03b9' \u1f43 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03ad\u03b4\u03b5\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9\u00b7 ^4\u1f35\u03bd\u03b1\n\u03c6\u03b1\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03ce\u03c3\u03c9\n\n\n2\u20136. 'Be earnest and unceasing in prayer; keep your hearts and minds\nawake while praying: remember also (as I have so often told you) that\nthanksgiving is the goal and crown of prayer. Meanwhile in your\npetitions forget not us\u2014myself Paul\u2014my fellow-labourer Timothy\u2014your\nevangelist Epaphras\u2014all the teachers of the Gospel; but pray that God\nmay open a door for the preaching of the word, to the end that we may\nproclaim the free offer of grace to the Gentiles\u2014that great mystery of\nChrist for which I am now a prisoner in bonds. So shall I declare it\nfearlessly, as I am bound to proclaim it. Walk wisely and discreetly in\nall your dealings with unbelievers; allow no opportunity to slip through\nyour hands, but buy up every passing moment. Let your language be always\npervaded with grace and seasoned with salt. So will you know how to give\na fit answer to each man, as the occasion demands.'\n\n2. \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b5] '_cling closely to_', '_remain constant to_' (comp.\nMark iii. 9, Acts viii. 13, x. 7), and so 'continue stedfast in'. This\nword occurs again with \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b5\u03c5\u03c7\u1fc7, \u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b5\u03c5\u03c7\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2, Acts i. 14, ii. 42,\nvi. 4, Rom. xii. 12. The construction is with a simple dative both in\nthe New Testament (ll. cc.) and in classical writers, except where it\nstands absolutely (Acts ii. 46, Rom. xiii. 6). The injunction here\ncorresponds to the \u1f00\u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03bb\u03ad\u03b9\u03c0\u03c4\u03c9\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b5\u03cd\u03c7\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 of 1 Thess. v. 17.\n\n\u03b3\u03c1\u03b7\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2] Long continuance in prayer is apt to produce listlessness.\nHence the additional charge that the heart must be _awake_, if the\nprayer is to have any value. The word is not to be taken literally here,\nbut metaphorically. In Matt. xxvi. 41 etc., \u03b3\u03c1\u03b7\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b5\u03cd\u03c7\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5,\nthe idea is not quite the same.\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03af\u1fb3] as the crown of all prayer; see the notes on i. 12, ii.\n7.\n\n3. \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd] '_us_', 'the Apostles and preachers of the Gospel', with\nreference more especially to Timothy (i. 1) and Epaphras (iv. 12, 13).\nWhere the Apostle speaks of himself alone, he uses the singular (ver. 3,\n4 \u03b4\u03ad\u03b4\u03b5\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9, \u03c6\u03b1\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03ce\u03c3\u03c9). Indeed there is no reason to think that St Paul\never uses an 'epistolary' plural, referring to himself solely: see the\nnote on 1 Thess. iii. 1.\n\n\u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] On the sense of \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 after \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b5\u03cd\u03c7\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 etc., see the note on\ni. 9.\n\n\u03b8\u03cd\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c5] '_a door_ of admission _for the word_', i.e. 'an\nopportunity of preaching the Gospel', as 1 Cor. xvi. 9 \u03b8\u03cd\u03c1\u03b1 \u03b3\u03ac\u03c1 \u03bc\u03bf\u03b9\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03ad\u1ff3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd \u03bc\u03b5\u03b3\u03ac\u03bb\u03b7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03ae\u03c2, 2 Cor. ii. 12 \u03b8\u03cd\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 \u03bc\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b5\u1ff3\u03b3\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3:\ncomp. Plut. _Mor._ p. 674 D \u1f65\u03c3\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u03c0\u03cd\u03bb\u03b7\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03c7\u03b8\u03ad\u03b9\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2, \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03ad\u03c3\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd ...\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03b4\u03b1\u03c0\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03ba\u03c1\u03cc\u03b1\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd. Similarly )\u03ad\u03b9\u03c3\u03bf\u03b4\u03bf\u03c2 is used in 1\nThess. i. 9, ii. 1. The converse application of the metaphor appears in\nActs xiv. 27 \u1f24\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03be\u03b5\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f14\u03b8\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03b8\u03cd\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2, where the door is\nopened not to the teachers, but to the recipients of the Gospel.\nAccording to another interpretation (suggested by Ephes. vi. 19 \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03bc\u03bf\u03b9\n\u03b4\u03bf\u03b8\u1fc7 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03bf\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5) it is explained 'the door of our\nspeech', i.e. 'our mouth': comp. Ps. cxli (cxl). 3, Mic. vii. 5, Ecclus.\nxxviii. 25. But the parallel passages do not favour this sense, nor will\nthe words themselves admit it. In that case for \u1f21\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u03b8\u03cd\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c5 we\nshould require \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b8\u03cd\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03c9\u03c5 [\u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd]. 'The word' here is 'the\nGospel', as frequently.\n\n\u03bb\u03b1\u03bb\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 '_so as to speak_', the infinitive of the consequence, like\n\u03b5\u1f30\u03b4\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 ver. 6 ; see Winer \u00a7 xliv, p. 400.\n\n\u03c4\u1f78 \u03bc\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. i.e. the doctrine of the free admission of the\nGentiles. For the leading idea which St Paul in these epistles attaches\nto 'the mystery' of the Gospel, see the note on i. 26.\n\n\u03b4\u03b9' \u1f45 St Paul might have been still at large, if he had been content to\npreach a Judaic Gospel. It was because he contended for Gentile liberty,\nand thus offended Jewish prejudices, that he found himself a prisoner.\nSee Acts xxi. 28, xxii. 21, 22, xxiv. 5, 6, xxv. 6, 8. The other\nreading, \u03b4\u03b9' \u1f45\u03bd, destroys the point of the sentence.\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03ad\u03b4\u03b5\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9 2 Tim. ii. 9 \u03bc\u03ad\u03c7\u03c1\u03b9 \u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd, Philem. 9 \u03bd\u03c5\u03bd\u1f76 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03ad\u03c3\u03bc\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2.\n\n4. \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03c6\u03b1\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03ce\u03c3\u03c9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. This is best taken as dependent on the previous\nclause \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u1f41 \u0398\u03b5\u03cc\u03c2 ... \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6. For instances of a double \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1, where\nthe second is not coordinated with, but subordinated to, the first, see\nthe note on Gal. iii. 14. The immediate purport of the Colossians'\nprayers must be that the Apostle should have all opportunities of\npreaching the Gospel: the ulterior object, that he should use these\nopportunities boldly.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIV. 5, 6]\n\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc, \u1f61\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b5\u1fd6 \u03bc\u03b5 \u03bb\u03b1\u03bb\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9. ^5\u1f10\u03bd \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u1fb3 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f14\u03be\u03c9, \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u1f78\u03bd \u1f10\u03be\u03b1\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03b1\u03b6\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u00b7 ^6\u1f41 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2\n\n\n5. \u1f10\u03bd \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u1fb3] Matt. x. 16 \u03b3\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 \u03bf\u1f56\u03bd \u03c6\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03b9\u03bc\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f61\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f31 \u1f44\u03c6\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2.\n\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f14\u03be\u03c9] '_those without the pale_' of the Church, the unbelievers; as\nin 1 Cor. v. 12, 13, 1 Thess. iv. 12. So \u03bf\u1f31 \u1f14\u03be\u03c9\u03b8\u03b5\u03bd, 1 Tim. iii. 7. The\nbelievers on the other hand are \u03bf\u1f31 \u1f14\u03c3\u03c9, 1 Cor. v. 12. This mode of\nspeaking was derived from the Jews, who called the heathen \u05d4\u05d7\u05d9\u05e6\u05d5\u05e0\u05d9\u05dd\n(Sch\u00f6ttgen on 1 Cor. _l.c._), translated \u03bf\u1f31 \u1f10\u03ba\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2 Ecclus. Prol. and \u03bf\u1f31\n\u1f14\u03be\u03c9\u03b8\u03b5\u03bd Joseph. _Ant._ xv. 9. 2.\n\n\u1f10\u03be\u03b1\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03b1\u03b6\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. '_buying up the opportunity for yourselves_,\nletting no opportunity slip you, of saying and doing what may further\nthe cause of God': comp. Ephes. v. 16. The expression occurs also in\nDan. ii. 8 \u03bf\u1f36\u03b4\u03b1 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u1f78\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03be\u03b1\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03ac\u03b6\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5, i.e. 'are eager to gain\ntime'. Somewhat similar are the phrases \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c7\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b5\u03c1\u03b4\u03b1\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u1f78\u03bd\n\u03ba\u03b5\u03c1\u03b4\u03b1\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd. In much the same sense Ignatius says, _Polyc._ 3 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u1f78\u03c5\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03bc\u03ac\u03bd\u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03b5. For this sense of \u1f10\u03be\u03b1\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03ac\u03b6\u03c9 'coemo' (closely allied\nin meaning to \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03ac\u03b6\u03c9), see Polyb. iii. 42. 2 \u1f10\u03be\u03b7\u03b3\u03cc\u03c1\u03b1\u03c3\u03b5 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u03ac\n\u03c4\u03b5 \u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03cc\u03be\u03c5\u03bb\u03b1 \u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u1fd6\u03b1 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., Plut. _Vit. Crass._ 2. More commonly the\nword signifies 'to redeem' (see the note on Gal. iii. 13), and some\nwould assign this sense to it here; but no appropriate meaning is thus\nobtained. In Mart. _Polyc._ 2 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03bc\u03b9\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f65\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b1\u1f34\u03c9\u03bd\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03cc\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd\n\u1f10\u03be\u03b1\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03b1\u03b6\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 it means 'buying off', a sense in which \u1f10\u03be\u03c9\u03bd\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 occurs\nseveral times. The reason for the injunction is added in Ephes. v. 16,\n\u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f31 \u1f21\u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bd\u03b7\u03c1\u03b1\u03af \u03b5\u1f30\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd: the prevailing evil of the times makes the\nopportunities for good more precious.\n\n6. \u1f10\u03bd \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03b9] '_with grace, favour_', i.e. 'acceptableness',\n'pleasingness'; comp. Eccles. x. 12 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2, Ps. xliv\n(xlv). 3 \u1f10\u03be\u03b5\u03c7\u03cd\u03b8\u03b7 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c7\u03ad\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u03c3\u03af \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5, Eccles. xxi. 16 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c7\u03ad\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f11\u03c5\u03c1\u03b5\u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2. In classical writers \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03c9\u03bd is a still\nmore common connexion; e.g. Demosth. _c. Phil._ i. 38, Dionys. Hal. _de\nLys._ \u00a7\u00a7 10, 11, Plut. _Vit. Mar._ 44.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIV. 7]\n\n\u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03b9, \u1f05\u03bb\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f20\u03c1\u03c4\u03c5\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2, \u03b5\u1f30\u03b4\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9, \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03c0\u1ff6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b5\u1fd6 \u1f11\u03bd\u1f76\n\u1f11\u03ba\u03ac\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff3 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03c1\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9.\n\n^7\u03a4\u1f70 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4 \u1f10\u03bc\u1f72 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c1\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u03a4\u03cd\u03c7\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f41 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2\n\n\n\u1f05\u03bb\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9] comp. Mark ix. 50 \u1f10\u1f70\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f05\u03bb\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03af\u03bd\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\n_)\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03c5\u03c3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5_\u00b7 \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f05\u03bb\u03b1. The salt has a twofold purpose.\n(1) It gives a flavour to the discourse and recommends it to the palate:\ncomp. Job vi. 6 \u03b5\u1f30 \u03b2\u03c1\u03c9\u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f04\u03c1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b5\u03c5 \u1f01\u03bb\u03cc\u03c2\u00b7 \u03b5\u1f30 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9 \u03b3\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1 \u1f10\u03bd\n\u1fe5\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2; in which passage the first clause was rendered by\nSymmachus \u03bc\u03ae\u03c4\u03b9 \u03b2\u03c1\u03c9\u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 _\u1f00\u03bd\u03ac\u03c1\u03c4\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd_ \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03bc\u1f74 \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u1f05\u03bb\u03b1; This is the\nprimary idea of the metaphor here, as the word \u1f20\u03c1\u03c4\u03c5\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 seems to show.\n(2) It preserves from corruption and renders wholesome; Ign. _Magn._ 10\n\u1f01\u03bb\u03af\u03c3\u03b8\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03bc\u1f74 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c6\u03b8\u03b1\u03c1\u1fc7 \u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd, \u1f10\u03c0\u1f72\u03b9 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f40\u03c3\u03bc\u1fc6\u03c2\n\u1f10\u03bb\u03b5\u03b3\u03c7\u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5. Hence the Pythagorean saying, Diog. Laert. viii. I. 35 \u03bf\u1f31\n\u1f05\u03bb\u03b5\u03c2 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c3\u03ce\u03b6\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f45 \u03c4\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03bb\u03ac\u03b2\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9. It may be inferred that this\nsecondary application of the metaphor was present to the Apostle's mind\nhere, because in the parallel epistle, Ephes. iv. 29, he says \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2\n_\u03c3\u03b1\u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2_ \u1f10\u03ba \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03bc\u1f74 \u1f10\u03ba\u03c0\u03bf\u03c1\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03c9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. In the first\napplication the opposite to \u1f05\u03bb\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f20\u03c1\u03c4\u03c5\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 would be \u03bc\u03c9\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2 '_insipid_'\n(Luke xiv. 34); in the second, \u03c3\u03b1\u03c0\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2 '_corrupt_'.\n\nHeathen writers also insisted that discourse should be 'seasoned with\nsalt'; e.g. Cic. _de Orat._ i. 34 'facetiarum quidam lepos quo, tanquam\nsale, perspergatur omnis oratio'. They likewise dwelt on the connexion\nbetween \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2 and \u1f05\u03bb\u03b5\u03c2; e.g. Plut. _Mor._ p. 514 F \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u1f70\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03c5\u03ac\u03b6\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u03ae\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2, \u1f65\u03c3\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u1f01\u03bb\u03c3\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c6\u03b7\u03b4\u03cd\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd\n\u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03b9\u03b2\u03ae\u03bd, p. 697 D (comp. p. 685 A) \u03bf\u1f31 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u1f76 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd [\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd\n\u1f05\u03bb\u03b1], \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1 \u03bc\u03b9\u03b3\u03bd\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f50\u03ac\u03c1\u03bc\u03bf\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03b3\u03b5\u03cd\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u1fc6\n\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b5\u1fd6 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03b5\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1, p. 669 A \u1f21 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f01\u03bb\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b4\u03cd\u03bd\u03b1\u03bc\u03b9\u03c2 ... \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u1f21\u03b4\u03bf\u03bd\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03c4\u03af\u03b8\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9, Dion. Chrys. _Or._ xviii. \u00a7 13. Their notion of\n'salt' however was wit, and generally the kind of wit which degenerated\ninto the \u03b5\u1f50\u03c4\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03bb\u03af\u03b1 denounced by St Paul in Ephes. v. 4 (see the note\nthere).\n\nThe form \u1f05\u03bb\u03b1\u03c2 is common in the LXX and Greek Testament. Otherwise it is\nrare: see Buttmann _Gramm._ I. p. 220, and comp. Plut. _Mor._ 668 F.\n\n\u03b5\u1f30\u03b4\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9] '_so as to know_'; see the note on \u03bb\u03b1\u03bb\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 ver. 3.\n\n\u1f11\u03bd\u1f76 \u1f11\u03ba\u03ac\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff3] 'Not only must your conversation be opportune as regards the\ntime; it must also be appropriate as regards the person'. The Apostle's\nprecept was enforced by his own example, for he made it a rule to become\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1, \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u1f70\u03c2 \u03c3\u03ce\u03c3\u1fc3 (1 Cor. ix. 22).\n\n7\u20139. 'You will learn everything about me from Tychicus, the beloved\nbrother who has ministered to me and served with me faithfully in the\nLord. This indeed was my purpose in sending him to you: that you might\nbe informed how matters stand with me, and that he might cheer your\nhearts and strengthen your resolves by the tidings. Onesimus will\naccompany him\u2014a faithful and beloved brother, who is one of yourselves,\na Colossian. These two will inform you of all that is going on here.'\n\n7. \u03a4\u1f70 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4' \u1f10\u03bc\u1f72 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1] '_all that relates to me_'; see the note on Phil.\ni. 12, and comp. Bion in Diog. Laert. iv. 47. So Acts xxv. 14 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70\n\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03a0\u03b1\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd.\n\n\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c1\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9] On this word see the note Phil. i. 22.\n\n\u03a4\u03cd\u03c7\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2] Tychicus was charged by St Paul at this same time with a more\nextended mission. He was entrusted with copies of the circular letter,\nwhich he was enjoined to deliver in the principal churches of\nproconsular Asia (see above, p. 37, and the introduction to the Epistle\nto the Ephesians). This mission would bring him to Laodicea, which was\none of these great centres of Christianity (see p. 8); and, as Coloss\u00e6\nwas only a few miles distant, the Apostle would naturally engage him to\npay a visit to the Colossians. At the same time the presence of an\nauthorised delegate of St Paul, as Tychicus was known to be, would serve\nto recommend Onesimus, who owing to his former conduct stood in every\nneed of such a recommendation. The two names \u03a4\u03cd\u03c7\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 and \u1f48\u03bd\u03ae\u03c3\u03b9\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 occur\nin proximity in Phrygian inscriptions found at Altentash (Bennisoa?)\nBoeckh 3857r sqq. appx.\n\nTychicus was a native of proconsular Asia (Acts xx. 4) and perhaps of\nEphesus (2 Tim. iv. 12: see _Philippians_ p. 11). He is found with St\nPaul at three different epochs in his life. (1) He accompanied him when\non his way eastward at the close of the third missionary journey A.D. 58\n(Acts xx. 4), and probably like Trophimus (Acts xxi. 29) went with him\nto Jerusalem (for the words \u1f04\u03c7\u03c1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f08\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 must be struck out in Acts\nxx. 4). It is probable indeed that Tychicus, together with others\nmentioned among the Apostle's numerous retinue on this occasion, was a\ndelegate appointed by his own church according to the Apostle's\ninjunctions (1 Cor. xvi. 3, 4) to bear the contributions of his brethren\nto the poor Christians of Jud\u00e6a; and if so, he may possibly be the\nperson commended as the brother \u03bf\u1f57 \u1f41 \u1f14\u03c0\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b5\u1f50\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03af\u1ff3 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c3\u1ff6\u03bd\n\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u1ff6\u03bd (2 Cor. viii. 18): but this will depend on the\ninterpretation of the best supported reading in Acts xx. 5 \u03bf\u1f57\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b5\u03bb\u03b8\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f14\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03a4\u03c1\u03c9\u03ac\u03b4\u03b9. (2) We find Tychicus again in St\nPaul's company at the time with which we are immediately concerned, when\nthis epistle was written, probably towards the end of the first Roman\ncaptivity A.D. 62, 63 (see _Philippians_ p. 31 sq.). (3) Once more, at\nthe close of St Paul's life (about A.D. 67), he appears again to have\nassociated himself with the Apostle, when his name is mentioned in\nconnexion with a mission to Crete (Tit. iii. 12) and another to Ephesus\n(2 Tim. iv. 12). For the legends respecting him, which are slight and\ninsignificant, see _Act. Sanct. Boll._ April. 29 (III. p. 619).\n\nTychicus is not so common a name as some others which occur in the New\nTestament, e.g. Onesimus, Trophimus; but it is found occasionally in\ninscriptions belonging to Asia Minor, e.g. Boeckh _C. I._ 2918, 3665,\n[3857 c], 3857 r, (comp. 3865 i, etc.); and persons bearing it are\ncommemorated on the coins of both Magnesia ad M\u00e6andrum (Mionnet III. p.\n153 sq., _Suppl._ VI. p. 236) and Magnesia ad Sipylum (_ib._ IV. p. 70).\nThe name occurs also in Roman inscriptions; e.g. Muratori, pp.\nDCCCCXVII, MCCCXCIV, MMLV. Along with several other proper names\nsimilarly formed, this word is commonly accentuated \u03a4\u03c5\u03c7\u03b9\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2 (Chandler\n_Greek Accentuation_ \u00a7 255), and so it stands in all the critical\nSeditions, though according to rule (Winer \u00a7 vi. p. 58) it should be\n\u03a4\u03cd\u03c7\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIV. 8]\n\n\u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u1f78\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b4\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3\u00b7 ^8\u1f43\u03bd \u1f14\u03c0\u03b5\u03bc\u03c8\u03b1 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2\n\u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf, \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1\n\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] The connexion of the words is not quite obvious. It\nseems best however to take \u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3 as referring to the whole clause\n\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b4\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 rather than to \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b4\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 alone: for (1)\nThe two substantives are thus bound together by the preceding \u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2 and\nthe following \u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3 in a natural way: (2) The attachment of \u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3\nto \u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 is suggested by the parallel passage Ephes. vi. 21\n\u03a4\u03cd\u03c7\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f41 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u1f78\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3. The question of\nconnecting \u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3 with \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c0\u1f45\u03c2 as well need not be entertained, since\nthe idea of \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c0\u1f45\u03c2, 'a Christian brother', is complete in itself: see\nthe note on Phil. i. 14. The adjective \u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2 will here have its passive\nsense, 'trustworthy, stedfast', as also in ver. 9: see _Galatians_ p.\n154 sq.\n\n\u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2] '_minister_', but to whom? To the churches, or to St Paul\nhimself? The following \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b4\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 suggests the latter as the prominent\nidea here. So in Acts xix. 22 Timothy and Erastus are described as \u03b4\u03cd\u03bf\n\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03cd\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7. Tychicus himself also was one of several who\nministered to St Paul about that same time (Acts xx. 4). It is not\nprobable however, that \u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 has here its strict official sense, 'a\ndeacon', as in Rom. xvi. 1, Phil. i. 1, 1 Tim. iii. 8, 12.\n\n\u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b4\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2] The word does not occur elsewhere in St Paul, except in i. 7,\nwhere it is said of Epaphras. It is probably owing to the fact of St\nPaul's applying the term in both these passages to persons whom he calls\n\u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9, that \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b4\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 seems to have been adopted as a customary form\nof address in the early Church on the part of a bishop, when speaking of\na deacon. In Ignatian letters for instance, the term is never used\nexcept of deacons; _Ephes._ 2, _Magn._ 2, _Philad._ 4, _Smyrn._ 12.\nWhere the martyr has occasion to speak of a bishop or a presbyter some\nother designation is used instead.\n\n8. \u1f14\u03c0\u03b5\u03bc\u03c8\u03b1] '_I send_,' or '_I have sent_,' \u1f14\u03c0\u03b5\u03bc\u03c8\u03b1 being the epistolary\naorist; see the note on \u1f14\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c8\u03b1, Gal. vi. 11. Tychicus appears to have\naccompanied the letter itself. For similar instances of the epistolary\n\u1f14\u03c0\u03b5\u03bc\u03c8\u03b1, \u1f10\u03c0\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9\u03bb\u03b1, etc., see 2 Cor. viii. 18, 22, ix. 3, Ephes. vi. 22,\nPhil. ii. 25, 28, Philem. 11, Hebr. xiii. 22, Polyc. _Phil._ 13.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIV. 9]\n\n\u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03ad\u03c3\u1fc3 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd, ^9\u03c3\u1f7a\u03bd \u1f48\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03bc\u1ff3 \u03c4\u1ff7\n\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u1ff7, \u1f45\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f10\u03be \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd. \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c1\u03af\u03c3\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1f70\n\u1f67\u03b4\u03b5.\n\n\n\u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd] This must be preferred to the received reading, \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff7\n\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd, for two independent reasons. (1) The preponderance of\nancient authority is decidedly in its favour. (2) The emphatic \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 seems imperatively to demand it. St Paul in the context twice\nstates the object of Tychicus' visit to be that the Colossians might be\ninformed about the Apostle's own doings, \u03c4\u1f70 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4' \u1f10\u03bc\u1f72 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c1\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd\n(ver. 7), and \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c1\u03af\u03c3\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f67\u03b4\u03b5. He could hardly therefore\nhave described 'the very purpose' of his mission in the same breath as\nsomething quite different.\n\nIt is urged indeed, that this is a scribe's alteration to bring the\npassage into accordance with Ephes. vi. 21. But against this it may\nfairly be argued that, on any hypothesis as regards the authorship and\nrelation of the two letters, this strange variation from \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76\n\u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd to \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff7 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd in the author himself is improbable. On the\nother hand a transcriber was under a great temptation to substitute \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff7\nfor \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c4\u03b5 owing to the following \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03ad\u03c3\u03b7, and this temptation would\nbecome almost irresistible, if by any chance \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd had been written\nfor \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd in the copy before him, as we find to be the case in some\nMSS. See the detached note on various readings.\n\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03ad\u03c3\u1fc3 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] i.e. 'encourage you to persevere by his tidings and\nexhortations'. The phrase occurs again, Ephes. vi. 22, 2 Thess, ii. 17:\nsee above ii. 2. The prominent idea in all these passages is not comfort\nor consolation but perseverance in the right way.\n\n9. \u03c3\u1f7a\u03bd \u1f48\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03bc\u1ff3] See above, p. 33, and the introduction to the Epistle to\nPhilemon.\n\n\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] The man whom the Colossians had only known hitherto, if\nthey knew him at all, as a worthless runaway slave, is thus commended to\nthem as no more a slave but a brother, no more dishonest and faithless\nbut trustworthy, no more an object of contempt but of love; comp.\nPhilem. 11, 16.\n\n\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c1\u03af\u03c3\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd] This form has rather better support from the MSS than\n\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd: see also above, iii. 25. On the Attic future from verbs in\n-\u03b9\u03b6\u03c9 in the Greek Testament generally see Winer \u00a7 xiii. p. 88, A.\nButtmann p. 32 sq. Is there any decisive instance of these Attic forms\nin St Paul, except in quotations from the LXX (e.g. Rom. x. 19, xv. 12)?\n\n10\u201314. 'I send you greeting from Aristarchus who is a fellow-prisoner\nwith me; from Marcus, Barnabas' cousin, concerning whom I have already\nsent you directions, that you welcome him heartily, if he pays you a\nvisit; and from Jesus, surnamed Justus; all three Hebrew converts. They\nalone of their fellow-countrymen have worked loyally with me in\nspreading the kingdom of God; and their stedfastness has indeed been a\ncomfort to me in the hour of trial. Greeting also from Epaphras, your\nfellow-townsman, a true servant of Christ, who is ever wrestling in his\nprayers on your behalf, that ye may stand firm in the faith, perfectly\ninstructed and fully convinced in every will and purpose of God. I bear\ntestimony to the earnestness with which he labours for you and the\nbrethren of Laodicea and those of Hierapolis. Greeting also from Luke\nthe physician, my very dear friend, and from Demas.'\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIV. 10]\n\n^{10}\u1f08\u03c3\u03c0\u03ac\u03b6\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f08\u03c1\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03c1\u03c7\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f41 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9\u03c7\u03bc\u03ac\u03bb\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2\n\n\n10. The salutations to Philemon are sent from the same persons as to the\nColossians, except that in the former case the name of Jesus Justus is\nomitted.\n\n\u1f08\u03c1\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03c1\u03c7\u03bf\u03c2] the Thessalonian. He had started with St Paul on his voyage\nfrom Jerusalem to Rome, but probably had parted from the Apostle at Myra\n(see _Philippians_ p. 33 sq.). If so, he must have rejoined him at Rome\nat a later date. On this Aristarchus see _Philippians_ p. 10 and the\nintroduction to the Epistles to the Thessalonians. He would be well\nknown in proconsular Asia, which he had visited from time to time; Acts\nxix. 29, xx. 4, xxvii. 2.\n\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9\u03c7\u03bc\u03ac\u03bb\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2 \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5] In Philem. 23 this honourable title is withheld from\nAristarchus and given to Epaphras. In Rom. xvi. 7 St Paul's kinsmen,\nAndronicus and Junias, are so called. On the possibility of its\nreferring to a spiritual captivity or subjection see _Philippians_ p.\n11. In favour of this meaning it may be urged, that, though St Paul as a\nprisoner was truly a \u03b4\u03ad\u03c3\u03bc\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2, he was not strictly an \u03b1\u1f30\u03c7\u03bc\u03ac\u03bb\u03c9\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 'a\nprisoner of war'; nor could he have called himself so, except by a\nconfusion of the actual and metaphorical. If on the other hand\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9\u03c7\u03bc\u03ac\u03bb\u03c9\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 refers to a physical captivity, it cannot easily be\nexplained by any known fact. The incident in Acts xix. 29 is hardly\nadequate. The most probable solution would be, that his relations with\nSt Paul in Rome excited suspicion and led to a temporary confinement.\nAnother possible hypothesis is that he voluntarily shared the Apostle's\ncaptivity by living with him.\n\n\u039c\u03ac\u03c1\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2] doubtless John Mark, who had been associated with St Paul in his\nearlier missionary work; Acts xii. 25, xv. 37 sq. This commendatory\nnotice is especially interesting as being the first mention of him since\nthe separation some twelve years before, Acts xv. 39. In the later years\nof the Apostle's life he entirely effaced the unfavourable impression\nleft by his earlier desertion; 2 Tim. iv. 11 \u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03b3\u03ac\u03c1 \u03bc\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b5\u1f54\u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2\n\u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03af\u03b1\u03bd.\n\nThis notice is likewise important in two other respects. (1) Mark\nappears here as commended to a church of proconsular _Asia_, and\nintending to visit those parts. To the churches of this same region he\nsends a salutation in 1 Pet. v. 13; and in this district apparently also\nhe is found some few years later than the present time, 2 Tim. iv. 11.\n(2) Mark is now residing at _Rome_. His connexion with the metropolis\nappears also from 1 Pet. v. 13, if \u0392\u03b1\u03b2\u03c5\u03bb\u1ff6\u03bd there (as seems most\nprobable) be rightly interpreted of Rome; and early tradition speaks of\nhis Gospel as having been written for the Romans (Iren. iii. 1. 1; comp.\nPapias in Euseb. _H.E._ iii. 39).\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIV. 10]\n\n\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u039c\u03ac\u03c1\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f41 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b5\u03c8\u03b9\u1f78\u03c2 \u0392\u03b1\u03c1\u03bd\u03ac\u03b2\u03b1, \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f57 \u1f10\u03bb\u03ac\u03b2\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5\n\n\n\u1f41 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b5\u03c8\u03b9\u1f78\u03c2] '_the cousin_'. The term \u1f00\u03bd\u03b5\u03c8\u03b9\u03bf\u03af is applied to cousins\ngerman, the children whether of two brothers or of two sisters or of a\nbrother and sister, as it is carefully defined in Pollux iii. 28. This\nwriter adds that \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03ad\u03c8\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9 means neither more nor less than \u1f00\u03bd\u03b5\u03c8\u03b9\u03bf\u03af. As\na synonyme we find \u1f10\u03be\u03ac\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03bf\u03c2, which however is condemned as a vulgarism;\nPhryn. p. 306 (ed. Lobeck). Many instances of \u1f00\u03bd\u03b5\u03c8\u03b9\u03bf\u03af are found in\ndifferent authors of various ages (e.g. Herod, vii. 5, 82, ix. 10,\nThucyd. i. 132, Plato _Charm._ 154 B, _Gorg._ 471 B, Andoc. _de Myst._ \u00a7\n47, Is\u00e6us _Hagn. Her._ \u00a7 8 sq., Demosth. _c. Macart._ \u00a7 24, 27, etc.,\nDion. Hal. _A. R._ i. 79, Plut. _Vit. Thes._ 7, _Vit. C\u00e6s._ 1, _Vit.\nBrut._ 13, Lucian _Dial. Mort._ xxix. 1, Hegesipp. in Euseb. _H.E._ iv.\n22), where the relationship is directly defined or already known, and\nthere is no wavering as to the meaning. This sense also it has in the\nLXX, Num. xxxvi. 11. In very late writers however (e.g. Io. Malalas\n_Chron._ xvii. p. 424, Io. Damasc. _adv. Const. Cab._ 12, II. p. 621;\nbut in Theodt. _H.E._ v. 39, which is also quoted by E. A. Sophocles\n_Gr. Lex._ s.v. for this meaning, the text is doubtful) the word comes\nto be used for a nephew, properly \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03b9\u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c2; and to this later use the\nrendering of our English versions must be traced. The German\ntranslations also (Luther and the Z\u00fcrich) have 'Neffe'. The earliest of\nthe ancient versions (Latin, Syriac, Egyptian) seem all to translate it\ncorrectly; not so in every case apparently the later. There is no reason\nto suppose that St Paul would or could have used it in any other than\nits proper sense. St Mark's relationship with Barnabas may have been\nthrough his mother Mary, who is mentioned Acts xii. 12. The incidental\nnotice here explains why Barnabas should have taken a more favourable\nview of Mark's defection than St Paul, Acts xv. 37\u201339. The notices in\nthis passage and in 2 Tim. iv. 11 show that Mark had recovered the\nApostle's good opinion. The studious recommendation of St Mark in both\npassages indicates a desire to efface the unfavourable impression of the\npast.\n\nThe name of Mark occurs in five different relations, as (1) The early\ndisciple, John Mark, Acts xii. 12, 25, xv. 39; (2) The later companion\nof St Paul, here and Philem. 24, 2 Tim. iv. 11; (3) The companion and\n'son' of St Peter, 1 Pet. v. 13; (4) The evangelist; (5) The bishop of\nAlexandria. Out of these notices some writers get three or even four\ndistinct persons (see the note of Cotelier on _Apost. Const._ ii. 57).\nEven Tillemont (_Mem. Eccl._ II. p. 89 sq., 503 sq.) assumes two Marks,\nsupposing (1) (2) to refer to one person, and (3) (4) (5) to another.\nHis main reason is that he cannot reconcile the notices of the first\nwith the tradition (Euseb. _H.E._ ii. 15, 16) that St Mark the\nevangelist accompanied St Peter to Rome in A. D. 43, having first\npreached the Gospel in Alexandria (p. 515). To most persons however this\nearly date of St Peter's visit to Rome will appear quite irreconcilable\nwith the notices in the Apostolic writings, and therefore with them\nTillemont's argument will carry no weight. But in fact Eusebius does not\nsay, either that St Mark went _with_ St Peter to Rome, or that he had\npreached in Alexandria _before_ this. The Scriptural notices suggest\nthat the same Mark is intended in all the occurrences of the name, for\nthey are connected together by personal links (Peter, Paul, Barnabas);\nand the earliest forms of tradition likewise identify them.\n\n\u0392\u03b1\u03c1\u03bd\u03ac\u03b2\u03b1] On the affectionate tone of St Paul's language, whenever he\nmentions Barnabas after the collision at Antioch (Gal. ii. 11 sq.) and\nthe separation of missionary spheres (Acts xv. 39), see the note on Gal.\nii. 13. It has been inferred from the reference here, that inasmuch as\nMark has rejoined St Paul, Barnabas must have died before this epistle\nwas written (about A. D. 63); and this has been used as an argument\nagainst the genuineness of the letter bearing his name (Hefele\n_Sendschr. d. Apost. Barnab._ p. 29 sq.); but this argument is somewhat\nprecarious. From 1 Cor. ix. 6 we may infer that he was still living, A.\nD. 57. The notices bearing on the biography of Barnabas are collected\nand discussed by Hefele, p. 1 sq.\n\n\u1f10\u03bb\u03ac\u03b2\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f10\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u03ac\u03c2] These injunctions must have been communicated\npreviously either by letter or by word of mouth: for it cannot be a\nquestion here of an epistolary aorist. The natural inference is, that\nthey were sent by St Paul himself, and not by any one else, e.g. by St\nPeter or St Barnabas, as some have suggested. Thus the notice points to\nearlier communications between the Apostle and Coloss\u00e6.\n\nBut what was their tenour? It seems best to suppose that this is given\nin the next clause \u1f10\u1f70\u03bd \u1f14\u03bb\u03b8\u1fc3 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. By an abrupt change to the _oratio\nrecta_ the injunction is repeated as it was delivered; comp. Ps. cv\n(civ). 15 \u1f24\u03bb\u03b5\u03b3\u03be\u03b5\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2\u00b7 \u03bc\u1f74 \u1f05\u03c8\u03b7\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. After verbs\nsignifying 'to command, charge, etc.', there is a tendency to pass from\nthe oblique to the direct; e.g. Luke v. 14, Acts i. 4, xxiii. 22. The\nreading \u03b4\u03ad\u03be\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 gives the right sense, but can hardly be correct. If\nthis construction be not accepted, it is vain to speculate what may have\nbeen the tenour of the injunction.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIV. 11]\n\n\u1f10\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u03ac\u03c2, \u1f18\u1f70\u03bd \u1f14\u03bb\u03b8\u1fc3 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2, \u03b4\u03ad\u03be\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd, ^{11}\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c2 \u1f41 \u03bb\u03b5\u03b3\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2\n\u1f38\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, \u03bf\u1f31 \u1f44\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03ba \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03bf\u03bc\u1fc6\u03c2\u00b7 \u03bf\u1f57\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9 \u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03bf\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6, \u03bf\u1f35\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b5\u03c2\n\n\n11. \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c2] He is not mentioned elsewhere. Even in the Epistle to\nPhilemon his name is omitted. Probably he was not a man of any\nprominence in the Church, but his personal devotion to the Apostle\nprompted this honourable mention. For the story which makes him bishop\nof Eleutheropolis in Palestine, see Le Quien _Oriens Christ._ in III. p.\n633.\n\n\u1f38\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2] A common name or surname of Jews and proselytes, denoting\nobedience and devotion to the law. It is applied to two persons in the\nNew Testament, besides this Jesus; (1) Joseph Barsabbas, Acts i. 23; (2)\nA proselyte at Corinth, Acts xviii. 7. It occurs twice in the list of\nearly Jewish Christian bishops of Jerusalem, in Euseb. _H.E._ iii. 35,\niv. 5. It was borne by a Jew of Tiberias who wrote the history of the\nJewish war (Joseph. _Vit._ \u00a7\u00a7 9, 65), and by a son of the historian\nJosephus himself (_ib._ \u00a7 1). It occurs in the rabbinical writings\n(\u05d9\u05d5\u05e1\u05d8\u05d0 or \u05d9\u05d5\u05e1\u05d8\u05d9, Sch\u00f6ttgen on Acts. i. 23, Zunz _Judennamen_ p. 20), and\nin monumental inscriptions from Jewish cemeteries in various places\n(Boeckh _C. I._ no. 9922, 9925; _Revue Arch\u00e9ologique_ 1860, II. p. 348;\nGarrucci _Dissertazioni Archeologiche_ II. p. 182). So also the\ncorresponding female name Justa (Garrucci _l.c._ p. 180). In _Clem.\nHom._ ii. 19, iii. 73, iv. 1, xiii. 7, the Syroph\u0153nician woman of the\nGospels is named \u1f38\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1, doubtless because she is represented in this\nJudaizing romance as a proselytess \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03ae\u03bb\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 xiii. 7) who strictly\nobserves the Mosaic ordinances ( \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b9\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03b4\u03b5\u03be\u03b1\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b9\u03c4\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd ii.\n20), and is contrasted with the heathen 'dogs' ( \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f14\u03b8\u03bd\u03b7 \u1f10\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03cc\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03bd\nii. 19) who disregard them. In some cases Justus might be the only name\nof the person, as a Latin rendering of the Hebrew Zadok; while in\nothers, as here and in Acts i. 23, it is a surname. Its Greek\nequivalent, \u1f41 \u03b4\u03af\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2, is the recognised epithet of James the Lord's\nbrother: see _Galatians_, p. 348.\n\n\u03bf\u1f31 \u1f44\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] i.e. 'converts from Judaism' (see the note Gal. ii.\n12), or perhaps 'belonging to the Circumcision'; but in this latter case\n\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03bf\u03bc\u1fc6\u03c2, though without the article, must be used in a concrete sense,\nlike \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03bf\u03bc\u1fc6\u03c2, for 'the Jews'. Of Mark and of Jesus the fact is\nplain from their name or their connexions. Of Aristarchus we could not\nhave inferred a Jewish origin, independently of this direct statement.\n\n\u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9] i.e. of the Jewish Christians in Rome. On this antagonism of the\nconverts from the Circumcision in the metropolis, see _Philippians_ p.\n16 sq. The words however must not be closely pressed, as if absolutely\nno Jewish Christian besides had remained friendly; they will only imply\nthat among the more prominent members of the body the Apostle can only\nname these three as stedfast in their allegiance: comp. Phil. ii. 20\n\u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1 \u1f14\u03c7\u03c9 \u1f30\u03c3\u03cc\u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd ... \u03bf\u1f31 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. (with the note).\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIV. 12]\n\n\u1f10\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03ae\u03b8\u03b7\u03c3\u03ac\u03bd \u03bc\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b7\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u03b1. ^{12}\u1f00\u03c3\u03c0\u03ac\u03b6\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f18\u03c0\u03b1\u03c6\u03c1\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f41 \u1f10\u03be \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd, \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2\n\u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6, \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f00\u03b3\u03c9\u03bd\u03b9\u03b6\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b5\u03c5\u03c7\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2, \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1\n\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03b8\u1fc6\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9\n\n\n\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] See the note on i. 13.\n\n\u03bf\u1f35\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b5\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] '_men whom I found_ etc.'; comp. Acts xxviii. 15 \u03bf\u1f53\u03c2\n\u1f30\u03b4\u1f7c\u03bd \u1f41 \u03a0\u03b1\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u0398\u03b5\u1ff7 \u1f14\u03bb\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u03bd \u03b8\u03ac\u03c1\u03c3\u03bf\u03c2, and see _Philippians_\np. 17. For \u03bf\u1f35\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b5\u03c2, not specifying the individuals, but referring them\nto their class characteristics, see the notes on Gal. iv. 24, v. 19,\nPhil. iii. 7, iv. 3.\n\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b7\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u03b1] '_encouragement_', '_comfort_'. The range of meaning in this\nword is even wider than in \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03bc\u03c5\u03b8\u03af\u03b1 or \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ac\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 (see the note Phil.\nii. 1). The verb \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b7\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd denotes either (1) 'to exhort, encourage'\n(Herod. v. 104, Apoll. Rhod. ii. 64); (2) 'to dissuade' (Herod. ix. 54,\n55); (3) 'to appease', 'quiet' (Plut. _Vit. Pomp._ 13, _Mor._ p. 737 C);\nor (4) 'to console, comfort' (\u00c6sch. _Eum._ 507). The word however, and\nits derivates \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b7\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u03b1, \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b7\u03b3\u03cc\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1, \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b7\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03b9\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2, \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b7\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03b7\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2, were\nused especially as medical terms, in the sense of 'assuaging',\n'alleviating'; e.g. Hippocr. pp. 392, 393, 394, Galen XIV. p. 335, 446,\nPlut. _Mor._ pp. 43 D, 142 D; and perhaps owing to this usage, the idea\nof consolation, comfort, is on the whole predominant in the word; e.g.\nPlut. _Mor._ p. 56 A \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c4\u03c5\u03c7\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b7\u03b3\u03bf\u03c0\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, p. 118 A \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2\n\u1f00\u03c6\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03bb\u03cd\u03c0\u03b1\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03bd\u03b1\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03b5\u03bc\u03bd\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b7\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, _Vit.\nCim._ 4 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b7\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u1fb3 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03ad\u03bd\u03b8\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2. In Plut. _Mor._ p. 599 B \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b7\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\nand \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b7\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u03b1 are contrasted, as the right and wrong method of dealing\nwith the sorrows of the exile; and the former is said to be the part of\nmen \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u1fe5\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03b1\u03b6\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03b1\u03c3\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03bb\u03c5\u03c0\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\n\u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u1f76 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u1f04\u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\n12. \u1f18\u03c0\u03b1\u03c6\u03c1\u1fb6\u03c2] His full name would be Epaphroditus, but he is always\ncalled by the shortened form Epaphras, and must not be confused with the\nPhilippian Epaphroditus (see _Philippians_ p. 60), who also was with St\nPaul at one period of his Roman captivity. Of Epaphras, as the\nevangelist of Coloss\u00e6, and perhaps of the neighbouring towns, see above,\npp. 29 sq., 34 sq.\n\n\u1f41 \u1f10\u03be \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd] '_who belongs to you_', '_who is one of you_', i.e. a native,\nor at least an inhabitant, of Coloss\u00e6, as in the case of Onesimus ver.\n9; comp. Acts iv. 6, xxi. 8, Rom. xvi. 10, 11, 1 Cor. xii. 16, Phil. iv.\n22, etc.\n\n\u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u03a7. \u1f38.] This title, which the Apostle uses several times of\nhimself, is not elsewhere conferred on any other individual, except once\non Timothy (Phil. i. 1), and probably points to exceptional services in\nthe cause of the Gospel on the part of Epaphras.\n\n\u1f00\u03b3\u03c9\u03bd\u03b9\u03b6\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2] '_wrestling_'; comp. Rom. xv. 30 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03b3\u03c9\u03bd\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03af \u03bc\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f10\u03bd\n\u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b5\u03c5\u03c7\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2. See also the great \u1f00\u03b3\u03c9\u03bd\u03af\u03b1 of prayer in Luke xxii. 44.\nComp. Justin _Apol._ ii. 13 (p. 51 B) \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b1\u03bc\u03bc\u03ac\u03c7\u03c9\u03c2\n\u1f00\u03b3\u03c9\u03bd\u03b9\u03b6\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2. See also i. 29, ii. 1, with the notes.\n\n\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03b8\u1fc6\u03c4\u03b5] '_stand fast_', doubtless the correct reading rather than \u03c3\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c4\u03b5\nwhich the received text has; comp. Matt. ii. 9, xxvii. 11, where also\nthe received text substitutes the weaker word.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIV. 13]\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u1f76 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bb\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6. ^{13}\u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03c5\u03c1\u1ff6 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7\n\u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u1f7a\u03bd \u03c0\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1\n\n\n\u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9] '_fully persuaded_'. The verb \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd has several\nsenses. (1) 'To fulfil, accomplish'; 2 Tim. iv. 5 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5\n\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03cc\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd, _ib._ ver. 17 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03ba\u03ae\u03c1\u03c5\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03b7\u03b8\u1fc7, _Clem. Hom._ xix. 24\n\u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03bd\u1fe6\u03bd \u1f24\u03b4\u03b7 \u03c4\u03c1\u03b9\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u03b5\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bd. So perhaps Hermas _Sim._ 2\n\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd ... \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u1f70\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd, though\nit is a little difficult to carry the same sense into the latter clause,\nwhere the word seems to signify rather 'to satisfy'. (2)'To persuade\nfully, to convince'; Rom. iv. 21 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03b7\u03b8\u1f72\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f43 \u1f10\u03c0\u03ae\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b4\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2\n\u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9, xiv. 5 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f30\u03b4\u03af\u1ff3 \u03bd\u03bf\u1f76 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03ad\u03b9\u03c3\u03b8\u03c9, Clem. Rom. 42\n\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03b7\u03b8\u03ad\u03c5\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ac\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., Ign. _Magn._ 8 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\n\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03b7\u03b8\u1fc6\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03b8\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2, _ib._ 11 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03bd\u1f74\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\n\u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., _Philad._ inscr. \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ac\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u1f76\n\u1f10\u03bb\u03ad\u03b5\u03b9, _Smyrn._ 1 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u039a\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd, _Mart. Ign._ 7\n\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03b3\u03b5\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03cc\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, _Clem. Hom._ Ep.\nad Iac. 10 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f10\u03ba \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5, _ib._ xix. 24\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b9\u03b8\u03ad\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd \u1f61\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2. So too LXX Eccles. viii. 11 \u1f10\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03ae\u03b8\u03b7\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bd\u03b7\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd. (3) 'To fill'; Rom. xv. 13 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9\n\u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2 \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u1fb6\u03c2 (a doubtful v. l.), Clem. Rom. 54 \u03c4\u03af\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2\n\u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03c2; _Test. xii Patr._ Dan 2 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b5\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03be\u03af\u1fb3 \u1f10\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03ae\u03b8\u03b7\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u03ad\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, where it means 'I was filled with', i.e. 'I was fully\nbent on', a sense closely allied to the last. From this account it will\nbe seen that there is in the usage of the word no justification for\ntranslating it 'most surely believed' in Luke i. 1 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd\n\u1f10\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03b1\u03b3\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd, and it should therefore be rendered 'fulfilled,\naccomplished'. The word is almost exclusively biblical and\necclesiastical; and it seems clear that the passage from Ctesias in\nPhotius (_Bibl._ 72) \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f45\u03c1\u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u039c\u03b5\u03b3\u03ac\u03b2\u03c5\u03b6\u03bf\u03bd\nis not quoted with verbal exactness. In Isocr. _Trapez._ \u00a7 8 the word is\nnow expunged from the text on the authority of the MSS. For the\nsubstantive \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u03b1 see the note on ii. 2 above. The reading of the\nreceived text here, \u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9, must be rejected as of inferior\nauthority.\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u1f76 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] '_in every thing willed by God_'; comp. 1 Kings ix. 11.\nSo the plural \u03c4\u1f70 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bb\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 in Acts xiii. 22, Ephes. ii. 3, and several\ntimes in the LXX. The words are best connected directly with\n\u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9. The passages quoted in the last note amply illustrate\nthis construction. The preposition may denote (1) The abode of the\nconviction, as Rom. xiv. 5 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f30\u03b4\u03af\u1ff3 \u03bd\u03bf\u0390; or (2) The object of the\nconviction, as Ign. _Magn._ II \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03bd\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9, _Philad._ inscr. \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03ac\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9; or (3) The atmosphere, the surroundings, of the conviction,\nas _Philad._ inscr. \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u1f76 )\u03b5\u03bb\u03ad\u03b5\u03b9. This last seems to be its sense\nhere. The connexion \u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03b8\u1fc6\u03c4\u03b5 ... \u1f10\u03bd, though legitimate in itself (Rom. v.\n2, 1 Cor. xv. 1), is not favoured by the order of the words here.\n\n13. \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u1f7a\u03bd \u03c0\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd] '_much toil_', both inward and outward, though from the\nconnexion the former notion seems to predominate, as in \u1f00\u03b3\u1ff6\u03bd\u03b1 ii. 1;\ncomp. Plat. _Ph\u00e6dr._ p. 247 B \u03c0\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03b3\u1f7c\u03bd \u1f14\u03c3\u03c7\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u1fc7 \u03c0\u03c1\u03cc\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9.\nOf the two variations which transcribers have substituted for the\ncorrect reading, \u03b6\u1fc6\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd emphasizes the former idea and \u03ba\u03cc\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd the latter.\nThe true reading is more expressive than either. The word \u03c0\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 however\nis very rare in the New Testament (occurring only Rev. xvi. 10, 11, xxi.\n4, besides this passage), and was therefore liable to be changed.\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] The neighbouring cities are taken in their geographical\norder, commencing from Coloss\u00e6; see above, p. 2. Epaphras, though a\nColossian, may have been the evangelist of the two larger cities also.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIV. 14]\n\n\u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03af\u1fb3 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u1f39\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9. ^{14}\u1f00\u03c3\u03c0\u03ac\u03b6\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u039b\u03bf\u03c5\u03ba\u1fb6\u03c2\n\u1f41 \u1f30\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f41 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u0394\u03b7\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2.\n\n\n\u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03af\u1fb3] This form has not the same overwhelming preponderance of\nauthority in its favour here and in vv. 15, 16, as in ii. 1, but is\nprobably correct in all these places. It is quite possible however, that\nthe same person would write \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b9\u03b1 and \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 indifferently. Even\nthe form \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b7\u03b1 is found in Mionnet, Suppl. VII. p. 581. Another\nvariation is the contraction of \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4- into \u039b\u03b1\u03b4-; e.g. \u039b\u03b1\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b7\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2, which\noccurs frequently in the edict of Diocletian.\n\n14. \u039b\u03bf\u03c5\u03ba\u1fb6\u03c2] St Luke had travelled with St Paul on his last journey to\nJerusalem (Acts xxi. 1 sq.). He had also accompanied him two years later\nfrom Jerusalem to Rome (Acts xxvii. 2 sq.). And now again, probably\nafter another interval of two years (see _Philippians_ p. 31 sq.), we\nfind him in the Apostle's company. It is not probable that he remained\nwith St Paul in the meanwhile (_Philippians_ p. 35), and this will\naccount for his name not occurring in the Epistle to the Philippians. He\nwas at the Apostle's side again in his second captivity (2 Tim. iv. 11).\n\nLucas is doubtless a contraction of Lucanus. Several Old Latin MSS write\nout the name _Lucanus_ in the superscription and subscription to the\nGospel, just as elsewhere Apollos is written in full Apollonius. On the\nfrequent occurrence of this name Lucanus in inscriptions see _Ephem.\nEpigr._ II. p. 28 (1874). The shortened form Lucas however seems to be\nrare. He is here distinguished from \u03bf\u1f31 \u1f44\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03ba \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03bf\u03bc\u1fc6\u03c2 (ver. 11).\nThis alone is fatal to his identification (mentioned as a tradition by\nOrigen _ad loc._) with the Lucius, St Paul's 'kinsman' (i.e. a Jew; see\n_Philippians_ pp. 17, 171, 173), who sends a salutation from Corinth to\nRome (Rom. xvi. 21). It is equally fatal to the somewhat later tradition\nthat he was one of the seventy (_Dial. c. Marc._ \u00a7 1 in Orig. _Op._ I.\np. 806, ed. De la Rue; Epiphan. _H\u00e6r._ li. 11). The identification with\nLucius of Cyrene (Acts xiii. 13) is possible but not probable. Though\nthe example of Patrobius for Patrobas (Rom. xvi. 14) shows that such a\ncontraction is not out of the question, yet probability and testimony\nalike point to Lucanus, as the longer form of the Evangelist's name.\n\n\u1f41 \u1f30\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2] Indications of medical knowledge have been traced both in the\nthird Gospel and in the Acts; see on this point Smith's _Voyage and\nShipwreck of St Paul_ p. 6 sq. (ed. 2). It has been observed also, that\nSt Luke's first appearance in company with St Paul (Acts xvi. 10) nearly\nsynchronizes with an attack of the Apostle's constitutional malady (Gal.\niv. 13, 14); so that he may have joined him partly in a professional\ncapacity. This conjecture is perhaps borne out by the personal feeling\nwhich breathes in the following \u1f41 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2. But whatever may be thought\nof these points, there is no ground for questioning the ancient belief\n(Iren. iii. 14. 1 sq.) that the physician is also the Evangelist. St\nPaul's motive in specifying him as the physician may not have been to\ndistinguish him from any other bearing the same name, but to emphasize\nhis own obligations to his medical knowledge. The name in this form does\nnot appear to have been common. The tradition that St Luke was a painter\nis quite late (Niceph. Call. ii. 43). It is worthy of notice that the\ntwo Evangelists are mentioned together in this context, as also in\nPhilem. 24, 2 Tim. iv. 11.\n\n\u1f41 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2] '_the beloved one_', not to be closely connected with \u1f41\n\u1f30\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2, for \u1f41 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2 is complete in itself; comp. Philem. 1, Rom. xvi.\n12 (comp. vv. 5, 8, 9), 3 Joh. 1. For the form compare the expression in\nthe Gospels, Matt. iii. 17, etc. \u1f41 \u1f51\u03af\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5, \u1f41 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.; where a\ncomparison of Is. xlii. 1, as quoted in Matt. xii. 18, seems to show\nthat \u1f41 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. forms a distinct clause from \u1f41 \u1f51\u03af\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5.\n\n\u0394\u03b7\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2] On the probability that this person was a Thessalonian (2 Tim.\niv. 10) and that his name was Demetrius, see the introduction to the\nEpistles to the Thessalonians. He appears in close connexion with St\nLuke in Philem. 24, as here. In 2 Tim. iv. 10 their conduct is placed in\ndirect contrast, \u0394\u03b7\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b5 \u1f10\u03b3\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03b9\u03c0\u03b5\u03bd ... \u039b\u03bf\u1fe6\u03ba\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u1f76\u03bd \u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4' \u1f10\u03bc\u03bf\u1fe6.\nThere is perhaps a foreshadowing of this contrast in the language here.\nWhile Luke is described with special tenderness as \u1f41 \u1f30\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2, \u1f41 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2,\nDemas alone is dismissed with a bare mention and without any epithet of\ncommendation.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIV. 15, 16]\n\n^{15}\u1f08\u03c3\u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03af\u1fb3 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u1f78\u03c5\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u039d\u03c5\u03bc\u03c6\u1fb6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4' \u03bf\u1f36\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03bd. ^{16}\u039a\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\n\n\n15\u201317. 'Greet from me the brethren who are in Laodicea, especially\nNymphas, and the church which assembles in their house. And when this\nletter has been read among you, take care that it is read also in the\nChurch of the Laodiceans, and be sure that ye also read the letter which\nI have sent to Laodicea, and which ye will get from them. Moreover give\nthis message from me to Archippus; Take heed to the ministry which thou\nhast received from me in Christ, and discharge it fully and faithfully.'\n\n15. \u039d\u03c5\u03bc\u03c6\u1fb6\u03bd] as the context shows, an inhabitant of Laodicea. The name in\nfull would probably be Nymphodorus, as Artemas (Tit. iii. 12) for\nArtemidorus, Zenas (Tit. iii. 13) for Zenodorus, Theudas (Acts v. 36)\nfor Theodorus, Olympas (Rom. xvi. 15) for Olympiodorus, and probably\nHermas (Rom. xvi. 14) for Hermodorus (see _Philippians_ p. 174). Other\nnames in \u03b1\u03c2 occurring in the New Testament and representing different\nterminations are Amplias (Ampliatus, a _v. l._), Antipas (Antipater),\nDemas (Demetrius?), Epaphras (Epaphroditus), Lucas (Lucanus), Parmenas\n(Parmenides), Patrobas (Patrobius), Silas (Sylvanus), Stephanas\n(Stephanephorus), and perhaps Junias (Junianus, Rom. xvi. 7). For a\ncollection of names with this contraction, found in different places,\nsee Chandler _Greek Accentuation_ \u00a7 34; comp. Lobeck _Pathol._ p. 505\nsq. Some remarkable instances are found in the inscriptions; e.g.\n\u1f08\u03c3\u03ba\u03bb\u1fb6\u03c2, \u0394\u03b7\u03bc\u03bf\u03c3\u03b8\u1fb6\u03c2, \u0394\u03b9\u03bf\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2, \u1f19\u03c1\u03bc\u03bf\u03b3\u1fb6\u03c2, \u039d\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2, \u1f48\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u1fb6\u03c2, \u03a4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u1fb6\u03c2, etc.; see\nesp. Boeckh _C. I._ III. pp. 1072, 1097. The name Nymphodorus is found\nnot unfrequently; e.g. Herod. vii. 137, Thuc. ii. 29, Athen. i. p. 19 F,\nvi. p. 265 C, Mionnet _Suppl._ VI. p. 88, Boeckh _C. I._ no. 158, etc.\nThe contracted form \u039d\u03c5\u03bc\u03c6\u1fb6\u03c2 however is very rare, though it appears to\noccur in a Spartan inscription, Boeckh _C. I._ no. 1240 )\u0388\u03c5\u03c4\u03c5\u03c7\u03bf\u03c2 \u039d\u03c5\u03bd\u03c6\u1fb6.\nIn Murat. MDXXXV. 6, is an inscription to one _Nu. Aquilius Nymphas_, a\nfreedman, where the dative is _Nymphadi_. Other names from which Nymphas\nmight be contracted are Nymphius, Nymphicus, Nymphidius, Nymphodotus,\nthe first and last being the most common.\n\nThose, who read \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 in the following clause, take it as a woman's name\n(\u039d\u03cd\u03bc\u03c6\u03b1\u03bd, not \u039d\u03c5\u03bc\u03c6\u1fb6\u03bd); and the name Nymphe, Nympha, Nympa, etc., occurs\nfrom time to time in Latin inscriptions; e.g. _Inscr. Hisp._ 1099, 1783,\n3763, _Inscr. As. Prov. etc._ 525, Murator. CMXXIV. 1, MCLIX. 8, MCCXCV.\n9, MDXCI. 3. But a Doric form of the Greek name here seems in the\nhighest degree improbable.\n\n\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4' \u03bf\u1f36\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] The same expression is used of Prisca and Aquila\nboth at Rome (Rom. xvi. 5) and at Ephesus (1 Cor. xvi. 19), and also of\nPhilemon, whether at Coloss\u00e6 or at Laodicea is somewhat uncertain\n(Philem. 2); comp. Acts xii. 12 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u039c\u03b1\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 ... \u1f41\u1fe6 \u1f26\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u1f31\u03ba\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u1f76\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b7\u03b8\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b5\u03c5\u03c7\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9, and see _Philippians_ p. 56. Perhaps\nsimilar gatherings may be implied by the expressions in Rom. xvi. 14, 15\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03c3\u1f7a\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03bf\u03cd\u03c2, \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03c3\u1f7a\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f01\u03b3\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 (Probst\n_Kirchliche Disciplin_ p. 182, 1873). See also _Act. Mart. Justin._ \u00a7 3\n(II. p. 262 ed. Otto), _Clem. Recogn._ x. 71 'Theophilus ... domus su\u00e6\ningentem basilicam ecclesi\u00e6 nomine consecraret' (where the word\n'basilica' was probably introduced by the translator Ruffinus). Of the\nsame kind must have been the 'collegium quod est in domo Sergi\u00e6 Paulin\u00e6'\n(de Rossi _Roma Sotteranea_ I. p. 209); for the Christians were first\nrecognised by the Roman government as 'collegia' or burial clubs, and\nprotected by this recognition doubtless held their meetings for\nreligious worship. There is no clear example of a separate building set\napart for Christian worship within the limits of the Roman empire before\nthe third century, though apartments in private houses might be\nspecially devoted to this purpose. This, I think, appears as a negative\nresult from the passages collected in Bingham VIII. I. 13 and Probst p.\n181 sq. with a different view. Hence the places of Christian assembly\nwere not commonly called \u03bd\u03b1\u03bf\u03af till quite late (Ignat. _Magn._ 7 is not\nreally an exception), but \u03bf\u1f36\u03ba\u03bf\u03b9 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6, \u03bf\u1f36\u03ba\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f10\u03ba\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u1ff6\u03bd, \u03bf\u1f36\u03ba\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b5\u1f50\u03ba\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9,\nand the like (Euseb. _H.E._ vii. 30, viii. 13, ix. 9, etc.).\n\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd] The difficulty of this reading has led to the two corrections,\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 and \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2, of which the former appears in the received text and\nthe latter is supported by one or two very ancient authorities. Of these\nalternative readings however, \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 is condemned by its simplicity, and\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 has arisen from the form \u039d\u03c5\u03bc\u03c6\u03b1\u03bd, which _prima facie_ would look\nlike a woman's name, and yet hardly can be so. We should require to know\nmore of the circumstances to feel any confidence in explaining \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd. A\nsimple explanation is that \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd denotes 'Nymphas and his friends', by a\ntransition which is common in classical writers; e.g. Xen. _Anab._ iii.\n3. 7 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u1fc4\u03b5\u03b9 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd (\u039c\u03b9\u03b8\u03c1\u03b9\u03b4\u03ac\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2) ... \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f1d\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b1\u03c2\u00b7 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f72\u03b9 \u03b4' \u1f10\u03b3\u03b3\u1f7a\u03c2\n_\u1f10\u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf_ \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., iv. 5. 33 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f72\u03b9 \u03b4' \u1f26\u03bb\u03b8\u03bf\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03a7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03af\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03bd,\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03ac\u03bc\u03b2\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 _)\u03b5\u03ba\u03ad\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2_ \u03c3\u03ba\u03b7\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2: see also K\u00fchner _Gramm._ \u00a7\n371 (II. p. 77), Bernhardy _Syntax_ p. 288. Or perhaps \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03af\u1fb3\n\u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03bf\u03cd\u03c2 may refer not to the whole body of the Laodicean Church, but to\na family of Colossian Christians established in Laodicea. Under any\ncircumstances this \u1f10\u03ba\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03b1 is only a section of \u1f21 \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03ad\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\nmentioned in ver. 16. On the authorities for the various readings see\nthe detached note.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIV. 16]\n\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b8\u1fc7 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1' \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u1f21 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u03ae, \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\n\n16. \u1f21 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u03ae] '_the letter_', which has just been concluded, for these\nsalutations have the character of a postscript; comp. Rom. xvi. 22\n\u03a4\u03ad\u03c1\u03c4\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f41 \u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03c8\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u03ae\u03bd, 2 Thess. iii. 14 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u1fc6\u03c2,\n_Mart. Polyc._ 20 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u1f74\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c0\u03ad\u03bc\u03c8\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5. Such examples however do\nnot countenance the explanation which refers \u1f14\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c8\u03b1 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u1fc7\nin 1 Cor. v. 9 to the First Epistle itself, occurring (as it does) in\nthe middle of the letter (comp. 2 Cor. vii. 8).\n\n\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1] '_cause that_'; so John xi. 37, Apoc. xiii. 15. In such\ncases the \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 is passing away from its earlier sense of _design_ to its\nlater sense of _result_. A corresponding classical expression is \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd\n\u1f61\u03c2 or \u1f45\u03c0\u03c9\u03c2, e.g. Xen. _Cyr._ vi. 3. 18.\n\nA similar charge is given in 1 Thess. v. 27. The precaution here is\nprobably suggested by the distastefulness of the Apostle's warnings,\nwhich might lead to the suppression of the letter.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIV. 17]\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03ad\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u1fb3 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b8\u1fc7, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c4\u03b5. ^{17}\u039a\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f34\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f08\u03c1\u03c7\u03af\u03c0\u03c0\u1ff3, \u0392\u03bb\u03ad\u03c0\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u1f23\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ad\u03bb\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd\n\u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3, \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2.\n\n\n\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03af\u03b1\u03c2] i.e. 'the letter left at Laodicea, which you will\nprocure thence'. For this abridged expression compare Luke xi. 13 \u1f41\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u1f74\u03c1 _\u1f41 \u1f10\u03be_ \u03bf\u1f50\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b4\u03ce\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1 \u1f05\u03b3\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd, xvi. 26 (v. l.) \u03bc\u03b7\u03b4\u1f72 _\u1f41\u03b9\n\u1f10\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03b8\u03b5\u03bd_ \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, Susann. 26 \u1f61\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f24\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03ba\u03c1\u03b1\u03c5\u03b3\u1f74\u03bd\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03b4\u03ad\u03b9\u03c3\u1ff3 _\u1f41\u03b9 \u1f10\u03ba_ \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, \u03b5\u1f30\u03c3\u03b5\u03c0\u03ae\u03b4\u03b7\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. For\ninstances of this proleptic use of the preposition in classical writers,\nwhere it is extremely common, see K\u00fchner _Gr._ \u00a7 448 (II. p. 474), Jelf\n_Gr._ \u00a7 647, Matthi\u00e6 _Gr._ \u00a7 596: e.g. Plat. _Apol._ 32 B \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f10\u03ba \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03bd\u03b1\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1\u03c7\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, Xen. _Cyr._ vii. 2. 5 \u1f01\u03c1\u03c0\u03b1\u03c3\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f70\n\u1f10\u03ba \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03b9\u1ff6\u03bd, Isocr. _Paneg._ \u00a7 187 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b5\u1f50\u03b4\u03b1\u03b9\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f08\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2\n\u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd )\u0395\u03c5\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03b7\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd. There are good reasons for the belief\nthat St Paul here alludes to the so-called Epistle to the Ephesians,\nwhich was in fact a circular letter addressed to the principal churches\nof proconsular Asia (see above p. 37, and the introduction to the\nEpistle to the Ephesians). Tychicus was obliged to pass through Laodicea\non his way to Coloss\u00e6, and would leave a copy there, before the\nColossian letter was delivered. For other opinions respecting this\n'letter from Laodicea' see the detached note.\n\n\u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] 'see _that ye also read_'. At first sight it might\nseem as though this \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 also were governed by \u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5, like the former;\nbut, inasmuch as \u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5 would be somewhat awkward in this connexion,\nit is perhaps better to treat the second clause as independent and\nelliptical, (\u03b2\u03bb\u03ad\u03c0\u03b5\u03c4\u1f10 \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. This is suggested also by the position\nof \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 before \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1; comp. Gal. ii. 10 \u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03c4\u03c9\u03c7\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1\n\u03bc\u03bd\u03b7\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03c9\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd (with the note). Ellipses before \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 are frequent; e.g.\nJohn ix. 3, 2 Cor. viii. 13, 2 Thess. iii. 9, 1 Joh. ii. 19.\n\n17. \u039a\u1f70\u03b9 )\u03ad\u03b9\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5] Why does not the Apostle address himself directly to\nArchippus? It might be answered that he probably thought the warning\nwould come with greater emphasis, when delivered by the voice of the\nChurch. Or the simpler explanation perhaps is, that Archippus was not\nresident at Coloss\u00e6 but at Laodicea: see the introduction to the Epistle\nto Philemon. On this warning itself see above, p. 42.\n\n\u0392\u03bb\u03ad\u03c0\u03b5] '_look to_', as 2 Joh. 8 \u03b2\u03bb\u03ad\u03c0\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03bc\u1f74 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. More\ncommonly it has the accusative of the thing to be avoided; see Phil.\niii. 2 (with the note).\n\n\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03af\u03b1\u03bd] From the stress which is laid upon it, the \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03af\u03b1 here\nwould seem to refer, as in the case of Timothy cited below, to some\nhigher function than the diaconate properly so called. In Acts xii. 25\nthe same phrase, \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03af\u03b1\u03bd, is used of a temporary\nministration, the collection and conveyance of the alms for the poor of\nJerusalem (Acts xi. 29); but the solemnity of the warning here points to\na continuous office, rather than an immediate service.\n\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ad\u03bb\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u03c2] i.e. probably \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1' \u1f10\u03bc\u03bf\u1fe6. The word suggests, though it does\nnot necessarily imply, a mediate rather than a direct reception: see the\nnote Gal. i. 12. Archippus received the charge immediately from St Paul,\nthough ultimately from Christ. 'Non enim sequitur', writes Bengel, '_a\nDomino_ (1 Cor. xi. 23), sed _in Domino_'.\n\n\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2] '_fulfil_', i.e. '_discharge fully_'; comp. 2 Tim. iv. 5 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd\n\u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03cc\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIV. 18]\n\n^{18}\u1f49 \u1f00\u03c3\u03c0\u03b1\u03c3\u03bc\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f10\u03bc\u1fc7 \u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u1f76 \u03a0\u03b1\u03cd\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5. \u039c\u03bd\u03b7\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03c4\u03ad \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd. \u1f29 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2\n\u03bc\u03b5\u03b8' \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd.\n\n\n18. 'I add this salutation with my own hand, signing it with my name\nPaul. Be mindful of my bonds. God's grace be with you.'\n\n\u1f49 \u1f00\u03c3\u03c0\u03b1\u03c3\u03bc\u1f78\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] The letter was evidently written by an amanuensis\n(comp. Rom. xvi. 22). The final salutation alone, with the accompanying\nsentence \u03bc\u03bd\u03b7\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., was in the Apostle's own handwriting. This\nseems to have been the Apostle's general practice, even where he does\nnot call attention to his own signature. In 2 Thess. iii. 17 sq., 1 Cor.\nxvi. 21, as here, he directs his readers' notice to the fact, but in\nother epistles he is silent. In some cases however he writes much more\nthan the final sentence. Thus the whole letter to Philemon is apparently\nin his own handwriting (see ver. 19), and in the Epistle to the\nGalatians he writes a long paragraph at the close (see the note on vi.\n11).\n\n\u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f10\u03bc\u1fc7 \u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u1f76 \u03a0\u03b1\u03cd\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5] The same phrase occurs in 2 Thess. iii. 17, 1 Cor.\nxvi. 21. For the construction comp. e.g. Philo _Leg. ad Cai._ 8 (II. p.\n554) \u1f10\u03bc\u03cc\u03bd \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u039c\u03ac\u03ba\u03c1\u03c9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c1\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u0393\u03ac\u03ca\u03bf\u03c2, and see K\u00fchner \u00a7 406 (II. p.\n242), Jelf \u00a7 467.\n\n\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd] His bonds establish an additional claim to a hearing. He who\nis suffering for Christ has a right to speak on behalf of Christ. The\nappeal is similar in Ephes. iii. 1 \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03bd \u1f10\u03b3\u1f7c \u03a0\u03b1\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f41 \u03b4\u03ad\u03c3\u03bc\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03a7. \u1f38., which is resumed again (after a long digression) in iv. 1\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u1ff6 \u03bf\u1f56\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03b3\u1f7c \u1f41 \u03b4\u03ad\u03c3\u03bc\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3 \u1f00\u03be\u03af\u03c9\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. (comp.\nvi. 20 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u1f41\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03b5\u03cd\u03c9 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f01\u03bb\u03cd\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9). So too Philem. 9 \u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f62\u03bd \u1f61\u03c2\n\u03a0\u03b1\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 ... \u03b4\u03ad\u03c3\u03bc\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6. These passages seem to show that the\nappeal here is not for himself, but for his teaching\u2014not for sympathy\nwith his sufferings but for obedience to the Gospel. His bonds were not\nhis own; they were \u03c4\u1f70 \u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b5\u1f50\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 (Philem. 13). In Heb. x. 34\nthe right reading is not \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5, but \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03af\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03c0\u03b1\u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5 (comp. xiii. 3). Somewhat similar is the appeal to his\n\u03c3\u03c4\u03af\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 in Gal. vi. 17, 'Henceforth let no man trouble me.' See the\nnotes on Philem. 10, 13.\n\n\u1f29 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] This very short form of the final benediction appears\nonly here and in 1 Tim. vi. 21, 2 Tim. iv. 22. In Tit. iii. 15 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd is\ninserted, and so in Heb. xiii. 25. In Ephes. vi. 24 the form so far\nagrees with the examples quoted, that \u1f21 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2 is used absolutely, though\nthe end is lengthened out. In all the earlier epistles \u1f21 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2 is\ndefined by the addition of \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 [\u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd] \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6 [\u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6]; 1 Thess.\nv. 28, 2 Thess. iii. 18, 1 Cor. xvi. 23, 2 Cor. xiii. 13, Gal. vi. 18,\nRom. xvi. 20, [24], Phil. iv. 23. Thus the absolute \u1f21 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2 in the final\nbenediction may be taken as a chronological note. A similar phenomenon\nhas been already observed (\u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f10\u03ba\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u1fb3, \u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03ba\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2) in the opening\naddresses: see the note on i. 2.\n\n\n\n\n            _On some Various Readings in the Epistle[535]._\n\n\n[Sidenote: Harmonistic readings.]\n\nIn one respect the letters to the Ephesians and Colossians hold a unique\nposition among the Epistles of St Paul, as regards textual criticism.\nThey alone have been exposed, or exposed in any considerable degree, to\nthose harmonizing tendencies in transcribers, which have had so great an\ninfluence on the text of the Synoptic Gospels.\n\n[Sidenote: Preponderant evidence (1) for the correct reading;]\n\nIn such cases there is sometimes no difficulty in ascertaining the\ncorrect reading. The harmonistic change is condemned by the majority of\nthe oldest and best authorities; or there is at least a nearly even\nbalance of external testimony, and the suspicious character of the\nreading is quite sufficient to turn the scale. Thus we cannot hesitate\nfor a moment about such readings as i. 14 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f05\u03b9\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 (from\nEphes. i. 7), or iii. 16 \u03c8\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 _\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76_ \u1f55\u03bc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 _\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76_ \u1fa0\u03b4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2\n\u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2, and \u03c4\u1ff7 _\u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3_ (for \u03c4\u1ff7 \u0398\u03b5\u1ff7) in the same verse (both\nfrom Ephes. v. 19).\n\n[Sidenote: (2) against the correct reading.]\n\nIn other instances again there can hardly be any doubt about the text,\neven though the vast preponderance of authority is in favour of the\nharmonistic reading; and these are especially valuable because they\nenable us to test the worth of our authorities. Such examples are:\n\nFootnote 535:\n\n  The references to the patristic quotations in the following pages have\n  all been verified. I have also consulted the Egyptian and Syriac\n  Versions in every case, and the Armenian and Latin in some instances,\n  before giving the readings. As regards the MSS, I have contented\n  myself with the collations as given in Tregelles and Tischendorf, not\n  verifying them unless I had reason to suspect an error.\n\n  The readings of the Memphitic Version are very incorrectly given even\n  by the principal editors, such as Tregelles and Tischendorf; the\n  translation of Wilkins being commonly adopted, though full of errors,\n  and no attention being paid to the various readings of Boetticher's\n  text. Besides the errors corrected in the following pages, I have also\n  observed these places where the text of this version is incorrectly\n  reported; ii. 7 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1fc7 not omitted; ii. 13 the second \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 not\n  omitted; ii. 17 the singular (\u1f45), not the plural (\u1f05); iii. 4 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd, not\n  \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd; iii. 16 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u0398\u03b5\u1ff7, not \u03c4\u1ff7 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3; iii. 22 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u039a\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd, not \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u0398\u03b5\u03cc\u03bd;\n  iv. 3 doubtful whether \u03b4\u03b9' \u1f45 or \u03b4\u03b9' \u1f45\u03bd; and probably there are others.\n\n\n[Sidenote: Examples.]\n\n[Sidenote: iii. 6, words inserted.]iii. 6. The omission of the words \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f51\u03b9\u1f78\u03c5\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 (taken from Ephes. v. 6). Apparently the only\nextant MS in favour of the omission is B. In D however they are written\n(though by the first hand) in smaller letters and extend beyond the line\n(in both Greek and Latin), whence we may infer that they were not found\nin a copy which was before the transcriber. They are wanting also in the\nThebaic Version and in one form of the \u00c6thiopic (Polyglott). They were\nalso absent from copies used by Clement of Alexandria (_P\u00e6d._ iii. 11,\np. 295, where however they are inserted in the printed texts; _Strom._\niii. 5, p. 531), by Cyprian (_Epist._ lv. 27, p. 645 ed. Hartel), by an\nunknown writer (_de Sing. Cler._> 39, in Cypr. _Op._ III. p. 215), by\nthe Ambrosian Hilary (_ad loc._), and by Jerome (_Epist._ xiv. 5, I. p.\n32), though now found apparently in all the Latin MSS.\n\n[Sidenote: iii. 21. \u1f10\u03c1\u03b5\u03b8\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5.]\n\niii. 21. \u1f10\u03c1\u03b5\u03b8\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 is only found in B K and in later hands of D (with\nits transcript E) among the uncial MSS. All the other uncials read\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03c1\u03b3\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5, which is taken from Ephes. vi. 4. In this case however the\nreading of B is supported by the greater number of cursives, and it\naccordingly has a place in the received text. The versions (so far as we\ncan safely infer their readings) go almost entirely with the majority of\nuncials. [Sidenote: Syriac version misrepresented.]The true readings of\nthe Syriac Versions are just the reverse of those assigned to them even\nby the chief critical editors, Tregelles and Tischendorf. Thus in the\nPeshito the word used is the Aphel of \u072a\u0713\u0719, the same mood of the same\nverb being employed to translate \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03c1\u03b3\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, not only in Rom. x. 19,\nbut even in the parallel passage Ephes. vi. 4. The word in the text of\nthe Harclean is the same, \u072c\u072a\u0713\u071b\u0719\u0718\u0722\u0722, but in the margin the alternative\n\u072c\u0713\u072a\u0713\u0718\u0722 is given. White interprets this as saying that the text is\n\u1f10\u03c1\u03b5\u03b8\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 and the margin \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03c1\u03b3\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5, and he is followed by Tregelles\nand Tischendorf. But in this version, as in the Peshito, the former word\ntranslates \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03c1\u03b3\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd in Rom. x. 19, Ephes. vi. 4; while in the Peshito\nthe latter word is adopted to render \u1f10\u03c1\u03b5\u03b8\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd in 2 Cor. ix. 2 (the only\nother passage in the N. T. where \u1f10\u03c1\u03b5\u03b8\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd occurs). In the Harclean of 2\nCor. ix. 2 a different word from either, \u071a\u072c\u071a\u072c, is used. It seems\ntolerably clear therefore that \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03c1\u03b3\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 was read in the text of both\nPeshito and Harclean here, while \u1f10\u03c1\u03b5\u03b8\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 was given in the margin of\nthe latter. [Sidenote: Latin versions.]The Latin Versions seem also to\nhave read \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03c1\u03b3\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5; for the Old Latin has '_ad iram_ (or _in iram_ or\n_ad iracundiam_) _provocare_, and the Vulgate _ad indignationem\nprovocare_' here, while both have _ad iracundiam provocare_ in Ephes.\nvi. 4. The Memphitic too has the same rendering \u03ef\u03eb\u03c9\u2c9b\u03c4 in both passages.\nOf the earlier Greek fathers Clement, _Strom._ iv. 8 (p. 593), reads\n\u1f10\u03c1\u03b5\u03b8\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5: and it is found in Chrysostom and some later writers.\n\n[Sidenote: Great value of B.]\n\nThese examples show how singularly free B is from this passion for\nharmonizing, and may even embolden us to place reliance on its authority\nin extreme cases.\n\n[Sidenote: Parallel passages.]\n\n[Sidenote: Col. iii. 16, Eph. v. 19.]\n\nFor instance, the parallel passages Ephes. v. 19 and Col. iii. 16 stand\nthus in the received text:\n\n                               EPHESIANS.\n\n\u03bb\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c8\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f55\u03bc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1fa0\u03b4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f84\u03b4\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03c8\u03ac\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u1fb3 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3.\n\n                              COLOSSIANS.\n\n\u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03ac\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03b8\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03c8\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f55\u03bc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1fa0\u03b4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2\n\u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f84\u03b4\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u1fb3 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3.\n\nAnd A carries the harmonizing tendency still further by inserting \u1f10\u03bd\n\u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03b9 before \u1f84\u03b4\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 in Ephes. from the parallel passage.\n\nIn B they are read as follows:\n\n\u03bb\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c8\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f55\u03bc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1fa0\u03b4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f84\u03b4\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c8\u03ac\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2\n\u03c4\u1fc7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u1fb3 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3.\n\n\u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03ac\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03b8\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03c8\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f55\u03bc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u1fa0\u03b4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f84\u03b4\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u0398\u03b5\u1ff7.\n\n[Sidenote: Alterations for the sake of harmonizing.] Here are seven\ndivergences from the received text. (1) The insertion of \u1f10\u03bd before\n\u03c8\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 in Ephes.; (2) The omission of \u03ba\u03b1\u03af, \u03ba\u03b1\u03af, attaching \u03c8\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2,\n\u1f55\u03bc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2, \u1fa0\u03b4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 in Col.; (3) The omission of \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 in Ephes.; (4)\nThe insertion of \u03c4\u1fc7 before \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03b9 in Col.; (5) The omission of \u1f10\u03bd before\n\u03c4\u1fc7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u1fb3 in Ephes.; (6) The substitution of \u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2 for \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u1fb3\nin Col.; (7) The substitution of \u03c4\u1ff7 \u0398\u03b5\u1ff7 for \u03c4\u1ff7 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3 in Col.\n\nOf these seven divergences the fourth alone does not affect the\nquestion: of the remaining six, the readings of B in (2), (6), (7) are\nsupported by the great preponderance of the best authorities, and are\nunquestionably right. In (1), (3), (5) however the case stands thus:\n\n[Sidenote: \u1f10\u03bd \u03c8\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2.]\n\n  (1) \u1f10\u03bd \u03c8\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 B, P, with the cursives 17, 67^{**}, 73, 116, 118, and\n          in Latin, d, e, vulg., with the Latin commentators Victorinus,\n          Hilary and Jerome. Of these however it is clear that the Latin\n          authorities can have little weight in such a case, as the\n          preposition might have been introduced by the translator. All\n          the other Greek MSS with several Greek fathers omit \u1f10\u03bd.\n\n[Sidenote: \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2.]\n\n  (3) \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 omitted in B, d, e. Of the Ambrosian Hilary\n          Tischendorf says 'fluct. lectio'; but his comment 'In quo enim\n          est spiritus, semper spiritualia meditatur' seems certainly to\n          recognise the word. It appears to be found in every other\n          authority.\n\n[Sidenote: \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u1fb3.]\n\n  (5) \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u1fb3 \u05d0^* B with Origen in Cramer's _Catena_, p. 201.\n\n          \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u1fb3 K L, and the vast majority of later MSS, the\n            Armenian and \u00c6thiopic Versions, Euthalius (Tischendorf's\n            MS), Theodoret, and others. The Harclean Syriac (text) is\n            quoted by Tischendorf and Tregelles in favour of \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7\n            \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u1fb3, but it is impossible to say whether the translator\n            had or had not the preposition.\n\n          \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2 \u05d0^c A D F G P, 47, 8^{pe}; the Old Latin,\n            Vulgate, Memphitic, Peshito Syriac, and Gothic Versions,\n            together with the margin of the Harclean Syriac; the fathers\n            Basil (II. p. 464), Victorinus (probably), Theodore of\n            Mopsuestia, the Ambrosian Hilary, Jerome, and others.\n            Chrysostom (as read in the existing texts) wavers between \u1f10\u03bd\n            \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u1fb3 and \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2. This form of the reading is\n            an attempt to bring Ephes. into harmony with Col., just as\n            (6) is an attempt to bring Col. into harmony with Ephes.\n\nIt will be seen how slenderly B is supported; and yet we can hardly\nresist the impression that it has the right reading in all three cases.\nIn the omission of \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 more especially, where the support is\nweakest, this impression must, I think, be very strong.\n\n[Sidenote: Excellence of B elsewhere.]\n\nThis highly favourable estimate of B is our starting-point; and on the\nwhole it will be enhanced as we proceed. Thus for instance in i. 22 and\nii. 2 we shall find this MS alone (with one important Latin father)\nretaining the correct text; in the latter case amidst a great\ncomplication of various readings. And when again, as in iv. 8, we find B\nfor once on the side of a reading which might otherwise be suspected as\na harmonistic change, this support alone will weigh heavily in its\nfavour. Other cases in which B (with more or less support) preserves the\ncorrect reading against the mass of authorities are ii. 2 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2,\nii. 7 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9, ii. 13 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd (omitting \u1f10\u03bd), v. 12 \u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03b8\u1fc6\u03c4\u03b5,\ntogether with several instances which will appear in the course of the\nfollowing investigation. On the other hand its value must not be\noverestimated. [Sidenote: False readings in B.]Thus in iv. 3 \u03c4\u1f78\n\u03bc\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b4\u03b9' \u1f43 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03ad\u03b4\u03b5\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9[536] there can be little doubt\nthat the great majority of ancient authorities correctly read \u03b4\u03b9' \u1f45,\nthough B F G have \u03b4\u03b9' \u1f45\u03bd: but the variation is easily explained. A\nsingle stroke, whether accidental or deliberate, alone would be\nnecessary to turn the neuter into a masculine and make the relative\nagree with the substantive nearest to it in position. Again in ii. 10 \u1f45\u03c2\n\u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f21 \u03ba\u03b5\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u03ae, the reading of B which substitutes \u1f45 for \u1f45\u03c2 is plainly\nwrong, though supported in this instance by D F G 47^*, by the Latin\ntext d, and by Hilary in one passage (_de Trin._ ix. 8, II. p. 263),\nthough elsewhere (ib. i. 13, I. p. 10) he reads \u1f45. But here again we\nhave only an instance of a very common interchange. Whether for\ngrammatical reasons or from diplomatic confusion or from some other\ncause, five other instances of this interchange occur in this short\nepistle alone; i. 15 \u1f45 for \u1f45\u03c2 F G; i. 18 \u1f45 for \u1f45\u03c2 F G; i. 24 \u1f45\u03c2 for \u1f45 C\nD^* etc.; i. 27 \u1f45\u03c2 for \u1f45 \u05d0 C D K L etc.; iii. 14 \u1f45\u03c2 for \u1f45 \u05d0^* D. Such\nreadings again as the omission of \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f30\u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 i. 9 by B K, or of \u03b4\u03b9'\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 in i. 20 by B D^* F G etc., or of \u1f21 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u03ae in iv. 16 by B\nalone, need not be considered, since the motive for the omission is\nobvious, and the authority of B will not carry as great weight as it\nwould in other cases. Similarly the insertion of \u1f21 in i. 18, \u1f21 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03ae, by\nB, 47, 67^{**}, b^{scr}, and of \u03ba\u03b1\u03af in ii. 15, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03b3\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd, by B\nalone, do not appear to deserve consideration, because in both instances\nthese readings would suggest themselves as obvious improvements. In\nother cases, as in the omission of \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 before \u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2 (i. 20), and of \u1f11\u03bd\u03af in\n\u1f10\u03bd \u1f11\u03bd\u03af \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9 (iii. 15), the scribe of B has erred as any scribe might\nerr.\n\nFootnote 536:\n\n  In this passage B (with some few other authorities) has \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 for\n  \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, thus substituting a commoner expression (ii. 2, 1 Cor.\n  iv. 1, Rev. x. 7; comp. 1 Cor. ii. 1, v.l.) for a less common (Ephes.\n  iii. 4).\n\n                  *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe various readings in this epistle are more perplexing than perhaps in\nany portion of St Paul's Epistles of the same length. The following\ndeserve special consideration.\n\n                       i. 3  ==\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b8\u03b5\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03af.==\n\n[Sidenote: i. 3 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b8\u03b5\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03af,]]\n\nOn this very unusual collocation I have already remarked in the notes\n(p. 199). The authorities stand as follows:\n\n            (1) \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b8\u03b5\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03af B C^*.\n\n            (2) \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b8\u03b5\u1ff7 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03af D^* F G Chrysostom.\n\nOne or other is also the reading of the Old Latin (d, e, g, harl.^{**}),\nof the Memphitic, the two Syriac (Peshito and Harclean), the \u00c6thiopic,\nand the Arabic (Erpenius, Bedwell, Leipzig) Versions; and of Augustine\n(_de Unit. Eccl._ 45, IX. p. 368) and Cassiodorus (II. p. 1351, Migne).\n\n            (3) \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b8\u03b5\u1ff7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03af \u05d0 A C^2 D^c K L P and apparently all\nthe other MSS; the Vulgate and Armenian Versions; Euthalius\n(Tischendorf's MS), Theodore of Mopsuestia (transl.), Theodoret, the\nAmbrosian Hilary, and others.\n\nA comparison of these authorities seems to show pretty clearly that \u03c4\u1ff7\n\u03b8\u03b5\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03af was the original reading. The other two were expedients for\ngetting rid of a very unusual collocation of words. [Sidenote: compared\nwith iii. 17,]The scribes have felt the same difficulty again in iii. 17\n\u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b8\u03b5\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b9' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, and there again we find \u03ba\u03b1\u03af\ninserted before \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03af. In this latter instance however the great\npreponderance of ancient authority is in favour of the unusual form \u03c4\u1ff7\n\u03b8\u03b5\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03af.\n\n[Sidenote: and i. 12.]\n\nIt is worth observing also that in i. 12, where \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03af has the highest\nsupport, there is sufficient authority for \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b8\u03b5\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03af to create a\nsuspicion that there too it may be possibly the correct reading. Thus \u03c4\u1ff7\n\u03b8\u03b5\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03af is read in \u05d0 37, while \u03b8\u03b5\u1ff7 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03af stands in F G. One or\nother must have been the reading of some Old Latin and Vulgate texts (f,\ng, m, fuld.), of the Peshito Syriac, of the Memphitic (in some texts;\nfor others read \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03af simply), of the Arabic (Bedwell), of the\nArmenian (Uscan), and of Origen (II. p. 451, the Latin translator);\nwhile several other authorities, Greek and Latin, read \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b8\u03b5\u1ff7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03af.\n\n[Sidenote: Unique collocation.]\n\nThere is no other instance of this collocation of words, \u1f41 \u0398\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1,\nin the Greek Testament, so far as I remember; and it must be regarded as\npeculiar to this epistle.\n\n                   i. 4 ==\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03bd [\u1f23\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5]==.\n\n[Sidenote: i. 4 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03bd [\u1f23\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5].]\n\nHere the various readings are;\n\n          (1) \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03bd B.\n\n          (2) \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03bd \u1f23\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 A \u05d0 C D^* F G P 17, 37, 47; the Old\n              Latin and Vulgate, Memphitic (apparently), and Harclean\n              Syriac Versions; the Ambrosian Hilary, Theodore of\n              Mopsuestia (transl.), and others.\n\n          (3) \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03bd \u03c4\u03ae\u03bd. D^c K L; the Peshito Syriac (apparently),\n              and Armenian (apparently) Versions; Chrysostom, Theodoret\n              and others.\n\nIf the question were to be decided by external authority alone, we could\nnot hesitate. It is important however to observe that (2) conforms to\nthe parallel passage Philem. 5 \u1f00\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03c9\u03bd \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f23\u03bd\n\u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2, while (3) conforms to the other parallel passage Ephes. i. 15 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n[\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03bd] \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f05\u03b3\u03b9\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2. Thus, though \u1f23\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 is so\nhighly supported and though it helps out the sense, it is open to\nsuspicion. Still the omission in B may be an instance of that impatience\nof apparently superfluous words, which sometimes appears in this MS.\n\n                    i. 7 ==\u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03f2==.\n\n[Sidenote: i. 7 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd.]\n\nHere there is a conflict between MSS and Versions.\n\n        (1) \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd A B \u05d0^* D^* F G, 3, 13, 33, 43, 52, 80, 91, 109. This\n            must also have been the reading of the Ambrosian Hilary\n            (though the editors make him write 'pro _vobis_'), for he\n            explains it 'qui eis ministravit gratiam Christi _vice\n            Apostoli_.'\n\n        (2) \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u05d0^c C D^b K L P, 17, 37, 47, and many others; the\n            Vulgate, the Peshito and Harclean Syriac, the Memphitic,\n            Gothic, and Armenian Versions; Chrysostom, Theodore of\n            Mopsuestia (transl.), and Theodoret (in their respective\n            texts, for with the exception of Chrysostom there is nothing\n            decisive in their comments), with others.\n\nThe Old Latin is doubtful; d, e having _vobis_ and g _nobis_.\n\nThough the common confusion between these two words even in the best MSS\nis a caution against speaking with absolute certainty, yet such a\ncombination of the highest authorities as we have here for \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd does not\nleave much room for doubt: and considerations of internal criticism\npoint in the same direction. See the note on the passage.\n\n                      i. 12 ==\u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f31\u03ba\u03b1\u03bd\u03ce\u03f2\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9==.\n\n[Sidenote: i. 12 \u1f31\u03ba\u03b1\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9.]\n\nAgainst this, which is the reading of all the other ancient authorities,\nwe have\n\n        (2) \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03ad\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9 D^* F G, 17, 80, with the Latin authorities d,\n            e, f, g, m, and the Gothic, Armenian, and \u00c6thiopic Versions.\n            It is so read also by the Ambrosian Hilary, by Didymus _de\n            Trin._ iii. 4 (p. 346), and by Vigilius Thapsensis _c.\n            Varim._ i. 50 (p. 409).\n\n        (3) \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03ad\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f31\u03ba\u03b1\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9, found in B alone.\n\nHere the confusion between ==\u03c4\u03c9\u03b9\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03bd\u03c9\u03f2\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9== and ==\u03c4\u03c9\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03b5\u03f2\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9==\nwould be easy, more especially at a period prior to the earliest\nexisting MSS, when the iota adscript was still written; while at the\nsame time \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03ad\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9 would suggest itself to scribes as the obvious word\nin such a connexion. It is a Western reading.\n\nThe text of B obviously presents a combination of both readings.\n\n                       i. 14 ==\u1f10\u03bd \u1fa7 \u1f14\u03c7\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd==.\n\n[Sidenote: i. 14 \u1f14\u03c7\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd or \u1f14\u03c3\u03c7\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd?]\n\nFor \u1f14\u03c7\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd B, the Memphitic Version, and the Arabic (Bedwell, Leipzig),\nread \u1f14\u03c3\u03c7\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd. This is possibly the correct reading. In the parallel\npassage, Ephes. i. 7, several authorities (\u05d0^* D^*, the Memphitic and\n\u00c6thiopic Versions, and the translator of Iren\u00e6us v. 14. 3) similarly\nread \u1f14\u03c3\u03c7\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd for \u1f14\u03c7\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd. It may be conjectured that \u1f14\u03c3\u03c7\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd in these\nauthorities was a harmonistic change in Ephes. i. 7, to conform to the\ntext which they or their predecessors had in Col. i. 14. Tischendorf on\nEphes. l.c. says 'aut utroque loco \u03b5\u03c7\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd aut \u03b5\u03c3\u03c7\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd Paulum scripsisse\nputo'; but if any inference can be drawn from the phenomena of the MSS,\nthey point rather to a different tense in the two passages.\n\n                      i. 22 ==\u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b7\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5==.\n\n[Sidenote: i. 22 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b7\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5.]\n\nThis reading is perhaps the highest testimony of all to the great value\nof B.\n\nThe variations are;\n\n        (1) \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b7\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5 B. This also seems to be the reading of\n            Hilary of Poitiers _In xci Psalm._ 9 (I. p. 270), who\n            transfers the Apostle's language into the first person, 'cum\n            aliquando essemus alienati et inimici sensus ejus in factis\n            malis, nunc autem reconciliati sumus corpore carnis ejus.'\n\n        (2) \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b7\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03ba\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 17.\n\n        (3) \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03bb\u03b1\u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 D^* F G, and the Latin authorities d, e,\n            g, m, the Gothic Version, the translator of Iren\u00e6us (v. 14.\n            3), and others.\n\n        (4) \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03ae\u03bb\u03bb\u03b1\u03be\u03b5\u03bd, all the other authorities.\n\nOf these (2) is obviously a corruption of (1) from similarity of sound;\nand (3) is an emendation, though a careless emendation, of (1) for the\nsake of the grammar. It should have been \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03bb\u03b1\u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2. The reading\ntherefore must lie between \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b7\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5 and \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03ae\u03bb\u03bb\u03b1\u03be\u03b5\u03bd. This latter\nhowever is probably a grammatical correction to straighten the syntax.\nIn the Memphitic a single letter \u2c81\u03eb for \u2c81\u03e5 would make the difference\nbetween \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b7\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5 and \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03ae\u03bb\u03bb\u03b1\u03be\u03b5\u03bd; but no variation from the\nlatter is recorded.\n\n                    ii. 2 ==\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6, \u03c7\u03c1\u03b9\u03f2\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6==.\n\n[Sidenote: ii. 2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6.]\n\nThe various readings here are very numerous and at first sight\nperplexing; but the result of an investigation into their several claims\nis far from unsatisfactory. The reading which explains all the rest may\nsafely be adopted as the original.\n\n[Sidenote: Original reading.]\n\n(1) ==\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c7\u03c1\u03b9\u03f2\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5==.\n\nThis is the reading of B and of Hilary of Poitiers, _de Trin._ ix. 62\n(I. p. 306), who quotes the passage _sacramenti Dei Christi in quo_\netc., and wrongly explains it 'Deus Christus sacramentum est'.\n\n[Sidenote: Variations;]\n\nAll the other variations are derived from this, either by explanation or\nby omission or by amplification.\n\n[Sidenote: (_a_) by interpretation,]\n\nBy explanation we get;\n\n(2) ==\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u03c5 \u03bf \u03b5\u03f2\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03c7\u03c1\u03b9\u03f2\u03c4\u03bf\u03f2==,\n\nthe reading of D, with the Latin authorities d, e, which have _Dei quod\nest Christus_. So it is quoted by Vigilius Thapsensis _c. Varim._ i. 20\n(p. 380), and in a slightly longer form by Augustine _de Trin._ xiii. 24\n(VIII. p. 944) _mysterium Dei quod est Christus Jesus_.\n\n(3) ==\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b5\u03bd \u03c7\u03c1\u03b9\u03f2\u03c4\u03c9==.\n\nSo it is twice quoted by Clement of Alexandria _Strom._ v. 10 (p. 683),\n_ib._ 12 (p. 694); or\n\n            ==\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b5\u03bd \u03c7\u03c1\u03b9\u03f2\u03c4\u03c9==,\n\nthe reading of 17.\n\nSo the Ambrosian Hilary (both text and commentary) has _Dei in Christo_.\nAnd the Armenian has the same lengthened out, _Dei in Christo Jesu_\n(Zohrab) or _Dei patris in Christo Jesu_ (Uscan).\n\n(4) _Domini quod de Christo_\n\nis the \u00c6thiopic rendering. Whether this represents another various\nreading in the Greek or whether the paraphrase is the translator's own,\nit is impossible to say.\n\n[Sidenote: (_b_) by omission,]\n\nThe two following variations strive to overcome the difficulty by\nomission;\n\n(5) ==\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u03c5==,\n\nthe reading of D by a second hand, of P, 37, 67^{**}, 71, 80, 116.\n\n(6) ==\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c7\u03c1\u03b9\u03f2\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5==,\n\nthe reading of Euthalius in Tischendorf's MS; but Tischendorf adds the\ncaution 'sed non satis apparet'.\n\n[Sidenote: (_c_) by amplification;]\n\nAll the remaining readings are attempts to remedy the test by\namplification. They fall into two classes; those which insert \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2 so\nas to make \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 dependent on it, (7), (8), and those which separate\n\u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 from \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 by the interposition of a \u03ba\u03b1\u03af, (9), (10), (11).\n\n[Sidenote: (i) by inserting \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2 to govern \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6;]\n\n(7) ==\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03f2 \u03c7\u03c1\u03b9\u03f2\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5==,\n\nthe reading of \u05d0 (by the first hand). Tischendorf also adds b^{scr*} and\no^{scr}; but I read Scrivener's collations differently (_Cod. Aug._ p.\n506): or\n\n            ==\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03f2 \u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c7\u03c1\u03b9\u03f2\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5==,\n\nthe reading of A C, 4.\n\nOne or other is the reading of the Thebaic Version (given by Griesbach)\nand of the Arabic (Leipz.).\n\nA lengthened form of the same, _Dei patris Christi Jesu_, appears in the\noldest MSS of the Vulgate, am. fuld. f: and the same is also the reading\nof the Memphitic (Boetticher).\n\n(8) ==\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03f2 \u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c7\u03c1\u03b9\u03f2\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5==.\n\nSo \u05d0 (the third hand), b^{scr*}, o^{scr}, and a corrector in the Harclean\nSyriac.\n\n[Sidenote: (ii) by separating \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 from \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 by a conjunction.]\n\n(9) ==\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c7\u03c1\u03b9\u03f2\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5==,\n\nthe simplest form of the other class of emendations by amplification. It\nis found in Cyril _Thes._ p. 287.\n\n(10) ==\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03f2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c7\u03c1\u03b9\u03f2\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5==.\n\nSo 47, 73, the Peshito Syriac (ed. princeps and Schaaf). And so it\nstands in the commentators Chrysostom (but with various readings) and\nTheodore of Mopsuestia (_Spicil. Solesm._ I. p. 131 _Dei patris et\nChristi_, but in Rab. Maur. _Op._ VI. p. 521 _Dei patris Christi Jesu_).\n\nPelagius has _Dei patris et Christi Jesu_>, and so the Memphitic\n(Wilkins).\n\n[Sidenote: The common text the latest development.]\n\n(11) ==\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03f2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c7\u03c1\u03b9\u03f2\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5==.\n\nThis, which may be regarded as the latest development, is the reading of\nthe received text. It is found in D (third hand) K L, and in the great\nmajority of cursives; in the text of the Harclean Syriac, and in\nTheodoret and others.\n\nBesides these readings some copies of the Vulgate exhibit other\nvariations; e.g. demid. _Dei patris et Domini nostri Christi Jesu_,\ntolet. _Dei Christi Jesu patris et Domini_.\n\nIt is not necessary to add any remarks. The justification of \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 as the original reading will have appeared in the variations to\nwhich it has given rise. The passage is altogether an instructive lesson\nin textual criticism.\n\n                 ii. 16 ==\u1f10\u03bd \u03b2\u03c1\u03ce\u03f2\u03b5\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03cc\u03f2\u03b5\u03b9.==\n\n[Sidenote: ii. 16 \u03ba\u03b1\u03af or \u1f24?]\n\nIn this reading B stands alone among the MSS; but it is supported by the\nPeshito Syriac and Memphitic Versions, by Tertullian (_adv. Marc._ v.\n19), and by Origen (_in Ioann._ x. \u00a7 11, IV. p. 174). The testimony of\nTertullian however is invalidated by the fact that he uses _et_ as the\nconnecting particle throughout the passage; and the Peshito Syriac also\nhas 'and' for \u1f24 in the two last clauses, though not in the second.\n\nThe rest have \u1f10\u03bd \u03b2\u03c1\u03ce\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u1f22 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03cc\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9. This may be explained as a very\nobvious, though not very intelligent, alteration of scribes to conform\nto the disjunctive particles in the context, \u1f22 \u1f10\u03bd \u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9 \u1f11\u03bf\u03c1\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f22\n\u03bd\u03b5\u03bf\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f22 \u03c3\u03b1\u03b2\u03b2\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd.\n\nIn this same context it is probable that B retains the right form\n\u03bd\u03b5\u03bf\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 (supported here by F G and others) as against the Attic\n\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd\u03af\u03b1\u03c2. In the same way in iii. 25 \u03ba\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 and iv. 9 \u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c1\u03af\u03c3\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd B\n(with some others) has resisted the tendency to Attic forms.\n\n                        ii. 18 ==\u1f03 \u1f15\u03bf\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd==.\n\n[Sidenote: ii. 18, the omission of the negative.]\n\nThat this is the oldest reading which the existing texts exhibit, will\nappear from the following comparison of authorities.\n\n      (1) \u1f03 \u1f11\u03ce\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd \u1f11\u03ce\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd) A B \u05d0^* D^*, 17^*, 28, 67^{**}; the Old\n            Latin authorities d, e, m; the Memphitic, \u00c6thiopic, and\n            Arabic (Leipz.) Versions; Tertull. _c. Marc._ v. 19 ('ex\n            visionibus angelicis'; and apparently Marcion himself also);\n            Origen (_c. Cels._ v. 8, I. p. 583, though the negative is\n            here inserted by De la Rue, and _in Cant._ ii, III. p. 63,\n            _in his qu\u00e6 videt_); Lucifer (_De non conv. c. h\u00e6r._ p. 782\n            Migne); the Ambrosian Hilary (_ad loc._ explaining it\n            'Inflantur motum pervidentes stellarum, quas angelos\n            vocat'). So too the unknown author of _Qu\u00e6st. ex N. T._ ii.\n            62 in August. _Op._ III. Appx. p. 156. Jerome (_Epist. cxxi\n            ad Alg._ \u00a7 10, I. p. 880) mentions both readings (with and\n            without the negative) as found in the Greek text: and\n            Augustine (_Epist._ 149, II. p. 514), while giving the\n            preference to _qu\u00e6 non vidit_>, says that some MSS have _qu\u00e6\n            vidit_>.\n\n      (2) \u1f03 \u03bc\u1f74 \u1f11\u03ce\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd (\u1f11\u03cc\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd) \u05d0^c C D^{bc} K L P, and the great\n            majority of cursives;\n\n      (3) \u1f03 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f11\u03ce\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd F G.\n\nThe negative is also read in g; in the Vulgate, the Gothic, both the\nSyriac, and the Armenian Versions; in the translator of Origen _In Rom._\nix. \u00a7 42 (IV. p. 665), in Ambrose _In Psalm. cxviii Exp._ xx (I. p.\n1222), and in the commentators Pelagius, Chrysostom, Theodore of\nMopsuestia (_Spic. Solesm._ I. p. 132 'qu\u00e6 nec sciunt'), Theodoret, and\nothers.\n\nFrom a review of these authorities we infer that the insertion of the\nnegative was a later correction, and that \u1f03 \u1f15\u03c9\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd (or \u1f15\u03bf\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd)\nrepresents the prior reading. In my note I have expressed my suspicion\nthat \u1f03 \u1f15\u03c9\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd (or \u1f15\u03bf\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd) is itself corrupt, and that the original\nreading is lost.\n\n[Sidenote: The form \u1f15\u03bf\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd.]\n\nThe unusual form \u1f15\u03bf\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd is found in \u05d0 B^* C D P, and is therefore to\nbe preferred to \u1f15\u03c9\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd.\n\n                  ii. 23 ==[\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76] \u1f00\u03c6\u03b5\u03b9\u03b4\u03af\u1fb3 \u03f2\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03f2==.\n\n[Sidenote: ii. 23. Is \u03ba\u03b1\u03af to be omitted?]\n\nHere \u03ba\u03b1\u03af is found in all the Greek copies except B, but is omitted in\nthese Latin authorities, m, the translator of Origen (_In Rom._ ix. \u00a7\n42, IV. p. 665), Hilary of Poitiers (_Tract. in xiv Ps._ \u00a7 7, p. 73),\nthe Ambrosian Hilary, Ambrose (_de Noe_ 25, p. 267), and Paulinus\n(_Epist._ 50, p. 292 sq.). We have more than once found B and Hilary\nalone in supporting the correct reading (i. 22, ii. 2); and this fact\ngives weight to their joint authority here. The omission also seems to\nexplain the impossible reading of d, e, which have _in religione et\nhumilitate sensus et vexationem corporis_, where for _et vexationem_, we\nshould probably read _ad vexationem_, as in the Ambrosian Hilary. There\nwas every temptation for a scribe to insert the \u03ba\u03b1\u03af so as to make\n\u1f00\u03c6\u03b5\u03b9\u03b4\u03af\u1fb3 range with the other datives: while on the other hand a finer\nappreciation of the bearing of the passage suggests that St Paul would\nhave dissociated it, so as to give it a special prominence.\n\nA similar instance occurs in iii. 12 \u1f61\u03c2 \u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u03bf\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6, \u1f05\u03b3\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u1f20\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9, where B omits the \u03ba\u03b1\u03af with 17 and the Thebaic Version[537].\nIn 219 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f05\u03b3\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9 is read for \u1f05\u03b3\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u03af. The great gain in force leads to\nthe suspicion that this omission may be correct, notwithstanding the\nenormous preponderance of authority on the other side.\n\nFootnote 537:\n\n  It is true that in the text (_Spicil. Solesm._ I. p. 123, Rab. Maur.\n  Op. VII. p. 539, Migne) he is credited with the later Latin reading\n  _ut cognoscat qu\u00e6 circa vos sunt_, but his comment implies the other;\n  'Quoniam omnia vobis nota faciet Tychicus illa qu\u00e6 erga me sunt,\n  propterea a me directus est cum Onesimo fratre qui a vobis venerat, ut\n  nota vobis faciant qu\u00e6 erga nos sunt [= \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd] et\n  oblectent vos per suum adventum [= \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03ad\u03c3\u1fc3 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd],\n  omnia qu\u00e6 hic aguntur manifesta facientes vobis.' See _Spicil.\n  Solesm._ l.c.; the comment is mutilated in Rab. Maur. _Op._ l.c.\n\n                   iv. 8. ==\u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd==.\n\n[Sidenote: iv. 8 \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd.]\n\nOf the various readings of this passage I have already spoken (p. 29\nsq., note 1, p. 301).\n\nThe authorities are as follows:\n\n      (1) \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd A B D^* F G P, 10, 17, 33, 35, 37, 44, 47,\n            71, 111, 116, 137; d, e, g; the Armenian and \u00c6thiopic\n            Versions; Theodore of Mopsuestia[537], Theodoret[538],\n            Jerome (on Ephes. vi. 21 sq., VII. p. 682), and Euthalius\n            (Tischendorf's MS). This is also the reading of \u05d0^*, except\n            that it has \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd for \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd.\n\n      (2) \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff7 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u05d0^c C D^{bc} K L and the majority of\n            cursives; the Memphitic, Gothic, Vulgate, and both Syriac\n            Versions; the Ambrosian Hilary, Jerome (on Philem. I, VII.\n            p. 748), Chrysostom (expressly), and others.\n\nFootnote 538:\n\n  In the text; but in the commentary he is made to write \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff7 \u03b3\u03ac\u03c1,\n  \u03c6\u03b7\u03c3\u03af, \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd, an impossible reading.\n\n[Sidenote: The various readings accounted for.]\n\nThe internal evidence is considered in the note on the passage, and\nfound to accord with the vast preponderance of external authority in\nfavour of \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd. The reading of \u05d0 by the first hand\nexhibits a transitional stage. It would appear as though the transcriber\nintended it to be read \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff7 \u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd. At all events this is the\nreading of III and of Io. Damasc. _Op._ II. p. 214. The variation \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff7 \u03c4\u1f70\n\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd is thus easily explained. (1) \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd would be accidentally\nsubstituted for \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd; (2) \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c4\u03b5 would then be read \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff7 \u03c4\u03b5; (3) the\nawkward and superfluous \u03c4\u03b5 would be omitted. In illustration of the\ntendency to conform the persons of the two verbs \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff7, \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03ad\u03c3\u1fc3, (see\np. 301) it may be mentioned that 17 reads \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c4\u03b5, \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03ad\u03c3\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5, both here\nand in Ephes. vi. 22.\n\n                    iv. 15. ==\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4' \u03bf\u1f36\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd==.\n\n[Sidenote: iv. 15 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd.]\n\nThe readings here are:\n\n      (1) \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u05d0 A C P, 5, 9, 17, 23, 34, 39, 47, 73; together with the\n            Memphitic Version, the Arabic (Leipz.), and Euthalius\n            (Tischendorf's MS). The Memphitic Version is commonly but\n            wrongly quoted in favour of \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, owing to a mistranslation\n            of Wilkins. But both Wilkins and Boetticher give without any\n            various reading \u03a0\u039f\u03a5\u0397\u0399, i.e. \u03bf\u1f36\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd. This seems also to\n            be the reading of Theodore of Mopsuestia (_Spic. Solesm._ I.\n            p. 133) _qu\u00e6 in domo eorum est ecclesia_; though in Rab.\n            Maur. _Op._ VI. p. 540 his text runs _qu\u00e6 in domo ejus est\n            ecclesiam_, and he is made to say _Nympham cum omnibus suis\n            qui in domo ejus sunt_.\n\n      (2) \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 B 67^{**}.\n\n      (3) \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 D F G K L and the great majority of cursives; and so the\n            Gothic Version, Chrysostom, and Theodoret (the latter\n            distinctly).\n\n[Sidenote: _Nymphas_ or _Nympha_?]]\n\nThe singular, whether \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 or \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2, is the reading of the old Latin\nand Vulgate, which have _ejus_, and of the Armenian. The pronoun is also\nsingular in the Peshito and Harclean Syriac. In this language the same\nconsonants express masculine and feminine alike, the difference lying in\nthe pointing and vocalisation. And here the copies are inconsistent with\nthemselves. [Sidenote: The Syriac versions.]In the Peshito (both the\neditio princeps and Schaaf) the proper name is vocalised as a feminine\n_Numph\u0113_ (= \u039d\u03cd\u03bc\u03c6\u03b7), and yet \u0712\u0712\u071d\u072c\u0717 is treated as having a masculine affix\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4' \u03bf\u1f36\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6. In the text of the Harclean \u0715\u071d\u0720\u0717\u073f is pointed thus, as\na feminine \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2; while the margin gives the alternative reading \u0715\u071d\u0720\u0717\n(without the point) = \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6. The name itself is written Nympha, which\naccording to the transliteration of this version might stand either for\na masculine (as _Barnaba_, _Luka_, in the context, for \u0392\u03b1\u03c1\u03bd\u03b1\u03b2\u03b1\u03c2, \u039b\u03bf\u03c5\u03ba\u1fb6\u03c2)\nor for a feminine (since _Demas_, _Epaphras_, are written with an\n_s_)[539]. [Sidenote: The Latin authorities.]The Latin _ejus_ leaving\nthe gender undetermined, the Latin commentators were free to take either\nNymphas or Nympha; and, as Nympha was common Latin form of \u039d\u03cd\u03bc\u03c6\u03b7, they\nwould naturally adopt the female name. So the commentator Hilary\ndistinctly.\n\nFootnote 539:\n\n  More probably the latter. In Rom. xvi the terminations -\u03b1 and \u1fb6\u03c2 for\n  the feminine and masculine names respectively are carefully reproduced\n  in the Harclean Version. In ver. 15 indeed we have _Julias_, but the\n  translator doubtless considered the name to be a contraction for\n  _Julianus_. The proper Syriac termination _-a_ seems only to be\n  employed for the Greek -\u03b1\u03c2 in very familiar names such as _Barnaba_,\n  _Luka_.\n\nIt should be added that the word is accentuated as a masculine \u03bd\u03c5\u03bc\u03c6\u1fb6\u03bd in\nD^c L P, and as a feminine \u03bd\u03cd\u03bc\u03c6\u03b1\u03bd in B^c and Euthalius (Tischendorf's\nMS.).\n\n\n                      _On the meaning of \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1._\n\n[Sidenote: The meaning of the verb \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd.]\n\nThe verb \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd has two senses. It signifies either (1) 'To fill', e.g.\nActs ii. 2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u1f45\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03bf\u1f36\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd; or (2) 'To fulfil, complete,\nperfect, accomplish', e.g. Matt. xxvi. 56 \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03c9\u03b8\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03b1\u1f31 \u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u03b1\u03af, Rom.\nxiii. 8 \u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd \u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd, Acts xii. 25 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03af\u03b1\u03bd. The\nlatter sense indeed is derived from the former, but practically it has\nbecome separate from it. The word occurs altogether about a hundred\ntimes in the New Testament, and for every one instance of the former\nsense there are at least four of the latter.\n\n[Sidenote: False issue raised respecting \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1]\n\n[Sidenote: resulting in theological confusion]\n\nIn the investigations which have hitherto been made into the\nsignification of the derived substantive \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1, as it occurs in the\nNew Testament, an almost exclusive prominence has been given to the\nformer meaning of the verb; and much confusion has arisen in\nconsequence. The question has been discussed whether \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 has an\nactive or a passive sense, whether it describes the filling substance or\nthe filled receptacle: and not unfrequently critics have arrived at the\nresult that different grammatical senses must be attached to it in\ndifferent passages, even within the limits of the same epistle. Thus it\nhas been maintained that the word has a passive sense 'id quod impletur'\nin Ephes. i. 23 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f10\u03ba\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u1fb3 \u1f25\u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u1f76\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u1f70\n\u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5, and an active sense 'id quod implet' in\nEphes. iii. 19 \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03c9\u03b8\u1fc6\u03c4\u03b5 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6. Indeed so long\nas we see in \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd only the sense 'to fill', and refuse to contemplate\nthe sense 'to complete', it seems impossible to escape from the\ndifficulties which meet us at every turn, otherwise than by assigning to\nits derivative \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 both an active and a passive sense; but the\ngreatest violence is thus done to the connexion of theological ideas.\n\n[Sidenote: and disregard of grammar.]\n\nMoreover the disregard of lexical rules is not less violent[540].\nSubstantives in -\u03bc\u03b1, formed from the perfect passive, appear always to\nhave a passive sense. They may denote an abstract notion or a concrete\nthing; they may signify the action itself regarded as complete, or the\nproduct of[Sidenote: Meaning of substantives in -\u03bc\u03b1.] the action; but in\nany case they give the _result_ of the agency involved in the\ncorresponding verb. Such for example are \u1f04\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03bc\u03b1 'a message', \u1f05\u03bc\u03bc\u03b1 'a\nknot', \u1f00\u03c1\u03b3\u03cd\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 'a silver-made vessel', \u03b2\u03bf\u03cd\u03bb\u03b5\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1 'a plan', \u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03af\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 'a\nrighteous deed' or 'an ordinance', \u03b6\u03ae\u03c4\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1 'an investigation', \u03ba\u03ae\u03c1\u03c5\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1 'a\nproclamation', \u03ba\u03ce\u03bb\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1 'a hindrance', \u1f41\u03bc\u03bf\u03af\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 'a likeness', \u1f45\u03c1\u03b1\u03bc\u03b1 'a\nvision', \u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1 'a carpet', \u03c3\u03c6\u03b1\u03af\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 'a round thing', etc. In many cases\nthe same word will have two meanings, both however passive; it will\ndenote both the completed action and the result or object of the action:\ne.g. \u1f05\u03c1\u03c0\u03b1\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1 the 'robbery' or the 'booty', \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03ac\u03bb\u03bb\u03b1\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1 the 'exchange' or\nthe 'thing given or taken in exchange', \u03b8\u03ae\u03c1\u03b5\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1 the 'hunt' or the\n'prey', \u03c0\u03ac\u03c4\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1 the 'tread' or the 'carpet', and the like. But in all\ncases the word is strictly passive; it describes that which might have\nstood after the active verb, either as the direct object or as the\ncognate notion. [Sidenote: Apparent exceptions.]The apparent exceptions\nare only apparent. Sometimes this deceptive appearance is in the word\nitself. Thus \u03ba\u03ac\u03bb\u03c5\u03bc\u03bc\u03b1 'a veil' seems to denote 'that which _covers_', but\nit is really derived from another sense and construction of \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03cd\u03c0\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd,\nnot 'to hide', but 'to wrap round' (e.g. Hom. _Il._ v. 315 \u03c0\u03c1\u03cc\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 \u03b4\u03ad \u03bf\u1f31\n\u03c0\u03ad\u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf \u03c6\u03b1\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03c4\u03cd\u03b3\u03bc' \u1f10\u03ba\u03ac\u03bb\u03c5\u03c8\u03b5\u03bd, xxi. 321 \u03c4\u03cc\u03c3\u03c3\u03b7\u03bd \u03bf\u1f31 \u1f04\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03cd\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b8\u03b5\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03cd\u03c8\u03c9), and therefore is strictly passive. Sometimes again we may be\nled astray by the apparent connexion with the following genitive. Thus\nin Plut. _Mor._ 78 E \u03b4\u03ae\u03bb\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03ba\u03cc\u03c0\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd the word does not mean, as\nmight appear at first sight, 'a thing showing', but 'a thing shown', 'a\ndemonstration given'; nor in 2 Thess. i. 5 \u1f10\u03bd\u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03c1\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2\nmust we explain \u1f15\u03bd\u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1 'a thing proving', but 'a thing proved', 'a\nproof'. And the same is probably the case also with such expressions as\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bc\u03c0\u03bf\u03c3\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03c1\u03ad\u03b8\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1 (Critias in Athen. xiii. p. 600 D), \u03c4\u03cc\u03be\u03bf\u03c5 \u1fe5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03b1 (\u00c6sch.\n_Pers._ 147), and the like; where the substantives in -\u03bc\u03b1 are no more\ndeprived of their passive sense by the connexion, than they are in\n\u1f51\u03c0\u03cc\u03b4\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c0\u03bf\u03b4\u1ff6\u03bd or \u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03ba\u03bb\u03af\u03bd\u03b7\u03c2; though in such instances the license of\npoetical construction may often lead to a false inference. Analogous to\nthis last class of cases is Eur. _Troad._ 824 \u0396\u03b7\u03bd\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03c5\u03bb\u03af\u03ba\u03c9\u03bd\n\u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03bb\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd \u03bb\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd, not 'the filling', but 'the fulness of the\ncups, the brimming cups, of Zeus.'\n\nFootnote 540:\n\n  The meaning of this word \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 is the subject of a paper _De vocis\n  \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 vario sensu in N. T._ in Storr's _Opusc. Acad._ I. p. 144 sq.,\n  and of an elaborate note in Fritzsche's _Rom._ II. p. 469 sq. Storr\n  attempts to show that it always has an active sense 'id quod implet'\n  in the New Testament. Fritzsche rightly objects to assigning a\n  persistently active sense to a word which has a directly passive\n  termination: and he himself attributes to it two main senses, 'id quod\n  impletur' and 'id quo res impletur', the latter being the more common.\n  He apparently considers that he has surmounted the difficulties\n  involved in Storr's view, for he speaks of this last as a passive\n  sense, though in fact it is nothing more than 'id quod implet'\n  expressed in other words. In Rom. xiii. 10 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 he concedes\n  an active sense 'legis completio', h. e. 'observatio'.\n\n[Sidenote: \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 connected with the second sense of \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd.]]\n\nNow if we confine ourselves to the second of the two senses above\nascribed to \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd, it seems possible to explain \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 in the same\nway, at all events in all the theological passages of St Paul and St\nJohn, without doing any violence to the grammatical form. As \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd is\n'to complete', so \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 is 'that which is completed', i.e. the\ncomplement[541], the full tale, the entire number or quantity, the\nplenitude, the perfection.\n\nFootnote 541:\n\n  The English word complement has two distinct senses. It is either (i)\n  the complete set, the entire quantity or number, which satisfies a\n  given standard or cadre, as e.g. the complement of a regiment; or (ii)\n  the number or quantity which, when added to a preexisting number or\n  quantity, produces completeness; as e.g. the complement of an angle,\n  i.e. the angle by which it falls short of being a complete right\n  angle. In other words, it is either the whole or the part. As a\n  theological term, \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 corresponds to the first of these two\n  senses; and with this meaning alone the word 'complement' will be used\n  in the following dissertation.\n\n[Sidenote: Its uses in Classical writers.]\n\nThis indeed is the primary sense to which its commonest usages in\nclassical Greek can be most conveniently referred. Thus it signifies (1)\n[Sidenote: (1) 'A ship's crew.'] 'A ship's crew': e.g. Xen. _Hell._ i.\n6. 16 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f10\u03ba \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03c2 \u1f40\u03bb\u03af\u03b3\u03b1\u03c2 (\u03bd\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c2) \u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03b5\u03bb\u03ad\u03c7\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2\n\u1f00\u03c1\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c1\u03ad\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2. In this sense, which is very frequent, it is generally\nexplained as having an active force, 'that which fills the ships'; and\nthis very obvious explanation is recommended by the fact that \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\n\u03bd\u03b1\u1fe6\u03bd is a recognized expression for 'manning a ship', e.g. Xen. _Hell._\ni. 6. 24. But \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 is used not only of the crew which mans a ship,\nbut also of the ship which is manned with a crew; e.g. Polyb. i. 49. 4,\n5 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd ... \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03c6\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03b3\u03b5\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03cc\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1,\nLucian _Ver. Hist._ ii. 37, 38, \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03b4\u03cd\u03bf \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03bc\u03ac\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf ... \u03c0\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\n\u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03b5\u1f36\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1; and it is difficult to see how the word could be\ntransferred from the crew to the ship as a whole, if the common\nexplanation were correct. Fritzsche (_Rom._ II. p. 469 sq.), to whom I\nam chiefly indebted for the passages quoted in this paragraph, has\nboldly given the word two directly opposite senses in the two cases,\nexplaining it in the one 'ea quibus naves complentur, _h. e._ vel socii\nnavales vel milites classiarii vel utrique', and in the other 'id quod\ncompletur, _v. c._ navigium'; but this severance of meaning can hardly\nbe maintained. On the other hand, if we suppose that the crew is so\ncalled as 'the complement,' (i.e. 'not that which fills the ship,' but\n'that which is itself full or complete in respect of the ship'), we\npreserve the passive sense of the word, while at the same time the\ntransference to the fully equipped and manned vessel itself becomes\nnatural. In this sense 'a complement' we have the word used again of an\narmy, [Sidenote: (2) 'Population.']Aristid. _Or._ I. p. 381 \u03bc\u03ae\u03c4\u03b5\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03ac\u03c1\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b5\u03c3\u1f14\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u1f11\u03bd\u1f78\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03ad\u03b9\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c3\u03c7\u03ad\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9. (2) It\nsometimes signifies 'the population of a city', Arist. _Pol._ iii. 13\n(p. 1284) \u03bc\u1f74 \u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b4\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u1f76 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c3\u03c7\u03ad\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 (comp. iv. 4, p.\n1291). Clearly the same idea of completeness underlies this meaning of\nthe word, so that here again it signifies 'the complement': comp. Dion.\nHal. _A. R._ vi. 51 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b4' \u1f40\u03bb\u03af\u03b3\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f00\u03be\u03b9\u03bf\u03bc\u03ac\u03c7\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b5\u1fd6\u03cc\u03bd\n\u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9 \u03b4\u03b7\u03bc\u03bf\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., Eur. _Ion_ 663 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c6\u03af\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc' \u1f00\u03b8\u03c1\u03bf\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 'the\nwhole body of his friends'. [Sidenote: (3) 'Total amount.'](3) 'The\nentire sum', Arist. _Vesp._ 660 \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u03ac\u03bb\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4' \u1f10\u03b3\u03b3\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u03c3\u03c7\u03af\u03bb\u03b9\u03b1\n\u03b3\u03af\u03b3\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f21\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd, 'From these sources a total of nearly two thousand\ntalents accrues to us'. [Sidenote: (4) 'Entire term.'](4) 'The full\nterm', Herod. iii. 22 \u1f40\u03b3\u03b4\u03ce\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b4' \u1f14\u03c4\u03b5\u03b1 \u03b6\u03cc\u03b7\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u1f76 \u03bc\u03b1\u03ba\u03c1\u03cc\u03c4\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03ba\u03ad\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9. [Sidenote: (5) 'Fulfilment.'](5) 'The perfect attainment',\n'the full accomplishment', e.g. Philo _de Abr._ 46 (II. p. 39) \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\n\u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03bb\u03c0\u03af\u03b4\u03c9\u03bd. In short the fundamental meaning of the word generally,\nthough perhaps not universally, is neither 'the filling material', nor\n'the vessel filled'; but 'that which is complete in itself', or in other\nwords 'plenitude, fulness, totality, abundance'.\n\n[Sidenote: Use of \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 in the Gospels.\n           Matt. ix. 16.]\n\nIn the Gospels the uses of the word present some difficulty. (1) In\nMatt. ix. 16 \u03b1\u1f34\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f31\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c7\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\n\u03c3\u03c7\u03af\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b3\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, it refers to the \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b2\u03bb\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1 \u1fe5\u03ac\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u1f00\u03b3\u03bd\u03ac\u03c6\u03bf\u03c5 which has gone\nbefore; but \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 need not therefore be equivalent to \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b2\u03bb\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1 so as\nto mean the patch itself, as is often assumed. The following pronoun\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 is most naturally referred to \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b2\u03bb\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1; and if so \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\ndescribes 'the completeness', which results from the patch. The\nstatement is thus thrown into the form of a direct paradox, the very\ncompleteness making the garment more imperfect than before. [Sidenote:\nMark ii. 21.]In the parallel passage Mark ii. 21 the variations are\nnumerous, but the right reading seems certainly to be \u03b1\u1f34\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\n\u1f00\u03c0' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, \u03c4\u1f78 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u1f78\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. The received text omits the\npreposition before \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, but a glance at the authorities is convincing\nin favour of its insertion. In this case the construction will be \u03b1\u1f34\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9\n\u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 (nom.) \u1f00\u03c0' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 (i.e. \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f31\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03af\u03bf\u03c5, which has been mentioned\nimmediately before), \u03c4\u1f78 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u1f78\u03bd (\u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u1f00 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6 (\u1f31\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03af\u03bf\u1f50; 'The\ncompleteness takes away from the garment, the new _completeness_ of the\nold _garment_', where the paradox is put still more emphatically.\n[Sidenote: Mark vi. 43.] (2) In Mark vi. 43 the right reading is \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u1f26\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd \u03ba\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03b4\u03ce\u03b4\u03b5\u03ba\u03b1 \u03ba\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1, i.e. 'full' or 'complete\nmeasures', where the apposition to \u03ba\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 obviates the temptation to\nexplain \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 as 'ea qu\u00e6 implent'. [Sidenote: Mark viii. 20.]On the\nother hand in Mark viii. 20 \u03c0\u03cc\u03c3\u03c9\u03bd \u03c3\u03c0\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03b4\u03c9\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u1f24\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5;\nthis would be the _prima facie_ explanation; comp. Eccles. iv. 6 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03b8\u03cc\u03bd\n\u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b4\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03b1\u03cd\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b4\u03cd\u03bf \u03b4\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u1ff6\u03bd \u03bc\u03cc\u03c7\u03b8\u03bf\u03c5. But it\nis objectionable to give an active sense to \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 under any\ncircumstances; and if in such passages the patch itself is meant, it\nmust still be so called, not because it fills the hole, but because it\nis itself fulness or full measure as regards the defect which needs\nsupplying.\n\n[Sidenote: Usage in St. Paul's Epistles.]\n\nFrom the Gospels we pass to the Epistles of St Paul, whose usage bears\nmore directly on our subject. And here the evidence seems all to tend in\nthe same direction. [Sidenote: 1 Cor. x. 26.](1) In 1 Cor. x. 26 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f21 \u03b3\u1fc6 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 it occurs in a quotation from Ps.\nxxiv (xxiii). 1. The expressions \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2, \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2\n\u03b8\u03b1\u03bb\u03ac\u03c3\u03c3\u03b7\u03c2, occur several times in the LXX (e.g. Ps. xcvi (xcv). 11, Jer.\nviii. 16), where \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 is a translation of \u05de\u05dc\u05d0, a word denoting\nprimarily 'fulness', but having in its secondary uses a considerable\nlatitude of meaning ranging between 'contents' and 'abundance'. This\nlast sense seems to predominate in its Greek rendering \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1, and\nindeed the other is excluded altogether in some passages, e.g. Cant. v.\n13 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f51\u03b4\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd. [Sidenote: Rom. xiii. 10.](2) In Rom. xiii. 10\n\u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f21 \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7, the best comment on the meaning of the word is\nthe context, ver. 8 \u1f41 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f15\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd \u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd, so that\n\u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 here means the 'completeness' and so 'fulfilment,\naccomplishment': see the note on Gal. v. 14. [Sidenote: Rom. xv. 29.](3)\nIn Rom. xv. 29 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9 \u03b5\u1f50\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03bb\u03b5\u03cd\u03c3\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9, it plainly has\nthe sense of 'fulness, abundance'. [Sidenote: Gal. iv. 4.](4) In Gal.\niv. 4 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b5 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f26\u03bb\u03b8\u03b5\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c7\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6 and [Sidenote: Eph. i.\n10.]Ephes. i. 10 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bd, its force is\nillustrated by such passages as Mark i. 15 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f41 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u1f24\u03b3\u03b3\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd \u1f21 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03b1 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., Luke xxi. 24 \u1f04\u03c7\u03c1\u03b9 \u03bf\u1f57 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03c9\u03b8\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u03bf\u1f76 \u1f10\u03b8\u03bd\u1ff6\u03bd\n(comp. Acts ii. 1, vii. 23, 30, ix. 23, xxiv. 27), so that the\nexpressions will mean 'the full measure of the time, the full tale of\nthe seasons'. [Sidenote: Rom. xi. 25.](5) In Rom. xi. 25 \u03c0\u03ce\u03c1\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78\n\u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f38\u03c3\u03c1\u03b1\u1f74\u03bb \u03b3\u03ad\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03bd \u1f04\u03c7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f41\u1fe6 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03b8\u03bd\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c3\u03ad\u03bb\u03b8\u1fc3, it seems\nto mean 'the full number', 'the whole body', (whether the whole\nabsolutely, or the whole relatively to God's purpose), of whom only a\npart had hitherto been gathered into the Church. [Sidenote: Rom. xi.\n12.](6) In an earlier passage in this chapter the same expression occurs\nof the Jews, xi. 12 \u03b5\u1f30 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ac\u03c0\u03c4\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78\n\u1f25\u03c4\u03c4\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03b8\u03bd\u1ff6\u03bd, \u03c0\u03cc\u03c3\u1ff3 \u03bc\u1fb6\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd. Here the\nantithesis between \u1f25\u03c4\u03c4\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1 and \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1, 'failure' and 'fulness', is not\nsufficiently direct to fix the sense of \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1; and (in the absence of\nanything to guide us in the context) we may fairly assume that it is\nused in the same sense of the Jews here, as of the Gentiles in ver. 25.\n\n[Sidenote: General result.]\n\nThus, whatever hesitation may be felt about the exact force of the word\nas it occurs in the Gospels, yet substantially one meaning runs through\nall the passages hitherto quoted from St Paul. In these \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 has its\nproper passive force, as a derivative from \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd 'to make complete'.\nIt is 'the full complement, the entire measure, the plenitude, the\nfulness'. There is therefore a presumption in favour of this meaning in\nother passages where it occurs in this Apostle's writings.\n\n[Sidenote: Theological passages in]\n\nWe now come to those theological passages in the Epistles to the\nColossians and Ephesians and in the Gospel of St John, for the sake of\nwhich this investigation has been undertaken. They are as follows;\n\n[Sidenote: Colossians and Ephesians.]\n\nCol. i. 19 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b5\u1f50\u03b4\u03cc\u03ba\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9.\n\nCol. ii. 9 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b8\u03b5\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03c2, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u1f72 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9.\n\nEphes. i. 23 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f14\u03b4\u03c9\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd \u03ba\u03b5\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u1f74\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f10\u03ba\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u1fb3, \u1f25\u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u1f76\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\n\u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5.\n\nEphes. iii. 19 \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03c9\u03b8\u1fc6\u03c4\u03b5 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6.\n\nEphes. iv. 13 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u03b1 \u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd, \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03bc\u03ad\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u1f21\u03bb\u03b9\u03ba\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6.\n\n[Sidenote: St. John.]\n\nJohn i. 14, 16 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f41 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c3\u1f70\u03c1\u03be \u1f10\u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03c3\u03ba\u03ae\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd (\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u1f10\u03b8\u03b5\u03b1\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03b8\u03b1 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b4\u03cc\u03be\u03b1\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, \u03b4\u03cc\u03be\u03b1\u03bd \u1f61\u03c2 \u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u1f70 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2) \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03b7\u03c2\n\u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 ... \u1f10\u03ba \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f21\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bb\u03ac\u03b2\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u1f76 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2.\n\n[Sidenote: Ignatius.]]\n\nTo these should be added two passages from the Ignatian Epistles[542],\nwhich as belonging to the confines of the Apostolic age afford valuable\nillustration of the Apostolic language.\n\n_Ephes._ inscr. \u1f38\u03b3\u03bd\u03ac\u03c4\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2, \u1f41 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u03c6\u03cc\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2, \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03b5\u1f50\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u1fc3 \u1f10\u03bd \u03bc\u03b5\u03b3\u03ad\u03b8\u03b5\u03b9 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9[543] ... \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f10\u03ba\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u1fb3 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f00\u03be\u03b9\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff3 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03bf\u1f54\u03c3\u1fc3 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f18\u03c6\u03ad\u03c3\u1ff3\n\u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\n_Trall._ inscr. \u1f38\u03b3\u03bd\u03ac\u03c4\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2, \u1f41 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u03c6\u03cc\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 ... \u1f10\u03ba\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u1fb3 \u1f01\u03b3\u03af\u1fb3 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03bf\u1f54\u03c3\u1fc3 \u1f10\u03bd\n\u03a4\u03c1\u03ac\u03bb\u03bb\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd ... \u1f23\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 )\u03b1\u03c3\u03c0\u03ac\u03b6\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9, \u1f10\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff7\n\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c1\u03b9.\n\nFootnote 542:\n\n  The first of the two passages is contained in the short Syriac\n  recension of the Ignatian Epistles, though loosely translated; the\n  other is wanting there. I need not stop to enquire whether the second\n  was written by St Ignatius himself or by an interpolator. The\n  interpolated epistles, if they be interpolated, can hardly be later\n  than the middle of the second century and are therefore early enough\n  to afford valuable illustrations of the Apostles' language.\n\nFootnote 543:\n\n  The common texts read \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9, but there can be little doubt\n  (from a comparison of the authorities) that \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 should be struck out.\n  The present Syriac text has _et perfect\u00e6_ for \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9; but there is\n  no reason for supposing that the Syriac translator had another reading\n  before him. A slight change in the Syriac, \u0712\u072b\u0718\u0721\u0720\u071d\u0710 for \u0718\u0721\u072b\u0721\u0720\u071d\u0710, would\n  bring this Version into entire accordance with the Greek; and the\n  confusion was the more easy, because the latter word occurs in the\n  immediate context. Or the translator may have indulged in a paraphrase\n  according to his wont; just as in the longer Latin Version \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\n  here is translated _replet\u00e6_.\n\n[Sidenote: The term has a recognised value]\n\nIt will be evident, I think, from the passages in St Paul, that the word\n\u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 'fulness, plenitude', must have had a more or less definite\ntheological value when he wrote. This inference, which is suggested by\nthe frequency of the word, seems almost inevitable when we consider the\nform of the expression in the first passage quoted, Col. i. 19. The\nabsolute use of the word, \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 'all _the_ fulness', would\notherwise be unintelligible, for it does not explain itself. In my notes\nI have taken \u1f41 \u0398\u03b5\u03cc\u03c2 to be the nominative to \u03b5\u1f50\u03b4\u03cc\u03ba\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd, but if the\nsubject of the verb were \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1, as some suppose, the inference\nwould be still more necessary. The word however, regarded as a\ntheological term, does not appear to have been adopted, like so many\nother expressions in the Apostolic writers[544], from the nomenclature\nof Alexandrian Judaism. [Sidenote: derived from Palestine and not\nAlexandria.]At least no instance of its occurrence in this sense is\nproduced from Philo. We may therefore conjecture that it had a\nPalestinian origin, and that the Essene Judaizers of Coloss\u00e6, whom St\nPaul is confronting, derived it from this source. In this case it would\nrepresent the Hebrew \u05de\u05dc\u05d0, of which it is a translation in the LXX, and\nthe Aramaic \u0721\u0718\u0720\u0719\u0710 or some other derivative of the same root, such being\nits common rendering in the Peshito.\n\nFootnote 544:\n\n  See the notes on Col. i. 15 sq.\n\n[Sidenote: It denotes the totality of the Divine powers, etc. in the\n           Colossian letter.]\n\nThe sense in which St Paul employs this term was doubtless the sense\nwhich he found already attached to it. He means, as he explicitly states\nin the second Christological passage of the Colossian Epistle (ii. 9),\nthe pleroma, the plenitude of 'the Godhead' or 'of Deity'. In the first\npassage (i. 19), though the word stands without the addition \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2\n\u03b8\u03b5\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, the signification required by the context is the same. The\ntrue doctrine of the one Christ, who is the absolute mediator in the\ncreation and government of the world, is opposed to the false doctrine\nof a plurality of mediators, 'thrones, dominions, principalities,\npowers'. An absolute and unique position is claimed for Him, because in\nHim resides 'all the pleroma', i.e. the full complement, the aggregate\nof the Divine attributes, virtues, energies. This is another way of\nexpressing the fact that He is the Logos, for the Logos is the synthesis\nof all the various \u03b4\u03c5\u03bd\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2, in and by which God manifests Himself\nwhether in the kingdom of nature or in the kingdom of grace.\n\n[Sidenote: Analogy to its usage elsewhere: e.g.]\n\nThis application is in entire harmony with the fundamental meaning of\nthe word. The term has been transferred to the region of theology, but\nin itself it conveys exactly the same idea as before. It implies that\nall the several elements which are required to realise the conception\nspecified are present, and that each appears in its full proportions.\n[Sidenote: in Philo of the family]Thus Philo, describing the ideal state\nof prosperity which will result from absolute obedience to God's law,\nmentions among other blessings the perfect development of the family:\n'Men shall be fathers and fathers too of goodly sons, and women shall be\nmothers of goodly children, so that each household shall be the\n_pleroma_ of a numerous kindred, where no part or name is wanting of all\nthose which are used to designate relations, whether in the ascending\nline, as parents, uncles, grandfathers, or again in the descending line\nin like manner, as brothers, nephews, sons' sons, daughters' sons,\ncousins, cousins' sons, kinsmen of all degrees[545].' [Sidenote: and in\nAristotle, of the state.]So again Aristotle, criticizing the _Republic_\nof Plato, writes; 'Socrates says that a city (or state) is composed of\nfour classes, as its indispensable elements (\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03b3\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c4\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd): by\nthese he means the weaver, the husbandman, the shoemaker, and the\nbuilder; and again, because these are not sufficient by themselves, he\nadds the smith and persons to look after the necessary cattle, and\nbesides them the merchant and the retail dealer: these together make up\nthe _pleroma_ of a city in its simplest form (\u03c4\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b3\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9\n\u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u03ce\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2); thus he assumes that a city is formed to\nsupply the bare necessities of life (\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03b3\u03ba\u03c9\u03bd \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03bd) etc.'[546]. From\nthese passages it will be seen that the adequacy implied by the word, as\nso used, consists not less in the variety of the elements than in the\nfulness of the entire quantity or number.\n\nFootnote 545:\n\n  _de Pr\u00e6m. et P\u00e6n._ 18 (II. p. 425). The important words are \u1f61\u03c2 \u1f15\u03ba\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd\n  \u03bf\u1f36\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03c5\u03b1\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c3\u03c5\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, \u03bc\u03b7\u03b4\u03b5\u03bd\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bb\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03c6\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f22\n  \u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u1f22 \u1f40\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f45\u03c3\u03b1 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c6\u03b7\u03bc\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. The construction of the\n  subsequent part of the sentence is obscure; and for \u1f41\u03bc\u03bf\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 we should\n  probably read \u1f41\u03bc\u03bf\u03af\u03c9\u03c2.\n\nFootnote 546:\n\n  Arist. _Pol._ iv. 4 (p. 1291).\n\n[Sidenote: Transition from Colossians to Ephesians.]\n\nSo far the explanation seems clear. But when we turn from the Colossian\nletter to the Ephesian, it is necessary to bear in mind the different\naims of the two epistles. While in the former the Apostle's main object\nis to assert the supremacy of the Person of Christ, in the latter his\nprincipal theme is the life and energy of the Church, as dependent on\nChrist[547]. So the pleroma residing in Christ is viewed from a\ndifferent aspect, no longer in relation to God, so much as in relation\nto the Church. [Sidenote: Corresponding application of \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 to the\nChurch.]It is that plenitude of Divine graces and virtues which is\ncommunicated through Christ to the Church as His body. The Church, as\n_ideally_ regarded, the bride 'without spot or wrinkle or any such\nthing', becomes in a manner identified with Him[548]. All the Divine\ngraces which reside in Him are imparted to her; His 'fulness' is\ncommunicated to her: and thus she may be said to be His pleroma (i. 23).\nThis is the ideal Church. The actual militant Church must be ever\nadvancing, ever struggling towards the attainment of this ideal. Hence\nthe Apostle describes the end of all offices and administrations in the\nChurch to be that the collective body may attain its full and mature\ngrowth, or (in other words) may grow up to the complete stature of\nChrist's fulness[549]. But Christ's fulness is God's fulness. Hence in\nanother passage he prays that the brethren may by the indwelling of\nChrist be fulfilled till they attain to the _pleroma_ of God (iii. 19).\nIt is another way of expressing the continuous aspiration and effort\nafter holiness which is enjoined in our Lord's precept, 'Ye shall be\nperfect as your heavenly Father is perfect'[550].\n\nFootnote 547:\n\n  See the notes on Col. ii. 19 (p. 266).\n\nFootnote 548:\n\n  Ephes. v. 27 sq.\n\nFootnote 549:\n\n  The Apostle in this passage (Ephes. iv. 13) is evidently contemplating\n  the collective body, and not the individual believers. He writes \u03bf\u1f31\n  \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2, not \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2, and \u1f04\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u03b1 \u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd, not \u1f04\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03ad\u03b9\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2. As he has\n  said before _\u1f11\u03bd\u1f76 \u1f11\u03ba\u03ac\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff3_ \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03b4\u03cc\u03b8\u03b7 [\u1f21] \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2 _\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f78\n  \u03bc\u03ad\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd_ \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03c9\u03c1\u03b5\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, so now he describes the result of\n  these various partial graces bestowed on _individuals_ to be the unity\n  and mature growth of the _whole_, 'the building up of the _body_',\n  \u03bc\u03b5\u03c7\u03c1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03c9\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd _\u03bf\u1f31 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2_ \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd _\u1f11\u03bd\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1_ ... \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2\n  _\u1f04\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u03b1_ \u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd, \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03bc\u03ad\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u1f21\u03bb\u03b9\u03ba\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6.\n  This corporate being must grow up into the one colossal Man, the\n  standard of whose spiritual and moral stature is nothing less than the\n  pleroma of Christ Himself.\n\nFootnote 550:\n\n  Matt. v. 48.\n\n[Sidenote: Gospel of St. John.]\n\nThe Gospel of St John, written in the first instance for the same\nChurches to which the Epistle to the Ephesians was sent, has numerous\nand striking points of resemblance with St Paul's letter. This is the\ncase here. As St Paul tells the Ephesians that the ideal Church is the\npleroma of Christ and that the militant Church must strive to become the\npleroma of Christ, so St John (i. 14 sq.) after describing our Lord as\n\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03ae\u03c2, i.e. the unique and absolute representative of the Father,\nand as such 'full (\u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03b7\u03c2) of grace and of truth', says that they, the\ndisciples, had 'received out of His pleroma' ever fresh accessions of\ngrace. Each individual believer in his degree receives a fraction of\nthat pleroma which is communicated whole to the ideal Church.\n\n[Sidenote: Ignatian letters.]\n\nThe use of the word is not very different in the Ignatian letters. St\nIgnatius greets this same Ephesian Church, to which St Paul and St John\nsuccessively here addressed the language already quoted, as 'blessed in\ngreatness by the pleroma of God the Father,' i.e. by graces imparted\nfrom the pleroma. To the Trallians again he sends a greeting 'in the\npleroma', where the word denotes the sphere of Divine gifts and\noperations, so that \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9 is almost equivalent to \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3\nor \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9.\n\n[Sidenote: Gnostic sects.]\n\nWhen we turn from Catholic Christianity to the Gnostic sects we find\nthis term used, though (with one important exception) not in great\nfrequency. Probably however, if the writings of the earlier Gnostics had\nbeen preserved, we should have found that it occupied a more important\nplace than at present appears. One class of early Gnostics separated the\nspiritual being Christ from the man Jesus; they supposed that the Christ\nentered Jesus at the time of His baptism and left him at the moment of\nHis crucifixion. Thus the Christ was neither born as a man nor suffered\nas a man. In this way they obviated the difficulty, insuperable to the\nGnostic mind, of conceiving the connexion between the highest spiritual\nagency and gross corporeal matter which was involved in the Catholic\ndoctrine of the Incarnation and Passion, and which Gnostics of another\ntype more effectually set aside by the theory of docetism, i.e. by\nassuming that the human body of our Lord was only a phantom body and not\nreal flesh and blood. Iren\u00e6us represents the former class as teaching\nthat 'Jesus was the receptacle of the Christ', and that the Christ\n'descended upon him from heaven in the form of a dove and after He had\ndeclared (to mankind) the nameless Father, entered (again) into the\npleroma imperceptibly and invisibly'[551]. [Sidenote: The\nCerinthians.]Here no names are given. But in another passage he ascribes\nprecisely the same doctrine, without however naming the pleroma, to\nCerinthus[552]. And in a third passage, which links together the other\ntwo, this same father, after mentioning this heresiarch, again alludes\nto the doctrine which maintained that the Christ, having descended on\nJesus at his baptism, 'flew back again into His own pleroma'[553]. In\nthis last passage indeed the opinions of Cerinthus are mentioned in\nconnexion with those of other Gnostics, more especially the\nValentinians, so that we cannot with any certainty attribute this\nexpression to Cerinthus himself. But in the first passage the unnamed\nheretics who maintained this return of the Christ 'into the pleroma' are\nexpressly distinguished from the Valentinians; and presumably therefore\nthe allusion is to the Cerinthians, to whom the doctrine, though not the\nexpression, is ascribed in the second passage. [Sidenote: Connexion of\nthis use with St Paul and with the Colossian heretics.]Thus there seems\nto be sufficient reason for attributing the use of the term to\nCerinthus[554]. This indeed is probable on other grounds. The term\n_pleroma_, we may presume, was common to St Paul and the Colossian\nheretics whom he controverts. To both alike it conveyed the same idea,\nthe totality of the divine powers or attributes or agencies or\nmanifestations. But after this the divergence begins. They maintained\nthat a single divine power, a fraction of the pleroma, resided in our\nLord: the Apostle urges on the contrary, that the whole pleroma has its\nabode in Him[555]. The doctrine of Cerinthus was a development of the\nColossian heresy, as I have endeavoured to show above[556]. He would\ntherefore inherit the term _pleroma_ from it. [Sidenote: The _pleroma_\nlocalized.]At the same time he seems to have given a poetical colouring\nto his doctrine, and so doing to have treated the pleroma as a\n_locality_, a higher spiritual region, from which this divine power,\ntypified by the dove-like form, issued forth as on wings, and to which,\ntaking flight again, it reascended before the Passion. If so, his\nlanguage would prepare the way for the still more elaborate poetic\nimagery of the Valentinians, in which the pleroma, conceived as a\nlocality, a region, an _abode_ of the divine powers, is conspicuous.\n\nFootnote 551:\n\n  iii. 16. 1 'Quoniam autem sunt qui dicunt Iesum quidem receptaculum\n  Christi fuisse, in quem desuper quasi columbam descendisse, et quum\n  indicasset innominabilem Patrem, incomprehensibiliter et invisibiliter\n  _intrasse in pleroma_'.\n\nFootnote 552:\n\n  i. 26. 1 'post baptismum descendisse in eum ab ea principalitate, qu\u00e6\n  est super omnia, Christum figura columb\u00e6; et tunc annuntiasse\n  incognitum Patrem et virtutes perfecisse: in fine autem _revolasse\n  iterum_ Christum de Iesu et Iesum passum esse et resurrexisse, etc.'\n\nFootnote 553:\n\n  iii. 11. 1 'iterum revolasse in suum pleroma'. This expression is the\n  connecting link between the other two passages. This third passage is\n  quoted more at length, above, p. 112: but I ought to have stated there\n  that _illi_ is referred by several critics to the Valentinians, and\n  that certainly some characteristic errors of the Valentinian teaching\n  are specified immediately after. The probable explanation seems to be\n  that _illi_ is intended to include the Gnostics generally, and that\n  Iren\u00e6us mentions in illustration the principal errors of Gnostic\n  teaching, irrespective of the schools to which they belong. He goes on\n  to say that St John in his Gospel desired to exclude 'omnia talia'.\n\nFootnote 554:\n\n  I have not been able however to verify the statement in Harvey's\n  _Iren\u00e6us_ I. p. lxxiii that 'The Valentinian notion of a spiritual\n  marriage between the souls of the elect and the angels of the Pleroma\n  originated with Cerinthus'.\n\nFootnote 555:\n\n  See p. 101 sq., and the notes on i. 19.\n\nFootnote 556:\n\n  p. 107 sq.\n\n[Sidenote: The term avoided by Basilides,]\n\nThe attitude of later Gnostics towards this term is widely divergent.\nThe word is not, so far as I am aware, once mentioned in connexion with\nthe system of Basilides. Indeed the nomenclature of this heresiarch\nbelongs to a wholly different type; and, as he altogether repudiated the\ndoctrine of emanations[557], it is not probable that he would have any\nfondness for a term which was almost inextricably entangled with this\ndoctrine.\n\nFootnote 557:\n\n  Hippol. _R. H._ vii. 22 \u03c6\u03b5\u03cd\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03ad\u03b4\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03b2\u03bf\u03bb\u1f74\u03bd\n  \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b3\u03b5\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03cc\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f41 \u0392\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03b4\u03b7\u03c2. Basilides asked why the absolute\n  First Cause should be likened to a spider spinning threads from\n  itself, or a smith or carpenter working up his materials. The later\n  Basilideans, apparently influenced by Valentinianism, superadded to\n  the teaching of their founder in this respect; but the strong language\n  quoted by Hippolytus leaves no doubt about the mind of Basilides\n  himself.\n\n[Sidenote: but prominent in Valentinianism.]\n\nOn the other hand with Valentinus and the Valentinians the doctrine of\nthe _pleroma_ was the very key-stone of their system; and, since at\nfirst sight it is somewhat difficult to connect their use of the term\nwith St Paul's, a few words on this subject may not be out of place.\n\n[Sidenote: Poetic teaching of Valentinus.]\n\nValentinus then dressed his system in a poetic imagery not unlike the\nmyths of his master Plato. But a myth or story involves action, and\naction requires a scene of action. Hence the mysteries of theology and\ncosmogony and redemption call for a _topographical_ representation, and\nthe pleroma appears not as an abstract idea, but as a locality.\n\n[Sidenote: _Topographical_ conception of the pleroma.]\n\nThe Valentinian system accordingly maps out the universe of things into\ntwo great regions, called respectively the _pleroma_ and the _kenoma_,\nthe 'fulness' and the 'void'. From a Christian point of view these may\nbe described as the kingdoms of light and of darkness respectively.\n[Sidenote: Antithesis of _pleroma_ and _kenoma_.]From the side of\nPlatonism, they are the regions of real and of phenomenal existences\u2014the\nworld of eternal archetypes or ideas, and the world of material and\nsensible things. The identification of these two antitheses was rendered\neasy for the Gnostic; because with him knowledge was one with morality\nand with salvation, and because also matter was absolutely bound up with\nevil. It is difficult to say whether the Platonism or the Christianity\npredominates in the Valentinian theology; but the former at all events\nis especially prominent in their conception of the relations between the\npleroma and the kenoma.\n\n[Sidenote: _Pleroma_ the abode of the \u00c6ons.]\n\nThe pleroma is the abode of the \u00c6ons, who are thirty in number. These\n\u00c6ons are successive emanations, of which the first pair sprang\nimmediately from the preexistent Bythus or Depth. This Bythus is deity\nin itself, the absolute first principle, as the name suggests; the\nprofound, unfathomable, limitless, of whom or of which nothing can be\npredicated and nothing known. Here again we have something like a\n_local_ representation. The \u00c6ons or emanations are plainly the\nattributes and energies of deity; they are, or they comprise, the\neternal ideas or archetypes of the Platonic philosophy. In short they\nare deity relative, deity under self-imposed limitations, deity derived\nand divided up, as it were, so as at length to be conceivable.\n\n[Sidenote: Different forms of Valentinianism.]\n\nThe topographical relation of Bythus to the derived \u00c6ons was differently\ngiven in different developments of the Valentinian teaching. According\nto one representation he was outside the pleroma; others placed his\nabode within it, but even in this case he was separated from the rest by\nHorus (\u1f4d\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2), a personified Boundary or Fence, whom none, not even the\n\u00c6ons themselves, could pass[558]. The former mode of representation\nmight be thought to accord better with the imagery, at the same time\nthat it is more accurate if regarded as the embodiment of a\nphilosophical conception. Nevertheless the latter was the favourite mode\nof delineation; and it had at least this recommendation, that it\ncombined in one all that is real, as opposed to all that is phenomenal.\nIn this pleroma every existence which is suprasensual and therefore true\nhas its abode.\n\nFootnote 558:\n\n  For the various modes in which the relation of the absolute first\n  principle to the pleroma was represented in different Valentinian\n  schools, see Iren. i. 1. 1, i. 2. 4, i. 11. 1, 3, 5, i. 12. 1, etc.\n  The main distinction is that stated in the text: the first principle\n  was represented in two ways; either (i) as a monad, outside the\n  pleroma; or (ii) as a dyad, a syzygy, most commonly under the\n  designation of \u0392\u03c5\u03b8\u03cc\u03c2 and \u03a3\u03b9\u03b3\u03ae, included within the pleroma but fenced\n  off from the other \u00e6ons. The Valentinian doctrine as given by\n  Hippolytus (vi. 29 sq.) represents the former type. There are good,\n  though perhaps not absolutely decisive, reasons for supposing that\n  this father gives the original teaching of Valentinus himself. For (1)\n  this very doctrine of the monad seems to point to an earlier date. It\n  is the link which connects the system of Valentinus not only with\n  Pythagoreanism to which (as Hippolytus points out) he was so largely\n  indebted, but also with the teaching of the earlier heresiarch\n  Basilides, whose first principle likewise was a monad, the absolute\n  nothing, the non-existent God. The conception of the first principle\n  as a dyad seems to have been a later, and not very happy, modification\n  of the doctrine of the founder, being in fact an extension of the\n  principle of syzygies which Valentinus with a truer philosophical\n  conception had restricted to the derived essences. (2) The exposition\n  of Hippolytus throughout exhibits a system at once more consistent and\n  more simple, than the luxuriant developments of the later\n  Valentinians, such as Ptolem\u00e6us and Marcus. (3) The sequence of his\n  statement points to the same conclusion. He gives a consecutive\n  account of some one system, turning aside from time to time to notice\n  the variations of different Valentinian schools from this standard and\n  again resuming the main thread of his exposition. It seems most\n  natural therefore that he should have taken the system of the founder\n  as his basis. On the other hand Iren\u00e6us (i. 11. 1) states that\n  Valentinus represented the first principle as a dyad (\u1f0c\u03c1\u03c1\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 or\n  \u0392\u03c5\u03b8\u1f41\u03c2, and \u03a3\u03b9\u03b3\u03ae): but there is no evidence that he had any direct or\n  indirect knowledge of the writings of Valentinus himself, and his\n  information was derived from the later disciples of the school, more\n  especially from the Ptolem\u00e6ans.\n\n[Sidenote: _Kenoma_, the region of phenomena.]\n\nSeparated from this celestial region by Horus, another Horus or\nBoundary, which, or who, like the former is impassable, lies the\n'kenoma' or 'void'\u2014the kingdom of this world, the region of matter and\nmaterial things, the land of shadow and darkness[559]. Here is the\nempire of the Demiurge or Creator, who is not a celestial \u00c6on at all,\nbut was born in this very void over which he reigns. Here reside all\nthose phenomenal, deceptive, transitory things, of which the eternal\ncounterparts are found only in the pleroma.\n\nFootnote 559:\n\n  Iren. i. 4. 1, 2, ii. 3. 1, ii. 4. 1, 3, ii. 5. 1, ii. 8. 1\u20133, ii. 14.\n  3, iii. 25. 6, 7, etc.\n\n[Sidenote: Platonism of this antithesis.]\n\nIt is in this antithesis that the Platonism of the Valentinian theory\nreaches its climax. All things are set off one against another in these\ntwo regions[560]: just as\n\n                    The swan on still St Mary's lake\n                    Floats double, swan and shadow.\n\nNot only have the thirty \u00c6ons their terrestrial counterparts; but their\nsubdivisions also are represented in this lower region. The kenoma too\nhas its ogdoad, its decad, its dodecad, like the pleroma[561]. There is\none Sophia in the supramundane region, and another in the mundane; there\nis one Christ who redeems the \u00c6ons in the spiritual world, and a second\nChrist who redeems mankind, or rather a portion of mankind, in the\nsensible world. There is an \u00c6on Man and another \u00c6on Ecclesia in the\ncelestial kingdom, the ideal counterparts to the Human Race and the\nChristian Church of the terrestrial. Even individual men and women, as\nwe shall see presently, have their archetypes in this higher sphere of\nintelligible being.\n\nFootnote 560:\n\n  Iren. i. 6. 3, i. 7. 1 sq., ii. 14. 3, ii. 15. 3 sq., ii. 20. 5, ii.\n  30. 3, etc.\n\nFootnote 561:\n\n  Iren. i. 5. 2, ii. 14. 3; comp. Hippol. vi. 34.\n\n[Sidenote: The localization of the _pleroma_ carried out in detail.]\n\nThe topographical conception of the pleroma moreover is carried out in\nthe details of the imagery. The second Sophia, called also Achamoth, is\nthe desire, the offspring, of her elder namesake, separated from her\nmother, cast out of the pleroma, and left 'stranded' in the void\nbeyond[562], being prevented from returning by the inexorable Horus who\nguards the frontier of the supramundane kingdom. The second Christ\u2014a\nbeing compounded of elements contributed by all the \u00c6ons[563]\u2014was sent\ndown from the pleroma, first of all at the eve of creation to infuse\nsomething like order and to provide for a spiritual element in this\nlower world; and secondly, when He united Himself with the man Jesus for\nthe sake of redeeming those who were capable of redemption[564]. At the\nend of all things Sophia Achamoth, and with her the spiritual portion of\nmankind, shall be redeemed and received up into the pleroma, while the\npsychical portion will be left outside to form another kingdom under the\ndominion of their father the Demiurge. This redemption and ascension of\nAchamoth (by a perversion of a scriptural image) was represented as her\nespousals with the Saviour, the second Christ; and the pleroma, the\nscene of this happy union, was called the bridal-chamber[565]. Indeed\nthe localization of the pleroma is as complete as language can make it.\nThe constant repetition of the words 'within' and 'without', 'above' and\n'beneath', in the development of this philosophical and religious myth\nstill further impresses this local sense on the term[566].\n\nFootnote 562:\n\n  Iren. i. 4. 1 \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c3\u03ba\u03b9\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 [\u03c3\u03ba\u03b9\u1fb6\u03c2] \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03b5\u03bd\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03cc\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2\n  _)\u03b5\u03ba\u03b2\u03b5\u03b2\u03c1\u03ac\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9_ \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. The Greek MS reads \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03ba\u03b7\u03bd\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, but the\n  rendering of the early Latin translation 'in umbr\u00e6 [et?] vacuitatis\n  locis' leaves no doubt about the word in the original text. Tertullian\n  says of this Achamoth (_adv. Valent._ 14) 'explosa est in loca luminis\n  aliena ... in vacuum atque inane illud Epicuri'. See note 567.\n\nFootnote 563:\n\n  Iren. i. 2. 6, Hippol. vi. 32.\n\nFootnote 564:\n\n  They quoted, as referring to this descent of the second Christ into\n  the kenoma, the words of St Paul, Phil. ii. 7 \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba\u03ad\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd; Clem.\n  Alex. _Exc. Theod._ 35 (p. 978).\n\nFootnote 565:\n\n  Iren. i. 7. 1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03bd\u03c5\u03bc\u03c6\u03af\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bd\u03cd\u03bc\u03c6\u03b7\u03bd, _\u03bd\u03c5\u03bc\u03c6\u1ff6\u03bd\u03b1_ \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u1f78\n  \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1: comp. Hippol. vi. 34 \u1f41 \u03bd\u03c5\u03bc\u03c6\u03af\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2.\n\nFootnote 566:\n\n  This language is so frequent that special references are needless. In\n  Iren. ii. 5. 3 we have a still stronger expression, 'in ventre\n  pleromatis'.\n\n[Sidenote: The connexion with St. Paul's use of the term obscured,]\n\nIn this topographical representation the connexion of meaning in the\nword _pleroma_ as employed by St Paul and by Valentinus respectively\nseems at first sight to be entirely lost. When we read of the contrast\nbetween the pleroma and the kenoma, the fulness and the void, we are\nnaturally reminded of the _plenum_ and the _vacuum_ of physical\nspeculations. The sense of pleroma, as expressing completeness and so\ndenoting the aggregate or totality of the Divine powers, seems\naltogether to have disappeared. [Sidenote: owing partly to the false\nantithesis \u03ba\u03ad\u03bd\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1]But in fact this antithesis of \u03ba\u03ad\u03bd\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 was, so far as\nwe can make out, a mere after-thought, and appears to have been\nborrowed, as Iren\u00e6us states, from the physical theories of Democritus\nand Epicurus[567]. It would naturally suggest itself both because the\nopposition of \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03b7\u03c2 and \u03ba\u03b5\u03bd\u1f78\u03c2 was obvious, and because the word \u03ba\u03ad\u03bd\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\nmaterially assisted the imagery as a description of the kingdom of waste\nand shadow. But in itself it is a false antithesis. [Sidenote: borrowed\nfrom physical philosophers;]The true antithesis appears in another, and\nprobably an earlier, term used to describe the mundane kingdom. In this\nearlier representation, which there is good reason for ascribing to\nValentinus himself, it is called not \u03ba\u03ad\u03bd\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 'the void', but \u1f51\u03c3\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1\n'the deficiency, incompleteness'[568]. [Sidenote: but reappears in their\ncommon phraseology.]Moreover the common phraseology of the Valentinian\nschools shows that the idea suggested by this opposition to \u03ba\u03ad\u03bd\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 was\nnot the original idea of the term. They speak of \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b1\u1f34\u03c9\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd,\n\u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b1\u1f34\u03c9\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd, 'the whole aggregate of the \u00c6ons'[569]. And\nthis (making allowance for the personification of the \u00c6ons) corresponds\nexactly to its use in St Paul.\n\nFootnote 567:\n\n  Iren. ii. 14. 3 'Umbram autem et vacuum ipsorum a Democrito et Epicuro\n  sumentes sibimetipsis _aptaverunt_, quum illi primum multum sermonem\n  fecerint de vacuo et de atomis'.\n\nFootnote 568:\n\n  Hippol. vi. 31 \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f45\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u1f41\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f00\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n  \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f14\u03be\u03c9 \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f51\u03c3\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1\u00b7 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf\u03c7\u1f72\u03c5\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b5 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03ad\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n  \u1f51\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 (i.e. as standing between the \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 and \u1f51\u03c3\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1)\u00b7\n  \u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03c5\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b4\u03ad, \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c0\u03ad\u03c0\u03b7\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd \u1f00\u03ba\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03cc\u03b7\u03c4\u03c9\u03c2, \u1f61\u03c2 \u03bc\u1f74 \u03b4\u03cd\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03bc\u03b7\u03b4\u1f72\u03bd\n  \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f51\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03ad\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f10\u03b3\u03b3\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f34\u03c9\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd.\n  Iren\u00e6us represents the Marcosians as designating the Demiurge \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03c0\u1f78\u03c2\n  \u1f51\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 i. 17. 2, i. 19. 1, ii. pr\u00e6f. 1, ii. 1. 1 (comp. i. 14.\n  1). This was perhaps intended originally as an antithesis to the name\n  of the Christ, who was \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03c0\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2. The Marcosians however\n  apparently meant Sophia Achamoth by this \u1f51\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1. This transference\n  from the whole to the part would be in strict accordance with their\n  terminology: for as they called the supramundane \u00e6ons \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 (Iren.\n  i. 14. 2, 5; quoted in Hippol. vi. 43, 46), so also by analogy they\n  might designate the mundane Powers \u1f51\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 (comp. Iren. i. 16. 3).\n  The term, as it occurs in the document used by Hippolytus, plainly\n  denotes the _whole_ mundane region.\n\n  Hippolytus does not use the word \u03ba\u03ad\u03bd\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1, though so common in Iren\u00e6us.\n  This fact seems to point to the earlier date of the Valentinian\n  document which he uses, and so to bear out the result arrived at in a\n  previous note (p. 332) that we have here a work of Valentinus himself.\n  The word \u1f51\u03c3\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1 appears also in _Exc. Theod._ 22 (p. 974).\n\nFootnote 569:\n\n  e.g. Hippol. vi. 34, Iren. i. 2. 6. See especially Iren. ii. 7. 3\n  'Quoniam enim pleroma ipsorum triginta Aeones sunt, ipsi testantur'.\n\n[Sidenote: The original meaning shown by other uses.]\n\nAgain the teaching of the Valentinian schools supplies other uses which\nserve to illustrate its meaning. Not only does the supramundane kingdom\nas a whole bear this name, but each separate \u00c6on, of which that kingdom\nis the aggregation, is likewise called a pleroma[570]. This designation\nis given to an \u00c6on, because it is the fulness, the perfection, of which\nits mundane counterpart is only a shadowy and defective copy. Nor does\nthe narrowing of the term stop here. There likewise dwells in this\nhigher region a pleroma, or eternal archetype, not only of every\ncomprehensive mundane power, but of each individual man; and to wed\nhimself with this heavenly partner, this Divine ideal of himself, must\nbe the study of his life. [Sidenote: Interpretation of John iv. 17,\n18.]The profound moral significance, which underlies the exaggerated\nPlatonism and perverse exegesis of this conception, will be at once\napparent. But the manner in which the theory was carried out is\ncuriously illustrated by the commentary of the Valentinian Heracleon on\nour Lord's discourse with the Samaritan woman[571]. This woman, such is\nhis explanation, belongs to the spiritual portion of mankind. But she\nhad had six[572] husbands, or in other words she had entangled herself\nwith the material world, had defiled herself with sensuous things. The\nhusband however, whom she now has, is not her husband; herein she has\nspoken rightly: the Saviour in fact means 'her partner from the\npleroma'. Hence she is bidden to go and call him; that is, she must find\n'her pleroma, that coming to the Saviour with him (or it), she may be\nable to obtain from Him the power and the union and the combination with\nher pleroma' (\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b4\u03cd\u03bd\u03b1\u03bc\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f15\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03ac\u03ba\u03c1\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\n\u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2). 'For', adds Heracleon, 'He did not speak of a mundane\n(\u03ba\u03bf\u03c3\u03bc\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u1fe6) husband when He told her to call him, since He was not\nignorant that she had no lawful husband'.\n\nFootnote 570:\n\n  See the passages from Iren\u00e6us quoted above, note 568; comp. _Exc.\n  Theod._ 32, 33 (p. 977). Similarly \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03b9 is a synonym for the \u00c6ons,\n  \u1f41\u03bc\u03c9\u03bd\u03cd\u03bc\u03c9\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u039b\u03cc\u03b3\u1ff3, _Exc. Theod._ 25 (p. 975).\n\nFootnote 571:\n\n  Heracleon in Orig. _in Ioann._ xiii, iv. p. 205 sq. The passages are\n  collected in Stieren's Iren\u00e6us p. 947 sq. See especially p. 950 \u1f44\u03b9\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9\n  [\u1f41 \u1f29\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03bb\u03ad\u03c9\u03bd] \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03a3\u03b1\u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03b5\u03af\u03c4\u03b9\u03b4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03bb\u03b5\u03b3\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03c9\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u03b1 \u03c4\u1f78\n  _\u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2_, \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03c3\u1f7a\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03bd\u1ff3 \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c3\u03c9\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c1\u03b1\n  \u03ba\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03c3\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b4\u03cd\u03bd\u03b1\u03bc\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f15\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03ac\u03ba\u03c1\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd\n  \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 _\u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b1\u1f51\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2_ \u03b4\u03c5\u03bd\u03b7\u03b8\u1fc7\u00b7 \u03bf\u1f50 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2, \u03c6\u03b7\u03c3\u03af,\n  \u03ba\u03bf\u03c3\u03bc\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f14\u03bb\u03b5\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd ... \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03c9\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c3\u03c9\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c1\u03b1 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c1\u03b7\u03ba\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9, \u03a6\u03ce\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u03cc\u03bd \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd\n  \u1f04\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bb\u03b8\u1f72 \u1f10\u03bd\u03b8\u03ac\u03b4\u03b5\u00b7 \u03b4\u03b7\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 _\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c3\u03cd\u03b6\u03c5\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd_.\n  Lower down Heracleon says \u1f26\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f41 \u1f00\u03bd\u1f74\u03c1 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff7 \u0391\u1f30\u1ff6\u03bd\u03b9. By this last\n  expression I suppose he means that the great \u00e6on Man of the Ogdoad,\n  the eternal archetype of mankind, comprises in itself archetypes\n  corresponding to each individual man and woman, not indeed of the\n  whole human race (for the Valentinian would exclude the psychical and\n  carnal portion from any participation in this higher region) but of\n  the spiritual portion thereof.\n\nFootnote 572:\n\n  Origen expressly states that Heracleon read \u1f15\u03be for \u03c0\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5. The number\n  six was supposed to symbolize the material creature: see Heracleon on\n  'the forty and _six_ years' of John ii. 20 (Stieren p. 947). There is\n  no reason to think that Heracleon falsified the text here; he appears\n  to have found this various reading already in his copy.\n\n[Sidenote: Valentinians accept St Paul and St John,]\n\nImpossible as it seems to us to reconcile the Valentinian system with\nthe teaching of the Apostles, the Valentinians themselves felt no such\ndifficulty. They intended their philosophy not to supersede or\ncontradict the Apostolic doctrine, but to supplement it and to explain\nit on philosophical principles. Hence the Canon of the Valentinians\ncomprehended the Canon of Catholic Christianity in all its essential\nparts, though some Valentinian schools at all events supplemented it\nwith Apocryphal writings. More particularly the Gospel of St John and\nthe Epistles to the Colossians and Ephesians were regarded with especial\nfavour; and those passages which speak of the pleroma are quoted more\nthan once in their writings to illustrate their teaching. [Sidenote: and\nquote them in support of their views.]By isolating a few words from the\ncontext and interpreting them wholly without reference to their setting,\nthey had no difficulty in finding a confirmation of their views, where\nwe see only an incongruity or even a contradiction. For instance, their\nsecond Christ\u2014the redeemer of the spiritual element in the mundane\nworld\u2014was, as we saw, compacted of gifts contributed by all the \u00c6ons of\nthe pleroma. Hence he was called 'the common fruit of the pleroma', 'the\nfruit of all the pleroma'[573], 'the most perfect beauty and\nconstellation of the pleroma'[574]; hence also he was designated 'All'\n(\u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd) and 'All things' (\u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1)[575]. Accordingly, to this second Christ,\nnot to the first, they applied these texts; Col. iii. 11 'And He is all\nthings', Rom. xi. 36 'All things are unto Him and from Him are all\nthings', Col. ii. 9 'In Him dwelleth all the fulness of the Godhead',\nEphes. i. 10 'To gather together in one all things in Christ through\nGod'[576]. So too they styled him )\u0395\u03c5\u03b4\u03cc\u03ba\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, with a reference to Col.\ni. 19, because 'all the pleroma was pleased through Him to glorify the\nFather'[577]. And inasmuch as this second Christ was according to the\nValentinian theory instrumental in the creation of the mundane powers,\nthey quoted, or rather misquoted, as referring to this participation in\nthe work of the Demiurge, the passage Col. i. 16 'In Him were created\nall things, visible and invisible, thrones, deities, dominions'[578].\nIndeed it seems clear that these adaptations were not always\nafterthoughts, but that in several instances at least their nomenclature\nwas originally chosen for the sake of fitting the theory to isolated\nphrases and expressions in the Apostolic writings, however much it might\nconflict with the Apostolic doctrine in its main lines[579].\n\nFootnote 573:\n\n  The expression is \u1f41 \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03c0\u1f78\u03c2 in Hippolytus vi. 32,\n  34, 36 (pp. 190, 191, 192, 193, 196). In Iren\u00e6us i. 8. 5 it is \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03c0\u1f78\u03c2\n  \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2.\n\nFootnote 574:\n\n  Iren. i. 2. 6 \u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03cc\u03c4\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03ac\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f04\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2.\n\nFootnote 575:\n\n  Iren. i. 2. 6, i. 3. 4.\n\nFootnote 576:\n\n  Iren. i. 3. 4. The passages are given in the text as they are quoted\n  by Iren\u00e6us from the Valentinians. Three out of the four are incorrect.\n\nFootnote 577:\n\n  Iren. i. 12. 4; comp. _Exc. Theod._ 31 (p. 977) \u03b5\u1f30 \u1f41 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03b8\u1f7c\u03bd \u03b5\u1f50\u03b4\u03bf\u03ba\u03af\u03b1\n  \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f45\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f26\u03bd\u00b7 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03c0\u1fb6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u1f26\u03bd \u03c3\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03c2.\n\nFootnote 578:\n\n  Iren. i. 4. 5 \u1f45\u03c0\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03b8\u1fc7, \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f41\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f00\u03cc\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1,\n  \u03b8\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9, \u03b8\u03b5\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2, \u03ba\u03c5\u03c1\u03b9\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2, where the misquotation is remarkable. In\n  _Exc. Theod._ 43 (p. 979) the words run \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f10\u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b8\u03b7 \u03c4\u1f70\n  \u1f41\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f00\u03cc\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1, \u03b8\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9, \u03ba\u03c5\u03c1\u03b9\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2, \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u1fd6\u03b1\u03b9, \u03b8\u03b5\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2,\n  \u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c1\u03b3\u03af\u03b1\u03b9\u00b7 \u03b4\u1f76\u03bf \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f41 \u0398\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03cd\u03c8\u03c9\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. (the last words\n  being taken from Phil. ii. 9 sq.).\n\nFootnote 579:\n\n  Thus they interpreted Ephes. iii. 21 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u1f72\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b1\u1f30\u1ff6\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2\n  \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b1\u1f30\u03ce\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd as referring to their generated \u00e6ons: Iren. i. 3. 1.\n  Similar is the use which they made of expressions in the opening\n  chapter of St John, where they found their first Ogdoad described:\n  _ib._ i. 8. 5.\n\n[Sidenote: Use of the term by the Docet\u00e6]\n\nThe heretics called Docet\u00e6 by Hippolytus have no connexion with\ndocetism, as it is generally understood, i.e. the tenet that Christ's\nbody was not real flesh and blood, but merely a phantom body. Their\nviews on this point, as represented by this father, are wholly\ndifferent[580]. Of their system generally nothing need be said here,\nexcept that it is largely saturated with Valentinian ideas and phrases.\nFrom the Valentinians they evidently borrowed their conception of the\npleroma, by which they understood the aggregate, or (as localized) the\nabode, of the \u00c6ons. With them, as with the Valentinians, the Saviour is\nthe common product of all the \u00c6ons[581]; and in speaking of him they\necho a common Valentinian phrase 'the pleroma of the entire \u00c6ons'[582].\n\nFootnote 580:\n\n  _R. H._ viii. 10 (p. 267).\n\nFootnote 581:\n\n  _ib._ viii. 9.\n\nFootnote 582:\n\n  _ib._ viii. 10 (p. 266).\n\n[Sidenote: and by two Ophite sects.]\n\nThe Ophite heresy, Proteus-like, assumes so many various forms, that the\nskill of critics has been taxed to the utmost to bind it with cords and\nextract its story from it. It appears however from the notices of\nHippolytus, that the term _pleroma_ was used in a definite theological\nsense by at least two branches of the sect, whom he calls Naassenes and\nPerat\u00e6.\n\n[Sidenote: (i) Naassenes.]\n\nOf the Naassenes Hippolytus tells us that among other images borrowed\nfrom the Christian and Jewish Scriptures, as well as from heathen\npoetry, they described the region of true knowledge\u2014their kingdom of\nheaven, which was entered by initiation into their mysteries\u2014as the land\nflowing with milk and honey, 'which when the perfect (the true Gnostics,\nthe fully initiated) have tasted, they are freed from subjection to\nkings (\u1f00\u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2) and partake of the pleroma.' Here is a plain\nallusion to Joh. i. 16. 'This', the anonymous Naassene writer goes on to\nsay, 'is the pleroma, through which all created things coming into being\nare produced and fulfilled (\u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9) from the Uncreated'[583]. Here\nagain, as in the Valentinian system, the conception of the pleroma is\nstrongly tinged with Platonism. The pleroma is the region of ideas, of\narchetypes, which intervenes between the author of creation and the\nmaterial world, and communicates their specific forms to the phenomenal\nexistences of the latter.\n\nFootnote 583:\n\n  _R. H._ v. 8.\n\n[Sidenote: (ii) Perat\u00e6.]\n\nThe theology of the second Ophite sect, the Perat\u00e6, as described by\nHippolytus, is a strange phenomenon. [Sidenote: Their theology]They\ndivided the universe into three regions, the uncreate, the self-create,\nand the created. Again the middle region may be said to correspond\nroughly to the Platonic kingdom of ideas. But their conception of deity\nis entirely their own. They postulate three of every being; three Gods,\nthree Words, three Minds (i.e. as we may suppose three Spirits), three\nMen. Thus there is a God for each region, just as there is a Man. In\nfull accordance with this perverse and abnormal theology is their\napplication of St Paul's language. [Sidenote: and corresponding\napplication of \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1.]Their Christ has three natures, belonging to\nthese three kingdoms respectively; and this completeness of His being is\nimplied by St Paul in Col. i. 19, ii. 9, which passages are combined in\ntheir loose quotation or paraphrase, 'All the pleroma was pleased to\ndwell in him bodily, and there is in him all the godhead', i.e. (as\nHippolytus adds in explanation) 'of this their triple division (\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f55\u03c4\u03c9\n\u03b4\u03b9\u1fc3\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03c2 \u03c4\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03b4\u03bf\u03c2)'[584]. This application is altogether arbitrary,\nhaving no relation whatever to the theological meaning of the term in St\nPaul. It is also an entire departure from the conception of the\nCerinthians, Valentinians, and Naassenes, in which this meaning, however\nobscured, was not altogether lost. These three heresies took a\nhorizontal section of the universe, so to speak, and applied the term as\ncoextensive with the supramundane stratum. The Perat\u00e6 on the other hand\ndivided it vertically, and the pleroma, in their interpretation of the\ntext, denoted the whole extent of this vertical section. There is\nnothing in common between the two applications beyond the fundamental\nmeaning of the word, 'completeness, totality'.\n\nFootnote 584:\n\n  _R. H._ v. 12.\n\n[Sidenote: Pistis Sophia.]\n\nThe extant Gnostic work, called Pistis Sophia, was attributed at one\ntime on insufficient grounds to Valentinus. It appears however to\nexhibit a late development of Ophitism[585], far more Christian and less\nheathen in its character than those already considered. In this work the\nword pleroma occurs with tolerable frequency; but its meaning is not\neasily fixed. [Sidenote: Frequent use of the term.]Early in the treatise\nit is said that the disciples supposed a certain 'mystery', of which\nJesus spoke, to be 'the end of all the ends' and 'the head (\u03ba\u03b5\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u03ae\u03bd) of\nthe Universe' and 'the whole pleroma'[586]. Here we seem to have an\nallusion to the Platonic kingdom of ideas, i.e. of intelligible being,\nof absolute truth, as reproduced in the Valentinian pleroma. And the\nword is used sometimes in connexion with the completeness of revelation\nor the perfection of knowledge. Thus our Lord is represented as saying\nto His disciples, 'I will tell you the whole mystery and the whole\npleroma, and I will conceal nothing from you from this hour; and in\nperfection will I perfect you in every pleroma and in every perfection\nand in every mystery, which things are the perfection of all the\nperfections and the pleroma of all the pleromas'[587]. Elsewhere however\nMary, to whom Jesus is represented as making some of his chief\nrevelations, is thus addressed by Him; 'Blessed art thou above (\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u1f70)\nall women that are on the earth, for thou shalt be pleroma of all the\npleromas and perfection of all the perfections'[588], where the word\nmust be used in a more general sense.\n\nFootnote 585:\n\n  See K\u00f6stlin in _Theolog. Jahrb._ T\u00fcbingen 1854, p. 185.\n\nFootnote 586:\n\n  _Pistis Sophia_ p. 3 sq.\n\nFootnote 587:\n\n  _ib._ p. 15 sq.: comp. pp. 4, 60, 75, 187, 275.\n\nFootnote 588:\n\n  _ib._ p. 28 sq.: comp. p. 56. On p. 7 \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 is opposed to \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03ae,\n  apparently in the sense of 'completion'.\n\n[Sidenote: Monoimus the Arabian.]\n\nOne heresy still remains to be noticed in connexion with this word.\nHippolytus has preserved an account of the teaching of Monoimus the\nArabian, of whom previously to the discovery of this father's treatise\nwe knew little more than the name. In this strange form of heresy the\nabsolute first principle is the uncreate, imperishable, eternal Man. I\nneed not stop to enquire what this statement means. It is sufficient for\nthe present purpose to add that this eternal Man is symbolized by the\nletter \u0399, the 'one iota', the 'one tittle' of the Gospel[589]; and this\n\u0399, as representing the number ten, includes in itself all the units from\none to nine. 'This', added Monoimus, 'is (meant by) the saying (of\nscripture) _All the pleroma was pleased to dwell upon the Son of Man_\n_bodily_'[590]. Here the original idea of the word as denoting\ncompleteness, totality, is still preserved.\n\nFootnote 589:\n\n  Matt. v. 18.\n\nFootnote 590:\n\n  _R. H._ viii. 13.\n\n                  _The Epistle from_ _Laodicea_[591].\n\n[Sidenote: Different theories classified.]\n\nThe different opinions respecting the epistle thus designated by St\nPaul, which have been held in ancient or modern times, will be seen from\nthe following table;\n\n1. An _Epistle written by the Laodiceans_; to\n\n      (\u03b1) St Paul;\n\n      (\u03b2) Epaphras;\n\n      (\u03b3) Coloss\u00e6.\n\n2. An _Epistle written by St Paul from Laodicea_.\n\n      (\u03b1) 1 Timothy;\n\n      (\u03b2) 1 Thessalonians;\n\n      (\u03b3) 2 Thessalonians;\n\n      (\u03b4) Galatians.\n\n3. An _Epistle addressed to the Laodiceans_ by\n\n      (_a_) St John (the First Epistle);\n\n      (_b_) Some companion of St Paul (Epaphras or Luke);\n\n      (_c_) St Paul himself;\n\n          (i) A lost Epistle.\n\n          (ii) One of the Canonical Epistles.\n\n              (\u03b1) Hebrews;\n\n              (\u03b2) Philemon;\n\n              (\u03b3) Ephesians.\n\n          (iii) The Apocryphal Epistle.\n\nFootnote 591:\n\n  The work of Anger, _Ueber den Laodicenerbrief_ (Leipzig 1843), is very\n  complete. He enumerates and discusses very thoroughly the opinions of\n  his predecessors, omitting hardly anything relating to the literature\n  of the subject which was accessible at the time when he wrote. His\n  exposition of his own view, though not less elaborate, is less\n  satisfactory. A later monograph by A. Sartori, _Ueber den\n  Laodicenserbrief_ (L\u00fcbeck 1853), is much slighter and contributes\n  nothing new.\n\nIn this maze of conflicting hypotheses we might perhaps be tempted to\ndespair of finding our way and give up the search as hopeless. Yet I\nventure to think that the true identification of the epistle in question\nis not, or at least ought not to be, doubtful.\n\n[Sidenote: 1. An epistle written by the Laodiceans.]\n\n1. The opinion that the epistle was addressed by the Laodiceans to St\nPaul, and not conversely, found much support in the age of the Greek\ncommentators. It is mentioned by St Chrysostom as held by 'some\npersons', though he himself does not pronounce a definite opinion on the\nsubject[592]. [Sidenote: Advocates of this theory.]It is eagerly\nadvocated by Theodore of Mopsuestia. He supposes that the letter of the\nLaodiceans contained some reflexions on the Colossian Church, and that\nSt Paul thought it good for the Colossians to hear what their neighbours\nsaid of them[593]. Theodoret, though not mentioning Theodore by name,\nfollows in his footsteps[594]. The same opinion is also expressed in a\nnote ascribed to Photius in the [OE]cumenian Catena. This view seems to\nhave been very widely entertained in ancient times. It possibly\nunderlies the Latin Version 'ea qu\u00e6 Laodicensium est'[595]: it is\ndistinctly expressed in the rendering of the Peshito, 'that which was\nwritten by the Laodiceans'[596]. At a more recent date too it found\ngreat favour. It was adopted on the one hand by Calvin[597] and\nBeza[598] and Davenant and Lightfoot[599], on the other by Baronius[600]\nand \u00e0 Lapide and Estius, besides other very considerable names[601].\nLatterly its popularity has declined, but it has secured the support of\none or two commentators even in the present century.\n\nFootnote 592:\n\n  _ad loc._ \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u1f72\u03c2 \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03bf\u1f50\u03c7\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03a0\u03b1\u03cd\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd,\n  \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03a0\u03ac\u03c5\u03bb\u1ff3\u00b7 \u03bf\u1f50 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03b5\u1f36\u03c0\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 _\u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03ad\u03b1\u03c2_ \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70\n  \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba _\u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2_.\n\nFootnote 593:\n\n  Rab. Maur. _Op._ VI. p. 540 (Migne) 'Non quia ad Laodicenses scribit.\n  Unde quidam falsam epistolam ad Laodicenses ex nomine beati Pauli\n  confingendam esse existimaverunt; nec enim erat vera epistola.\n  \u00c6stimaverunt autem quidam illam esse, qu\u00e6 in hoc loco est significata.\n  Apostolus vero non [_ad_] _Laodicenses_ dicit sed _ex Laodicea_; quam\n  illi scripserunt ad apostolum, in quam aliqua reprehensionis digna\n  inferebantur, quam etiam hac de causa jussit apud eos legi, ut ipsi\n  reprehendant seipsos discentes qu\u00e6 de ipsis erant dicta' (see _Spic.\n  Solesm._ I. p. 133) etc.\n\nFootnote 594:\n\n  After repeating the argument based on the expression \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba\n  \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, Theodoret says \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f22 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03b1\n  \u03b1\u1f30\u03c4\u03b9\u03ac\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f22 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03bd\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c3\u03b7\u03ba\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9.\n\nFootnote 595:\n\n  This however may be questioned. On the other hand Beza (_ad loc._),\n  Whitaker (_Disputation on Scripture_ pp. 108, 303, 468 sq., 526, 531,\n  Parker Society's ed.), and others, who explain the passage in this\n  way, urge that it is required by the Greek \u1f10\u03ba \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, and complain\n  that the other interpretation depends on the erroneous Latin\n  rendering.\n\nFootnote 596:\n\n  Or, 'that which was written from Laodicea.' The difference depends on\n  the vocalisation of \u0720\u0715\u071d\u0729\u071d\u0710 which may be either (1) 'Laodicea,' as in\n  vv. 13, 15, or (2) 'the Laodiceans,' as in the previous clause in this\n  same ver. 16.\n\nFootnote 597:\n\n  Calvin is very positive; 'Bis hallucinati sunt qui Paulum arbitrati\n  sunt ad Laodicenses scripsisse. Non dubito quin epistola fuerit ad\n  Paulum missa.... Impostura autem nimis crassa fuit, quod nebulo nescio\n  quis hoc pr\u00e6textu epistolam supponere ausus est adeo insulsam, ut\n  nihil a Pauli spiritu magis alienum fingi queat.' The last sentence\n  reveals the motive which unconsciously led so many to adopt this\n  unnatural interpretation of St Paul's language.\n\nFootnote 598:\n\n  _ad loc._ 'Multo f\u0153dius errarunt qui ex hoc loco suspicati sunt\n  quandam fuisse epistolam Pauli ad Laodicenses ... quum potius\n  significet Paulus epistolam aliquam ad se missam Laodicea, aut potius\n  qua responsuri essent Laodicenses Colossensibus.'\n\nFootnote 599:\n\n  _Works_ II. p. 326.\n\nFootnote 600:\n\n  _Ann. Eccl._ s. a. 60, \u00a7 xiii.\n\nFootnote 601:\n\n  e.g. Tillemont _Mem. Eccl._ p. 576.\n\n[Sidenote: Reasons for it.]\n\nThe underlying motive of this interpretation was to withdraw the support\nwhich the apocryphal epistle seemed to derive from this reference,\nwithout being obliged at the same time to postulate a lost epistle of St\nPaul. The critical argument adduced in its support was the form of\nexpression, \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2. [Sidenote: Objections to it.]The whole\ncontext however points to a different explanation. The Colossian and\nLaodicean Epistles are obviously regarded as in some sense companion\nepistles, of which the Apostle directs an interchange between the two\nChurches. And again, if the letter in question had been written by the\nLaodiceans to St Paul, why should he enjoin the Colossians to get it\nfrom Laodicea? How could he assume that a copy had been kept by the\nLaodiceans; or, if kept, would be given up when required? Indeed the\ndifficulties in this hypothesis are so great, that nothing but the most\nimperious requirements of the Greek language would justify its\nacceptance. But the expression in the original makes no such demand. It\nis equally competent for us to explain \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 either 'the\nletter written from Laodicea', or 'the letter to be procured from\nLaodicea', as the context may suggest. The latter accords at least as\nwell with Greek usage as the former[602].\n\nFootnote 602:\n\n  See the note on iv. 16.\n\n[Sidenote: Views respecting the person addressed.]\n\nThe vast majority of those who interpret the expression in this way\nassume that the letter was written to (\u03b1) St Paul. The modifications of\nthis view, which suppose it addressed to some one else, need hardly be\nconsidered. The theory for instance, which addresses it to (\u03b2)\nEpaphras[603], removes none of the objections brought against the\nsimpler hypothesis. Another opinion, which takes (\u03b3) the Colossians\nthemselves to have been the recipients[604], does indeed dispose of one\ndifficulty, the necessity of assuming a copy kept by the Laodiceans, but\nit is even more irreconcileable with the language of the context. Why\nthen should St Paul so studiously charge them to see that they read it?\nWhy above all should he say \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2, '_ye also_', when they were the\nonly persons who would read it as a matter of course?\n\nFootnote 603:\n\n  e.g. Storr _Opusc._ II. p. 124 sq.\n\nFootnote 604:\n\n  So for instance Corn. \u00e0 Lapide, as an alternative, 'vel certe ad ipsos\n  Colossenses, ut vult Theodor.'; but I do not find anything of the kind\n  in Theodoret. This view also commends itself to Beza.\n\n[Sidenote: 2. A letter written from Laodicea by St Paul.]\n\n2. A second class of identifications rests on the supposition that it\nwas a letter written _from_ Laodicea, though not by the Laodiceans\nthemselves. The considerations which recommend this hypothesis for\nacceptance are the same as in the last case. It withdraws all support\nfrom the apocryphal Epistle to the Laodiceans, and it refrains from\npostulating a lost Apostolic epistle. It is not exposed to all the\nobjections of the other theory, but it introduces new difficulties still\nmore serious. Here a choice of several epistles is offered to us.\n[Sidenote: 1 Timothy.](\u03b1) _The First Epistle to Timothy._ This view is\ndistinctly maintained by John Damascene[605] and by Theophylact[606];\nbut it took its rise much earlier. It appears in the margin of the\nPhiloxenian Syriac[607], and it seems to have suggested the\nsubscriptions found in many authorities at the close of that epistle.\nThe words \u1f10\u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03c6\u03b7 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 are found in AKL 47 etc., and many of\nthese define the place meant by the addition \u1f25\u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u1f76 \u03bc\u03b7\u03c4\u03c1\u03cc\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b9\u03c2\n\u03a6\u03c1\u03c5\u03b3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03a0\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd\u1fc6\u03c2. A similar note is found in some Latin MSS. It is\nquite possible that this subscription was prior to the theory respecting\nthe interpretation of Col. iv. 16, and gave rise to it; but the converse\nis more probable, and in some MSS (a^{scr}, 74) the bearing of this\nsubscription on Col. iv. 16 is emphasized, \u1f30\u03b4\u1f78\u03c5 \u03b4\u1f74 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f21 \u1f10\u03ba \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2.\nThis identification has not been altogether without support in later\ntimes[608]. [Sidenote: 1 Thessalonians.](\u03b2) The _First Epistle to the\nThessalonians_. A final colophon in the Philoxenian Syriac asserts that\nit was 'written from Laodicea': and the same is stated in a later hand\nof d, 'scribens a Laodicea'. Again an \u00c6thiopic MS, though giving Athens\nas the place of writing, adds that it was 'sent with Timotheus,\n_Tychicus_, and _Onesimus_[609].' This identification was perhaps\nsuggested by the fact that 1 Thessalonians follows next after Colossians\nin the common order of St Paul's Epistles. [Sidenote: 2\nThessalonians.](\u03b3) The _Second Epistle to the Thessalonians_. In the\nPeshito (as given by Schaaf[609]) there is a final colophon stating\nthat this epistle 'was written from Laodicea of Pisidia and was sent by\nthe hand of Tychicus[610]'. Though the addition of Pisidia wrongly\ndefines the place as _Laodicea Combusta_, instead of _Laodicea ad\nLycum_, yet the mention of the messenger's name shows plainly that the\nidentification with the missing epistle of Col. iv. 16 was contemplated.\nSo too the Memphitic 'per Silvanum et _Tychicum_', and a Latin prologue\n'per Titum et _Onesimum_'. Again an \u00c6thiopic MS points to the same\nidentification, though strangely confused in its statements. In the\nsuperscription we are told that this epistle was written when the\nApostle was at Laodicea, but in the subscription that it 'was written at\nAthens to Laodicea and sent by Tychicus'; while the prolegomena state\nthat it was written and left at Laodicea, and that afterwards, when St\nPaul wrote his letter to the Colossians from Rome, he gave directions\nthat it should be transmitted to the Thessalonians by the\nColossians[611]. [Sidenote: Galatians.](\u03b4) The _Epistle to the\nGalatians_[612]. This might have been chosen, partly because it affords\nno internal data for deciding where it was written, partly because like\nthe Colossian Epistle it is directed against a form of Judaism, and the\nadvocates of this hypothesis might not be careful to distinguish the two\ntypes, though very distinct in themselves. I find no support for it in\nthe subscriptions, except the notice 'per _Tychicum_' in some Slavonic\nMSS.\n\nFootnote 605:\n\n  _Op._ II. p. 214 (ed. Lequien) \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03a4\u03b9\u03bc\u03cc\u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03ce\u03c4\u03b7\u03bd \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9. But he\n  adds \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u1f72\u03c2 \u03c6\u03b1\u03c3\u1f76\u03bd \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03bf\u1f50\u03c7\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03a0\u03b1\u03cd\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b5\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd ... \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70\n  \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1' \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03a0\u03ac\u03c5\u03bb\u1ff3 \u1f10\u03ba \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd.\n\nFootnote 606:\n\n  _ad loc._ \u03c4\u03af\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f26\u03bd \u1f21 \u1f10\u03ba \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2; \u1f21 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03a4\u03b9\u03bc\u03cc\u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03ce\u03c4\u03b7\u00b7 \u03b1\u1f55\u03c4\u03b7 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1\n  \u1f10\u03ba \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f10\u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03c6\u03b7. \u03a4\u03b9\u03bd\u1f72\u03c2 \u03b4\u03ad \u03c6\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f23\u03bd \u03bf\u1f31 \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03a0\u03b1\u03cd\u03bb\u1ff3\n  \u1f10\u03c0\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9\u03bb\u03b1\u03bd, \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb' \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u03bf\u1f36\u03b4\u03b1 \u03c4\u03af \u1f02\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03bd\u1fc3\u03c2 \u1f14\u03b4\u03b5\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b2\u03b5\u03bb\u03c4\u03af\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd.\n\nFootnote 607:\n\n  _ad loc._ 'Propter eam qu\u00e6 est ad Timotheum dixit.'\n\nFootnote 608:\n\n  It is adopted by Erasmus in his paraphrase; 'vicissim vos legatis\n  epistolam qu\u00e6 Timotheo scripta fuit ex Laodicensium urbe': but in his\n  commentary he does not commit himself to it. For other names see Anger\n  p. 17, note k.\n\nFootnote 609:\n\n  _Catal. Bibl. Bodl. Cod. \u00c6thiop._ p. 23.\n\nFootnote 610:\n\n  In the editio princeps (Vienna 1555) the latter part of this colophon,\n  'and was sent by the hand of Tychicus,' is wanting.\n\nFootnote 611:\n\n  _Catal. Bibl. Bodl. Cod. \u00c6thiop._ p. 23.\n\nFootnote 612:\n\n  Bloch, quoted in Anger p. 17 note l.\n\n[Sidenote: Objections to these solutions.]\n\nThe special difficulties attending this class of solutions are manifold.\n(1) It does not appear that St Paul had ever been at Laodicea when he\nwrote the letter to the Colossians. (2) All the epistles thus singled\nout are separated from the Colossian letter by an interval of some years\nat least. (3) In every case they can with a high degree of probability\nbe shown to have been written elsewhere than at Laodicea. Indeed, as St\nPaul had been long a prisoner either at C\u00e6sarea or at Rome, when he\nwrote to Coloss\u00e6, he could not have despatched a letter recently from\nLaodicea.\n\n[Sidenote: 3. A letter to the Laodiceans written by (_a_) St John. (_b_)\n           A companion of St Paul. (_c_) St Paul.]\n\n3. Thus we are thrown back on some form of the solution which makes it a\nletter written _to the Laodiceans_. And here we may at once reject the\nhypothesis that the writer was (_a_) St John[613]. The First Epistle of\nSt John, which has been selected, was written (as is allowed on all\nhands) much later than this date. Nor again does St Paul's language\nfavour the alternative, which others have maintained, that the letter in\nquestion was written by (_b_) one of St Paul's companions, e.g. Epaphras\nor Luke[614]. The writer must therefore have been (_c_) St Paul himself.\n\nFootnote 613:\n\n  A conjecture of Lightfoot's (_Works_ II. pp. 326, 339, London 1684),\n  but he does not lay much stress on it. He offers it 'rather then\n  conceive that any epistle of Paul is lost.' See also Anger p. 17, note\n  m.\n\nFootnote 614:\n\n  Baumgarten _Comm._ ad loc., quoted by Anger p. 25, note g.\n\nOn this assumption three alternatives offer themselves.\n\n[Sidenote: (i) A lost letter.]]\n\n(i). We may suppose that the epistle in question has been lost. It has\nbeen pointed out elsewhere that the Apostle must have written many\nletters which are not preserved in our Canon[615]. Thus there is no _a\npriori_ objection to this solution; and, being easy and obvious in\nitself, it has found common support in recent times. If therefore we had\nno positive reasons for identifying the Laodicean letter with one of the\nextant epistles of our Canon, we might at once close with this account\nof the matter. But such reasons do exist. And moreover, as we are\nobliged to suppose that at least three letters\u2014the Epistles to the\nColossians, to the Ephesians, and to Philemon\u2014were despatched by St Paul\nto Asia Minor at the same time, it is best not to postulate a fourth,\nunless we are obliged to do so.\n\nFootnote 615:\n\n  _Philippians_ p. 136 sq.\n\n[Sidenote: (ii) A Canonical epistle.]\n\n(ii). But, if it was not a lost letter, with which of the Canonical\nEpistles of St Paul can we identify it with most probability? Was it\n\n[Sidenote: (\u03b1) Hebrews. Philastrius.]\n\n(\u03b1) _The Epistle to the Hebrews?_ The supporters of this hypothesis are\nable to produce ancient evidence of a certain kind, though not such as\ncarries any real weight. Philastrius, writing about the close of the\nfourth century, says that some persons ascribed the authorship of the\nEpistle to the Hebrews to Luke the Evangelist, and adds that it was\nasserted (apparently by these same persons, though this is not quite\nclear) to have been written to the Laodiceans[616]. [Sidenote: Supposed\ntestimony of MS G.]Again in the Gr\u00e6co-Latin MS G of St Paul's Epistles,\nthe _Codex Boernerianus_, probably written in the ninth century, after\nthe Epistle to Philemon, which breaks off abruptly at ver. 20, a vacant\nspace is left, as if for the conclusion of this epistle: and then\nfollows a fresh title\n\n             ad      laudicenses      incipit      epistola\n   ==\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03f2\\ \\ \\ \\ \u03bb\u03b1\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u03ba\u03b7\u03f2\u03b1\u03f2 \\ \\ \\ \\ \u03b1\u03c1\u03c7\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \\ \\ \\ \\   \u03b5\u03c0\u03b9\u03f2\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u03b7==\n\nThis is evidently intended as the heading to another epistle. No other\nepistle however succeeds, but the leaf containing this title is followed\nby several leaves, which were originally left blank, but were filled at\na later date with extraneous matter. What then was this Epistle to the\nLaodiceans, which was intended to follow, but which the scribe was\nprevented from transcribing? As the Epistle to the Hebrews is not found\nin this MS, and as in the common order of the Pauline Epistles it would\nfollow the Epistle to Philemon, the title has frequently been supposed\nto refer to it. This opinion however does not appear at all probable.\nAnger[617] indeed argues in its favour on the ground that in the\ncompanion MS F, the _Codex Augiensis_, which (so far as regards the\nGreek text) must have been derived immediately from the same\narchetype[618], the Epistle to the Hebrews does really follow. But what\nare the facts? [Sidenote: Relation of G to F.]It is plain that the Greek\ntexts of G and F came from the same original: but it is equally plain\nthat the two scribes had different Latin texts before them\u2014that of G\nbeing the Old Latin, and that of F Jerome's revised Vulgate. No argument\ntherefore derived from the Latin text holds good for the Greek. But the\nphenomena of both MSS alike[619] show that the Greek text of their\ncommon archetype ended abruptly at Philem. 20 (probably owing to the\nloss of the final leaves of the volume). The two scribes therefore were\nleft severally to the resources of their respective Latin MSS. The\nscribe of F, whose Greek and Latin texts are in parallel columns,\nconcluded the Epistle to Philemon in Latin, though he could not match it\nwith its proper Greek; and after this he added the Epistle to the\nHebrews in Latin, no longer however leaving a blank column, as he had\ndone for the last few verses of Philemon. On the other hand the Latin\ntext in G is interlinear, the Latin words being written above the Greek\nto interpret them. When therefore the Greek text came to an end the\nscribe's work was done, for he could no longer interlineate. But he left\na blank space for the remainder of Philemon, hoping doubtless hereafter\nto find a Greek MS from which he could fill it in; and he likewise gave\nthe title of the epistle which he found next in his Latin copy, in Greek\nas well as in Latin. The Greek title however he had to supply for\nhimself. This is clear from the form, which shows it to have been\ntranslated from the Latin by a person who had the very smallest\nknowledge of Greek. No Greek in the most barbarous age would have\nwritten ==\u03bb\u03b1\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u03ba\u03b7\u03f2\u03b1\u03f2== for ==\u03bb\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u03b1\u03f2== or ==\u03bb\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b7\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03f2==.\nThe \u03b1\u03bf\u03c5 is a Latin corruption _au_ for _ao_, and the termination\n==\u03b1\u03f2== is a Latin's notion of the Greek accusative. Thus the whole\nword is a reproduction of the Latin 'Laudicenses,' the _en_ being\nrepresented as usual by the Greek \u03b5[620]. [Sidenote: The spurious\nLaodicean Epistle intended.]If so, we have only to ask what writing\nwould probably appear as _Epistola ad Laudicenses_ in a Latin copy; and\nto this question there can be only one answer. The apocryphal Epistle to\nthe Laodiceans occurs frequently in the Latin Bibles, being found at\nleast two or three centuries before the MS G was written. Though it does\nnot usually follow the Epistle to Philemon, yet its place varies very\nconsiderably in different Latin copies, and an instance will be given\nbelow[621] where it actually occurs in this position.\n\nFootnote 616:\n\n  _H\u00e6r._ lxxxix 'Sunt alii quoque qui epistolam Pauli ad Hebr\u00e6os non\n  adserunt esse ipsius, sed dicunt aut Barnab\u00e6 esse apostoli aut\n  Clementis de urbe Roma episcopi; alii autem Luc\u00e6 evangelist\u00e6 aiunt\n  epistolam etiam ad Laodicenses scriptam. Et quia addiderunt in ea\n  qu\u00e6dam non bene sentientes, inde non legitur in ecclesia; et si\n  legitur a quibusdam, non tamen in ecclesia legitur populo, nisi\n  tredecim epistol\u00e6 ipsius, et ad Hebr\u00e6os interdum. Et in ea quia\n  rhetorice scripsit, sermone plausibili, inde non putant esse ejusdem\n  apostoli; et quia factum Christum dicit in ea [Heb. iii. 2], inde non\n  legitur; de p\u0153nitentia autem [Heb. vi. 4, x. 26] propter Novatianos\n  \u00e6que. Cum ergo factum dicit Christum, corpore, non divinitate, dicit\n  factum, cum doceat ibidem quod divin\u00e6 sit et patern\u00e6 substanti\u00e6\n  filius, _Qui est splendor glori\u00e6_, inquit, _et imago substanti\u00e6 ejus_\n  [Heb. i. 3]' etc. Oehler punctuates the sentence with which we are\n  concerned thus: 'alii autem Luc\u00e6 evangelist\u00e6. Aiunt epistolam etiam ad\n  Laodicenses scriptam,' and in his note he adds 'videlicet Pauli esse\n  apostoli.' Thus he supposes the clause to refer to the apocryphal\n  Epistle to the Laodiceans: and Fabricius explains the reference\n  similarly. Such a reference however would be quite out of place here.\n  The whole paragraph before and after is taken up with discussing the\n  Epistle to the Hebrews; and the interposition of just six words,\n  referring to a wholly different matter, is inconceivable. We must\n  therefore punctuate either 'alii autem Luc\u00e6 evangelist\u00e6 aiunt\n  epistolam, etiam ad Laodicenses scriptam', or 'alii autem Luc\u00e6\n  evangelist\u00e6 aiunt; epistolam etiam ad Laodicenses scriptam.' In either\n  case it will mean that some persons supposed the Epistle to the\n  Hebrews to have been written to the Laodiceans.\n\nFootnote 617:\n\n  _Laodicenerbrief_ p. 29 sq.\n\nFootnote 618:\n\n  If indeed the Greek text of F was not copied immediately from G, as\n  has been recently maintained by Mr Hort in the _Journal of Philology_\n  III. p. 67. The divergent phenomena of the two Latin texts seem to me\n  unfavourable to this hypothesis; but it ought not to be hastily\n  rejected.\n\nFootnote 619:\n\n  Volkmar, the editor of Credner's _Geschichte des Neutestamentlichen\n  Kanon_ p. 299, with strange carelessness speaks of 'the appearance\n  (das Vorkommen) of the Laodicean Epistle in both the _Codices\n  Augiensis_ and _Boernerianus_ which in other respects are closely\n  allied.' There is no mention of it in the Codex Augiensis.\n\nFootnote 620:\n\n  It is curious that this MS, which was written by an Irish scribe,\n  should give the same corrupt form, Laud_ac_- for Laod_ac_-, which we\n  find in the Book of Armagh; see below p. 348.\n\nFootnote 621:\n\n  See p. 352. It occurs also in this position in the list of Aelfric\n  (see below p. 362), where the order of the Pauline Epistles is ...\n  Col., Hebr., 1, 2 Tim., Tit., Philem., Laod.\n\n[Sidenote: This identification unsatisfactory.]\n\nThus beyond the notice in Philastrius there is no ancient support for\nthe identification of the missing letter of Col. iv. 16 with the Epistle\nto the Hebrews; and doubtless the persons to whom Philastrius alludes\nhad no more authority for their opinion than their modern successors.\nCritical conjecture, not historical tradition, led them to this result.\nThe theory therefore must stand or fall by its own merits. It has been\nmaintained by one or two modern writers[622], chiefly on the ground of\nsome partial coincidences between the Epistles to the Hebrews and the\nColossians; but the general character and purport of the two is wholly\ndissimilar, and they obviously deal with antagonists of a very different\ntype. The insuperable difficulty of supposing that two epistles so\nunlike in style were written by the same person to the same\nneighbourhood at or about the same time would still remain, even though\nthe Pauline authorship of the Epistle to the Hebrews should be for a\nmoment granted.\n\nFootnote 622:\n\n  See especially Schneckenburger _Beitr\u00e4ge_ p. 153 sq.\n\n[Sidenote: (\u03b2) Philemon.]\n\n(\u03b2) The _Epistle to Philemon_ has been strongly advocated by\nWieseler[623], as the letter to which St Paul refers in this passage.\nFor this identification it is necessary to establish two points; (1)\nthat Philemon lived not at Coloss\u00e6, but at Laodicea; and (2) that the\nletter is addressed not to a private individual, but to a whole church.\nFor the first point there is something to be said. Though for reasons\nexplained elsewhere the abode of Philemon himself appears to have been\nat Coloss\u00e6, wherever Archippus may have resided[624], still two opinions\nmay very fairly be held on this point. But Wieseler's arguments entirely\nfail to establish his other position. [Sidenote: This epistle does not\nanswer the conditions.]The theme, the treatment, the whole tenour of the\nletter, mark it as private: and the mere fact that the Apostle's\ncourtesy leads him to include in the opening salutation the Christians\nwho met at Philemon's house is powerless to change its character. Why\nshould a letter, containing such intimate confidences, be read publicly\nin the Church, not only at Laodicea but at Coloss\u00e6, by the express order\nof the Apostle? The tact and delicacy of the Apostle's pleading for\nOnesimus would be nullified at one stroke by the demand for publication.\n\nFootnote 623:\n\n  Some earlier writers who maintained this view are mentioned by Anger,\n  p. 25, note f. It has since been more fully developed and more\n  vigorously urged by Wieseler, first in a programme _Commentat. de\n  Epist. Laodicena quam vulgo perditam putant_ 1844, and afterwards in\n  his well known work _Chronol. des Apostol. Zeit._ p. 450 sq. It may\n  therefore be identified with his name. He speaks of it with much\n  confidence as 'scarcely open to a doubt,' but he has not succeeded in\n  convincing others.\n\nFootnote 624:\n\n  See the introduction to the Epistle to Philemon.\n\n[Sidenote: (\u03b3) Ephesians.]\n\n(\u03b3) But may we not identify the letter in question with the _Epistle to\nthe Ephesians_, which also is known to have been despatched at the same\ntime with the Epistle to the Colossians? Unlike the Epistle to Philemon,\nit was addressed not to a private person but to a church or churches. If\ntherefore it can be shown that the Laodiceans were the recipients,\neither alone or with others, we have found the object of our search.\n[Sidenote: This is the true solution.]The arguments in favour of this\nsolution are reserved for the introduction to that epistle. Meanwhile it\nis sufficient to say that educated opinion is tending, though slowly, in\nthis direction, and to express the belief that ultimately this view will\nbe generally received[625].\n\nFootnote 625:\n\n  See above p. 37.\n\n[Sidenote: (iii) The extant un-canonical Epistle to the Laodiceans.]\n\n(iii) Another wholly different identification remains to be mentioned.\nIt was neither a lost epistle nor a Canonical epistle, thought some, but\nthe writing which is extant under the title of the 'Epistle to the\nLaodiceans,' though not generally received by the Church. Of the various\nopinions held respecting this apocryphal letter I shall have to speak\npresently. It is sufficient here to say that the advocates of its\ngenuineness fall into two classes. Either they assign to it a place in\nthe Canon with the other Epistles of St Paul, or they acquiesce in its\nexclusion, holding that the Church has authority to pronounce for or\nagainst the Canonicity even of Apostolic writings.\n\n                  *       *       *       *       *\n\n[Sidenote: General character of the spurious epistle.]\n\nThe apocryphal Epistle to the Laodiceans is a cento of Pauline phrases\nstrung together without any definite connexion or any clear object. They\nare taken chiefly from the Epistle to the Philippians, but here and\nthere one is borrowed elsewhere, e.g. from the Epistle to the Galatians.\nOf course it closes with an injunction to the Laodiceans to exchange\nepistles with the Colossians. The Apostle's injunction in Col. iv. 16\nsuggested the forgery, and such currency as it ever attained was due to\nthe support which that passage was supposed to give to it. Unlike most\nforgeries, it had no ulterior aim. It was not framed to advance any\nparticular opinions, whether heterodox or orthodox. It has no doctrinal\npeculiarities. Thus it is quite harmless, so far as falsity and\nstupidity combined can ever be regarded as harmless.\n\n                  *       *       *       *       *\n\nAmong the more important MSS which contain this epistle are the\nfollowing. The letters in brackets [ ] give the designations adopted in\nthe apparatus of various readings which follows.\n\n1. _Fuldensis_ [F]. The famous MS of the Vulgate N. T. written for\nVictor Bishop of Capua, by whom it was read and corrected in the years\n546, 547; edited by Ern. Ranke, _Marburgi et Lipsi\u00e6_ 1868. The Laodicean\nEpistle occurs between Col. and 1 Tim. without any indication of\ndoubtful authenticity, except that it has no argument or table of\ncontents, like the other epistles. The scribe however has erroneously\ninterpolated part of the argument belonging to 1 Tim. between the title\nand the epistle; see p. 291 sq. of Ranke's edition.\n\n2. _Cavensis._ A MS of the whole Latin Bible, at the Monastery of La\nCava near Salerno, ascribed to the 6th or 7th or 8th century. See\nVercellone _Var. Lect. Vulg. Lat. Bibl._ I. p. lxxxviii. Unfortunately\nwe have no account of the readings in the Laodicean Epistle (for which\nit would be the most important authority after the Codex Fuldensis),\nexcept the last sentence quoted by Mai _Nov. Patr. Bibl._ I. 2. p. 63,\n'Et facite legi Colossensium vobis.' Laod. here occurs between Col. and\n1 Thess. (Mai p. 62). Dr Westcott (Smith's _Dict. of the Bible s.v.\nVulgate_, p. 1713) has remarked that the two oldest authorities for the\ninterpolation of the three heavenly witnesses in 1 Joh. v. 7, this La\nCava MS and the _Speculum_ published by Mai, also support the Laodicean\nEpistle (see Mai l.c. pp. 7, 62 sq.). The two phenomena are combined in\nanother very ancient MS, Brit. Mus. _Add._ 11,852, described below.\n\n3. _Armachanus_ [A]. A MS of the N. T., now belonging to Trinity\nCollege, Dublin, and known as the 'Book of Armagh.' It was written in\nthe year 807, as ascertained by Bp. Graves; see the _Proceedings of the\nRoyal Irish Academy_ III. pp. 316, 356. The Laodicean Epistle follows\nColossians on fol. 138, but with the warning that Jerome denies its\ngenuineness. The text of the Laodicean Epistle in this MS is not so pure\nas might have been anticipated from its antiquity. I owe the collation\nof readings which is given below to the kindness of Dr Reeves, who is\nengaged in editing the MS.\n\n4. _Darmstadiensis_ [D]. A fol. MS of the whole Bible, defective from\nApoc. xxii. 12 to the end, now in the Grand-ducal library at Darmstadt,\nbut formerly belonging to the Cathedral Library at Cologne; presented by\nHermann Pius, Archbishop of Cologne from A.D. 890\u2013925. Laod. follows\nCol. A collation was made for Anger, from whom (p. 144) this account is\ntaken.\n\n5. _Bernensis_ no. 334 [B]. A 4to MS of miscellaneous contents, ending\nwith the Pauline Epistles, the last being the Epistle to the Laodiceans,\nwritten in the 9th cent. The Laodicean Epistle is a fragment, ending\nwith 'Gaudete in Christo et pr\u00e6cavete sordibus in lucro' (ver. 13). This\naccount is taken by Anger from Sinner _Catal. Cod. MSS. Bibl. Bern._ I.\np. 28. In his Addenda (p. 179) Anger gives a collation of this MS.\n\n6. _Toletanus_ [T] A MS of the Latin Bible belonging to the Cathedral\nLibrary at Toledo, and written about the 8th century: see Westcott in\nSmith's _Dict. of the Bible_, s.v. _Vulgate_ p. 1710, Vercellone _Var.\nLect._ I. p. lxxxiv. sq. The readings in the Laodicean Epistle are taken\nfrom Joh. Mariana _Schol. in Vet. et Nov. Test._, where it is printed in\nfull. The edition which I have used is dated Paris 1620 (p. 831). The\ntext however cannot be assumed to be strictly accurate, as Mariana had a\nprinted copy of the epistle before him, from which at all events he\nsupplied in brackets words wanting in the MS (see Anger p. 144), and\nwhich may have influenced his readings in other ways. In this MS Laod.\nfollows Col.\n\n7. _Parisiensis_ Reg. Lat. 3 (formerly 3562)[626] [P_{1}]. A Latin Bible,\nin one volume fol., called after Anowaretha by whom it was given to the\nmonastery of Glanfeuille (St Maur), and ascribed in the printed\nCatalogue to the 9th cent. Laod. follows Col. on fol. 379.\n\nFootnote 626:\n\n  So at least I find the number given in my notes. But in _Bentl. Crit.\n  Sacr._ p. xxxvii it is 3561.\n\n8. _Parisiensis_ Reg. Lat. 6 [P_{2}]. A MS of the Latin Bible in 4 vols.\nfol., according to the Catalogue probably written in the 10th cent. [?].\nIt belonged formerly to the Duc de Noailles. Laod. follows Col. It\ncontains numerous corrections in a later hand either between the lines\nor in the margin. The two hands are distinguished as P_{2}*, P_{2}**.\n\n9. _Parisiensis_ Reg. Lat. 250 (formerly 3572) [P_{3}]. A fol. MS of the\nN. T., described in the Catalogue as probably belonging to end of the\n9th cent. Laod. follows Col. It has a few corrections in a later hand.\nThe two hands are distinguished as P_{3}*, P_{3}**.\n\nThese three Parisian MSS I collated myself, but I had not time to\nexamine them as carefully as I could have wished.\n\n10. _Brit. Mus._ Add. 11,852. [G]. An important MS of St Paul's Epistles\nwritten in the 9th cent. It formerly belonged to the monastery of St\nGall, being one of the books with which the library there was enriched\nby Hartmot who was Abbot from A.D. 872 to 884 or 885. Laod. follows Heb.\nand has no capitula like the other epistles.\n\n11. _Brit. Mus._ Add. 10,546 [C]. A fol. MS of the Vulgate, commonly\nknown as 'Charlemagne's Bible,' but probably belonging to the age of\nCharles the Bald (\u2020 877). Laod. stands between Heb. and Apoc. It has no\nargument or capitula.\n\n12. _Brit. Mus._ Reg. 1. E. vii, viii [R]. An English MS of the Latin\nBible from Christ Church, Canterbury, written about the middle of the\n10th cent. Laod. follows Heb. This is the most ancient MS, so far as I\nam aware, in which the epistle has capitulations. It is here given in\nits fullest form, and thus presents the earliest example of what may be\ncalled the modern recension.\n\n13. _Brit. Mus._ Harl. 2833, 2834 [H_{1}]. A MS of the 13th cent. written\nfor the Cathedral of Angers. Laod. follows Apoc.\n\nThe readings of the four preceding MSS are taken from the collations in\nWestcott _Canon_ Appx. E p. 572 sq. (ed. 4).\n\n14. _Brit. Mus._ Harl. 3131 [H_{2}]. A smallish 4to. of the 12th cent.,\nsaid to be of German origin, with marginal and interlinear glosses in\nsome parts. Laod. stands between Philem. and Heb. It has no heading but\nonly a red initial letter P. At the end is 'Expl. Ep\u0305la\u0305 ad Laodicenses.\nPrologus ad Ebreos.'\n\n15. _Brit. Mus._ Sloane 539 [S]. A small fol. of the 12th cent., said to\nbe German. It contains St Paul's Epistles with glosses. The gloss on\nCol. iv. 16 'et ea qu\u00e6 est Laodicensium etc.' runs 'quam ego eis misi ut\nipsi michi ut videatis hic esse responsum.' Laod. follows Heb., and has\nno glosses.\n\nThe two last MSS I collated myself.\n\n16. _Bodl._ Laud. Lat. 13 (formerly 810) [L_{1}]. A 4to MS in double\ncolumns of the 13th cent. containing the Latin Bible. See _Catal. Bibl.\nLaud. Cod. Lat._ p. 10. Laod. follows Col. Notwithstanding the date of\nthe MS, it gives a very ancient text of this epistle.\n\n17. _Bodl._ Laud. Lat. 8 (formerly 757) [L_{2}]. A fol. MS of the Latin\nBible, belonging to the end of the 12th cent. See _Catal. Bibl. Laud.\nCod. Lat._ p. 9. This is the same MS, which Anger describes (p. 145) as\n115C (its original mark), and of which he gives a collation. Laod.\nstands between 2 Thess. and 1 Tim.\n\nI am indebted for collations of these two Laudian MSS to the kindness of\nthe Rev. J. Wordsworth, Fellow of Brasenose College.\n\n18. _Vindob._ 287 [V]. The Pauline Epp., written by Marianus Scotus\n(i.e. the Irishman), A.D. 1079. See Alter _Nov. Test. ad Cod. Vindob.\nGr\u00e6ce Expressum_ II. p. 1040 sq., Denis _Cod. MSS Lat. Bibl. Vindob._ I.\nno. lviii, Zeuss _Grammatica Celtica_ p. xviii (ed. 2). The Epistle to\nthe Laodiceans is transcribed from this MS by Alter l.c. p. 1067 sq. It\nfollows Col.\n\n19. _Trin. Coll. Cantabr._ B. 5. 1 [X]. A fol. MS of the Latin Bible,\nwritten probably in the 12th century. Laod. follows Col. I have given a\ncollation of this MS, because (like Brit. Mus. Reg. 1. E. viii) it is an\nearly example of the completed form. The epistle is preceded by\ncapitula, as follows.\n\n              INCIPIUNT CAPITULA EPISTOLE AD LAODICENSES.\n\n1. Paulus Apostolus pro Laodicensibus domino gratias refert et hortatur\neos ne a seductoribus decipiantur.\n\n2. De manifestis vinculis apostoli in quibus letatur et gaudet.\n\n3. Monet Laodicenses apostolus ut sicut sui audierunt praesentia ita\nretineant et sine retractu faciant.\n\n4. Hortatur apostolus Laodicenses ut fide sint firmi et qu\u00e6 integra et\nvera et deo placita sunt faciant. et salutatio fratrum. EXPLICIUNT\nCAPITULA. INCIPIT EPISTOLA BEATI PAULI APOSTOLI AD LAODICENSES.\n\nThese capitulations may be compared with those given by Dr Westcott from\nReg. 1. E. viii, with which they are nearly identical.\n\nBesides these nineteen MSS, of which (with the exception of _Cavensis_)\ncollations are given below, it may be worth while recording the\nfollowing, as containing this epistle.\n\nAmong the Lambeth MSS are (i) no. 4, large folio, 12th or 13th cent.\nLaod. stands between Col. and 1 Thess. (ii) no. 90, small folio, 13th or\n14th cent. Laod. stands between Col. and 1 Thess. without title or\nheading of any kind. Apparently a good text. (iii) no. 348, 4to, 15th\ncent. Laod. stands between Col. and 1 Thess., without heading etc. (iv)\nno. 544, 8vo, 15th cent. Laod. stands between Col. and 1 Thess., without\nheading etc. (v) no. 1152, 4to, 13th or 14th cent. Laod. occupies the\nsame position as in the four preceding MSS and has no heading or title.\nThe first and last of these five MSS are collated by Dr Westcott\n(_Canon_ p. 572 sq.). I inspected them all.\n\nIn the Bodleian Library at Oxford belonging to the Canonici collection\nare (i) Canon. Bibl. 82 (see _Catal._ p. 277), very small 4to, 13th\ncent., containing parts of the N. T. St Paul's Epp. are at the end of\nthe volume, following Apoc. Laod. intervenes between Tit. and Philem.,\nbeginning 'Explicit epistola ad titum. Incipit ad laud.', and ending\n'Explicit epistola ad laudicenses. Incipit ad phylemonem'. (ii) Canon.\nBibl. 7 (see _Catal._ p. 251), small 4to, beginning of 14th cent.,\ncontaining Evv., Acts, Cath. Epp., Apoc., Paul. Epp. Laod. is at the\nend. (iii) Canon. Bibl. 16 (_Catal._ p. 256), small 4to, containing the\nN. T., 15th cent., written by the hand 'Stephani de Tautaldis'. Laod.\nfollows Col. (iv) Canon. Bibl. 25 (_Catal._ p. 258), very small 4to,\nmutilated, early part of 15th cent. It contains a part of St Paul's Epp.\n(beginning in the middle of Gal.) and the Apocalypse. Laod. follows Col.\nFor information respecting these MSS I am indebted to the Rev. J.\nWordsworth.\n\nIn the University Library, Cambridge, I have observed the Epistle to the\nLaodiceans in the following MSS. (i) Dd. 5. 52 (see _Catal._ I. p. 273),\n4to, double columns, 14th cent. Laod. is between Col. and 1 Thess. (ii)\nEe. I. 9 (see _Catal._ II. p. 10), 4to, double columns, very small neat\nhand, 15th cent. It belonged to St Alban's. Laod. is between Col. and 1\nThess. (iii) Mm. 3. 2 (see _Catal._ IV. p. 174), fol., Latin Bible,\ndouble columns, 13th cent. Laod. is between Col. and 1 Thess., but the\nheading is 'Explicit epistola ad Colocenses, et hic incipit ad\nthesalocenses', after which Laod. follows immediately. At the top of the\npage is 'Ad Laudonenses'. (iv) Ee. I. 16 (see _Catal._ II. p. 16), 4to,\ndouble columns, Latin Bible, 13th or 14th cent. The order of the N. T.\nis Evv., Acts, Cath. Epp., Paul Epp., Apoc. Here Laod. is between Heb.\nand Rev.; it is treated like the other books, except that it has no\nprologue.\n\nIn the College Libraries at Cambridge I have accidentally noticed the\nfollowing MSS as containing the epistle; for I have not undertaken any\nsystematic search. (i) St Peter's, O. 4. 6, fol., 2 columns, 13th cent.,\nLatin Bible. The order of the N. T. is Evv., Acts, Cath. Epp., Paul\nEpp., Apoc. The Epistle to the Laodiceans is between Heb. and Apoc. (ii)\nSidney \u0394. 5. 11, fol., 2 columns, Latin Bible, 13th cent. The order of\nthe N. T. is Evv., Paul. Epp., Acts, Cath. Epp., Apoc.; and Laod. is\nbetween 2 Thess. and 1 Tim. (iii) Emman. 2. 1. 6, large fol., Latin\nBible, early 14th cent. The order of the N. T. is different from the\nlast, being Evv., Acts, Cath. Epp., Paul. Epp.; Apoc.; but Laod. is in\nthe same position, between 2 Thess. and 1 Tim.\n\nNotice of a few other MSS, in which this epistle occurs, will be found\nin Hody _de Bibl. Text. Orig._ p. 664, and in Anger p. 145 sq.\n\nThis list, slight and partial as it is, will serve to show the wide\ncirculation of the Laodicean Epistle. At the same time it will have been\nobserved that its position varies very considerably in different copies.\n\n(i) The most common position is immediately after Colossians, as the\nnotice in Col. iv. 16 would suggest. This is its place in the most\nancient authorities, e.g. the Fulda, La Cava, and Toledo MSS, and the\nBook of Armagh.\n\n(ii) Another position is after 2 Thess. So Laud. Lat. 8, Sidn. [Delta].\n5. 11, Emman. 2. 1. 6: see also MSS in Hody _Bibl. Text. Orig._ p. 664.\nIt must be remembered that in the Latin Bibles the Epistles to the\nThessalonians sometimes precede and sometimes follow the Epistle to the\nColossians. Hence we get three arrangements in different MSS; (1) 1, 2\nThess., Col., Laod.; (2) Col., Laod., 1, 2 Thess.; (3) Col., 1, 2\nThess., Laod.\n\n(iii) It occurs at least in one instance between Titus and Philemon;\nOxon. Bodl. Canon. 82. Mai also (_Nov. Patr. Bibl._ I. 2. p. 63)\nmentions a 'very ancient MS', in which it stands between Titus and 1\nJohn; but he does not say how Titus and 1 John appear in such close\nneighbourhood.\n\n(iv) Again it follows Philemon in Brit. Mus. Harl. 3131. This also must\nhave been its position in the Latin MS which the scribe of the Codex\nBoernerianus had before him: see above p. 346.\n\n(v) Another and somewhat common position is after Hebrews; e.g. Brit.\nMus. Add. 11,852, Add. 10,546, Reg. I. E. viii, Sloane 539, Camb. Univ.\nEe. I. 16, Pet. O. 4. 6. See also Hody l.c.\n\n(vi) It is frequently placed at the end of the New Testament, and so\nafter the Apocalypse when the Apocalypse comes last, e.g. Harl. 2833.\nSometimes the Pauline Epistles follow the Apocalypse, so that Laod.\noccurs at the end at once of the Pauline Epistles and of the N. T.; e.g.\nBodl. Canon. Lat. 7.\n\nOther exceptional positions, e.g. after Galatians or after 3 John, are\nfound in versions and printed texts (see Anger p. 143); but no authority\nof Latin MSS is quoted for them.\n\nThe _Codex Fuldensis_, besides being the oldest MS, is also by far the\nmost trustworthy. In some instances indeed a true reading may be\npreserved in later MSS, where it has a false one; but such cases are\nrare. The text however was already corrupt in several places at this\ntime; and the variations in the later MSS are most frequently attempts\nof the scribes to render it intelligible by alteration or amplification.\nSuch for instance is the case with the mutilated reading 'quod est'\n(ver. 13), which is amplified, even as early as the Book of Armagh, into\n'quodcunque optimum est', though there can be little doubt that the\nexpression represents \u03c4\u1f78 \u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03c0\u03cc\u03bd of Phil. iii. 2, and the missing word\ntherefore is 'reliquum'. The greatest contrast to F is presented by such\nMSS as RX, where the epistle has not only been filled out to the amplest\nproportions, but also supplied with a complete set of capitulations like\nthe Canonical books. Though for this reason these two MSS have no great\nvalue, yet they are interesting as being among the oldest which give the\namplified text, and I have therefore added a collation of them. On the\nother hand some much later MSS, especially L_{1}, preserve a very ancient\ntext, which closely resembles that of F.[627]\n\nFootnote 627:\n\n  The epistle has been critically edited by Anger _Laodicenerbrief_ p.\n  155 sq. and Westcott _Canon_ App. E. p. 572. I have already expressed\n  my obligations to both these writers for their collations of MSS.\n\n  In the apparatus of various readings, which is subjoined to the\n  epistle, I have not attempted to give such minute differences of\n  spelling as _e_ and _ae_, or _c_ and _t_ (_Laodicia_, _Laoditia_), nor\n  is the punctuation of the MSS noted.\n\n\n                            AD LAODICENSES.\n\n[Sidenote: Text of the epistle.]\n\nPaulus Apostolus non ab hominibus neque per hominem sed per Ihesum\nChristum, fratribus qui sunt Laodiciae. ^2Gratia vobis et pax a Deo\npatre et Domino Ihesu Christo.\n\n^3Gratias ago Christo per omnem orationem meam, quod permanentes estis\nin eo et perseverantes in operibus eius, promissum expectantes in diem\niudicii. ^4Neque destituant vos quorundam vaniloquia insinuantium, ut\nvos avertant a veritate evangelii quod a me praedicatur. ^5Et nunc\nfaciet Deus ut qui sunt ex me ad profectum veritatis evangelii\ndeservientes et facientes benignitatem operum quae salutis vitae\naeternae.\n\n^6Et nunc palam sunt vincula mea quae patior in Christo; quibus laetor\net gaudeo. ^7Et hoc mihi est ad salutem perpetuam; quod ipsum factum\norationibus vestris et administrante Spiritu sancto, sive per vitam sive\nper mortem. ^8Est enim mihi vivere in Christo et mori gaudium. ^9Et id\nipsum in vobis faciet misericordia sua, ut eandem dilectionem habeatis\net sitis unianimes.\n\n^{10}Ergo, dilectissimi, ut audistis praesentia mei, ita retinete et\nfacite in timore Dei, et erit vobis vita in aeternum: ^{11}Est enim Deus\nqui operatur in vos. ^{12}Et facite sine retractu quaecumque facitis.\n\n#^{13}al_13#Et quod est [reliquum], dilectissimi, gaudete in Christo; et\npraecavete sordidos in lucro. ^{14}Omnes sint petitiones vestrae palam\napud Deum; et estote firmi in sensu Christi. ^{15}Et quae integra et vera\net pudica et iusta et amabilia, facite. ^{16}Et quae audistis et\naccepistis in corde retinete; et erit vobis pax.\n\n^{18}Salutant vos sancti.\n\n^{19}Gratia Domini Ihesu cum spiritu vestro.\n\n^{20}Et facite legi Colosensibus et Colosensium vobis.\n\nInc. ad laodicenses F; Incipit epistola ad laodicenses (laudicenses\nP_{2}R) BDP_{1}P_{2}P_{3}CRH_{2}SV; Epistola ad laodicenses TM (_if this\nheading be not due to the editors themselves_); Incipit epistola pauli\nad laodicenses GH_{1}; Incipit epistola beati pauli ad laodicenses X;\nIncipit aepistola ad laudicenses sed hirunimus eam negat esse pauli A:\n_no heading_ in L_{1}L_{2}H_{2}.\n\napostolus] _om._ TM. hominibus] homine G.      ihesum christum] christum\nihesum T.      christum] _add._ 'et deum patrem omnipotentem qui\nsuscitavit eum a mortuis' RX.      fratribus qui sunt] his qui sunt\nfratribus A. _For_ fratribus B _has_ fratres.      laodiciae] laodicae\nT; ladoicie L; laudaciae A; laudiciae R; laodiceae B.\n\n2. patre] et patre nostro L_{1}; patre nostro H_{1}H_{2}SM; nostro\nA.     domino] add. nostro P_{2}P_{3}RGL_{2}.\n\n3. christo] deo meo DP_{1}P_{2}P_{3}CL_{1}; deo meo et christo ihesu\nRX.      meam] memoriam M.      permanentes estis] estis permanentes\nAGR.      in operibus eius] in operibus bonis H_{1}H_{2}S; om\nBDTP_{1}P_{2}P_{3}CM.      promissum expectantes] promissa expectantes T;\net promissum expectantes M; promissionem expectantes V; sperantes\npromissionem AG; sperantes promissum RX.      diem] die\nBTDP_{1}P_{3}GCRH_{1}H_{2}SL_{1}VMX.      iudicii] iudicationis GRX.\n\n4. neque] _add._ enim R.      destituant] distituant A; destituunt H_{1};\ndestituat M, Spec.; destituit DP_{1}P_{3}CM; distituit B; destitui P_{2};\ndisturbat T.       vaniloquia] vaniloquentia BDTP_{1}P_{2}P_{3}GCVM;\nvaneloquentia, Spec.      insinuantium] insinuantium se GM; insanientium\nH_{1}S;      insimulantium T. ut] sed ut BA; sed peto ne R; seductorum ne\nX.      vos] _om._ T. avertant] Spec.; evertant FML_{2}; evertent\nB.      evangelii] aevanguelii A (_and so below_).\n\n5. et nunc ... veritatis evangelii] _om._ L. faciet deus] deus faciet\nAG.       ut] _add._ sint G.      qui] que (_altered from_ qui) P_{3}*\n(or P_{3}**).      me] _add._ perveniant TM; _add._ proficiant V.      ad\nprofectum] imperfectum A; ad perfectum R; in profectum G.      veritatis\nevangelii] evangelii veritatis V.      deservientes] _add._ sint\nP_{2}**P_{3}**H_{1}H_{2}S. _For_ deservientes RX _have_ dei\nservientes.      et facientes] _repeated in_ L_{1}. _For_ facientes\nbenignitatem operum T _has_ benignitatem operum facientes.\noperum]      eorum RX; opera L_{2}.      quae] _om._ M; _add._ sunt\nAP_{2}**GCRH_{1}H_{2}SVX. _It is impossible to say in many cases whether a\nscribe intended_ operum quae _or_ operumque. _Ranke prints_ operumque\n_in_ F.       salutis] _add._ et L_{1}.\n\n6. nunc] n\u014d = non L_{2}.      palam sunt] sunt palam G; sunt\n(_om._ palam) A.       Christo] _add._ Ihesu (iesu)\nDP_{1}P_{2}P_{3}CVX.      quibus] in quibus TRMP_{2}. et] ut C.\n\n7. mihi] michi H_{1}S (_and so below_); enim (_for_ mihi)\nM.      factum] fletum L_{2}M; factum est TP_{3}**H_{1}S. orationibus]\noperationibus B.      vestris] meis DP_{1}.      et] est M: _om._\nTGRL_{1}X.      administrante spiritu sancto] administrantem spiritum\nsanctum FBL_{2}; amministrante spiritum sanctum DCP_{1}P_{2}* (_but there\nis an erasure in_ P_{1}). _For_ administrante L_{1}X _have_\namministrante; _and for_ spiritu sancto G _transposes and reads_\nsancto spiritu.      per mortem] mortem (_om._ per) H_{1}.\n\n8. est enim] etenim T.      mihi] _om._ M.      vivere] vivere vita\nDTP_{1}P_{2}P_{3}CVH_{1}H_{2}S; vere vita FL_{1}RMX; vera vita B;      vere\n(_altered into_ vivere _prima manu_) vita L_{2}.      gaudium] lucrum et\ngaudium A; gaudium ut lucrum H_{2}P_{2}**; gaudium vel lucrum H_{1}S.\n\n9. et] _om._ T; qui (_om._ et) V. id ipsum] in ipsum FBL_{2};      in\nidipsum L_{1}V; ipsum P_{2}GM; ipse TAH_{1}H_{2}SRX.      in vobis] vobis\nP_{2}; in nobis H_{2}.      misericordia sua] misericordiam suam\nFBDAP_{1}P_{2}P_{3}CH_{1}H_{2}RSVL_{1}XL_{2} (_but written_ misericordi\u0101 su\u0101\n_in several cases_).      et] _om._ L_{1}; ut V.      unianimes] unanimes\nBDTP_{1}P_{2}P_{3}GCH_{1}RL_{1}L_{2}VMSX.\n\n10. ergo] ego H_{2}. ut] et L_{2}.      praesentia mei] praesentiam ei DP;\npraesentiam G**; in praesentia mei P_{3}**; praesentiam mihi M;\npresenciam eius L_{2}; praesentiam dei A; pr\u00e6sentiam domini (dn\u012b)\nP_{2}**H_{1}H_{2}S.      ita] _om._ DP_{1}P_{2}**P_{3}CX.      retinete]\nretinere A; sentite T.      in] cum TM; _om._ B.       timore] timorem\nAB.      dei] domini H_{1}S.      vita] pax et vita RX. in aeternum] in\naeterno A; in aeterna G*; aeterna (eterna) G**PL_{1}.\n\n11. Est enim ... vos] _om._ (?) T.      enim] _om._ B.      vos] vobis\nGAH_{1}H_{2}SRVP_{2}** (_or_ P_{2}*) P_{3}**MX.\n\n12. retractu] retractatu BP_{2}RL_{2}; retractatione AGV; tractu T;\nreatu H_{1}S. _In_ P_{2}** ut peccato _is added_; _in_ H_{2} t\npeccato.      quaecumque] quodcumque TM.\n\n13. quod est reliquum] quod est FBTDP_{1}P_{2}*P_{3}*RCL_{1}L_{2}MX; quod est\noptimum GH_{1}H_{2}SV; quodcunque optimum est A; quodcunque est obtimum\nP_{2}**; quod bonum est P_{3}**: see p. 356. dilectissimi] dilectissime\nB.      christo] domino DP_{1}P_{2}P_{3}CX.      sordidos] _add._ omnes\nP_{2}**H_{1}H_{2}S; _add._ homines A. in] ut L_{1}.      lucro] lucrum RX.\n\n14. omnes] in omnibus G; homines (_attached to the preceding sentence_)\nTM.      sint] _omitted here and placed after_ palam H_{1}S.      apud]\naput F; ante AG.      deum] dominum A.      firmi in sensu christi]\nsensu firmi in christo ihesu R.\n\n15. quae] _add._ sunt R.      integra] intigra; _add._ sunt\nT.      vera] _add._ sunt DP_1P_2P_3CVX.      pudica et iusta] iusta et\npudica R.      iusta] iusta et casta AGV; casta et iusta\nP_2**H_1H_2S.      amabilia] _add._ sunt TH_1H_2SM; _add._ et sancta RX.\n\n16. audistis] _add._ et vidistis L_2.      accepistis] accipistis\nA.      pax] _add. ver._ 17, salutate omnes fratres (sanctos _for_\nfratres GV) in osculo sancto AGP_2**H_1H_2SRVX.\n\n18. sancti] omnes sancti AGRH_1SVX; sancti omnes H_2; _add._ in christo\nihesu RX.\n\n19. domini ihesu] domini nostri ihesu (iesu) christi\nDTAP_1P_2P_3GCH_1H_2SVMRX.\n\n20. et] _add._ hanc H_1H_2SP_2**.      legi] _add._ epistolam\nL_1P_3**      colosensibus et] _om._ FTDP_1P_2*P_3CVL_1L_2. _They are\nalso omitted in the La Cava_ MS; _see above_ p. 348.      colosensium]\n_add._ epistolam L_2. _The words_ colosensibus, colosensium, _are\ncommonly written with a single_ s, _more especially in the oldest MSS.\nIn L_1 the form is_ cholosensium.\n\n_The last sentence_ et facite etc. _is entirely omitted in_ M. _In_ RX\n_it is expanded into_ et facite legi colosensibus hanc epistolam et\ncolosensium (colosensibus R) vos legite. deus autem et pater domini\nnostri ihesu christi custodiat vos immaculatos in christo ihesu cui est\nhonor et gloria in secula seculorum. amen.\n\n_Subscriptions._ Explicit P_2P_3H_1; Exp. ad laodicenses F; Explicit\nepistola ad laodicenses (laudicenses R) DP_1GCH_2SRVX. _There is no\nsubscription in_ AL_1L_2, _and none is given for_ TM.\n\n[Sidenote: Notes on the epistle.]\n\nThe following notes are added for the sake of elucidating one or two\npoints of difficulty in the text or interpretation of the epistle.\n\n4 Neque] This is the passage quoted in the _Speculum_ \u00a7 50 published by\nMai _Nov. Patr. Bibl._ I. 2. p. 62 sq., 'Item ad Laodicenses: Neque\ndestituat vos quorundam vaneloquentia (_sic_) insinuantium, ut vos\navertant a veritate evangelii quod a me praedicatur'. We ought possibly\nto adopt the reading 'destituat ... vaniloquentia' of this and other old\nmss in preference to the 'destituant ... vaniloquia' of F. 'Vaniloquium'\nhowever is the rendering of \u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03af\u03b1 1 Tim. i. 6, and is supported by\nsuch analogies as inaniloquium, maliloquium, multiloquium,\nstultiloquium, etc.; see Hagen _Sprachl. Er\u00f6rter. zur Vulgata_ p. 74,\nRoensch _Das Neue Testament Tertullians_ p. 710.\n\ndestituant] Properly '_leave in the lurch_' and so '_cheat_',\n'_beguile_', e.g. Cic. _pro Rosc. Am._ 40 'induxit, decepit, destituit,\nadversariis tradidit, omni fraude et perfidia fefellit.' In Heb. ix. 26\n\u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f00\u03b8\u03ad\u03c4\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f01\u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 is translated 'ad destitutionem peccati'. The\noriginal here may have been \u1f10\u03be\u03b1\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd or \u1f00\u03b8\u03b5\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd.    insinuantium]\nIn late Latin this word means little more than 'to communicate', 'to\ninculcate', 'to teach': see the references in Roensch _Itala u. Vulgata_\np. 387, Heumann _Handlexicon des r\u00f6mischen Rechts_ s.v., Ducange\n_Glossarium_ s.v. So too 'insinuator' Tertull. _ad Nat._ ii. 1,\n'insinuatrix' August. _Ep._ 110 (II. p. 317). In Acts xvii. 3 it is the\nrendering of \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03b8\u03ad\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2.\n\n5 ut qui sunt etc.] The passage, as it stands, is obviously corrupt; and\na comparison with Phil. i. 12 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4' \u1f10\u03bc\u1f72 \u03bc\u1fb6\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c0\u1f74\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03b5\u1f50\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f10\u03bb\u03ae\u03bb\u03c5\u03b8\u03b5\u03bd seems to reveal the nature of the corruption. (1)\nFor 'qui' we should probably read 'qu\u00e6', which indeed is found in some\nlate MSS of no authority. (2) There is a lacuna somewhere in the\nsentence, probably after 'evangelii'. The original therefore would run\nin this form 'ut qu\u00e6 sunt ex me ad profectum veritatis [eveniant] ...\ndeservientes etc.,' the participles belonging to a separate sentence of\nwhich the beginning is lost. The supplements 'perveniant', 'proficiant',\nfound in some MSS give the right sense, though perhaps they are\nconjectural. The Vulgate of Phil. i. 12 is 'qu\u00e6 circa me sunt magis ad\nprofectum venerunt evangelii'. In the latter part of the verse it is\nimpossible in many cases to say whether a MS intends 'operum qu\u00e6' or\n'operumque'; but the former is probably correct, as representing \u1f10\u03c1\u03b3\u03c9\u03bd\n\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c9\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03c2: unless indeed this sentence also is corrupt or\nmutilated.\n\n7 administrante etc.] Considering the diversity of readings here, we may\nperhaps venture on the emendation 'administratione spiritus sancti', as\nthis more closely resembles the passage on which our text is founded,\nPhil. i. 19 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b4\u03b5\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c7\u03bf\u03c1\u03b7\u03b3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\n12 retractu] '_wavering_', '_hesitation_'. For this sense of\n'retractare', 'to rehandle, discuss', and so 'to question, hesitate',\nand even 'to shirk, decline', see Oehler _Tertullian_, index p. cxciii,\nRoensch _N. T. Tertullian's_ p. 669, Ducange _Glossarium_ s.v.: comp.\ne.g. Iren. v. 11. 1 'ne relinqueretur qu\u00e6stio his qui infideliter\nretractant de eo'. So 'retractator' is equivalent to 'detractator' in\nTert. _de Jejun._ 15 'retractatores hujus officii' (see Oehler's note);\nand in 1 Sam. xiv. 39 'absque retractatione morietur' is the rendering\nof 'dying he shall die', \u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03ac\u03c4\u1ff3 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9. Here the expression\nprobably represents \u03c7\u03c9\u03c1\u1f76\u03c2 ... \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd of Phil. ii. 14, which in the\nOld Latin is 'sine ... detractionibus'. All three forms occur, retractus\n(Tert. _Scorp._ 1), retractatus (Tert. _Apol._ 4, _adv. Marc._ i. 1, v.\n3, _adv. Prax._ 2, and frequently), retractatio (Cic. _Tusc._ v. 29,\n'sine retractatione' and so frequently; 1 Sam. l. c). Here 'retractus'\nmust be preferred, both as being the least common form and as having the\nhighest MS authority. In Tert. _Scorp._ 1 however it is not used in this\nsame sense.\n\n13 quod est reliquum] I have already spoken of this passage, p. 352, and\nshall have to speak of it again, p. 357. The oldest and most trustworthy\nMSS have simply 'quod est'. The word 'reliquum' must be supplied, as\nAnger truly discerned (p. 163); for the passage is taken from Phil. iii.\n1 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03c0\u03cc\u03bd, \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03bf\u03af \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5, \u03c7\u03b1\u03af\u03c1\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3. See the Vulgate translation\nof \u03c4\u1f78 \u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03c0\u03cc\u03bd in 1 Cor. vii. 29. Later and less trustworthy authorities\nsupply 'optimum' or 'bonum'.\n\n14 in sensu Christi] '_in the mind of Christ_': for in 1 Cor. ii. 16\n\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 is rendered 'sensum Christi'.\n\n20 facite legi etc.] Though the words 'Colosensibus et' are wanting in\nvery many of the authorities which are elsewhere most trustworthy, yet I\nhave felt justified in retaining them with other respectable copies,\nbecause (1) The hom\u0153oteleuton would account for their omission even\nin very ancient MSS; (2) The parallelism with Col. iv. 16 requires their\ninsertion; (3) The insertion is not like the device of a Latin scribe,\nwho would hardly have manipulated the sentence into a form which savours\nso strongly of a Greek original.\n\n                  *       *       *       *       *\n\n[Sidenote: Theory of a Greek original discussed.]\n\nIt is the general, though not universal, opinion that this epistle was\naltogether a forgery of the Western Church[628]; and consequently that\nthe Latin is not a translation from a lost Greek original, but preserves\nthe earliest form of the epistle. Though the forgery doubtless attained\nits widest circulation in the West, there are, I venture to think,\nstrong reasons for dissenting from this opinion.\n\nFootnote 628:\n\n  e.g. Anger _Laodicenerbrief_ p. 142 sq., Westcott _Canon_ p. 454 sq.\n  (ed. 4). Erasmus asks boldly, 'Qui factum est ut h\u00e6c epistola apud\n  Latinos extet, cum nullus sit apud Gr\u00e6cos, ne veterum quidem, qui\n  testetur eam a se lectam?' The accuracy of this statement will be\n  tested presently.\n\n[Sidenote: Frequent Grecisms in the epistle.]\n\nIf we read the epistle in its most authentic form, divested of the\nadditions contributed by the later MSS, we are struck with its cramped\nstyle. Altogether it has not the run of a Latin original. And, when we\ncome to examine it in detail, we find that this constraint is due very\nlargely to the fetters imposed by close adherence to Greek idiom. Thus\nfor instance we have ver. 5 '_qui_ [or _qu\u00e6_] _sunt ex me_', \u03bf\u1f31 [or \u03c4\u1f70]\n\u1f10\u03be \u1f10\u03bc\u03bf\u1fe6; _operum qu\u00e6 salutis_, \u1f10\u03c1\u03b3\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c9\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03c2; ver. 6 _palam\nvincula mea qu\u00e6 patior_, \u03c6\u03b1\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03af \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f43\u03c5\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03c9; ver. 13\n_sordidos in lucro_, \u03b1\u1f30\u03c3\u03c7\u03c1\u03bf\u03ba\u03b5\u03c1\u03b4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2; ver. 20 _et facite legi Colosensibus\net Colosensium vobis_, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03b5\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b8\u1fc7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u1f21 \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03ad\u03c9\u03bd \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 [\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76] \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd. It is quite possible indeed that parallels\nfor some of these anomalies may be found in Latin writers. Thus Tert.\n_c. Marc._ i. 23 'redundantia justiti\u00e6 super _scribarum et Pharis\u00e6orum_'\nis quoted to illustrate the genitive 'Colossensium' ver. 20.[629] The\nGreek cast however is not confined to one or two expressions but extends\nto the whole letter.\n\nFootnote 629:\n\n  Anger, p. 165.\n\n[Sidenote: It differs widely from the Old Latin and Vulgate Versions.]\n\nBut a yet stronger argument in favour of a Greek original remains. This\nepistle, as we saw, is a cento of passages from St Paul. If it had been\nwritten originally in Latin, we should expect to find that the passages\nwere taken directly from the Latin versions. This however is not the\ncase. Thus compare ver. 6 '_palam_ sunt vincula mea' with Phil. i. 13\n'ut vincula mea _manifesta_ fierent': ver. 7 '_orationibus vestris et\nadministrante_ spiritu sancto' [_administratione_ spiritus sancti'?]\nwith Phil. i. 19 '_per vestram obsecrationem_ (V. _orationem_) et\n_subministrationem _ spiritus sancti'; ver. 9 'ut eandem _dilectionem_\nhabeatis et sitis unianimes' with Phil. ii. 2 'eandem _caritatem_\nhabentes, unanimes'; ver. 10 '_ergo_, dilectissimi, ut _audistis_\npr\u00e6sentia mei ... _facite in_ timore' with Phil. ii. 12 '_Propter quod_\n(V. _Itaque_) dilectissimi mihi (V. _charissimi_ mei) sicut semper\n_obaudistis_ (V. _obedistis_) ... pr\u00e6sentia (V. in pr\u00e6sentia) mei ...\n_cum_ timore (V. _metu_) ... _operamini_'; ver. 11, 12 '_Est enim Deus_\nqui operatur in vos (v. 1. vobis). Et facite sine _retractu_ qu\u00e6cumque\nfacitis' with Phil. ii. 13, 14 _Deus enim est_ qui operatur in vobis ...\nOmnia autem facite sine ... _detractionibus_ (V. _h\u00e6sitationibus_)';\nver. 13 _quod est_ [_reliquum_], dilectissimi, gaudete in Christo et\n_pr\u00e6cavete_' with Phil. iii. 1, 2 '_de c\u00e6tero_, fratres mei, gaudete in\nDomino ... _Videte_'; ib. '_sordidos in lucro_' with the Latin\nrenderings of \u03b1\u1f30\u03c3\u03c7\u03c1\u03bf\u03ba\u03b5\u03c1\u03b4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 1 Tim. iii. 8 '_turpilucros_' (V. '_turpe\nlucrum sectantes_'), \u03b1\u1f30\u03c3\u03c7\u03c1\u03bf\u03ba\u03b5\u03c1\u03b4\u1fc6 Tit. i. 7 _turpilucrum_ (V. '_turpis\nlucri cupidum_'); ver. 14 '_sint petitiones_ vestr\u00e6 _palam_ apud Deum'\nwith Phil. iv. 6 '_postulationes_ (V. petitiones) vestr\u00e6 _innotescant_\napud Deum'; ver. 20 'facite _legi_ Colosensibus et _Colosensium vobis_'\nwith Col. iv. 16 'facite _ut_ et in Laodicensium ecclesia _legatur_ et\n_eam qu\u00e6 Laodicensium_ (MSS Laodiciam) _est ut_ (om. V.) _vos legatis_'.\nThese examples tell their own tale. [Sidenote: Thus internal evidence\nfavours a Greek original.]The occasional resemblances to the Latin\nVersion are easily explained on the ground that reminiscences of this\nversion would naturally occur to the translator of the epistle. The\nhabitual divergences from it are only accounted for on the hypothesis\nthat the original compiler was better acquainted with the New Testament\nin Greek than in Latin, and therefore presumably that he wrote in Greek.\n\n[Sidenote: External testimony to the same effect.]\n\nAnd, if we are led to this conclusion by an examination of the epistle\nitself, we shall find it confirmed by an appeal to external testimony.\nThere is ample evidence that a spurious Epistle to the Laodiceans was\nknown to Greek writers, as well as Latin, at a sufficiently early date.\n[Sidenote: [Muratorian Fragment].]A mention of such an epistle occurs as\nearly as the Muratorian Fragment on the Canon (about A.D. 170), where\nthe writer speaks of two letters, one to the Laodiceans and another to\nthe Alexandrians, as circulated under the name of Paul[630]. The bearing\nof the words however is uncertain. He may be referring to the Marcionite\nrecension of the canonical Epistle to the Ephesians, which was entitled\nby that heretic an Epistle to the Laodiceans[631]. Or, if this\nexplanation of his words be not correct (as perhaps it is not), still we\nshould not feel justified in assuming that he is referring to the extant\napocryphal epistle. Indeed we should hardly expect that an epistle of\nthis character would be written and circulated at so early a date. The\nreference in Col. iv. 16 offered a strong temptation to the forger, and\nprobably more than one unscrupulous person was induced by it to try his\nhand at falsification[632]. But, however this may be, it seems clear\nthat before the close of the fourth century our epistle was largely\ncirculated in the East and West alike. [Sidenote: Jerome.]'Certain\npersons', writes Jerome in his account of St Paul, 'read also an Epistle\nto the Laodiceans, but it is rejected by all[633]'. No doubt is\nentertained, that this father refers to our epistle. [Sidenote:\nTheodore.]If then we find that about the same time Theodore of\nMopsuestia also mentions an Epistle to the Laodiceans, which he condemns\nas spurious[634], it is a reasonable inference that the same writing is\nmeant. [Sidenote: Theodoret.]In this he is followed by Theodoret[635];\nand indeed the interpretations of Col. iv. 16 given by the Greek Fathers\nof this age were largely influenced as we have seen, by the presence of\na spurious epistle which they were anxious to discredit[636]. [Sidenote:\n2nd Council of Nic\u00e6a.]Even two or three centuries later the epistle\nseems to have been read in the East. At the Second Council of Nic\u00e6a\n(A.D. 787) it was found necessary to warn people against 'a forged\nEpistle to the Laodiceans' which was 'circulated, having a place in some\ncopies of the Apostle[637].'\n\nFootnote 630:\n\n  _Canon Murat._ p. 47 (ed. Tregelles). The passage stands in the MS,\n  'Fertur etiam ad Laudecenses alia ad Alexandrinos Pauli nomine fincte\n  ad heresem Marcionis et alia plura qu\u00e6 in catholicam eclesiam recepi\n  non potest.' There is obviously some corruption in the text. One very\n  simple emendation is the repetition of 'alia', so that the words would\n  run 'ad Laudicenses alia, alia ad Alexandrinos'. In this case fincte\n  (= finct\u00e6) might refer to the two epistles first mentioned, and the\n  Latin would construe intelligibly. The writing described as 'ad\n  Laodicenses alia' might then be the Epistle to the Ephesians under its\n  Marcionite title, the writer probably not having any personal\n  knowledge of it, but supposing from its name that it was a different\n  and a forged writing. But what can then be the meaning of 'alia ad\n  Alexandrinos'? Is it, as some have thought, the Epistle to the\n  Hebrews? But this could not under any circumstances be described as\n  'fincta ad h\u00e6resem Marcionis', even though we should strain the\n  meaning of the preposition and interpret the words '_against_ the\n  heresy of Marcion'. And again our knowledge of Marcion's Canon is far\n  too full to admit the hypothesis that it included a spurious Epistle\n  to the Alexandrians, of which no notice is elsewhere preserved. We are\n  therefore driven to the conclusion that there is a hiatus here, as in\n  other places of this fragment, probably after 'Pauli nomine'; and\n  'finct\u00e6' will then refer not to the two epistles named before, but to\n  the mutilated epistles of Marcion's Canon which he had 'tampered with\n  to adapt them to his heresy'. In this case the letter 'ad Laudicenses'\n  may refer to our apocryphal epistle or to some earlier forgery.\n\nFootnote 631:\n\n  See the introduction to the Epistle to the Ephesians.\n\nFootnote 632:\n\n  Timotheus, who became Patriarch of Constantinople in 511, while still\n  a presbyter, includes in a list of apocryphal works forged by the\n  Manicheans \u1f21 \u03c0\u03b5\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03b4\u03b5\u03ba\u03ac\u03c4\u03b7 [i.e. \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a0\u03b1\u03cd\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5] \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u03ae,\n  Meurse p. 117 (quoted by Fabricius, _Cod. Apocr. N. T._ I.. p. 139).\n  Anger (p. 27) suggests that there is a confusion of the Marcionites\n  and Manicheans here. I am disposed to think that Timotheus recklessly\n  credits the Manicheans with several forgeries of which they were\n  innocent, among others with our apocryphal Epistle to the Laodiceans.\n  Still it is possible that there was another Laodicean Epistle forged\n  by these heretics to support their peculiar tenets.\n\nFootnote 633:\n\n  _Vir. Ill._ 5 (II. p. 840) 'Legunt quidam et ad Laodicenses, sed ab\n  omnibus exploditur'.\n\nFootnote 634:\n\n  The passage is quoted above, p. 341, note 593.\n\nFootnote 635:\n\n  \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u1f72\u03c2 \u1f51\u03c0\u03ad\u03bb\u03b1\u03b2\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03ad\u03b1\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b3\u03b5\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9\u00b7 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03af\u03ba\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u03af\u03bd\u03c5\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n  \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03c6\u03ad\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u03ae\u03bd.\n\nFootnote 636:\n\n  Anger (p. 143) argues against a Greek original on the ground that the\n  Eastern Church, unlike the Latin, did not generally interpret Col. iv.\n  16 as meaning an epistle written _to_ the Laodiceans. The fact is\n  true, but the inference is wrong, as the language of the Greek\n  commentators themselves shows.\n\nFootnote 637:\n\n  Act. vi. Tom. v (Labbe viii. p. 1125 ed. Colet.) \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\n  \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c6\u03ad\u03c1\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u1f74 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u1f74 \u1f15\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03b9 \u03b2\u03af\u03b2\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n  \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f10\u03b3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7, \u1f23\u03bd \u03bf\u1f31 \u03c0\u03ac\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03b4\u03bf\u03ba\u03af\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u1f61\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n  \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03c4\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03bd.\n\n                  *       *       *       *       *\n\n[Sidenote: The Greek restored.]\n\nThe Epistle to the Laodiceans then in the original Greek would run\nsomewhat as follows[638]:\n\n                         ==\u03a0\u03a1\u039f\u03a3 \u039b\u0391\u039f\u0394\u0399\u039a\u0395\u0391\u03a3.==\n\n[Sidenote: ^a Gal. i. 1.]\n\n^a==\u03a0\u0391\u03a5\u039b\u039f\u03a3 \u1f00\u03c0\u03cc\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03f2 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f00\u03c0' \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03c9\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u1f72 \u03b4\u03b9' \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b1\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u1f30\u03b7\u03f2\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03c7\u03c1\u03b9\u03f2\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03f2 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03bf\u1fd6\u03f2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03f2 \u03bf\u1f56\u03f2\u03b9\u03bd \u03b5\u03bd \u03bb\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u1fb3.== [Sidenote: ^b Gal.\ni. 3.; Phil. i. 2.]^2^b==\u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03f2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c1\u03ae\u03bd\u03b7 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u1f78\u03f2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03ba\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f30\u03b7\u03f2\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c7\u03c1\u03b9\u03f2\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6.==\n\n[Sidenote: ^c Phil. i. 3.]\n\n^3^c==\u0395\u1f50\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03f2\u03c4\u1ff6 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03f2\u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03f2\u1fc3 \u03b4\u03b5\u03ae\u03f2\u03b5\u03b9 \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5, \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f10\u03f2\u03c4\u1f72 \u03b5\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7\n\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03f2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03f2\u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03f2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03f2 \u1f10\u03c1\u03b3\u03bf\u03b9\u03f2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6,== [Sidenote: ^d Gal.\nv. 5.]^d==\u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03ba\u03b4\u03ad\u03c7\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03af\u03b1\u03bd== [Sidenote: ^e 2 Pet. ii.\n9; iii. 7; cf. Phil. ii. 16.]^e==\u03b5\u1f30\u03f2 \u1f21\u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd \u03ba\u03c1\u03af\u03f2\u03b5\u03c9\u03f2.==\n\n^4==\u039c\u03b7\u03b4\u1f72 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03f2 \u1f10\u03be\u03b1\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03ae\u03f2\u03c9\u03f2\u03b9\u03bd== [Sidenote: ^f 1 Tim. i.\n6.]^f==\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03af\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03b1\u03f2\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1== [Sidenote: ^g 2 Tim.\niv. 4.]^g==\u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03f2\u03c4\u03c1\u03ad\u03c0\u03f2\u03c9\u03f2\u03b9\u03bd \u03c5\u03bc\u1fb6\u03f2 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78== [Sidenote: ^h Col. i. 5; Gal.\nii. 5, 14.]^h==\u03c4\u1fc6\u03f2 \u03b1\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03f2== [Sidenote: ^i Gal. i. 11 (cf. i.\n8).]^i==\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b5\u1f50\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b5\u1f50\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03b9\u03f2\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03f2 \u1f51\u03c0' \u1f10\u03bc\u03bf\u1fe6.== ^5==\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bd\u1fe6\u03bd\n\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03ae\u03f2\u03b5\u03b9 \u1f41 \u0398\u03b5\u1f78\u03f2 \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1== [Sidenote: ^k Phil. i. 12.]^k==\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f10\u03be \u1f10\u03bc\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b5\u1f30\u03f2\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c0\u1f74\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03f2 \u1f00\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03f2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b5\u1f50\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 * * * \u03bb\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03b5\u03cd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03f2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03f2\n\u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03f2\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f10\u03c1\u03b3\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03f2 \u03f2\u03c9\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03f2 [\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76] \u03c4\u1fc6\u03f2 \u03b1\u1f30\u03c9\u03bd\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b6\u03c9\u1fc6\u03f2.== ^6==\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03bd\u1fe6\u03bd== [Sidenote: ^l Phil. i. 13.]^l==\u03c6\u03b1\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u1f76 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03b4\u03b5\u03f2\u03bc\u03bf\u03af \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5, \u03bf\u1f53\u03f2\n\u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03c9 \u1f10\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03f2\u03c4\u1ff7, \u1f10\u03bd \u03bf\u1f37\u03f2== [Sidenote: ^m Matt. v. 12; cf. Phil. i.\n18]^m==\u03c7\u03c1\u03c9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03bb\u03bb\u03b9\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9.== ^7==\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76== [Sidenote: ^n Phil. i.\n19.]^n==\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03cc \u1f10\u03f2\u03c4\u03af\u03bd \u03bc\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b5\u1f30\u03f2 \u03f2\u03c9\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u1f00\u0390\u03b4\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd, \u1f43 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03c0\u03ad\u03b2\u03b7 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03f2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd\n\u03b4\u03ad\u03b7\u03f2\u03b5\u03c9\u03f2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c7\u03bf\u03c1\u03b7\u03b3\u03af\u03b1\u03f2 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03f2 \u1f01\u03b3\u03af\u03bf\u03c5,== [Sidenote: ^o Phil. i.\n20.]^o==\u03b5\u1f34\u03c4\u03b5 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03b6\u03c9\u1fc6\u03f2 )\u03ad\u03b9\u03c4\u03b5 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5.== [Sidenote: ^p Phil. i.\n21.]^8^p==\u1f11\u03bc\u03bf\u1f76 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b6\u1fc6\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03f2\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03ac.==\n^9==\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03f2\u03b5\u03b9 [\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76] \u1f10\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03bb\u03ad\u03bf\u03c5\u03f2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1==\n[Sidenote: ^q Phil. ii. 2.]^q==\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5, \u03f2\u03cd\u03bc\u03c0\u03f2\u03c5\u03c7\u03bf\u03b9\n\u1f44\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03f2.== [Sidenote: ^r Phil. ii. 12.]^{10}^r==\u1f65\u03f2\u03c4\u03b5, \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03af, \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03f2\n\u1f51\u03c0\u03b7\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03f2\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03f2\u03af\u1fb3 \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5, \u03bf\u1f55\u03c4\u03c9\u03f2== [Sidenote: ^s 2 Thess. ii. 5\n(see vulg.).]^s==\u03bc\u03bd\u03b7\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03f2 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c6\u03cc\u03b2\u03bf\u03c5 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f10\u03c1\u03b3\u03ac\u03b6\u03b5\u03f2\u03b8\u03b5, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f14\u03f2\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9\n\u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u03b6\u03c9\u1f74 \u03b5\u1f30\u03f2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b1\u1f30\u1ff6\u03bd\u03b1\u00b7== [Sidenote: ^t Phil. ii. 13.]^{11}^t==\u0398\u03b5\u1f78\u03f2\n\u03b3\u03ac\u03c1 \u1f10\u03f2\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f41 \u1f10\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd.== [Sidenote: ^u Phil. ii.\n14.]^{12}==\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76== ^u==\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b5 \u03c7\u03c9\u03c1\u1f76\u03f2 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03b9\u03f2\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd== [Sidenote: ^x\nCol. iii. 17, 23.]^x==\u1f45 \u03c4\u03b9 \u1f10\u1f70\u03bd \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u1fc6\u03c4\u03b5.==\n\n[Sidenote: ^y Phil. iii. 1.]^{13}==\u039a\u03b1\u1f76== ^y==\u03c4\u1f78 \u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03c0\u03cc\u03bd, \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03af,\n\u03c7\u03b1\u03af\u03c1\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f10\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03f2\u03c4\u1ff7. \u0392\u03bb\u03ad\u03c0\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03f2== [Sidenote: ^z 1 Tim. iii. 8;\nTit. i. 7.]^z==\u03b1\u1f30\u03f2\u03c7\u03c1\u03bf\u03ba\u03b5\u03c1\u03b4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03f2.== [Sidenote: ^a Phil. iv.\n6.]^{14}^a==\u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03b1\u1f30\u03c4\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c1\u03b9\u03b6\u03ad\u03f2\u03b8\u03c9 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03f2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u0398\u03b5\u03cc\u03bd. \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76==\n[Sidenote: ^b 1 Cor. xv. 58.]^b==\u1f11\u03b4\u03c1\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b3\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03f2\u03b8\u03b5 \u1f10\u03bd== [Sidenote:\n^c 1 Cor. ii. 16.]^c==\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03bd\u03bf\u0390 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03f2\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6.== [Sidenote: ^d Phil.\niv. 8, 9.]^{15}^d==\u1f45\u03f2\u03b1 \u03c4\u03b5 \u1f41\u03bb\u03cc\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u1fc6 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03f2\u03b5\u03bc\u03bd\u1f70 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03af\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03f2\u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u1fc6, \u03c4\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c0\u03c1\u03ac\u03f2\u03f2\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5.== ^{16}==\u1f03 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f20\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03f2\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b5\u03bb\u03ac\u03b2\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5, \u1f10\u03bd\n\u03c4\u1fc7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b4\u03af\u1fb3 \u03ba\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b5, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f21 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c1\u03ae\u03bd\u03b7 \u1f14\u03f2\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03bc\u03b5\u03b8' \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd.==\n\n[Sidenote: ^e Phil. iv. 22.]\n\n^{18}^e==\u1f08\u03f2\u03c0\u03ac\u03b6\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03f2 \u03bf\u1f31 \u1f05\u03b3\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9.==\n\n[Sidenote: ^f Phil. iv. 23.]\n\n^{19}^f==\u1f29 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03f2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f38\u03b7\u03f2\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03f2\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03f2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd.==\n\n[Sidenote: ^g Col. iv. 16.]\n\n^{20}^g==\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03ae\u03f2\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03f2 \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03f2\u03f2\u03b1\u03b5\u1fe6\u03f2\u03b9\u03bd \u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03f2\u03b8\u1fc7, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b7 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd\n\u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03f2\u03f2\u03b1\u03ad\u03c9\u03bd \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd.==\n\nFootnote 638:\n\n  A Greek version is given in Elias Hutter's Polyglott New Testament\n  (Noreb. 1599); see Anger p. 147 note g. But I have retranslated the\n  epistle anew, introducing the Pauline passages, of which it is almost\n  entirely made up, as they stand in the Greek Testament. The references\n  are given in the margin.\n\n                  *       *       *       *       *\n\n[Sidenote: Scanty circulation in the East,]\n\nBut, though written originally in Greek, it was not among Greek\nChristians that this epistle attained its widest circulation. In the\nlatter part of the 8th century indeed, when the Second Council of Nic\u00e6a\nmet, it had found its way into some copies of St Paul's Epistles[639].\nBut the denunciation of this Council seems to have been effective in\nsecuring its ultimate exclusion. We discover no traces of it in any\nextant Greek MS, with the very doubtful exception which has already been\nconsidered[640]. [Sidenote: but wide diffusion in the West.]But in the\nLatin Church the case was different. St Jerome, as we saw, had\npronounced very decidedly against it. Yet even his authority was not\nsufficient to stamp it out. At least as early as the sixth century it\nfound a place in some copies of the Latin Bibles: and before the close\nof that century its genuineness was affirmed by perhaps the most\ninfluential theologian whom the Latin Church produced during the eleven\ncenturies which elapsed between the age of Jerome and Augustine and the\nera of the Reformation. [Sidenote: Gregory the Great.]Gregory the Great\ndid not indeed affirm its canonicity. He pronounced that the Church had\nrestricted the canonical Epistles of St Paul to fourteen, and he found a\nmystical explanation of this limitation in the number itself, which was\nattained by adding the number of the Commandments to the number of the\nGospels and thus fitly represented the teaching of the Apostle which\ncombines the two[641]. But at the same time he states that the Apostle\nwrote fifteen; and, though he does not mention the Epistle to the\nLaodiceans by name, there can be little doubt that he intended to\ninclude this as his fifteenth epistle, and that his words were rightly\nunderstood by subsequent writers as affirming its Pauline authorship.\nThe influence of this great name is perceptible in the statements of\nlater writers. [Sidenote: Haymo of Halberstadt.]Haymo of Halberstadt,\nwho died A.D. 853, commenting on Col. iv. 16, says, The Apostle 'enjoins\nthe Laodicean Epistle to be read to the Colossians, because though it is\nvery short and is not reckoned in the Canon, yet still it has some\nuse[642]'.[Sidenote: Hervey of Dole.] And between two or three centuries\nlater Hervey of Dole (c. A.D. 1130), if it be not Anselm of Laon[643],\ncommenting on this same passage, says: 'Although the Apostle wrote this\nepistle also as his fifteenth or sixteenth[644], and it is established\nby Apostolic authority like the rest, yet holy Church does not reckon\nmore than fourteen,' and he proceeds to justify this limitation of the\nCanon with the arguments and in the language of Gregory[645]. Others\nhowever did not confine themselves to the qualified recognition given to\nthe epistle by the great Bishop of Rome. Gregory had carefully\ndistinguished between genuineness and canonicity; but this important\ndistinction was not seldom disregarded by later writers. [Sidenote:\nEnglish Church. Aelfric.]In the English Church more especially it was\nforgotten. Thus Aelfric abbot of Cerne, who wrote during the closing\nyears of the tenth century, speaks as follows of St Paul: 'Fifteen\nepistles wrote this one Apostle to the nations by him converted unto the\nfaith: which are large books in the Bible and make much for our\namendment, if we follow his doctrine that was teacher of the Gentiles'.\nHe then gives a list of the Apostle's writings, which closes with 'one\nto Philemon and one to the Laodiceans; fifteen in all as loud as thunder\nto faithful people[646]'. [Sidenote: John of Salisbury.]Again, nearly\ntwo centuries later John of Salisbury, likewise writing on the Canon,\nreckons 'Fifteen epistles of Paul included in one volume, though it be\nthe wide-spread and common opinion of nearly all that there are only\nfourteen; ten to churches and four to individuals: supposing that the\none addressed to the Hebrews is to be reckoned among the Epistles of\nPaul, as Jerome the doctor of doctors seems to lay down in his preface,\nwhere he refuteth the cavils of those who contended that it was not\nPaul's. But the fifteenth is that which is addressed to the Church of\nthe Laodiceans; and though, as Jerome saith, it be rejected by all,\nnevertheless was it written by the Apostle. Nor is this opinion assumed\non the conjecture of others, but it is confirmed by the testimony of the\nApostle himself: for he maketh mention of it in the Epistle to the\nColossians in these words, _When this epistle shall have been read among\nyou_, etc. (Col. iv. 16)[647]'. Aelfric and John are the typical\ntheologians of the Church in this country in their respective ages. The\nConquest effected a revolution in ecclesiastical and theological\nmatters. The Old English Church was separated from the Anglo-Norman\nChurch in not a few points both of doctrine and of discipline. Yet here\nwe find the representative men of learning in both agreed on this one\npoint\u2014the authorship and canonicity of the Epistle to the Laodiceans.\nFrom the language of John of Salisbury however it appears that such was\nnot the common verdict at least in his age, and that on this point the\ninstinct of the many was more sound than the learning of the few. Nor\nindeed was it the undisputed opinion even of the learned in this country\nduring this interval. [Sidenote: The epistle repudiated by Lanfranc.]The\nfirst Norman Archbishop, Lanfranc, an Italian by birth and education,\nexplains the passage in the Colossian Epistle as referring to a letter\nwritten by the Laodiceans to the Apostle, and adds that otherwise 'there\nwould be more than thirteen Epistles of Paul[648]'. Thus he tacitly\nignores the Epistle to the Laodiceans, with which he can hardly have\nbeen unacquainted.\n\nFootnote 639:\n\n  Quoted above, p. 359, note 637.\n\nFootnote 640:\n\n  See above, p. 315 sq.\n\nFootnote 641:\n\n  Greg. Magn. _Mor. in Iob._ xxxv. \u00a7 25 (III. p. 433, ed. Gallicc.)\n  'Recte vita ecclesi\u00e6 multiplicata per decem et quattuor computatur;\n  quia utrumque testamentum custodiens, et tam secundum Legis decalogum\n  quam secundum quattuor Evangelii libros vivens, usque ad perfectionis\n  culmen extenditur. Unde et Paulus apostolus quamvis epistolas\n  quindecim scripserit, sancta tamen ecclesia non amplius quam\n  quatuordecim tenet, ut ex ipso epistolarum numero ostenderet quod\n  doctor egregius Legis et Evangelii secreta rimasset'.\n\nFootnote 642:\n\n  _Patrol. Lat._ CXVII. p. 765 (ed. Migne) 'Et eam qu\u00e6 erat Laodicensium\n  ideo pr\u00e6cipit Colossensibus legi, quia, licet perparva sit et in\n  Canone non habeatur, aliquid tamen utilitatis habet'. He uses the\n  expression 'eam qu\u00e6 erat Laodicensium', because \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 was\n  translated in the Latin Bible 'eam qu\u00e6 Laodicensium est'.\n\nFootnote 643:\n\n  See _Galatians_ p. 232 on the authorship of this commentary.\n\nFootnote 644:\n\n  A third Epistle to the Corinthians being perhaps reckoned as the 15th;\n  see Fabric. _Cod. Apocr. Nov. Test._ II p. 866.\n\nFootnote 645:\n\n  _Patrol. Lat._ CLXXXI. p. 1355 sq. (ed. Migne) '_et ea_ similiter\n  epistola, _qu\u00e6 Laodicensium_ est, i.e. quam ego Laodicensibus misi,\n  legatur vobis. Quamvis et hanc epistolam quintamdecimam vel\n  sextamdecimam apostolus scripserit, et auctoritas eam apostolica sicut\n  c\u00e6tera firmavit, sancta tamen ecclesia non amplius quam quatuordecim\n  tenet, ut ex ipso epistolarum numero ostenderet etc.' At the end of\n  the notes to the Colossians he adds 'Hucusque protenditur epistola qu\u00e6\n  missa est ad Colossenses. Congruum autem videtur ut propter notitiam\n  legentium subjiciamus eam qu\u00e6 est ad Laodicenses directa; quam, ut\n  diximus, in usu non habet ecclesia. Est ergo talis.' Then follows the\n  text of the Laodicean Epistle, but it is not annotated.\n\nFootnote 646:\n\n  _A Saxon Treatise concerning the Old and New Testament_ by \u00c6lfricus\n  Abbas, p. 28 (ed. W. L'Isle, London 1623).\n\nFootnote 647:\n\n  Ioann. Sarisb. _Epist._ 143 (I. p. 210 ed. Giles) 'Epistol\u00e6 Pauli\n  quindecim uno volumine comprehens\u00e6, licet sit vulgata et fere omnium\n  communis opinio non esse nisi quatuordecim, decem ad ecclesias,\n  quatuor ad personas; si tamen illa qu\u00e6 ad Hebr\u00e6os est connumeranda est\n  epistolis Pauli, quod in pr\u00e6fatione ejus astruere videtur doctorum\n  doctor Hieronymus, illorum dissolvens argutias qui eam Pauli non esse\n  contendebant. C\u00e6terum quintadecima est illa qu\u00e6 ecclesi\u00e6 Laodicensium\n  scribitur; et licet, ut ait Hieronymus, ab omnibus explodatur, tamen\n  ab apostolo scripta est: neque sententia h\u00e6c de aliorum pr\u00e6sumitur\n  opinione sed ipsius apostoli testimonio roboratur. Meminit enim ipsius\n  in epistola ad Colossenses his verbis, _Quum lecta fuerit apud vos h\u00e6c\n  epistola, etc._'\n\nFootnote 648:\n\n  _Patrol. Lat._ CL. p. 331 (ed. Migne) on Col. iv. 16 'H\u00e6c si esset\n  apostoli, _ad Laodicenses_ diceret, non _Laodicensium_; et plusquam\n  tredecim essent epistol\u00e6 Pauli'. We should perhaps read xiiii for\n  xiii, 'quatuordecim' for 'tredecim', as Lanfranc is not likely to have\n  questioned the Pauline authorship of the Epistle to the Hebrews.\n\n[Sidenote: Occurrence in MSS of all ages and countries.]\n\nIndeed the safest criterion of the extent to which this opinion\nprevailed, is to be found in the manuscripts. At all ages from the sixth\nto the fifteenth century we have examples of its occurrence among the\nPauline Epistles and most frequently without any marks which imply doubt\nrespecting its canonicity. These instances are more common in proportion\nto the number of extant MSS in the earlier epoch than in the later[649].\nIn one of the three or four extant authorities for the Old Latin Version\nof the Pauline Epistles it has a place[650]. In one of the two most\nancient copies of Jerome's revised Vulgate it is found[651]. Among the\nfirst class MSS of this latter Version its insertion is almost as common\nas its omission. This phenomenon moreover is not confined to any one\ncountry. Italy, Spain, France, Ireland, England, Germany,\nSwitzerland\u2014all the great nations of Latin Christendom\u2014contribute\nexamples of early manuscripts in which this epistle has a place[652].\n\nFootnote 649:\n\n  The proportion however is very different in different collections. In\n  the Cambridge University Library I found the epistle in four only out\n  of some thirty MSS Which I inspected; whereas in the Lambeth Library\n  the proportion was far greater.\n\nFootnote 650:\n\n  The _Speculum_ of Mai, see above, p. 348.\n\nFootnote 651:\n\n  The Codex Fuldensis, which was written within a few years of the Codex\n  Amiatinus.\n\nFootnote 652:\n\n  The list of MSS given above p. 348 sq. will substantiate this\n  statement.\n\n[Sidenote: Versions.]\n\nAnd, when the Scriptures came to be translated into the vernacular\nlanguages of modern Europe, this epistle was not uncommonly included.\n[Sidenote: Albigensian.]Thus we meet with an Albigensian version, which\nis said to belong to the thirteenth century[653]. [Sidenote:\nBohemian.]Thus too it is found in the Bohemian language, both in\nmanuscript and in the early printed Bibles, in various recensions[654].\n[Sidenote: German.]And again an old German translation is extant, which,\njudging from linguistic peculiarities, cannot be assigned to a later\ndate than about the fourteenth century, and was printed in not less than\nfourteen editions of the German Bible at the close of the fifteenth and\nthe beginning of the sixteenth centuries, before Luther's version\nappeared[655]. [Sidenote: English.]In the early English Bibles too it\nhas a place. Though it was excluded by both Wycliffe and Purvey, yet it\ndid not long remain untranslated and appears in two different and quite\nindependent versions, in MSS written before the middle of the fifteenth\ncentury[656]. The prologue prefixed to the commoner of the two forms\nruns as follows:\n\n[Sidenote: English prologue.]\n\n'Laodicensis ben also Colocenses, as tweye townes and oo peple in\nmaners. These ben of Asie, and among hem hadden be false apostlis, and\ndisceyuede manye. Therfore the postle bringith hem to mynde of his\nconuersacion and trewe preching of the gospel, and excitith hem to be\nstidfast in the trewe witt and loue of Crist, and to be of oo wil. But\nthis pistil is not in comyn Latyn bookis, and therfor it was but late\ntranslatid into Englisch tunge[657].'\n\nFootnote 653:\n\n  An account of this MS, which is at Lyons, is given by Reuss in the\n  _Revue de Th\u00e9ologie_ v. p. 334 (Strassb. 1852). He ascribes the\n  translation of the New Testament to the 13th century, and dates the MS\n  a little later.\n\nFootnote 654:\n\n  This version is printed by Anger, p. 170 sq.\n\nFootnote 655:\n\n  See Anger, p. 149 sq., p. 166 sq.\n\nFootnote 656:\n\n  These two versions are printed in Lewis's New Testament translated by\n  J. Wiclif (1731) p. 99 sq., and in Forshall and Madden's _Wycliffite\n  Versions of the Holy Bible_ (1850) IV. p. 438 sq. They are also given\n  by Anger p. 168 sq. (1843), who takes the rarer form from Lewis and\n  the other from a Dresden MS. Dr Westcott also has printed the commoner\n  version in his _Canon_, p. 457 (ed. 4), from Forshall and Madden.\n\n  Of one of these two versions Forshall and Madden give a collation of\n  several MSS; the other is taken from a single MS (I. p. xxxii). Lewis\n  does not state whence he derived the rarer of these two versions, but\n  there can be little doubt that it came from the same MS _Pepys._ 2073\n  (belonging to Magd. Coll. Cambridge) from which it was taken by\n  Forshall and Madden (I. p. lvii); since he elsewhere mentions using\n  this MS (p. 104). The version is not known to exist in any other.\n  Forshall and Madden give the date of the MS as about 1440.\n\nFootnote 657:\n\n  From Forshall and Madden, IV. p. 438. The earliest MSS which contain\n  the common version of the Laodicean Epistle (to which this prologue is\n  prefixed) date about A.D. 1430.\n\n[Sidenote: Two Versions of the epistle.]\n\nThe two forms of the epistle in its English dress are as follows[658].\nThe version on the left hand is extant only in a single MS; the other,\nwhich occupies the right column, is comparatively common.\n\n'Poul, apostle, not of men, ne bi man, but bi Jhesu Crist, to the\nbritheren that ben of Laodice, grace to \u021dou, and pees of God the fadir,\nand of the Lord Jhesu Crist. Gracis I do to Crist bi al myn orisoun,\nthat \u021de be dwellinge in him and lastinge, bi the biheest abidinge in the\ndai of doom. Ne he vnordeynede vs of sum veyn speche feynynge, that vs\nouerturne fro the sothfastnesse of the gospel that of me is prechid.\nAlso now schal God do hem leuynge, and doynge of blessdnesse of werkis,\nwhich heelthe of lyf is. And now openli ben my boondis, whiche I suffre\nin Crist Jhesu, in whiche I glad and ioie. And that is to me heelthe\neuerlastynge, that that I dide with oure preieris, and mynystringe the\nHoly Spirit, bi lijf or bi deeth. It is forsothe to me lijf into Crist,\nand to die ioie withouten eende. In vs he schal do his merci, that \u021de\nhaue the same louynge, and that \u021de be of o wil. Therfore, derlyngis, as\n\u021de han herd in presence of me, hold \u021de, and do \u021de in drede of God; and\nit schal be to \u021dou lijf withouten eend. It is forsothe God that worchith\nin vs. And do \u021de withouten ony withdrawinge, what soeuere \u021de doon. And\nthat it is, derlyngis, ioie \u021de in Crist, and flee \u021de maad foul in clay.\nAlle \u021doure axingis ben open anentis God, and be \u021de fastned in the witt\nof Crist. And whiche been hool, and sooth, and chast, and rightwijs, and\nlouable, do \u021de; and whiche herden and take in herte, hold \u021de; and it\nschal be to \u021dou pees. Holi men greeten \u021dou weel, in the grace of oure\nLord Jhesu Crist, with the Holi Goost. And do \u021de that pistil of\nColosensis to be red to \u021dou. Amen.\n\n'Poul, apostle, not of men, ne by man, but bi Jhesu Crist, to the\nbritheren that ben at Laodice, grace to \u021dou, and pees of God the fadir,\nand of the Lord Jhesu Crist. I do thankyngis to my God bi al my preier,\nthat \u021de be dwelling and lastyng in him, abiding the biheest in the day\nof doom. For neithir the veyn spekyng of summe vnwise men hath lettide\n\u021dou, the whiche wolden turne \u021dou fro the treuthe of the gospel, that is\nprechid of me. And now hem that ben of me, to the profi\u021dt of truthe of\nthe gospel, God schal make disseruyng, and doyng benygnyte of werkis,\nand helthe of euerlasting lijf. And now my boondis ben open, which Y\nsuffre in Crist Jhesu, in whiche Y glade and ioie. And that is to me to\neuerlastyng helthe, that this same thing be doon by \u021doure preiers, and\nmynystryng of the Holi Goost, either bi lijf, either bi deeth. Forsothe\nto me it is lijf to lyue in Crist, and to die ioie. And his mercy schal\ndo in \u021dou the same thing, that \u021de moun haue the same loue, and that \u021de\nbe of oo will. Therfore, \u021de weel biloued britheren, holde \u021de, and do \u021de\nin the dreede of God, as \u021de han herde the presence of me; and lijf schal\nbe to \u021dou withouten eende. Sotheli it is God that worchith in \u021dou. And,\nmy weel biloued britheren, do \u021de without eny withdrawyng what euer\nthingis \u021de don. Joie \u021de in Crist, and eschewe \u021de men defoulid in lucre,\n_either foul wynnyng_. Be alle \u021doure askyngis open anentis God, and be\n\u021de stidefast in the witt of Crist. And do \u021de tho thingis that ben hool,\nand trewe, and chaast, and iust, and able to be loued; and kepe \u021de in\nherte tho thingis that \u021de haue herd and take; and pees schal be to \u021dou.\nAlle holi men greten \u021dou weel. The grace of oure Lord Jhesu Crist be\nwith \u021doure spirit. And do \u021de that pistil of Colocensis to be red to \u021dou.\n\nFootnote 658:\n\n  Printed from Forshall and Madden l.c. I am assured by those who are\n  thoroughly conversant with old English, that they can discern no\n  difference of date in these two versions, and that they both belong\n  probably to the early years of the 15th century. The rarer version is\n  taken from a better Latin text than the other.\n\n[Sidenote: Revival of learning and condemnation of the epistle.]\n\nThus for more than nine centuries this forged epistle hovered about the\ndoors of the sacred Canon, without either finding admission or being\nperemptorily excluded. At length the revival of learning dealt its\ndeath-blow to this as to so many other spurious pretensions. As a rule,\nRoman Catholics and Reformers were equally strong in their condemnation\nof its worthlessness. The language of Erasmus more especially is worth\nquoting for its own sake, and must not be diluted by translation:\n\n[Sidenote: Strictures of Erasmus.]\n\n'Nihil habet Pauli pr\u00e6ter voculas aliquot ex c\u00e6teris ejus epistolis\nmendicatas.... Non est cujusvis hominis Paulinum pectus effingere.\nTonat, fulgurat, meras flammas loquitur Paulus. At h\u00e6c, pr\u00e6terquam quod\nbrevissima est, quam friget, quam jacet!... Quanquam quid attinet\nargumentari? Legat, qui volet, epistolam.... Nullum argumentum\nefficacius persuaserit eam non esse Pauli quam ipsa epistola. Et si quid\nmihi naris est, ejusdem est opificis qui n\u00e6niis suis omnium veterum\ntheologorum omnia scripta contaminavit, conspurcavit, perdidit, ac\npr\u00e6cipue ejus qui pr\u00e6 c\u00e6teris indignus erat ea contumelia, nempe D.\nHieronymi[659]'.\n\nFootnote 659:\n\n  On Col. iv. 16. Erasmus is too hard upon the writer of this letter,\n  when he charges him with such a mass of forgeries. He does not explain\n  how this hypothesis is consistent with the condemnation of the Epistle\n  to the Laodiceans in Hieron. _Vir. Ill._ 5 (quoted above p. 359).\n\n[Sidenote: Exceptions.]\n\nBut some eccentric spirits on both sides were still found to maintain\nits genuineness. [Sidenote: Pr\u00e6torius.]Thus on the one hand the Lutheran\nSteph. Pr\u00e6torius prefaces his edition of this epistle (A.D. 1595) with\nthe statement that he 'restores it to the Christian Church'; he gives\nhis opinion that it was written 'either by the Apostle himself or by\nsome other Apostolic man': he declares that to himself it is 'redolent\nof the spirit and grace of the most divine Paul'; and he recommends\nyounger teachers of the Gospel to 'try their strength in explaining it',\nthat thus 'accustoming themselves gradually to the Apostolic doctrine\nthey may extract thence a flavour sweeter than ambrosia and\nnectar[660].' [Sidenote: Stapleton.]On the other hand the Jesuit\nStapleton was not less eager in his advocacy of this miserable cento. To\nhim its genuineness had a controversial value. Along with several other\napocryphal writings which he accepted in like manner, it was important\nin his eyes as showing that the Church had authority to exclude even\nApostolic writings from the Canon, if she judged fit[661]. But such\nphenomena were quite abnormal. The dawn of the Reformation epoch had\neffectually scared away this ghost of a Pauline epistle, which (we may\nconfidently hope) has been laid for ever and will not again be suffered\nto haunt the mind of the Church.\n\nFootnote 660:\n\n  _Pauli Apostoli ad Laodicenses Epistola, Latine et Germanice_,\n  Hamburg, 1595, of which the preface is given in Fabricius _Cod. Apocr.\n  Nov. Test._ II. p. 867. It is curious that the only two arguments\n  against its genuineness which he thinks worthy of notice are (1) Its\n  brevity; which he answers by appealing to the Epistle to Philemon; and\n  (2) Its recommendation of works ('quod scripsit opera esse facienda\n  qu\u00e6 sunt salutis \u00e6tern\u00e6'); which he explains to refer to works that\n  proceed of faith.\n\nFootnote 661:\n\n  See Bp. Davenant on Col. iv. 16: 'Detestanda Stapletonis opinio, qui\n  ipsius Pauli epistolam esse statuit, quam omnes patres ut adulterinam\n  et insulsam repudiarunt: nec sanior conclusio, quam inde deducere\n  voluit, posse nimirum ecclesiam germanam et veram apostoli Pauli\n  epistolam pro sua authoritate e Canone excludere'. So also Whitaker\n  _Disputation on Scripture_ passim (see the references given above, p.\n  341, note 595).\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n\n\n\n                          EPISTLE TO PHILEMON.\n\n                      INTRODUCTION TO THE EPISTLE.\n\n[Sidenote: Unique character of the epistle.]\n\n\nThe Epistle to Philemon holds a unique place among the Apostle's\nwritings. It is the only strictly private letter which has been\npreserved. The Pastoral Epistles indeed are addressed to individuals,\nbut they discuss important matters of Church discipline and government.\nEvidently they were intended to be read by others besides those to whom\nthey are immediately addressed. On the other hand the letter before us\ndoes not once touch upon any question of public interest. It is\naddressed apparently to a layman. It is wholly occupied with an incident\nof domestic life. The occasion which called it forth was altogether\ncommon-place. It is only one sample of numberless letters which must\nhave been written to his many friends and disciples by one of St Paul's\neager temperament and warm affections, in the course of a long and\nchequered life. [Sidenote: Its value.]Yet to ourselves this fragment,\nwhich has been rescued, we know not how, from the wreck of a large and\nvaried correspondence, is infinitely precious. Nowhere is the social\ninfluence of the Gospel more strikingly exerted; nowhere does the\nnobility of the Apostle's character receive a more vivid illustration\nthan in this accidental pleading on behalf of a runaway slave.\n\n[Sidenote: The persons addressed.]\n\nThe letter introduces us to an ordinary household in a small town of\nPhrygia. Four members of it are mentioned by name, the father, the\nmother, the son, and the slave.\n\n[Sidenote: 1. Philemon.]\n\n1. The head of the family bears a name which, for good or for evil, was\nnot unknown in connexion with Phrygian story. [Sidenote: Occurrence of\nthe name in Phrygia.]The legend of Philemon and Baucis, the aged\npeasants who entertained not angels but gods unawares, and were rewarded\nby their divine guests for their homely hospitality and their conjugal\nlove[662], is one of the most attractive in Greek mythology, and\ncontrasts favourably with many a revolting tale in which the powers of\nOlympus are represented as visiting this lower earth. It has a special\ninterest too for the Apostolic history, because it suggests an\nexplanation of the scene at Lystra, when the barbarians would have\nsacrificed to the Apostles, imagining that the same two gods, Zeus and\nHermes, had once again deigned to visit, in the likeness of men, those\nregions which they had graced of old by their presence[663]. Again, in\nhistorical times we read of one Philemon who obtained an unenviable\nnotoriety at Athens by assuming the rights of Athenian citizenship,\nthough a Phrygian and apparently a slave[664]. Otherwise the name is not\ndistinctively Phrygian. It does not occur with any special frequency in\nthe inscriptions belonging to this country; and though several persons\nbearing this name rose to eminence in literary history, not one, so far\nas we know, was a Phrygian.\n\nFootnote 662:\n\n  Ovid. _Met._ vii. 626 sq. 'Jupiter huc, _specie mortali_, cumque\n  parente Venit Atlantiades positis caducifer alis' etc.\n\nFootnote 663:\n\n  Acts xiv. 11 \u03bf\u1f35 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1f76 _\u1f41\u03bc\u03bf\u03b9\u03c9\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2_ \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03ad\u03b2\u03b7\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2\n  \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. There are two points worth observing in the Phrygian legend, as\n  illustrating the Apostolic history. (1) It is a miracle, which opens\n  the eyes of the peasant couple to the divinity of their guests thus\n  disguised; (2) The immediate effect of this miracle is their attempt\n  to sacrifice to their divine visitors, 'dis hospitibus mactare\n  parabant'. The familiarity with this beautiful story may have\n  suggested to the barbarians of Lystra, whose 'Lycaonian speech' was\n  not improbably a dialect of Phrygian, that the same two gods, Zeus and\n  Hermes, had again visited this region on an errand at once of\n  beneficence and of vengeance, while at the same time it would prompt\n  them to conciliate the deities by a similar mode of propitiation,\n  \u1f24\u03b8\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u03b8\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd.\n\nFootnote 664:\n\n  Aristoph. _Av._ 762 \u03b5\u1f30 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u03c5\u03b3\u03c7\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f62\u03bd \u03a6\u03c1\u1f7a\u03be ... \u03c6\u03c1\u03c5\u03b3\u03af\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f44\u03c1\u03bd\u03b9\u03c2\n  \u1f10\u03bd\u03b8\u03ac\u03b4' \u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a6\u03b9\u03bb\u03ae\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2.\n\n[Sidenote: This Philemon a Colossian]\n\nThe Philemon with whom we are concerned was a native, or at least an\ninhabitant, of Coloss\u00e6. This appears from the fact that his slave is\nmentioned as belonging to that place. It may be added also, in\nconfirmation of this view, that in one of two epistles written and\ndespatched at the same time St Paul announces the restoration of\nOnesimus to his master, while in the other he speaks of this same person\nas revisiting Coloss\u00e6[665]. On the other hand it would not be safe to\nlay any stress on the statement of Theodoret, that Philemon's house was\nstill standing at Coloss\u00e6 when he wrote[666], for traditions of this\nkind have seldom any historical worth.\n\nFootnote 665:\n\n  Compare Col. iv. 9 with Philem. 11 sq.\n\nFootnote 666:\n\n  Theodoret in his preface to the epistle says \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd \u03b4\u03b5 \u03b5\u1f36\u03c7\u03b5 [[\u1f41\n  \u03a6\u03b9\u03bb\u03ae\u03bc\u03c9\u03bd] \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03ac\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2\u00b7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f21 \u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03af\u03b1 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bc\u03ad\u03c7\u03c1\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2\n  \u03bc\u03b5\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03ba\u03b5. This is generally taken to mean that Philemon's house was\n  still standing, when Theodoret wrote. This may be the correct\n  interpretation, but the language is not quite explicit.\n\n[Sidenote: converted by St Paul.]\n\nPhilemon had been converted by St Paul himself[667]. At what time or\nunder what circumstances he received his first lessons in the Gospel, we\ndo not know: but the Apostle's long residence at Ephesus naturally\nsuggests itself as the period when he was most likely to have become\nacquainted with a citizen of Coloss\u00e6[668].\n\nFootnote 667:\n\n  ver. 19.\n\nFootnote 668:\n\n  See above, p. 30 sq.\n\n[Sidenote: His evangelical zeal,]\n\nPhilemon proved not unworthy of his spiritual parentage. Though to\nEpaphras belongs the chief glory of preaching the Gospel at\nColoss\u00e6[669], his labours were well seconded by Philemon. The title of\n'fellow-labourer,' conferred upon him by the Apostle[670], is a noble\ntestimony to his evangelical zeal. Like Nymphas in the neighbouring\nChurch of Laodicea[671], Philemon had placed his house at the disposal\nof the Christians at Coloss\u00e6 for their religious and social\ngatherings[672]. Like Gaius[673], to whom the only other private letter\nin the Apostolic Canon is addressed[674], he was generous in his\nhospitalities. [Sidenote: and wide hospitality.]All those with whom he\ncame in contact spoke with gratitude of his kindly attentions[675]. Of\nhis subsequent career we have no certain knowledge. [Sidenote: Legendary\nmartyrdom.]Legendary story indeed promotes him to the bishopric of\nColoss\u00e6[676], and records how he was martyred in his native city under\nNero[677]. But this tradition or fiction is not entitled to any credit.\nAll that we really know of Philemon is contained within this epistle\nitself.\n\nFootnote 669:\n\n  See above, p. 31 sq.\n\nFootnote 670:\n\n  ver. 1 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u1ff7 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd.\n\nFootnote 671:\n\n  Col. iv. 15.\n\nFootnote 672:\n\n  ver. 2 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4' \u03bf\u1f36\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f10\u03ba\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u1fb3. The Greek commentators, Chrysostom\n  and Theodoret, suppose that St Paul designates Philemon's own family\n  (including his slaves) by this honourable title of \u1f10\u03ba\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03b1, in order\n  to interest them in his petition. This is plainly wrong. See the note\n  on Col. iv. 15.\n\nFootnote 673:\n\n  3 Joh. 5 sq.\n\nFootnote 674:\n\n  I take the view that the \u03ba\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03b1 addressed in the Second Epistle of St\n  John is some church personified, as indeed the whole tenour of the\n  epistle seems to imply: see esp. vv. 4, 7 sq. The salutation to the\n  'elect lady' (ver. 1) from her 'elect sister' (ver. 15) will then be a\n  greeting sent to one church from another; just as in 1 Peter, the\n  letter is addressed at the outset \u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03a0\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. (i. 1) and\n  contains at the close a salutation from \u1f21 \u1f10\u03bd \u0392\u03b1\u03b2\u03c5\u03bb\u1ff6\u03bd\u03b9 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03ba\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u03ae (v.\n  13).\n\nFootnote 675:\n\n  vv. 5, 7.\n\nFootnote 676:\n\n  _Apost. Const._ vii. 46 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f10\u03bd \u03a6\u03c1\u03c5\u03b3\u03af\u1fb3 \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 [\u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2]\n  \u1f0c\u03c1\u03c7\u03b9\u03c0\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2, \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03ac\u03b5\u03c9\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03a6\u03b9\u03bb\u03ae\u03bc\u03c9\u03bd, \u0392\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u039c\u03b1\u03ba\u03b5\u03b4\u03bf\u03bd\u03af\u03b1\u03bd\n  \u1f48\u03bd\u03ae\u03c3\u03b9\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f41 \u03a6\u03b9\u03bb\u03ae\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2. The Greek _Men\u00e6a_ however make Philemon bishop\n  of Gaza; see Tillemont I. p. 574 note lxvi.\n\nFootnote 677:\n\n  See Tillemont I. pp. 290, 574, for the references.\n\n[Sidenote: 2. Apphia his wife.]\n\n2. It is a safe inference from the connexion of the names that Apphia\nwas the wife of Philemon[678]. The commentators assume without misgiving\nthat we have here the familiar Roman name Appia, though they do not\nexplain the intrusion of the aspirate[679]. This seems to be a mistake.\n[Sidenote: A strictly Phrygian name.]The word occurs very frequently on\nPhrygian inscriptions as a proper name, and is doubtless of native\norigin. At Aphrodisias and Philadelphia, at Eumenia and Apamea Cibotus,\nat Stratonicea, at Philomelium, at \u00c6zani and Coti\u00e6um and Doryl\u00e6um, at\nalmost all the towns far and near, which were either Phrygian or subject\nto Phrygian influences, and in which any fair number of inscriptions has\nbeen preserved, the name is found. If no example has been discovered at\nColoss\u00e6 itself, we must remember that not a single proper name has been\npreserved on any monumental inscription at this place. It is generally\nwritten either Apphia or Aphphia[680]; more rarely Aphia, which is\nperhaps due merely to the carelessness of the stonecutters[681].\n[Sidenote: Its affinities]But, so far as I have observed, it always\npreserves the aspirate. Its diminutive is Apphion or Aphphion or\nAphion[682]. The allied form Aphphias or Aphias, also a woman's name, is\nfound, though less commonly[683]; and we likewise frequently meet with\nthe shorter form Apphe or Aphphe[684]. The man's name corresponding to\nApphia is Apphianos, but this is rare[685]. The root would appear to be\nsome Phrygian term of endearment or relationship[686]. [Sidenote: and\nanalogies.]It occurs commonly in connexion with other Phrygian names of\na like stamp, more especially Ammia, which undergoes the same\nmodifications of form, Amia, Ammias, Ammion or Amion, Ammiane or\nAmmiana, with the corresponding masculine Ammianos[687]. With these we\nmay also compare Tatia, Tatias, Tation, Tatiane or Tatiana, Tatianos.\nSimilar too is the name Papias or Pappias, with the lengthened form\nPapianos, to which corresponds the feminine Papiane[688]. So again we\nhave Nannas or Nanas, Nanna or Nana, with their derivatives, in these\nPhrygian inscriptions[689]. [Sidenote: Not to be confused with the Latin\nAppia.]There is a tendency in some of the allied forms of Apphia or\nAphphia to drop the aspirate so that they are written with a _pp_, more\nespecially in Appe[690], but not in the word itself; nor have I observed\nconversely any disposition to write the Roman name Appia with an\naspirate, Apphia or Aphphia[691]. Even if such a disposition could be\nproved, the main point for which I am contending can hardly be\nquestioned. With the overwhelming evidence of the inscriptions before\nus, it is impossible to doubt that Apphia is a native Phrygian\nname[692].\n\nFootnote 678:\n\n  Boeckh _Corp. Inscr._ 3814 \u039d\u03ad\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f08\u03c6\u03c6\u03af\u03b1 \u03b3\u03c5\u03bd\u1f74 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6. In the\n  following inscriptions also a wife bearing the name Apphia (Aphphia,\n  Aphia) or Apphion (Aphphion, Aphion) is mentioned in connexion with\n  her husband; 2720, 2782, 2836, 3446, 2775 b, c, d, 2837 b, 3849, 3902\n  m, 3962, 4141, 4277, 4321 f, 3846 z^{17}, etc.\n\n  M. Renan (_Saint Paul_ p. 360) says, 'Appia, diaconesse de cette\n  ville'. Like other direct statements of this same writer, as for\n  instance that the Colossians sent a deputation to St Paul\n  (_L'Antechrist_ p. 90), this assertion rests on no authority.\n\nFootnote 679:\n\n  They speak of \u1f08\u03c0\u03c6\u03af\u03b1 as a softened form of the Latin _Appia_, and quote\n  Acts xxviii. 15, where however the form is \u1f08\u03c0\u03c0\u03af\u03bf\u03c5. Even Ewald writes\n  the word Appia.\n\nFootnote 680:\n\n  \u1f08\u03c0\u03c6\u03af\u03b1, no. 2782, 2835, 2950, 3432, 3446, 2775 b, c, d, 2837 b, 3902 m,\n  3962, 4124, 4145: \u1f08\u03c6\u03c6\u03af\u03b1, no. 3814, 4141, 4277, 4321 f, 3827 l, 3846 z,\n  3846 z^{17}. So far as I could trace any law, the form \u1f08\u03c6\u03c6\u03af\u03b1 is\n  preferred in the northern and more distant towns like \u00c6zani and\n  Coti\u00e6um, while \u1f08\u03c0\u03c6\u03af\u03b1 prevails in the southern towns in the more\n  immediate neighbourhood of Coloss\u00e6, such as Aphrodisias. This accords\n  with the evidence of our MSS, in which \u1f08\u03c0\u03c6\u03af\u03b1 is the best supported\n  form, though \u1f08\u03c6\u03c6\u03af\u03b1 is found in some. In Theod. Mops. (Cramer's _Cat._\n  p. 105) it becomes \u1f08\u03bc\u03c6\u03af\u03b1 by a common corruption; and Old Latin copies\n  write the dative _Apphiadi_ from the allied form _Apphias_.\n\n  The most interesting of these inscriptions mentioning the name is no.\n  2782 at Aphrodisias, where there is a notice of \u03a6\u03bb. \u1f08\u03c0\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03b9\u03b5\u03c1\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2\n  \u1f08\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, \u03bc\u03b7\u03c4\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bc\u03ac\u03bc\u03bc\u03b7\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c5\u03b3\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03bd, \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03c0\u03ac\u03c4\u03c1\u03b9\u03b4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\nFootnote 681:\n\n  no. 2720, 3827.\n\nFootnote 682:\n\n  \u1f0c\u03c0\u03c6\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd or \u1f0c\u03c6\u03c6\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd 2733, 2836, 3295, 3849, 3902 m, 4207; \u1f0c\u03c6\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd 3846\n  z^{34} and \u1f0c\u03c6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd 3846 z^{31}; and even \u1f0c\u03c6\u03c6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, 3167, 3278. In 3902 m\n  the mother's name is \u1f08\u03c0\u03c6\u03af\u03b1 and the daughter's \u1f0c\u03c0\u03c6\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd.\n\nFootnote 683:\n\n  \u1f08\u03c6\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, 3697, 3983; \u1f08\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 3879.\n\nFootnote 684:\n\n  \u1f0c\u03c6\u03c6\u03b7 3816, 3390, 4143; \u1f0c\u03c0\u03c6\u03b7 3796, 4122.\n\nFootnote 685:\n\n  It is met with at the neighbouring town of Hierapolis, in the form\n  \u1f08\u03c0\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 no. 3911. It also occurs on coins of not very distant parts\n  of Asia Minor, being written either \u1f08\u03c0\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 or \u1f08\u03c6\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2; Mionnet III.\n  p. 179, 184, IV. p. 65, 67, _Suppl._ VI. p. 293, VII. p. 365.\n\nFootnote 686:\n\n  Suidas \u1f0c\u03c0\u03c6\u03b1: \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03cc\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1, and so Bekk. _Anecd._ p.\n  441. Eustath. _Il._ p. 565 says \u1f04\u03c0\u03c6\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u1f74\u03bd \u1f08\u03c4\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03c2 \u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03b7 \u1f21\n  \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u1f74 \u03b5\u1f34\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f02\u03bd, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03ac\u03c0\u03c0\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1 \u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f41 \u03c0\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., and he\n  adds \u1f30\u03c3\u03c4\u03ad\u03bf\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f10\u03ba \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f61\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c1\u03c1\u03ad\u03b8\u03b7 \u1f04\u03c0\u03c6\u03b1 \u03b3\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f04\u03c0\u03c6\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd,\n  \u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03cc\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1 \u1f42\u03bd \u1f10\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03c2\u00b7 \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u1f72\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f04\u03c0\u03c6\u03b1 \u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03cc\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c6\u03b1\u03c3\u1f76\u03bd \u1f08\u03c4\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd.\n  These words were found in writers of Attic comedy (Pollux iii. 74 \u1f21\n  \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bd\u03ad\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03c9\u03bc\u1ff3\u03b4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03c6\u03af\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03c0\u03c6\u03af\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03c0\u03c6\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd; comp.\n  Xenarchus \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03b3\u03ad\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f44\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03af\u03b4\u03b9\u03b1, \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03b4'\n  \u1f00\u03c0\u03c6\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03b1, \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03bd\u03b5\u03c9\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2, Meineke _Fragm. Com._ III. p. 617): and\n  doubtless they were heard commonly in Attic homes. But were they not\n  learnt in the nursery from Phrygian slaves? \u1f08\u03c0\u03c6\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd appears in two\n  inscriptions almost as a proper name, 2637 \u039a\u03bb\u03b1\u03c5\u03b4\u03af\u03b1 \u1f00\u03c0\u03c6\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd, 3277\n  \u1f00\u03c0\u03c6\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u039b\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd\u03ae. In no. 4207 (at Telmissus) we have \u1f19\u03bb\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7 \u1f21 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n  \u1f0c\u03c6\u03c6\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd, so that it seems sometimes to have been employed side by side\n  with a Greek name; comp. no. 3912 a \u03a0\u03b1\u03c0\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 ... \u1f41 \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u0394\u03b9\u03bf\u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03c2,\n  quoted above p. 48. This will account for the frequency of the names,\n  Apphia, Apphion, etc. In Theocr. XV. 13 we have \u1f00\u03c0\u03c6\u1fe6\u03c2, and in Callim.\n  _Hym. Dian._ 6 \u1f04\u03c0\u03c0\u03b1, as a term of endearment applied to a father.\n\nFootnote 687:\n\n  This appears from the fact that Ammias and Ammianos appear sometimes\n  as the names of mother and son respectively in the same inscriptions;\n  e.g. 3846 z^{82}, 3847 k, 3882 i.\n\nFootnote 688:\n\n  On the name Papias or Pappias see above p. 48.\n\nFootnote 689:\n\n  See Boeckh _Corp. Inscr._ III. p. 1085 for the names \u039d\u03ac\u03bd\u03b1\u03c2, etc.\n\nFootnote 690:\n\n  We have not only the form \u1f0c\u03c0\u03c0\u03b7 several times (e.g. 3827 x, 3846 p,\n  3846 x, 3846 z^{46}, etc.); but also \u1f0c\u03c0\u03c0\u03b7\u03c2 3827 g, 3846 n, 3846 z^{77},\n  still as a woman's name. These all occur in the same neighbourhood, at\n  Coti\u00e6um and \u00c6zani. I have not noticed any instance of this phenomenon\n  in the names Apphia, Apphion; though probably, where Roman influences\n  were especially strong, there would be a tendency to transform a\n  Phrygian name into a Roman, e.g. Apphia into Appia, and Apphianus into\n  Appianus.\n\nFootnote 691:\n\n  In the Greek historians of Rome for instance the personal name is\n  always \u1f0c\u03c0\u03c0\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 and the road \u1f08\u03c0\u03c0\u03af\u03b1; so too in Acts xxviii. 15 it is\n  \u1f08\u03c0\u03c0\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u03a6\u03cc\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd.\n\nFootnote 692:\n\n  The point to be observed is that examples of these names are thickest\n  in the heart of Phrygia, that they diminish in frequency as Phrygian\n  influence becomes weaker, and that they almost, though not entirely,\n  disappear in other parts of the Greek and Roman world.\n\n[Sidenote: Her share in the letter.]\n\nOf this Phrygian matron we know nothing more than can be learnt from\nthis epistle. The tradition or fiction which represents her as martyred\ntogether with her husband may be safely disregarded. St Paul addresses\nher as a Christian[693]. Equally with her husband she had been aggrieved\nby the misconduct of their slave Onesimus, and equally with him she\nmight interest herself in the penitent's future well-being.\n\nFootnote 693:\n\n  ver. 2 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u1fc7. See the note.\n\n[Sidenote: 3. Archippus, the son.]\n\n3. With less confidence, but still with a reasonable degree of\nprobability, we may infer that Archippus, who is likewise mentioned in\nthe opening salutation, was a son[694] of Philemon and Apphia. The\ninscriptions do not exhibit the name in any such frequency either in\nPhrygia or in the surrounding districts, as to suggest that it was\ncharacteristic of these parts[695]. [Sidenote: His office]Our Archippus\nheld some important office in the Church[696]; but what this was, we are\nnot told. St Paul speaks of it as a 'ministry' (\u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03af\u03b1). Some have\ninterpreted the term technically as signifying the diaconate; but St\nPaul's emphatic message seems to imply a more important position than\nthis. Others again suppose that he succeeded Epaphras as bishop of\nColoss\u00e6, when Epaphras left his native city to join the Apostle at\nRome[697]; but the assumption of a regular and continuous episcopate in\nsuch a place as Coloss\u00e6 at this date seems to involve an anachronism.\nMore probable than either is the hypothesis which makes him a presbyter.\nOr perhaps he held a missionary charge, and belonged to the order of\n'evangelists[698].' Another question too arises respecting Archippus.\nWhere was he exercising this ministry, whatever it may have been? At\nColoss\u00e6, or at Laodicea? [Sidenote: and abode,]His connexion with\nPhilemon would suggest the former place. But in the Epistle to the\nColossians his name is mentioned immediately after the salutations to\nthe Laodiceans and the directions affecting that Church; and this fact\nseems to connect him with Laodicea. [Sidenote: Laodicea, rather than\nColoss\u00e6.]On the whole this appears to be the more probable\nsolution[699]. Laodicea was within walking distance of Coloss\u00e6[700].\nArchippus must have been in constant communication with his parents, who\nlived there; and it was therefore quite natural that, writing to the\nfather and mother, St Paul should mention the son's name also in the\nopening address, though he was not on the spot. An early tradition, if\nit be not a critical inference from the allusion in the Colossian\nletter, makes him bishop not of Coloss\u00e6, but of Laodicea[701].\n\nFootnote 694:\n\n  So Theodore of Mopsuestia. But Chrysostom \u1f15\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b1 \u1f34\u03c3\u03c9\u03c2 \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03cc\u03bd, and\n  Theodoret \u1f41 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f0c\u03c1\u03c7\u03b9\u03c0\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03b1\u03c3\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf.\n\nFootnote 695:\n\n  It occurs in two Smyrn\u00e6an inscriptions, no. 3143, 3224.\n\nFootnote 696:\n\n  Col. iv. 17 \u03b2\u03bb\u03ad\u03c0\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u1f23\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ad\u03bb\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3, \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd\n  \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2.\n\nFootnote 697:\n\n  So the Ambrosian Hilary on Col. iv. 17.\n\nFootnote 698:\n\n  Ephes. iv. 11 bears testimony to the existence of the office of\n  evangelist at this date.\n\nFootnote 699:\n\n  It is adopted by Theodore of Mopsuestia. On the other hand Theodoret\n  argues against this view on critical grounds; \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u1f72\u03c2 \u1f14\u03c6\u03b1\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd\n  \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03b3\u03b5\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03ac\u03c3\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd, \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb' \u1f21 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03a6\u03b9\u03bb\u03ae\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03b1 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u1f74\n  \u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03ac\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9 \u1f61\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f57\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1fa4\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u00b7 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03a6\u03b9\u03bb\u03ae\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd\n  \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03c4\u03ac\u03c4\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9: but he does not allege any traditional support for his own\n  opinion.\n\nFootnote 700:\n\n  See above pp. 2, 15.\n\nFootnote 701:\n\n  _Apost. Const._ vii, 46 quoted above p. 372, note 676.\n\n[Sidenote: His career.]\n\nOf the apprehensions which the Apostle seems to have entertained\nrespecting Archippus, I have already spoken[702]. It is not improbable\nthat they were suggested by his youth and inexperience. St Paul here\naddresses him as his 'fellow-soldier[703],' but we are not informed on\nwhat spiritual campaigns they had served in company. Of his subsequent\ncareer we have no trustworthy evidence. Tradition represents him as\nhaving suffered martyrdom at Coloss\u00e6 with his father and mother.\n\nFootnote 702:\n\n  See p. 42.\n\nFootnote 703:\n\n  ver. 2 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03af\u03c9\u03c4\u1fc3 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd. See the note.\n\n[Sidenote: 4. Onesimus.]\n\n4. But far more important to the history of Christianity than the\nparents or the son of the family, is the servant. The name Onesimus was\nvery commonly borne by slaves. Like other words signifying utility,\nworth, and so forth, it naturally lent itself to this purpose[704].\nAccordingly the inscriptions offer a very large number of examples in\nwhich it appears as the name of some slave or freedman[705]; [Sidenote:\nA servile name.]and even where this is not the case, the accompaniments\nfrequently show that the person was of servile descent, though he might\nnever himself have been a slave[706]. Indeed it occurs more than once as\na fictitious name for a slave[707], a fact which points significantly to\nthe social condition naturally suggested by it. In the inscriptions of\nproconsular Asia it is found[708]; but no stress can be laid on this\ncoincidence, for its occurrence as a proper name was doubtless\ncoextensive with the use of the Greek language. More important is the\nfact that in the early history of Christianity it attains some eminence\nin this region. [Sidenote: Its prominence among the Christians of\nproconsular Asia.]One Onesimus is bishop of Ephesus in the first years\nof the second century, when Ignatius passes through Asia Minor on his\nway to martyrdom, and is mentioned by the saint in terms of warm\naffection and respect[709]. Another, apparently an influential layman,\nabout half a century later urges Melito bishop of Sardis to compile a\nvolume of extracts from the scriptures; and to him this father dedicates\nthe work when completed[710]. Thus it would appear that the memory of\nthe Colossian slave had invested the name with a special popularity\namong Christians in this district.\n\nFootnote 704:\n\n  e.g. Chresimus, Chrestus, Onesiphorus, Symphorus, Carpus, etc. So too\n  the corresponding female names Onesime, Chreste, Sympherusa, etc.: but\n  more commonly the women's names are of a different cast of meaning,\n  Arescusa, Prepusa, Terpusa, Thallusa, Tryphosa, etc.\n\nFootnote 705:\n\n  e.g. in the _Corp. Inscr. Lat._ III. p. 323, no. 2146, p. 359, no.\n  2723, p. 986, no. 6107 (where it is spelled Honesimus); and in\n  Muratori, CC. 6, DXXIX. 5, CMLXVIII. 4, MIII. 2, MDXVIII. 2, MDXXIII.\n  4, MDLI. 9, MDLXXI. 5, MDLXXV. 1, MDXCII. 8, MDXCVI. 7, MDCVI. 2,\n  MDCX. 19, MDCXIV. 17, 39; and the corresponding female name Onesime in\n  MCCXXXIX. 12, MDXLVI. 6, MDCXII. 9. A more diligent search than I have\n  made would probably increase the number of examples very largely.\n\nFootnote 706:\n\n  e.g. _Corp. Inscr. Lat._ III. p. 238, no. 1467, D. M. M. AVR \u00b7 ONESIMO\n  \u00b7 CARPION \u00b7 AVG \u00b7 LIB \u00b7 TABVL \u00b7 FILIO. In the next generation any\n  direct notice of servile origin would disappear; but the names very\n  often indicate it. It need not however necessarily denote low\n  extraction: see e.g. Liv. xliv. 16.\n\nFootnote 707:\n\n  Menander _Inc._ 312 (Meineke _Fragm. Com._ IV. p. 300), where the\n  \u1f48\u03bd\u03ae\u03c3\u03b9\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 addressed is a slave, as appears from the mention of his\n  \u03c4\u03c1\u03cc\u03c6\u03b9\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2, i.e. master; Galen _de Opt. Doctr._ I (I. p. 41 ed. K\u00fchn),\n  where there is a reference to a work of Phavorinus in which was\n  introduced one Onesimus \u1f41 \u03a0\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5\u03c4\u03ac\u03c1\u03c7\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f18\u03c0\u03b9\u03ba\u03c4\u03ae\u03c4\u1ff3 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03bb\u03b5\u03b3\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2;\n  _Anthol. Gr\u00e6c._ II. p. 161, where the context shows that the person\n  addressed as Onesimus is a slave; ib. II. p. 482, where the master,\n  leaving legacies to his servants, says \u1f48\u03bd\u03ae\u03c3\u03b9\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f35\u03ba\u03bf\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c0\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5 | \u03bc\u03bd\u1fb6\u03c2\n  \u1f10\u03c7\u03ad\u03c4\u03c9 \u0394\u03ac\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b4' \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03bf\u03c3\u03b9 \u03bc\u03bd\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c7\u03ad\u03c4\u03c9\u00b7 | \u03c0\u03b5\u03bd\u03c4\u03ae\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03a3\u03cd\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2\u00b7 \u03a3\u03c5\u03bd\u03ad\u03c4\u03b7 \u03b4\u03ad\u03ba\u03b1,\n  \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. See also the use of the name in the Latin play quoted Suet.\n  _Galb._ 13 (according to one reading).\n\nFootnote 708:\n\n  It occurs as near to Coloss\u00e6 as Aphrodisias; Boeckh _C. I._ no. 2743.\n\nFootnote 709:\n\n  Ign. _Ephes._ I. \u1f10\u03bd \u1f48\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03bc\u1ff3 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u1fc3 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b9\u03b7\u03b3\u03ae\u03c4\u1ff3 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u1f76\n  \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03ba\u03cc\u03c0\u1ff3 ... \u03b5\u1f50\u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f41 \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u1f00\u03be\u03af\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f56\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd\n  \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9; see also \u00a7\u00a7 2, 5, 6.\n\nFootnote 710:\n\n  Melito in Euseb. _H.E._ iv. 26 \u039c\u03b5\u03bb\u03af\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u1f48\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03bc\u1ff3 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u1ff7 \u03c7\u03b1\u03af\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd.\n  \u1f18\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03b4\u1f74 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03ba\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f20\u03be\u03af\u03c9\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\n[Sidenote: Position and conduct of Onesimus.]\n\nOnesimus represented the least respectable type of the least respectable\nclass in the social scale. He was regarded by philosophers as a 'live\nchattel', a 'live implement[711]'; and he had taken philosophy at her\nword. He had done what a chattel or an implement might be expected to\ndo, if endued with life and intelligence. He was treated by the law as\nhaving no rights[712]; and he had carried the principles of the law to\ntheir logical consequences. He had declined to entertain any\nresponsibilities. There was absolutely nothing to recommend him. He was\na slave, and what was worse, a Phrygian slave; and he had confirmed the\npopular estimate of his class[713] and nation[714] by his own conduct.\nHe was a thief and a runaway. His offence did not differ in any way, so\nfar as we know, from the vulgar type of slavish offences. He seems to\nhave done just what the representative slave in the Roman comedy\nthreatens to do, when he gets into trouble. He had 'packed up some goods\nand taken to his heels[715].' Rome was the natural cesspool for these\noffscourings of humanity[716]. In the thronging crowds of the metropolis\nwas his best hope of secresy. In the dregs of the city rabble he would\nfind the society of congenial spirits.\n\nFootnote 711:\n\n  Aristot. _Pol._ i. 4 (p. 1253) \u1f41 \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03c4\u1fc6\u03bc\u03ac \u03c4\u03b9 \u1f14\u03bc\u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd, _Eth. Nic._\n  viii. 13 (p. 1161) \u1f41 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f14\u03bc\u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd \u1f44\u03c1\u03b3\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd, \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b4' \u1f44\u03c1\u03b3\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u1f04\u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03bf\u03c2\n  \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2. See also the classification of 'implements' in Varro, _de Re\n  rust._ I. 17. 1 'Instrumenti genus vocale et semivocale et mutum:\n  vocale, in quo sunt servi; semivocale, in quo boves; mutum, in quo\n  plaustra'.\n\nFootnote 712:\n\n  Dig. iv. 5 'Servile caput nullum jus habet' (Paulus); _ib._ l. 17 'In\n  personam servilem nulla cadit obligatio' (Ulpianus).\n\nFootnote 713:\n\n  Plaut. _Pseud._ I. 2, 6 'Ubi data occasiost, rape, clepe, tene,\n  harpaga, bibe, es, fuge; hoc eorum opust'; Ovid. _Amor._ i. 15. 17\n  'Dum fallax servus'.\n\nFootnote 714:\n\n  Cicero speaks thus of Phrygia and the neighbouring districts; _pro\n  Flacc._ 27 'Utrum igitur nostrum est an vestrum hoc proverbium\n  _Phrygem plagis fieri solere meliorem_? Quid de tota Caria? Nonne hoc\n  vestra voce vulgatum est; si quid cum periculo experiri velis, _in\n  Care_ id potissimum esse faciendum? Quid porro in Gr\u00e6co sermone tam\n  tritum est, quam si quis despicatui ducitur, ut _Mysorum ultimus_ esse\n  dicatur? Nam quid ego dicam de Lydia? Quis unquam Gr\u00e6cus com\u0153diam\n  scripsit in qua servus primarum partium non Lydus esset': comp.\n  Alciphr. _Epist._ iii. 38 \u03a6\u03c1\u03cd\u03b3\u03b1 \u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03ad\u03c4\u03b7\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03c9 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bd\u03b7\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.; Apollod.\n  Com. (Meineke, IV. p. 451) \u03bf\u1f50 \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c7\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a6\u03c1\u03cd\u03be \u03b5\u1f30\u03bc\u03b9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. This last\n  passage refers to the cowardice with which, besides all their other\n  bad qualities, the Phrygians were credited: comp. Anon. Com. (_ib._\n  IV. p. 652) \u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03bb\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u03bb\u03b1\u03b3\u1ff6 \u03a6\u03c1\u03c5\u03b3\u03cc\u03c2, Tertull. _de Anim._ 20 'Comici\n  Phrygas timidos illudunt': see Ribbeck _Com. Lat._ p. 106.\n\nFootnote 715:\n\n  Ter. _Phorm._ i. 4. 13 'aliquid convasassem, atque hinc me protinam\n  conjicerem in pedes'.\n\nFootnote 716:\n\n  Sall. _Cat._ xxxvii. 5 'Romam sicuti in sentinam confluxerant': comp.\n  Tac. _Ann._ xv. 44.\n\n[Sidenote: His encounter with St Paul in Rome]\n\nBut at Rome the Apostle spread his net for him, and he was caught in its\nmeshes. How he first came in contact with the imprisoned missionary, we\ncan only conjecture. Was it an accidental encounter with his\nfellow-townsman Epaphras in the streets of Rome which led to the\ninterview? Was it the pressure of want which induced him to seek alms\nfrom one whose large-hearted charity must have been a household word in\nhis master's family? Or did the memory of solemn words, which he had\nchanced to overhear at those weekly gatherings in the upper chamber at\nColoss\u00e6, haunt him in his loneliness, till, yielding to the fascination,\nhe was constrained to unburden himself to the one man who could soothe\nhis terrors and satisfy his yearnings? Whatever motive may have drawn\nhim to the Apostle's side\u2014whether the pangs of hunger or the gnawings of\nconscience\u2014when he was once within the range of attraction, he could not\nescape. [Sidenote: and conversion.]He listened, was impressed, was\nconvinced, was baptized. The slave of Philemon became the freedman of\nChrist[717]. St Paul found not only a sincere convert, but a devoted\nfriend, in his latest son in the faith. Aristotle had said that there\nought not to be, and could not be, any friendship with a slave _qua_\nslave, though there might be _qua_ man[718]; and others had held still\nstronger language to the same effect. The Apostle did not recognize the\nphilosopher's subtle distinction. For him the conventional barrier\nbetween slave and free had altogether vanished before the dissolving\npresence of an eternal verity[719]. [Sidenote: St Paul's affection for\nhim.]He found in Onesimus something more than a slave, a beloved brother\nboth as a slave and as a man, 'both in the flesh and in the Lord[720].'\nThe great capacity for good which appears in the typical slave of Greek\nand Roman fiction, notwithstanding all the fraud and profligacy\noverlying it, was evoked and developed here by the inspiration of a new\nfaith and the incentive of a new hope. The genial, affectionate, winning\ndisposition, purified and elevated by a higher knowledge, had found its\nproper scope. Altogether this new friendship was a solace and a strength\nto the Apostle in his weary captivity, which he could ill afford to\nforego. To take away Onesimus was to tear out Paul's heart[721].\n\nFootnote 717:\n\n  1 Cor. vii. 22.\n\nFootnote 718:\n\n  _Eth. Nic._ viii. 13 (p. 1161) \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03af\u03b1 \u03b4' \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f04\u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03b1 \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u1f72\n  \u03b4\u03af\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd\u00b7 \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb' \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u1f72 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f35\u03c0\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd \u1f22 \u03b2\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd, \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u1f72 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u1f97 \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2\u00b7 \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u1f72\u03bd\n  \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u03cc\u03bd \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u00b7 \u1f41 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f14\u03bc\u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd \u1f44\u03c1\u03b3\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd, \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b4' \u1f44\u03c1\u03b3\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u1f04\u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03bf\u03c2\n  \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2\u00b7 \u1f97 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03bf\u1f56\u03bd \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2, \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03af\u03b1 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd, \u1f97 \u03b4' \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2\n  \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. On the views of Aristotle respecting slavery see Becker's\n  _Charikles_ III. p. 2 sq. (ed. 2, 1854) with the editor K. F.\n  Hermann's references to the literature of the subject, p. 5.\n\nFootnote 719:\n\n  1 Cor. vii. 21 sq., Gal. iii. 28, Col. iii. 11. With this contrast the\n  expression attributed to a speaker in Macrob. _Sat._ i. 11 'quasi vero\n  curent divina de servis'.\n\nFootnote 720:\n\n  Philem. 16.\n\nFootnote 721:\n\n  ver. 12.\n\n[Sidenote: Necessity for his return]\n\nBut there was an imperious demand for the sacrifice. Onesimus had\nrepented, but he had not made restitution. He could only do this by\nsubmitting again to the servitude from which he had escaped. Philemon\nmust be made to feel that, when Onesimus was gained for Christ, he was\nregained for his old master also. But if the claim of duty demanded a\ngreat sacrifice from Paul, it demanded a greater still from Onesimus.\n[Sidenote: notwithstanding the risk.]By returning he would place himself\nentirely at the mercy of the master whom he had wronged. Roman law, more\ncruel than Athenian, practically imposed no limits to the power of the\nmaster over his slave[722]. The alternative of life or death rested\nsolely with Philemon, and slaves were constantly crucified for far\nlighter offences than his[723]. A thief and a runaway, he laid no claim\nto forgiveness.\n\nFootnote 722:\n\n  _Dig._ i. 6 'In potestate sunt servi dominorum; quae quidem potestas\n  juris gentium est: nam apud omnes peraeque gentes animadvertere\n  possumus dominis in servos vitae necisque potestatem fuisse'. Comp.\n  Senec. _de Clem._ i. 18 'Cum in servum omnia liceant'.\n\nFootnote 723:\n\n  So the mistress in Juv. _Sat._ vi. 219 sq. 'Pone crucem servo. Meruit\n  quo crimine servus supplicium? quis testis adest? quis detulit?... O\n  demens, ita servus <DW25> est? nil fecerit, esto. Hoc volo, sic jubeo,\n  etc.' Compare the words of the slave in Plautus _Mil. Glor._ ii. 4. 19\n  'Noli minitari: scio crucem futuram mihi sepulcrum: Ibi mei sunt\n  majores siti, pater, avos, proavos, abavos'.\n\n[Sidenote: Mediation of Tychicus]\n\n[Sidenote: supplemented by the Apostle's letter.]\n\nA favourable opportunity occurred for restoring Onesimus to his master.\nTychicus, as the bearer of letters from the Apostle to Laodicea and\nColoss\u00e6, had occasion to visit those parts. He might undertake the\noffice of mediator, and plead the cause of the penitent slave with the\noffended master. Under his shelter Onesimus would be safer than if he\nencountered Philemon alone. But St Paul is not satisfied with this\nprecaution. He will with his own hand write a few words of eager\naffectionate entreaty, identifying himself with the cause of Onesimus.\nSo he takes up his pen.\n\n[Sidenote: Analysis of the letter.]\n\nAfter the opening salutation to Philemon and the members of his family,\nhe expresses his thankfulness for the report which has reached his ears\nof his friend's charitable deeds. It is a great joy and encouragement to\nthe Apostle that so many brethren have had cause to bless his name. This\nwide-spread reputation for kindliness emboldens him to reveal his object\nin writing. Though he has a right to command, he prefers rather to\nentreat. He has a petition to prefer on behalf of a child of his own.\nThis is none other than Onesimus, whom Philemon will remember only as a\nworthless creature, altogether untrue to his name, but who now is a\nreformed man. He would have wished to detain Onesimus, for he can ill\nafford to dispense with his loving services. Indeed Philemon would\ndoubtless have been glad thus to minister vicariously to the Apostle's\nwants. But a benefit which wears the appearance of being forced, whether\ntruly so or not, loses all its value, and therefore he sends him back.\nNay, there may have been in this desertion a Divine providence which it\nwould ill become him Paul to thwart. Onesimus may have been withheld\nfrom Philemon for a time, that he might be restored to him for ever. He\nmay have left as a slave, that he might return more than a slave. To\nothers\u2014to the Apostle himself especially\u2014he is now a dearly beloved\nbrother. Must he not be this and more than this to Philemon, whether in\nearthly things or in heavenly things? He therefore begs Philemon to\nreceive Onesimus as he would receive himself. As for any injury that he\nmay have done, as for any money that he may owe, the Apostle makes\nhimself responsible for this. The present letter may be accepted as a\nbond, a security for repayment. Yet at the same time he cannot refrain\nfrom reminding Philemon that he might fairly claim the remission of so\nsmall an amount. Does not his friend owe to him his own soul besides?\nYes, he has a right to look for some filial gratitude and duty from one\nto whom he stands in the relation of a spiritual father. Philemon will\nsurely not refuse him this comfort in his many trials. He writes in the\nfull confidence that he will be obeyed; he is quite sure that his friend\nwill do more than is asked of him. At the same time he trusts to see him\nbefore very long, and to talk over this and other matters. Philemon may\nprovide him a lodging: for he hopes through their prayers that he may be\nliberated, and given back to them. Then follow the salutations, and the\nletter ends with the Apostle's benediction.\n\n[Sidenote: Result of the appeal.]\n\nOf the result of this appeal we have no certain knowledge. It is\nreasonable to suppose however that Philemon would not belie the\nApostle's hopes; that he would receive the slave as a brother; that he\nwould even go beyond the expressed terms of the Apostle's petition, and\nemancipate the penitent. But all this is a mere conjecture. One\ntradition makes Onesimus bishop of Ephesus[724]. But this obviously\narises from a confusion with his namesake, who lived about half a\ncentury later[725]. [Sidenote: Legendary history.]Another story points\nto Ber\u0153a in Macedonia as his see[726]. This is at least free from the\nsuspicion of having been suggested by any notice in the Apostolic\nwritings: but the authority on which it rests does not entitle it to\nmuch credit. The legend of his missionary labours in Spain and of his\nmartyrdom at Rome may have been built on the hypothesis of his\ncontinuing in the Apostle's company, following in the Apostle's\nfootsteps, and sharing the Apostle's fate. Another story, which gives a\ncircumstantial account of his martyrdom at Puteoli, seems to confuse him\nwith a namesake who suffered, or was related to have suffered, in the\nDecian persecution[727].\n\nFootnote 724:\n\n  See _Acta Sanct. Boll._ xvi Febr. (II. p. 857 sq. ed. nov.) for the\n  authorities, if they deserve the name.\n\nFootnote 725:\n\n  If we take the earlier date of the Epistles of St Ignatius, A.D. 107,\n  we get an interval of 44 years between the Onesimus of St Paul and the\n  Onesimus of Ignatius. It is not altogether impossible therefore that\n  the same person may be intended. But on the other hand the language of\n  Ignatius (_Ephes._ 1 sq.) leaves the impression that he is speaking of\n  a person comparatively young and untried in office.\n\nFootnote 726:\n\n  _Apost. Const._ vii. 46, quoted above, p. 372, note 676.\n\nFootnote 727:\n\n  For these ecclesiastical legends see _Act. Sanct._ l.c. p. 858 sq.\n\n[Sidenote: Depreciation of the epistle in early times.]\n\nThe estimate formed of this epistle at various epochs has differed\nwidely. In the fourth century there was a strong bias against it. The\n'spirit of the age' had no sympathy with either the subject or the\nhandling. Like the spirit of more than one later age, it was enamoured\nof its own narrowness, which it mistook for largeness of view, and it\ncould not condescend to such trivialities as were here offered to it.\nIts maxim seemed to be _De minimis non curat evangelium_. Of what\naccount was the fate of a single insignificant slave, long since dead\nand gone, to those before whose eyes the battle of the creeds was still\nraging? This letter taught them nothing about questions of theological\ninterest, nothing about matters of ecclesiastical discipline; and\ntherefore they would have none of it. They denied that it had been\nwritten by St Paul. It mattered nothing to them that the Church from the\nearliest ages had accepted it as genuine, that even the remorseless\n'higher criticism' of a Marcion had not ventured to lay hands on\nit[728]. It was wholly unworthy of the Apostle. If written by him, they\ncontended, it must have been written when he was not under the influence\nof the Spirit: its contents were altogether so unedifying. [Sidenote:\nReply of the fathers.]We may infer from the replies of Jerome[729], of\nChrysostom[730], and of Theodore of Mopsuestia[731], that they felt\nthemselves to be stemming a fierce current of prejudice which had set in\nthis direction. But they were strong in the excellence of their cause,\nand they nobly vindicated this epistle against its assailants.\n\nFootnote 728:\n\n  Hieron. _Comm. in Philem._ Pr\u00e6f. VII. p. 743 'Pauli esse epistolam ad\n  Philemonem saltem Marcione auctore doceantur: qui, quum c\u00e6teras\n  epistolas ejusdem vel non susceperit vel qu\u00e6dam in his mutaverit atque\n  corroserit, in hanc solam manus non est ausus mittere, quia sua illam\n  brevitas defendebat'. St Jerome has in his mind the passage of\n  Tertullian _adv. Marc._ v. 21 'Soli huic epistol\u00e6 brevitas sua\n  profuit, ut falsarias manus Marcionis evaderet'.\n\nFootnote 729:\n\n  _ib._ p. 742 sq. 'Qui nolunt inter epistolas Pauli eam recipere qu\u00e6 ad\n  Philemonem scribitur, aiunt non semper apostolum nec omnia Christo in\n  se loquente dixisse, quia nec humana imbecillitas unum tenorem Sancti\n  Spiritus ferre potuisset etc.... His et c\u00e6teris istius modi volunt aut\n  epistolam non esse Pauli qu\u00e6 ad Philemonem scribitur aut, etiamsi\n  Pauli sit, nihil habere quod \u00e6dificare nos possit etc.... sed mihi\n  videntur, dum epistolam simplicitatis arguunt, suam imperitiam\n  prodere, non intelligentes quid in singulis sermonibus virtutis et\n  sapienti\u00e6 lateat'.\n\nFootnote 730:\n\n  _Argum. in Philem._ \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb' \u1f10\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03b4\u1f74 \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03ad\u03c2 \u03c6\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n  \u03c4\u03ac\u03c5\u03c4\u03b7\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u03ae\u03bd, \u03b5\u1f34\u03b3\u03b5 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u03c0\u03c1\u03ac\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b9\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f20\u03be\u03af\u03c9\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd,\n  \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u1f11\u03bd\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2, \u03bc\u03b1\u03b8\u03ad\u03c4\u03c9\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u1f45\u03c3\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c4\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f10\u03b3\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03bc\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c3\u1f76\u03bd\n  \u1f10\u03b3\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u1f04\u03be\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., and he goes on to discuss the value of the\n  epistle at some length.\n\nFootnote 731:\n\n  _Spicil. Solesm._ I. W. 149 'Quid vero ex ea lucri possit acquiri,\n  convenit manifestius explicare, quia nec omnibus id existimo posse\n  esse cognitum; quod maxime heri jam ipse a nobis disseri postulasti';\n  _ib._ p. 152 'De his et nunc superius dixi, quod non omnes similiter\n  arbitror potius se (potuisse?) prospicere'.\n\n[Sidenote: High estimate of modern writers.]\n\nIn modern times there has been no disposition to under-rate its value.\nEven Luther and Calvin, whose bias tended to the depreciation of the\nethical as compared with the doctrinal portions of the scriptures, show\na true appreciation of its beauty and significance. [Sidenote:\nLuther.]'This epistle', writes Luther, 'showeth a right noble lovely\nexample of Christian love. Here we see how St Paul layeth himself out\nfor poor Onesimus, and with all his means pleadeth his cause with his\nmaster: and so setteth himself as if he were Onesimus, and had himself\ndone wrong to Philemon. Even as Christ did for us with God the Father,\nthus also doth St Paul for Onesimus with Philemon.... We are all his\nOnesimi, to my thinking'. [Sidenote: Calvin.]'Though he handleth a\nsubject', says Calvin, 'which otherwise were low and mean, yet after his\nmanner he is borne up aloft unto God. With such modest entreaty doth he\nhumble himself on behalf of the lowest of men, that scarce anywhere else\nis the gentleness of his spirit portrayed more truly to the life.' And\nthe chorus of admiration has been swelled by later voices from the most\nopposite quarters. [Sidenote: Later writers.]'The single Epistle to\nPhilemon,' says one quoted by Bengel, 'very far surpasses all the wisdom\nof the world'[732]. 'Nowhere', writes Ewald, 'can the sensibility and\nwarmth of a tender friendship blend more beautifully with the loftier\nfeeling of a commanding spirit, a teacher and an Apostle, than in this\nletter, at once so brief, and yet so surpassingly full and\nsignificant[733].' 'A true little chef d'\u0153uvre of the art of\nletter-writing,' exclaims M. Renan characteristically[734]. 'We have\nhere', writes Sabatier, 'only a few familiar lines, but so full of\ngrace, of salt, of serious and trustful affection, that this short\nepistle gleams like a pearl of the most exquisite purity in the rich\ntreasure of the New Testament[735]'. Even Baur, while laying violent\nhands upon it, is constrained to speak of this 'little letter' as\n'making such an agreeable impression by its attractive form' and as\npenetrated 'with the noblest Christian spirit'[736].\n\nFootnote 732:\n\n  Franke _Pr\u00e6f. N. T. Gr\u00e6c._ p. 26, 27, quoted by Bengel on Philem. 1.\n\nFootnote 733:\n\n  _Die Sendschreiben_ etc. p. 458.\n\nFootnote 734:\n\n  _L'Antechrist_ p. 96.\n\nFootnote 735:\n\n  _L'Ap\u00f4tre Paul_ p. 194. He goes on to say; 'Never has the precept\n  which Paul himself gave at the end of his letter to the Colossians\n  been better realised, \u1f41 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c4\u03b5 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03b9, \u1f05\u03bb\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f20\u03c1\u03c4\u03c5\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2\n  \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. (Col. iv. 6).'\n\nFootnote 736:\n\n  _Paulus_ p. 476.\n\n[Sidenote: The epistle compared with a letter of Pliny,]\n\nThe Epistle to Philemon has more than once been compared with the\nfollowing letter addressed to a friend by the younger Pliny on a\nsomewhat similar occasion[737]:\n\nYour freedman, with whom you had told me you were vexed, came to me, and\nthrowing himself down before me clung to my feet, as if they had been\nyours. He was profuse in his tears and his entreaties; he was profuse\nalso in his silence. In short, he convinced me of his penitence. I\nbelieve that he is indeed a reformed character, because he feels that he\nhas done wrong. You are angry, I know; and you have reason to be angry,\nthis also I know: but mercy wins the highest praise just when there is\nthe most righteous cause for anger. You loved the man, and, I hope, will\ncontinue to love him: meanwhile it is enough, that you should allow\nyourself to yield to his prayers. You may be angry again, if he deserves\nit; and in this you will be the more readily pardoned if you yield now.\nConcede something to his youth, something to his tears, something to\nyour own indulgent disposition. Do not torture him, lest you torture\nyourself at the same time. For it _is_ torture to you, when one of your\ngentle temper is angry. I am afraid lest I should appear not to ask but\nto compel, if I should add my prayers to his. Yet I will add them the\nmore fully and unreservedly, because I scolded the man himself with\nsharpness and severity; for I threatened him straitly that I would never\nask you again. This I said to him, for it was necessary to alarm him;\nbut I do not use the same language to you. For perchance I shall ask\nagain, and shall be successful again; only let my request be such, as it\nbecomes me to prefer and you to grant. Farewell.\n\nFootnote 737:\n\n  Plin. _Ep._ ix. 21.\n\n[Sidenote: as an expression of character.]\n\nThe younger Pliny is the noblest type of a true Roman gentleman, and\nthis touching letter needs no words of praise. Yet, if purity of diction\nbe excepted, there will hardly be any difference of opinion in awarding\nthe palm to the Christian Apostle. As an expression of simple dignity,\nof refined courtesy, of large sympathy, and of warm personal affection,\nthe Epistle to Philemon stands unrivalled. And its pre-eminence is the\nmore remarkable because in style it is exceptionally loose. It owes\nnothing to the graces of rhetoric; its effect is due solely to the\nspirit of the writer.\n\n[Sidenote: Its higher interest.]\n\nBut the interest which attaches to this short epistle as an expression\nof individual character is far less important than its significance as\nexhibiting the attitude of Christianity to a widely spread and\ncharacteristic social institution of the ancient world.\n\n[Sidenote: Slavery among the Hebrews.]\n\nSlavery was practised by the Hebrews under the sanction of the Mosaic\nlaw, not less than by the Greeks and Romans. But though the same in\nname, it was in its actual working something wholly different. The\nHebrew was not suffered either by law-giver or by prophet to forget that\nhe himself had been a bondman in the land of Egypt; and all his\nrelations to his dependents were moulded by the sympathy of this\nrecollection. His slaves were members of his family; they were members\nalso of the Holy Congregation. They had their religious, as well as\ntheir social, rights. If Hebrews, their liberty was secured to them\nafter six years' service at the outside. If foreigners, they were\nprotected by the laws from the tyranny and violence of their masters.\nConsidering the conditions of ancient society, and more especially of\nancient warfare, slavery as practised among the Hebrews was probably an\nescape from alternatives which would have involved a far greater amount\nof human misery. Still even in this form it was only a temporary\nconcession, till the fulness of time came, and the world was taught that\n'in Christ is neither bond nor free[738]'.\n\nFootnote 738:\n\n  On slavery among the Hebrews see the admirable work of Prof. Goldwin\n  Smith _Does the Bible sanction American slavery?_ p. 1 sq.\n\nAmong the Jews the slaves formed only a small fraction of the whole\npopulation[739]. They occupy a very insignificant place in the pictures\nof Hebrew life and history which have been handed down to us. [Sidenote:\nLarge number of slaves in Greece and Rome.]But in Greece and Rome the\ncase was far different. In our enthusiastic eulogies of free,\nenlightened, democratic Athens, we are apt to forget that the interests\nof the many were ruthlessly sacrificed to the selfishness of the few.\nThe slaves of Attica on the most probable computation were about four\ntimes as numerous as the citizens, and about three times as numerous as\nthe whole free population of the state, including the resident\naliens[740]. They were consigned for the most part to labour in gangs in\nthe fields or the mines or the factories, without any hope of bettering\ntheir condition. In the light of these facts we see what was really\nmeant by popular government and equal rights at Athens. The proportions\nof the slave population elsewhere were even greater. In the small island\nof \u00c6gina, scarcely exceeding forty English square miles in extent, there\nwere 470,000 slaves; in the contracted territory of Corinth there were\nnot less than 460,000[741]. The statistics of slave-holding in Italy are\nquite as startling. We are told that wealthy Roman landowners sometimes\npossessed as many as ten or twenty thousand slaves, or even more[742].\nWe may indeed not unreasonably view these vague and general statements\nwith suspicion: but it is a fact that, a few years before the Christian\nera, one Claudius Isidorus left by will more than four thousand slaves,\nthough he had incurred serious losses by the civil war[743].\n\nFootnote 739:\n\n  In Ezra ii. 65 the number of slaves compared with the number of free\n  is a little more than one to six.\n\nFootnote 740:\n\n  Boeckh _Public Economy of Athens_ p. 35 sq. According to a census\n  taken by Demetrius Phalereus there were in the year 309 B. C. 21,000\n  citizens, 10,000 residents, and 400,000 slaves (Ctesicles in Athen.\n  vi. p. 272 B). This would make the proportion of slaves to citizens\n  nearly twenty to one. It is supposed however that the number of\n  citizens here includes only adult males, whereas the number of slaves\n  may comprise both sexes and all ages. Hence Boeckh's estimate which is\n  adopted in the text. For other calculations see Wallon _Histoire de\n  l'Esclavage_ I. p. 221 sq.\n\nFootnote 741:\n\n  Athen. _l.c._ p. 272 B, D. The statement respecting \u00c6gina is given on\n  the authority of Aristotle; that respecting Corinth on the authority\n  of Epitim\u00e6us.\n\nFootnote 742:\n\n  Athen. _l.c._ \u1fec\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u1f15\u03ba\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 ... \u03c0\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u1f45\u03c3\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03ad\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2\u00b7\n  \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03bc\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f14\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bc\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9 \u03ba\u03ad\u03ba\u03c4\u03b7\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9.\n  See Becker _Gallus_ II. p. 113 (ed. 3).\n\nFootnote 743:\n\n  Plin. _N.H._ xxxiii. 47.\n\n[Sidenote: Cruelty of Roman law towards slaves.]\n\nAnd these vast masses of human beings had no protection from Roman\nlaw[744]. The slave had no relationships, no conjugal rights.\nCohabitation was allowed to him at his owner's pleasure, but not\nmarriage. His companion was sometimes assigned to him by lot[745]. The\nslave was absolutely at his master's disposal; for the smallest offence\nhe might be scourged, mutilated, crucified, thrown to the wild\nbeasts[746]. Only two or three years before the letter to Philemon was\nwritten, and probably during St Paul's residence in Rome, a terrible\ntragedy had been enacted under the sanction of the law[747]. [Sidenote:\nMurder of Pedanius Secundus.]Pedanius Secundus, a senator, had been\nslain by one of his slaves in a fit of anger or jealousy. The law\ndemanded that in such cases all the slaves under the same roof at the\ntime should be put to death. On the present occasion four hundred\npersons were condemned to suffer by this inhuman enactment. The populace\nhowever interposed to rescue them, and a tumult ensued. The Senate\naccordingly took the matter into deliberation. Among the speakers C.\nCassius strongly advocated the enforcement of the law. 'The disposition\nof slaves,' he argued, 'were regarded with suspicion by our ancestors,\neven when they were born on the same estates or in the same houses and\nlearnt to feel an affection for their masters from the first. Now\nhowever, when we have several nations among our slaves, with various\nrites, with foreign religions or none at all, it is not possible to keep\ndown such a rabble except by fear.' These sentiments prevailed, and the\nlaw was put in force. But the roads were lined by a military guard, as\nthe prisoners were led to execution, to prevent a popular outbreak. This\nincident illustrates not only the heartless cruelty of the law, but also\nthe social dangers arising out of slavery. Indeed the universal distrust\nhad already found expression in a common proverb,'As many enemies as\nslaves[748].' But this was not the only way in which slavery avenged\nitself on the Romans. The spread of luxury and idleness was a direct\nconsequence of the state of things. Work came to be regarded as a low\nand degrading, because a servile occupation. Meanwhile sensuality in its\nvilest forms was fostered by the tremendous power which placed the slave\nat the mercy of the master's worst passions[749].\n\nFootnote 744:\n\n  On the condition of Greek and Roman slaves the able and exhaustive\n  work of Wallon _Histoire de l'Esclavage dans l'Antiquit\u00e9_ (Paris 1847)\n  is the chief authority. See also Becker and Marquardt _R\u00f6m. Alterth._\n  v. 1. p. 139 sq.; Becker _Charikles_ II. p. 1 sq., _Gallus_ II. p. 99\n  sq. The practical working of slavery among the Romans is placed in its\n  most favourable light in Gaston Bossier, _La Religion Romaine_ II. p.\n  343 sq. (Paris 1874).\n\nFootnote 745:\n\n  _R\u00f6m. Alterth._ l.c. p. 184 sq.; _Gallus_ II. p. 144 sq. In this, as\n  in other respects, the cruelty of the legislature was mitigated by the\n  humanity of individual masters; and the inscriptions show that male\n  and female slaves in many cases were allowed to live together through\n  life as man and wife, though the law did not recognise or secure their\n  union. It was reserved for Constantine to take the initiative in\n  protecting the conjugal and family rights of slaves by legislature;\n  _Cod. Theod._ ii. 25. 1.\n\nFootnote 746:\n\n  Wallon II. p. 177 sq.; _R\u00f6m. Alterth._ l.c.; _Gallus_ II. p. 145 sq.;\n  Rein _Privatrecht der R\u00f6mer_ p. 552 sq. Hadrian first took away from\n  masters the power of life and death over their slaves; Spart. _Vit.\n  Hadr._ 18 'Servos a dominis occidi vetuit eosque jussit damnari per\n  judices, si digni essent'. For earlier legislative enactments which\n  had afforded a very feeble protection to slaves, see below p. 393.\n\nFootnote 747:\n\n  Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 42. This incident took place A. D. 61. The law in\n  question was the _Senatusconsultum Silonianum_, passed under Augustus\n  A. D. 10.\n\nFootnote 748:\n\n  Senec. _Ep. Mor._ 47 'Deinde ejusdem arroganti\u00e6 proverbium jactatur\n  _totidem hostes esse quot servos_'; comp. Macrob. i. II. 13. See also\n  Festus p. 261 (Ed. Mueller) '_Quot servi tot hostes_ in proverbio\n  est.']\n\nFootnote 749:\n\n  See the saying of Haterius in the elder Seneca _Controv._ iv. Pr\u00e6f.,\n  'Impudicitia in ingenuo crimen est, _in servo necessitas_, in liberto\n  officium', with its context. Wallon (I. p. 332) sums up the condition\n  of the slave thus: 'L'esclave appartenait au ma\u00eetre: par lui m\u00eame, il\n  n'\u00e9tait rien, il n'avait rien. Voil\u00e0 le principe; et tout ce qu'on en\n  peut tirer par voie de cons\u00e9quence formait aussi, en fait, l'\u00e9tat\n  commun des esclaves dans la plupart des pays. A toutes les \u00e9poques,\n  dans toutes les situations de la vie, cette autorit\u00e9 souveraine plane\n  sur eux et modifie leur destin\u00e9e par ses rigueurs comme par son\n  indifference. Dans l'\u00e2ge de la force et dans la pl\u00e9nitude de leurs\n  facult\u00e9s, elle les vouait, \u00e0 son choix, soit au travail, soit au vice;\n  au travail les natures grossi\u00e8res; au vice, les natures plus\n  d\u00e9licates, nourries pour le plaisir du ma\u00eetre, et qui lorsqu'il en\n  \u00e9tait las, \u00e9taient rel\u00e9gu\u00e9es dans la prostitution a son profit. Avant\n  et apr\u00e8s l'\u00e2ge du travail, abandonn\u00e9s a leur faiblesse ou a leurs\n  infirmit\u00e9s; enfants, ils grandissaient dans le d\u00e9sordre; viellards,\n  ils mouraient souvent dans la mis\u00e8re; morts, ils \u00e9taient quelquefois\n  d\u00e9laiss\u00e9s sur la voie publique....'\n\n[Sidenote: Christianity not revolutionary.]\n\nWith this wide-spread institution Christianity found itself in conflict.\nHow was the evil to be met? Slavery was inwoven into the texture of\nsociety; and to prohibit slavery was to tear society into shreds.\nNothing less than a servile war with its certain horrors and its\ndoubtful issues must have been the consequence. Such a mode of operation\nwas altogether alien to the spirit of the Gospel. 'The New Testament',\nit has been truly said, 'is not concerned with any political or social\ninstitutions; for political and social institutions belong to particular\nnations and particular phases of society'. 'Nothing marks the divine\ncharacter of the Gospel more than its perfect freedom from any appeal to\nthe spirit of political revolution[750]'. It belongs to all time: and\ntherefore, instead of attacking special abuses, it lays down universal\nprinciples which shall undermine the evil.\n\nFootnote 750:\n\n  G. Smith _Does the Bible etc.?_ pp. 95, 96.\n\n[Sidenote: St Paul's treatment of the case of Onesimus.]\n\nHence the Gospel never directly attacks slavery as an institution: the\nApostles never command the liberation of slaves as an absolute duty. It\nis a remarkable fact that St Paul in this epistle stops short of any\npositive injunction. The word 'emancipation' seems to be trembling on\nhis lips, and yet he does not once utter it. He charges Philemon to take\nthe runaway slave Onesimus into his confidence again; to receive him\nwith all affection; to regard him no more as a slave but as a brother;\nto treat him with the same consideration, the same love, which he\nentertains for the Apostle himself to whom he owes everything. In fact\nhe tells him to do very much more than emancipate his slave, but this\none thing he does not directly enjoin. St Paul's treatment of this\nindividual case is an apt illustration of the attitude of Christianity\ntowards slavery in general.\n\n[Sidenote: His language respecting slavery elsewhere.]\n\nSimilar also is his language elsewhere. Writing to the Corinthians, he\ndeclares the absolute equality of the freeman and the slave in the sight\nof God[751]. It follows therefore that the slave may cheerfully\nacquiesce in his lot, knowing that all earthly distinctions vanish in\nthe light of this eternal truth. If his freedom should be offered to\nhim, he will do well to accept it, for it puts him in a more\nadvantageous position[752]: but meanwhile he need not give himself any\nconcern about his lot in life. So again, when he addresses the Ephesians\nand Colossians on the mutual obligations of masters and slaves, he is\ncontent to insist on the broad fact that both alike are slaves of a\nheavenly Master, and to enforce the duties which flow from its\nrecognition[753]. He has no word of reproach for the masters on the\ninjustice of their position; he breathes no hint to the slaves of a\nsocial grievance needing redress.\n\nFootnote 751:\n\n  1 Cor. vii. 21 sq.\n\nFootnote 752:\n\n  The clause, \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb' \u03b5\u1f30 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03cd\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f10\u03bb\u03b5\u03cd\u03b8\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03ad\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, \u03bc\u1fb6\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u03c7\u03c1\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9, has\n  been differently interpreted from early times, either as recommending\n  the slave to avail himself of any opportunity of emancipation, or as\n  advising him to refuse the offer of freedom and to remain in\n  servitude. The earliest commentator whose opinion I have observed,\n  Origen (in Cram. _Cat._ p. 140), interprets it as favourable to\n  liberty, but he confuses the meaning by giving a metaphorical sense to\n  slavery, \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u1f60\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03b3\u03ba\u03b1\u03af\u03c9\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b3\u03b5\u03b3\u03b1\u03bc\u03b7\u03ba\u03cc\u03c4\u03b1. Again, Severianus\n  (ib. p. 141) distinctly explains it as recommending a state of\n  liberty. On the other hand Chrysostom, while mentioning that 'certain\n  persons' interpret it \u03b5\u1f30 \u03b4\u03cd\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f10\u03bb\u03b5\u03c5\u03b8\u03b5\u03c1\u03c9\u03b8\u1fc6\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9, \u1f10\u03bb\u03b5\u03c5\u03b8\u03b5\u03c1\u03ce\u03b8\u03b7\u03c4\u03b9, himself\n  supposes St Paul to advise the slave's remaining in slavery. And so\n  Theodoret and others. The balance of argument seems to be decidedly in\n  favour of the former view.\n\n  (1) The actual language must be considered first. And here (i) the\n  particles \u03b5\u1f30 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 will suit either interpretation. If they are\n  translated 'even though', the clause recommends the continuance in\n  slavery. But \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 may be equally well taken with \u03b4\u03cd\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9, and the words\n  will then mean 'if it _should_ be in your power to obtain your\n  freedom'. So above ver. 11 \u1f10\u1f70\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c7\u03c9\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03b8\u1fc7: comp. Luke xi. 18 \u03b5\u1f30 \u03b4\u1f72\n  \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f41 \u03a3\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c6' \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b4\u03b9\u03b5\u03bc\u03b5\u03c1\u03af\u03c3\u03b8\u03b7, 1 Pet. iii. 14 \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb' \u03b5\u1f30 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n  \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03c7\u03bf\u03b9\u03c4\u03b5 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd. (ii) The expression \u03bc\u1fb6\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u03c7\u03c1\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 seems to\n  direct the slave to _avail himself_ of some _new_ opportunity offered,\n  and therefore to recommend liberty; comp. ix. 12, 15.\n\n  (2) The immediate context will admit either interpretation. If slavery\n  be preferred, the sentence is continuous. If liberty, the clause \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb'\n  \u03b5\u1f30 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 ... \u03bc\u1fb6\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u03c7\u03c1\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9 is parenthetical. In this latter case its\n  motive is to correct misapprehension, as if the Apostle would say,\n  'When I declare the absolute indifference of the two states in the\n  sight of God, I do not mean to say that you should not avail\n  yourselves of freedom, if it comes in your way; it puts you in a more\n  advantageous position, and you will do well to prefer it'. Such a\n  corrective parenthesis is altogether after St Paul's manner, and\n  indeed instances occur in this very context: e.g. ver. 11 \u1f10\u1f70\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n  \u03c7\u03c9\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03b8\u1fc7 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., ver. 15 \u03b5\u1f30 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f41 \u1f04\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c7\u03c9\u03c1\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. This last\n  passage is an exact parallel, for the \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 of ver. 16 is connected\n  immediately with ver. 14, the parenthesis being disregarded as here.\n\n  (3) The argument which seems decisive is the extreme improbability\n  that St Paul should have recommended slavery in preference to freedom.\n  For (i) Such a recommendation would be alien to the spirit of a man\n  whose sense of political right was so strong, and who asserted his\n  citizenship so stanchly on more than one occasion (Acts xvi. 37, xxii.\n  28). (ii) The independent position of the freeman would give him an\n  obvious advantage in doing the work of Christ, which it is difficult\n  to imagine St Paul enjoining him deliberately to forego. (iii)\n  Throughout the passage the Apostle, while maintaining the indifference\n  of these earthly relations in the sight of God, yet always gives the\n  preference to a position of _independence_, whenever it comes to a\n  Christian naturally and without any undue impatience on his part. The\n  spirit which animates St Paul's injunctions here may be seen from vv.\n  8, 11, 15, 26, 27 etc.\n\nFootnote 753:\n\n  Ephes. vi. 5\u20139, Col. iii. 22-iv. 1.\n\n[Sidenote: The Christian idea fatal to slavery.]\n\nBut meanwhile a principle is boldly enunciated, which must in the end\nprove fatal to slavery. When the Gospel taught that God had made all men\nand women upon earth of one family; that all alike were His sons and His\ndaughters; that, whatever conventional distinctions human society might\nset up, the supreme King of Heaven refused to acknowledge any; that the\nslave notwithstanding his slavery was Christ's freedman, and the free\nnotwithstanding his liberty was Christ's slave; when the Church carried\nout this principle by admitting the slave to her highest privileges,\ninviting him to kneel side by side with his master at the same holy\ntable; when in short the Apostolic precept that 'in Christ Jesus is\nneither bond nor free' was not only recognised but acted upon, then\nslavery was doomed. Henceforward it was only a question of time. Here\nwas the idea which must act as a solvent, must disintegrate this\nvenerable institution, however deeply rooted and however widely spread.\n[Sidenote: Its general tendency.]'The brotherhood of man, in short, is\nthe idea which Christianity in its social phase has been always striving\nto realise, and the progress of which constitutes the social history of\nChristendom. With what difficulties this idea has struggled; how it has\nbeen marred by revolutionary violence, as well as impeded by reactionary\nselfishness; to what chimerical hopes, to what wild schemes, to what\ncalamitous disappointments, to what desperate conflicts, it has given\nbirth; how often being misunderstood and misapplied, it has brought not\npeace on earth but a sword\u2014it is needless here to rehearse. Still, as we\nlook back over the range of past history, we can see beyond doubt that\nit is towards this goal that Christianity as a social principle has been\nalways tending and still tends[754].'\n\nFootnote 754:\n\n  G. Smith _Does the Bible etc.?_ p. 121.\n\n[Sidenote: Its effects on slavery.]\n\nAnd this beneficent tendency of the Gospel was felt at once in its\neffects on slavery. The Church indeed, even in the ardour of her\nearliest love, did not prohibit her sons from retaining slaves in their\nhouseholds. It is quite plain from extant notices, that in the earlier\ncenturies, as in the later, Christians owned slaves[755] like their\nheathen neighbours, without forfeiting consideration among their\nfellow-believers. But nevertheless the Christian idea was not a\ndead-letter. [Sidenote: Protection and manumission of slaves.]The\nchivalry of the Gospel which regarded the weak and helpless from\nwhatever cause, as its special charge, which extended its protection to\nthe widow, the orphan, the sick, the aged, and the prisoner, was not\nlikely to neglect the slave. Accordingly we find that one of the\nearliest forms which Christian benevolence took was the contribution of\nfunds for the liberation of slaves[756]. [Sidenote: Honours paid to\nslave martyrs.]But even more important than overt acts like these was\nthe moral and social importance with which the slave was now invested.\nAmong the heroes and heroines of the Church were found not a few members\nof this class. When slave girls like Blandina in Gaul or Felicitas in\nAfrica, having won for themselves the crown of martyrdom, were\ncelebrated in the festivals of the Church with honours denied to the\nmost powerful and noblest born of mankind, social prejudice had received\na wound which could never be healed.\n\nFootnote 755:\n\n  Athenag. _Suppl._ 35 \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03af \u03b5\u1f30\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd, \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b4'\n  \u1f10\u03bb\u03ac\u03c4\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2. It would even appear that the domestic servant who betrayed\n  Polycarp (_Mart. Polyc._ 6) was a slave, for he was put to the\n  torture. Comp. Justin. _Apol._ ii. 12.\n\nFootnote 756:\n\n  Ignat. _Polyc._ 4 \u03bc\u1f74 \u1f10\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03bb\u03b5\u03c5\u03b8\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, _Apost.\n  Const._ iv. 9 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f10\u03be \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd, \u1f61\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03ae\u03ba\u03b1\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd, \u1f00\u03b8\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9\u03b6\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03b1 \u03c7\u03c1\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\n  \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c4\u03ac\u03c3\u03c3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f00\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03b1\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f01\u03b3\u03af\u03c9\u03bd, _\u1fe5\u03c5\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\n  \u03b4\u03bf\u03cd\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2_ \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f30\u03c7\u03bc\u03b1\u03bb\u03ce\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2, \u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2, \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\n[Sidenote: Christianity predominant.]\n\nWhile the Church was still kept in subjection, moral influence and\nprivate enterprise were her only weapons. But Christianity was no sooner\nseated on the throne of the C\u00e6sars than its influence began to be felt\nin the imperial policy[757]. [Sidenote: Legislation of Constantine.]The\nlegislation of Constantine, despite its startling inequalities, forms a\nunique chapter in the statute book of Rome. In its mixed character\nindeed it reflects the transitional position of its author. But after\nall allowance made for its very patent defects, its general advance in\nthe direction of humanity and purity is far greater than can be traced\nin the legislation even of the most humane and virtuous of his heathen\npredecessors. More especially in the extension of legal protection to\nslaves, and in the encouragement given to emancipation, we have an\nearnest of the future work which Christianity was destined to do for\nthis oppressed class of mankind, though the relief which it gave was\nafter all very partial and tentative[758].\n\nFootnote 757:\n\n  It must not however be forgotten that, even before Christianity became\n  the predominant religion, a more humane spirit had entered into Roman\n  legislation. The important enactment of Hadrian has been already\n  mentioned, p. 387, note 746. Even earlier the _lex Petronia_ (of which\n  the date is uncertain) had prohibited masters from making their slaves\n  fight with wild beasts in mere caprice and without an order from a\n  judge (Dig. xlviii. 8. 11); and Claudius (A.D. 47), finding that the\n  practice of turning out sick slaves into the streets to die was on the\n  increase, ordered that those who survived this treatment should have\n  their freedom (Dion Cass. lx. 29, Suet. _Claud._ 25). For these and\n  similar enactments of the heathen emperors see Wallon III. p. 60 sq.,\n  _R\u00f6m. Alterth._ V. I. 197, Rein _Privatrecht d. R\u00f6mer_ p. 560 sq. The\n  character of this exceptional legislation is the strongest impeachment\n  of the general cruelty of the law; while at the same time subsequent\n  notices show how very far from effective it was even within its own\n  narrow limits. See for instance the passage in Galen, v. p. 17 (ed.\n  K\u00fchn) \u03bb\u03b1\u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03b6\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f40\u03c6\u03b8\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c1\u03cd\u03c4\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u03ad\u03b9\u1ff3 \u03ba\u03b5\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd\n  \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. (comp. _ib._ p. 584), or Seneca _de Ira_ iii. 3. 6 'eculei et\n  fidicul\u00e6 et ergastula et cruces et circundati defossis corporibus\n  ignes et cadavera quoque trahens uncus, varia vinculorum genera, varia\n  p\u0153narum, lacerationes membrorum, inscriptiones frontis et bestiarum\n  immanium cave\u00e6.'\n\n  On the causes of these ameliorations in the law see _R\u00f6m. Alterth._ V.\n  1. p. 199.\n\nFootnote 758:\n\n  On the legislation of Constantine affecting slavery see De Broglie\n  _L'Eglise et l'Empire Romain_, I. p. 304 sq. (ed. 5), Chawner\n  _Influence of Christianity upon the Legislation of Constantine the\n  Great_, p. 73 sq., Wallon III. p. 414 sq. The legislation of Justinian\n  is still more honourably distinguished for its alleviation of the\n  evils of slavery.\n\n[Sidenote: Subsequent activity of the Church.]\n\nAnd on the whole this part has been faithfully and courageously\nperformed by the Church. There have been shameful exceptions now and\nthen: there has been occasional timidity and excess of caution. The\ncommentaries of the fathers on this epistle are an illustration of this\nlatter fault[759]. Much may be pardoned to men who shrink from seeming\nto countenance a violent social revolution. But notwithstanding, it is a\nbroad and patent fact that throughout the early and middle ages the\ninfluence of the Church was exerted strongly on the side of humanity in\nthis matter[760]. The emancipation of slaves was regarded as a principal\naim of the higher Christian life[761]; the amelioration of serfdom was a\nmatter of constant solicitude with the rulers of the Church.\n\n[Sidenote: The conquests and hopes of the present time.]\n\nAnd at length we seem to see the beginning of the end. The rapid strides\ntowards emancipation during the present generation are without a\nparallel in the history of the world. The abolition of slavery\nthroughout the British Empire at an enormous material sacrifice is one\nof the greatest moral conquests which England has ever achieved. The\nliberation of twenty millions of serfs throughout the Russian dominions\nhas thrown a halo of glory round the name of Alexander II., which no\ntime can dim. The emancipation of the <DW64> in the vast republic of the\nNew World was a victory not less important than either to the well-being\nof the human race. Thus within the short period of little more than a\nquarter of a century this reproach of civilisation and humanity has been\nwiped out in the three greatest empires of the world. It is a fit sequel\nto these achievements, that at length a well directed attack should have\nbeen made on the central fortress of slavery and the slave-trade, the\ninterior of Africa. May we not venture to predict that in future ages,\nwhen distance of view shall have adjusted the true relations of events,\nwhen the brilliancy of empires and the fame of wars shall have sunk to\ntheir proper level of significance, this epoch will stand out in the\nhistory of mankind as the era of liberation? If so, the Epistle to\nPhilemon, as the earliest prelude to these magnificent social victories,\nmust be invested with more than common interest for our generation.\n\nFootnote 759:\n\n  _E.g._ Chrysostom and Theodore of Mopsuestia (_Spic. Solesm._ I. p.\n  152). Yet St Chrysostom himself pleads the cause of slaves earnestly\n  elsewhere. In _Hom. xl. ad 1 Cor._ x. p. 385 he says of slavery, 'It\n  is the penalty of sin and the punishment of disobedience. But when\n  Christ came, he annulled even this, _For in Christ Jesus there is no\n  slave nor free_. Therefore it is not necessary to have a slave; but,\n  if it should be necessary, then one only or at most a second'. And he\n  then tells his audience that if they really care for the welfare of\n  slaves, they must 'buy them, and having taught them some art that they\n  may maintain themselves, set them free.' 'I know,' he adds, 'that I am\n  annoying my hearers; but what can I do? For this purpose I am\n  appointed, and I will not cease speaking so.' On the attitude of this\n  father towards slavery see M\u00f6hler p. 89 sq.\n\nFootnote 760:\n\n  On the influence of Christianity in this respect see Wallon III. p.\n  314 sq., Schmidt _Essai historique sur la Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 Civile dans le Monde\n  Romain etc._ p. 228 sq. (1853), M\u00f6hler _Gesammelte Schriften_ II. p.\n  54 sq., G. Smith _Does the Bible etc.?_ p. 95 sq., E. S. Talbot\n  _Slavery as affected by Christianity_ (1869), Lecky _Rationalism in\n  Europe_ II. p. 255 sq., _European Morals_ II. p. 65 sq.\n\nFootnote 761:\n\n  M\u00f6hler p. 99 sq., Schmidt p. 246 sq., Lecky _E. M._ II. p. 73 sq.\n\n\n\n\n                             \u03a0\u03a1\u039f\u03a3 \u03a6\u0399\u039b\u0397\u039c\u039f\u039d\u0391.\n\n\n\n\n                 WHERE THE SPIRIT OF THE LORD IS, THERE\n                              IS LIBERTY.\n\n                    WHO IS WEAK, AND I AM NOT WEAK?\n                    WHO IS OFFENDED, AND I BURN NOT?\n\n                  *       *       *       *       *\n\n            _Such ever was love's way: to rise, it stoops._\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n                            \u03a0\u03a1\u039f\u03a3  \u03a6\u0399\u039b\u0397\u039c\u039f\u039d\u0391.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n1\u20133]\n\n^1\u03a0\u0391\u03a5\u039b\u039f\u03a3, \u03b4\u03ad\u03c3\u03bc\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03a4\u03b9\u03bc\u03cc\u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f41 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u1f78\u03c2, \u03a6\u03b9\u03bb\u03ae\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03b9 \u03c4\u1ff7\n\u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u1ff7 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd ^2\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f08\u03c0\u03c6\u03af\u1fb3 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u1fc7 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f08\u03c1\u03c7\u03af\u03c0\u03c0\u1ff3 \u03c4\u1ff7\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03af\u03c9\u03c4\u1fc3 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4' \u03bf\u1f36\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f10\u03ba\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u1fb3\u00b7 ^3\u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd\n\n\n1\u20133. 'PAUL, now a prisoner of Christ Jesus, and TIMOTHY a brother in the\nfaith, unto PHILEMON our dearly-beloved and fellow-labourer in the\nGospel, and unto APPHIA our sister, and unto ARCHIPPUS our\nfellow-soldier in Christ, and to the Church which assembles in thy\nhouse. Grace and peace to you all from God our Father and the Lord Jesus\nChrist.'\n\n1. \u03b4\u03ad\u03c3\u03bc\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2] The authoritative title of 'Apostle' is dropped, because\nthroughout this letter St Paul desires to entreat rather than to command\n(ver. 8, 9); see the note on Phil. i. 1. In its place is substituted a\ndesignation which would touch his friend's heart. How could Philemon\nresist an appeal which was penned within prison walls and by a manacled\nhand? For this characteristic reference to his 'bonds' see the note on\nver. 13.\n\n\u03a4\u03b9\u03bc\u03cc\u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u03c2] Timothy seems to have been with St Paul during a great part of\nhis three years' sojourn in Ephesus (Acts xix. 22), and could hardly\nhave failed to make the acquaintance of Philemon. For the designation \u1f41\n\u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03cc\u03c2 applied to Timothy see the note on Col. i. 1.\n\n\u03a6\u03b9\u03bb\u03ae\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03b9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] On the persons here addressed, and the language in\nwhich they are described, see the introduction p. 369 sq.\n\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u1ff7] It would probably be during St Paul's long sojourn at Ephesus\nthat Philemon had laboured with him: see above p. 31 sq.\n\n\u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd] should probably be attached to \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03c4\u1ff7 as well as to \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u1ff7;\ncomp. Rom. xvi. 5, 8, 9, 1 Cor. x. 14, Phil. ii. 12.\n\n2. \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u1fc7] For this the received text has \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03c4\u1fc7. Internal\nprobabilities can be urged in favour of both readings. On the one hand\n\u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03c4\u1fc7 might have been introduced for the sake of conformity to the\npreceding \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03c4\u1ff7; on the other \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u1fc7 might have been substituted for\n\u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03c4\u1fc7 on grounds of false delicacy. Theodore of Mopsuestia (_Spicil.\nSolesm._ I. p. 154), who had the reading \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03c4\u1fc7, feels an apology\nnecessary: 'Istius temporis (i.e. of the present time) homines\npropemodum omnes in crimine vocandos esse existimant, modo si audierint\nnomen charitatis. Apostolus vero non sic sentiebat; sed contrario etc.'\nI have preferred \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u1fc7, because the preponderance of ancient\nauthority is very decidedly in its favour.\n\n\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ce\u03c4\u1fc3] These spiritual campaigns, in which Archippus was his\ncomrade, probably took place while St Paul was at Ephesus (A.D. 54\u201357).\nFor the word \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ce\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 see Phil. ii. 25. The metaphor of \u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03af\u03b1,\n\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, is common in St Paul.\n\n\u03c4\u1fc7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4' \u03bf\u1f36\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] probably at Coloss\u00e6; see above p. 370 sq. For the\nmeaning of the expression see the note on Col. iv. 15.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n4, 5]\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c1\u03ae\u03bd\u03b7 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6.\n\n^4\u0395\u1f50\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff6 \u03c4\u1fb7 \u0398\u03b5\u1ff7 \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c4\u03b5, \u03bc\u03bd\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b5\u03c5\u03c7\u1ff6\u03bd\n\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5, ^5\u1f00\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03c9\u03bd \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03bd\n\n\n4\u20137. 'I never cease to give thanks to my God for thy well-doing, and\nthou art ever mentioned in my prayers. For they tell me of thy love and\nfaith\u2014thy faith which thou hast in the Lord Jesus, and thy love which\nthou showest towards all the saints; and it is my prayer that this\nactive sympathy and charity, thus springing from thy faith, may abound\nmore and more, as thou attainest to the perfect knowledge of every good\nthing bestowed upon us by God, looking unto and striving after Christ.\nFor indeed it gave me great joy and comfort to hear of thy\nloving-kindness, and to learn how the hearts of God's people had been\ncheered and refreshed by thy help, my dear brother'.\n\nThe Apostle's thanksgiving and intercessory prayer (ver. 4)\u2014the cause of\nhis thanksgiving (ver. 5)\u2014the purport of his prayer (ver. 6)\u2014the joy and\ncomfort which he has in Philemon's good deeds (ver. 7)\u2014this is the very\nsimple order of topics in these verses. But meanwhile all established\nprinciples of arrangement are defied in the anxiety to give expression\nto the thought which is uppermost for the moment. The clause \u1f00\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03c9\u03bd\n\u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. is separated from \u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff6 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., on which it depends, by the\nintervening clause \u03bc\u03bd\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. which introduces another thought.\nIt itself interposes between two clauses \u03bc\u03bd\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. and \u1f45\u03c0\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f21\n\u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd\u03af\u03b1 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., which stand in the closest logical and grammatical\nconnexion with each other. Its own component elements are dislocated and\ninverted in the struggle of the several ideas for immediate utterance.\nAnd lastly, in \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u1f70\u03bd \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. there is again a recurrence to a topic\nwhich has occurred in an earlier part of the sentence (\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03bd ...\n\u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f01\u03b3\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2) but which has been dropped, before it was\nexhausted, owing to the pressure of another more importunate thought.\n\n4. \u0395\u1f50\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff6] See the note on 1 Thess. i. 2.\n\n\u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c4\u03b5] should probably be taken with \u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff6 (rather than with\n\u03bc\u03bd\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.), according to St Paul's usual collocation in these\nopening thanksgivings: see the notes on Col. i. 3, Phil. i. 3.\n\n\u03bc\u03bd\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] '_making mention of thee_.' For \u03bc\u03bd\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 see\nthe note on 1 Thess. i. 2. Here the 'mention' involves the idea of\nintercession _on behalf of_ Philemon, and so introduces the \u1f45\u03c0\u03c9\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\nof ver. 6. See the note there.\n\n5. \u1f00\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03c9\u03bd] This information would probably come from Epaphras (Col. i.\n7, 8, iv. 12) rather than from Onesimus. The participle is connected\nmore directly with \u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff6 than with the intervening words, and\nexplains the grounds of the Apostle's thanksgiving.\n\n\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] i.e. 'the faith which thou hast towards the Lord\nJesus Christ and the love which thou showest to all the saints.' The\nlogical order is violated, and the clauses are inverted in the second\npart of the sentence, thus producing an example of the figure called\nchiasm; see Gal. iv. 4, 5. This results here from the Apostle's setting\ndown the thoughts in the sequence in which they occur to him, without\npaying regard to symmetrical arrangement. The first and prominent\nthought is Philemon's love. This suggests the mention of his faith, as\nthe source from which it springs. This again requires a reference to the\nobject of faith. And then at length comes the deferred sequel to the\nfirst thought\u2014the range and comprehensiveness of his love. The\ntransition from the object of faith to the object of love is more easy,\nbecause the love is represented as springing from the faith. Some copies\ntranspose the order, reading \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03bd\u2014an obvious\nemendation. Others would obviate the difficulty by giving to \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd the\nmeaning 'fidelity, stedfastness': Winer \u00a7 1. p. 511 sq. Thus they are\nenabled to refer both words, \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03bd, equally to both the\nclauses which follow. But, though this is a legitimate sense of \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03c2\nin St Paul (see _Galatians_, p. 155), yet in immediate connexion with \u1f23\u03bd\n\u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u039a\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd, it is hardly possible that the word can\nhave any other than its proper theological meaning. See the opening of\nthe contemporary epistle, Col. i. 4.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n6]\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f23\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u039a\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2\n\u1f01\u03b3\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2, ^6\u1f45\u03c0\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f21 \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd\u03af\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03ad\u03c9\u03c2 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f10\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u1f74\u03c2 \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b3\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03b8\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03bd\n\n\n\u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] The change of prepositions, \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u039a\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd '_towards_ the\nLord' and \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f01\u03b3\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 '_unto_ the saints', deserves attention. It\nseems to arise from the instinctive desire to separate the two clauses,\nas they refer to different words in the preceding part of the sentence.\nOf the two prepositions the former (\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf-\u03c2) signifies _direction_\n'forward to', 'towards'; the latter (\u1f10\u03bd-\u03c2) _arrival_ and so _contact_,\n'in-to', 'unto.' Consequently either might be used in either connexion;\nand as a matter of fact \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 is much more common with \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 (\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd),\nas it is also with \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7, \u03c0\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2 being quite exceptional (1 Thess. i. 8 \u1f21\n\u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f21 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u0398\u03b5\u03cc\u03bd; comp. 2 Cor. iii. 4). But where a\ndistinction is necessary, there is a propriety in using \u03c0\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2 of the\nfaith which aspires _towards_ Christ, and \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 of the love which is\nexerted _upon_ men. Some good copies read \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 here in both clauses.\n\n6. \u1f45\u03c0\u03c9\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] to be taken with \u03bc\u03bd\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., as giving\nthe aim and purport of St Paul's prayer. Others connect it with h\u1f72\u03bd\n\u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2, as if it described the tendency of Philemon's faith, 'ita ut';\nbut, even if \u1f45\u03c0\u03c9\u03c2 could bear this meaning, such a connexion is\naltogether harsh and improbable.\n\n\u1f21 \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd\u03af\u03b1 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] Of many interpretations which have been, or might be,\ngiven of these words, two seem to deserve consideration. (1) 'Your\nfriendly offices and sympathies, your kindly deeds of charity, which\nspring from your faith': comp. Phil. i. 5 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd\u03af\u1fb3 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\n\u03b5\u1f50\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03ad\u03bb\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd, Heb. xiii. 16 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f50\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\"\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, whence \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd\u03af\u03b1\nis used especially of 'contributions, almsgiving', Rom. xv. 26, 2 Cor.\nviii. 4, ix. 13. (2) 'Your communion with God through faith': comp. 1\nCor. i. 9, and see also 2 Cor. xiii. 13, 1 Joh. i. 3, 6, 7. The parallel\npassages strongly support the former sense. Other interpretations\nproposed are, 'The participation of others in your faith, through your\nexample', or 'your communion with me, springing out of your faith'. This\nlast, which is widely received, is suggested by ver. 17; \u03b5\u1f30 \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd\u1f78\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f36,\n\u03c6\u03b7\u03c3\u03af, \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd, writes Chrysostom, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f04\u03bb\u03bb\u03b1 \u1f40\u03c6\u03b5\u03af\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2\n\u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd (comp. Tit. i. 3 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u1f74\u03bd \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd): but it seems quite out\nof place in this context.\n\n\u1f10\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03ae\u03c2] '_effective_'. The Latin translators must have read \u1f10\u03bd\u03b1\u03c1\u03b3\u03ae\u03c2,\nfor they render the word _evidens_ or _manifesta_. Jerome (_ad loc._)\nspeaks of _evidens_ as the reading of the Latin, and _efficax_ of the\nGreek text. The converse error appears in the MSS of _Clem. Hom._ xvii.\n5, \u1f10\u03bd\u03ad\u03c1\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 for \u1f10\u03bd\u03ac\u03c1\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1.\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b3\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] '_in the perfect knowledge of every good thing_'.\nThis \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2, involving as it does the complete appropriation of all\ntruth and the unreserved identification with God's will, is the goal and\ncrown of the believer's course. The Apostle does not say 'in the\npossession' or 'in the performance' but 'in the knowledge of every good\nthing'; for, in this higher sense of knowledge, to know is both to\npossess and to perform. In all the epistles of the Roman captivity St\nPaul's prayer for his correspondents culminates in this word \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2:\nsee the note on Col. i. 9. This \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 is the result and the reward\nof faith manifesting itself in deeds of love, \u1f45\u03c0\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f21 \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd\u03af\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2\n\u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. For the sequence comp. Ephes. iv. 13 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f11\u03bd\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2\n\u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b3\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., Tit. i. 1 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f00\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4' \u03b5\u1f50\u03c3\u03ad\u03b2\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd. The \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 therefore which\nthe Apostle contemplates is Philemon's own. There is no reference to the\nforce of his example on others, as it is sometimes interpreted, 'in\ntheir recognition of every good thing which is wrought in you'.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n7]\n\n\u1f21\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd. ^7\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u1f70\u03bd \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u1f74\u03bd \u1f14\u03c3\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ac\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u1fc3\n\u03c3\u03bf\u03c5, \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c3\u03c0\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03c7\u03bd\u03b1 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f01\u03b3\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03ad\u03c0\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6, \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03ad.\n\n                        6. \u1f10\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd.\n\n\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd] '_which is in us Christians_', 'which is placed within our\nreach by the Gospel'; i.e. the whole range of spiritual blessings, the\ncomplete cycle of Christian truth. If the reading \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd be\nadopted, the reference will be restricted to the brotherhood at Coloss\u00e6,\nbut the meaning must be substantially the same. Though \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd has somewhat\nbetter support, we seem to be justified in preferring \u1f21\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd as being much\nmore expressive. In such cases the MSS are of no great authority; and in\nthe present instance scribes would be strongly tempted to alter \u1f21\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd\ninto \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd from a misapprehension of the sense, and a wish to apply the\nwords to Philemon and his household. A similar misapprehension doubtless\nled in some copies to the omission of \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, which seemed to be\nsuperfluous but is really required for the sense.\n\n\u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd] '_unto Christ_', i.e. leading to Him as the goal. The words\nshould be connected not with \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd, but with the main statement of\nthe sentence \u1f10\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u1f74\u03c2 \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\n7. \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u1f70\u03bd \u03b3\u03ac\u03c1] This sentence again must not be connected with the words\nimmediately preceding. It gives the motive of the Apostle's thanksgiving\nmentioned in ver. 4. This thanksgiving was the outpouring of gratitude\nfor the joy and comfort that he had received in his bonds, from the\nreport of Philemon's generous charity. The connexion therefore is\n\u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff6 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u0398\u03b5\u1ff7 \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 ...... \u1f00\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03c9\u03bd \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03bd ... \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u1f70\u03bd \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u1f74\u03bd\n\u1f14\u03c3\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. For \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03ac\u03bd the received text (Steph. but not Elz.) reads\n\u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03bd, which is taken to mean 'thankfulness' (1 Tim. i. 12, 2 Tim. i.\n3); but this reading is absolutely condemned by the paucity of ancient\nauthority.\n\n\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c3\u03c0\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03c7\u03bd\u03b1] '_the heart, the spirits_'. On \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c3\u03c0\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03c7\u03bd\u03b1, the nobler\nviscera, regarded as the seat of the emotions, see the note on Phil. i.\n8. Here the prominent idea is that of terror, grief, despondency, etc.\n\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03ad\u03c0\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9] '_have been relieved, refreshed_', comp. ver. 20. The\ncompound \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03ac\u03c5\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 expresses a temporary relief, as the simple\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03cd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 expresses a final cessation: Plut. _Vit. Lucull._ 5 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u1ff6\u03bd\n\u03b1\u1f56\u03b8\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03ba\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03cd\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u039c\u03b9\u03b8\u03c1\u03b9\u03b4\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1f78\u03bd \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b5\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd \u1f14\u03c6\u03b7 \u039c\u03ac\u03c1\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n8, 9]\n\n^8 \u0394\u03b9\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u1f74\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c4\u03ac\u03c3\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03c3\u03bf\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f00\u03bd\u1fc6\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd, ^9\n\u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b1\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03bd \u03bc\u1fb6\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u1ff6, \u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f62\u03bd \u1f61\u03c2 \u03a0\u03b1\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03cd\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 \u03bd\u03c5\u03bd\u1f76 \u03b4\u1f72\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03ad\u03c3\u03bc\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2\n\n                         9. \u03bd\u1fe6\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03ad\u03c3\u03bc\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2.\n\n\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd _\u03bf\u1f50 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9_ \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb' _\u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03c0\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9_. Thus it implies\n'relaxation, refreshment,' as a preparation for the renewal of labour or\nsuffering. It is an Ignatian as well as a Pauline word; _Ephes._ 2,\n_Smyrn._ 9, 10, 12, _Trall._ 12, _Magn._ 15, _Rom._ 10.\n\n\u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03ad] For the appeal suggested by the emphatic position of the word,\ncomp. Gal. vi. 18. See also the note on ver. 20 below.\n\n8\u201317. 'Encouraged by these tidings of thy loving spirit, I prefer to\nentreat, where I might command. My office gives me authority to dictate\nthy duty in plain language, but love bids me plead as a suitor. Have I\nnot indeed a right to command\u2014I Paul whom Christ Jesus long ago\ncommissioned as His ambassador, and whom now He has exalted to the rank\nof His prisoner? But I entreat thee. I have a favour to ask for a son of\nmy own\u2014one doubly dear to me, because I became his father amidst the\nsorrows of my bonds. I speak of Onesimus, who in times past was found\nwholly untrue to his name, who was then far from useful to thee, but now\nis useful to thee\u2014yea, and to myself also. Him I send back to thee, and\nI entreat thee to take him into thy favour, for in giving him I am\ngiving my own heart. Indeed I would gladly have detained him with me,\nthat he might minister to me on thy behalf, in these bonds with which\nthe Gospel has invested me. But I had scruples. I did not wish to do\nanything without thy direct consent; for then it might have seemed\n(though it were only seeming) as if thy kindly offices had been rendered\nby compulsion and not of free will. So I have sent him back. Indeed it\nmay have been God's providential design, that he was parted from thee\nfor a season, only that thou mightest regain him for ever; that he left\nthee as a slave, only that he might return to thee a beloved brother.\nThis indeed he is to me most of all; and, if to me, must he not be so\nmuch more to thee, both in worldly things and in spiritual? If therefore\nthou regardest me as a friend and companion, take him to thee, as if he\nwere myself'.\n\n8. \u0394\u03b9\u03cc] i.e. 'Seeing that I have these proofs of thy love, I prefer to\nentreat, where I might command'.\n\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03bd] '_confidence_', literally '_freedom_' or '_privilege of\nspeech_'; see the notes on Col. ii. 15, Ephes. iii. 12. It was his\nApostolic authority which gave him this right to command in plain\nlanguage. Hence the addition \u1f10\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7.\n\n\u03c4\u03bf \u1f00\u03bd\u1fc6\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd] '_what is fitting_': see the note on Col. iii. 18.\n\n9. \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03bd] '_for love's sake_', i.e. 'having respect to the\nclaims of love'. It is not Philemon's love (vv. 5, 7,) nor St Paul's own\nlove, but love absolutely, love regarded as a principle which demands a\ndeferential respect.\n\n\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f62\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] '_being such an one as Paul an ambassador, and now\nalso a prisoner, of Christ Jesus_'. Several questions of more or less\ndifficulty arise on these words. (1) Is \u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f64\u03bd to be connected with\nor separated from \u1f61\u03c2 \u03a0\u03b1\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.? If separated, \u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f64\u03bd will mean\n'though as an Apostle I am armed with such authority', and \u1f61\u03c2 \u03a0\u03b1\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2\n\u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. will describe his condescension to entreaty, 'yet as simply Paul,\netc.' But the other construction is much more probable for the following\nreasons., (_a_) \u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f64\u03bd so used, implying, as it would, something of\na _personal_ boast, seems unlike St Paul's usual mode of speaking.\nSeveral interpreters indeed, taking \u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f64\u03bd separately, refer it to\nver. 8, 'seeing that this is my disposition', i.e. 'seeing that I desire\nto entreat'; but \u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 suggests more than an accidental impulse.\n(_b_) As \u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 and \u1f61\u03c2 are correlative words, it is more natural to\nconnect them together; comp. Plato _Symp._ 181 E \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03b3\u03ba\u03ac\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\n\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u1f65\u03c3\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., Alexis (Meineke _Fragm. Com._ III. p. 399)\n\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b6\u1fc6\u03bd \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u1f65\u03c3\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u1f41\u03b9 \u03ba\u03cd\u03b2\u03bf\u03b9. Such passages are an answer to the\nobjection that \u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 would require some stronger word than \u1f61\u03c2, such\nas \u03bf\u1f37\u03bf\u03c2, \u1f45\u03c2, or \u1f65\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5. Even after such expressions as \u1f41 \u1f00\u03c5\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2, \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f00\u03c5\u03c4\u03cc,\ninstances occur of \u1f65\u03c2 (\u1f65\u03c3\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1): see Lobeck _Phryn._ p. 427, Stallbaum on\nPlat. _Ph\u00e6d._ 86 A. Indeed it may be questioned whether any word but \u1f61\u03c2\nwould give exactly St Paul's meaning here. (_c_) All the Greek\ncommentators without a single exception connect the words \u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f62\u03bd \u1f65\u03c2\n\u03a0\u03b1\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 together. (2) Assuming that the words \u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f62\u03bd \u1f61\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. are\ntaken together, should they be connected with the preceding or the\nfollowing sentence? On the whole the passage is more forcible, if they\nare linked to the preceding words. In this case the resumptive \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u1ff6\n(ver. 10) begins a new sentence, which introduces a fresh subject. The\nApostle has before described the character of his appeal; he now speaks\nof its object. (3) In either connexion, what is the point of the words\n\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f62\u03bd \u1f61\u03c2 \u03a0\u03b1\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.? Do they lay down the grounds of his\n_entreaty_, or do they enforce his right to _command_? If the view of\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03cd\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 adopted below be correct, the latter must be the true\ninterpretation; but even though \u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03cd\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 be taken in its ordinary\nsense, this will still remain the more probable alternative; for, while\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03cd\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 and \u03b4\u03ad\u03c3\u03bc\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 would suit either entreaty or command, the\naddition \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6 suggests an appeal to authority.\n\n\u1f61\u03c2 \u03a0\u03b1\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2] The mention of his personal name involves an assertion of\nauthority, as in Ephes. iii. 1; comp. Gal. v. 2, with the note there.\nTheodoret writes, \u1f41 \u03a0\u03b1\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u1f00\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03c3\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03c2 \u1f00\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03ba\u03ae\u03c1\u03c5\u03ba\u03b1, \u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b8\u03b1\u03bb\u03ac\u03c4\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03b3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c1\u03b3\u03cc\u03bd, \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bf\u03c2, \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03cd\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2] Comparing a passage in the contemporary epistle, Ephes. vi.\n20 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u1f41\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03b5\u03cd\u03c9 \u1f10\u03bd \u1f01\u03bb\u03cd\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9, it had occurred to me that we should read\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03b5\u03c5\u03c4\u03ae\u03c2 here, before I was aware that this conjecture had been\nanticipated by others, e.g. by Bentley (_Crit. Sacr._ p. 93) and by\nBenson (_Paraphrase etc. on Six Epistles of St Paul_ p. 357). It has\nsince been suggested independently in Linwood's _Observ. qu\u00e6d. in\nnonnulla N. T. loca_ 1865, and probably others have entertained the same\nthought. Still believing that St Paul here speaks of himself as an\n'ambassador', I now question whether any change is necessary. There is\nreason for thinking that in the common dialect \u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03cd\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 may have been\nwritten indifferently for \u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03b5\u03c5\u03c4\u03ae\u03c2 in St Paul's time; and if so, the\nform here may be due, not to some comparatively late scribe, but to the\noriginal autograph itself or to an immediate transcript. In 1 Macc. xiv.\n21 the Sinaitic MS has \u03bf\u03b9 \u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03c5\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9 (a corruption of \u03bf\u03b9 \u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03c5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03bf\u03b9,\nfor the common reading is \u03bf\u1f31 \u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03b5\u03c5\u03c4\u1f70\u03b9 \u03bf\u1f31); in xiv. 22 it reads\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03c5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u0399\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u03b9\u03c9\u03bd; but in xiii. 21 \u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03b5\u03c5\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2: though in all passages\nalike the meaning is 'ambassadors'. Again the Alexandrian MS has\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03c5\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2 in xiii. 21, but \u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03b5\u03c5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 in xiv. 22, and \u03bf\u03b9 \u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03b5\u03c5\u03c4\u03b5 \u03bf\u03b9\n(i.e. \u03bf\u1f31 \u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03b5\u03c5\u03c4\u1f70\u03b9 \u03bf\u1f31) in xiv. 21. In 2 Macc. xi. 34 this same MS has\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03c5\u03c4\u03b5, and the reading of the common texts of the LXX (even\nTischendorf and Fritzsche) there is \u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u1fe6\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9. Grimm treats it as\nmeaning 'ambassadors', without even noticing the form. Other MSS are\nalso mentioned in Holmes and Parsons which have the form \u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03c5\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 in 1\nMacc. xiii. 21. In 2 Chron. xxxii. 31 again the word for 'ambassador' is\nwritten thus in the _Vatican_ MS, though the \u03b5 is added above the line;\nand here too several MSS in Holmes and Parsons agree in reading\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03cd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2. Thus it is plain that, in the age of our earliest extant MSS\nat all events, the scribes used both forms indifferently in this sense.\nSo also Eusebius on Isaiah xviii. 2 writes \u1f41 \u03b4\u03b5 \u1f08\u03ba\u03cd\u03bb\u03b1\u03c2 _\u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03cd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2_\n\u1f10\u03be\u03ad\u03b4\u03c9\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c0\u03ce\u03bd, (\u039f \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c3\u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03b8\u03b1\u03bb\u03ac\u03c3\u03c3\u1fc3 \u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03cd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2. Again in Ignat.\n_Smyrn._ 11 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03cd\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 is the form in all the MSS of either recension,\nthough the meaning is plainly 'an ambassador of God.' So too in _Clem.\nHom._ Ep. Clem. 6 the MSS read \u1f41 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03cd\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2, which even\nSchwegler and Dressel tacitly retain. See also Appian _Samn._ 7, where\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03b5\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 is due to the later editors, and _Acta Thom\u00e6_ \u00a7 10, where\nthere is a v. l. \u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03cd\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 in at least one MS. And probably examples of\nthis substitution might be largely multiplied. The main reason for\nadopting this reading is the parallel passage, which suggests it very\nstrongly. The difficulty which many find in St Paul's describing himself\nas an old man is not serious. On any showing he must have been verging\non sixty at this time, and may have been some years older. A life of\nunintermittent toil and suffering, such as he had lived, would bring a\npremature decay; and looking back on a long eventful life, he would\nnaturally so think and speak of himself. Thus Roger Bacon (_Opus Majus_\nI 10, p. 15, ed. Jebb; _Opus Tertium_ p. 63, ed. Brewer) writes 'me\nsenem', 'nos senes', in 1267, though he appears to have been not more\nthan fifty-two or fifty-three at the time and lived at least a quarter\nof a century after (see E. Charles _Roger Bacon, Sa Vie etc._ pp. 4 sq.,\n40). So too Scott in his fifty-fifth year speaks of himself as 'an old\ngrey man' and 'aged' (Lockhart's _Life_ VIII. pp. 327, 357). It is more\ndifficult to understand how St Paul should make his age a ground of\nappeal to Philemon who, if Archippus was his son, cannot have been much\nyounger than himself. The commentator Hilary says that the Apostle\nappeals to his friend 'quasi co\u00e6vum \u00e6tatis', but this idea is foreign to\nthe context. The comment of Theophylact is, \u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f64\u03bd, \u03c6\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9,\n_\u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03b5\u03c5\u03c4\u03ae\u03c2_, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f45\u03c5\u03c4\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f04\u03be\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f00\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, \u1f61\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u1f78\u03c2 \u03a0\u03b1\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03cd\u03c4\u03b7\u03bd,\n\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c4\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03b1\u03c3\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f00\u03be\u03af\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 _\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c7\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5_ \u03c4\u1f78\n\u03b1\u1f30\u03b4\u03ad\u03c3\u03b9\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. Does he mean to include both meanings in\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03cd\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2? Or is he accidentally borrowing the term 'ambassador' from\nsome earlier commentator without seeing its bearing?\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03ad\u03c3\u03bc\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2] Another title to respect. The mention of his bonds might\nsuggest either an appeal for commiseration or a claim of authority: see\nthe note on ver. 13. Here the addition of \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6 invests it with\nthe character of an official title, and so gives prominence to the\nlatter idea. To his old office of 'ambassador' Christ has added the new\ntitle of 'prisoner'. The genitive \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6 belongs to \u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03cd\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 as\nwell as to \u03b4\u03ad\u03c3\u03bc\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2, and in both cases describes the person who confers\nthe office or rank.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n10]\n\n\u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6. ^{10}\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u1ff6 \u03c3\u03b5 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03bc\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u03ad\u03ba\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd,\n\n\n10. \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u1ff6 \u03c3\u03b5 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] St Chrysostom remarks on the Apostle's\nwithholding the name, until he has favourably disposed Philemon both to\nthe request and to the object of it; \u03c4\u03bf\u03c3\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03bb\u03ad\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd\n\u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03ae\u03bd, \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u1f72 \u03b5\u1f50\u03b8\u03ad\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd\u03ad\u03b2\u03b1\u03bb\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f44\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1, \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u03c3\u03b1\u03cd\u03c4\u03b7\u03bd \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b7\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f34\u03c4\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03b2\u03ac\u03bb\u03bb\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. The whole passage deserves to be read.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n11]\n\n\u1f43\u03bd [\u1f10\u03b3\u1f7c] \u1f10\u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u03b1 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2, \u1f48\u03bd\u03ae\u03c3\u03b9\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd, ^{11}\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd \u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u03ad\n\n\n\u1f43\u03bd \u1f10\u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u03b1 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] So too 1 Cor. iv. 15. In Gal. iv. 19 he speaks of\nhimself as suffering a mother's pangs for his children in the faith.\nComp. Phil. _Leg. ad Cai._ 8 (II. p. 554) \u1f10\u03bc\u03cc\u03bd \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u039c\u03ac\u03ba\u03c1\u03c9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f14\u03c1\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\n\u0393\u03b1\u0390\u03bf\u03c2\u00b7 \u03bc\u1fb6\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f22 \u03bf\u1f50\u03c7 \u1f27\u03c4\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03ad\u03c9\u03bd \u03b3\u03b5\u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03bd\u03b7\u03ba\u03b1.\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2] He was doubly dear to the Apostle, as being the child\nof his sorrows.\n\n\u1f48\u03bd\u03ae\u03c3\u03b9\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd] for \u1f48\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 by attraction, as e.g. Mark vi. 16 \u1f43\u03bd \u1f10\u03b3\u1f7c\n\u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03ba\u03b5\u03c6\u03ac\u03bb\u03b9\u03c3\u03b1 \u1f38\u03ce\u03b1\u03bd\u03bd\u03b7\u03bd, \u03bf\u1f57\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd. Henceforward he will be true to his\nname, no longer \u1f00\u03bd\u03cc\u03bd\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, but \u1f40\u03bd\u03ae\u03c3\u03b9\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2: comp. Ruth i. 20 'Call me not\nNaomi (pleasant) but call me Mara (bitter) etc.' The word \u1f04\u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 is a\nsynonyme for \u1f00\u03bd\u03cc\u03bd\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, Demosth. _Phil._ iii. \u00a7 40 (p. 121) \u1f05\u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c4\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c4\u03b1\n_\u1f04\u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1_ \u1f04\u03c0\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03c4\u03b1 _\u1f00\u03bd\u03cc\u03bd\u03b7\u03c4\u03b1_ \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.: comp. Pseudophocyl. 37\n(34) \u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f40\u03bd\u03ae\u03c3\u03b9\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9, \u03c6\u03af\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b4' \u1f00\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03cc\u03bd\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2. The significance\nof names was a matter of special importance among the ancients. Hence\nthey were careful in the inauguration of any great work that only those\nwho had _bona nomina_, _prospera nomina_, _fausta nomina_, should take\npart: Cic. _de <DW37>._ i. 45, Plin. _N.H._ xxviii. 2. 5, Tac. _Hist._ iv.\n53. On the value attached to names by the ancients, and more especially\nby the Hebrews, see Farrar _Chapters on Language_ p. 267 sq., where a\nlarge number of instances are collected. Here however there is nothing\nmore than an affectionate play on a name, such as might occur to any one\nat any time: comp. Euseb. _H.E._ v. 24 \u1f41 )\u0395\u03b9\u03c1\u03b7\u03bd\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c6\u03b5\u03c1\u03ce\u03bd\u03c5\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f62\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc7\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b7\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u1fb3, \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c4\u03b5 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c4\u03c1\u03cc\u03c0\u1ff3 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c1\u03b7\u03bd\u03cc\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n12]\n\n\u03c3\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f04\u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd, \u03bd\u03c5\u03bd\u1f76 \u03b4\u1f72 [\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76] \u03c3\u03bf\u1f76 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f11\u03bc\u03bf\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f54\u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd\u00b7 \u1f43\u03bd \u1f00\u03bd\u03ad\u03c0\u03b5\u03bc\u03c8\u03ac \u03c3\u03bf\u03b9.\n^{12}\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd, \u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c4\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f10\u03bc\u1f70 \u03c3\u03c0\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03c7\u03bd\u03b1,\n\n\n11. \u1f04\u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd, \u03b5\u1f54\u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd] Comp. Plat. _Resp._ iii. p. 411 A \u03c7\u03c1\u03ae\u03c3\u03b9\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03be\n\u1f00\u03c7\u03c1\u03ae\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 ... \u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd. Of these words, \u1f04\u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 is found only here,\n\u03b5\u1f54\u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 occurs also 2 Tim. ii. 21, iv. 11, in the New Testament. Both\nappear in the LXX. In Matt. xxv. 30 a slave is described as \u1f00\u03c7\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2. For\nthe mode of expression comp. Ephes. v. 15 \u03bc\u1f74 \u1f61\u03c2 \u1f04\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb' \u1f61\u03c2 \u03c3\u03cc\u03c6\u03bf\u03b9.\nSome have discovered in these words a reference to \u03c7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2, as commonly\npronounced \u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2; comp. Theoph. _ad Autol._ i. 12 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f21\u03b4\u1f7a \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03b5\u1f54\u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. and see _Philippians_ p. 16 note. Any such allusion\nhowever, even if it should not involve an anachronism, is far too\nrecondite to be probable here. The play on words is exhausted in the\nreference to \u1f48\u03bd\u03ae\u03c3\u03b9\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2.\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bc\u03bf\u03af] An after-thought; comp. Phil. ii. 27 \u1f20\u03bb\u03ad\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd, \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd\n\u03b4\u1f72 \u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bc\u03ad. This accounts for the exceptional order, where\naccording to common Greek usage the first person would naturally precede\nthe second.\n\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03ad\u03c0\u03b5\u03bc\u03c8\u03b1] '_I send back_', the epistolary aorist used for the present:\nsee the notes on Phil. ii. 25, 28. So too \u1f14\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c8\u03b1, ver. 19, 21 (see the\nnote). It is clear both from the context here, and from Col. iv. 7\u20139,\nthat Onesimus accompanied the letter.\n\n12. \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] The reading of the received text is _\u03c3\u1f7a \u03b4\u1f72_\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd, \u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c4\u03ad\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f10\u03bc\u1f70 \u03c3\u03c0\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03c7\u03bd\u03b1, _\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03bb\u03b1\u03b2\u03bf\u1fe6_. The words thus\nsupplied doubtless give the right construction, but must be rejected as\ndeficient in authority. The accusative is suspended; the sentence\nchanges its form and loses itself in a number of dependent clauses; and\nthe main point is not resumed till ver. 17 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03bb\u03b1\u03b2\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f61\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bc\u03ad, the\ngrammar having been meanwhile dislocated. For the emphatic position of\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd comp. John ix. 21, 23, Ephes. i. 22.\n\n\u03c4\u1f70 \u1f10\u03bc\u1f70 \u03c3\u03c0\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03c7\u03bd\u03b1] '_my very heart_', a mode of speech common in all\nlanguages. For the meaning of \u03c3\u03c0\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03c7\u03bd\u03b1 see the note on Phil. i. 8. Comp.\n_Test. Patr._ Zab. 8, Neph. 4, in both which passages Christ is called\n\u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u03c0\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03c7\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd of God, and in the first it is said \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u03b5\u1f50\u03c3\u03c0\u03bb\u03b1\u03b3\u03c7\u03bd\u03af\u03b1\u03bd ...\n\u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f41 \u039a\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c0\u03bb\u03b1\u03b3\u03c7\u03bd\u03b9\u03c3\u03b8\u1f72\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bb\u03ad\u03b7\u03c3\u1fc3 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2\u00b7 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u03af\u03b3\u03b5 \u1f10\u03c0'\n\u1f10\u03c3\u03c7\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u1f21\u03bc\u03b5\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f41 \u0398\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c3\u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u03c0\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03c7\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\nOtherwise \u03c4\u1f70 \u1f10\u03bc\u1f70 \u03c3\u03c0\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03c7\u03bd\u03b1 has been interpreted '_my son_' (comp. ver. 10\n\u1f43\u03bd \u1f10\u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u03b1 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.), and it is so rendered here in the Peshito. For this\nsense of \u03c3\u03c0\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03c7\u03bd\u03b1 comp. Artemid. _Oneir._ i. 44 \u03bf\u1f31 \u03c0\u03b1\u1fd6\u03b4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c0\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03c7\u03bd\u03b1\n\u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, _ib._ v. 57 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c3\u03c0\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03c7\u03bd\u03b1 [\u1f10\u03c3\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03b5] \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u1fd6\u03b4\u03b1, \u03bf\u1f55\u03c4\u03c9 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u1fd6\u03b4\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u1f14\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9. With this meaning it is used not less of the\nfather than of the mother; e.g. Philo _de Joseph._ 5 (II. p. 45) \u03b8\u03b7\u03c1\u03c3\u1f76\u03bd\n\u03b5\u1f50\u03c9\u03c7\u03af\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b8\u03bf\u03af\u03bd\u03b7 \u03b3\u03ad\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03b1\u03c2 \u03b3\u03b5\u03c5\u03c3\u03b1\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 ... \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c3\u03c0\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03c7\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd, Basil.\n_Op._ III. p. 501 \u1f41 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c4\u03b5\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c3\u03c0\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03c7\u03bd\u03b1 \u03c4\u03b9\u03bc\u1f74\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u1ff6\u03bd. The\nLatin _viscera_ occurs still more frequently in this sense, as the\npassages quoted in Wetstein and Suicer show. For this latter\ninterpretation there is much to be said. But it adds nothing to the\nprevious \u1f43\u03bd \u1f10\u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u03b1 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., and (what is a more serious objection) it\nis wholly unsupported by St Paul's usage elsewhere, which connects\n\u03c3\u03c0\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03c7\u03bd\u03b1 with a different class of ideas: see e.g. vv. 7, 20.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n13, 14]\n\n^{13}\u1f43\u03bd \u1f10\u03b3\u1f7c \u1f10\u03b2\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03cc\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bc\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03ad\u03b5\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bc\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u1fc7 \u1f10\u03bd\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b5\u1f50\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03af\u03bf\u03c5\u00b7 ^{14}\u03c7\u03c9\u03c1\u1f76\u03c2\n\n\n13. \u1f10\u03b2\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03cc\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd] '_I was of a mind_', distinguished from \u1f20\u03b8\u03ad\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03b1, which\nfollows, in two respects; (1) While \u03b2\u03bf\u03cd\u03bb\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 involves the idea of\n'purpose, deliberation, desire, mind', \u03b8\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd denotes simply 'will';\nEpictet. i. 12. 13 \u03b2\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03cc\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03c6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, \u1f61\u03c2 \u03b8\u03ad\u03bb\u03c9, \u03c4\u1f78 \u0394\u03af\u03c9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f44\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1; \u03bf\u1f54 \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70\n\u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03ac\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b8\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u1f61\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b5\u1fd6 \u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03c6\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, iii. 24, 54 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03b8\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5 \u1f41\u03c1\u1fb7\u03bd, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f43\u03bd\n\u03b2\u03bf\u03cd\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9 \u1f44\u03c8\u03b5\u03b9. (2) The change of tenses is significant. The imperfect\nimplies a tentative, inchoate process; while the aorist describes a\ndefinite and complete act. The will stepped in and put an end to the\ninclinations of the mind. Indeed the imperfect of this and similar verbs\nare not infrequently used where the wish is stopped at the outset by\nsome antecedent consideration which renders it impossible, and thus\npractically it is not entertained at all: e.g. Arist. _Ran._ 866\n\u1f10\u03b2\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03cc\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f10\u03c1\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd\u03b8\u03ac\u03b4\u03b5, Antiph. _de Herod. c\u00e6d._ I (p. 129)\n\u1f10\u03b2\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03cc\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd ... \u03bd\u1fe6\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.; Is\u00e6us _de Arist. h\u00e6r._ I (p. 79)\n\u1f10\u03b2\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03cc\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd ... \u03bd\u1fe6\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f10\u03be \u1f34\u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., \u00c6sch. _c. Ctes._ 2 (p. 53)\n\u1f10\u03b2\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03cc\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03bf\u1f56\u03bd, \u1f66 )\u0391\u03b8\u03b7\u03bd\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03b9 ... \u1f10\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03b4\u1f74 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb., Lucian _Abd._\nI \u1f10\u03b2\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03cc\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03bf\u1f56\u03bd \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f30\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03b9\u03ba\u1f74\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. ... \u03bd\u03c5\u03bd\u1f76 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.; see K\u00fchner \u00a7\n392 _b_ (II. p. 177). So Acts xxv. 22 \u1f10\u03b2\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03cc\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5\n\u1f00\u03ba\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9, not 'I should wish' (as Winer \u00a7 xli. p. 353) but 'I could have\nwished', i.e. 'if it had not been too much to ask'. Similarly \u1f24\u03b8\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd\nGal. iv. 20, \u03b7\u1f50\u03c7\u03cc\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd Rom. ix. 3. See _Revision of the English New\nTestament_ p. 96. So here a not improbable meaning would be not 'I was\ndesirous', but 'I could have desired'.\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03ad\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd] '_to detain_' or '_retain_', opposed to the following \u1f00\u03c0\u03ad\u03c7\u1fc3\u03c2,\nver. 15.\n\n\u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] Comp. Phil. ii. 30 \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03ce\u03c3\u1fc3 \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f51\u03c3\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2\n\u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03bc\u1f72 \u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c1\u03b3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, 1 Cor. xvi. 17 \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f51\u03bc\u03ad\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u1f51\u03c3\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1f76\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03b5\u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd. See the note on Col. i. 7. With a delicate tact the Apostle\nassumes that Philemon would have wished to perform these friendly\noffices in person, if it had been possible.\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2] An indirect appeal to his compassion: see vv. 1, 9, 10.\nIn this instance however (as in ver. 9) the appeal assumes a tone of\nauthority, by reference to the occasion of his bonds. For the genitive\n\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b5\u1f50\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03af\u03bf\u03c5, describing the origin, comp. Col. i. 23 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bb\u03c0\u03af\u03b4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\n\u03b5\u1f50\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03af\u03bf\u03c5. They were not shackles which self had riveted, but a chain\nwith which Christ had invested him. Thus they were as a badge of office\nor a decoration of honour. In this respect, as in others, the language\nof St Paul is echoed in the epistles of St Ignatius. Here too entreaty\nand triumph alternate; the saint's bonds are at once a ground for appeal\nand a theme of thanksgiving: _Trall._ 12 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03b5\u1fd6 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03ac \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5,\n_Philad._ 7 \u03bc\u03ac\u03c1\u03c4\u03c5\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03bc\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f10\u03bd \u1fa7 \u03b4\u03ad\u03b4\u03b5\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9, _Ephes._ 11 \u1f10\u03bd \u1fa7 (i.e. \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7\n\u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6) \u03c4\u1f70 \u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u1f70 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c6\u03ad\u03c1\u03c9, \u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03b3\u03b1\u03c1\u03af\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2, _Smyrn._ 10\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03af\u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03bf\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u1fe6\u03bc\u03ac \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03ac \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5, _Magn._ 1 \u1f10\u03bd \u03bf\u1f37\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c6\u03ad\u03c1\u03c9\n\u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f84\u03b4\u03c9 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u1f10\u03ba\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2; see also _Ephes._ 1, 3, 21, _Magn._ 12,\n_Trall._ 1, 5, 10, _Smyrn._ 4, 11, _Polyc._ 2, _Rom._ 1, 4, 5, _Philad._\n5.\n\n14. \u03c7\u03c9\u03c1\u1f76\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] '_without thy approval, consent_'; Polyb. ii. 21. 1,\n3, \u03c7\u03c9\u03c1\u1f76\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03c6\u03b5\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 \u03b3\u03bd\u03ce\u03bc\u03b7\u03c2, \u03c7\u03c9\u03c1\u1f76\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b3\u03bd\u03ce\u03bc\u03b7\u03c2: similarly \u1f04\u03bd\u03b5\u03c5\n[\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2] \u03b3\u03bd\u03ce\u03bc\u03b7\u03c2, e.g. Polyb. xxi. 8. 7, Ign. _Polyc._ 4.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n15, 16]\n\n\u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03b3\u03bd\u03ce\u03bc\u03b7\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u1f72\u03bd \u1f20\u03b8\u03ad\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03b1 \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9, \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03bc\u1f74 \u1f61\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u1f00\u03bd\u03ac\u03b3\u03ba\u03b7\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\n\u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03b8\u03cc\u03bd \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f96, \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u1f11\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03c3\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd\u00b7 ^{15}\u03c4\u03ac\u03c7\u03b1 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf \u1f10\u03c7\u03c9\u03c1\u03af\u03c3\u03b8\u03b7 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2\n\u1f65\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd, \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03b1\u1f34\u03c9\u03bd\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03ad\u03c7\u1fc3\u03c2, ^{16}\u03bf\u1f50\u03ba\u03ad\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f61\u03c2 \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd, \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd,\n\n\n\u1f61\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u1f00\u03bd\u03ac\u03b3\u03ba\u03b7\u03bd] St Paul does not say \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u1f00\u03bd\u03ac\u03b3\u03ba\u03b7\u03bd but \u1f61\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u1f00\u03bd\u03ac\u03b3\u03ba\u03b7\u03bd.\nHe will not suppose that it would really be by constraint; but it must\nnot even wear _the appearance_ (\u1f61\u03c2) of being so: comp. 2 Cor. xi. 17 \u1f61\u03c2\n\u1f10\u03bd \u1f00\u03c6\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u1fc3. See Plin. _Ep._ ix. 21 'Vereor ne videar non rogare sed\ncogere'; where, as here, the writer is asking his correspondent to\nforgive a domestic who has offended.\n\n\u03c4\u1f78 \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03b8\u03cc\u03bd \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5] '_the benefit_ arising _from thee_', i.e. 'the good which\nI should get from the continued presence of Onesimus, and which would be\nowing to thee'.\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u1f11\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03c3\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd] as in Num. xv. 3. The form \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8' \u1f11\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03bd is perhaps more\nclassical: Thuc. viii. 27 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8' \u1f11\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u1f22 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c5 \u03b3\u03b5 \u1f00\u03bd\u03ac\u03b3\u03ba\u1fc3. The word\nunderstood in the one case appears to be \u03c4\u03c1\u03cc\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd (Porphyr. _de Abst._ i.\n9 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8' \u1f11\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03c3\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u03c1\u03cc\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd, comp. Eur. _Med._ 751 \u1f11\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u1ff3 \u03c4\u03c1\u03cc\u03c0\u1ff3); in the\nother, \u03b3\u03bd\u03ce\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd (so \u1f11\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u1fb3, \u1f10\u03be \u1f11\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, etc.): comp. Lobeck _Phryn._ p.\n4.\n\n15. \u03c4\u03ac\u03c7\u03b1 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] The \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 explains an additional motive which guided\nthe Apostle's decision: 'I did not dare to detain him, however much I\ndesired it. I might have defeated the purpose for which God in His good\nprovidence allowed him to leave thee'.\n\n\u1f10\u03c7\u03c9\u03c1\u03af\u03c3\u03b8\u03b7] 'He does not say', writes Chrysostom, '_For this cause he\nfled_, but _For this cause he was parted_: for he would appease Philemon\nby a more euphemistic phrase. And again he does not say _he parted\nhimself_, but _he was parted_: since the design was not Onesimus' own to\ndepart for this or that reason: just as Joseph also, when excusing his\nbrethren, says (Gen. xlv. 5) _God did send me hither_.'\n\n\u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f65\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd] '_for an hour_', '_for a short season_': 2 Cor. vii. 8, Gal.\nii. 5. 'It was only a brief moment after all', the Apostle would say,\n'compared with the magnitude of the work wrought in it. He departed a\nreprobate; he returns a saved man. He departed for a few months; he\nreturns to be with you for all time and for eternity'. The sense of\n\u03b1\u1f34\u03c9\u03bd\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd must not be arbitrarily limited. Since he left, Onesimus had\nobtained eternal life, and eternal life involves eternal interchange of\nfriendship. His services to his old master were no longer barred by the\ngates of death.\n\n\u1f00\u03c0\u03ad\u03c7\u1fc3\u03c2] In this connexion \u1f00\u03c0\u03ad\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd may bear either of two senses: (1)\n'_to have back, to have in return_': or (2) '_to have to the full, to\nhave wholly_', as in Phil. iv. 18 \u1f00\u03c0\u03ad\u03c7\u03c9 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 (see the note). In other\nwords the prominent idea in the word may be either _restitution_, or\n_completeness_. The former is the more probable sense here, as suggested\nby \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03ad\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd in verse 13 and by \u1f10\u03c7\u03c9\u03c1\u03af\u03c3\u03b8\u03b7 in this verse.\n\n16. \u1f61\u03c2 \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd] St Paul does not say \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd but \u1f61\u03c2 \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd. It was a\nmatter of indifference whether he were outwardly \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 or outwardly\n\u1f10\u03bb\u03b5\u03cd\u03b8\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2, since both are one in Christ (Col. iii. 11). But though he\nmight still remain a slave, he could no longer be _as_ a slave. A change\nhad been wrought in him, independently of his possible manumission: in\nChrist he had become a brother. It should be noticed also that the\nnegative is not \u03bc\u03b7\u03ba\u03ad\u03c4\u03b9, but \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba\u03ad\u03c4\u03b9. The negation is thus wholly\nindependent of \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 ... \u1f00\u03c0\u03ad\u03c7\u1fc3\u03c2. It describes not the possible view of\nPhilemon, but the actual state of Onesimus. The 'no more as a slave' is\nan absolute fact, whether Philemon chooses to recognise it or not.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n17\u201319]\n\n\u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u1f78\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd, \u03bc\u03ac\u03bb\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f10\u03bc\u03bf\u03af, \u03c0\u03cc\u03c3\u1ff3 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03bc\u1fb6\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u03c3\u03bf\u1f76 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u1f76 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd\n\u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3. ^{17}\u03b5\u1f30 \u03bf\u1f56\u03bd \u03bc\u03b5 \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd\u03cc\u03bd, \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03bb\u03b1\u03b2\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u1f61\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bc\u03ad\u00b7 ^{18}\u03b5\u1f30 \u03b4\u03ad\n\u03c4\u03b9 \u1f20\u03b4\u03af\u03ba\u03b7\u03c3\u03ad\u03bd \u03c3\u03b5 \u1f22 \u1f40\u03c6\u03b5\u03af\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9, \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf \u1f11\u03bc\u03bf\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bb\u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03b1. ^{19}\u1f10\u03b3\u1f7c \u03a0\u03b1\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f14\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c8\u03b1\n\n\n\u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u1f78\u03bd \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03c0\u03b7\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd] \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03c7\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u1ff3 \u03ba\u03b5\u03ba\u03ad\u03c1\u03b4\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03bf\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03b9, writes\nChrysostom, apostrophizing Philemon.\n\n\u03c0\u03cc\u03c3\u1ff3 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03bc\u1fb6\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] Having first said 'most of all to me', he goes a\nstep further, 'more than most of all to thee'.\n\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u1f76 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] 'In both spheres alike, in the affairs of this\nworld and in the affairs of the higher life.' In the former, as Meyer\npointedly says, Philemon had the brother for a slave; in the latter he\nhad the slave for a brother: comp. Ign. _Trall._ 12 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03bc\u03b5\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03ad\u03c0\u03b1\u03c5\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03af \u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9.\n\n17. \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd\u03cc\u03bd] '_thou holdest me to be a comrade, an intimate\nfriend_'. For this use of \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd comp. Luke xiv. 18 \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5 \u03bc\u03b5 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u1fc3\u03c4\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd,\nPhil. ii. 29 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9\u03bc\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5. Those are \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd\u03bf\u03af, who have\ncommon interests, common feelings, common work.\n\n18\u201322. 'But if he has done thee any injury, or if he stands in thy debt,\nset it down to my account. Here is my signature\u2014_Paul_\u2014in my own\nhandwriting. Accept this as my bond. I will repay thee. For I will not\ninsist, as I might, that thou art indebted to me for much more than\nthis; that thou owest to me thine own self. Yes, dear brother, let me\nreceive from my son in the faith such a return as a father has a right\nto expect. Cheer and refresh my spirits in Christ. I have full\nconfidence in thy compliance, as I write this; for I know that thou wilt\ndo even more than I ask. At the same time also prepare to receive me on\na visit; for I hope that through your prayers I shall be set free and\ngiven to you once more'.\n\n18. \u03b5\u1f30 \u03b4\u03ad \u03c4\u03b9] The case is stated hypothetically but the words doubtless\ndescribe the actual offence of Onesimus. He had done his master some\ninjury, probably had robbed him; and he had fled to escape punishment.\nSee the introduction.\n\n\u1f22 \u1f40\u03c6\u03b5\u03af\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9] defining the offence which has been indicated in \u1f20\u03b4\u03af\u03ba\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd.\nBut still the Apostle refrains from using the plain word \u1f14\u03ba\u03bb\u03b5\u03c8\u03b5\u03bd. He\nwould spare the penitent slave, and avoid irritating the injured master.\n\n\u1f10\u03bb\u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03b1] '_reckon it in_', '_set it down_'. This form must be adopted\ninstead of \u1f10\u03bb\u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9 which stands in the received text, as the great\npreponderance of authority shows. On the other hand we have \u1f10\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9\nRom. v. 13 (though with a v. l. \u1f10\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u1fb6\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9), \u1f10\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03bf\u03c5\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd Boeckh _C. I._\nno. 1732 A, and \u1f10\u03bd\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 _Edict. Diocl._ in _Corp. Inscr. Lat._ III.\np. 836. But the word is so rare in any form, that these occurrences of\n\u1f10\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd afford no ground for excluding \u1f10\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u1fb6\u03bd as impossible. The two\nforms might be employed side by side, just as we find \u1f10\u03bb\u03b5\u1fb6\u03bd and \u1f10\u03bb\u03b5\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd,\n\u03be\u03c5\u03c1\u1fb6\u03bd and \u03be\u03c5\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, \u1f10\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u1fb6\u03bd and \u1f10\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd (Matt. xv. 23), and the like; see\nButtmann _Ausf. Gramm._ \u00a7 112 (II. p. 53). The word \u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u1fb6\u03bd, as used by\nLucian _Lexiph._ 15 (where it is a desiderative 'to be eager to speak',\nlike \u03c6\u03bf\u03bd\u1fb6\u03bd, \u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c4\u1fb6\u03bd, \u03c6\u03b1\u03c1\u03bc\u03b1\u03ba\u1fb6\u03bd, etc.), has nothing to do with the use of\n\u1f10\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u1fb6\u03bd here.\n\n19. \u1f10\u03b3\u1f7c \u03a0\u03b1\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2] The introduction of his own name gives it the character\nof a formal and binding signature: comp. 1 Cor. xvi. 21, Col. iv. 18, 2\nThess. iii. 17. A signature to a deed in ancient or medi\u00e6val times would\ncommonly take this form \u1f10\u03b3\u1f7c \u1f41 \u03b4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd\u03b1,\u2014'_I_ so and so'; where we should\nomit the marks of the first person.\n\n\u1f14\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c8\u03b1] An epistolary or documentary aorist, as in ver. 21; so too\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03ad\u03c0\u03b5\u03bc\u03c8\u03b1 ver. 11. See the note on \u1f14\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c8\u03b1 Gal. vi. 11. The aorist is the\ntense commonly used in signatures; e.g. \u1f51\u03c0\u03ad\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c8\u03b1 to the conciliar\ndecrees.\n\nThis incidental mention of his autograph, occurring where it does, shows\nthat he wrote the whole letter with his own hand. This procedure is\nquite exceptional, just as the purport of the letter is exceptional. In\nall other cases he appears to have employed an amanuensis, only adding a\nfew words in his own handwriting at the close: see the note on Gal.\n_l.c._\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n20]\n\n\u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f10\u03bc\u1fc7 \u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03af, \u1f10\u03b3\u1f7c \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03c9\u00b7 \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03bc\u1f74 \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03c9 \u03c3\u03bf\u03b9, \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03b5\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd \u03bc\u03bf\u03b9\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03ad\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2. ^{20}\u03bd\u03b1\u03af, \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03ad, \u1f10\u03b3\u03ce \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f40\u03bd\u03b1\u03af\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3\u00b7 \u1f00\u03bd\u03ac\u03c0\u03b1\u03c5\u03c3\u03cc\u03bd \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5\n\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c3\u03c0\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03c7\u03bd\u03b1 \u1f10\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7.\n\n\n\u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03bc\u1f74 \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03c9] '_not to say_', as 2 Cor. ix. 4. There is a suppressed\nthought, 'though indeed you cannot fairly claim repayment', 'though\nindeed you owe me (\u1f40\u03c6\u03b5\u03af\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2) as much as this', on which the \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1 \u03bc\u1f74\n\u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. is dependent. Hence \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03ad\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 '_owest besides_'; for this is\nthe common meaning of the word.\n\n\u03c3\u03b5\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd] St Paul was his spiritual father, who had begotten him in the\nfaith, and to whom therefore he owed his being; comp. Plato _Legg._ iv.\np. 717 B \u1f61\u03c2 \u03b8\u03ad\u03bc\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f40\u03c6\u03ad\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03c1\u1ff6\u03c4\u03ac \u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03bc\u03ad\u03b3\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1 \u1f40\u03c6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bb\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\n... \u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72, \u1f03 \u03ba\u03ad\u03ba\u03c4\u1fc3\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9, _\u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd_\n... \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50\u03c3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, \u03b4\u03b5\u03cd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c3\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, \u03c4\u03c1\u03af\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2\n\u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u1fc6\u03c2, _\u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u03af\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03b4\u03b1\u03bd\u03b5\u03af\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1_ \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.\n\n20. \u03bd\u03b1\u03af] introducing an affectionate appeal as in Phil. iv. 3 \u03bd\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f10\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u1ff6\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03ad.\n\n\u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03ad] It is the entreaty of a brother to a brother on behalf of a\nbrother (ver. 16). For the pathetic appeal involved in the word see the\nnotes on Gal. iii. 15, vi. 1, 18; and comp. ver. 7.\n\n\u1f10\u03b3\u03ce] 'I seem to be entreating for Onesimus; but I am pleading for\n_myself_: the favour will be done to me'; comp. ver. 17 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03bb\u03b1\u03b2\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03bd\n\u1f61\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bc\u03ad. The emphatic \u1f10\u03b3\u03ce identifies the cause of Onesimus with his own.\n\n\u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f40\u03bd\u03b1\u03af\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd] '_may I have satisfaction, find comfort in thee_', i.e.\n'may I receive such a return from thee, as a father has a right to\nexpect from his child.' The common use of the word \u1f40\u03bd\u03b1\u03af\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd would suggest\nthe thought of filial offices; e.g. Arist. _Thesm._ 469 \u03bf\u1f55\u03c4\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f40\u03bd\u03b1\u03af\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd\n\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd _\u03c4\u03ad\u03ba\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd_, Lucian _Philops._ 27 \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u1f44\u03c8\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd _\u03c5\u1f31\u03ad\u03c9\u03bd_,\n\u03bf\u1f55\u03c4\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f40\u03bd\u03b1\u03af\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd, \u1f14\u03c6\u03b7, \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd, Ps-Ignat. _Hero_ 6 \u1f40\u03bd\u03b1\u03af\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5,\n_\u03c0\u03b1\u03b9\u03b4\u03af\u03bf\u03bd_ \u03c0\u03bf\u03b8\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\u03cc\u03bd, Synes. _Ep._ 44 \u03bf\u1f55\u03c4\u03c9 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f31\u03b5\u03c1\u1fb6\u03c2 \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03c2\n\u1f40\u03bd\u03b1\u03af\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03ad\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd _\u03c0\u03b1\u03b9\u03b4\u03af\u03c9\u03bd_ \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f10\u03bc\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, with other passages\nquoted in Wetstein. So too for \u1f44\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, \u1f44\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2, compare Eur. _Med._ 1025\nsq. \u03c0\u03c1\u1f76\u03bd \u03c3\u03c6\u1ff7\u03bd _\u1f44\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9_ ... \u1f04\u03bb\u03bb\u03c9\u03c2 \u1f04\u03c1' \u1f51\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2, \u1f66 _\u03c4\u03ad\u03ba\u03bd'_,\n\u1f10\u03be\u03b5\u03b8\u03c1\u03b5\u03c8\u03ac\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd, _Alc._ 333 \u1f05\u03bb\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 _\u03c0\u03b1\u03af\u03b4\u03c9\u03bd_\u00b7 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b4' _\u1f44\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd_\n)\u03b5\u03cd\u03c7\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03ad\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, Philem. _Inc._ 64 (IV. p. 55 Meineke) \u1f14\u03c4\u03b5\u03ba\u03ad\u03c2\n\u03bc\u03b5, \u03bc\u1fc6\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03c4\u03cc \u03c3\u03bf\u03b9 _\u03c4\u03ad\u03ba\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd \u1f44\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2_, \u1f65\u03c3\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u03af\u03ba\u03b1\u03af\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03af\n\u03c3\u03bf\u03b9, Ecclus. xxx. 2 \u1f41 \u03c0\u03b1\u03b9\u03b4\u03b5\u03cd\u03c9\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd _\u1f51\u1f76\u03bf\u03bd_ \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 _\u1f40\u03bd\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9_ \u1f10\u03c0'\n\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7 (the only passage in the LXX where the word occurs). The prayer\n\u1f40\u03bd\u03b1\u03af\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5, \u1f40\u03bd\u03b1\u03af\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd, etc., occurs several times in Ignatius;\n_Polyc._ 1, 6, _Magn._ 2, 12, _Ephes._ 2. It is not unlikely that\n\u1f40\u03bd\u03b1\u03af\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd here involves a reference to the name Onesimus; see the note on\nver. 11. The Hebrew fondness for playing on names makes such an allusion\nat least possible.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n21, 22]\n\n^{21}\u03a0\u03b5\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc7 \u1f51\u03c0\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u1fc7 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f14\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c8\u03ac \u03c3\u03bf\u03b9, \u03b5\u1f30\u03b4\u1f7c\u03c2 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u1f03 \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03c9\n\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03ae\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2. ^{22}\u1f05\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f11\u03c4\u03bf\u03af\u03bc\u03b1\u03b6\u03ad \u03bc\u03bf\u03b9 \u03be\u03b5\u03bd\u03af\u03b1\u03bd\u00b7 \u1f10\u03bb\u03c0\u03af\u03b6\u03c9 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u1f45\u03c4\u03b9 \u03b4\u03b9\u1f70 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b5\u03c5\u03c7\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd.\n\n\n\u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3] As he had begotten Philemon \u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3 (comp. 1 Cor. iv. 15,\n17), so it was \u1f10\u03bd \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u1ff3 that he looked for the recompense of filial\noffices.\n\n\u1f00\u03bd\u03ac\u03c0\u03b1\u03c5\u03c3\u03bf\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] See the note ver. 7.\n\n21. \u1f14\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c8\u03b1] '_I write_': see the note on ver. 19.\n\n\u1f51\u03c0\u1f72\u03c1 \u1f03 \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03c9 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] What was the thought upmost in the Apostle's mind\nwhen he penned these words? Did he contemplate the manumission of\nOnesimus? If so, the restraint which he imposes upon himself is\nsignificant. Indeed throughout this epistle the idea would seem to be\npresent to his thoughts, though the word never passes his lips. This\nreserve is eminently characteristic of the Gospel. Slavery is never\ndirectly attacked as such, but principles are inculcated which must\nprove fatal to it.\n\n22. \u1f05\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] When St Paul first contemplated visiting Rome, he had\nintended, after leaving the metropolis, to pass westward into Spain;\nRom. xv. 24, 28. But by this time he appears to have altered his plans,\npurposing first to revisit Greece and Asia Minor. Thus in Phil. ii. 24\nhe looks forward to seeing the Philippians shortly; while here he\ncontemplates a visit to the Churches of the Lycus valley.\n\nThere is a gentle compulsion in this mention of a personal visit to\nColoss\u00e6. The Apostle would thus be able to see for himself that Philemon\nhad not disappointed his expectations. Similarly Serapion in Eus. _H.E._\nvi. 12 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b4\u03bf\u03ba\u1fb6\u03c4\u03ad \u03bc\u03b5 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03ac\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9.\n\n\u03be\u03b5\u03bd\u03af\u03b1\u03bd] '_a lodging_'; comp. _Clem. Hom._ xii. 2 \u03c0\u03c1\u03cc\u03b1\u03be\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03be\u03b5\u03bd\u03af\u03b1\u03c2\n\u1f11\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03bc\u03ac\u03b6\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2. So the Latin _parare hospitium_ Cic. _ad Att._ xiv. 2,\nMart. _Ep._ ix. 1. This latter passage, 'Vale et para hospitium',\nclosely resembles St Paul's language here. In the expression before us\n\u03be\u03b5\u03bd\u03af\u03b1 is probably the _place_ of entertainment: but in such phrases as\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u1f10\u03c0\u1f76 \u03be\u03b5\u03bd\u03af\u1fb3, \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd \u03b5\u03c0\u1f76 \u03be\u03b5\u03bd\u03af\u03b1\u03bd, \u03c6\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03be\u03b5\u03bd\u03af\u03b1\u03c2, and the\nlike, it denotes the offices of hospitality. The Latin _hospitium_ also\nincludes both senses. The \u03be\u03b5\u03bd\u03af\u03b1, as a lodging, may denote either\nquarters in an inn or a room in a private house: see _Philippians_ p. 9.\nFor the latter comp. Plato _Tim._ 20 C \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u1f70 \u039a\u03c1\u03b9\u03c4\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03be\u03b5\u03bd\u1ff6\u03bd\u03b1, \u03bf\u1f57\n\u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03cd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd, \u1f00\u03c6\u03b9\u03ba\u03cc\u03bc\u03b5\u03b8\u03b1. In this case the response would doubtless be\na hospitable reception in Philemon's home; but the request does not\nassume so much as this.\n\n\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03b8\u03ae\u03c3\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9] '_I shall be granted to you_'. The grant (\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9) of\none person to another, may be for purposes either (1) of destruction, as\nActs xxv. 11 \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u03b5\u1f76\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b5 \u03b4\u03cd\u03bd\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 (comp. ver. 16), or (2)\nof preservation, as Acts iii. 14 \u1f90\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b5 \u1f04\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u03b1 \u03c6\u03bf\u03bd\u03ad\u03b1 \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03b8\u1fc6\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd,\nand here.\n\n23\u201325. 'Epaphras my fellow-captive in Christ Jesus salutes you. As do\nalso Mark, Aristarchus, Demas, and Luke, my fellow-labourers. The grace\nof our Lord Jesus Christ be with thee and thy household, and sanctify\nthe spirit of you all.'\n\n23 sq. For these salutations see the notes on Col. iv. 10 sq. Epaphras\nis mentioned first because he was a Colossian (Col. iv. 12) and, as the\nevangelist of Coloss\u00e6 (see p. 29 sq.), doubtless well known to Philemon.\nOf the four others Aristarchus and Mark belonged to the Circumcision\n(Col. iv. 11), while Demas and Luke were Gentile Christians. All these\nwere of Greek or Asiatic origin and would probably be well known to\nPhilemon, at least by name. On the other hand Jesus Justus, who is\nhonourably mentioned in the Colossian letter (iv. 11), but passed over\nhere, may have been a Roman Christian.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n23\u201325]\n\n^{23}\u1f08\u03c3\u03c0\u03ac\u03b6\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03af \u03c3\u03b5 \u1f18\u03c0\u03b1\u03c6\u03c1\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f41 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9\u03c7\u03bc\u03ac\u03bb\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2 \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f10\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6,\n^{24}\u039c\u03ac\u03c1\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2, \u1f08\u03c1\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03c1\u03c7\u03bf\u03c2, \u0394\u03b7\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2, \u039b\u03bf\u03c5\u03ba\u1fb6\u03c2, \u03bf\u1f31 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03bf\u03af \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5.\n\n^{25}\u1f29 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 [\u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd] \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd.\n\n\n\u1f41 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9\u03c7\u03bc\u03ac\u03bb\u03c9\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2] On the possible meanings of this title see Col. iv. 10,\nwhere it is given not to Epaphras but to Aristarchus.\n\n25. \u1f29 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb.] The same form of farewell as in Gal. vi. 18; comp. 2\nTim. iv. 22.\n\n\u1f51\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd] The persons whose names are mentioned in the opening salutation.\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n\n\n\n                      _ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS._\n\n\np. 6, l. 12. On Polemo and his family see _Ephemeris Epigraphica_ I. p.\n        270 sq. (1873).\n\np. 38, note 125. The investigations of M. Waddington respecting the\n        chronology of this period (see below) require a modification of\n        the dates here given for the earthquakes in the second century.\n        He enumerates three: (1) One at Rhodes, from A.D. 138\u2013142; (2)\n        One which destroyed Mitylene and did considerable damage to\n        Smyrna, A.D. 151\u2013152; (3) One which destroyed Smyrna A.D. 180.\n        These two last have been confounded together by previous\n        writers. See M. Waddington's _M\u00e9moire_, pp. 242 sq., 267 sq.\n\np. 48, note 160. On the names Ammias, Tatias, which are feminine and not\n        masculine, see below p. 373.\n\np. 49, note. I have here given the commonly received date for the\n        martyrdom of Polycarp; for I had not then seen M. Waddington's\n        investigations. This writer seems to have proved conclusively\n        that it took place several years earlier, A.D. 155: see his\n        _M\u00e9moire sur la Chronologie du Rh\u00e9teur \u00c6lius Aristide_ p. 232\n        sq., in the _M\u00e9moires de l'Acad\u00e9mie des Inscriptions_, &c. XXVI.\n        (1867).\n\npp. 52, 53. As these remarks respecting the silence of Eusebius will\n        seem to be directed against the opinions expressed in a recent\n        work, it may be worth while stating that the early sheets of\n        this commentary were struck off nearly twelve months before\n        _Supernatural Religion_ was published. The expression in p. 53,\n        note 170, 'numerous and patent quotations,' is too strongly\n        worded, though the references to St James in Clement's Epistle\n        seem to me to be clear. I might however have chosen other more\n        palpable illustrations from that epistle.\n\np. 63, l. 12. The Proconsulate of Paullus, under whom this martyrdom\n        took place, is dated by Borghesi (_[OE]uvres_ VIII. p. 507)\n        somewhere between A.D. 163\u2013168, by Waddington (_Fastes des\n        Provinces Asiatiques_ p. 731, in Le Bas and Waddington _Voyage\n        Arch\u00e9ologique etc._) probably A.D. 164\u2013166. This rests on the\n        assumption that the _Servillius Paullus_ here named must be\n        identified with _L. Sergius Paullus_ of the inscriptions. The\n        name _Sergius_ is elsewhere confounded with _Servius_\n        (_Servillius_) owing to the use of contractions (see Borghesi\n        IV. p. 493, VIII. p. 504). The mistake must have been introduced\n        very early into the text of Eusebius. All the Greek MSS have\n        _Servillius_ (_Servilius_), and so it is written in the Syriac\n        Version. Ruffinus however writes it correctly _Sergius_.\n\np. 71, line 1. We may conjecture that it was the earthquake under\n        Gallienus (A.D. 262) which proved fatal to Coloss\u00e6 (see above p.\n        38, note 125). This is consistent with the fact that no\n        Colossian coins later than Gordian (A.D. 238\u2013244) are extant.\n        When St Chrysostom wrote, the city existed no longer, as may be\n        inferred from his comment (XI. p. 323) '\u1f29 \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03a6\u03c1\u03c5\u03b3\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f26\u03bd\u00b7\n        \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b4\u1fc6\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03ba \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03af\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03bf\u03bd \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9.'\n\n        On the other hand M. Renan (_L'Antechrist_ p. 99) says of the\n        earthquake under _Nero_, 'Colosses ne sut se relever; elle\n        disparut presque du nombre des \u00e9glises;' and he adds in a note\n        'Colosses n'a pas de monnaies imp\u00e9riales [Waddington].' This is\n        a mistake, and he must have misunderstood M. Waddington.\n\np. 77, note 229. To this list of works add Mansel's _Gnostic Heresies of\n        the First and Second Centuries_ (London 1875).\n\np. 112, note 336. See p. 330, note 553.\n\np. 160, l. 4. For 'argument for silence' read 'argument from silence.'\n\np. 205, col. 1, l. 30. Strike out \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 before \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9.\n\np. 210, col. 1, l. 2. The dissertation to which reference is here made\n        is deferred to a later volume.\n\np. 250, col. 2, l. 21. Strike out the words in brackets.\n\np. 270, col. 1. \u1f05\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03ac \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd \u03ba.\u03c4.\u03bb. Comp. Seneca _de Vit. beat._ 7 'in\n        ipso usu sui periturum.'\n\np. 280, col. 1, l. 23. For 'Ammianus' read 'Ammonius.'\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n\n\n\n                                 INDEX.\n\n\n        Abercius (Avircius), Bp. of Hierapolis, p. 54 sq.\n        Acts of the Apostles; passages explained, p. 23 (xiii. 4, xvi.\n           6);\n          p. 95 (xix. 13, 19);\n          p. 370 (xiv. 11).\n        \u00e6dificatori\u00e6, the sufferings of Christ as, p. 232\n        \u00c6lfric on the Epistle to Laodiceans, p. 362\n        Alasanda or Alasadda, p. 152\n        Alexander of Tralles on charms, p. 92\n        Alexandria, a supposed Buddhist establishment at, p. 151\n        Andrew, St, in Asia, p. 45\n        Angelolatry condemned, p. 101, 103, 184, i. 16, ii. 10, 15, 18;\n          forbidden by the Council of Laodicea, p. 68\n        angelology of Cerinthus, p. 110;\n          of Essenism, p. 96;\n          of the Jews, ii. 18\n        Angels, orders of, i. 16\n        Anselm of Laon, p. 361\n        Antiochus the Great, colony of, in Asia Minor, p. 19\n        Antiochus Theos refounds Laodicea, p. 5\n        aorist, epistolary, iv. 8, Ph. 11, 19, 21;\n          contrasted with perfect, i. 16\n        Apamea, p. 19, 20;\n          Jews at, p. 21\n        Apocalypse, correspondences with St Paul's Epistles to Asia, 41\n           sq.\n        apocrypha, use of word, p. 90, ii. 3\n        Apollinaris, see Claudius Apollinaris\n        Apollo Archegetes worshipped at Hierapolis, p. 12\n        Apostolic Fathers, Christology of, p. 190\n        Apostolic Writings, Christology of, p. 189\n        Apphia, wife of Philemon, p. 372;\n          the name Phrygian, 372 sq.\n        Archippus, iv. 17;\n          son of Philemon, 374;\n          office and abode, 375;\n          rebuke to, 43\n        Arian heresy in Hierapolis and Laodicea, p. 64\n        Arian use of the expression 'First-born of all creation,' i. 15\n        Aristarchus, iv. 10\n        Aristion, p. 45\n        Aristotle, on slavery, p. 379;\n          definition of 'knowledge,' ii. 3;\n          of 'wisdom,' i. 9\n        Armagh, Book of, p. 348, 352\n        article, omission of the definite, i. 4\n        asah, a supposed derivation of Essenes, p. 126\n        Ascents of James, p. 168\n        asceticism among the Jewish sects, p. 87;\n          Colossian heretics, p. 104;\n          Essenes, p. 173;\n          a result of Gnosticism, p. 79\n        Aseis, a Laodicean title of Zeus, p. 8\n        Asia, meaning of, p. 19\n        Asia Minor, geography of, p. 1 sq.;\n          list of writers on, p. 1;\n          how divided under the Romans, 7;\n          a modern hypothesis about Christianity in, p. 50\n        Asid\u00e6ans, p. 120\n        asya, a supposed derivation of Essene, p. 125\n        Athanasius, on 'Firstborn of all Creation,' i. 15\n        Athens, a Buddhist burnt alive at, p. 155\n        Augustine, on 'Firstborn of all Creation,' i. 15;\n          on 'wisdom and knowledge,' ii. 3\n        \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7, \u1f41 \u03c5\u1f31\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03b3\u03ac\u03c0\u03b7\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, i. 13\n        \u1f05\u03b3\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2, i. 2\n        \u1f00\u03b3\u03ce\u03bd, \u1f00\u03b3\u03c9\u03bd\u03af\u03b1, \u1f00\u03b3\u03c9\u03bd\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, i. 29, ii. 1, iv. 12\n        \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03cc\u03c2 (\u1f41), i, 1\n        \u1f00\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, iii. 21\n        \u03b1\u1f30\u03c3\u03c7\u03c1\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03af\u03b1, iii. 8\n        \u1f00\u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u03b1\u03c1\u03c3\u03af\u03b1, iii. 5\n        \u1f05\u03bb\u03b1\u03c2, iv. 6\n        \u1f00\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03b1, \u1f21 \u1f00\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b5\u1f50\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03af\u03bf\u03c5, i. 5;\n          \u1f10\u03bd \u1f00\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u03b5\u03af\u1fb3, i. 6\n        \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac, after \u03b5\u1f30 or \u03b5\u1f30 \u03ba\u03b1\u03af in St Paul, ii. 5\n        \u1f04\u03bc\u03c9\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2, i. 22\n        \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03ac\u03c5\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, Ph. 7\n        \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd, p. 230\n        \u1f00\u03bd\u03ad\u03b3\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, i. 22\n        \u1f00\u03bd\u03b5\u03c8\u03af\u03bf\u03c2, iv. 10\n        \u1f00\u03bd\u03ae\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, iii. 18;\n          \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f00\u03bd\u1fc6\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd, Ph. 8\n        \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03ac\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03b9, iii. 22\n        \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd, i. 24\n        \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c0\u03cc\u03b4\u03bf\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2, iii. 24\n        \u1f00\u03cc\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, i. 16\n        \u1f00\u03c0\u03b5\u03ba\u03b4\u03cd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, ii. 15\n        \u1f00\u03c0\u03ad\u03ba\u03b4\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2, ii. 11\n        \u1f00\u03c0\u03ad\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, Ph. 15\n        \u1f00\u03c0\u03b7\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03c4\u03c1\u03b9\u03c9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9, i. 21\n        \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b8\u03bd\u03ae\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, ii. 20\n        \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03c3\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, i. 20, 21\n        \u1f00\u03c0\u03cc\u03ba\u03c1\u03c5\u03c6\u03bf\u03c2, ii. 3\n        \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03cd\u03c4\u03c1\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2, i. 14\n        \u1f00\u03c0\u03cc\u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2, ii. 22\n        \u1f05\u03c0\u03c4\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, ii. 21\n        \u1f00\u03c1\u03ad\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1, i. 10\n        \u1f00\u03c1\u03c7\u03ae applied to Christ, p. 41; i. 16, 18\n        \u03b1\u1f50\u03be\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, i. 6\n        \u0391\u1f50\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u1f14\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bd, i. 17\n        \u1f00\u03c6\u03b5\u03af\u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1, ii. 23\n        \u1f01\u03c6\u03ae, ii. 19\n        \u1f00\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03af\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, ii. 11\n        \u1f04\u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, Ph. 11\n\n\n        B (Cod. Vaticanus), excellence of, p. 314.\n\n        Banaim, the, p. 132\n\n        Banus not an Essene, p. 161\n\n        Bardesanes, on Buddhists, 154;\n          his date, p. 155\n\n        Barnabas, life of, iv. 10;\n          epistle ascribed to, _ib._\n\n        basilica, iv. 15\n\n        Basilides, p. 331\n\n        Baur, p. 77, 81, 384\n\n        Bene-hakkeneseth, p. 130\n\n        Brahminism, p. 154, 155\n\n        Buddhism, assumed influence on Essenism, p. 151 sq.;\n          supposed establishment of, in Alexandria, p. 151;\n          unknown in the West, p. 153 sq.;\n          four steps of, p. 157\n\n        Buddhist at Athens, p. 155\n\n        \u03b2\u03ac\u03c0\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1, \u03b2\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2, p. 250\n\n        \u03b2\u03ac\u03c1\u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2, iii. 11\n\n        \u03b2\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c6\u03b7\u03bc\u03af\u03b1, iii. 8\n\n        \u03b2\u03bf\u03cd\u03bb\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, Ph. 13\n\n        \u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, iii. 15\n\n\n        Cabbala, see Kabbala\n\n        Cainites, p. 79\n\n        Calvin, iii. 8, p. 341, 384\n\n        Canonical writings and Papias, p. 52\n\n        Carpocratians, p. 79, 80\n\n        Cataphryges, p. 98\n\n        Cavensis, codex, p. 348\n\n        celibacy, p. 173\n\n        Cerinthus, p. 107 sq.;\n          Judaism of, p. 108;\n          Gnosticism of, _ib._;\n          cosmogony of, p. 109;\n          Christology of, p. 111 sq.;\n          pleroma of, p. 330\n\n        chaber, p. 128\n\n        Chagigah, on ceremonial purity, p. 128\n\n        Chalcedon, council of, p. 65\n\n        chasha, chashaim, a derivation of Essene, p. 119\n\n        chasi, chasyo, a derivation of Essene, p. 118;\n          connexion with chasid, p. 124\n\n        chasid, a false derivation of Essene, p. 115\n\n        Chasidim, p. 120;\n          not a proper name for the Essenes, p. 122\n\n        chasin, chosin, a false derivation for Essene, p. 116\n\n        chaza, chazya, a derivation of Essene, p. 117\n\n        Chonos or Chon\u00e6, p. 15, 71\n\n        Christ, the Person of, p. 34;\n          St Paul's doctrine about, p. 41, 181 sq., i. 15\u201320, ii. 9\u201315;\n          the Word Incarnate, p. 101, 102;\n          the pleroma in Him p. 102, i. 19, ii. 9, 10;\n          Life in Him, the remedy against sin, p. 34, 186 sq.;\n          His teaching and practice not Essene, p. 170 sq.\n\n        Christianity, not an outgrowth of Essenism, p. 159;\n          in relation to Epictetus, p. 13;\n          to Gnosticism, p. 80;\n          to slavery, p. 389, 391 sq.\n\n        Christianity in Asia Minor, p. 50\n\n        Christianized Essenes, p. 89, 90, 135\n\n        Christians of St John, p. 165\n\n        Christology of Ep. to Col., p. 101, 188;\n          of other Apostolic writings, p. 189;\n          of succeeding ages, p. 190\n\n        Chronicon Paschale, p. 48, 61\n\n        Chrysostom, i. 13, 15, iii. 16, p. 340, Ph. 15, p. 383\n\n        Cibotus, p. 21\n\n        Cibyratic convention, p. 7\n\n        Circular Letter\u2014the Ep. to the Ephesians\u2014p. 37\n\n        Claudius, embassy from Ceylon in the reign of, p. 156\n\n        Claudius Apollinaris, the name, p. 57 sq.;\n          his works, p. 58 sq.\n\n        Clement of Alexandria, p. 79, 98, 154, 168, i. 9, 15, ii. 8,\n           iii. 5, 16\n\n        Clement of Rome (\u00a7 7) Col. i. 3;\n          (\u00a7 58) i. 11;\n          (\u00a7 33, i. 15;\n          (Ep. ii. \u00a7 9), p. 104\n\n        Clementine Homilies, p. 136, 168\n\n        Clementine Recognitions, p. 164\n\n        Clermont, p. 3\n\n        collegia, iv. 15\n\n        Coloss\u00e6, orthography of, p. 16, i. 2;\n          situation, etc., p. 1 sq.;\n          distance from Laodicea, p. 376;\n          site, p. 13;\n          ancient greatness and decline, p. 15;\n          a Phrygian city, p. 18 sq.;\n          Jewish colony at, p. 19;\n          not visited by St Paul when the epistle was written, p. 23;\n          Epaphras the evangelist of, p. 29;\n          intended visit of Mark to, p. 40;\n          visit of St Paul to, p. 41;\n          obscurity of, p. 70;\n          a suffragan see of Laodicea, p. 69;\n          the Turkish conquest of, p. 71\n\n        Colossian heresy, nature of, p. 73 sq., 89, ii. 8;\n          writers upon, p. 74;\n          had regard to the Person of Christ, p. 112;\n          relation to Gnosticism, p. 98;\n          St Paul's answer to, p. 181 sq.\n\n        Colossians, Epistle to, p. 33;\n          bearers of, p. 35;\n          salutations in, _ib._;\n          charge respecting Laodicea, p. 36;\n          written by an amanuensis, iv. 18;\n          Christology of, p. 188;\n          style of, p. 191;\n          analysis of, p. 192;\n          various readings, see _readings_\n\n        colossinus, p. 4\n\n        community of goods, p. 176\n\n        Concord of the Laodiceans and Ephesians, etc., p. 31\n\n        Congregation, the holy, at Jerusalem, p. 131\n\n        Constantine, legislation of, p. 393\n\n        Constantinople, Council of, p. 65\n\n        conventus (Roman), p. 7\n\n        Corinth, visit of St Paul to, during his residence at Ephesus,\n           p. 30\n\n        Corinthians, First Epistle to; passages explained: (i. 19, i. 9;\n          (ii. 6, 7, i. 28;\n          (v. 9, iv. 16;\n          (vii. 21) p. 390;\n          (viii. 6) p. 188;\n          (ix. 24, ii. 18;\n          (x. 26) p. 326;\n          (xi. 7, i. 15;\n          (xiii. 3) p. 156;\n          (xiii. 12, i. 9;\n          (xv. 24, i. 16\n\n        Corinthians, Second Epistle to; passages explained: (i. 7, i.\n           24;\n          (iii. 6, i. 12;\n          (iv. 4, i. 15;\n          (v. 14, 15, ii. 20;\n          (vi. 1, i. 6;\n          (vi. 4, 6, i. 11;\n          (viii. 9, i. 6;\n          (ix. 12) _ib._;\n          (xiii. 5, i. 27\n\n        Cornelius a Lapide, p. 342\n\n        Creation, Gnostic speculations about, p. 78 sq.;\n          Essene do., p. 90\n\n        Cyril of Alexandria, p. 154\n\n        \u03ba\u03b1\u03b8\u1f7c\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u03af, i. 6, iii. 1\n\n        \u03ba\u03b1\u03af in both members of a comparison, i. 6\n\n        \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f45\u03c3\u03bf\u03b9, ii. 1\n\n        \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2 and \u03bd\u03ad\u03bf\u03c2, ii. 10\n\n        \u03ba\u03b1\u03ba\u03af\u03b1, iii. 8\n\n        \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03c0\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, i. 6\n\n        \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03b2\u03c1\u03b1\u03b2\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, ii. 18\n\n        \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03bd\u03ce\u03c0\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, i. 22\n\n        \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, i. 19\n\n        \u03ba\u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u03bc\u03b2\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, ii. 18\n\n        \u03ba\u03b5\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u03ae, i. 18\n\n        \u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03b1, iii. 24\n\n        \u03ba\u03bb\u1fc6\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2, i. 12\n\n        \u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2, iii. 12\n\n        \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd\u03af\u03b1, Ph. 6\n\n        \u03ba\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, iii. 25\n\n        \u03ba\u03bf\u03c0\u03b9\u1fb6\u03bd, i. 29\n\n        \u03ba\u03bf\u03c1\u03b1\u03be\u03cc\u03c2, p. 4\n\n        \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2, ii. 8\n\n        \u03ba\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, ii. 19\n\n        \u03ba\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, i. 11\n\n        \u03ba\u03c1\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, ii. 16\n\n        \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2, i. 15\n\n        \u03ba\u03cd\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2, \u1f41, (Christ, i. 10;\n          (Master), iii. 24\n\n        \u03ba\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2, i. 16\n\n        \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1, i. 15\n\n        \u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, ii. 13, iii. 13, Ph. 22\n\n        \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2, i. 2, (\u1f21, iii. 16;\n          \u1f21 \u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6, i. 6\n\n        \u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03cc\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u03bf\u03bd, ii. 14\n\n        \u03a7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2, iii. 12\n\n\n        Damascene: see _John Damascene_\n\n        Darmstadiensis Codex, p. 348\n\n        dative (of instrument), ii. 7, iii. 16;\n          (of part affected), i. 4\n\n        Demas, p. 36, iv. 14, Ph. 24\n\n        Denizli, p. 7;\n          earthquake at, p. 3\n\n        diocese, p. 7\n\n        Diognetus, Epistle to, i. 18\n\n        Dion Chrysostom, p. 81, 153\n\n        Diospolis, an old name of Laodicea, p. 68\n\n        Divinity of Christ, p. 101 sq., 182 sq., i. 15\n\n        Docet\u00e6, use of pleroma by, p. 337\n\n        dualism, p. 78, 87, 149\n\n        dyes of Coloss\u00e6 and the neighbourhood, p. 4\n\n        \u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, ii. 15\n\n        \u03b4\u03ad\u03c3\u03bc\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2, Ph. 1, 10\n\n        \u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2, Ph. 13\n\n        \u03b4\u03b9\u03ac with gen., used of the Logos, p. 188, i. 16, 20\n\n        \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03af\u03b1, \u03b4\u03b9\u03ac\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2, iv. 7, 17\n\n        \u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03ac\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, i. 28\n\n        \u03b4\u03b9\u03bf\u03af\u03ba\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2, p. 7\n\n        \u03b4\u03cc\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1, ii. 14\n\n        \u03b4\u03bf\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, ii. 20\n\n        \u03b4\u03cc\u03be\u03b1, i. 11, 27\n\n        \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2, Ph. 16;\n          \u03b4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f38\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, iv. 12\n\n        \u03b4\u03cd\u03bd\u03b1\u03bc\u03b9\u03c2, i. 16\n\n        \u03b4\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03bc\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd, i. 11\n\n\n        Earthquakes in the valley of the Lycus, p. 38\n\n        Ebionite Christology of Cerinthus, p. 110\n\n        economy of revelation perfected, p. 185\n\n        Elchesai, founder of the Mandeans, p. 167\n\n        Elchesai, Book of, p. 137\n\n        elders, primitive, p. 132\n\n        Eleazar expels evil spirits, p. 91\n\n        English Church on the Epistle to Laodicea, p. 362\n\n        English versions of the Epistle to Laodicea, p. 364\n\n        Epaphras, p. 34;\n          evangelist of Coloss\u00e6, p. 29, 31;\n          mission to St Paul, p. 32, iv. 12, Ph. 23\n\n        Epaphroditus, p. 34\n\n        Ephesians, Epistle to; a circular letter, p. 37;\n          readings in, harmonistic with Epist. to Col., p. 312 sq.;\n          passages explained, i. 18 , i. 23);\n            i. 21 , i. 16);\n            i. 23 , i. 18);\n            ii. 3 , iii. 6);\n            ii. 4 , iii. 1);\n            ii. 4, 5 , ii. 13);\n            ii. 12 , i. 21);\n            ii. 14 , i. 17);\n            ii. 15 , ii. 14);\n            ii. 16 , i. 20);\n            ii. 20 , ii. 7);\n            iii. 17 , ii. 17);\n            iii. 21 , i. 26);\n            iv. 10, 11 , i. 17);\n            iv. 18 , i. 21);\n            iv. 19, v. 3 (iii. 5);\n            v. 32 (i. 26)\n\n        Ephesus, Council of, p. 65\n\n        Ephesus, St Paul at, p. 30, 95;\n          exorcists at, p. 95\n\n        Epictetus, p. 13\n\n        Epiphanius, account of Cerinthus, p. 107;\n          on the Nasareans, p. 136\n\n        epistolary aorist, Ph. 11, 19, 21\n\n        epulones of Ephesian Artemis called Essenes, p. 96\n\n        Erasmus on the Epistle to Laodicea, p. 365\n\n        Essene, meaning of term, p. 94;\n          the name, p. 114 sq.;\n          Frankel's theory, p. 121 sq.\n\n        Essenes, p. 82, ii. 8;\n          list of writers upon, p. 83;\n          localities of, p. 93;\n          asceticism of, p. 85;\n          speculations of, p. 87;\n          exclusiveness of, p. 92;\n          Josephus and Philo chief authorities upon, p. 134;\n          oath taken by, p. 127;\n          their grades, p. 129;\n          origin and affinities, p. 119 sq.;\n          relation to Christianity, p. 158;\n          to Pharisaism, p. 101, 120;\n          to Neopythagoreanism, p. 143;\n          to Hemerobaptists, p. 166;\n          to Gnosticism, p. 92;\n          to Parsism, p. 149;\n          to Buddhism, p. 157;\n          excused by Herod the Great from taking the oath of allegiance,\n             p. 176;\n          fortune tellers, p. 178;\n          silence of New Test. about, p. 159;\n          in relation to John the Baptist, p. 160;\n          to James the Lord's brother, p. 168;\n          Christianized Essenes, p. 135\n\n        Essenism, p. 82;\n          main features of, p. 83 sq.;\n          compared with Christianity, p. 170 sq.;\n          the sabbath, p. 170;\n          lustrations, p. 171;\n          avoidance of strangers, p. 172;\n          asceticism, celibacy, p. 173;\n          avoidance of the Temple, p. 174;\n          denial of the resurrection of the body, p. 175;\n          certain supposed coincidences with Christianity, p. 175\n\n        Eusebius, on the earthquakes in the valley of the Lycus, p. 39;\n          his mistake respecting some martyrdoms, p. 48;\n          silence on quotations from Canonical writings, p. 52;\n          on tracts against Montanism, p. 56;\n          the Thundering Legion, p. 61;\n          on Marcellus, i. 15\n\n        evil, Gnostic theories about, p. 78\n\n        exorcists at Ephesus, p. 95\n\n        \u1f11\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 and \u03b1\u1f51\u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6, i. 12;\n          and \u1f00\u03bb\u03bb\u03ae\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd, iii. 13\n\n        \u1f10\u03b3\u03ce, Ph. 19\n\n        \u1f10\u03b8\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u03b8\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03af\u03b1, ii. 23\n\n        \u03b5\u1f34 \u03b3\u03b5, i. 23\n\n        \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03ce\u03bd, i. 15, iii. 11\n\n        \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03c0\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd, i. 6\n\n        \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2, i. 6, ii. 22, Ph. 6\n\n        \u1f10\u03ba \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 (\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd), iv. 16\n\n        \u1f10\u03ba\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03b1, iv. 15\n\n        \u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2, iii. 12\n\n        \u1f10\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u1fb6\u03bd, Ph. 18\n\n        \u1f10\u03bb\u03c0\u03af\u03c2, i. 5\n\n        \u1f10\u03bd, iv. 12;\n          denoting the sphere, i. 4;\n          \u1f10\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u1ff7, i. 16;\n          \u1f10\u03bd \u03bc\u03ad\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9, ii. 16;\n          \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u1f76 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bb\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9, iv. 12;\n          \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, i. 18;\n          \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f14\u03c1\u03b3\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2, i. 21;\n          \u1f10\u03bd \u1f51\u03bc\u1fd6\u03bd, i. 27, iii. 16;\n          \u1f10\u03bd \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1ff7, i. 2\n\n        \u1f10\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, \u1f10\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03b3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, i. 29\n\n        \u1f14\u03bd\u03b9, iii. 11\n\n        \u1f10\u03be\u03b1\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03ac\u03b6\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, iv. 5\n\n        \u1f10\u03be\u03b1\u03bb\u03ad\u03b9\u03c6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, ii. 14\n\n        \u1f10\u03be\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03af\u03b1, i. 13, 16\n\n        \u1f14\u03be\u03c9 (\u1f41\u1f30, iv. 5\n\n        \u1f11\u03bf\u03c1\u03c4\u03ae, ii. 16\n\n        \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b3\u03b9\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2, p. 100, i. 6, 9, Ph. 6\n\n        \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1, iii. 5\n\n        \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, i. 23\n\n        \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u03ae (\u1f21), iv. 16\n\n        \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c7\u03bf\u03c1\u03b7\u03b3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, ii. 19\n\n        \u1f10\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03b4\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, ii. 7\n\n        \u1f10\u03c1\u03b3\u03ac\u03b6\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, iii. 23\n\n        \u1f10\u03c1\u03b5\u03b8\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, iii. 21\n\n        \u1f10\u03c1\u1fe5\u03b9\u03b6\u03c9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9, ii. 7\n\n        \u1f14\u03c1\u03c7\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, iii. 6\n\n        \u03b5\u1f50\u03ac\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, iii. 20\n\n        \u03b5\u1f50\u03b4\u03bf\u03ba\u03af\u03b1, \u03b5\u1f50\u03b4\u03bf\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, i. 19\n\n        \u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, \u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03af\u03b1, ii. 7, i. 3;\n          \u03b5\u1f50\u03c7\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, iii. 15\n\n        \u1f18\u03c6\u03ad\u03c3\u03b9\u03b1 \u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03bc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1, p. 95\n\n        \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, Ph. 17\n\n        \u1f10\u03c7\u03b8\u03c1\u03bf\u03af, i. 21\n\n\n        F (Codex Augiensis) relation to G, p. 345\n\n        Firstborn of all Creation, i. 15\n\n        Flaccus, p. 20\n\n        Frankel on the Essenes, p. 121 sq.\n\n\n        G (Codex Boernerianus) relation to F, p. 345\n        Galatia, meaning of, in St Paul and St Luke, p. 24\n        Galatian and Colossian Judaism compared, p. 105, i. 28\n        Galatians, Epistle to; passages explained, i. 24 (Gal. ii. 20);\n          i. 28 (iv. 19);\n          ii. 8 (iv. 3)\n        Galen, ii. 19, 20\n        Ginsburg, (Dr) p. 88, 127 sq.\n        Gnostic, p. 80 sq.\n        Gnostic element in Colossian heresy, p. 73 sq.\n        Gnostic sects, use of pleroma by, p. 330\n        Gnosticism, list of writers on, p. 77;\n          definition of, p. 76 sq.;\n          intellectual exclusiveness of, p. 77;\n          speculations of, p. 77 sq.;\n          practical errors of, p.79 sq.;\n          independent of Christianity, p. 80;\n          relation to Judaism, p. 81;\n          to Essenism, p. 93;\n          to Colossian heresy, p. 98\n        grades of Essenes, p. 129\n        Gr\u00e4tz, p. 123, 160, 161, 170\n        Greece, slavery in, p. 386\n        Gregory the Great on the Epistle to the Laodiceans, p. 361\n        guild of dyers, p. 4\n        \u0393\u03b1\u03c1\u03bc\u03ac\u03bd\u03b1\u03c2, p. 153\n        \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2, i. 9, ii. 3\n        \u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2, p. 81\n\n\n        Hamartiology of the Old Testament, p. 185\n        Haymo of Halberstadt, on the Epistle to the Laodiceans, p. 361\n        Hebrew slavery, p. 385 sq.\n        Hebrews, Epistle to the; passages explained, i. 11 (Heb. xi.\n           34);\n          i. 15 (i. 2, 3, 6)\n        Hefele on the date of Claudius Apollinaris, p. 185\n        Hemerobaptists, p. 162\n        Herod the Great excuses the oath of allegiance to the Essenes,\n           p. 176\n        Hervey of Dole, on the Epistle to the Laodiceans, p. 361\n        Hierapolis, p. 9;\n          modern name, p. 9;\n          physical features of, p. 10;\n          a famous watering place, p. 11;\n          the Plutonium at, p. 12;\n          birthplace of Epictetus, p. 13;\n          political relations of, p. 18;\n          attractions for Jews, p. 22;\n          a Christian settlement, p. 45;\n          Philip of Bethsaida at, p. 45 sq.;\n          Council at, p. 59;\n          Papias, bishop of, p. 48 sq.;\n          Abercius, bishop of, p. 54 sq.;\n          Claudius Apollinaris, bishop of, p. 57 sq.;\n          dyes of, p. 4\n        Hilgenfeld, p. 75;\n          on the Essenes, p. 150 sq.\n\n\n        James the Lord's brother, p. 167\n        Jerome, p. 29;\n          on St Paul's parents, p. 35;\n          on the Epistle to the Laodiceans, p. 359 sq.\n        Jesus Justus, iv. 11\n        Jews, sects of the, p. 82\n\n\n        imperfect, iii. 18\n\n        indicative after \u03b2\u03bb\u03ad\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03bc\u03ae, ii. 8\n\n        infinitive of consequence, i. 10, iv. 3, 6\n\n        John (St) in Asia Minor, p. 41;\n          Apocalypse, passages explained, p. 41 (iii. 14\u201321);\n          Gospel, p. 163 (i. 8, v. 35);\n          Second Epistle, p. 371;\n          Third Epistle, _ib._\n\n        John the Baptist, not an Essene, p. 160;\n          disciples of, at Ephesus, p. 163\n\n        John (St), Christians of, p. 165\n\n        John Damascene, p. 15\n\n        John of Salisbury on the Epistle to the Laodiceans, p. 362\n\n        Josephus on Essenism, p. 133 sq.\n\n        Judaism and Gnosticism, p. 81\n\n        \u1f35\u03bd\u03b1, iv. 16\n\n        \u1f38\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, iv. 11\n\n        \u1f30\u03c3\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2, iv. 1\n\n\n        Kabbala, p. 93, i. 16, ii. 8\n\n\n        Lanfranc on the Epistle to the Laodiceans, p. 363\n        Laodicea, name and history, p. 5;\n          condition, p. 6;\n          political rank and relations, p. 7, 18;\n          religious worship at, p. 8;\n          Council of, p. 66;\n          ecclesiastical status, p. 69;\n          dyes of, p. 4;\n          surnamed Trimetaria, p. 18;\n          the vaunt of, p. 44\n        Laodicea, the letter from, iv. 16;\n          p. 340 sq.\n        Laodiceans, apocryphal Epistle to the, p. 347 sq.;\n          list of MSS of, p. 349 sq.;\n          Latin text of, p. 353;\n          notes on, p. 355 sq.;\n          theory of a Greek original, p. 357;\n          restoration of the Greek, p. 359;\n          circulation of, p. 360 sq.;\n          English prologue and versions, p. 364;\n          strictures of Erasmus on, p. 365;\n          genuineness maintained by some, p. 366\n        Latrocinium, see _Robbers' Synod_\n        Legio Fulminata, p. 61\n        legislation of Constantine on slavery, p. 393\n        Logos, the, i. 15\n        Luke, St, iv. 14;\n          his narrative of St Paul's third missionary journey, p. 24\n             sq.;\n          makes a distinction between Philip the Apostle and Philip the\n             Evangelist, p. 45, 59\n        lukewarmness at Laodicea, p. 42\n        lustrations of the Essenes, p. 171\n        Luther's estimate of the Epistle to Philemon, p. 383\n        Lycus, district of the;\n          list of writers on, p. 1 sq.;\n          physical features of, p. 2 sq.;\n          produce of, p. 4;\n          subterranean channel of the, p. 14;\n          earthquakes in, p. 38 sq.\n        Lycus, Churches of the, p. 1 sq.;\n          evangelised by Epaphras, p. 29 sq.;\n          ecclesiastical status of, p. 69\n        \u039b\u03b1\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03af\u03b1, iv. 13\n        \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd \u1f14\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2, ii. 23\n\n\n        Magic, forbidden by Council of Laodicea, p. 69;\n          among the Essenes, p. 140\n        magical books at Ephesus, p. 95;\n          magical charms among the Essenes, p. 90 sq.\n        Mandeans, p. 165\n        Marcosians, p. 335\n        Mark (St), iv. 10;\n          visits Coloss\u00e6, p. 40\n        marriage depreciated by the Essenes, p. 139\n        Matthew (St) Gospel of, accepted by Cerinthus and the Ebionites,\n           p. 108\n        Megasthenes, p. 153\n        monasticism of the Essenes, p. 157\n        Monoimus, the Arabian, p. 339\n        Montanism, Claudius Apollinaris on, p. 59;\n          Phrygian origin of, p. 98\n        morning bathers, p. 132\n        Muratorian Fragment on the Epistle to the Laodiceans, p. 358\n        \u03bc\u03b1\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1, i. 11, iii. 12\n        \u03bc\u03b5\u03c1\u03af\u03c2, i. 12\n        \u03bc\u03bd\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03bd \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, Ph. 4\n        \u03bc\u03bf\u03bc\u03c6\u03ae, iii. 13\n        \u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03ae\u03c2, i. 15\n        \u03bc\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd, i. 26\n\n\n        Naassenes, p. 337\n        Nasoreans, p. 138, 165\n        Neander on Cerinthus, p. 108\n        Neopythagoreanism and Essenism, p. 146 sq.\n        New Testament, relation of, to the Old Testament, p. 184\n        Nic\u00e6a, Bishops of Hierapolis and Laodicea at the Council of, p.\n           65\n        Nicetas Choniates, p. 71\n        nominative with definite article for vocative, iii. 18\n        Novatianism in Phrygia, p. 98\n        Nymphas, iv. 15, p. 31\n        \u03bd\u03b5\u03bf\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd\u03af\u03b1, ii. 16\n        \u03bd\u03ad\u03bf\u03c2, iii. 10\n        \u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03b8\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, i. 28\n        \u03bd\u1fe6\u03bd with aorist, i. 21\n\n\n        Observance of the Sabbath by the Essenes and our Lord, p. 170\n\n        Onesimus, p. 377, Ph. 10;\n          at Rome, p. 33;\n          encounters St Paul, p. 378;\n          returns to Philemon, p. 35, 379 sq.;\n          legendary history of, p. 382\n\n        Ophites, the, p. 81, 98, 337\n\n        Oracle, see _Sibylline Oracle_\n\n        \u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03b1, i. 25\n\n        \u03bf\u1f36\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2, \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4' \u03bf\u1f36\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd, iv. 15\n\n        \u1f41\u03bc\u03bf\u03af\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1, i. 25\n\n        \u1f44\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, \u1f40\u03bd\u03b1\u03af\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd, Ph. 20\n\n        \u1f40\u03c1\u03b3\u03ae, iii. 8\n\n        \u1f45\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03c2, iii. 5, iv. 11\n\n        \u1f40\u03c6\u03b8\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03bf\u03b4\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03b1, iii. 22\n\n        \u1fa0\u03b4\u03ae, iii. 16\n\n        \u1f61\u03c2, Ph. 14, 16\n\n        .ix\n        Papias, p. 47;\n          writings of, _ib._;\n          life and teaching of, p. 48;\n          account of, given by Eusebius, p. 49;\n          traditions collected by, p. 51 sq.;\n          references to the Canonical writings, p. 51 sq.;\n          silence of Eusebius, p. 52;\n          views inferred from his associates, p. 53\n\n        Parsism, resemblances to, in Essenism, p. 149 sq.;\n          spread by the destruction of the Persian empire, p. 150;\n          influence of, p. 151\n\n        participle used for imperative, iii. 16\n\n        Paschal controversy, p. 59, 63\n\n        Paul (St) visits Phrygia on his second missionary journey, p.\n           23;\n          had not visited Coloss\u00e6 when he wrote, p. 23 sq.;\n          visits Phrygia on his third journey, p. 24;\n          silence about personal relations with Coloss\u00e6, p. 28;\n          at Ephesus, p. 30, 95 sq.;\n          at Rome, p. 32;\n          mission of Epaphras to, _ib._;\n          meets with Onesimus, p. 33, 378;\n          despatches three letters, p. 33;\n          visits Coloss\u00e6, p. 41;\n          his plans after his release, Ph. 22;\n          uses an amanuensis, iv. 18;\n          his signature, iv. 18, Ph. 19;\n          coincidences with words of our Lord, ii. 22;\n          his teaching on the universality of the Gospel, p. 99;\n          on the kingdom of Christ, i. 13 sq.;\n          on the orders of angels, i. 16 sq.;\n          on philosophy, ii. 8;\n          on the Incarnation, ii. 9;\n          on the abolition of distinctions, iii. 11;\n          on slavery, iii. 22 sq., p. 389 sq.;\n          his cosmogony and theology, p. 101 sq.;\n          his answer to the Colossian heresy, p. 181 sq.;\n          his Christology, p. 188, i. 15 sq.;\n          his relations with Philemon, p. 370 sq.;\n          connects baptism and death, ii. 11, 20, iii. 3;\n          makes use of metaphors from the mysteries, i. 26, 28;\n          from the stadium, ii. 18, iii. 14;\n          his rapid change of metaphor, ii. 7\n\n        Paul (St) Epistles of, correspondences with the Apocalypse\u2014on\n           the Person of Christ, p. 41;\n          warning against lukewarmness, p. 42;\n          against pride of wealth, p. 43\n\n        Paul (St) apocryphal Epistle of, to the Laodiceans, p. 353\n\n        Pedanius Secundus, execution of his slaves, p. 388\n\n        Person of Christ, St Paul and St John on, p. 41 sq.;\n          St Paul's answer to the Colossian heresy, p. 181 sq., i. 15\n             sq.\n\n        personal pronoun used for reflexive, i. 20, 22\n\n        Peter (St) and the Church in Asia Minor, p. 41\n\n        petrifying stream at Coloss\u00e6, p. 15\n\n        Pharisees, p. 82;\n          relation to Essenes, p. 82, 120, 141\n\n        Philemon, p. 31, 370 sq.;\n          legendary history of, p. 371;\n          his wife, p. 372;\n          his son, p. 374\n\n        Philemon, Epistle to;\n          Introduction to, p. 369;\n          character of, p. 370;\n          analysis of, p. 380 sq.;\n          different estimates of, p. 382 sq.;\n          compared with a letter of Pliny, p. 384\n\n        Philip the Apostle, in Asia, p. 45 sq.;\n          confused with Philip the Evangelist, p. 45\n\n        Philippopolis, synod of, p. 64\n\n        Philo, on the Essenes, p. 133;\n          his use of Logos, i. 15\n\n        Phrygia, p. 17 sq.;\n          meaning of the phrase in St Luke, p. 23;\n          religious tendencies of, p. 97 sq.;\n          see _Paul (St)_\n\n        Pistis Sophia, p. 339\n\n        Pliny the younger, a letter of, p. 384 sq.\n\n        pleroma, detached note upon, p. 323\n\n        Plutonium, at Hierapolis, p. 12\n\n        Polycarp, martyrdom of, p. 49\n\n        poverty, respect paid to, by Essenes and Christ, p. 177\n\n        Pr\u00e6torius accepts the Epistle to the Laodiceans as genuine, p.\n           366\n\n        Pythagoreanism and Essenism, p. 144;\n          disappearance of, p. 146\n\n        \u03c0\u03ac\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2, iii. 5\n\n        \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, ii. 2\n\n        \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03bc\u03b2\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, ii. 6\n\n        \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ac\u03c0\u03c4\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1, ii. 13\n\n        \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2, i. 6\n\n        \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ad\u03c7\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, iv. 1\n\n        \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b7\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u03b1, iv. 11\n\n        \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u03b1, \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03af\u1fb3, ii. 15, Ph. 8\n\n        \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c2, \u03c0\u1fb6\u03c2 \u1f41 \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2, i. 16;\n          \u03c0\u03ac\u03c3\u03b7 \u03ba\u03c4\u03af\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2, i. 15;\n          \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1, i. 16\n\n        \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1, \u1f41 \u03b8\u03b5\u1f78\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1, i. 3;\n          \u03c0\u03b1\u03c4\u1f74\u03c1 \u1f21\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd, i. 2\n\n        \u03c0\u03b1\u03cd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, Ph. 7\n\n        \u03c0\u03b9\u03b8\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03af\u03b1, ii. 4\n\n        \u03c0\u03b9\u03ba\u03c1\u03b1\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, iii. 19\n\n        \u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2, \u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u1f76 \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03bf\u03af, i. 2\n\n        \u03c0\u03bb\u03b5\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03be\u03af\u03b1, iii. 5\n\n        \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, iv. 12\n\n        \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u03b1, ii. 2\n\n        \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd, i. 25, iv. 17\n\n        \u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1, i. 19, ii. 9, p. 323 sq.\n\n        \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03ae, ii. 23\n\n        \u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, i. 27\n\n        \u03c0\u03bf\u03c1\u03bd\u03b5\u03af\u03b1, iii. 5\n\n        \u03c0\u03c1\u03b1\u03b0\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2, iii. 12\n\n        \u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03b5\u03c5\u03c4\u03ae\u03c2, \u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03cd\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2, Ph. 8\n\n        \u03c0\u03c1\u1f78 \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd, i. 17\n\n        \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, i. 5\n\n        \u03c0\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2, ii. 23, Ph. 5\n\n        \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, iv. 2\n\n        \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b7\u03bc\u03c8\u03af\u03b1, iii. 25\n\n        \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03bf\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2, i. 15, 18\n\n        \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1, ii. 8\n\n        \u03c6\u03b8\u03bf\u03c1\u03ac, ii. 22\n\n        \u03c6\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2, i. 9\n\n        \u03c6\u03c5\u03bb\u03b1\u03ba\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd, p. 69\n\n        \u03c8\u03b1\u03bb\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2, iii. 16\n\n\n        Quartodeciman controversy, p. 59, 63\n        Quinisextine Council, p. 68\n\n\n        Readings, harmonized with corresponding passages in the Epistle\n           to the Ephesians,\n          p. 312 (iii. 6);\n          p. 313 (ii. 21, v. 19)\n        readings, various,\n          p. 315 (i. 3);\n          p. 316 (i. 4, i. 7);\n          p. 317 (i. 12, i. 14, i. 22);\n          p. 318 (ii. 2);\n          p. 319 (ii. 16);\n          p. 320 (ii. 18, ii. 23);\n          p. 321 (iv. 8);\n          p. 322 (iv. 15)\n        Renan, on the meaning of Galatia in St Paul and St Luke, p. 25;\n          his estimate of the Epistle to Philemon, p. 384\n        Restoration, under Ezra, p. 119\n        resurrection of the body denied, p. 88, 175\n        Revelation; see _Apocalypse_\n        Robbers' Synod, p. 65\n        Roman slavery, p. 387\n        Rome, Onesimus at, p. 378;\n          St Paul at, p. 32\n        \u1fe5\u03b9\u03b6\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd, ii. 7\n\n\n        Sabbath, observance of, by Christ and the Essenes compared, p.\n           170\n        Sab\u00e6ans, p. 165\n        sacrifices prohibited by Essenes, p. 89, 134\n        Sadduceeism, p. 82\n        Sagaris, Bishop of Laodicea, p. 63\n        Saman\u00e6i, p. 154\n        Samps\u00e6ans, p. 137\n        Sarman\u00e6, p. 153\n        satisfactori\u00e6, sufferings of Christ regarded as, i. 25\n        Secundus, see _Pedanius Secundus_\n        Sibylline Oracle, p. 96\n        silence of Eusebius, p. 52 sq.;\n          of the New Testament about the Essenes, p. 159\n        slave martyrs, p. 392\n        slavery, Hebrew, p. 385;\n          Greek, p. 386;\n          Roman, p. 387;\n          St Paul's treatment of, p. 389 sq.;\n          attitude of Christianity towards, p. 391 sq.;\n          prohibited by Essenes, p. 177;\n          legislation of Constantine, p. 393;\n          of Justinian, p. 394;\n          abolition of, p. 394\n        Socrates on Novatianism in Phrygia, p. 98\n        solidarity of the Church in the second century, p. 62\n        Sophia of Valentinus, p. 333;\n          Sophia Achamoth, p. 334\n        soteriology of the New Testament, p. 185\n        stadium, metaphor from the, ii. 18\n        Stapleton receives the Epistle to the Laodiceans as genuine, p.\n           366\n        Strabo on Buddhism, p. 153\n        Sunworship, p. 87, 137 sq., 149\n        \u03c3\u03ac\u03b2\u03b2\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1, ii. 16\n        \u03c3\u03ac\u03c1\u03be, \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2, i. 22\n        \u03a3\u03ba\u03cd\u03b8\u03b7\u03c2, iii. 11\n        \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1, i. 9, 28, ii. 3, iii. 16\n        \u03c3\u03c0\u03bb\u03ac\u03b3\u03c7\u03bd\u03b1 (\u03c4\u1f70), iii. 12, Ph. 7, 12\n        \u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03ad\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1, ii. 5\n        \u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c7\u03b5\u1fd6\u03b1 (\u03c4\u1f70), ii. 8\n        \u03c3\u03c5\u03bb\u03b1\u03b3\u03c9\u03b3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, ii. 8\n        \u03c3\u03c5\u03bc\u03b2\u03b9\u03b2\u03ac\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, ii. 2, 19\n        \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9\u03c7\u03bc\u03ac\u03bb\u03c9\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, iv. 10\n        \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b4\u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2, ii. 19, iii. 14\n        \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b4\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2, i. 7, iv. 7\n        \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2, i. 9, ii. 2\n        \u03c3\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ce\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2, Ph. 2\n        \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1, \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2, ii. 11\n        \u03c3\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1ff6\u03c2, ii. 9\n\n\n        Tacitus on the earthquake at Laodicea, p. 39\n        Talmud, supposed etymologies of Essene in, p. 116 sq., 125 sq.;\n          supposed allusions to the Essenes, p. 128\n        Temple, avoidance of the, p. 174\n        Testaments, Old and New, p. 185\n        Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, on the orders of angels, i.\n           16\n        theanthropism of the New Testament, p. 185\n        thundering legion, p. 61\n        Thyatira, dyes of, p. 4\n        Timotheus, his position in these epistles, i. 1, Ph. 1;\n          'the brother,' i. 1\n        Tivoli compared with the valley of the Lycus, p. 3\n        travertine deposits in the valley of the Lycus, p. 3\n        Trimetaria, a surname of Laodicea, p. 18\n        Tychicus, iv. 7, p. 35, 380.\n        \u03c4\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c6\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b7, iii. 12\n        \u03c4\u03ac\u03be\u03b9\u03c2, ii. 5\n        \u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2, i. 28\n        \u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 (indef.), St Paul's use of, ii. 8\n        \u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f64\u03bd, Ph. 9, 12\n        \u03b8\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, Ph. 13;\n          \u03b8\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd, ii. 18\n        \u03b8\u03ad\u03bb\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1 \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6, i. 1\n        \u03b8\u03b5\u03bc\u03b5\u03bb\u03b9\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd, i. 23\n        \u03b8\u03b5\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2, \u03c4\u1f78 \u03b8\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bf\u03bd, ii. 9\n        \u03b8\u03b9\u03b3\u03b3\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, ii. 21\n        \u03b8\u03bd\u03ae\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b8\u03bd\u03ae\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, ii. 20\n        \u03b8\u03c1\u03b9\u03b1\u03bc\u03b2\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, ii. 15\n        \u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2, iii. 8\n        \u03b8\u03cd\u03c1\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c5, iv. 3\n\n\n        \u1f55\u03bc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2, iii. 16\n        \u1f51\u03c0\u03b5\u03bd\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03af\u03bf\u03c2, ii. 14\n        \u1f51\u03c0\u03bf\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03ae, i. 11\n        \u1f51\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1, i. 24, p. 335 sq.\n\n\n        Valentinianism, different forms of, p. 332 sq.\n        Valentinians accept St Paul and St John, p. 336\n        Valentinus, use of pleroma by, p. 331\n        versions of the Epistle to the Laodiceans, Latin, p. 357;\n          Bohemian, German, and English, p. 363 sq.\n        Vethikin, p. 131\n\n\n        Word, the, p. 101, see _Logos_, _Christ_\n        Wycliffe excluded the Apocryphal Epistle to the Laodiceans from\n           his Bible, p. 363\n\n\n        Yavana or Yona, p. 152\n\n\n        Zeller on Essenism, p. 143 sq.\n        Zenda-vesta, p. 149\n        Zoroastrianism and Essenism, p. 149 sq.\n\n        CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY C. J. CLAY, M.A. AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.\n\n\n\n\n                               Transcriber's Note\n\n        Minor lapses in punctuation have been rectified. Certain other\n        editorial or printing errors have been noted below, and\n        corrected.\n\n        On p. 286, in the note on i. 12 of Colossians for \u1f61\u03c2 \u1f10\u03ba\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u03bf\u1f76\n        \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u1fe6, the citation of Romans 8:33, referring to 'God's\n        elect' was incorrect, appearing as Romans 8.3. The correction\n        has been made.\n\n        On p. 321. there are two separate references to footnote 537.\n        This seems to be intentional, and have been retained. Likewise,\n        on p. 343, footnote 609 is repeated. It seems most likely that\n        the second instance is correct, but both have been retained.\n\n        On p. 416, in the Index, the entry for \u1f05\u03bb\u03b1\u03c2 refers to iv. 5.\n        However, the word and its gloss appear in iv. 6.\n\n p. 28               He recal[l]s                        Added.\n\n p. 43        n. 143 coin[ci]dence                       Added.\n\n p. 121       n. 339 Zeitsc[h]rift                       Added.\n\n p. 199              a similar pheno[nem\/men]on          Transposed.\n\n p. 213              _c. Eunom._ iv ([p. ]I.p. 292)      Removed.\n\n p. 230              The thought underlying \u03bd\u1fe6\u03bd seems    Added.\n                     [to] be this\n\n p. 231              explaining it [as ]'the later'      Added.\n\n p. 323              theological con[fu]sion             Added.\n\n p. 373       n. 680 from the allied f[ro\/or]m           Transposed.\n                     _Apphias_.\n\n\n\n\n\nEnd of the Project Gutenberg EBook of St. Paul's Epistles to the Colossians\nand Philemon, by J. B. Lightfoot\n\n*** ","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}}
+{"text":"\n\nPublished by\n\nFrommer Media LLC\n\nCopyright \u00a9 2014 by Frommer Media LLC, New York City, New York. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the Publisher. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, Frommer Media LLC, 44 West 62nd Street, New York, NY 10023, or online at <http:\/\/www.frommers.com\/permissions>.\n\nFrommer's is a registered trademark of Arthur Frommer. Used under license. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners. Frommer Media LLC is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.\n\nISBN 978-1-62887-068-8 (paper), 978-1-62887-069-5 (e-book)\n\nEditorial Director: Pauline Frommer  \nEditor: Pauline Frommer  \nProduction Editor: Heather Wilcox  \nCartographer: Roberta Stockwell  \nPage Compositor: Lissa Auciello-Brogan  \nCover Design: Howard Grossman\n\nFor information on our other products or services, see www.frommers.com.\n\nFrommer Media LLC also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats.\n\nManufactured in the United States of America\n\n5 4 3 2 1\nCONTENTS\n\n 1 The Best of the Virgin Islands\n\n 2 Suggested Itineraries\n\nThe U.S. Virgin Islands in 10 Days\n\nThe British Virgin Islands in 10 Days\n\nIsland-Hopping for 10 Days\n\n 3 The Virgin Islands in Context\n\nThe Islands in Brief\n\nThe Virgin Islands Today\n\nLooking Back: Virgin Islands History\n\nDateline\n\nThe Virgin Islands in Popular Culture\n\nEating & Drinking\n\nWhen to Go\n\nThe Virgin Islands Calendar of Events\n\nResponsible Travel\n\n 4 St. Thomas\n\nEssentials\n\nFast Facts: St. Thomas\n\nWhere to Stay\n\nWhere to Eat\n\nExploring St. Thomas\n\nWalking Tour: Charlotte Amalie\n\nShopping\n\nSt. Thomas After Dark\n\n 5 St. Croix\n\nEssentials\n\nFast Facts: St. Croix\n\nWhere to Stay\n\nWhere to Eat\n\nExploring St. Croix\n\nWalking Tour: Christiansted\n\nShopping\n\nSt. Croix After Dark\n\nSide Trip to Buck Island\n\n 6 St. John\n\nEssentials\n\nFast Facts: St. John\n\nWhere to Stay\n\nWhere to Eat\n\nExploring St. John\n\nShopping\n\nSt. John After Dark\n\n 7 The British Virgin Islands\n\nEssentials\n\nTortola\n\nFast Facts: Tortola\n\nVirgin Gorda\n\nFast Facts: Virgin Gorda\n\nJost Van Dyke\n\nAnegada\n\nPeter Island\n\nGuana Island\n\n 8 Planning Your Trip to the Virgin Islands\n\nIndex\nABOUT THE AUTHOR\n\n**Alexis Lipsitz Flippin** is the author of \"Frommer's Turks & Caicos,\" \"Frommer's St. Maarten\/St. Martin,\" \"Anguilla & St. Barts,\" \"The Food Lovers' Guide to Manhattan,\" and \"Frommer's NYC with Kids\" and the co-author of \"Frommer's 500 Extraordinary Islands,\" \"Frommer's Caribbean,\" and \"Frommer's Carolinas & Georgia.\" She has written for numerous magazines and webzines, including CNN.com, MSNBC.com, Zagat.com, and AARP.com and is a former Senior Editor of the Frommer's travel guides.\n\nABOUT THE FROMMER's TRAVEL GUIDES\n\nFor most of the past 50 years, Frommer's has been the leading series of travel guides in North America, accounting for as many as 24 percent of all guidebooks sold. I think I know why.\n\nAlthough we hope our books are entertaining, we nevertheless deal with travel in a serious fashion. Our guidebooks have never looked on such journeys as a mere recreation, but as a far more important human function, a time of learning and introspection, an essential part of a civilized life. We stress the culture, lifestyle, history, and beliefs of the destinations we cover and urge our readers to seek out people and new ideas as the chief rewards of travel.\n\nWe have never shied from controversy. We have, from the beginning, encouraged our authors to be intensely judgmental, critical\u2014both pro and con\u2014in their comments, and wholly independent. Our only clients are our readers, and we have triggered the ire of countless prominent sorts, from a tourist newspaper we called \"practically worthless\" (it unsuccessfully sued us) to the many rip-offs we've condemned.\n\nAnd because we believe that travel should be available to everyone regardless of their incomes, we have always been cost-conscious at every level of expenditure. Although we have broadened our recommendations beyond the budget category, we insist that every lodging we include be sensibly priced. We use every form of media to assist our readers and are particularly proud of our feisty daily website, the award-winning Frommers.com.\n\nI have high hopes for the future of Frommer's. May these guidebooks, in all the years ahead, continue to reflect the joy of travel and the freedom that travel represents. May they always pursue a cost-conscious path, so that people of all incomes can enjoy the rewards of travel. And may they create, for both the traveler and the persons among whom we travel, a community of friends, where all human beings live in harmony and peace.\n\nArthur Frommer\n1\n\nTHE BEST OF THE VIRGIN ISLANDS\n\nMountainous and luminously green, the Virgin Islands number about 100, some governed by the United States and others by Great Britain. The larger islands appear as mossy green hills rising dramatically out of turquoise seas; others are little more than rocky outcroppings rimmed by whispery white-sand beaches waiting for Robinson Crusoe to call. The former haunt of derring-do sea captains and pirate marauders, today many of the Virgin Islands are invaded by thousands of visitors, arriving by plane and cruise ship, suntan lotion in hand.\n\nThe region's major islands include the three United States territories: Bustling St. Thomas attracts the most visitors, many of them disembarking from some of the biggest cruise ships in the business; the \"plantation island,\" St. Croix is the Virgins' largest island and some say its cultural heart; and the lush beauty known as St. John, at 9 miles long and 5 miles wide, is the smallest of the three. No matter where you're traveling from, St. Thomas is for many people the gateway to the Virgins. With the busiest cruise-ship harbor in the Caribbean, St. Thomas bustles with duty-free shopping and global dining. St. Croix is more laid-back than St. Thomas, with well-preserved colonial towns and verdant countryside dotted with plantation ruins. Little St. John is positively sleepy, two-thirds of its acreage taken up by one of America's most beautiful national parks.\n\nWith its dizzying mountain topography and scalloped coastline of shimmering blue coves and powdery beaches, the B.V.I. remains a pristine retreat for yachties and visitors who want to a true escape from the scrum of modern civilization. With steady tradewinds and scores of protected deep-water harbors, the B.V.I. offer some of the best sailing grounds in the Caribbean. Many boaters base themselves on Tortola, the largest island in the B.V.I. and its capital\u2014it's a relaxed spot with something for everyone. Beautiful and sparsely populated Virgin Gorda is the place to go for luxury stays in secluded resorts. Dotted about the main islands are private island retreats and uninhabited islands perfect for castaway day-tripping.\n\nFor beach lovers, the Virgin Islands contain some of the most celebrated white-sand beaches in the West Indies, including Magens Bay on St. Thomas, Trunk Bay on St. John, and Cane Garden Bay on Tortola. Swimming and snorkeling await you at every cove\u2014and in the vibrant coral reef ringing Buck Island, St. Croix has America's only underwater national monument. Throughout the island archipelago are also miles of idyllic hiking trails, tracing the sinous curves of these scenic volcanic wonders.\n\nTHE most authentic EXPERIENCES\n\n  Island-Hopping by Sea: Whether you're traveling the liquid expanse of the local waterways by ferry, sailboat, or mega yacht, seeing the Virgin Islands by sea feels like the way nature intended it. Most visitors take to the waters at some point in their trip, cruising to big-shouldered islands or exploring uninhabited cays. For many, it's the most peaceful and relaxing way to travel the Virgins.\n\n  Waking Up to Tropical Birdsong and Roosters Crowing: No matter where you are on the islands, you will be accompanied by the musical chatter of tropical birdsong, from the twittering of colorful birds to the morning, noon, and night cock-a-doodle-dooing of roadside roosters in splendid plumage of gold, green, and blue.\n\n  Swimming with Turtles and Starfish: The Virgins' undersea marine habitat is as beauteous as its scenic topography, making this a stupendous place to sightsee beneath the waves. Look for hawksbill turtles grazing on seagrass, angelfish darting in and out of rocks, and starfish stretching out on sandy sea bottoms.\n\n  Kicking Back with Serious Views: The islands' curvaceous terrain is truly swoon-worthy, and practically every island has restaurants, cafes, and bars that take full advantage of the panoramic views. Claim your perch (and a cool rum punch) at places like the Mafolie restaurant, overlooking the glittering harbor in Charlotte Amalie (St. Thomas; p. ); Bananakeet, 400 feet above the north shore beaches of Tortola (p. ); or the Hilltop Restaurant at Biras Creek, on Virgin Gorda, high over the inky-blue North Sound (p. ).\n\n  Celebrating the Solstice with Full-Moon Beach Parties: Locals and visitors come out to play for the islands' monthly full-moon celebrations. The most celebrated are on Tortola, from Bomba's Full Moon Party on Cappoon Bay (p. ) to artist Aragorn's Fireball Full Moon Party at Trellis Bay (p. ).\n\nTHE best BEACHES\n\nThe Virgin Islands are known for beautiful beaches of soft white sand and azure seas. Best of all, every beach is open to the public and, with a few exceptions, free. Even private resorts\u2014which often command some of the prettiest stretches of sand\u2014are required to offer public access to their beaches.\n\n  Magens Bay Beach (St. Thomas): This long, half-mile stretch of soft sand, boasting remarkably calm waters, is the most popular and picturesque beach on St. Thomas. Two peninsulas protect the shore from erosion and strong waves, making Magens an ideal spot for swimming. Expect a crowd in the high season. See p. .\n\n  Lindquist Beach (St. Thomas): A lovely, undeveloped beach on the East End, Lindquist is only reachable by a dirt road; it's a favorite of locals who make Sundays here a lively beach day. See p. .\n\n  Trunk Bay (St. John): St. John has so many good beaches it's almost impossible to pick the best, but this, the island's most popular beach, is protected by the U.S. National Park Service and has an underwater snorkeling trail. See p. .\n\n  Sandy Point (St. Croix): The biggest beach in the U.S. Virgin Islands, Sandy Point is a beauty\u2014the final, redemptive scene of \"The Shawshank Redemption\" was filmed here. Because the beach is a protected reserve and a nesting spot for endangered sea turtles, it's open to the public only on Saturdays and Sundays from 10am to 4pm. See p. .\n\nU.S.vs. BRITISH VIRGIN ISLANDS\n\nIf you're trying to decide which Virgin Island to visit, consider the following basics:\n\n  American citizens don't need a passport to enter the U.S. Virgins, but everyone needs a passport to enter the British Virgin Islands.\n\n  The U.S. Virgin Islands are easier to reach for most people. Currently, there are no direct flights on commercial carriers from North America or Europe to Tortola or any of the other British Virgin Islands. St. Thomas is the gateway to the islands, with major carriers connecting into the island's international airport.\n\n  You'll have more hotels and resorts to choose from in the U.S. Virgin Islands, of all sizes and price ranges, than are in the B.V.I.\n\n  The U.S. dollar is the official currency for both island chains, and English is the official language.\n\nThe obvious issues aside, American and British cultures have left different imprints on the Virgin Islands. The classic knock on the U.S. Virgins is that they're overbuilt and over-commercialized and not \"virgins\" anymore. Yes, St. Thomas offers a somewhat Americanized hurly-burly, with easy access to familiar global brands and a wide range of goods and services. But this is no fast-paced megalopolis\u2014chickens still skitter along hillsides and tropical foliage blankets the landscape with a fetching unruliness. St. Croix has big commercial chains like Home Depot and K-Mart, but it also has bucolic stretches of rural countryside, a uniquely rich culture, and an earthy sensuality. With two-thirds of its terrain protected national parkland, St. John is a haven of undeveloped tranquillity.\n\nStill, the British Virgin Islands are noticeably sleepier and less developed. Many of them recall the way the Caribbean was before the advent of high-rise condos, fast-food chains, and mega cruise ships\u2014and being a little remote hasn't hurt. Tortola is where the B.V.I. action is, limited as its shopping and nightlife may be (although traffic gridlock has found its ornery way here, particularly in the B.V.I. capital, Road Town, on cruise-ship days). To the east, beautiful, pristine Virgin Gorda has just 3,000 inhabitants but most of the Virgin Islands' top resorts. Crime is minimal here. You'll find an even more laidback vibe on less-populated islands like Jost Van Dyke and Anegada, as well as uninhabited isles with hidden coves and beaches where you may be the only sunbather. It's a sailor's paradise.\n\nIn truth, the days of traveling to one versus the other are pretty much history. Most people who visit the Virgins touch down on both U.S. and British soil. Plus, the region's dependency on tourism has made it increasingly easier to hop between islands. For suggested itineraries between the islands, see chapter 2.\n\n  Cane Garden Bay (Tortola): A scenic beauty, Cane Garden Bay is the most popular beach on Tortola. Its translucent waters and sugar-white sands attract crowds (especially when cruise ships drop off van loads of beachgoers), but it offers plenty of sand to play on. Across the water is Jost Van Dyke; rising behind the beach are green hillsides dotted with villas. See p. .\n\n  Smuggler's Cove (Tortola): This fetching West End beach is reached by driving down a (largely) dirt road through a grove of mature palm trees. It's got good snorkeling but no facilities.\n\n  Savannah Bay (Virgin Gorda): Just around the corner from the beach at Little Dix Bay is this often-deserted gem, with gin-clear waters and a crescent slice of soft white sand.\n\n  Anegada: The second-largest island in the B.V.I. is the most remote of the Virgins and home to only 200 permanent citizens. It's the island chain's only coral island as well, which makes it one big, beautiful stretch of (largely undeveloped) powdery sand.\n\n  White Bay, Guana Island (Guana Island): This pretty-as-a-picture ivory beach is fringed in palm trees and rising green hills.\n\nTHE best SNORKELING SPOTS\n\n  Coki Point Beach (St. Thomas): On the north shore of St. Thomas, Coki Point offers superb year-round snorkeling. Explore the coral ledges near Coral World's underwater tower. See p. .\n\n  Hurricane Hole (St. John): You may not immediately think of a mangrove forest as a great place to snorkel, but here coral grows in abundance on the mangrove roots\u2014attended by huge starfish, sponges (and the hawksbills that eat them), and anemones. It's magical. SerenaSea runs snorkeling and sightseeing tours out of Coral Bay to Hurricane Hole (<http:\/\/serenasea.com>). See p. .\n\n  Waterlemon Cay\/Leinster Bay (St. John): Easily accessible Leinster Bay, on the northern shore of St. John, offers calm, clear, uncrowded waters teeming with sea life. See p. .\n\n  Haulover Bay (St. John): A favorite with locals, this small bay is rougher than Leinster, with a pebbly beach. The snorkeling, however, is dramatic, with ledges, walls, and nooks to explore. See p. .\n\n  Cane Bay (St. Croix): One of the island's best diving and snorkeling sites is off this breezy, north-shore beach. On a good day, you can swim out 450 feet to see the Cane Bay Wall, which drops dramatically off to the deep waters below. Multicolored fish, plus elkhorn and brain coral, flourish here. See p. .\n\n  Buck Island (off St. Croix): This tiny island, whose land and offshore waters together are classified as a national monument, lies 2 miles off the north coast of St. Croix. More than 250 recorded species of fish swim through its reef system. A variety of sponges, corals, and crustaceans also inhabit the area. See p. .\n\n  Norman Island & the Indians (B.V.I.): Snorkel the calm waters of the Bight near Norman Island. Bring some bread to draw reef fish to the surface when you snorkel the deep waters around the Indians\u2014four fingers of rock jutting out of the sea and only accessible by boat. See p. .\n\n  The Baths (Virgin Gorda): It's often overrun with boats, but the Baths\u2014and nearby beaches, Spring Bay and Devil's Bay\u2014are still mind-blowingly beautiful and the shallow crystalline seas and caves a fun place to explore by snorkel. See p. .\n\nTHE best DIVE SITES\n\n  Cow and Calf Rocks (St. Thomas): This site, off the southeast end of St. Thomas (about a 45-min. boat ride from Charlotte Amalie), is the island's best diving spot. It's also a good bet for snorkeling. You'll discover a network of coral tunnels filled with caves, reefs, and ancient boulders encrusted with coral. See p. .\n\n  The Cane Bay Wall (St. Croix): Walk right off the beach into one of the most awesome dives in the Virgins. It's just a 100-yard swim to the 3,000-foot vertical wall at Cane Bay. Even at depths of 30 feet, you'll see coral gardens abloom with fantastical formations and colorful tropical life. See p. .\n\n  Frederiksted Pier (St. Croix): The Fredriksted pier is one of the best spots in the islands for an electric night dive, where you plunge right offshore into a world of exotic creatures, including sea horses, lobster, and octopuses. See p. .\n\n  The Wreck of the RMS Rhone (off Salt Island, B.V.I.): Many people think the Rhone wreck is the premier dive site not only in the Virgin Islands, but in the entire Caribbean. This royal mail steamer, which went down in 1867, was featured in the film \"The Deep.\" See p. .\n\n  Chikuzen (off Tortola): Although it's not the Rhone (see above), this 269-foot steel-hulled refrigerator ship, which sank off the island's east end in 1981, is one of the British Virgin Islands' most fascinating dive sites. The hull\u2014still intact under about 24m (79 ft.) of water\u2014is now home to a vast array of tropical fish, including yellowtail, barracuda, black-tip sharks, octopus, and drum fish. See p. .\n\n  Alice in Wonderland (Ginger Island, off Tortola): This brilliant coral wall, off the shore of a tiny island, slopes from 12m (39 ft.) to a sandy bottom at 30m (98 ft.). Divers often refer to the site as \"a fantasy\" because of its monstrous overhangs, vibrant colors, gigantic mushroom-shaped corals, and wide variety of sea creatures\u2014everything from conch and garden eels to long-nose butterfly fish. See p. .\n\nTHE best NATURE WALKS\n\n  The Annaberg Historic Trail (St. John): This paved walk is only .25 miles long, but it's a highlight of the 10,000-acre U.S. Virgin Islands National Park. The trail traverses the ruins of what was once the most important sugar-cane plantation on the island. Slaves' quarters, a windmill tower, and ballast-brick buildings are remnants of a long-vanished era. Stunning views look toward Tortola and Jost Van Dyke on the opposite side of Sir Francis Drake Passage. See p. .\n\n  The \"Rain Forest\" Hike (St. Croix): At the northwestern end of St. Croix lies the 15-acre \"rain forest,\" dense with magnificent tropical foliage. The little-traveled four-wheel-drive roads through the area make great hiking paths. See p. .\n\n  Virgin Gorda Peak (Virgin Gorda): Trek to the top of the island's highest peak, Virgin Gorda (414m\/1,359 ft.), on this 50-minute round-trip hike through tropical forest. The views from the top are utterly breathtaking\u2014you'll have views of both the Caribbean and Atlantic oceans. See p. .\n\n  The Sage Mountain National Park Hike (Tortola): This 3- to 4-hour hike is one of the most dramatic in the British Virgins. It goes from Brewer's Bay to the top of Mount Sage, the highest peak in the Virgin Islands, at 523m (1,716 ft.). Along the way, you'll see intriguing ruins of old homes in addition to the beautiful flora and fauna of the park's primeval forest. See p. .\n\nTHE best RESORTS\n\n  The Buccaneer (St. Croix): Family-owned and built around the historic ruins of an old sugar plantation, this St. Croix resort is a class act, stretching over so many rolling acres that it comfortably encompasses an 18-hole golf course, eight championship tennis courts, a spa and health club, a 2-mile jogging trail, and three scenic beaches. See p. .\n\n  Caneel Bay (St. John): Laurance S. Rockefeller created Caneel Bay as the Caribbean's first eco-resort back in the days when no one knew what that word meant. It's an understated classic, an outpost of refinement without ostentation, and operating at the top of its game. The resort's low-rise, low-impact structures front some of the island's best beaches. See p. .\n\n  Biras Creek Resort (Virgin Gorda): The ultimate in serene privacy, this resort is built around an old hillside fortress that's high up overlooking the liquid expanse of North Sound. It's an escapist's hideaway, no question, with luxe rooms, bicycles to breeze around in, and Boston whalers to comb North Sound on your very own. There are no phones or TVs, but who needs it when you've got iguanas, chickens, brilliant Atlantic Ocean surf, and a thousand stars above to sing you to sleep? See p. .\n\n  The Ritz-Carlton (St. Thomas): This is the top-tier place to stay on St. Thomas. Overseen by a grand Italianate palazzo and fronted by white-sand beaches, this full-service resort offers the kind of manicured comfort that's luxurious if somewhat generic; still, rooms and suites are spacious and outfitted with sumptuous bathrooms and top-of-the-line amenities. See p. .\n\n  Bitter End Yacht Club (Virgin Gorda): Entertaining a lively scrum of sailors, families, and beach lovers, this sailing and diving resort opens onto North Sound, one of the most unspoiled deepwater harbors in the Caribbean. It feels a little like a rakish colonial outpost, with boats coming and going and an open-air lobby straight out of a Somerset Maugham tale, but it's also a peaceful getaway, with luxury treehouse-style lodgings high above the seas. See p. .\n\n  Frenchmans B.V.I. (Tortola): The top lodging on Tortola, this small boutique property combines all the perks of a resort\u2014including a topnotch restaurant\u2014with the seclusion of a private villa. All cottages face the blue sweep of Frenchman's Bay, with pelicans whirling and diving and terraces kissed by warm tradewinds. See p. .\n\n  Guana Island (Guana Island): Of all the very fine resorts in the B.V.I., this private island eco-retreat may be ne plus ultra in terms of sheer comfort and romantic seclusion, even if it's a glorious and gracious throwback to the days before technological intrusions ruled daily life. This is rustic old-school luxury, where the service is hushed and impeccable, and the sea breezes are the best air-conditioning you'll ever need. See p. .\n\n  Rosewood Little Dix Bay (Virgin Gorda): Warm service and understated elegance make this wonderful, 494-acre resort popular with families, older couples, and honeymooners alike. It celebrated its 50th anniversary in 2014. This impeccably run property offers sporting activities galore, the best spa in the Virgin Islands, and, in the beautiful wooden Pavilion, the bonhomie heart of the resort, a fizzy and convivial place to wine and dine. See p. .\n\nTHE best FAMILY RESORTS\n\n  Bolongo Bay Beach Resort (St. Thomas): This fun and laidback place, right on the beach, has lots of sand to run around on, water sports aplenty, and a happening restaurant with a lively weekly Carnival. All of the 62 rooms face the beachfront, each with balcony or terrace. See p. .\n\n  Westin St. John Resort & Villas (St. John): This contemporary mega-resort, set on 34 acres of neatly landscaped grounds and fronting a nice beach with gentle seas, offers some of the best children's programs on the island and good watersports. See p. .\n\n  The Buccaneer (St. Croix): This longtime family favorite resort is packed with on-site facilities for just about every sport you can think of, including tennis, golf, swimming, jogging, sailing, scuba diving, and snorkeling. Children's programs include a half-day sail to Buck Island Reef and nature walks through tropical foliage, where kids can taste local fruit in the wild. See p. .\n\n  The Palms at Pelican Cove (St. Croix): This small resort has something for everyone, but it has a lot to offer families, including the fact that all kids 17 and under stay for free in their parent's rooms And kids 10 and over are treated to complimentary scuba lessons. The resident iguana and pelican don't hurt either. See p. .\n\n  Long Bay Beach Club (Tortola): Downsized to a boutique resort with just 42 rooms, this resort is spread out along a wonderful sandy beach licked by gentle waves\u2014you can snorkel right off the beach. Its deluxe beachfront rooms can sleep five, and adjoining suites are available. Beachfront suites have full kitchens, and all rooms come with personal grills for impromptu family barbecues. See p. .\n\n  Bitter End Yacht Club (Virgin Gorda): This lively resort is very kid-friendly, and its festive main restaurant, the Clubhouse, is ideal for noisy, chattering families planning a big day of water play. Most children's programs are geared toward those ages 6 and over and involve all the typical watersports: sailing, windsurfing, snorkeling, swimming, and more. See p. .\n\nTHE best BAREFOOT RETREATS\n\nSome lodgings don't even try to tart up the place, preferring unvarnished barefoot charm to fancy frills, luxury amenities, and hermetically sealed interiors. It helps, of course, to have a glorious natural setting to prop up those bare feet. Old-school, the Caribbean the way it used to be, relaxed and comfortably rustic: The following places hum to the rhythms of the natural world.\n\n  Concordia Eco-Tents (St. John): Overlooking Salt Pond Bay, these tent-cottages high up on a secluded hillside are kept cool by the constant trade winds. The resort is quiet and serene: You're pillowed in hundreds of acres of green national parkland. Got any complaints? See p. .\n\n  Cooper Island Beach Club (Cooper Island): This escapist's retreat on remote Cooper Island is smartly designed and very comfortable, with 10 rooms in simple cottages built of reclaimed timber. It's \"fan-ventilated\"\u2014that is, no A\/C\u2014and don't expect TV either. Do expect yachties and divers dropping in at the lively bar and restaurant. See p. .\n\n  Sandcastle Hotel (Jost Van Dyke): This funky, unpolished hotel is perfect for devotees of laid-back getaways. The six phone- and TV-free cottages nestled in bougainvillea enjoy panoramic views of an idyllic white-sand beach. When you're not padding the beach in your bare feet, you can hit the famed beachside bar, the Soggy Dollar, home of the Painkiller cocktail. See p. .\n\n  Anegada Reef Hotel (Anegada): This 20-room hotel is located on a flat mass of coral and limestone, one of the most remote spots in the entire Virgin Islands. Yes, rooms have been nicely freshened up, and you can blast the air-conditioning if you prefer it to ceiling fans. But it's still the kind of place where, if the bartender isn't around, you make your own cocktails and write down what you had. See p. .\n\nTHE best RESTAURANTS\n\n  Havana Blue (Morning Star Beach Club at the Marriott Frenchman's Reef, St. Thomas): You would be forgiven if you thought the food would be relegated to a secondary role at this beachside restaurant, given the bombshell bar staff, sexy blue lighting, and thumping soundtrack. But someone very talented is in the kitchen. Yes, miso-glazed fish has been done since the dawn of time, but Havana Blue's iteration (with sea bass and lemongrass) is melt-in-the-mouth perfection. See p. .\n\n  Gladys' Cafe (Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas): Smack dab in the middle of tourist central, this local treasure is hidden away in plain sight in the maze of cobblestoned alleyways of Royal Dane Mall. Inside 18th-century walls of native stone, you'll dine on refined versions of Caribbean specialties (conch fritters, jerk fish, peas and rice) and surefire winners like avocado stuffed with lobster salad. Plus, Gladys makes her own hot sauce and even breaks into robust song whenever she feels like it. See p. .\n\n  Mafolie Restaurant (Mafolie Hotel, St. Thomas): High up in the hills above Charlotte Amalie, with soul-stirring views of the twinkling lights of the harbor and beyond, this restaurant is a real find. Chef Manny Thompson is a masterful cook, and the owners are committed to the island's burgeoning farm-to-table movement. And those views! See p. .\n\n  Sunset Grille (Secret Harbour Resort, St. Thomas): Serving some of the most flavorful and innovative dishes on the island, the Sunset Grille offers upscale dining in a quintessentially romantic Caribbean setting: overlooking the sandy beach and gentle waters of Secret Harbour. See p. .\n\n  ZoZo's (Caneel Bay Resort, St. John): This marriage of superstars in late 2013 installed St. John's best Italian restaurant in one of the island's most thrilling locations: atop the ruins of an 18th-century sugar mill at Caneel Bay resort. It's a real mashup, where colonial Caribbean meets Frank Lloyd Wright and pumps out a sizzling Sixties-era James Bond vibe. See p. .\n\n  Kendrick's (St. Croix): Kendrick's brings a light Continental touch to richly flavored dishes in a historic Danish building in Christiansted. See p. .\n\n  Brandywine (Tortola): You'll find it down a winding dirt road along Brandywine Bay, an elegant stone treehouse serving equally elegant Mediterranean fare. See p. .\n\n  The Dove (Tortola): One of the top special-occasion restaurants in Road Town is also one of the best restaurants in the entire Virgin Islands, serving a seasonal menu of continental classics. See p. .\n\n  Bananakeet (Tortola): It's got stupendous views from its perch high up on Windy Hill, but the food and service keep folks raving. Plan at least one sunset dinner here. See p. .\n\n  The Pavilion (Little Dix Bay, Virgin Gorda): Each night a different themed buffet is served in this soaring alfresco space\u2014and it's all utterly fresh and absolutely delicious. See p. .\n\n  Hilltop Restaurant (Biras Creek, Virgin Gorda): Dine on impeccably prepared continental classics (with Caribbean influences) as you practically touch the stars from your perch above North Sound. See p. .\n\nTHE best LOCAL BUYS\n\nThe U.S. Virgin Islands are rightfully known as the shopping mecca of the Caribbean. It's tempting indeed to comb the historic streets of St. Thomas's capital, Charlotte Amalie, in search of bargains amid the global outposts of \"luxury\" goods, those international brands of china and crystal, jewelry, and cosmetics that blanket every cruise port. The incentives are strong: Every person gets a $1,600 duty-free allowance and no sales tax is tacked on. But for those seeking original, artisanal gifts made by the people who actually live here, the following is a sampling of our favorite Virgin Islands mementos.\n\n  Aragorn's metal fireballs: Any search for wonderful local art should start at Aragorn's Studio (p. ) on Trellis Bay, Tortola. Tortola-born Aragorn is a printmaker, potter, and sculptor; his giant \"fireballs\"\u2014silhouetted metal sculptures\u2014are set ablaze during the monthly Fireball Full Moon Parties on Trellis Bay. Look for miniature fire balls (candle holders), beautiful original prints, pottery, jewelry, and gifts, the work of Aragorn, inhouse artisans, and regional artists.\n\n  Hot sauce: Virgin Islanders love their hot sauce (aka \"pepper\" sauce), and many island cooks prepare and bottle their own. Look for local favorites like Miss Anna's (St. John), Blind Betty's (St. Croix), Jerome's (St. Thomas), and ValleyDoll (St. John), sold in gift shops and food stores around the islands. It's a real taste of the islands.\n\n  Moko Jumbie holiday ornaments: A traditional presence at Carnival in St. Croix, Moko Jumbies are masked and costumed revelers on stilts. Glittery home-made Moko Jumbie ornaments are the handiwork of Cruzan native and \"scrap-art designer\" Sandra Michael; you can find her work in shops like Franklin's on the Waterfront in Fredriksted (p. ).\n\n  Hand-blown recycled glass gifts: Founded by local nonprofit GreenVI, this outdoor glass-blowing studio on Cane Garden Bay in Tortola recycles bottles of beer and booze discarded from the local beach bars to fashion beautiful hand-blown glass delicacies, from starfish paperweights to turtle ornaments to flower glass sculptures. The GreenVI Glass Studio has trained a number of locals in the intricacies of glass-blowing, and a local octogenarian makes cloth bags out of donated clothing to carry them home in (p. ).\n\n  Local art: Look for genre paintings by the accomplished artist Joseph Hodge, who has a studio in the Craft Alive artisans' village in Road Town, Tortola (p. ). In Christiansted, St. Croix, the 40-year-old Many Hands gallery continues to feature original work by local artists and craftspeople (p. ). In St. Thomas, you can find the latest work of local artisans (dolls, jewelry, soaps) in the Native Arts and Crafts Cooperative (p. ).\n2\n\nSUGGESTED ITINERARIES\n\nSprinkled scattershot between the Caribbean and Atlantic oceans, the Virgin Islands mark the easternmost point of the Lesser Antilles. They're part of a necklace of islands that stretches southeast from Cuba and curls back west again at Trinidad and Tobago. Despite being the progeny of two different nations, the U.S. and British Virgin Islands have a brotherly closeness\u2014not only are the islands a breezy ferry ride or plane hop away from one another, but you're almost always eyeballing another Virgin no matter where you are. From Jost Van Dyke you can watch the glittering lights of cars weave along the coastal road of St. Thomas; from Tortola's West End the broad-shouldered hills of St. John are a comforting constant. The two island chains share the same sparkling waterways, the same vibrant marine playgrounds, the same balmy tradewinds. The history of both the U.S. and British Virgins is inextricably linked with sugarcane and the slave trade\u2014centuries-old plantation ruins throughout the islands tell part of the tale. You'll find the same classic island dishes on restaurant menus and hear the same lilting rhythms in ramshackle beach bars.\n\nAll of which is to say, no matter how long your Virgins vacation, you will most likely be touching down on both U.S. and British soil. It's easy to do so: Ferries connecting St. Thomas, St. John, Tortola, and Virgin Gorda run on a regular basis in season and even link some of the smaller islands, such as Anegada and Jost Van Dyke, albeit on a limited basis. (You'll need to fly or sail by private boat or charter to reach the more remote islands of the BVI.) Still, it's a stretch to say that everything here runs with the efficiency of a Swiss clock, so be sure to plot your itineraries around the frequency of public and private ferry schedules and interisland flights. Use the following suggested itineraries to kick-start your Virgin Islands vacation.\n\nThe U.S. Virgin Islands in 10 Days\n\nYou could easily spend a week or more in each of the U.S. Virgins\u2014St. Thomas, St. Croix, and St. John\u2014and still have plenty more to do and see. But 3 days on each should give you a good sense of the flavorful character of each island. Refer to the individual chapters in this book to find the lodgings and restaurants best suited for you. Keep in mind that ferries between St. Thomas and St. John run regularly all day long (it's just a 20-min. trip from Red Hook on St. Thomas), but you will need to fly between St. Thomas and St. Croix\u2014at least until regular ferry service between the two islands is rebooted.\n\nDay 1: Arrive in St. Thomas\n\nCheck into your hotel and spend whatever time you have upon arrival relaxing or hitting the beach. If you're staying in Charlotte Amalie, call a taxi for dinner at the restaurant at Mafolie Hotel (p. ), with stunning views of the glittering harbor below, or Havana Blue (p. ), beachside at Marriott Frenchman's Reef.\n\nDay 2: Take an Island Tour & Hit the Beach\n\nGet the lay of the land on a full island tour with a tour operator or taxi driver. We recommend the services of taxi driver\/tour guide extraordinaire Campbell Rey (  340\/771-1568). Spend the afternoon on the beach. The island's top beach, Magens Bay (p. ), is recommended if you like clear, gentle seas in a spectacular setting (and who doesn't?). If you want to snorkel, head to Secret Harbour (p. ) or Coki Beach (p. ). If you have kids in tow (and even if you don't), make time after exploring Coki Beach to visit Coral World (p. ), the fun-filled aquarium next door.\n\nDay 3: Shop the Historic District & Ride the Zipline\n\nIf shopping and historic architecture are high on your to-do list, spend the morning touring the cobblestone lanes in Charlotte Amalie\u2014an especially easy proposition if you're staying in the area. Have lunch with the locals at Gladys' Caf\u00e9 (p. ) or the waterfront Petite Pump Room (p. ), near the Charlotte Amalie ferry terminal. If you're game for adventure, you can spend the afternoon at the Tree Limin' Extreme (p. ), a ziplining canopy tour in the rain forest of St. Peter Mountain; you'll have views of Magen's Bay and even Tortola and Jost Van Dyke. Combine a ziplining adventure with a visit to the tropical gardens of the St. Peter Great House & Botanical Gardens (p. ), just across the street. It's a great spot for a sunset cocktail and even dinner.\n\nDay 4: St. Croix   & West End Attractions\n\nTake a morning flight from St. Thomas to St. Croix; air time: 25 minutes. If you're traveling by seaplane (from the St. Thomas seaport), you'll land right on the Christiansted waterfront\u2014and you should explore the island's East End from here (see \"Day 5,\" below). If you fly on regular air shuttle into the St. Croix airport, you'll be closer to West End must-see attractions like the Estate Whim Plantation (p. ), the St. George Village Botanical Garden (p. ), the Ridge to Reef rain-forest farm (p. ), and the Cruzan Rum Factory (p. ). In any event, arrange an airport pickup and island tour with one of the island's expert taxi driver\/tour operators, such Ames Joseph (  340\/277-6133). If it's a Saturday or Sunday, stop off (and take a dip at) at the beautiful beach at Sandy Point (p. ; the wildlife refuge is only open on weekends, and is closed 7 days a week during turtle nesting season Apr\u2013Sept). If you're staying at a beach resort, spend the rest of your afternoon swimming and relaxing.\n\nSuggested Itineraries: The Virgin Islands\n\nDay 5: Tour of Christiansted  , Cane Bay Snorkel   & Salt River Bioluminescent Bay Kayak Tours\n\nTake a walking tour of historic Christiansted with an expert guide from Crucian, Heritage & Nature Tourism (Chant; p. ) and have lunch in town. Alternatively, if you're an avid diver or snorkeler, you should spend the morning at Cane Bay beach (p. ), on the island's north shore, where you can snorkel off the reefs or swim out 100 yards to a steep dropoff. If the moon cycle is right, schedule a see-through-kayak tour of the bioluminescent bay in the Salt River National Historical Park and Ecological Reserve (p. ).\n\nDay 6: Buck Island Snorkeling Trip\n\nThe only marine national park in the United States is well worth a day-trip of fine snorkeling, swimming, and hiking. A number of excursion companies, including Big Beard's Adventure Tours (p. ), offer full and half-day sails to Buck Island National Reef Monument that often include beach barbecues. If you have time on your return, do a little shopping in Christiansted or head south to ARTFarm (p. ), a combination vegetable farm stand and art gallery that opened in 2000 on an old cattle ranch along the island's picturesque south side.\n\nDay 7: St. Thomas & Ferry to St. John\n\nYou may want to fly the seaplane out of St. Croix, which conveniently arrives at the seaplane terminal in Charlotte Amalie, located next door to the Charlotte Amalie ferry terminal. You can easily take a ferry to St. John from here or from the island's East End at Red Hook\u2014that way you avoid a sometimes traffic-ridden taxi ride from the airport. If you plan to return to St. Thomas and stay on the island's East End for a night before flying out, schedule your round-trip ferry between Red Hook and St. John. The ferry from Red Hook to St. John is a pleasant 20-minute ride.\n\nDepending on when you arrive, you may want to explore Cruz Bay (p. ), the island's main town and your arrival point. It has lots of shops and waterfront eateries. St. John is a great place to rent a car for a few days, so you can fully explore its wonderful beaches and national parkland. But if you aren't renting a car, arrange ferry pickup\/transfer\u2014and an island tour\u2014with a local taxi driver. We highly recommend Kenneth Lewis (  340\/776-6865).\n\nDay 8: Swimming & Snorkeling St. John Beaches\n\nThis is the day to beach it, and the island has an abundance of excellent strands of sand for swimming, snorkeling, and exploring. The island's most famous beach, Trunk Bay (p. ), has an underwater snorkeling trail. Go to chapter 6 for more great beaches on St. John.\n\nDay 9: Annaberg Ruins   & Coral Bay\/Beaches\n\nIn the morning, take a tour of the Annaberg sugar plantation ruins (p. ). Then hit the beach. Close to the ruins is Waterlemon Cay (p. ), with great snorkeling and turtles; on the island's eastern side is Hurricane Hole (p. ), where you can snorkel among a coral reef growing on mangroves\u2014or head south to the quiet beach at Little Lameshur Bay (p. ). Have a late lunch in the quaint little settlement of Coral Bay, about a 20-minute drive from Cruz Bay. Sample homemade pulled-pork sandwiches and a rum punch at Tourist Trap (p. ); juicy burgers in the honky-tonk atmosphere of Skinny Legs (p. ); or the grilled jerk fish at Shipwreck Landing.\n\nDay 10: St. Thomas\n\nPlan your ferry trip back to St. Thomas around your departure itinerary.\n\nThe British Virgin Islands in 10 days\n\nWe guarantee that a 8-day week exploring the British Virgin Islands should erase all the stresses of modern civilization. Ten days to 2 weeks: Even better.\n\nDay 1: Arrive in St. Thomas\n\nCurrently there are no direct flights into Tortola, the B.V.I.'s main island, from North America or Europe. For many people, St. Thomas (or, increasingly, San Juan) is the gateway to the British Virgin Islands. Remember to build time into your schedule to make the ferry or plane connections to your B.V.I. destination. Depending on your arrival into St. Thomas (or San Juan), that may include a night's stay-over.\n\nDays 2\u20135: Virgin Gorda\n\nWe suggest starting your B.V.I. trip in Virgin Gorda, if the ferries (or plane connections) comply. If you're relying on ferries, you may have to take a ferry first to Tortola and then catch a second ferry to Virgin Gorda\u2014the entire trip can take an hour or two, but being on the beautiful Virgin Islands waterways is a wonderful way to ease into the laidback island mentality.\n\nBreak up your Virgin Gorda stay into two parts: the Valley and the North Sound. We recommend first exploring the attractions in and around The Valley\u2014the Baths (p. ), Savannah Bay (p. ), Mahoe Bay (p. )\u2014with a stay in wonderful Little Dix Bay resort (p. ), which also happens to have the best spa in the region. Then spend 2 nights exploring the island's other end with a stay at a North Sound resort\u2014whether Biras Creek (p. ), Bitter End (p. ), or Saba Rock (p. ). From there you can sail the North Sound, sunbathe on Prickley Pear Island,\n\nDays 6\u20139: Tortola\n\nThe British Virgin Islands' largest and most populous island, Tortola has a leisurely sensibility, uncrowded beaches, and interesting historical attractions in its capital, Road Town (p. ). Base yourself in the cliffside cottages at Frenchmans Cay (p. ) or down on the beach at the Long Bay Beach Club (p. ). Spend a couple of days exploring the island, swimming the gorgeous beach at Cane Garden Bay (p. ), snorkeling at Smuggler's Cove (p. ), or taking an island tour. We highly recommend the services of taxi driver\/tour guide Wayne Robinson (  284\/494-4097).\n\nTortola is also a great base from which to island-hop  . Take a day-trip to Norman Island and the Indians (p. ), Jost Van Dyke (p. ), Anegada (p. ), or any number of uninhabited isles just waiting for a castaway soul.\n\nDay 10: St. Thomas\n\nFly or take a short (45- to 60-min.) ferry ride from Tortola to St. Thomas. Plan your return ferry trip back around your departure itinerary. Keep in mind that the Charlotte Amalie ferry terminal is much closer to the airport than the Red Hook terminal, and traffic gridlock between the island's East End and West End (where the St. Thomas airport is located) is not uncommon.\n\nIsland-Hopping for 10 Days\n\nAnyone visiting the Virgin Islands for any length of time will want to take advantage of the region's smorgasbord of attractions and activities. Here's a 10-day trip for those who want to hit the highlights of both the U.S. and British Virgin Islands\n\nDays 1 & 2: St. Thomas\n\nFollow Days 2 and 3 in the \"U.S. Virgins in 10 Days\" itinerary, above.\n\nDays 3 & 4: St. John\n\nTake a ferry from St. Thomas (leaving from either the Charlotte Amalie or Red Hook terminals) to Cruz Bay on St. John. Follow Days 8 and 9 in the \"U.S. Virgins in 10 Days\" itinerary, above\n\nDay 5: Tortola\n\nTake a ferry from Cruz Bay in St. John to Tortola. If you're traveling between Cruz Bay and Tortola's West End, the total trip time should be under 30 minutes. Once on Tortola, take an island tour (see \"The British Virgin Islands in 10 Days,\" above) and then settle in on one of the beaches close to your lodging. Use Tortola as a base for the rest of your B.V.I. trip. We recommend staying at one of the West End resorts or renting a villa for a week.\n\nDay 5: Road Town Tour   & Cane Garden Bay\n\nTake the morning to visit some of the Road Town's historical attractions, including the circa-1780 SugarWorks museum (p. ), the J. R. Neal Botanical Gardens (p. ), and old Government House. Don't miss the mural high up on Fahie Road (p. ). Then grab your swimsuit and hit the beach at Cane Garden Bay, enjoying a late lunch on conch fritters and grilled fish at Quito's Gazebo (p. ). Walk over to the GreenVI Glass Studio, the outdoor glass-blowing studio where recycled bottles of beer and booze are fashioned into beautiful hand-blown glass delicacies (p. ). If the moon is full, join the monthly Full Moon Party at Bomba Surfside Shack (p. ), in nearby Cappoons Bay.\n\nDay 6: Island-Hop #1: The Baths   & Savannah Bay\n\nTake a day-trip by boat from Tortola to the beaches in The Valley on Virgin Gorda. Explore the caves and boulders of the world-famous Baths and swim in the sparkling seas around Devil's Bay and Spring Bay (p. ). For utter seclusion, round the bend and swim in the beautiful, clear seas of Savannah Bay and Mahoe Bay (p. ).\n\nDay 7: Island-Hop #2: Dive \"Wreck Alley\"   or Snorkel Norman Island & the Indians\n\nScuba divers can make a beeline (by boat or tour operator) to the area between Cooper and Salt islands known as \"Wreck Alley\"\u2014a world-class diving spot filled with shipwrecks including the famed RMS Rhone, which went down in a hurricane in 1867 (p. ). Snorkelers, on the other hand, can head to Norman Island, where they can snorkel the caves around \"Treasure Isle\" and the deep waters around the four fingers of rock known as the Indians. Have lunch on the beach at Pirate's Bight restaurant (p. ).\n\nDay 8: Jost Van Dyke   & Soper's Hole\n\nTake a day-trip to the barefoot beaches of Jost Van Dyke or Anegada, both sparsely populated islands in the B.V.I. chain. Both islands have laidback restaurants and bars right on the beach; be sure to sample a Painkiller, the cocktail created at famed Foxy's (p. ) in Jost. On your return to Soper's Hole, stop in and shop the marina stores.\n\nDay 9: The East End & Shopping Trellis Bay\n\nSpend a last leisurely day on Tortola by traveling the coastal highway to the island's East End, where you can shop the regional arts-and-crafts treasures at Aragorn's Studio (p. ). If it's full moon time, don't miss the Fireball Full Moon Party here. On your way back west, stop in at Brandywine Estate restaurant (p. ) for an elegant lunch or early dinner and maybe a dip in the calm waters of Brandywine Bay. Or just head to your West End resort and have a fabulous dinner nearby at the Clubhouse at Frenchmans (p. ), the Sugar Mill restaurant (p. ), or Bananakeet (p. ).\n\nDay 10: St. Thomas\n\nFly or take the short (45- to 60-min.) ferry ride from Tortola to St. Thomas. Plan your return ferry trip back around your departure itinerary. Keep in mind that the Charlotte Amalie ferry terminal is much closer to the airport than the Red Hook terminal, and traffic gridlock between the island's East End and West End (where the St. Thomas airport is located) is not uncommon.\n3\n\nTHE VIRGIN ISLANDS IN CONTEXT\n\nGolden beaches shaded by palm trees and crystalline waters teeming with rainbow-hued marine life are undoubtedly the main attractions in both the U.S. and British Virgin Islands. Most visitors will likely spend their days hanging out on the beach, playing in the blue seas, browsing boutiques, and savoring fresh-caught fish. But beneath the Carnival costumes and tourism baubles lies a fascinating history and rich culture. Like so many other islands in the Caribbean, the Virgin Islands were inextricably intertwined with the colonial ambitions of Western Europe and the slave trade in North America. This chapter offers a peek at the cultural and historical influences coursing just beneath the surface of any modern-day escape to the Virgin Islands. It also includes tips about the best times to visit and the myriad activities and tours available to you.\n\nTHE ISLANDS IN BRIEF\n\nThe islands described in detail below are the main inhabited islands and the most frequently visited in both the U.S. and British Virgin Islands. Use the information to help guide you to your own idea of paradise.\n\nA few words about islands that aren't mentioned below: For those who really crave a secluded getaway, the British Virgin Islands have a number of escapist-friendly island islands such as Peter Island, Necker Island, and Guana Island. These are virtually private hideaways and the sole domain of expensive resorts. Two remote British Virgin Islands with small populations and limited commercial activity (but more democratically priced hotels) are Anegada and Jost Van Dyke. For more information on these islands, go to chapter 7.\n\nNo matter where you're staying in the Virgin Islands, you will definitely want to go island-hopping to visit the lesser-known islands\u2014and even the more popular spots, like the Baths (Virgin Gorda), that are B.V.I. must-sees.\n\nMapping the Virgins\n\nThe U.S. Virgin Islands are located some 90 miles east of Puerto Rico, with a combined landmass roughly twice the size of Washington, D.C. Lying just 97km (60 miles) to the east of Puerto Rico, the British Virgin Islands comprise a total landmass of 153 sq. km (59 sq. miles), a little smaller than Washington, D.C.\n\nThe U.S. Virgin Islands\n\nThe U.S. Virgin Islands consist of three main islands: St. Thomas, St. John, St. Croix, plus a little islet called Water Island and several smaller islets.\n\nSt. Thomas\n\nSt. Thomas may be, as some say, the most \"unvirgin\" of the Virgin Islands, but few can deny the island's substantial physical attributes. The most developed of the U.S. Virgin Islands, St. Thomas is sprawling and mountainous, with breathtaking vistas and palm-fringed beaches. It's the commercial heart of the Virgin Islands, but it offers something for everyone, from duty-free shopping to sizzling nightlife to laidback aeries far from the hustling scrum. The harbor at Charlotte Amalie, the capital, bustles with the energy of a small city, especially when cruise ships are in port. This is one of the largest cruise-ship ports in the Caribbean. Do as the locals do and avoid the harbor area at rush hour or when the cruise-ship passengers disembark\u2014when a long lineup of taxi drivers in big vans and open-air \"safari\" buses idle alongside the docks to spirit passengers to excursions around the island. The cruise-ship traffic also herds to the city's shopping bazaars and malls, chasing down some of the Caribbean's hottest duty-free shopping. Much of the retail action is found in the labyrinth of cobblestoned streets in the city's historic section, where the narrow lanes and picturesque old stone alleyways (built by the Danish) are packed with taxi vans and touts inviting shoppers in for a look. It's an intense beehive of activity during cruise-ship hours (roughly around 8am\u20134pm) and in high season, but every afternoon before dark the big ships slip back out to sea, and the city belongs once more to the locals and non-cruise-ship visitors.\n\nSt. Thomas may have a cosmopolitan sheen, but it's got a distinctively Caribbean pulse. Even here, where everyone seems to be breathlessly chasing the almighty dollar, island time rules. Yes, Magens Bay Beach, with its tranquil waves and long sweep of sugar-white sand, is likely to be packed on heavy cruise-ship days, but it's still a fetching swath of beach, surrounded on three sides by rising green hills. And if peace, quiet, and seclusion you're after, you'll find plenty of opportunity to relax and soak up the scenery, whether you've got your feet up on a powdery East End beach or enveloped in rain forest foliage on a mountain trail,\n\nYachts and boats anchor at Yacht Haven Grande Marina in Charlotte Amalie and at American Yacht Harbor in Red Hook on the island's eastern tip. The island attracts snorkelers and scuba divers\u2014and there are outfitters aplenty offering equipment, excursions, and instruction. Kayaking and parasailing also draw beach bums into the gin-clear seas. The island also has a surprisingly good surfing spots, including Hull Bay.\n\nSt. Thomas has one of the most eclectic and sophisticated restaurant scenes in the Virgin Islands. Emphasis is on French and Continental fare, but the wide selection of restaurants also includes options from West Indian and Italian to Asian. St. Thomas pays more for its imported (usually European) chefs and secures the freshest of ingredients from mainland or Puerto Rican markets. The island also hosts a number of American chain franchises, from Wendy's to Hooters\u2014especially near the cruise-ship piers.\n\nSt. Thomas has a wide variety of accommodations, from small, historic B&Bs tucked into the hills overlooking glittering Charlotte Amalie to the full-service, manicured beachfront resorts in the East End. Apartment and villa rentals abound.\n\nThe Virgin Islands\n\nSt. Croix\n\nAt 82 square miles, St. Croix is the largest island in the U.S. Virgins but it's sparsely populated for its size (some 54,000 people live here). It's mainly reached by plane, even from neighboring islands (it's more than an hour by boat from St. Thomas, a journey through deep and sometimes rough seas). St. Croix is developed, with good roads and the kinds of stores found in American suburbs, but it also has large swaths of rural farmland and a remote feel. Its two historic towns, Frederiksted and the capital, Christiansted, were built by the Danes during the sugarcane-plantation days, and Frederiksted's deep-water port brings a small number of cruise ships weekly to the island. St. Croix is also the only island that has a casino. Despite its nod to modernity, many of St. Croix's true West Indian\u2013style buildings have been preserved, along with its rich cultural traditions.\n\nOne of the best reasons to take a trip to St. Croix, even if only for a day, is to visit Buck Island National Park, just 11\u20442 miles off St. Croix's northeast coast. The island's offshore reef attracts snorkelers and divers. Signs posted along the ocean floor guide you through a forest of staghorn coral swarming with flamboyant fish.\n\nSt. Croix is a world-class diving destination, with a deep trench for wall-diving offshore and good diving (and snorkeling) around the cruise-ship pier in Frederiksted. It's also the premier golfing destination in the Virgin Islands, mainly because it boasts Carambola, the archipelago's most challenging 18-hole course. St. Croix is a tennis mecca, too: The Buccaneer Hotel has some of the best courts in the Virgin Islands and hosts several annual tournaments. Other sports for active vacationers include horseback riding, parasailing, sportsfishing, and water-skiing. It has one of the world's few healthy bioluminescent bays.\n\nSt. Croix is also gaining traction as a health-and-wellness destination, and practices what it preaches, with a growing presence in solar and wind energy and a boom in sustainable and organic farming.\n\nThe restaurants on St. Croix reflect the island's intriguing multicultural mix\u2014the citizenry is comprised of a large Latino population (many Puerto Ricans and Dominicans migrated here in the mid\u201320th c.), the descendants of black slaves (Afro-Caribbean), mestivos, and expats from around the world. (It's the home of a healthy gay population as well.) You will find plenty of small, creative local eateries serving up dishes and snacks ranging from West Indian curries to French croissants. Life after dark is mostly confined to a handful of bars in Christiansted.\n\nSt. Croix has few fine hotels, but it does have attractive inns and B&Bs. Still, many people opt to rent villas and condos at often-reasonable weekly rates.\n\nSt. John\n\nSt. John is one breathtakingly beautiful island, with some of the most pristine beaches in the entire Caribbean. And it will likely stay that way: Two-thirds of the island are protected parkland, the U.S. Virgin Islands National Park. Guided walks and safari bus tours are available to help you navigate the park, which is full of secret coves, hiking trails, and the ghostly remains of sugar-cane plantations. A third of the park is underwater. Trunk Bay, which also boasts one of the island's finest beaches, has an amazing underwater snorkeling trail. As you can imagine, scuba diving is another major attraction on St. John.\n\nSt. John has a smattering of upscale restaurants, but for the most part you'll dine well in colorful West Indian eateries, many located on the charming little harbor of the island's main town, Cruz Bay, and many serving the region's fresh seafood. Nightlife isn't a major attraction here; it usually consists of sipping rum drinks in a bar in Cruz Bay, and maybe listening to a local calypso band. After spending a day outdoors, most visitors on St. John are happy to turn in early.\n\nSt. John has only two deluxe hotels and a sprinkling of charming inns. Most people who visit the island rent villas, houses, or condos or stay in one of the island's plethora of campgrounds. St. John is a popular day-trip for visitors to the other Virgin Islands, but it's not a cruise-ship destination per se\u2014its port cannot accommodate the big ships. Cruise-ship passengers are usually day-trippers arriving by passenger ferry from ships anchored in St. Thomas.\n\nThe British Virgin Islands\n\nThe British Virgin Islands comprise some 60 islands, among them 15 inhabited. The total population of the B.V.I. is around 27,000 people.\n\nTortola\n\nTortola is the hub of the British Virgin Islands and a wonderful place to stay and use as your base to day-trip to outlying islands. Yes, Virgin Gorda (see below) is less developed and has better (and pricier) resorts and restaurants, and Road Town, the B.V.I. capital, is fairly charmless, with minor shopping, routine restaurants, and uninspired architecture\u2014and the daily arrival of two or three cruise ships makes the morning traffic a real slog. But head west or east out of Road Town, and you'll find an alluring place, with some of the warmest and most soulful people in the islands and a dramatic topography, where the roads do racy arabesques around green peaks, and the vistas from on high are utterly ravishing.\n\nThe island's best and most unspoiled beaches, including Smuggler's Cove (with its secluded collection of snorkeling reefs), lie at the island's western tip and along the northern shoreline. Tortola's premier beach is Cane Garden Bay, a 2.4km (11\u20442-mile) stretch of white sand bookended by rising green hills. Because of the clean, gentle surf and the smooth sand bottom, it's one of the safest places for families with small children\u2014and there's plenty of ocean for everyone even on the busiest cruise-ship days. For hikers on Tortola, exploring Sage Mountain National Park, where trails lead to a 543m (1,781-ft.) peak that offers panoramic views, is a highlight. The park is rich in flora and fauna, from mamey trees to cooing mountain doves.\n\nAlthough many visitors to the Caribbean look forward to fishing, hiking, horseback riding, snorkeling, and surfing, what makes Tortola exceptional is boating. It is the boating center of the British Virgin Islands, which are among the most cherished sailing territories on the planet. The island offers some 100 charter yachts and 300 bareboats, and its marina and shore facilities are the most up-to-date and extensive in the Caribbean Basin. It's a big reason why Tortola makes a great base from which to go island-hopping.\n\nThe food in Tortola is simple and straightforward, with menu staples of local fish, conch fritters, and fresh fruit juices (laced with rum, island-style). The nightlife is laidback, with full-moon parties on the beach and a roster of local musicians playing places like Myett's and Quito's, on Cane Garden Bay.\n\nTortola has just a couple of fine resorts and a few very basic hotels; many people who stay a while choose to rent villas, houses, or condos.\n\nVirgin Gorda\n\nVirgin Gorda is the third-largest member of the B.V.I. archipelago, with a permanent population of about 3,000 lucky souls. Virgin Gorda is uncrowded and incredibly scenic, with swooping roads that lace the tops of emerald peaks and some of the cleanest and clearest water on the planet. In fact, being on the water, whether under sail or with snorkel and mask, is the default mode on Virgin Gorda. It's a sun-and-sea worshiper's dream come true.\n\nMany visitors come over just for a day to check out the Baths, an astounding collection of gigantic boulders and crystalline tide pools on the southern tip. Crafted by volcanic pressures millions of years ago, the rocks have eroded into almost sculptural shapes\u2014and you can snorkel in turquoise pools that snake through the big boulders.\n\nIt may be small and its population sparse, but Virgin Gorda is home to some of the best hotels in the Virgin Islands and among the world's finest, including Little Dix Bay and Biras Creek. One caveat: You will pay dearly for the privilege of staying at one of these expensive resorts. Outside the upscale hotels, restaurants tend to be simple places serving local West Indian cuisine. No one takes nightlife too seriously on Virgin Gorda, so there isn't very much of it.\n\nTHE VIRGIN ISLANDS TODAY\n\nThe American way of life prevails today in the U.S. Virgin Islands, and it has swept across to the British Virgin Islands, as well. The region's traditional recipes and remedies, as well as many of the self-reliant arts of fishing, boat-building, farming, and even hunting, are fading away. When islanders need something, they have it shipped from Miami. In clothes, cars, food, and entertainment, America, not Great Britain, rules the seas around both archipelagos. The British Virgins even use the U.S. dollar as their official currency, instead of British pounds.\n\nLike the rest of the world, the Virgin Islands have felt the effects of the global recession. Tourism is rebounding, but the islands\u2014like the rest of the Caribbean\u2014have not seen the same number of visitors as they had prior to the recession. To attract tourists, the government officials have come to realize that the natural environment must be protected. During the 1980s, the islands, especially St. Thomas, experienced a real estate boom, and much of the island's natural terrain was converted into shopping malls and condo complexes. Caroline Brown, of the Environmental Association of St. Thomas, even issued a dire warning that islanders may find themselves one day \"living in a concrete jungle.\" Today, awareness of the perils of overdevelopment has seeped into the collective consciousness, and protecting the environment\u2014and curbing overdevelopment\u2014has become a primary concern in the Virgin Islands. The B.V.I., for example, has done added 10 new parks, including the Anegada Nature Reserve, to its existing national park system, which includes the Gorda Peak National Park and the Devil's Bay National Park on Virgin Gorda and the Sage Mountain National Park on Tortola. St. John, the smallest of the U.S. Virgin Islands, is the most protected landmass in the Caribbean, with some 60 percent of its acreage directly controlled by the U.S. National Park Service (and more parcels added on an ongoing basis).\n\nA 51st state?\n\nThe U.S. Virgin Islands are an unincorporated territory administered by the U.S. Department of the Interior. Politically speaking, the Virgin Islands, like Puerto Rico, remain outside the family of the United States. They are only permitted to send a nonvoting delegate to the U.S. House of Representatives. U.S. Virgin Islanders are not allowed to vote in national elections, a sore spot among some of the local residents. Many hope to see another star added to the American flag in the near future\u2014feeling that only full statehood will provide the respect, power, and influence needed to turn the islands into more than just a \"colony.\" Progress in this direction moves sluggishly along, if at all.\n\nWhen the 1936 Organic Act of the Virgin Islands was passed under the Roosevelt administration, residents ages 21 and over were granted suffrage and could elect two municipal councils and a legislative assembly for the islands. In 1946, the first black governor of the islands, William Hastie, was appointed. By 1970, the U.S. Virgin Islanders had the right to elect their own governor and lieutenant governor.\n\nOn St. Thomas, the friction between developers and environmentalists was recently encapsulated in the battle over the future of the 400 acres surrounding Botany Bay. The area, on the western end of St. Thomas, has long been a refuge from the bustle of Charlotte Amalie, the capital. This undeveloped property (a private estate closed to the public for some 80 years) was a conservation area of sorts for deer, and a nesting ground for sea turtles, ringed by some of the healthiest coral reefs around St. Thomas. When it was first proposed in 2001, the development of a gated beachfront resort complex\u2014The Preserve at Botany Bay\u2014with a luxury hotel, timeshare condos, and sprawling home sites, was greeted with opposition from environmentalists and became a hot-button political topic. It felt as if much of the future of the islands was riding on what happened at Botany Bay. Some 5 years later, after developers reduced the density of the development and agreed to specific Coastal Zone Management division (CZM), requests (such as providing a walking path for public shoreline access and producing a booklet for future homeowners on preserving and protecting the area's unique environment), the U.S.V.I. Dept. of Planning & Natural Resources gave the green light to the development of the multi-use Preserve at Botany Bay.\n\nFlash forward to late 2013: Although the hotel arm of the project remained at a standstill, a number of villas and homes had been completed, many commanding the hillsides overlooking Botany Bay. \"The Wall Street Journal\" reported that a \"pirate-themed\" six-bedroom villa in the Preserve at Botany Bay was on the market for $35 million.\n\nLOOKING BACK: VIRGIN ISLANDS HISTORY\n\nA Brief History\n\nChristopher Columbus is credited with \"discovering\" the Virgin Islands in 1493, but, in fact, they had already been inhabited for 3,000 years. It is believed that the original settlers were the nomadic Ciboney Indians, who migrated from the mainland of South America and lived off the islands' fish and vegetation. The first real homesteaders were the peaceful Arawak Indians, who arrived from Venezuela, presumably in dugout canoes with sails.\n\nFor about 500 years, the Arawaks occupied the Virgin Islands, until the arrival of the cannibalistic Carib Indians in the 15th century. The Caribs destroyed the Arawaks, either by working them to death as slaves or by eating them. With the advent of European explorers and their diseases, these tribes were completely wiped out.\n\nDateline\n\n1493 Columbus sails by the Virgin Islands, lands on St. Croix, and is attacked by Carib Indians.\n\n1625 Dutch and English establish frontier outposts on St. Croix.\n\n1650 Spanish forces from Puerto Rico overrun English garrison on St. Croix.\n\n1653 St. Croix taken over by the Knights of Malta.\n\n1671 Danes begin settlement of St. Thomas.\n\n1672 England adds British Virgin Islands to its empire.\n\n1674 King Louis XIV of France makes St. Croix part of his empire.\n\n1717 Danish planters from St. Thomas cultivate plantations on St. John.\n\n1724 St. Thomas is declared a free port.\n\n1733 Danish West India Company purchases St. Croix from France; slaves revolt on St. John.\n\n1792 Denmark announces plans to abandon the slave trade.\n\n1807\u201315 England occupies Danish Virgin Islands.\n\n1820s Sugar plantations on the Virgin Islands begin to see a loss in profits.\n\n1834 England frees 5,133 slaves living in British Virgin Islands.\n\n1848 Under pressure, the governor of St. Croix grants slaves emancipation.\n\n1867 First attempt by the United States to purchase the Virgin Islands from the Danish.\n\n1872 British Virgin Islands put under administration of the Federation of the Leeward Islands.\n\n1916 Denmark signs treaty with the U.S. and sells islands for $25 million.\n\n1917 Virgin Islands fall under the control of the U.S. Navy for 14 years.\n\n1927 United States grants citizenship to island residents.\n\n1936 Under Franklin Roosevelt, the first Organic Act is passed, granting voting rights to U.S. Virgin Islanders.\n\n1940 Population of U.S. Virgin Islands increases for the first time since 1860 because of its use as a port during World War II.\n\n1946 First black governor of the U.S.V.I., William Hastie, is appointed.\n\n1954 Revised Organic Act passed; the U.S.V.I. fall under jurisdiction of Department of the Interior.\n\n1956 British Virgins released from the Federation of the Leeward Islands.\n\n1966 Queen Elizabeth II visits the British Virgin Islands.\n\n1967 B.V.I. get a new constitution.\n\n1980s U.S.V.I. see major development and construction, putting natural resources at risk.\n\n1989 Hurricane Hugo rips through the islands, hitting St. Croix especially hard.\n\n1995 Hurricane Marilyn causes millions of dollars of damage and leaves thousands homeless.\n\n1996 Water Island, off the coast of St. Thomas, is officially declared the fourth U.S. Virgin Island; U.S. Senate grants permission for two casino hotels to be built on St. Croix.\n\n2000 St. Croix becomes the first \"casino island\" in the Virgin Islands.\n\n2005 Plans stall for grand development of St. Thomas.\n\n2008 B.V.I. become one of the world's leading offshore financial centers.\n\n2009 Islands experience drop-off in tourism as U.S. economy goes into recession.\n\n2010 U.S.V.I. officials tackle environmental problems.\n\nThe Age of Colonization\n\nIn November 1493, on his second voyage to the New World, Columbus spotted the Virgin Islands, naming them Las Once Mil Virgenes, after the Christian St. Ursula and her martyred maidens. Short of drinking water, he decided to anchor at what is now Salt River on St. Croix's north shore. His men were greeted by a rainfall of arrows. Embittered, Columbus called that part of the island Cabo de Flechas, or \"Cape of the Arrows,\" and sailed toward Puerto Rico.\n\nAs the sponsor of Columbus's voyage, Spain claimed the Virgin Islands; however, with more interest in the Greater Antilles, Spain chose not to colonize the Virgins, leaving the door open to other European powers. In 1625, both the English and the Dutch established opposing frontier outposts on St. Croix. Struggles between the two nations for control of the island continued for about 20 years, until the English prevailed (for the time being).\n\nAs the struggle among European powers widened, the islands continued to function as a battleground. In 1650, Spanish forces from Puerto Rico overran the British garrison on St. Croix. Soon after, the Dutch invaded; in 1653, the island fell into the hands of the Knights of Malta, who gave St. Croix its name.\n\nHowever, these aristocratic French cavaliers weren't exactly prepared for West Indian plantation life, and their debts quickly mounted. By 1674, King Louis XIV of France took control of St. Croix and made it part of his kingdom.\n\nThe English continued to fight Dutch settlers in Tortola, which was considered the most important of the British Virgin Islands. It wasn't until 1672 that England added the entire archipelago to its growing empire.\n\nA year before, in March 1671, the Danish West India Company made an attempt to settle St. Thomas. The company sent two ships, but only one, the Pharaoh, completed the voyage, with about a third of its crew. Eventually, reinforcements arrived, and by 1679, at least 156 Europeans were reported to be living on St. Thomas, along with their slaves. Captain Kidd, Sir Francis Drake, Blackbeard, and other legendary pirates of the West Indies continued to use St. Thomas as their base for maritime raids in the area. Its harbor also became famous for its slave market.\n\nIn 1717, Danish planters sailed to St. John from St. Thomas to begin cultivating plantations. By 1733, an estimated 100 sugar, tobacco, and cotton plantations were operating on the island. That same year, the slaves rebelled against their colonial masters, taking control of the island for about 6 months and killing many Europeans. It took hundreds of French troops to quell the rebellion.\n\nImpressions\n\n_There could never be lands any more favorable in fertility, in mildness and pleasantness of climate, in abundance of good and pure water. A very peacefuland hopeful place that should give all adventurers great satisfaction._\n\n_\u2013Captain Nathaniel Butler, HM Frigate Nicodemus, 1637_\n\nIn that same year, France sold St. Croix to the Danish West India Company, which divided the island into plantations, boosting the already flourishing slave trade. Some historians say that nearly 250,000 slaves were sold on the auction blocks at Charlotte Amalie before being sent elsewhere, often to America's South. By 1792, Denmark changed its tune and announced that it officially planned to end the slave trade. It was not until 1848, however, that it did so. The British had freed their 5,133 slaves in 1834.\n\nThe great economic boom that resulted from the Virgin Islands plantations began to wilt by the 1820s. The introduction of the sugar beet virtually bankrupted plantation owners, as the demand for cane sugar drastically declined. Cuba eventually took over the sugar market in the Caribbean. By 1872, the British had so little interest in the British Virgins that they placed them in the loosely conceived and administered Federation of the Leeward Islands.\n\nEnter the United States\n\nIn 1867, the United States attempted to purchase the islands from Denmark, but the treaty was rejected by the U.S. Senate in 1870; the asking price was $7.5 million. Following its acquisition of Puerto Rico in 1902, the United States expressed renewed interest in acquiring the Danish islands. This time, the United States offered to pay only $5 million, and the Danish parliament spurned the offer.\n\nOn the eve of its entry into World War I, the U.S. Navy began to fear a possible German takeover of the islands. The United States was concerned that the Kaiser's navy, using the islands as a base, might prey on shipping through the Panama Canal. After renewed attempts by the United States to purchase the islands, Denmark agreed to sell them in 1916 for $25 million, a staggering sum to pay for island real estate in those days.\n\nBy 1917, the United States was in full control of the islands, and Denmark retreated from the Caribbean after a legacy of nearly 21\u20442 centuries. The U.S. Navy looked after the islands for 14 years, and in 1954, they came under the sovereignty of the U.S. Department of the Interior.\n\nSome money was diverted to the area during the Prohibition era, as some islanders made rum and shipped it illegally to the United States, often through Freeport, in the Bahamas. In 1927, the United States granted citizenship to the island residents. In 1936, under Franklin Roosevelt, the first Organic Act was passed, giving the islanders voting rights in local elections. This act was revised in 1954, granting them a greater degree of self-government.\n\nJobs generated by World War II finally woke the islands from their long economic slumber. The U.S.V.I. were used as a port during the war, and visitors first started to appear on the islands. In the postwar economic boom that swept across America, the Virgin Islands at long last found a replacement for sugar cane.\n\nThe British Virgin Islands Develop\n\nThe British Virgin Islands were finally freed from the Leeward Islands Federation in 1956, and in 1966, Queen Elizabeth II visited this remote colonial outpost. By 1967, the British Virgin Islands had received a new constitution. Tourism was slower to come to the British Virgins than to the U.S. Virgin Islands, but it is now the mainstay of the economy.\n\nIn 2000, the British government issued a report that found that nearly 41 percent of offshore companies in the world were formed in the British Virgin Islands. By 2011, the B.V.I. was one of the world's leading offshore financial centers, and the local population boasted one of the highest incomes per capita in the Caribbean\u2014at around $40,000 per family.\n\nTourism & the Economy Today\n\nThe economy of both the British and the U.S. Virgins has been one of the most stable and prosperous in the Caribbean. All of the islands felt the impact of the worldwide economic slump, however, with a falloff in tourism and revenues.\n\nIn the meantime, the governments of both the British Virgins and the U.S. Virgins continue to struggle with unemployment as they mount ongoing struggles to reduce crime and to protect the environment. The U.S. Virgin Islands were awarded $364 million in federal stimulus funding in 2009, and the funding is being used to stimulate the local economy during the recession. One of the major and predictable goals of the stimulus package is in job creation. Some of the money has been earmarked for upgrading the ferry service between Cruz Bay on St. John and Red Hook on St. Thomas.\n\nTHE DANES ARE GONE BUT THEIR architecture STILL STANDS\n\nSome of the architectural legacy left by the colonizing Danes still remains in the islands, especially in Christiansted and Frederiksted on St. Croix, and in Charlotte Amalie on St. Thomas.\n\nMany of the commercial buildings constructed in downtown Charlotte Amalie are restrained in ornamentation. Pilasters and classical cornices were commonplace on many buildings. Most door arches and windows were framed in brick. To \"dress up\" a building, ornamentation, such as cornices, was added in the final stages. The walls were covered with plaster, but in recent decades this plaster and stucco have been stripped from the walls. Underneath the rubble, well-designed shapes and patterns of old brick and \"blue bitch\"\u2014a native stone made of volcanic tuff\u2014were discovered. The old masons may have known what they were doing. Once stripped of their plaster coating, the walls don't stand up well in the Caribbean sun and salt air. Cast-iron grillwork on some of the second-floor overhanging balconies adds a certain architectural flair. Many of the buildings in St. Thomas originally had courtyards, or still do. These added to the living space on the second floor. In the courtyard were kitchens and, almost more vital, cisterns to capture precious rainwater.\n\nSimilar building techniques were used on structures that went up on St. Croix. Christiansted remains one of the most historically authentic towns in the West Indies, true to its original Danish colonial flavor. The basic style was a revival of the European classic look of the 18th century, but with variations to accommodate the tropical climate. As early as 1747, the Danes adopted a strict building code, which spared Christiansted from some of the violent fires that virtually wiped out Charlotte Amalie. Frederiksted, the other major town of St. Croix, has a well-designed waterfront, with blocks of arcaded sidewalks. The quarter is protected by the government as part of Frederiksted's National Historic District.\n\nGreat architecture was never the forte of the British Virgin Islands. During a time when major buildings might have been created, the B.V.I. were too economically depressed to find the funds for major structures of lasting significance. Therefore, for much of its history, its people have lived in typical West Indies shanties, with an occasional public building constructed that vaguely imitated 18th-century Europe in style. Curiously enough, although the B.V.I. didn't leave the world any lasting architectural heritage, it did produce a native son, William Thornton, whose designs were used for the U.S. Capitol building in Washington.\n\nIn 2010, officials in the U.S. Virgin Islands developed closer contact with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The aim is to help the territory solve some of its longstanding problems, such as the best way to address the solid waste problem and how to preserve healthy air standards.\n\nTHE VIRGIN ISLANDS IN POPULAR CULTURE\n\nBooks\n\nFICTION\n\nHerman Wouk's \"Don't Stop the Carnival\" (Little Brown & Co., 1992) is \"the Caribbean classic,\" and all readers contemplating a visit to the Virgin Islands might want to pick it up. Wouk lived in St. Thomas in the 1950s, and his novel is based on actual people he met during that time. Bob Shacochis's \"Easy in the Islands\" (Grove, 2004) giddily re-creates the flavor of the West Indies with short stories. \"Tales of St. John & the Caribbean,\" by Gerald Singer (Sombrero Publishing Co., 2001), is an easy read: a collection of amusing and insightful stories, and the best volume if you'd like a behind-the-scenes look at St. John after the tourists have taken the ferry back to St. Thomas for the night.\n\n\"My Name Is Not Angelica,\" by Scott O'Dell (Yearling Books, 1990), is a young-adult historical novel based in the Virgin Islands in the early 18th century. It tells the saga of a slave girl, Raisha, who escapes bondage; the grim realities of slavery are depicted.\n\nRobert Louis Stevenson is said to have used Norman Island, in the B.V.I., as a fictional setting for his 1883 classic \"Treasure Island.\" This swashbuckling adventure has intrigued readers for years with such characters as the immortal Long John Silver. The book, which gave rise to such memorable lines as \"shiver me timbers,\" continues to find new generations of readers.\n\nCOOKBOOKS\n\nA number of books are devoted to recipes of the Caribbean, including \"The Sugar Mill Caribbean Cookbook: Casual and Elegant Recipes Inspired by the Islands,\" by Jinx and Jefferson Morgan (Harvard Common Press, 1996). The Morgans run the Sugar Mill on Tortola. With this book, you can learn the secrets of many of the Sugar Mill's signature dishes, including Rasta Pasta, rum-glazed chicken wings, and lobster and christophine curry.\n\n\"Food & Folklore of the Virgin Islands\" (Romik, 1990) was penned by Arona Petersen, a well-known St. Thomas writer and folklorist born in 1908. The regional flavor of Virgin Islands fare is captured in her recipes, and the idiomatic dialogues of island people are perfectly re-created as she spins old island tales and wisdom. In her story \"What Does Tomorrow Mean? In any Language, Wait\" appears this passage: \"Wat I trying to say is dat waitin is wat life is about. Everybody waitin fo something or udder, mannin or nite. Tain get wan purson wat, livin ain waitin-fo a bus, fo a taxi, fo a airplane, fo a steamer, fo a letter to come back. Some doan even know wat dey waiting for but dey still waitin.\" Her books are sold in local shops.\n\nHISTORY BOOKS\n\nThe concise \"History of the Virgin Islands\" (University Press of the West Indies, 2000) is a bit scholarly for some tastes, but if you're seriously interested in the islands, this is the best-researched survey of what was going on before your arrival. \"Caribbean Pirates,\" by Warren Alleyne (Macmillan-Caribbean, 1986), is a good read for preteen travelers and attempts to separate fact from fiction in the sagas of the most notorious pirates in history. Some of the material is based on published letters and documents.\n\nOUTDOOR ADVENTURE BOOKS\n\nSailing enthusiasts say you shouldn't set out to explore the islets, cays, coral reefs, and islands of the B.V.I. without John Rousmani\u00e8re's well-researched \"The Sailing Lifestyle\" (Fireside, 1988).\n\n\"Exploring St. Croix,\" by Shirley Imsand and Richard Philobosian (Travelers Information Press, 1987), is a very detailed activity guide of this island. The authors take you to 49 beaches, 34 snorkeling and scuba-diving sites, and 22 bird-watching areas, and lead you on 20 different hikes.\n\n\"A Guide to the Birds of Puerto Rico & the Virgin Islands,\" by Herbert A. Raffaele, Cindy J. House, and John Wiessinger (Princeton University Press, 1989), is for bird-watchers. The illustrations alone are worth a look, with 273 depictions of the 284 documented species on the islands.\n\nFilm\n\nFilm production reached its heyday on St. Thomas in the '70s and '80s, when major TV shows, such as \"Charlie's Angels,\" \"The Love Boat,\" and \"All My Children,\" were shot here.\n\nMany movies have been shot in the Virgin Islands, including \"Open Water\" (2003), the hair-raising adventure story of a couple stranded in shark-infested waters (based on a true story) and \"The Deep,\" shot around the wreck of the RMS Rhone near Salt Island, the B.V.I. The final scene of \"The Shawshank Redemption\" (1994), when Andy Dufresne escapes the harsh Shawshank Prison for an idyllic tropical island, was filmed on Sandy Point, in St. Croix. The final island scene in \"Trading Places\" (1983), starring Eddie Murphy and Jamie Lee Curtis, was also shot in St. Croix. A 1980s film classic, \"The Four Seasons\" (1981), was filmed in part in the Virgin Islands; the film is a tender-sweet melodrama that stars Carol Burnett and Alan Alda.\n\nThe 1990 television remake of Ernest Hemingway's \"The Old Man and the Sea,\" starring Anthony Quinn, was filmed on the half-moon bay at Smuggler's Cove, on Tortola in the B.V.I. The ruins of the movie set still remain.\n\nThe true classic of the archipelago is \"Virgin Island\" (1958), starring John Cassavetes and Sidney Poitier. Filmed in the British Virgin Islands, it is a fairy-tale type of story about a young man and woman who buy a small, uninhabited island and go there to find their dream. The film was based on the actual experiences of novelist Robb White, who with his wife bought Marina Cay in 1937 for $60 and decided to pursue a Robinson Crusoe existence on the islands. He wrote about it in three memoirs: \"In Privateers Bay,\" \"Our Virgin Island,\" and \"Two on the Isle.\"\n\nEssential Guide to Sailing the Virgin Islands\n\nFor more than a quarter of a century, \"Yachtsman's Guide to the Virgin Islands\" has been the classic cruising guide to this area (it's now in its 13th edition). The detailed, 288-page text is supplemented by 27 hand-drawn sketch charts, aerial photographs, and numerous landfall sketches showing harbors, channels, landmarks, and such. Subjects covered include piloting, anchoring, communication, weather, fishing, and more. The guide also covers the eastern end of Puerto Rico, Vieques, and Culebra. Copies are available at major marine outlets, bookstores, and direct from Yachtman's Guide (  877\/923-9653; www.yachtsmansguide.com).\n\nDon't Let the Jumbies Get Ya!\n\n\"Don't let the Jumbies get ya!\" is an often-heard phrase in the Virgin Islands, particularly when people are leaving their hosts and heading home in the dark. Jumbies, capable of good or evil, are supernatural beings that are believed to live around households. It is said that new settlers from the mainland of the United States never see these Jumbies and, therefore, need not fear them. But many islanders believe in their existence and, if queried, may enthrall you with tales of sightings.\n\nNo one seems to agree on exactly what a Jumbie is. Some claim it's the spirit of a dead person that didn't go where it belonged. Others disagree. \"They're the souls of live people,\" one islander told us, \"but they live in the body of the dead.\" The most prominent Jumbies are \"moko jumbies,\" colorful stilt walkers seen at all carnival parades.\n\nMusic\n\nAs the Caribbean rhythms go, the Virgin Islands encompass it all, from reggae to classical to steel drums to spiritual hymns, but soca, reggae, calypso, and steel-pan beats seem to dominate the night.\n\nThough it originated in Trinidad, calypso has its unique sounds in the Virgins. It is famously known for expressing political commentary through satire.\n\nIf you add a little soul music to calypso, you have soca, a music form that also made its way north to the Virgin Islands from Trinidad. Reggae originated on Jamaica, but is alive and well in the Virgins. Virgin Islanders have put a unique stamp on reggae, making it their own.\n\nScratch bands are popular in the British Virgins, in the musical form known as fungi. Merengue is also heard in the Virgins, having \"floated over\" from Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic.\n\nThroughout the year in various bars, clubs, reggae concerts, steel-pan shows, and jazz concerts, you can hear the music of the islands, including zouk, dance music from Martinique. Find out what's happening by reading the local newspapers.\n\nOf course, the leading musicians of the islands make recordings, including the hypnotic and tantalizing roots-reggae stylings of St. Croix native Dezarie, whose albums, including \"Gracious Mama Africa\" and her latest, \"Fourth Book,\" have earned her the title of St. Croix's Roots Empress. Another St. Croix\u2013born singer is Mada Nile (<http:\/\/madafyahnile.com>), known for her poignant lyrics.\n\nA vocal rival of both Dezarie and Mada Nile is Sistah Joyce, a reggae artist from Virgin Gorda who is acclaimed for her hard-hitting lyrics as evoked by her recording of \"Remembah.\" She scored a hit with her debut album, \"H.Y.P.O.C.R.I.C.Y.\"\n\nIsland-bred reggae bands, such as Midnite (from St. Croix) and Inner Visions (from St. John), have never been more popular, although they've been around since the '80s. \"Midnite Intense Pressure,\" Midnite's debut album, firmly established them as a force in roots music; the group is known for its fiery lyrics. Its latest album is \"Lion out of Zion\" (<http:\/\/midniteband.com>). The albums of Inner Visions (www.innervisionsreggae.com) demonstrate the group's refined musical abilities, which distinguish them from the more \"raw roots\" style of many other rival artists. The band is made up of first- and second-generation members of the Pickering family, with names like Grasshopper and Jupiter.\n\nEATING & DRINKING\n\nOverall, you will eat very well in the islands. Many fine talents, both local and imported, are ensconced in kitchens throughout the region, and competition breeds excellence. In addition, traditional Caribbean cuisine is alive and well in the Virgin Islands, and many classic island dishes are staples on restaurant menus, and not just the laidback local spots. Even upscale resorts serving an international clientele favor menus with an island spin, fomenting a Caribbean\/continental fusion.\n\nDining in the Virgin Islands is generally more expensive than it is in North America because much of the food has to be imported. Whenever possible, take advantage of fresh regional foods, like locally caught fish, especially mahimahi, wahoo, yellowtail, grouper, and red snapper. The sweet Caribbean lobster is another local specialty. More and more, farm-fresh produce is making a reappearance, and you'll even find local fruits and vegetables sold in the island's grocery stores\u2014fresh avocadoes, bananas, sweet potatoes, cassava, you name it.\n\nTips on Dining\n\nTipping A 10 percent to 15 percent service charge is automatically added to most restaurant tabs. If the service is good, you should tip a bit extra.\n\nWhat to Wear In some of the posher resorts, such as Caneel Bay on St. John, it is customary for men to wear a jacket, but in summer, virtually no establishment requires it. If in doubt, ask the restaurant beforehand. At the better places, women's evening attire is casual-chic. During the day it is always proper to wear something over your bathing suit if you're in a restaurant.\n\nReservations Most places require reservations, especially in high season. But even in the slower seasons (or shoulder seasons), many of the smaller restaurants need to know how many people to expect for the evening's meal, so reservations may be required there as well.\n\nThe Cuisine\n\nYou may want to start your meal with a bowl of kallaloo, or callaloo, a West Indian\u2013style gumbo made in an infinite number of ways with a leafy green vegetable similar to spinach. It may come flavored with hot peppers, a ham bone, fresh seafood, okra, onions, and spices. We've also eaten a wonderful breakfast dish of steamed callaloo with sauteed mushrooms, onions, and halved cherry tomatoes.\n\nSaltfish salad is traditionally served on Maundy Thursday or Good Friday in the Virgin Islands. It consists of boneless salt fish, potatoes, onions, boiled eggs, and an oil-and-vinegar dressing.\n\nHerring gundy is another old-time island favorite; it's a salad made with salt herring, potatoes, onions, green sweet and hot peppers, olives, diced beets, raw carrots, herbs, and boiled eggs.\n\nThe classic vegetable dish, which some families eat every night, is peas and rice. It usually consists of pigeon peas flavored with ham or salt meat, onion, tomatoes, herbs, and sometimes slices of pumpkin. Pigeon peas, one of the most common vegetables in the islands, are sometimes called congo peas or gunga.\n\nMany local joints serve a sweet and savory island slaw, often made with raisins and sweet peppers.\n\nFungi is a simple cornmeal dish not unlike grits, made more interesting with the addition of okra and other ingredients. Sweet fungi is served as a dessert, with sugar, milk, cinnamon, and raisins.\n\nOkra (often spelled ochroe in the islands) is a mainstay vegetable, usually accompanying beef, fish, or chicken. It's often fried and flavored with hot peppers, tomatoes, onions, garlic, and bacon fat or butter. Accra, a popular dish, is made with okra, black-eyed peas, salt, and pepper, all fried until they're golden brown.\n\nWay back when, locals gave colorful names to the various fish brought home for dinner, everything from \"ole wife\" to \"doctors,\" both of which are whitefish. \"Porgies and grunts,\" along with yellowtail, kingfish, and bonito, also show up on many Caribbean dinner tables. Fish is often boiled in a lime-flavored brew seasoned with hot peppers and herbs, and is commonly served with a Creole sauce of peppers, tomatoes, and onions, among other ingredients. Salt fish and rice is an excellent low-cost dish; the fish is flavored with onion, tomatoes, shortening, garlic, and green peppers.\n\nConch shows up on the menu in all sorts of interesting manifestations. Every restaurant has its own version of conch fritters. Conch Creole is a savory brew, seasoned with onions, garlic, spices, hot peppers, and salt pork. Another West Indian favorite is chicken and rice, usually made with Spanish peppers. More adventurous diners might try curried goat, the longtime classic West Indian dinner prepared with herbs, cardamom pods, and onions.\n\nThe famous johnnycakes that accompany many of these fish and meat dishes are made with flour, baking powder, shortening, and salt, then fried or baked.\n\nOn the B.V.I., you'll find a number of inexpensive roti joints, serving up East Indian-style turnovers stuffed with curried chicken, fish, or potatoes and peas.\n\nFor dessert, sweet potato pie is a Virgin Islands classic, made with sugar, eggs, butter, milk, salt, cinnamon, raisins, and chopped raw almonds. The exotic fruits of the islands lend themselves to various homemade ice creams, including mango, guava, soursop (a tangy fruit), banana, carambola (star fruit), pineapple, and papaya. Sometimes dumplings made with guava, peach, plum, gooseberry, cherry, or apple are served for dessert.\n\nSome Like It Hot\n\nVirgin Islanders like their hot sauce (aka \"pepper\" sauce), in any number of creative variations, and many island cooks prepare and bottle their own, a number of which are available for sale in stores around the islands. Foodies and bloggers have a field day defending their favorites, including Miss Anna's   \n(St. John), Blind Betty's (St. Croix), Jerome's (St. Thomas), and ValleyDoll (St. John). At Little Dix Bay in Virgin Gorda, one of the resort's longtime servers, Venita Chapman, creates her own saucy concoction with mangos, papayas, and peppers, Venita's Hot Pepper Sauce, sold right there at the resort. Even Miss Gladys, proprietor of Gladys' Caf\u00e9 in St. Thomas, makes and bottles her own divine hot-sauce concoctions (in such flavors as mango, mustard, and tomato) and sells them in her restaurant. If you're a hot-sauce aficionado, you'll find an exhaustive selection of these and more at St. John Spice (<http:\/\/stjohnspice.com>), on the harbor in Cruz Bay. They make great gifts to take home, but be sure to pack them in your luggage and not your carryon.\n\nDrinks\n\nThe islands' true poison is rum. To help stimulate the local economy, U.S. Customs allows you to bring home an extra bottle of local rum, in addition to your usual 5-liter liquor allowance.\n\nLong before the arrival of Coca-Cola and Pepsi, many islanders concocted their own fruit drinks using whatever fruit was in season. Fresh fruit concoctions are ubiquitous on menus today. American sodas and beer are sold in both the U.S. Virgin Islands and the British Virgin Islands. Wine is sold, too, but it can be expensive.\n\nWater is generally safe to drink on the islands. Much of the water is stored in cisterns and filtered before it's served. Still, delicate stomachs should stick to bottled water or club soda. Some resorts have their own desalination plants, providing water that is delicious and highly drinkable.\n\nWHEN TO GO\n\nWeather\n\nSunshine and warm temperatures are practically an everyday affair in the Virgin Islands. Temperatures climb into the 80s (high 20s Celsius) during the day, and drop into the more comfortable 70s (low 20s Celsius) at night. Winter is generally the dry season in the islands, but rainfall can occur at any time of the year. You don't have to worry too much, though\u2014tropical showers usually come and go so quickly you won't even really notice. November is traditionally the wettest month\u2014if you're out exploring for the day, you may want to bring an umbrella or rain hat just in case.\n\nHurricanes The hurricane season, the dark side of the Caribbean's beautiful weather, officially lasts from June to November. It peaks in September and October. The Virgin Islands chain lies in the main pathway of many a hurricane raging through the Caribbean, and the islands are often hit. If you're planning a vacation in hurricane season, stay abreast of weather conditions and consider investing in trip-cancellation insurance.\n\nIslanders certainly don't stand around waiting for a hurricane to strike. Satellite forecasts generally give adequate warning to both residents and visitors. And of course, there's always prayer: Islanders have a legal holiday in the third week of July called Supplication Day, when they ask to be spared from devastating storms. In late October, locals celebrate the end of the season on Hurricane Thanksgiving Day.\n\nAverage Temperatures & Rainfall (in.) for St. Thomas\n\nThe High Season & the Off Season\n\nHigh season (or winter season) in the Virgin Islands, when hotel rates are at their peak, runs roughly from mid-December to mid-April. However, package and resort rates are sometimes lower in January, as a tourist slump usually occurs right after the Christmas holidays. February is the busiest month. If you're planning on visiting during the winter months, make reservations as far in advance as possible.\n\nOff season begins when North America starts to warm up, and vacationers, assuming that temperatures in the Virgin Islands are soaring into the 100s (upper 30s Celsius), head for less tropical local beaches. However, the Virgin Islands are actually quite balmy year-round, thanks to the fabled trade winds\u2014with temperatures varying little more than 5\u00b0 between winter and summer.\n\nThere are many advantages to off-season travel in the Virgin Islands. First, from mid-April to mid-December, hotel rates are slashed\u2014often in half. Second, you're less likely to encounter crowds at beaches, resorts, restaurants, and shops. A slower pace prevails in the off season, especially in St. Croix and St. Thomas, and you'll have a better chance to appreciate the local culture and cuisine. Of course, there are disadvantages to off-season travel, too: Many hotels use the slower months for construction and\/or restoration, fewer facilities are likely to be open, and some hotels and restaurants may close completely when business is really slow.\n\nAdditionally, if you're planning a trip during the off season and traveling alone, ask for the hotel's occupancy rate\u2014you may want crowds. The social scene in both the B.V.I. and the U.S.V.I. is intense from mid-December to mid-April. After that, it slumbers a bit. If you seek escape from the world and its masses, summer is the way to go, especially if you aren't depending on meeting others.\n\nHolidays\n\nIn addition to the standard legal holidays observed in the United States, U.S. Virgin Islanders also observe the following holidays: Three Kings' Day (Jan 6); Transfer Day, commemorating the transfer of the Danish Virgin Islands to the Americans (Mar 31); Organic Act Day, honoring the legislation that granted voting rights to the islanders (June 20); Emancipation Day, celebrating the freeing of the slaves by the Danish in 1848 (July 3); Hurricane Supplication Day (July 25); Hurricane Thanksgiving Day (Oct 17); Liberty Day (Nov 1); and Christmas Second Day (Dec 26). The islands also celebrate 2 carnival days on the last Friday and Saturday in April: Children's Carnival Parade and the Grand Carnival Parade.\n\nIn the British Virgin Islands, public holidays include the following: New Year's Day, Commonwealth Day (Mar 12), Good Friday, Easter Monday, Whitmonday (sometime in July), Territory Day Sunday (usually July 1), Festival Monday and Tuesday (during the first week of Aug), St. Ursula's Day (Oct 21), Birthday of the Heir to the Throne (Nov 14), Christmas Day, and Boxing Day (Dec 26).\n\nThe Virgin Islands Calendar of Events\n\nJanuary\n\nEstate Bordeaux Agricultural & Cultural Food Fair, St. Thomas. Weekend-long farm fair in the hills of Estate Bordeaux, with reggae music, crafts, farm tours, and more served up from 10am to midnight. Contact We Grow Food (www.facebook.com\/WEGROWFOOD). January 19 and 20.\n\nFebruary\n\nSt. Croix House Tours, St. Croix. Two separate weekends of house tours, each in a different St. Croix neighborhood, are held to raise funds for the St. Croix Landmarks Society. Go to www.stcroixlandmarks.com for details. Two weekends in mid-February.\n\nAgrifest: St. Croix Agricultural Fair, St. Croix. Held at the Rudolph Shulterbrandt Agricultural Complex, Estate Lower Love, this 3-day festival is one of the island's highlights, a family-friendly event featuring music, crafts, and lots of locally made food and island-grown produce. Go to www.viagrifest.org for details. Presidents' Day weekend.\n\nMarch\n\nMardi Gras Annual Parade, St. Croix. The scenic north shore of St. Croix becomes one big colorful party at Mardi Gras, with a parade to Cane Bay. For information, check www.stcroixtourism.com. First Saturday before Fat Tuesday, usually early March.\n\nSt. Thomas International Regatta, St. Thomas. This is one of three regattas in the Caribbean Ocean Racing Triangle (CORT) series. Top-ranked international racers come to St. Thomas to compete in front of the world's yachting press. The St. Thomas Yacht Club hosts the 3-day event. Call   340\/775-4701, or visit www.rolexcupregatta.com. Late March.\n\nTransfer Day, U.S. Virgin Islands. This holiday commemorates the day the U.S. Virgins were transferred from Denmark to the United States. On this day, vendors sell Danish products, and visits to the remains of Danish ruins and forts are arranged. Call   340\/772-0598, or visit www.stcroixlandmarks.com. March 31.\n\nApril\n\nB.V.I. Spring Regatta & Sailing Festival, Tortola. This is the third of the CORT events (see St. Thomas International Regatta, above). A range of talents, from the most dedicated racers to bareboat crews out for \"rum and reggae,\" participate in the 4-day race. Contact the B.V.I. Spring Regatta Committee in Tortola at   284\/541-6732, or sail over to www.bvispringregatta.org for information. Early April.\n\nVirgin Gorda Easter Festival, Virgin Gorda. Easter weekend is a big event on Virgin Gorda, featuring street parades, a beauty pageant, and nonstop partying. Arrive on Good Friday, Holy Saturday, or Easter Sunday, and you should have no trouble finding the party. Easter weekend.\n\nSt. Croix Food & Wine Experience, St. Croix. It's a weeklong food party on St. Croix, where the island's culinary delights are highlighted with city food crawls, wine events, sunset BBQs, and the chance to sample local creations at the \"Taste of St. Croix.\" Go to www.stcroixfoodandwine.com. April 16\u201321.\n\nVirgin Islands Carnival, St. Thomas. This annual celebration on St. Thomas, with origins in Africa, is the most spectacular and fun carnival in the Virgin Islands. \"Mocko Jumbies,\" people dressed as spirits, parade through the streets on stilts nearly 20 feet high. Steel and fungi bands, \"jump-ups,\" and parades are part of the festivities. Over the years, interestingly, the festivities have become more and more Christianized. Events take place islandwide, but most of the action is on the streets of Charlotte Amalie. For information, call   340\/776-3112, or visit www.vicarnival.com for a schedule of events. After Easter.\n\nMay\n\nB.V.I. Music Festival, Tortola. Music\u2014mostly reggae\u2014drowns out the sea at this music festival on Cane Garden Bay in Tortola, the island's best beach. Musicians come from all over the West Indies to perform. For more information, visit www.bvimusicfestival.com. Late May.\n\nJune\n\nSt John Festival, St. John. Known also as \"Carnival,\" this month-long cultural event takes place on St. John, with steel-pan concerts, calypso shows, parades, beauty pageants, and fireworks displays. For more information, call 800\/372-USVI [8784]. The carnival begins the first week of June and lasts until July 4.\n\nJuly\n\nMango Melee and Tropical Fruit Festival, St. Croix. Mango aficionados and devotees of other tropical fruit converge here for tastings, cooking demonstrations, and contests at the St. George Village Botanical Gardens. For more information, call   340\/692-2874. Early July.\n\nIndependence Day, St. John. The elements of Carnival are combined with emancipation and independence celebrations in this festive event, which culminates on July 4 with a big parade. Thousands of St. Thomas residents flock to St. John for the parades, calypso bands, colorful costumes, and events leading up to the selection of Ms. St. John and the King of the Carnival. Call the St. John tourist office at   340\/776-6201 for more details. July 4.\n\nAugust\n\nB.V.I. Emancipation Celebrations, Tortola. Many visitors from other Caribbean islands hop over to Road Town, in Tortola, for this 2-week party. Join locals as they dance to fungi and reggae bands, and take part in the Emancipation Day Parade and other carnival activities and festivities. For information, call the B.V.I. Tourist Board Office at   284\/494-3701. Early August.\n\nU.S. Virgin Islands Open\/Atlantic Blue Marlin Tournament, St. Thomas. This prestigious St. Thomas\u2013centered charity event (proceeds go to the Boy Scouts) is also eco-friendly\u2014trophies are based on the number of blue marlin caught, tagged, and released. The tournament is open to anyone who's interested, and sportsfishers come from around the world to participate. For more information, call the VI Council of the Boy Scouts of America at   888\/234-7484 or 340\/775-9500; www.abmt.vi. Mid-August.\n\nOctober\n\nVirgin Islands Fashion Week, St. Thomas. Aspiring designers from across the Caribbean, the United States, and even West Africa fly into St. Thomas to showcase their latest fashion designs. At the Caribbean Catwalk Runway show, beach and casual fashions are the draw. Nearly all events, including rap party, are open to the public. For more information, call   340\/344-6078. Five days in October, dates vary.\n\nNovember\n\nSt. Thomas-St. John Agriculture and Food Fair, St. Thomas and St. John. Produce and livestock, along with local vendors selling arts and crafts, are the focus of this agriculture and food fair held on the grounds of the University of Virgin Islands' Reichhold Center for the Arts. Saturday, November 3, and Sunday, November 4 (10am\u20135pm).\n\nAnnual St. Croix International Regatta, St. Croix. Held at the St. Croix Yacht Club on Teague Bay, this 3-day regatta celebrated its 21st year in 2013. It draws serious yachties from the B.V.I., the U.S.V.I., and Florida. Call St. Croix Yacht Club at   340\/773-9531, or visit www.stcroixyc.com for details. Mid-November.\n\nParadise Jam College Basketball Tournament, St. Thomas. Catch big-time college hoops action at this men's and women's basketball tournament held at the University of the Virgin Islands Sports & Fitness Center. Teams have included Kansas, Duke, Providence, and Maryland. For information, go to www.paradisejam.com or call   340\/693-1056.\n\nBVI Restaurant Week, the British Virgin Islands. If you're in the British Virgin Islands around Thanksgiving, take advantage of the island-wide Restaurant Week, where some 40 participating restaurants throughout the B.V.I. feature prix-fixe dinners. Go to www.bvitourism.com. Last week in November.\n\nArt in the Garden Arts & Crafts Festival, St. Thomas. This annual 3-day festival, which takes place in Tillett Gardens in St. Thomas, includes displays from more than 30 local artists, along with live music and entertainment and free activities for kids. For information, visit www.tillettfoundation.org. Last weekend in November.\n\nAnegada Lobster Festival, the British Virgin Islands. It's a 2-day beach party on the white sands of Anegada for the November Lobster Festival, celebrating the island's famously sweet Caribbean lobster. Eight of the island's restaurants feature sampler plates of lobster dishes. Smiths Ferry (<http:\/\/bviferryservices.com>) and Road Town Fast Ferry (www.roadtownfastferry.com) offer special runs to and from the island, with the last ferries leaving at 9pm. Call   284\/494-3134. Last weekend in November.\n\nDecember\n\nChristmas in St. Croix. This major event launches the beginning of a 12-day celebration that includes Crucian Christmas Carnival (www.stxcarnival.com)\u2014with calypso music, parades, horse races, food fairs, and fireworks\u2014Christmas Day, Christmas Second Day (Dec 26), New Year's Eve (called \"Old Year's Day\"), and New Year's Day. It ends on January 6, the Feast of the Three Kings, with a parade of flamboyantly attired merrymakers. For information, call the U.S. Virgin Islands Department of Tourism office in Christiansted at   340\/773-0495.\n\nFoxy's Old Year's Night, Jost Van Dyke, B.V.I. It's a mega-party on Jost's Great Harbour as Foxy rings in the New Year with weekend-long events, from a Caribbean barbecue to DJ music on the beach to a headliner concert that in 2013 showcased Bunny Wailer. For information, go to <http:\/\/foxysbar.com>.\n\nRESPONSIBLE TRAVEL\n\nMany of the islands were clear-cut in the 1700s to make way for sugar plantations, destroying much of the natural landscape. All through the 1900s, while real estate developments on St. Thomas continued to mushroom, little concern was given to preserving and sustaining the natural resources of the U.S.V.I. Today, there is a very different attitude toward the ecosystem of the Virgin Islands among permanent residents and visitors alike.\n\nThe sparkling marine waters of the Virgin Islands require special stewardship, and the B.V.I. is a leader in environment regulations regarding the islands' pristine seas. The country has banned the use of jet skis (also not allowed in the marine parkland around St. John) and requires that any jet skis or WaveRunners brought into the country be declared at Customs upon entry. Penalties for jet-ski use include confiscation of the jet skis and a $5,000 fine. The National Parks Act of 2006 prohibits sewage disposal and the removing of any living or dead coral from any coastal area, among other regulations.\n\nIn this sailing and boating paradise, boaters are asked to anchor using mooring balls or if you must anchor, look for a sandy bottom that's clear of coral or seagrass meadows where sea turtles feed. Do not anchor or tie your boat to mangroves. Don't drag dinghies onto the beach; look for dinghy moorings or docks. Never throw trash, particularly plastic, overboard (turtles choke on plastic bags). Divers and snorkelers should take care not to touch or accidentally brush up against delicate coral. If you see environmental disturbances (or turtle nesting activity), call the B.V.I. Conservation & Fisheries Department (  284\/494-3429). An invaluable resource is the online \"Marine Awareness Guide\" at www.bvimarineawareness.com.\n\nLow-impact activities like hiking, snorkeling, and kayaking are hugely popular in the Virgin Islands. While on St. Croix, contact the St. Croix Environmental Association (p. ), which hosts hikes, tours of research facilities, and events based around the hatching of baby sea turtles. Aside from the many companies that offer tours, the St. Thomas\u2013based Virgin Islands Ecotours (  877\/845-2925; <http:\/\/viecotours.com>) offers tours with professional naturalists of the mangrove lagoon and nature reserve at Cas Cay, St. Thomas, and snorkeling and hiking tours in Caneel Bay, St. John. B.V.I. Eco-Tours (  284\/495-0271; www.bvi-ecotours.com) offers a variety of guided tours, including snorkeling, bird-watching, sightseeing, diving, and general tours of the British Virgin Islands.\n\nSustainable Eating\n\nIt takes a whole lot of fossil fuels to import food onto these remote islands. That's why it's heartening to see the rebirth of small farms and sustainable farming throughout the Virgins, a movement that is catching fire in particular on St. Croix, with its farmer's markets, farm co-ops, and Virgin Islands Sustainable Farm Institute (<http:\/\/vi.locallygrown.net>) and on St. Thomas, where West End farms in Estate Bordeaux are using government grants to increase capacity in the loamy volcanic soil, where as one farmer said, \"you can grow anything.\" You can do your part in saving energy by eating local: dining on seafood caught in and around the waters of Virgin Islands and buying produce and fruit from the weekly farmer's markets and produce stands\n\nA number of truly eco-friendly lodgings are found on the islands, including campsites. St. John, which is almost entirely a national park, has numerous campsites, including those run by the National Park Service. Alas, the beloved 114-unit Maho Bay Camp eco-resort closed in summer 2013 (sold for $13.95 million to an unknown buyer), but its sister eco-resort Estate Concordia Preserve may expand beyond its 42 campsites. On St. Croix, there is Mount Victory Camp (p. ), which relies on renewable energy to power its cottages. The British Virgin Islands are less developed than their American cousins, and lodgings tend to be more eco-friendly by nature. You don't have to camp out to stay in eco-sensitive lodging, however. The Cooper Island Beach Club (p. ) meets the middle ground between luxury and roughing it. All of Guana Island (p. ), a private resort, is a wildlife sanctuary watched over by the attentive owners (it even has its own organic orchard and a smattering of flamingoes in the salt pond). The Bitter End Yacht Club (p. ), sustainably run by necessity in its early days, continues its green ways by generating its own electricity and collecting and distilling its own water. In fact, many resorts around the islands have their own desalination plants, making highly potable fresh water out of seawater.\n\nSt. Thomas, with all its development and modern conveniences, faces the biggest challenges in regard to sustainable development. To learn more, see the section \"The Virgin Islands Today,\" earlier in this chapter.\n4\n\nST. THOMAS\n\nThe cosmopolitan hub of the Virgin Islands, St. Thomas is known for its brassy commercial hustle. But with sparkling turquoise seas and peaceful mountain aeries, it's easy to leave the hubbub far behind. Yes, the 32-square-mile island is home to the busiest cruise-ship harbor in the West Indies, and its historic capital, Charlotte Amalie, is the beating commercial heart of the region. But just minutes from the action are serene beaches and pampering retreats. More than any other Virgin Island, St. Thomas has something for everyone: Join the market throngs by day and swing to reggae rhythms at night\u2014or simply forget your cares on a sun-kissed, palm-fringed beach.\n\nEssentials\n\nGetting There\n\nBy Plane\n\nIf you're flying to St. Thomas, you will land at the Cyril E. King Airport (  340\/774-5100; <http:\/\/saint-thomas-airport.com>; airport code STT), 3 miles (about a 15-min. drive) to the west of the central business district in Charlotte Amalie on Route 30. From here, you can easily grab a taxi to your hotel or villa. Chances are you will be staying east of Charlotte Amalie, so keep in mind that getting through town often involves long delays and traffic jams during rush hours.\n\nMany people flying in from mainland cities in North America and from overseas connect through Miami or San Juan. Flight time from Miami is about 21\u20442 hours. Flight time from San Juan to St. Thomas is approximately 30 minutes. Flight time between St. Thomas and St. Croix is only 20 minutes.\n\nDirect flights to the U.S. Virgin Islands are available on American Airlines (  800\/433-7300 in the U.S.; www.aa.com) from New York City, Boston, Miami, and San Juan. Flights from NYC take 33\u20444 hours. Continental Airlines (  800\/231-0856 in the U.S.; www.continental.com) has daily flights from Newark International Airport, in New Jersey, to St. Thomas. Delta (  800\/241-4141 in the U.S.; www.delta.com) offers two daily nonstop flights between Atlanta and St. Thomas. US Airways (  800\/428-4322 in the U.S.; www.usairways.com) has direct flights from Philadelphia and Charlotte. JetBlue (  800\/538-2583; www.jetblue.com) has direct flights from Boston. United Airlines (  800\/538-2929 in the U.S.; www.united.com) has direct flights into St. Thomas from Chicago, Dulles (Washington, D.C.), and Newark. Spirit Airlines (  800\/772-7117; www.spirit.com) has direct flights from Fort Lauderdale.\n\nCape Air (  866\/227-3247 in the U.S. and U.S.V.I.; www.capeair.com) offers daily service between St. Thomas and San Juan, Puerto Rico, and has expanded its service to include flights between St. Thomas and both St. Croix and Tortola.\n\nSt. Thomas\n\nSeaborne Airlines (  866\/359-8784 or 340\/773-6442 in the U.S.V.I, www.seaborneairlines.com) is currently the major carrier between St. Thomas and St. Croix, offering regularly scheduled daily flights on 34-seat turboprop planes and seaplanes capable of carrying 15 to 17 passengers. Its regular planes fly between Cyril E. King airport in St. Thomas and the Henry E. Rahlsen airport in St. Croix. Seaborne seaplanes fly between the St. Thomas seaplane base (next to the Charlotte Amalie ferry terminal) and the St. Croix seaplane seaport in the Christiansted waterfront. Flight time between St. Thomas and St. Croix is 20 to 25 minutes. Seaborne also flies between St. Thomas and Beef Island, Tortola.\n\nBy Cruise Ship\n\nCharlotte Amalie is one of the world's busiest cruise ports and the Caribbean's largest duty-free port, welcoming nearly 1,800,000 cruise passengers in 2012 (2013 was unavailable as we went to press). Most of the major cruise lines include regular stops in St. Thomas on their Caribbean itineraries, including the biggest cruise ships in the world, floating \"cities at sea\" capable of holding up to 6,000 passengers at a time.\n\nCruise ships dock at one of two major piers, each with room for two mega-ships at a time: Havensight Pier and Crown Bay. In addition, during the cruising high season, it's not unusual to have an additional one, two, even three ships anchored just outside the harbor, delivering cruise-ship passengers to shore in tenders. At press time an expansion was in the works for the Crown Bay pier.\n\nBy Boat\n\nFerry service from Puerto Rico to St. Thomas, with a stop in St. John, is available only during Carnival. Trip time between Fajardo and Charlotte Amalie (St. Thomas) is about 13\u20444 hours, with the departure Saturday morning and the return Sunday afternoon. The cost is $100 one-way, $125 round-trip. For more information, call Transportation Services at   340\/776-6282.\n\nVisitor Information\n\nThe U.S. Virgin Islands tourist board Welcome Center, in Havensight Mall, on the Waterfront in downtown Charlotte Amalie (  340\/774-8784; www.visitusvi.com), is open Monday to Friday 8am to 5pm and Saturday 8am to 2pm. You can get maps, brochures, and even a list of legal shoreline fishing sites throughout the islands here.\n\nSt. Thomas: Gateway to the Other Virgins\n\nMost people who visit the other Virgin Islands\u2014both U.S. and British\u2014must travel through St. Thomas to get there. Even if you plan to stay in St. Thomas your entire trip, day-trips to one or several other islands should be high on your vacation agenda. A robust ferry system delivers passengers between the islands (except for St. Croix, which is better reached by plane). For details on ferry departure times, check in any recent issue of the free weekly publication \"This Week,\" or go to www.bestofbvi.com\/info\/info_bviferry.htm, with updated ferry times. For a list of ferry companies and contact information, go to p. . St. Thomas has two ferry terminals: Marine Terminal, in Charlotte Amalie, and Red Hook, on the island's east end. Keep in mind that everyone\u2014including U.K. citizens\u2014traveling to the British Virgin Islands needs a passport and must pay a $15-per-person passenger tax at departure.\n\nIsland Layout\n\nCharlotte Amalie\n\nFor a map of the landmarks and attractions discussed below, see \"Walking Tour: Charlotte Amalie,\" on p. .\n\nCharlotte Amalie, the capital of St. Thomas, is the only town on the island. Its seaside promenade is called Waterfront Highway, or simply, the Waterfront. From here, you can take any of the streets or alleyways into town to Main Street (also called Dronningens Gade). Principal links between Main Street and the Waterfront include Raadets Gade, Tolbod Gade, Store Tvaer Gade, and Strand Gade.\n\nMain Street is home to all of the major shops. The western end (near the intersection with Strand Gade) is known as Market Square. Once the site of the biggest slave market auctions in the Caribbean Basin, today it's an open-air cluster of stalls where local farmers and gardeners\u2014many from the Estate Bordeaux farms on the island's West End\u2014gather to sell their produce; Saturday is their big day. Go early in the morning to see the market at its best.\n\nRunning parallel to and north of Main Street is Back Street (also known as Vimmelskaft Gade), which is also lined with stores, including some of the less expensive choices. Note: It can be dangerous to walk along Back Street at night, but it's reasonably safe for daytime shopping.\n\nIn the eastern part of town, between Tolbod Gade and Fort Pladsen (northwest of Fort Christian), lies Emancipation Park, commemorating the liberation of the slaves in 1848. Most of the major historic buildings, including the Legislature, Fort Christian, and Government House, lie within a short walk of this park.\n\nSoutheast of the park looms Fort Christian. Crowned by a clock tower and painted rusty red, it was constructed by the Danes in 1671. The Legislative Building, seat of the elected government of the U.S. Virgin Islands, lies on the harbor side of the fort.\n\nKongens Gade (or King's Street) leads to Government Hill, which overlooks the town and St. Thomas Harbor. Government House, a white brick building dating from 1867, stands atop the hill.\n\nBetween Hotel 1829 (a mansion built that year by a French sea captain) and Government House is a stone staircase known as the Street of 99 Steps. Actually, someone miscounted: It should be called the Street of 103 Steps. Regardless, the steps lead to the summit of Government Hill.\n\nWest of Charlotte Amalie\n\nThe most important of the outlying neighborhoods to the west of Charlotte Amalie is Frenchtown. Some of the older islanders still speak a distinctive Norman-French dialect here. Because the heart of Charlotte Amalie can be less safe at night, Frenchtown, with its finer restaurants and interesting bars, has become the place to go after dark. To reach Frenchtown, take Veterans Drive west of town along the Waterfront, turning left (shortly after passing the Windward Passage Hotel on your right) at the sign pointing to the Villa Olga.\n\nThe mid-grade hotels that lie to the immediate west of Charlotte Amalie attract visitors who are seeking more moderate hotel rates than those charged at the mega-resorts that dot the gold-plated South Coast. The disadvantage is that you may have to depend on public transportation to reach the sands. The biggest attraction is that you're on the very doorstep of Charlotte Amalie, filled with restaurants, bars, shopping, and other amusements.\n\nEast of Charlotte Amalie\n\nTraveling east from Charlotte Amalie, along a traffic-clogged highway, you'll see St. Thomas Harbor on your right. If you stay in this area, you'll be in a tranquil setting just a short car or taxi ride from the bustle of Charlotte Amalie. The major disadvantage is that you must reach the sands by some form of transportation; if you want to run out of your hotel-room door onto the beach, look elsewhere.\n\nThe South Coast\n\nThis fabled strip, with its good, sandy beaches, has put St. Thomas on the tourist maps of the Caribbean. Many visitors prefer the full-service resorts on the South Coast and East End to the hustle and bustle of Charlotte Amalie, especially during the day, when it's overrun by cruise-ship passengers. But if you feel the need for a shopping binge, cars, hotel shuttles, and taxis can quickly deliver you to Charlotte Amalie.\n\nThe East End\n\nThe East End is reached by traversing a long, twisting, traffic-clogged road east of Charlotte Amalie. Once you're here, you can enjoy sea, sand, and sun with little to disturb you (the East End offers even more isolation than the South Coast). This is the site of such lovely beaches as Sapphire Beach and Lindquist Beach. This section of bays and golden sands is where you'll find the the luxe Ritz-Carlton resort as well as a smattering of smaller, less-expensive resorts and condos. The settlement at Red Hook is a bustling community with raffish charm and lots of seaside bars and affordable eateries. It is also the departure point for ferries to St. John.\n\nThe North Coast\n\nThe renowned beach at Magens Bay lies on the lush North Coast. Be aware that the beach is often overrun with visitors, especially when cruise-ship arrivals are heavy. The North Coast has few buildings and not much traffic, but what it does have are scenic vistas, among the most panoramic on the island. Note that traveling the roads can be like a ride on a rollercoaster\u2014the roads have no shoulders and can be especially scary for those not familiar with driving on the left. A lot of the northwest coast, especially at Botany Bay, Bordeaux Bay, and Santa Maria Bay, isn't linked to any roads. Estate Bordeaux has some beautiful, rural stretches of lush mountain farmland, where farmers raise produce and livestock in the loamy green hills.\n\nGetting Around\n\nRenting a car is a great way to see the island and save money on taxi fares. On average, a taxi costs $8 per person per trip, which can add up if you plan a couple of outings from your resort every day. On the other hand, roads on the island can be steep, narrow, poorly lit, and twisting (and often not in the best of shape), so driving St. Thomas can be a challenge for inexperienced drivers\u2014particularly at night. Plus, driving on the left can be somewhat of an adjustment for those used to driving on the right. One local advised thinking \"shoulder to shoulder\"\u2014your left shoulder should be to the shoulder of the road.\n\nAlso keep in mind that normal traffic congestion at rush hours in Charlotte Amalie is only compounded by the morning arrival of sometimes thousands of cruise-ship passengers and the taxis and safari vans there to deliver them to their day's excursions. The good news is that waterfront traffic should be transformed in the next few years, when the harborfront road is expanded from two to a luxurious four lanes.\n\nBy Car\n\nSt. Thomas has many leading North American car-rental firms at the airport, and competition is stiff. Before you go, compare the rates of the \"big three\": Avis (  800\/331-1212 or 340\/774-1468; www.avis.com), Budget (  800\/626-4516 or 340\/776-5774; www.budgetstt.com), and Hertz (  800\/654-3131 or 340\/774-1879; www.hertz.com). You can often save money by renting from a local agency, although vehicles may be older, with more wear and tear. Recommended agencies include Dependable Car Rental, 3901 B Altona, Welgunst, behind the Bank of Nova Scotia and the Medical Arts Complex (  800\/522-3076 or 340\/774-2253; www.dependablecar.com), which provides free pickup and drop-off anywhere on St. Thomas and offers a 12 percent discount when you mention that you saw them on the Internet; and the aptly named Discount Car Rental, 14 Harwood Hwy., located just outside the airport on the main highway (  877\/478-2833 or 340\/776-4858; www.discountcar.vi), which offers a 12 percent discount when you book online or through its Facebook page\u2014and advertises \"clean, new cars.\"\n\nNote: Gas (petrol) was hovering close to $5 a gallon at press time.\n\nDriving Rules Always drive on the left. The speed limit is 20 mph in town, 35 mph outside town. Seat belts are required by law, and it's illegal to talk on cellphones while driving.\n\nParking Because Charlotte Amalie is a labyrinth of congested one-way streets, don't try to drive in town looking for a parking spot. If you can't find a place to park along the Waterfront (free), go to the sprawling lot to the east of Fort Christian, across from the Legislature Building. Parking fees are nominal here, and you can park your car and walk northwest toward Emancipation Park, or along the Waterfront, until you reach the shops and attractions.\n\nBy Taxi\n\nTaxi rates are set by the island's Taxi Association and fares are widely posted, even in taxis; check out the official fares in the free magazine \"This Week\" offered in most businesses. Look for officially licensed taxis only: You can spot them by their dome lights and the letters tp on the license plate. Still, be sure to confirm the rate with the driver before you get into the taxi. A typical fare from Charlotte Amalie to Sapphire Beach is $13 per person; from the airport to the Marriot Frenchman's Reef is $10 per person. We took a taxi one night from the Ritz-Carlton to Secret Harbour for dinner and were charged $5 a person. Surcharges are added after midnight. Add on $2 per bag for luggage (and a $1 surcharge for trips June 1\u2013Sept 1).\n\nTaxi vans and open-air safaris (converted truck beds with open-air seating) are ubiquitous around the island. Taxi vans are equipped to transport approximately 8 to 12 passengers to multiple destinations on the island, while safaris can often fit up to 25 people. It's cheaper to hop on a van or safari than ride a taxi on your own if you're going between your hotel and the airport, but keep in mind you will be making stops along the way\u2014an exhausting proposition if you have arrived on a late flight. The cost for luggage ranges from $1 to $2 per bag. Call   340\/774-7457 to order a taxi van.\n\nIf you don't plan to rent a car, it's easy to find taxi drivers. Just have your hotel or restaurant call a taxi for you, no matter where you are. Even better: Get the card of a favorite taxi driver and let him or her know your itinerary\u2014or call the drivers we recommend below. Taxi drivers also make wonderful sightseeing guides. Expect to pay about $50 for a single-passenger tour or $25 per person for two or more passengers for 2 hours of sightseeing in a shared car.\n\nIf you're looking for a thoroughly engaging and wonderfully informative taxi driver\/tour guide, look no further than Campbell Rey (  340\/771-1568), the unofficial \"mayor\" of the island\u2014we highly recommend his services. We also highly recommend Llewelyn Powell (  340\/771-1568 or 776-3887). For 24-hour radio-dispatch taxi service, call   340\/774-7457.\n\nBy Water taxi\n\nGetting around by water taxi is another way to travel. Dohm's Water Taxi is an inter-island water taxi service that will take you anywhere in the Virgin Islands you want to go in custom-built catamaran powerboats. It's a smart alternative if you're staying off island and your flight arrives in St. Thomas too late to catch a public ferry. Dohm's also offers water-taxi service directly between the Ritz-Carlton or Marriott Frenchman's Reef and St. John ($50 and $30 per person, respectively, with a five-person minimum). Go to www.watertaxi-vi.com or call   340\/775-6501.\n\nBy Bus\n\nPublic buses run in the city and the country between 5:15am and 8pm daily, but waits can be very long and this is a difficult way to get about. A ride within Charlotte Amalie is 75\u00a2; a ride to anywhere else is $1. For schedule and bus-stop information, call   340\/774-5678.\n\nOn Foot\n\nWalking is the best way to explore the historic section of Charlotte Amalie during the day. However, you will need a car or driver to reach many other island attractions, including Coral World and Magens Bay.\n\n  St. Thomas\n\nBanks FirstBank Virgin Islands (  340\/775-7777; www.firstbankvi.com) has six locations on the island, with 24-hour ATMs at Crown Bay Center, East End Plaza, FirstBank Plaza, the Waterfront, and Yacht Haven. Scotiabank (  340\/776-5880; www.scotiabank.com) has six locations on St. Thomas, including Havensight Mall and Tutu Park Mall; all branches have ATMs. Banco Popular   800\/724-3655; www.popular.com\/vi) has branches in Charlotte Amalie and Red Hook. Most island banks are open Monday to Thursday 8:30am to 3pm, and Friday 8:30am to 4pm. The banks are your only option if you need to exchange currency. More than 50 ATMs are available on the island.\n\nBusiness Hours Typical business and store hours are Monday to Friday 9am to 5pm and Saturday 9am to 1pm. Some shops open Sunday for cruise-ship arrivals. Bars are usually open daily 11am to midnight or 1am, although some hot spots stay open later.\n\nDentists The V.I. Dental Center, Foothills Professional Building, 9151 Estate Thomas, Ste. 203 (  340\/772-6000; <http:\/\/videntalcenter.com>), has a team of dentists that are members of the American Dental Association. Call for information or an appointment.\n\nDoctors Schneider Regional Medical Center, 9048 Sugar Estate, Charlotte Amalie (  340\/776-8311; www.rlshospital.org), provides services for locals and visitors.\n\nDrugstores Go to Havensight Pharmacy, Havensight Mall, Building 4, Charlotte Amalie (  340\/777-5313).\n\nEmergencies For the police, call   911; ambulance,   911; fire,   921.\n\nHospitals\/Clinics The Schneider Regional Medical Center is at 9048 Sugar Estate, Charlotte Amalie (  340\/776-8311; www.rlshospital.org). For 24-hour medical care call the Red Hook Family Practice (  340\/775-2303) or Doctors on Duty (  340\/776-7966).\n\nHot Lines Call the police at   911 in case of emergency. If you have or witness a boating mishap, call the U.S. Coast Guard Rescue (  787\/729-6800), which operates out of San Juan, Puerto Rico. Scuba divers should note the number of a decompression chamber (  340\/776-8311) at the Schneider Regional Medical Center on St. Thomas.\n\nInternet Most hotels and resorts now offer free Wi-Fi in the lobby. Many bars and restaurants also offer free Wi-Fi.\n\nLaundry & Dry Cleaning The major hotels provide laundry service, but it's more expensive than a Laundromat. For dry cleaning, go to One-Hour Martinizing, Barbel Plaza, Charlotte Amalie (  340\/774-5452).\n\nMail Postage rates are the same as on the U.S. mainland: 34\u00a2 for a postcard and 49\u00a2 for a letter to U.S. addresses. For international mail, a first-class postcard or letter stamp costs $1.15.\n\nMaps See \"Visitor Information,\" earlier in this chapter.\n\nNewspapers & Magazines Copies of U.S. mainland newspapers, such as \"The New York Times,\" \"USA Today,\" and \"The Miami Herald,\" arrive daily in St. Thomas and sold at newsstands. \"The Virgin Island Daily News\" (<http:\/\/virginislandsdailynews.com>) covers local, national, and international events. \"St. Thomas This Week,\" packed with visitor information, is distributed free on the island.\n\nPolice The main police headquarters is currently located in the Alexander Farrelly Criminal Justice Center in Charlotte Amalie (  340\/774-2211). The Crime Line phone number is   340\/777-8700.\n\nPost Office The main post office is at 9846 Estate Thomas, Charlotte Amalie (  340\/774-1950), and is open Monday to Friday 7:30am to 5pm and Saturday 7:30am to noon.\n\nSafety The Virgin Islands are a relatively safe destination. The small permanent populations are generally friendly and welcoming. That being said, St. Thomas is no longer as safe as it once was. Crime, especially muggings, is on the rise in Charlotte Amalie. Wandering the town at night, especially on the back streets (particularly on Back St.), is not recommended. Avoid frequenting Charlotte Amalie's bars alone at night. Guard your valuables. Store them in hotel safes if possible, and make sure you keep your doors and windows shut at night.\n\nTaxes The only local tax is an 10 percent hotel tax. St. Thomas has no sales or luxury taxes.\n\nTelephone All island phone numbers have seven digits. It is not necessary to use the 340 area code when dialing within St. Thomas. Numbers for all three islands, including St. John and St. Croix, are found in the U.S. Virgin Islands phone book.\n\nTipping Go to \"Fast Facts,\" in Chapter 8 for tipping guidelines.\n\nToilets You'll find public toilets at beaches and at the airport, but they are limited in town. Most visitors use the facilities of a bar or restaurant.\n\nTransit Information Call   340\/774-7457 to order a taxi 24 hours a day. Call   340\/774-5100 for airport information and   340\/776-6282 for information about ferry departures for St. John.\n\nWeather For emergency (hurricane and disaster) weather reports, call Vietema at   340\/774-2244.\n\nWHERE TO STAY\n\nThe choice of hotels on St. Thomas divides almost evenly between small inns and B&Bs in Charlotte Amalie and full-service resorts along the East End and South Coast that front fabulous beaches. There are advantages and disadvantages to both.\n\nrenting A CONDO, APARTMENT, OR VILLA\n\nMany visitors prefer renting a condo, apartment, or villa when they visit the island\u2014particularly for the self-catering capabilities. We've found that Calypso Realty (  800\/747-4858 or 340\/774-1620; www.calypsorealty.com) often has the best offers, especially on rentals from April to mid-December. A condo goes for $1,200 to $4,000 per week, with a 7-day minimum stay.\n\nAnother good source is McLaughlin Anderson Luxury Caribbean Villas (  800\/537-6246 or 340\/776-0635; www.mclaughlinanderson.com), which has beautiful rentals not only on St. Thomas but also on St. John, St. Croix, and various other Caribbean isles. A two-bedroom villa begins at $2,000 per week in winter, with off-season rates beginning at $1,449.\n\nAntilles Resorts (  800\/874-7897 or 340\/775-6100; www.antillesresorts.com) is a hit among habitual island-goers to St. Thomas and St. Croix, enjoying a repeat business for its wide range of properties, from economical to luxury.\n\nYou can also find excellent deals on popular owner-rented vacation lodging websites, including VRBO (www.vrbo.com) and HomeAway (www.homeaway.com); both websites list numerous attractive villas and condos throughout the Virgins. What you will not get with these rentals is service (unless advertised) or even guarantees that the rental is what is appears to be. Both VRBO and HomeAway sell rental guarantee insurance ($39 and up) that guarantees your money back under certain circumstances (the property has been double-booked or grossly misrepresented, for example)\u2014so you may want to weigh that extra fee against the low rental rates.\n\nIf you want to be within close proximity to the island's best shopping, the widest choice of restaurants and bars, and most historic attractions, Charlotte Amalie is the place to be. And if you're looking for budget accommodations, or a choice of moderately priced inns, you'll need to be in or near Charlotte Amalie. The downside to staying here is that you'll have to take a shuttle or taxi ride over to a good beach, a ride of no more than 10 to 15 minutes from most Charlotte Amalie properties. The one exception to this rule is Marriott Frenchman's Reef, which offers the isolation of a beachside resort along with proximity to all of Charlotte Amalie's attractions and shops.\n\nIf your dream is to arrive in St. Thomas and anchor yourself directly on a beach, then the East End is the place to be. Beachfront resorts and condominiums on the East End and along the South Coast offer many perks, among them a measure of serenity and security. Expect a range of watersports, in-house spas and dining options. But almost without exception, the East End beachfront resorts are the most expensive properties on island. In spite of the cost, these hotels attract customers who want the full-service resort life that you simply won't find at the inns and B&Bs of Charlotte Amalie. The downside is that if you want to experience some of the island's best restaurants, you'll have to depend on taxis or risk driving along narrow, dark, and unfamiliar roads at night. To those who opt to stay resort-bound for most of their stay, we say call a taxi for a night out from the resort at least once while you're here.\n\nHotels in the Virgin Islands slash their prices in summer by 20 percent to 60 percent.\n\nSt. Thomas Hotels\n\nTwo important notes on rates: Unless otherwise noted, the rates listed below do not include the 10 percent government hotel tax. Also note that most of the high-end resorts also tack on daily resort fees, from $35 to $50.\n\nIn Charlotte Amalie\n\nModerate\n\nVilla Santana   Done up in Mexican clay tiles and stonework, this is the reconstructed palace of the exiled, former president of Mexico, General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna of Mexico, who built it in the 1850s (the original burned in a fire in 1985). Pillowed in a garden of hibiscus and bougainvillea, Villa Santana has panoramic views of Charlotte Amalie and the St. Thomas harbor and six charming, handsomely furnished guest suites. La Mansion, in the villa's former library, is a duplex with a full kitchen; La Terraza is another split-level room with a spacious terrace offering views of the glittering harbor. La Torre has its own outdoor dining patio next to a gazebo. Many of the rooms have original rock walls and four-poster beds (one, rumor has it, was used by the General himself\u2014the frame, not the mattress!). The shopping district in Charlotte Amalie is just a 5-minute walk away; Magens Bay Beach is a 15-minute drive north.\n\n2602 Bjere Gade, No. 2D.   340\/776-1311. www.villasantana.com. 6 units. Winter $150\u2013$245; off season $120\u2013$176. Rates based on 3-night minimum; surcharge may be added for shorter stays. Amenities: Outdoor pool; Wi-Fi (free).\n\nWindward Passage Hotel   This blocky hotel originated as a Holiday Inn and looks it. But despite its chain-hotel bones it's favored by business travelers and locals in transit to and from the other Virgin Islands. We think that's because it's well-maintained and friendly, but its location, just across the street from the Charlotte Amalie ferry docks, probably doesn't hurt, either. Rooms are dated but very clean (a renovation was in the works when we visited in early 2014), each with its own private balcony. Book a harbor-view room to fully appreciate the size and heft of the cruise ships slipping in and out of port.\n\nVeterans Dr.   800\/524-7389 or 340\/774-5200. www.windwardpassage.com. 150 units. Winter $231\u2013$275 double, $331\u2013$375 suite; off season $150\u2013$245 double, $274\u2013$311 suite. Amenities: Restaurant; bar; babysitting; off-site health club ($25 per day); freshwater pool; putt-putt golf; spa; watersports equipment\/rentals; Wi-Fi (free).\n\nAt Home in the Tropics   This award-winning guesthouse is one of the best B&Bs in Charlotte Amalie, a traditional West Indian house where each room opens onto splendid views of Charlotte Amalie harbor. Dating from 1803 (it was the barracks for the guard of the Danish Governor), the inn feels exclusive and quite private, with a small harborside pool and attractively furnished rooms with tile floors and breeze-filled windows. It's up on Blackbeard's Hill (a swank neighborhood) and an easy walk to downtown and the shops of Charlotte Amalie\u2014but those with mobility issues might have trouble navigating the stairs back up the hill. Closed from June 1 to November 1.\n\nBlackbeard's Hill, 1680 Dronningens Gade.   340\/777-9857. <http:\/\/athomeinthetropics.com>. Winter $245\u2013$265 double; off season $225\u2013$245 double. Rates include breakfast. Children under 12 discouraged. Amenities: Outdoor swimming pool; Wi-Fi (free).\n\nBellavista Bed & Breakfast   This wonderful four-room West Indian\u2013style property is our favorite B&B in Charlotte Amalie. It's nestled on Denmark Hill, a restored island estate overlooking the city harbor and just a 5-minute walk into town. Rooms are dreamy, with slatted wood ceilings, wood floors, and tastefully done tropical hues. You can relax after a day of touring on the sun-dappled pool deck or in the breezy open-air living room, framed in lush foliage. Reserve early; this place books up. Note: Do not confuse this B&B with the Bellavista Scott hotel in Estate Thomas, which offers much more basic accommodations.\n\nCharlotte Amalie Hotels & Restaurants\n\n2713 Murphy Gade 12\u201314.   888\/333-3063 or 340\/714-5706. www.bellavista-bnb.com. 4 units. Winter $220\u2013$295 double; summer $195\u2013$270 double. Rates include breakfast. Amenities: Concierge; outdoor pool; Wi-Fi (free).\n\nInexpensive\n\nThe Crystal Palace Bed and Breakfast   This stately old colonial home, filled with antiques, West Indian relics, and family flotsam and jetsam, is overseen by owner Ronnie Lockhart, who grew up here. It has plenty of old-world personality, with elegant and airy parlor rooms, some with walls lined with early-19th-century stonework. Rooms are oversized and high-ceilinged but not particularly fancy. Three of the five accommodations have shared facilities in the corridors; of the two rooms with private baths, one is downstairs and the other is up (both have queen four-posters). Stay here if you appreciate old-school languor...or look forward to soaking in views of the harbor from the veranda while sipping a cocktail from the honor bar.\n\n12 Crystal Gade.   866\/502-2277 or 340\/777-2277. www.crystalpalaceusvi.com. 5 units, 2 with bathrooms. Winter $139 double without bathroom, $169 double with bathroom; off season $119 double without bathroom, $139 double with bathroom. Extra person $20\/night. Rates include breakfast. Amenities: Wi-Fi (free).\n\nMafolie Hotel   This good-value gem sits high in the hills above Charlotte Amalie and its sparkling harbor\u2014the views are splendid during the day but off-the-charts gorgeous at night. It has a congenial proprietor in Adam Israel, and the superb Mafolie Restaurant (p. ) is one of the island's best, a big proponent of the island's farm-to-table movement with a menu featuring farm-grown produce and fresh-caught seafood. Each room is pleasantly furnished; none are swank by any means, in fact, some are on the smallish side, and a little dark, and a handful are only entered on the road side of the resort. But all are comfortable, with quality beds. Of the 22 rooms, 10 will have outdoor balconies by the time you read this, with those glittering harbor views at your feet, and five are suites. You can take a dip in the pool, which enjoys the same panoramic vista, or simply drink in the views at the pool bar.\n\n7091 Estate Mafolie.   340\/774-2790. www.mafolie.com. 22 units. Winter $144\u2013$160 double; off season $105\u2013$125 double. Rates include continental breakfast. Up to 2 children 12 and under stay free in parent's room. Extra person $15. Ask about island packages. Amenities: Restaurant; 2 bars; concierge; pool; Wi-Fi (free).\n\nVilla Blanca   Set on 3 acres of lush hilltop just 11\u20442 miles east of Charlotte Amalie, the Villa Blanca provides killer views of the harbor and mossy hills rising out of blue seas. It's nestled in lovingly tended gardens. Each room comes with a well-equipped kitchenette, tile floors, good beds, and a private balcony or terrace with views either eastward to St. John or westward to the Charlotte Amalie harbor and the cruise-ship docks. Take a dip in the freshwater pool or watch the sun set from the villa's lounge deck. Charlotte Amalie shopping is just a 5-minute taxi ride away.\n\n4 Raphune Hill, Rte. 38.   800\/231-0034 or 340\/776-0749. www.villablancahotel.com. 14 units. Winter $135\u2013$145 double; off season $95\u2013$105 double. Rates include continental breakfast. Children 9 and under stay free in parent's room. Extra person $15\/night. Amenities: Pool (outdoor); Wi-Fi, in lobby (free).\n\nWest of Charlotte Amalie\n\nExpensive\n\nBest Western Emerald Beach Resort   Yes, this Best Western is located just across from the airport, but it's also set on a pretty white-sand beach, with beachfront views from every room. Lying 2 miles to the west of Charlotte Amalie, to which it is linked by free shuttle service. Emerald Beach attracts both businesspeople and families for its location close to the airport and town. The rooms are outfitted in standard Best Western furnishings, but everything is clean and comfortable, with king-size beds in every room. If this is booked, try its sister property, Best Western Carib Beach Resort (  800\/792-2742 in the U.S. or 340\/774-2525; www.caribbeachresort.com), just a 5-minute walk away at 70C Lindbergh Bay, with affordable oceanview rooms with private terraces.\n\n8070 Lindbergh Bay.   800\/233-4936 in the U.S., or 340\/777-8800. www.emeraldbeach.com. 90 units. Winter $200\u2013$327 double; off season $159 and up double. Children 11 and under stay free in parent's room. Amenities: Restaurant; 2 bars; fitness center; high-speed Internet (free); pool; tennis court (lit); watersports.\n\nModerate\n\nIsland Beachcomber Hotel   The island's first beachfront hotel opened up on Lindbergh Bay in 1956 and was once frequented by the likes of Cecil B. DeMille and Vivian Vance (Ethel Mertz from \"I Love Lucy\"). Yes, this hotel has seen glitzier days, and it's fairly standard-issue in every way today, but you can't beat the location on beauteous Lindbergh Bay. This is a good place to stay if you're in transit by air or ferry and you don't want to spend a lot of money\u2014and it's surprisingly comfortable and tropical-beachy. Look for medium-size rooms, many with patios just steps from the beach.\n\n8071 Lindbergh Beach Rd.   340\/774-5250. www.islandbeachcomber.net. 48 units. Winter $199\u2013$225 double; off season $130\u2013$169 double. Extra person $15. Amenities: Restaurant; bar; Wi-Fi (free).\n\nThe South Coast\n\nExpensive\n\nMarriott Frenchman's Reef & Morning Star Beach Resort   If you like a full-service American-style resort with plenty of onsite entertainment and dining options\u2014and a fetching sweep of white-sand beach\u2014this resort should fit the bill. As the only major resort in close proximity to Charlotte Amalie (it's just 3 miles east), it's a beehive of activity and, some say, the heartbeat of the island's south shore. If you're looking for better-quality rooms and a more luxurious ambience, head to the Ritz-Carlton (p. ). But if you want to be where the action is in Charlotte Amalie, this is the spot.\n\nThis is the largest hotel in the U.S. Virgin Islands, made up of two separate parts, Frenchman's Reef and Morning Star, that were joined into one mega-resort in 2005 in an excellent location on a bluff overlooking both the harbor and the Caribbean. Around the corner is Frenchman's Cove, the 220-room timeshare section of the resort, with luxury two- and three-bedroom villas. (And yes, you may be asked to learn more about the timeshares during your stay: In the Marriott lobby, a booth offers rum punches and other enticements to get people to attend timeshare promotions. Don't be shy about saying \"no\" if you're not interested and they'll let you be.)\n\nThe rooms at Frenchman's Reef are traditionally furnished and comfortable (with the Marriott's signature silky linens and bedding), if uninspired. Those at the Morning Star are more spacious, some opening up right onto the beach with dreamy water views from patios or balconies (non-sea-view balconies have views of the green hills opposite). Note that the resorts are a half-mile apart, and getting from one to another is a bit of a hike (nearly 100 steps uphill from Morning Star to Frenchman's Reef); a shuttle runs guests between the two sections as well.\n\nThe in-house dining is exceptional, and you won't go wrong with dinner at the excellent Havana Blue (p. ), a Miami-style beachfront bo\u00eete at Morning Star with a truly inspired menu. The Marriott also has a well-respected in-house tour operator, Adventure Center (www.adventurecenters.net), which offers snorkeling, sailing, and kayak excursions (the latter in clear see-through kayaks).\n\nNote that daily water-taxi service in a gondola-style boat is available straight from the Marriott dock to the shopping hub in Charlotte Amalie. The boat leaves the resort every 30 minutes between 8:30am and 5pm (one-way: $7 adults, $4 children 3\u201312).\n\nNo. 5 Estate Bakkeroe.   888\/236-2427 or 340\/776-8500. www.marriott.com. 478 units. Winter $475\u2013$745 double, from $760 suite; off season $300\u2013$630 double, from $600 suite. Children 12 and under stay free in parent's room. Daily resort fee $35. Amenities: 5 restaurants; 2 bars; coffeehouse; deli; babysitting; health club and spa; room service; 2 tennis courts (lit); watersports equipment\/rentals; Wi-Fi (included in $35-a-day resort fee).\n\nModerate\n\nBolongo Bay Beach Resort   This family-run resort is a casual, barefoot place to stay. A complex of pink two-story buildings, it's built around a crescent-shaped beach on the sands of Bolongo Bay. That means plenty of watersports activities (even scuba-diving lessons), so many guests check in on the European Plan, which includes watersports activities and even a scuba-diving lesson. Others opt for all-inclusive plans that include all meals, drinks, excursions, and more. Both are good values, especially for St. Thomas. Rooms are simple, summery, and filled with comfortable furniture and a fridge\u2014and all face the beach, with a balcony or terrace opening up onto the beach. Nine two-bedroom condos, in a three-story building, have full kitchens and are ideal for families of up to five. Onsite are two lively restaurants, including Iggies (p. ). A final enticement? The resort is known for its Wednesday-night Carnival, held from November through Labor Day, with a Caribbean buffet, calypso music, and Moko Jumbie stilt dancers.\n\n7150 Bolongo.   800\/524-4746 or 340\/775-1800. www.bolongobay.com. 80 units. Winter $250\u2013$415 double, $570\u2013$620 condo; off season $145\u2013$350 double, $350\u2013$520 condo. Extra person $25 per day. Children 12 and under $15 per day. Resort fee 7%. Ask about the resort's all-inclusive plans. Amenities: 2 restaurants, including Iggies Beach Bar & Grill (p. ); 2 bars; babysitting; children's programs (ages 4\u201312); exercise room; 2 pools (outdoor); 2 tennis courts (lit); watersports equipment\/rentals; Wi-Fi by pool (free).\n\nThe East End\n\nThe shuttered Grand Beach Palace, closed up tight for almost 10 years, is expected to reopen in late 2014 as a full-service 262-unit Wyndham Margaritaville Vacation Club resort. The former Renaissance hotel fronts one of the island's prettiest beaches, Grand Beach, opening onto Smith Bay.\n\nExpensive\n\nThe Ritz-Carlton, St. Thomas   This is the island's one true luxury resort. Fronted by white-sand beaches and the protected turquoise seas of Great Bay, the Ritz covers a sprawling 30 acres of oceanfront on the southeastern tip of St. Thomas, 4 miles (a 30-min. drive) from Charlotte Amalie. Its centerpiece is a Venetian-style palazzo, surrounded by terraced gardens. Pathways lead down to the curving infinity pool (home to two resident ducks) and a beach with canopied chairs and a bustling food and beverage service.\n\nAll day long, the resort's water-sports toys see plenty of use on Great Bay, from stand-up paddleboards to Hobie Cats to kayaks to snorkel equipment\u2014it's a veritable kids' playground, with a full-service dive shop, Patagon Dive Center, right on property. (The bay bottom is somewhat grassy and pebbly, however.) The terrific Ritz Kids activities are part of the resident Jean-Michel Cousteau's \"Ambassadors of the Environment\" program, with excursions for all ages, including explorations of the coral reef, island mangroves, and constellations. Adults can try night snorkeling in Great Bay or sign up for ocean kayak adventures in clear-bottom kayaks. If you've always wanted to learn to sail, take advantage of the on-site certified sailing school, Island Sol. Finally, the property has its own private 53-foot catamaran, Lady Lynsey, in which guests can take full and half-day sailing excursions.\n\nThe resort's main lobby has a generic feel in spite of its elegant appointments, but the Ritz rooms are the island's best, supremely comfortable and spacious, with great big bathrooms (tubs and rain showers) and top-of-the-line amenities throughout. The resort features an extensive spa with luxurious treatment rooms and open-air cabanas. Of the restaurants, Bleuwater (p. ) is chillingly expensive but a real special-occasion spot. Finally, the warm and friendly Ritz staff is unparalleled on an island that still has a few things to learn about personal service. In addition to the 180 hotel rooms, the resort also holds a number of Ritz-Carlton Destination Club timeshare villas.\n\n6900 Great Bay.   800\/241-3333 or 340\/775-3333. www.ritzcarlton.com. 180 units. Winter $660\u2013$880 double, from $1,290 suite; off season $380\u2013$570 double, from $700 suite. Daily resort fee $50. Amenities: 4 restaurants; 3 bars; ATM; babysitting; children's programs; concierge; full-service health club and spa; 2 pools (outdoor); room service; sailing school; 2 tennis courts (lit); watersports equipment\/rentals; Wi-Fi (free).\n\nSugar Bay Resort and Spa   No longer a Wyndham property, this 294-room all-inclusive resort has undergone exciting renovations, with recent refreshments of all rooms, the lobby, and the main restaurant, which by press time, should be a fully operating Japanese teppanyaki steakhouse. It's an impressive, well-maintained property, on one of the island's prettiest perches, a 32-acre plot of sloping terrain just 5 minutes from the ferry terminal at Red Hook. From its position atop a rocky promontory, guests are treated to panoramic views out over the sea. At its feet is a pretty, secluded beach that's smallish but excellent for snorkeling and swimming. It's a fine family resort, with a wonderful pool\/beach\/restaurant area called the Mangroves right on the beach (reached via a steep walk 99 steps down from the hotel; those with mobility issues can reach it by hotel shuttle). On Thursday the Mangroves rocks with a Carnival party, and the daily activities are many and varied (sunrise Pilates, pool volleyball, iguana feedings). Rooms are attractively furnished but are more utilitarian than luxe, each with a small balcony\u2014the only thing that distinguishes one room from another is the view, so if you want to guarantee those amazing ocean vistas, request it when booking. Still, the 2013 renovations have given the rooms a pleasant new look, with tile floors replacing carpet, marble counters in bathrooms, and a beachy blue-and-white palette. Those who want to splash out, so to speak, go for the properties cushier 475-square-foot suites. Sugar Bay offers both all-inclusive plans and room-only rates; the all-inclusive plans make sense for those who prefer to stay put during their vacation\u2014and with Sugar Bay's lineup of good restaurants, full complement of water sports, and ongoing daily activities, you may never have to leave the premises.\n\n6500 Estate Smith Bay.   800\/927-7100 or 340\/777-7100. www.sugarbayresortandspa.com. 294 units. Winter $310\u2013$700 double, from $1,250 suite; off season $238\u2013$530 double, from $1,050 suite. Check the website for all-inclusive plans; all-inclusives include 15% service charge. Amenities: 3 restaurants; 2 bars; babysitting; basketball court; boat dock; children's programs; exercise room; miniature golf; 3 pools; 4 tennis courts (lit); watersports (canoes, kayaks, sailboats, snorkeling gear); Wi-Fi (free).\n\nElysian Beach Resort   This resort overlooks its own secluded cove bobbing with boats and white-sand beach on Cowpet Bay, a 30-minute drive from Charlotte Amalie. It's not luxurious like the Ritz next door, but it's tranquil and secluded, and the exquisite white-sand beach and free-form swimming pool sweeten the deal. The one-bedroom condos (which can hold up to four people) contain kitchenettes and balconies, and 14 offer sleeping lofts that are reached by a spiral staircase. Look for standard-issue tropical decor, with rattan and bamboo furnishings, ceiling fans, and natural-wood ceilings. Rooms in buildings V to Z are some distance from the beach, so try to avoid them when booking. The resort has two good restaurants, including the Caribbean Fish Market (p. ), a fun spot with tables right on the beach, serving creative West Indian cuisine since 2012.\n\n6800 Estate Nazareth.   866\/620-7994 or 340\/775-1000. www.elysianbeachresort.net. 180 units. Winter $220\u2013$265 double, $459 suite; off season $215\u2013$260 double, $399 suite. Amenities: 2 restaurants; 2 bars; exercise room; pool (outdoor); small spa; tennis court (lit); watersports equipment\/rentals, Wi-Fi (free; lobby only).\n\nPavilions and Pools   If absolute seclusion is on your wish list, this 25-unit condominium resort might be just the ticket: Each villa opens onto its own private swimming pool. Sure the pools are smallish, but each has a tile deck with loungers that's walled off and pillowed in tropical greenery. Need more privacy? There's no need to dine out: Here you can cook your own meals in a well-equipped kitchen, or dine on affordable Mexican fare in the resort's open-air restaurant, Torcido Taco. Villas are generally comfortable and spacious (the International Pool Villas have 1,400 sq. ft. of space; Caribbean Pool Villas 1,200 sq. ft.), though they each have an individual look as they're all privately owned. The resort is just 1 mile from the bars and restaurants of Red Hook and 7 miles east of Charlotte Amalie. One of the island's best beaches and watersports concessions, Sapphire Bay, is a (steep uphill) walk away\u2014but you may never feel like venturing out of your bubble of quiet seclusion.\n\nCamping Out on Water Island\n\nSt. Thomas has its own bucolic pocket of rusticity\u2014and it's just off the hustle and bustle of the Charlotte Amalie harbor. Called the Virgin Islands Campground on Water Island (  340\/776-5488; www.virginislandscampground.com), guests stay in the most eco-sensitive lodgings in St. Thomas. They're hardly roughing it: The digs are wood-frame-and-canvas cabins (cottages) with wind-drawn electricity, nice beds, and crisp linens. Each opens onto private, ocean-view terraces. The campground has no restaurant, but you can grill your own meals in the common area known as the Pavilion; you can also store your food in a refrigerator or freezer. From the campgrounds, it's a 5-minute walk to the island's idyllic Honeymoon Beach, where you can take a swim, snorkel or just nurse a nice tan. Regular ferry service runs between Water Island and St. Thomas (trip time: 7 min.).\n\nA 3-night minimum stay is required; cabins cost $165 per night in winter and $115 per night in the off season. Cabins accommodate up to 3 adults and 2 children. The campground also has a special suite with a fully equipped kitchen and its own private bath and deck ($149\u2013$200 per night).\n\nWater Island is very small; to get around, simply hike along the island's pristine trails. You can also take bike rides (see chapter 8). For more on visiting Water Island, see p. .\n\n6400 Estate Smith Bay.   800\/524-2001 or 340\/775-6110. www.pavilionsandpools.com. 25 units. Winter $240\u2013$350 double; off season $200\u2013$280 double. Extra person $25 per night. Rates include continental breakfast. Amenities: Restaurant; private pools; watersports equipment\/rentals; Wi-Fi (free in lobby).\n\nSecret Harbour Beach Resort   This boutique all-suites condo resort sits on the white-sand beach at Nazareth Bay, near Red Hook Marina, with excellent snorkeling just outside your door. The four low-rise buildings have southwestern exposure (great sunsets!), and each room is beachfront or oceanview, mere steps from the sand (some bottom-floor suites even have outdoor showers on their patios). Each room and suite comes a private deck or patio and a fully equipped kitchen. The resort rooms are individually owned, so it's impossible to say what the decor will be like, though most owners go for attractive furnishings. There are three types of accommodations: studio suites, one-bedroom suites, and two-bedroom suites. Each one- and two-bedroom suite has a pullout couch. All rooms have king-size beds; the two-bedroom suites may have one king and two twins. Secret Harbour is also home to one of the best restaurants on the island, the Sunset Grille (p. ). The resort has a full-service dive site on the premises, Aqua Action Dive Center (  340\/775-6285; www.aadivers.com), which offers PADI courses, snorkeling equipment, and snorkeling outings.\n\n6280 Estate Nazareth.   800\/524-2250 or 340\/775-6550. www.secretharbourvi.com. 60 units. Winter $355\u2013$435 double, $385\u2013$505 1-bedroom suite, $635\u2013$765 2-bedroom suite; off season $255\u2013$305 double, $285\u2013$375 1-bedroom suite, $535\u2013$635 2-bedroom suite. Children 12 and under stay free in parent's room. Each additional guest $35 per day. Amenities: Restaurant; bar; dive shop; exercise room; pool (outdoor); 3 tennis courts (lit); watersports equipment\/rentals; Wi-Fi (free).\n\nWHERE TO EAT\n\nThe dining scene in St. Thomas these days is among the best in the West Indies, but it has its drawbacks: Fine dining\u2014and even not-so-fine dining\u2014tends to be expensive, and you may have to travel by taxi or car to reach some of the best spots.\n\nYou'll find an eclectic mix of global cuisines on St. Thomas, including Italian, Mexican, Asian, and French. American fast-food franchises, pizza joints, and East Indian roti shacks are also part of the scene. But some of the best food on St. Thomas is island-bred: West Indian\u2013style cuisine and interesting fusions thereof. We particularly like those places that take advantage of the island's natural bounty, menus featuring fresh-caught seafood, fresh fruit, and locally grown produce. Finally, go where the locals go: They know the best spots and are happy to recommend their favorites.\n\nSt. Thomas Restaurants\n\nFARM-FRESH produce ON ESTATE BORDEAUX\n\nIn 1984 a Vietnam vet named Myron (\"Buddy\") Henneman found solace in a serene spot high up in the green hills of the island's western end, with vistas of blue seas and robin's-egg skies. In the loamy volcanic soil, once tended by French farmers who immigrated here from St. Barts, he planted a chemical-free garden, and pretty soon the government was offering him agricultural land leases. Today, the Green Ridge Guavaberry Farm is thriving, part of the island's burgeoning agrarian renaissance. Some 20 Estate Bordeaux farms now grow crops of astonishing diversity in these quiet green hills, an edenic haven from the scrum of civilization far down below. \"Once you train the land,\" says Henneman, \"the land will grow anything.\" And it does, including peas, Asian dragonfruit, okra, cashews, even the healing \"tree of life,\" the meranga bush (said to be good for the liver). A whopping 17-pound cauliflower was recently plucked from the soil, beneath which had been growing a 200-pound pumpkin. A number of Rastafarian gardeners work the land throughout the islands, and lunch is some delicious concoction: roasted wild salmon or pumpkin soup made in a big clay pot over a fire. You can buy produce from this and other Estate Bordeaux farms, as well as fresh-baked bread, eggs, honey, and exotic island juices, in the Saturday morning market at Market Square, in Charlotte Amalie, and on the second and last Sunday of every month at the Bordeaux farmer's market (10am\u20134pm), in an open-air pavilion near the entrance to the Preserve at Botany Bay. In January (usually around Jan. 19 and 20) the farms hold the weekend-long Agricultural & Cultural Food Fair, where some 2,000 visitors enjoy reggae music, crafts, farm tours, and more on the farms themselves from 10am to midnight. Contact the Bordeaux Farmers' Market at   340\/774-4204. The farmer's market and farm fair are in part sponsored by the nonprofit organization We Grow Food (www.facebook.com\/WEGROWFOOD), which hopes to reclaim some 400 acres of Estate Bordeaux land for growing food.\n\nIn Charlotte Amalie\n\nExpensive\n\nAmalia Caf\u00e9   SPANISH Set on an alfresco terrace on Palm Passage in the center of Charlotte Amalie, this long-established spot serves up some of the most savory Spanish cuisine in town. You can order one of the hearty entrees (paella Valenciana, say, or zarzuela de mariscos, seafood casserole) or make a meal out of tapas, flavorful small plates that might include garlic shrimp, chorizo saut\u00e9ed in cider, or clams in a green sauce. Wash it all down with the Amalia's signature sangria.\n\n24 Palm Passage.   340\/714-7373. <http:\/\/amaliacafe.com>. Reservations recommended. Main courses lunch $15\u2013$23, dinner $28\u2013$49. Mon\u2013Sat 11am\u201310pm; Sun 11am\u20133pm (winter only).\n\nBanana Tree Grille   INTERNATIONAL Dine in an atmosphere of informal elegance with views over the bustling harbor at this longtime favorite in Bluebeard's Castle timeshare resort. It's a special-occasion spot (with prices to match), but the views are sublime. The real surprise is the equally elegant food, overseen by a transplanted New Orleans chef. We recommend the grouper stuffed with crab imperial, and the meltingly tender, grass-fed Banana Tree filet mignon in a b\u00e9rnaise sauce. Breads are also a specialty, particularly the \"Oh My\" Gorgonzola loaf (garlicky Ciabatta with a Gorgonzola dipping sauce). The fantastic desserts include a nod to the Big Easy: bananas Foster cheesecake drizzled in homemade chocolate sauce.\n\nIn Bluebeard's Castle, Bluebeard's Hill.   340\/776-4050. www.bananatreegrille.com. Reservations recommended. Main courses $20\u2013$56. Tues\u2013Sun 5:30\u20139:30pm.\n\nMafolie Restaurant   CARIBBEAN\/INTERNATIONAL This is one of the island's top restaurants\u2014and you get your money's worth, from the terrific island fare to the breathtaking views of the Charlotte Amalie harbor below from the open-air dining room. The Caribbean specialties include a classic kalaloo soup, here brimming with shrimp, crab, and okra; and conch fritters served with sweet mango Scotch bonnet honey. Chef Manny Thompson has a deft touch: For a main course, try the jambalaya; it has a subtle fire and perfectly caramelized vegetables. Fresh-caught fish and Water Island lobster are also highly recommended\u2014the proprietor and his bartender often do morning lobster fishing for the night's meal. Look for traditional island sides like fungi (thickened cornmeal polenta), breadfruit mash, and sweet potato dumplings.\n\n7091 Estate Mafolie.   340\/774-2790. www.mafolie.com. Entrees $27\u2013$39. Daily 6\u201310pm.\n\nPetite Pump Room   WEST INDIAN\/INTERNATIONAL Join the locals for a reliably tasty St. Thomas breakfast and lunch at this second-floor harborside spot in the ferryboat terminal in Charlotte Amalie. Located on the harbor since 1970, it serves some of the island's most flavorful West Indian cooking, with a menu of callaloo greens, conch fritters (a house specialty), and daily specials like fried potfish or conch sauteed in butter sauce. Sides include pigeon peas and rice, fungi with vegetables, and fried plantains. It's a convenient spot for a bite if you're waiting for a ferry. Snag a seat on the seaside deck and watch ships cruise into the harbor.\n\nIn the Edward Wilmoth Blyden Building, Veterans Dr.   340\/776-2976. www.petitepumproom.com. Breakfast $7\u2013$13; sandwiches and salads $8\u2013$18; platters $14\u2013$20. Daily 7am\u20134:30pm.\n\nA Room with a View   INTERNATIONAL Just east of Charlotte Amalie, this topnotch restaurant serves up international classics and wraparound harbor views from open floor-to-ceiling windows. Kick off your dinner with one of the specialty martinis (Grand Marnier martini, melon martini) and smoked salmon on toast points or grilled portobello mushrooms with goat cheese. Main courses include one of several house pastas (Alfredo, pesto, meat sauce); chicken in a creamy curry sauce; shrimp Creole; or a New York strip steak au poivre.\n\nIn Bluebeard's Castle, Bluebeard's Hill.   340\/774-2377. Reservations recommended. Main courses $19\u2013$42. Mon\u2013Sat 5\u201311pm.\n\nTavern on the Waterfront   MODERN EUROPEAN\/CARIBBEAN How's this for a global mashup: a nightclub\/restaurant that serves inventive French and Polish dishes with West Indies inflections in a glittering setting on the St. Thomas waterfront. Sounds odd, but it works. So you might pinball from Polish pierogies to garlic escargots to \"Down Island\" conch chowder. Recommended entrees include the house babyback ribs; an almond-and-hazelnut-crusted grouper; and a jumbo vegetable pot pie. Come for live jazz on Friday nights or a tropical cocktail at the upstairs bar.\n\nWaterfront at Royal Dane Mall, 30 Dronningens Gade.   340\/776-4328. www.tavernonthewaterfront.com. Reservations required. Main courses $14\u2013$37 (Caribbean lobster $53). Mon\u2013Sat 11am\u20133pm; Mon\u2013Thurs 5\u20139pm; Fri\u2013Sat 5\u201310pm.\n\ngroceries, markets & more: PROVISIONING RESOURCES ON ST. THOMAS\n\nMore than any other Virgin Island, St. Thomas has no lack of stores to find what you need to eat and drink and stock your pantry. That's because it's a prime provisioning stop for boaters, and the many people who visit the island stay in rented houses, villas, and condo (even resorts) with full kitchens. Here's a sampling of resources:\n\nGroceries: Open daily, the chain grocery Pueblo has three locations on St. Thomas including Rumer Drive in Charlotte Amalie (  340\/774-4200). In Red Hook, the Food Center (  340\/777-8806; www.foodcentervi.com) is the largest grocery on the East End; it's open daily. Also open daily is the local favorite Plaza Extra, Tutu Park Mall (  340\/775-5646; <http:\/\/plazaextra.com>).\n\nFresh Seafood: S&P Seafoods, 3801 Crown Bay (  340\/774-5280), is a full-service fishmonger. You can also buy fresh-off-the-boat fish at the docks at Frenchtown when the fishing boats return around 3pm or 4pm.\n\nFresh Produce\/Fruit: St. Thomas has a number of small farmer's markets, including the Saturday market at Market Square in Charlotte Amalie, and the Bordeaux farmer's market on the second and last Sunday of each month in Estate Bordeaux, on the island's west end.\n\nLiquor: Liquor stores abound along Main Street in Charlotte Amalie, and liquor, wine, and beer are sold in most grocery stores throughout the island. Al Cohen's Discount Liquors, Long Bay Road (  340\/774-3690; www.rumanyone.com\/AlCohen.htm): One of St. Thomas's most famous outlets occupies a big warehouse at Havensight, across from the West Indian Company docks, where cruise-ship passengers disembark. Inside is a huge storehouse of liquor and wine.\n\nVirgilio's   ITALIAN The best Italian restaurants on island, Virgilio's serves up Sicilian classics and homemade pastas and risottos, including a hearty \"Lasagna de Maria,\" from a Virgilio family recipe. You can also get traditional veal and chicken dishes, as well as a sprinkling of fresh-made pizzas, including a terrific pizza del mare, with shrimp and calamari. The restaurant's old-world charm is enhanced by wood beams and vaulted brick. Paintings in ornate frames line buttery-yellow walls. Look for Virgillo's tucked in a alley between Main and Back streets.\n\n18 Dronningens Gade (entrance on a narrow alley running btw. Main and Back sts.).   340\/776-4920. www.virgiliosvi.com. Reservations recommended. Main courses lunch $18\u2013$30, dinner $23\u2013$48. Mon\u2013Sat 11:30am\u201310pm; closed Sun.\n\nModerate\n\nCuzzin's Caribbean Restaurant & Bar   CARIBBEAN For authentic Caribbean cooking, head to this casual old-school lunch spot in a former 18th-century stable on Back Street. The brick-and-wood dining room has windows looking onto the street and a comfortable feel. Look for classic island dishes with an emphasis on seafood, especially lobster and fresh-caught fish. Conch comes in a variety of preparations, from curried conch to conch Creole to conch fritters. You can make a genuine West Indies meal out of the sides alone, which include fungi (cornmeal grits), peas and rice, fried plantains, and island coleslaw.\n\n7 Wimmelskafts Gade (Back St.).   340\/777-4711. www.cuzzinsvi.com. Reservations recommended. Main courses $9\u2013$22. Mon\u2013Sat 11am\u20134:30pm.\n\nGladys' Caf\u00e9   CARIBBEAN\/AMERICAN Dine on local favorites prepared to perfection at Gladys's Caf\u00e9, a lively spot housed in a 1700 pump house smack-dab in the middle Charlotte Amalie's historic district. It's open for breakfast or lunch only. Sample jerk mahi-mahi, curry chicken roti, creamy conch chowder, and kalaloo soup. Entrees come with peas and rice or fungi, a local cornmeal-based specialty similar to polenta or grits. A house specialty is the colorful and nutritious Caribbean lobster salad in a homegrown avocado\u2014you can also get it with tuna or chicken salad. The owner, Gladys, is in the house daily\u2014if you're lucky you will hear her occasionally burst into song. Don't leave without taking home a bottle of Gladys' homemade hot sauce, made with local peppers.\n\nRoyal Dane Mall.   340\/774-6604. <http:\/\/gladyscafe.com>. Reservations required for groups of 6 or more. Breakfast $3.75\u2013$19; lunch main courses $10\u2013$25. Daily 7am\u20135pm.\n\nInexpensive\n\nBumpa's   AMERICAN A deli-style joint, Bumpa's is perfect when you want something simple but well-made. Many people, locals and visitors alike, stop in early in the morning to breakfast on terrific oatmeal banana pancakes, omelets, bagels, and lemonade. Lunch features burgers and sandwiches. Bumpa's is located on the second floor of a building that faces the busy highway along the harbor.\n\n38-A Waterfront Hwy.   340\/776-5674. <http:\/\/bumpas.travelstthomasusvi.com>. Main courses $7\u2013$14. Daily 7:30am\u20135pm.\n\nCaf\u00e9 Amici   ITALIAN\/CARIBBEAN A reliable spot for lunch during a shopping expedition in Charlotte Amalie's historic district, Caf\u00e9 Amici is located on an elevated patio in an old stone alley. It's known for its creative brick-oven-baked pizzas (including a Caribbean jerk pizza and a crab-cake pizza with mango-tomato relish) and satisfying pastas (such as a shrimp scampi pasta). Wraps, and sandwiches are also on the menu. Nutritious choices include hearty salads and veggie-rich Italian soups.\n\nA.H. Riise's Alley.   340\/714-7704. www.cafeamicivi.com. Lunch specials $9.95\u2013$13; pizza $14\u2013$18. Daily 10:30am\u20133:30pm.\n\nJen's Island Caf\u00e9 & Deli   DELI\/CARIBBEAN The food is good and tasty, the welcome warm, and the prices reasonable at this cafe\/deli in Charlotte Amalie's downtown shopping district, right across from Emancipation Garden. In addition, the cafe has quite an extensive menu, from breakfast eggs to American-style deli sandwiches to burgers and salads. Jen even does classic island dishes, such as conch fritters, rotis, and local chicken soup with dumplings. The lobster and shrimp quesadillas are made with Cruzan rum\u2013soaked onions.\n\nGrand Hotel, 43\u201346 Norre Gade.   340\/777-4611 or 514-5345. <http:\/\/jensdeli.com>. Breakfast $5\u2013$10; main courses $6.75\u2013$9. Mon\u2013Fri 7am\u20135pm; Sat 10:30am\u20134pm.\n\nNorth of Charlotte Amalie\n\nExpensive\n\nThe Old Stone Farmhouse   INTERNATIONAL Set in the centuries-old field house of a restored Danish sugar plantation, the newly revitalized Old Stone Farmhouse is a special-occasion treat. Part of the fun is visiting the kitchen to pick out your meat or fish and hobnob with the chefs. But it's just a kitchen, after all; you'll want to spend as much time as possible in the atmospheric dining rooms, whether you're seated outside in the courtyard or inside, with wood-plank floors and flickering candlelight casting shadows on native stone walls. It's the perfect setting to enjoy one of the finest culinary experiences on the island, whether you choose to dine on some kind of exotic wild game (New Zealand elk, say, or wild boar) or a perfect, cooked-to-order steak or fish dish.\n\nMahogany Run.   340\/777-6277. http:\/\/oldstonefarmhouse.com. Reservations recommended. Main courses $24\u2013$36. Mon\u2013Sat 6\u201310pm.\n\nModerate\n\nBlue Orchid   CARIBBEAN\/SMALL PLATES Bringing the trend of small plates to the rain-forest peaks of St. Thomas, Blue Orchid, at the Historic St. Peter Greathouse, is a winning combination of flavorful Caribbean-inspired dishes and insanely scenic vistas. Order a frothy cocktail and some of the delicious small plates; you and your party might graze on tuna tartare, lobster dip, duck confit sliders, or crab salad nachos, to name a few of the choices. The limited menu of entrees include steaks, seafood pastas, and pan-seared grouper. Come early (the bar opens at 4pm), so you can sip sunset drinks and point out the array of Virgin Islands, large and small, from the observation deck before nightfall.\n\nHistoric St. Peter Greathouse, at the corner of Rte. 40 (6A St. Peter Mountain Rd.) and Barrett Hill Rd.   340\/774-4999. www.blueorchidvi.com. Reservations recommended. Main courses $22\u2013$31. Mon\u2013Sat 5\u201310:30pm.\n\nFrenchtown\n\nExpensive\n\nOceana   GLOBAL\/ISLAND This buzzy local favorite is ensconced in the restored West Indian great house of an estate known as Villa Olga, which served as the island's Russian embassy in the late 1800s. It's right on the water's edge, with sweeping views of the Charlotte Amalie harbor. Inside the walls are blanketed with colorful local and global art. The chefs specialize in creative twists on the island bounty, so you'll have seared scallops served with a papaya-pear relish and local honey gastrique, or Maryland crab cakes with a fresh mango salsa. The Oceana bouillabaisse comes brimming with Caribbean lobster, and a New Zealand lamb shank is accompanied by goat-cheese polenta. It's all beautifully prepared, in a memorable setting.\n\nIn the Villa Olga, 8 Honduras.   340\/774-4262. www.oceana.vi. Reservations required. Main courses $27\u2013$48; Caribbean lobster $58. Daily 5:30\u20139:30pm.\n\nModerate\n\nHook, Line & Sinker   AMERICAN This lively spot is set right on the water, with a New England seaport feel: whitewashed wood, French doors, and windows with shimmering harbor views. Well-prepared standards are the name of the game, such as steamed mussels, Caesar salad, or mushrooms stuffed with crabmeat and cheese for starters; and burgers, pastas (pomodoro, Arrabbiata, primavera), chicken, steak, and seafood specials (such as fresh grilled shrimp) for mains.\n\n62 Honduras.   340\/776-9708. www.hooklineandsinkervi.com. Main courses lunch $9\u2013$15, dinner $14\u2013$28. Mon\u2013Sat 11:30am\u20134pm and 6\u201310pm; Sun 10am\u20132:30pm.\n\nInexpensive\n\nFrenchtown Deli   DELI In addition to a full coffee bar, the Frenchtown Deli has some of the island's best deli-style sandwiches, along with bagels and smoked salmon, homemade soups, and salads. Eat in or take out.\n\n24-A Honduras, Frenchtown Mall.   340\/776-7211. Sandwiches $6.50\u2013$12; salads $4\u2013$15. Mon\u2013Fri 7am\u20138pm; Sat 7am\u20135pm; Sun 7am\u20134pm.\n\nThe South Coast\n\nHavana Blue   CUBAN FUSION This Miami-style venue at the Marriott enjoys a beachfront ambience and an inspired menu. An inventive crew is in the kitchen, and out in the dining room, the party is rocking with sexy blue lights, a thumping soundtrack, and a bombshell bartenders serving up blueberry mojitos and mambo margaritas. Ignore the hubbub and get to work: This is some serious food. Start with the black-bean hummus or the tuna tartare with soy-lime vinaigrette. For a main, try the house specialty: miso-lemongrass-glazed sea bass, which comes with wasabi mashed potatoes and garlic spinach. Yes, miso cod, and so forth, has been done to death. No, it doesn't matter: You will find this iteration utterly delicious.\n\nIn Marriott Frenchman's Reef & Morning Star Beach Resort (p. ), 5 Estate Bakkeroe.   340\/715-2583. www.havanabluerestaurant.com. Reservations required. Main courses $30\u2013$52. Daily 5:30\u201310:30pm.\n\nIggies Beach Bar & Grill   AMERICAN\/CONTINENTAL This action-packed seaside grill is an island hot spot (see \"Nightlife,\" below), but it's also a fine place to take the family to dine. The menu features a plethora of pub-style appetizers plus steaks, ribs, and seafood, but every night is theme night; Wednesday is Cruzan Carnival Night, with a Caribbean buffet that opens at 6pm, music at 7pm, and a Carnival show at 8pm ($38 adults, $15 children 11 and under). Tuesday the special is steamed crabs and beer, and Thursday is seafood night; on Friday Iggies serves up tacos and margaritas, and Sunday it's BBQ ribs and chicken night.\n\nAt the Bolongo Bay Beach Resort (p. ), 7150 Bolongo (Rte. 30).   340\/693-2600. www.iggiesbeachbar.com. Burgers and sandwiches $6.50\u2013$15; dinner main courses $18\u2013$34. Daily 11am\u201311pm.\n\nThe East End\n\nExpensive\n\nBleuwater   SEAFOOD\/STEAK The Ritz's showcase restaurant fashions elegant, creative turns on classic dishes. That might mean a lobster and truffle mac-n-cheese, or plantain gnocchi with Maine lobster and English peas. Fresh Virgin Islands seafood is highlighted\u2014we devoured a pan-seared local Queen snapper with conch and jasmine rice here recently\u2014but this is also the place to come for a big, juicy, perfectly cooked steak. Guests can dine in the elegant and expansive dining room or out on the waterfront patio under a sky peppered with stars. And hurray: The kids' menu has more variation than most.\n\nIn the Ritz-Carlton (p. ), 6900 Great Bay.   340\/775-3333. Reservations required. Main courses $40\u2013$65. Wed\u2013Sun 6:30\u20139:30pm.\n\nThe Caribbean Fish Market   SEAFOOD\/WEST INDIAN Breezy and bright, this indoor\/outdoor seafood eatery sits right on the beach at the Elysian Beach Resort, looking out onto the sapphire seas of Cowpet Bay. It's also right next door to the Ritz-Carlton, making it a very convenient place for Ritz guests to enjoy a solid seafood dinner if they don't want to pay Ritz prices to dine (and don't want to have to take a taxi to get somewhere else). Most order the fresh catch of the day, which is cooked any number of ways. Grilled Caribbean lobster and such upscale treats as goat-cheese gnocchi, coconut shrimp lettuce wrap, and lobster and wild mushroom ravioli are also good choices. Sunday brunch is from 8am to 2pm.\n\nIn the Elysian Beach Resort (p. ), 6800 Estate Nazareth.   340\/714-7874. <http:\/\/caribbeanfishmarketvi.com>. Reservations recommended. Main courses $25\u2013$45. Mon\u2013Sun 5\u201310pm; Sun brunch 8am\u20132pm.\n\nSunset Grille   AMERICAN This may be the island's best new restaurant, with a waterside setting that's both breezy and seductive, and a menu with plenty of flavorful turns. Such as the prawns tempura, lightly fried shrimp in a sweet soy glaze served on long skewers, or the tomato-based conch chowder (a switch from the mainly creamy version most often found on island). Overall, it's a surf-or-turf kind of place: from a bevy of gloriously fresh fish to grilled steaks, jerk chicken, and lamb \"lollipops.\" And as I said at the start its a gorgeous setting: The last time we dined here, we watched the orange sun set over the protected cove; then, as night crawled in, we spied lights snaking beneath the inky black seas\u2014a posse of night snorkelers out exploring the marine wonders of the Caribbean sea.\n\nIn the Secret Harbour Beach Resort, 6280 Estate Nazareth.   340\/714-7874. www.secretharbourvi.com. Reservations required. Main courses $24\u2013$48. Daily 5:30\u201310:30pm.\n\nModerate\n\nFish Tails   SEAFOOD If you're looking for a casual, friendly seafood spot right on the water, Fish Tails should nicely fit the bill. You'll dine alfresco on a wooden deck overlooking Vessup Bay and its symphony of fishing boats. It's open practically all day long, serving up island treats like shrimp and eggs (with potatoes) for breakfast and fish cake, seared tuna, grilled wahoo, and Caribbean lobster for lunch and dinner. It's a nice place to bring the family, but it works well for a sunset cocktail, too\u2014and it's a local favorite for breakfast.\n\nNext door to Red Hook ferry terminal, Red Hook.   340\/714-3188. <http:\/\/fishtailsvi.com>. Main courses $15\u2013$30. Daily 7am\u201310pm.\n\nInexpensive\n\nSe\u00f1or Pizza   PIZZA If you're burned out on conch (and even if you're not), you'll be quite satisfied with the big, cheesy pizza pies served at Senor Pizza. Slices are oversized, so one might be all you need for a tasty, filling lunch. They also deliver.\n\nRed Hook Plaza (across from the ferry dock).   340\/775-3030. <http:\/\/senorpizza.cbt.cc\/index.html>. Slice $3; whole pizza $16\u2013$18. No credit cards. Daily 11am\u20139pm.\n\nEXPLORING ST. THOMAS\n\nBeaches\n\nSt. Thomas's beaches are renowned for their powdery white sand and clear azure waters, including the very best of them all, Magens Bay. Chances are that your hotel is right on the beach, or very close to one. Keep in mind that all the beaches in the Virgin Islands are public\u2014even the resort beaches\u2014and most St. Thomas beaches lie anywhere from 2 to 5 miles from Charlotte Amalie.\n\nThe North Coast\n\nThe gorgeous white sands of Magens Bay  \u2014the family favorite of St. Thomas\u2014lie between two mountains 3 miles north of the capital. The turquoise waters here are calm and ideal for swimming, though the snorkeling isn't that good. The beach is no secret, and it's usually overcrowded, though it gets better in the midafternoon. There is no public transportation to get here (although some hotels provide shuttle buses). A taxi from Charlotte Amalie costs about $8.50 per person. If you've rented a car, from Charlotte Amalie take Route 35 north all the way. The gates to the beach are open daily from 6am to 6pm. After 4pm, you'll need insect repellent. Admission is $1 per person and $1 per car. You can rent beach chairs ($7), loungers ($5), towels ($8), and snorkel and masks ($9) right there at the beach. Don't bring valuables, and don't leave anything of value in your parked car. For a bite to eat (try its famous authentic Greek pizza) or a cool libation, Magens Bay Beach Bar & Caf\u00e9 (  340\/777-6270; daily 9:30am\u20135pm) is the local favorite.\n\nA marked trail leads to Little Magens Bay, a separate, clothing-optional beach that's especially popular with gay and lesbian visitors. This is former U.S. President Clinton's preferred beach on St. Thomas (no, he doesn't go nude).\n\nCoki Point Beach, in the northeast near Coral World, is good but narrow and often crowded with both singles and families. It's noted for its warm, crystal-clear water and excellent snorkeling; you'll see thousands of rainbow-hued fish swimming among the beautiful corals. Vendors even sell small bags of fish food to feed the sea creatures while you're snorkeling. From the beach, there's a panoramic view of offshore Thatch Cay. Concessions can arrange everything from water-skiing to parasailing. Coki Dive Center (www.cokidive.com) has locker rentals onsite so you don't have to worry about your valuables.\n\nAlso on the north side of the island is luscious Grand Beach, one of St. Thomas's most beautiful, attracting families and couples. It opens onto Smith Bay and is near Coral World. Many watersports are available here. The beach is right off Route 38.\n\nThe East End\n\nSmall and calm, Secret Harbour   fronts the Secret Harbour Beach Resort and a collection of condos. With its white sand and coconut palms, it's a lovely little spot. The snorkeling near the rocks is some of the best on the island\u2014and night snorkeling is also available. You can rent equipment or sign up for a 60-minute \"Discover Snorkeling\" course (all ages welcome) on-site at the Secret Harbour Beach Resort with Aqua Action Dive Center (  340\/775-6285). It's an easy taxi ride east of Charlotte Amalie heading toward Red Hook.\n\nSapphire Beach   is set against the backdrop of the Sapphire Beach Resort and Marina (somewhat dilapidated the last time we visited). Still, like Magens Bay Beach, this wide, safe beach is one of the most frequented by families. You'll have good views of St. John, Tortola, Jost Van Dyke, and offshore cays, and a large reef is close to the shore. Windsurfers like this beach a lot. You can rent all kinds of watersports equipment right there on the beach at DIVE IN! (  866\/434-8346, ext. 2144, in the U.S., or 340\/777-5255; www.diveinusvi.com).\n\nHot surfing Spots\n\nSurfers come from miles around to test the swells at Hull Bay, on the north shore, just west of Magens Bay, particularly the waves along the western tip. It's also where local fishermen anchor in the more tranquil areas. Don't expect much in the way of watersports outfitters. There is a combined restaurant and open-air bar. If you're relying on taxis, it costs about $15 per person to reach the bay. Two other beaches have good surfing, Perserverance Bay and Caret Bay, but these are the unofficial territory of French locals, who as one surfer said, \"let you know if they don't like you.\"\n\nWhite-sand Lindquist Beach   isn't a long strip, but it's one of the island's prettiest beaches. It's between Wyndham Sugar Bay Resort & Spa and the Sapphire Beach Resort. Many films and TV commercials have used this photogenic beach as a backdrop. It's not likely to be crowded, as it's not very well known. It has no beach bar or cafe, but you can actually have a pizza delivered here!\n\nThe South Coast\n\nMorning Star  \u2014also known as Frenchman's Bay Beach\u2014fronts the Morning Star section of the Marriott Frenchman's Reef & Morning Star beach resort, about 2 miles east of Charlotte Amalie. It's a lovely spot, with gentle swells. Sailboats, snorkeling equipment, and lounge chairs are available for rent. If you're not staying at Morning Star, you can reach the beach by a cliff-front elevator at Frenchman's Reef or by walking the cliffside walk down to the beach.\n\nWest of Charlotte Amalie\n\nNear the University of the Virgin Islands, in the southwest, Brewers Bay is one of the island's most popular beaches for families. The strip of white coral sand is almost as long as the beach at Magens Bay. Unfortunately, this isn't a good place for snorkeling. Vendors here sell light meals and drinks. From Charlotte Amalie, take the Fortuna bus heading west; get off at the edge of Brewers Bay, across from the Reichhold Center.\n\nLindbergh Beach, with a lifeguard, restrooms, and a bathhouse, is at the Island Beachcomber Hotel (p. ) and is used extensively by locals, who stage events from political rallies to Carnival parties here. Beach-loving couples are also attracted to this beach. It's not good for snorkeling. Drinks are served on the beach. Take the Fortuna bus route west from Charlotte Amalie.\n\nWatersports & Outdoor Adventures\n\nboat CHARTERING\/BAREBOATING Yacht Haven Grande St. Thomas, 9100 Port of Sale, Charlotte Amalie (  340\/774-9500), is the premier marine facility for mega-yachts in the Caribbean. Located alongside Charlotte Amalie harbor, it encompasses a 48-slip facility, with dining, entertainment, and recreational options. American Yacht Harbor  , Red Hook (  340\/775-6454; www.igy-americanyachtharbor.com), can refer both bareboat and fully crewed charters. It leaves from the east end of St. Thomas in Vessup Bay. The harbor is home to numerous boat companies, including day-trippers, fishing boats, and sailing charters. There are also five restaurants on the property, serving everything from Continental to Caribbean cuisine. Another reliable outfitter is Charteryacht League, at Gregory East (  800\/524-2061 in the U.S., or 340\/774-3944; www.vicl.org).\n\nSailors may want to check out the \"Yachtsman's Guide to the Virgin Islands,\" available at major marine outlets, at bookstores, through catalog merchandisers, or directly from Tropical Publishers (  877\/923-9653; www.yachtsmansguide.com).\n\nday sailing Sail the U.S. and British Virgin Islands on the beautiful 44-foot clipper-bowed ketch Independence (  340\/775-1408; www.sailingvirginislands.net) with Captain Pat Stoeken. Based at the American Yacht Harbor in Red Hook, the Independence takes a maximum of six passengers on personally customized full- and half-day sails, including a hot lunch. Full-day rates are $140 adults, $125 children; half-day rates $90 adults, $80 children.\n\nAnother sail excursion that lets you avoid the crowds is aboard the Fantasy, 6100 Leeward Way, no. 28 (  340\/775-5652; www.daysailfantasy.com), which departs daily from the American Yacht Harbor at Red Hook at 9:30am and returns at 3pm. The boat takes a maximum of six passengers to St. John and nearby islands for swimming, snorkeling, and beachcombing. Snorkel gear and expert instruction are provided, as is a champagne lunch. The full-day trip costs $140 per person for adults and children. A half-day sail, usually offered only during the low season, lasts 3 hours and costs $100 for adults and children.\n\nThe 50-foot Yacht Nightwind, Sapphire Marina (  340\/775-7017; www.stjohndaysail.com), offers full-day sails to St. John and the outer islands. The $125 price includes continental breakfast, a champagne buffet lunch, and an open bar aboard. You're also given free snorkeling equipment and instruction.\n\nNew Horizons, 6501 Red Hook Plaza, Ste. 16, Red Hook (  800\/808-7604 or 340\/775-1171; www.newhorizonsvi.com), offers windborne excursions amid the cays and reefs of the Virgin Islands. The two-masted, 65-foot sloop has circumnavigated the globe, and has even been used as a design prototype for other boats. Owned and operated by Canadian Tim Krygsveld, it contains a hot-water shower, serves a specialty drink called a New Horizons Nooner, and carries a complete line of snorkeling equipment for adults and children. A full-day excursion with a continental breakfast, an Italian buffet lunch, and an open bar costs $120 per person ($80 for children ages 2\u201312). Excursions depart daily, weather permitting, from the Sapphire Beach Resort and Marina. Call ahead for reservations. New Horizons also offers New Horizons II (  340\/775-1171; www.newhorizonscharters.com), a 44-foot custom-made speedboat that takes you on a full-day trip, from 7am to 5pm, to some of the most scenic highlights of the British Virgin Islands. Trips cost $145 for adults or $95 for children ages 2 to 12. You will need your passport and will have to pay an additional $15-per-person Customs fee. New Horizons II leaves from the Sapphire Beach Resort at 7:15am and from the People Ferries' Dock in St. John at 7:45am.\n\nFishing The U.S. Virgins have excellent deep-sea fishing\u2014some 19 world records (eight for blue marlin) have been set in these waters. Outfitters abound at the major marinas like Red Hook. Peanut Gallery Fishing Charters, 8168 Crown Bay Marina, Ste. 310 (  340\/642-7423; www.fishingstthomas.com), offers both light-tackle inshore sportsfishing and deep-sea sportsfishing. Your captain will be Captain David Pearsall. The vessels provide inshore fishing year-round for the likes of barracuda, bonefish, kingfish, mackerel, and tarpon. The cost for 4 hours is $575; 6 hours, $700; and 8 hours, $900.\n\nYou can also line-fish from the rocky shore along Mandahl Beach on the north coast. The tourist office in Charlotte Amalie should have a listing of legal spots for line fishing around the island.\n\nGolf Mahogany Run, on the north shore at Mahogany Run Road (  800\/253-7103; www.mahoganyrungolf.com), is an 18-hole, par-70 course. The course rises and drops like a roller coaster on its journey to the sea; cliffs and crashing sea waves are the ultimate hazards at the 13th and 14th holes. Greens fees are $125 to $165 for 18 holes. Carts are included. Club rental costs $70.\n\nKayak Tours Virgin Islands Ecotours (  340\/779-2155; www.viecotours.com) offers 21\u20442-, 3-, and 5-hour kayak trips through the Cas Cay mangrove lagoon on the southern coastline. The cost is $69, $79, and $139 per person respectively (children 12 and under $39, $49, $79). The tour is led by professional naturalists who allow for 30 to 40 minutes of snorkeling.\n\nAnother new but increasingly popular trip is the clear kayak night tour leaving around sunset daily from the Marriott Frenchman's Reef resort. You paddle out to Pirate Point in clear see-through kayaks and turn on the boat's special LED lights\u2014giving you views of the nocturnal marine world. Offered by the Marriott's on-property tour operator Adventure Center, which also has snorkel and sailing excursions, the 11\u20442-hour trip costs $45 per person (  866\/868-7784; www.adventurecenters.net).\n\nScuba Diving\/snuba The best scuba-diving site off St. Thomas, especially for novices, is Cow and Calf Rocks, off the southeast end (45 min. from Charlotte Amalie by boat); here, you'll discover a network of coral tunnels filled with caves, reefs, and ancient boulders encrusted with coral. The Cartanser Sr., a sunken World War II cargo ship that lies in about 35 feet of water, is beautifully encrusted with coral and is home to myriad colorful resident fish. Another popular wreck dive is the Maj. General Rogers, the stripped-down hull of a former Coast Guard cutter.\n\nExperienced divers may want to dive at exposed sheer rock pinnacles like Sail Rock and French Cap Pinnacle, which are encrusted with hard and soft corals, and are frequented by lobsters and green and hawksbill turtles. Both spots are exposed to open-ocean currents, making these very challenging dives.\n\nMany think the St. Thomas Diving Club, 7147 Bolongo Bay (  877\/538-8734 in the U.S., or 340\/776-2381; www.stthomasdivingclub.com), is the best on the island. This full-service, PADI five-star IDC center offers open-water certification courses for $425 to $595. Advanced open-water certification courses go for $400 to $475. You can also enjoy a half-day snorkeling trip for $55.\n\nCoki Dive Center, Coki Beach (  340\/775-4220; www.cokidive.com), a PADI center, offers scuba-diving courses and guided dive tours for beginners and certified divers alike. You can also rent diving and snorkeling gear here. A PADI Discover Scuba Diving Course is $79. Night dives are $65.\n\nDay-Tripping to St. John\n\nMost visitors to St. Thomas include a day-trip to beautiful sister island St. John for swimming, snorkeling, hiking, or just hanging out on one of the island beaches. Ferries to St. John leave every hour on the hour from Red Hook ($6 per person) and last only 15 to 20 minutes; you can also catch less frequent ferries from the Charlotte Amalie ferry terminal. It's easy to make a day of it: The last ferry returning from Cruz Bay, St. John, is at 11pm. Car ferries also run between Red Hook and Cruz Bay, traveling from 7am to 7pm daily every half-hour; book ahead on one of three carriers: Boyson (  340\/776-6294); Love City (  340\/779-4000); or Global Marine (  340\/779-1739). Car-ferry rates run from $42 to $50 round-trip; arrive at least 15 minutes before departure. If you don't have a car, have taxi driver Kenneth Lewis (  340\/776-6865) or one of his cohorts meet you at the ferry terminal in St. John for transportation to and from the beach, the park, or wherever you decide to spend the day. At the end of your day, you return to Cruz Bay for shopping and dinner and catch the ferry home right there on the harborfront.\n\nDIVE IN!, in the Sapphire Beach Resort and Marina, Smith Bay Road, Route 36 (  866\/434-8346, ext. 2144, in the U.S., or 340\/777-5255; www.diveinusvi.com), is a complete diving center offering professional instruction (beginner to advanced), daily beach and boat dives, custom dive packages, snorkeling trips, and a full-service PADI dive center. An introductory resort course costs $90, with a one-dive afternoon trip going for $75 and two-dive morning trip costing $96. A six-dive pass costs $255.\n\nNon-divers and beginning swimmers can still have a diving experience with Virgin Islands Snuba Excursions (  340\/693-8063; www.visnuba.com) These special excursions are offered both at Coral World on St. Thomas and at Trunk Bay on St. John. With Snuba's equipment\u2014an air line that attaches to an air tank floating on the surface\u2014even novices can breathe easily underwater without the use of heavy restrictive dive gear. The Snuba operations begin in waist-deep water and make a gradual descent to a depth of 20 feet. This is fun for the whole family, as kids ages 8 and up can participate, and no snorkeling or scuba experience is needed. Most orientation and guided underwater tours take 11\u20442 hours, costing $70 per person on St. John. On St. Thomas, a pass to Coral World (p. ) is included, and the rate is $74 for adults and $70 for children 8 to 12. Reservations are required.\n\nsnorkeling The island's best snorkeling spots include the rocks around Coki Beach; you can rent snorkeling gear from the Coki Dive Center, Coki Beach (  340\/775-4220; www.cokidive.com); day snorkel rentals are $10 and locker rentals are $5. Another great spot to snorkel is Secret Harbor; you can rent equipment or sign up for a 60-minute \"Discover Snorkeling\" course (all ages welcome) on-site at the Secret Harbour Beach Resort with Aqua Action Dive Center (  340\/775-6285; www.aadivers.com). Another popular snorkeling spot is Sapphire Beach\u2014where you can rent snorkeling equipment right there on the beach at DIVE IN! (  866\/434-8346, ext. 2144, in the U.S., or 340\/777-5255; www.diveinusvi.com).\n\nziplining One of the newer outdoor adventure on island is Tree Limin' Extreme (  340\/777-9477; www.ziplinestthomas.com), a ziplining canopy tour in the rain forest of St. Peter Mountain, with six ziplines (including a \"yo-yo\" zip\u2014which gives riders, as the name implies, a yo-yo-style zipline ride). If you can take your eyes off your (secure) zipline, you'll have views of Magen's Bay and even Tortola and Jost Van Dyke. You can combine a ziplining adventure with a tour of the tropical gardens of the St. Peter Great House & Botanical Gardens (<http:\/\/greathousevi.com>; see below), just across the street.\n\nSeeing the Sights\n\nIn 1733, the Danish government acquired the Virgin Islands from the Danish West India Company. The Danes did not find land suitable for agriculture, and St. Thomas became a bustling port instead. It also became a center for transporting slaves.\n\nThe Virgin Islands remained under Danish rule until 1917, when the U.S., fearing German infiltration in the Caribbean during World War I, purchased the islands from Denmark. Today the U.S. Virgin Islands claims the highest per-capita income in the Caribbean, with some 50,000 settlers of varying ethnicity making their home in St. Thomas alone. The port is also the busiest cruise-ship harbor in the West Indies, outranking Puerto Rico.\n\nToday you can see many vestiges of the island's history in the capital, Charlotte Amalie, whose architecture reflects the island's culturally diverse past: You'll pass Dutch doors, Danish red-tile roofs, French iron grillwork, and Spanish-style patios. With its white houses and bright red roofs glistening in the sun, the city is terraced along the green hills surrounding the harbor. The town is filled with historic sights, like Fort Christian, an intriguing 17th-century building constructed by the Danes.\n\nThe best way to see the sights is by taxi tour. Expect to pay about $50 for a single-passenger tour or $25 per person for two or more passengers for 2 hours of sightseeing in a shared car. We highly recommend Campbell Rey (  340\/771-1568), the unofficial \"mayor\" of the island and a true gentleman. Rey has an open safari bus that can hold up to 27 people, and a smaller van that comfortably seats 12 or so. Another recommended taxi driver is Llewelyn Powell (  340\/771-1568 or 340\/776-3887).\n\nTropic Tours, 14AB the Guardian Building (  800\/524-4334 or 340\/774-1855; www.tropictoursusvi.com), offers a tour of St. Thomas that includes Drake's Seat, the Estate St. Peter Greathouse, and Charlotte Amalie shopping. The cost is $49 per person, $36 for children 12 and under.\n\nFor dramatic views of Charlotte Amalie's harbor, take a ride on the Paradise Point Tram (  866\/868-7784; www.adventurecenters.net) to a 700-foot peak. The tram, similar to those used at ski resorts, operates six cars, each with an eight-person capacity, for the 15-minute round-trip ride. It transports customers from the Havensight area to Paradise Point, where you can disembark to visit shops and the popular restaurant and bar. The tramway runs daily 9am to 5pm. Reservations are required; the cost is $21 per adult round-trip, $12 round-trip for children 6 to 12, and free for children 5 and under.\n\nThe walking tour below will give you a good basic feel for the historic district of Charlotte Amalie.\n\nWalking Tour: Charlotte Amalie\n\nStart: | King's Wharf.\n\n---|---\n\nFinish: | Waterfront.\n\nTime: | 21\u20442 hours.\n\nBest Time: | Before 10am to avoid cruise-ship passengers.\n\nWorst Time: | Around midday to 4pm, when traffic and pedestrians are at their most plentiful.\n\nEven with the crowds and shops, it is easy to see how the natural colors and charm of the Caribbean come to life in the waterfront town of Charlotte Amalie. The capital of St. Thomas once attracted seafarers from all over the globe. At one time, St. Thomas was the biggest slave market in the world. Today, the old warehouses, once used for storing stolen pirate goods, have been converted to shops. In fact, the main streets, called \"gade\" (a reflection of their Danish heritage), now coalesce into a virtual shopping mall, one that is often packed with cruise-ship hordes. Sandwiched among these shops are a few historic buildings, most of which can be seen on foot in about 2 hours. Start your walking tour along the eastern harborfront at King's Wharf.\n\n1King's Wharf\n\nThis is the site of the Virgin Islands Legislature. The apple-green two-story structure was first built in 1824 as a military barracks for the Danish Police. The current building dates from 1874. It was in a ceremony on this site in 1917 that ownership of the Virgin Islands was officially transferred from the Danish West Indies to the U.S.\u2014bought for a then-pretty price of $25 million.\n\nFrom here, walk away from the harbor up Fort Pladsen to:\n\n2Fort Christian\n\nDating from 1680 and named after the Danish king Christian V, this handsome (if crumbling) salmon-red structure is the oldest standing building in the entire U.S. Virgin Islands. It has been a fort (with 3- to 6-ft.-thick walls), a governor's residence, a prison (with a downstairs dungeon), a police station, and a court until it was named a National Historic Landmark in 1977. Unfortunately, restoration efforts of both the fort and its museum have dragged on since 2005, when it was closed to the public for renovations.\n\nContinue walking up Fort Pladsen to:\n\n3Emancipation Park\n\nThis is where a proclamation freeing African slaves and indentured European servants was read on July 3, 1848. The park is now mostly a picnic area for local workers and visitors.\n\nNear the park is the:\n\n4Grand Galleria\n\nFrom here, a visitor center dispenses valuable travel information about the island. When it opened as a hotel in 1837, it was a grand address, but it later fell into decay, and finally closed in 1975. The former guest rooms upstairs have been turned into offices and a restaurant.\n\nNorthwest of the park, at Main Street and Tolbod Gade, stands the:\n\n5Central Post Office\n\nOn display here are floor-to-ceiling murals by Stephen Dohanos, who became famous as an artist for \"The Saturday Evening Post.\"\n\nFrom the post office, walk east along Norre Gade to the:\n\n6Frederik Lutheran Church\n\nThis, the island's oldest church building, was built between 1780 and 1793. The original Georgian-style building, financed by a free black parishioner, Jean Reeneaus, was refurbished in 1826 and again in 1870 with Gothic and gabled flourishes. It has a \"welcoming arms\" entrance stairway, and is recognizable by its distinctive yellow-gold hue.\n\nExiting the church, walk east along Norre Gade to Lille Taarne Gade. Turn left (north) and climb to Kongens Gade (King St.), passing through a neighborhood of law firms, to:\n\n7Government House\n\nThis handsome neoclassical building is the administrative headquarters for the U.S. Virgin Islands. It's been the center of political life in the islands since it was built, around the time of the American Civil War, in 1867, for the Danish Colonial Council. The first two floors are open to the public and contain vintage West Indian furniture and works of art by native son (and vaunted Impressionist) Camille Pisarro.\n\nAfter leaving Government House, turn immediately to your left and look for the sign for:\n\nWalking Tour: Charlotte Amalie\n\n8Seven Arches Museum\n\nBrowsers and gapers love checking out this museum at Government Hill (  340\/774-9295; <http:\/\/sevenarchesmuseum.com>), the private home of longtime residents Philibert Fluck and Barbara Demaras. This 2-centuries-old Danish house has been completely restored and furnished with antiques. Walk through the yellow ballast arches into the Great Room, which has a wonderful view of the Caribbean's busiest harbor. It's open by appointment only.\n\nAfter visiting the museum, return to Government House. Next to the building is:\n\n9Frederik Church Parsonage\n\nThis building dates from 1725. It's one of the oldest houses on the island, and the only structure in the Government Hill district to retain its simple 18th-century lines.\n\nContinue west along Kongens Gade until you reach:\n\n10Hotel 1829\n\nFormerly known as the Lavalette House (and now known officially as Blackbeard's Castle), this place was designed in 1829 by one of the leading merchants of Charlotte Amalie. This landmark building has views over Charlotte Amalie and the harbor.\n\nThis is also a great place to take a break. If the bar is open, Hotel 1829 provides the perfect veranda, with a spectacular view, for a midday drink or a sundowner. You may just fall in love with the place, abandon this tour, and stick around for dinner. The bar is open Monday to Saturday 4 to 11pm.\n\nNext door (still on the same side of the street), observe the:\n\n11Yellow-Brick Building\n\nThis structure was built in 1854 in what local architects called \"the style of Copenhagen\"\u2014it's square and squat, with colorful wooden shutters and a roof tiled of marble. It was built of ballast brick (brought over as ballast in the ship). You can go inside and browse the many shops within.\n\nAt this point, you might want to double back slightly on Kongens Gade to climb the famous:\n\n1299 Steps\n\nThese steps (actually 103 in total) were erected in the early 1700s, and take you to the summit of Government Hill, from where you'll see the 18th-century:\n\n13Crown House\n\nThis stately private house is immediately to your right, on the south side of the street. This was the home of von Scholten, the Danish ruler who issued the famous proclamation of emancipation in 1848 (see Emancipation Park, above).\n\nWalk back down the steps and continue right (west) along Kongens Gade, then down a pair of old brick steps until you reach Garden Street. Go right (north) on Garden Street and take a left onto Crystal Gade. On your left, at the corner of Nye Gade and Crystal Gade, you'll see:\n\n14St. Thomas Reformed Church\n\nThis building is from 1844, but it holds one of the oldest congregations in the Virgin Islands, established by Dutch traders around 1660. The church has been buffeted by fire and natural disasters: Fire destroyed two early-19th-century iterations (and a 1995 hurricane, Marilyn, damaged the sanctuary), but much of the 1844 structure, designed like a Greek temple, has been beautifully restored.\n\nContinue up Crystal Gade. On your right (north side), you'll come to:\n\n15St. Thomas Synagogue\n\nThis is the oldest synagogue in continuous use under the American flag, and the second oldest in the Western Hemisphere. Nine Sephardic Jewish families founded the congregation in 1796, and the current building was erected in 1833. It still maintains the tradition of having sand on the floor, said to have muffled the sounds of worshippers' footsteps during the persecution of Jews during the Spanish Inquisition (many communities of Sephardic Jews flourished in the Caribbean after being expulsed from Spain in 1492). The structure is made of local stone, ballast brick from Denmark, and mortar made of molasses and sand. It's open to visitors Monday to Thursday 9am to 4pm, Friday 9am to 3pm and Saturday during services. Next door, the Weibel Museum showcases 300 years of Jewish history. It keeps the same hours.\n\nRetrace your steps (east) to Raadets Gade and turn south toward the water, crossing the famous Vimmelskaft Gade or \"Back Street\" (it can get a bit seedy at night, so be aware if you are walking after dark). Continue along Raadets Gade until you reach:\n\n16Main Street\n\nThis is Charlotte Amalie's major artery and most famous shopping street. Turn right (west) and walk along Main Street until you come to the mid-19th-century:\n\n17Camille Pissarro Building\n\nThis structure will be on your right, at the Amsterdam Sauer Jewelry Store. Pissarro, a Spanish Jew who became one of the founders of French Impressionism, was born in this building as Jacob Pizarro in 1830. Before moving to Paris, he worked for his father in a store on Main Street. Also housed in the building is Gallery Camille Pissarro, with a few Pissarro paintings on display and prints by local artists for sale.\n\nContinuing west along Main Street, you will pass on your right the:\n\n18Enid M. Baa Public Library\n\nThis building, formerly the von Bretton House, dates from 1818.\n\nKeep heading west until you reach:\n\n19Market Square\n\nThis was the center of a large slave-trading market before the 1848 emancipation and is officially called Rothschild Francis Square. Today it's an open-air fruit and vegetable market, selling, among other items, genips (grape-type fruit; to eat one, break open the skin and suck the pulp off the pit). The wrought-iron roof covered a railway station at the turn of the 20th century. The market is open Monday to Saturday, but Saturday is its busiest day; hours vary, but generally 9am to 3pm.\n\nIf the genip doesn't satisfy you, take Strand Gade down (south) to:\n\n20The Waterfront\n\nAlso known as Kyst Vejen, this is where you can purchase a fresh coconut. One of the vendors here will whack off the top with a machete so that you can drink the sweet milk from its hull. You'll have an up-close view of one of the most scenic harbors in the West Indies, even when it's filled with cruise ships.\n\nAttractions around the Island\n\nRoute 30 (Veterans Dr.) will take you west of Charlotte Amalie to Frenchtown (turn left at the sign to the Admiral's Inn). Early French-speaking settlers arrived on St. Thomas from St. Barts after they were uprooted by the Swedes. Many of today's island residents are the direct descendants of those long-ago immigrants, who were known for speaking a distinctive French patois. This colorful village contains a bevy of restaurants and taverns. Because Charlotte Amalie has become somewhat dangerous at night, Frenchtown has picked up its after-dark business and is the best spot for dancing, drinking, and other local entertainment.\n\nFarther west, Harwood Highway (Rte. 308) will lead you to Crown Mountain Road, a scenic drive opening onto the best views of the hills, beaches, and crystal-clear waters around St. Thomas.\n\nCoral World Ocean Park   AQUARIUM St. Thomas's number-one tourist attraction features a three-story underwater observation tower 100 feet offshore. Inside, you'll spy sea sponges, fish, coral, and other aquatic creatures in their natural state. An 80,000-gallon reef tank features exotic marine life of the Caribbean; another tank is devoted to sea predators, with circling sharks and giant moray eels. Among the exciting new activities are the Sea Lion Splash ($125 adult, $117 child; includes Coral World admission), where you actually get to swim with sea lions; the Sea Lion Encounter ($86 adult, $77 child; includes Coral World admission), where you interact with sea lions without gettting wet; the Turtle Encounter ($53 adult, $44 child; includes Coral World admission), where participants have up-close encounters with large sea turtles; and the Shark Encounter ($53 adult, $44 child; includes Coral World admission), where you have the chance to enter a shallow pool with juvenile sharks. Age and\/or height and weight restrictions apply to all activities.\n\nNondivers can get some of the thrill long known to scuba aficionados by participating in Sea Trek, which is slightly different from Snuba (p. ). For $79, or $70 for children, you can get a full immersion undersea with no experience necessary. Participants are given a helmet and a tube to breathe through. The tube is attached to an air source at the observatory tower. You then enjoy a 20-minute stroll in water that's 18 feet deep, observing rainbow-hued tropical fish and the coral reefs as you move along the seafloor. It's a marvelous way to experience the world through the eyes of a fish. Note: Reservations are required, so call ahead or log on to the park's website.\n\nCoral World's guests can take advantage of adjacent Coki Beach for snorkel rentals, scuba lessons, or simply swimming and snorkeling. Lockers are available. Also included in the marine park are a seaside cafe, duty-free shops, and a nature trail.\n\n6450 Estates Smith Bay, a 20-min. drive from Charlotte Amalie off Rte. 38.   340\/775-1555. <http:\/\/coralworldvi.com>. Admission $19 adults, $10 children ages 3\u201312. Daily 9am\u20134pm.\n\nEstate St. Peter Greathouse & Botanical Gardens   GARDENS Set on the island's northern rim 1,000 feet above sea level, this 11-acre estate was long ago part of the Plantation St. Peter. Today its gardens, restaurant, and event space is pillowed in oversize rain-forest foliage, with a tropical bird aviary and self-guided nature trails through a jungle of orchids. See the hump-backed islands of the B.V.I. from the panoramic deck above the gardens. The entry fee gets you panoramic views and a complimentary rum punch.\n\nAt the corner of Rte. 40 (6A St. Peter Mountain Rd.) and Barrett Hill Rd.   340\/774-4999. <http:\/\/greathousevi.com>. Admission $8 adults, $5 children 11 and under. Daily 9am\u20134pm.\n\nWATER ISLAND lore & history\n\nTo the native residents of St. Thomas, Water Island remains a land of legend and lore, having been settled by the Arawak Indians in the early 15th century. In the days of Caribbean piracy, as evoked by Disney's \"Pirates of the Caribbean\" movies, the island was used for both anchorage and fresh water, as pirates found numerous freshwater ponds here. Islanders on St. Thomas claim that millions of dollars in pirate treasure remain buried on Water Island, but so far no one has dug it up. An old leather trunk was once discovered, but it was empty except for one gold doubloon.\n\nWhen European colonization arrived in the late 17th century, many Danes tried to use the island for raising cows and goats. White plantation owners and colonists shunned the island because of its arid land, so unlike the rest of the Caribbean, Water Island was farmed by nonwhite plantation owners. These were freed men of color who operated the plantations, like Jean Renaud, a free mulatto who owned the entire island in 1769, working it with 18 slaves.\n\nIn 1944, the United States bought the island for $10,000. The military began planning Fort Segarra here, but the war ended before it could be built. Traces of \"the fort that never was\" can still be seen today.\n\nIn 1950, the Department of the Interior leased the island to Water Phillips, a developer, for $3,000 annually. He built homes and a 100-room hotel. Popular in the 1950s, the hotel became the setting for Herman Wouk's 1965 novel, \"Don't Stop the Carnival.\" (Incidentally, native residents of St. Croix claim that the novel was based on a hotel being built in the harbor of Christiansted.) The novel was turned into a short-lived musical by Jimmy Buffet in 1997. In 1989, Hurricane Hugo severely damaged the hotel, and it was shut down. It lies dormant today. The lease Phillips signed ran out 3 years later, and in 1996, Water Island was transferred to the federal government, in whose hands it remains today. At present (and likely to remain so for a long time to come), no foundations have been poured on Water Island. Nothing has been inaugurated. The cost of developing roads, irrigation, and sewage lines in this eco-sensitive environment is a daunting challenge and a dream that, for the immediate future, remains too expensive an undertaking.\n\nExcursions from St. Thomas\n\nWater Island\n\nWater Island, 3\u20444 mile off the coast from the harbor at Charlotte Amalie, is the fourth-largest island in the U.S. Virgins, with nearly 500 acres of land. Irregular in shape, 21\u20442-mile-long Water Island is filled with many bays and peninsulas, and studded with several good, sandy beaches along with secluded coves and rocky headlands. Established as the fourth U.S. Virgin Island in 1996, Water Island was once a part of a peninsula jutting out from St. Thomas, but a channel was cut through, allowing U.S. submarines to reach their base in a bay to the west. The island has a rich history that includes freed slaves, Herman Wouk, and Jimmy Buffett; see below.\n\nAt palm-shaded Honeymoon Beach, you can swim, snorkel, sail, water-ski, or sunbathe. The beach has been significantly improved in the past few years, as loads of rocks and gravel were hauled off and trees and brush removed. The sand was sifted to get rid of debris, and a dredge removed the seaweed and deposited white sand on the shore. Today it looks quite beautiful.\n\nThere is no commerce on the island\u2014no taxis, gas stations, hotels, shops, or even a main town. Residents are totally dependent on Charlotte Amalie, lying a half-mile away. It you're planning on a visit, bring water and your own food supplies and other needs. Don't count on it, but a food cart sometimes shows up on Honeymoon Beach, serving surprisingly good meals, including an all-steak lunch.\n\nThe Water Island Ferry (  340\/690-4159; <http:\/\/waterislandferry.com>) runs between Crown Bay Marina and Phillip's Landing on Water Island several times a day for $5 one-way, $10 round-trip (Crown Bay Marina is part of the St. Thomas submarine base).\n\nIf you prefer a guided tour, we recommend a bike tour with Water Island Adventures (  340\/714-2186; www.waterislandadventures.com; $65 per person, including transportation and equipment). Beach and swimming time is included in the 31\u20442 hours of the tour. Departures are from the dock at Havensight Mall or Crown Bay Marina.\n\nHassel Island\n\nIn the same bay as Water Island, and even closer to shore, is 136-acre Hassel Island (www.hasselisland.org). This island is almost completely deserted and protected as part of the Virgin Islands National Park, which prohibits most forms of development. There are no hotels or services of any kind here.\n\nThis island was connected to the mainland of St. Thomas until 1865 (end of the Civil War), when a channel was dug for easier passages of ships. During the early 19th century's Napoleonic Wars, the British occupied the island, and the ruins of two forts that the troops constructed here, Willoughby and Shipley, can be seen today. You can explore these ruins.\n\nHassel Island was once used by the Danes to defend the port of Charlotte Amalie. In 1840, the Danes built a marine railway operation for boat and sail repairs. As late as the 1960s, the marine railway was still in operation. It was one of the earliest steam-powered marine railways in the Western Hemisphere, as well as the oldest surviving example of a steam-powered marine railway in the world.\n\nIn 1978, some 95 percent of Hassel Island was sold to the U. S. National Park Service by its owners, the Paiewonski family. For almost 30 years, the island sat untouched and deteriorating until it was discovered by MTV location scouts as the ideal setting for the 27th season of the network's popular \"Real World\" franchise. \"Real World: St. Thomas\" debuted in 2012, with the participants living in an old estate.\n\nToday, the MTV crew is long gone, but you can visit Hassel through Virgin Islands Ecotours (  877\/845-2925; <http:\/\/viecotours.com>), the only concessionaire allowed to bring visitors to explore the island. It offers 3- and 5-hour kayak, hike, and snorkel tours of the island ($89\/3 hr. and $143\/5 hr.; the latter includes lunch), leaving from the Frenchtown marina. Trails take you across gentle hills with dry woods, lots of plants, and plenty of cacti\u2014you'll think you're in the Arizona desert. The western shore has white sands shaded by sea grapes. The rather barren island has little shade, so bring along hats and plenty of sunscreen.\n\nSHOPPING\n\nThe discounted, duty-free shopping in the Virgin Islands makes St. Thomas a shopping mecca. It's possible to find well-known brand names here at savings of up to 60 percent off mainland prices. And each U.S. resident is given a $1,600 duty-free allowance\u2014even kids. Even better: St. Thomas has no sales tax. But be warned\u2014savings are not always guaranteed, so make sure you know the price of the item back home to determine if you are truly getting a good deal. Having sounded that warning, we mention some St. Thomas shops in the listings below where we have indeed found good buys. For more help, the local publications \"This Week in St. Thomas\" and \"Places to Explore\" have updates on sales and shop openings.\n\nMost shops are open Monday to Saturday 9am to 5pm. Some stores are open Sunday and holidays if a cruise ship is in port.\n\nThe Best Buys & Where to Find Them\n\nThe best buys on St. Thomas include china, crystal, perfumes, jewelry (especially emeralds), Haitian art, clothing, watches, and items made of wood. St. Thomas is also the best place in the Caribbean for discounts in porcelain, but remember that U.S. brands may often be purchased for 25 percent off the retail price on the mainland. Look for imported patterns for the biggest savings. Cameras and electronic items, based on our experience, are not the good buys they're reputed to be.\n\nNearly all the major shopping in St. Thomas is along the harbor of Charlotte Amalie. Cruise-ship passengers mainly shop at the Havensight Mall, right on the cruise-ship dock at the eastern edge of Charlotte Amalie. It has 100 retail stores selling goods at duty-free prices, but you'll see little here you won't find at most other Caribbean duty-free ports. The principal shopping street is Main Street, or Dronningens Gade (the old Danish name). Some of the shops occupy former pirate warehouses. To the north is another merchandise-loaded street called Back Street or Vimmelskaft. Many shops are also spread along the Waterfront Highway (also called Kyst Vejen). Between these major streets is a series of side streets, walkways, and stone alleys\u2014each one packed to the gills with shops. Other shopping streets are Tolbod Gade, Raadets Gade, Royal Dane Mall, Palm Passage, Storetvaer Gade, and Strand Gade.\n\nIt is illegal for most street vendors (food vendors are about the only exception) to ply their trades outside of the designated area called Vendors Plaza, at the corner of Veterans Drive and Tolbod Gade. Hundreds of vendors converge here Monday through Saturday at 7:30am; they usually pack up around 5:30pm. (Very few hawk their wares on Sun, unless a cruise ship is scheduled to arrive.)\n\nWhen you tire of French perfumes and Swiss watches, head for Market Square, as it's called locally, or more formally, Rothschild Francis Square. Here, on the site of a former slave market and under a Victorian tin roof, locals with machetes slice open fresh coconuts so you can drink the milk, and women sell ackee, cassava, and breadfruit.\n\nOther big shopping areas include Yacht Haven Grande, within walking distance of Havensight Mall; and Crown Bay Center, near the Crown Bay cruise-ship dock and marina. If you're looking for original artworks, Tillett Gardens is a virtual oasis of arts and crafts\u2014pottery, silk-screened fabrics, candles, watercolors, jewelry, and more\u2014located on the highway across from Four Winds Shopping Center.\n\nAll the major stores in St. Thomas are located by number on an excellent map in the center of the publication \"St. Thomas This Week,\" distributed free to all arriving plane and boat passengers, and available at the visitor center. A lot of the stores on the island don't have street numbers or don't display them, so look for their signs instead.\n\nShopping A to Z\n\nIn the 300-year-old historic district of Charlotte Amalie along Main Street and in the warren of old Danish alleyways (and, it goes without saying, in the Havensink and Crown Bay areas around the cruise-ship piers), you will find many of the same shops you see in other duty-free Caribbean ports and cruise-ship centers\u2014as one visitor noted, the street is paved with \"jewels and booze.\" When the cruise-ships are in, taxi vans crowd the streets and shop owners ratchet up the hard sell. Plenty of international names are strung along Main Street (Dronningens Gade in Danish), from Tiffany & Co., 5 Dronningens Gade (www.tiffany.com) to David Yurman, 38 Dronningens Gade (www.davidyurman.com). If you poke around the cobblestoned alleyways between Main Street and the harbor, you may find a gem that's a little off the standard tourist radar.\n\nFor jewelry and watches, the choices around Main Street and near the cruise-ship piers at Havensight Mall and Crown Bay are practically endless, with an emphasis on high-end rocks. Diamonds International  , Dronningens Gade, has the largest selection of diamonds on the island (  800\/444-4025; www.diamondsinternational.com; six other locations on St. Thomas); H. Stern Jewelers, 5332 Dronningens Gade, one of the most respected international jewelers in the world (  340\/776-1146; www.hstern.net); and Cardow Jewelers, 5195 Dronningens Gade, often called the Tiffany's of the Caribbean, with one of the largest selections of fine jewelry in the world (  800\/227-2117; www.cardow.com; two other locations in St. Thomas).\n\nFor electronics, the reliable dealers include Boolchand's, 31 Main St. (  340\/776-0794; www.boolchand.com) and Royal Caribbean, 33 and 35 Main St. (  340\/776-4110; <http:\/\/royalcaribbeanvi.com>; three other branches on St. Thomas).\n\nFor crystal and china, the family-run Crystal Shoppe  , 14 Main St., offers a dazzling array of crystal from around the world (  800\/323-7232; <http:\/\/crystalshoppe.net>). Ubiquitous in the Caribbean, Little Switzerland, 5 Dronningens Gade, offers some of the finest crystal sold on the island, as well as fine jewelry and watches (  340\/776-2010; www.littleswitzerland.com; six other locations in St. Thomas).\n\nAntiques\n\ns.o.s. Antiques   This gallery is packed with antique maritime collectibles, including maps and charts, prints, sextants, and barometers. It also stocks a number of weapons, including antique and reproduction cannons, swords, pistols, and daggers. The highlight: genuine shipwreck salvage, such as actual pieces of eight mounted in 14-karat and 18-karat gold (you can also buy them unset). 5132 Dronningens Gade 1.   340\/774-2074.\n\nArt\n\nThe Color of Joy   The vivid watercolors of Corinne Van Rensselaer are on display in this little gallery, where you can also buy original prints by local artists, crafts, and gifts, including batiks, cards, and prints, along with glass and larimar (volcanic stone) jewelry. There is also a selection of ceramics, coral sculptures (much of it done locally), and Haitian artwork. American Yacht Harbor, 6100 Red Hook Quarters.   340\/775-4020. <http:\/\/thecolorofjoyvi.com>.\n\nGallery Camille Pissarro   This gallery is worth a visit just to see where the Impressionist artist Camille Pissarro was born in 1830 and lived until he was 26. Inside the circa-1811 building are prints and originals by local artists in three high-ceilinged rooms. It's just opposite the Royal Dane Mall at the top of a flight of uneven steps. 14 Main St.   340\/774-4621. www.pissarro.vi.\n\nGallery St. Thomas   This gallery highlights Virgin Islands painters and \"Caribbean-inspired\" artworks. 5143 Palm Passage, Suite A-13.   877\/797-6363 or 340\/777-6363. <http:\/\/gallerystthomas.com>.\n\nMango Tango Art Gallery   One of the island's largest art galleries offers both original artwork (many from Haiti) and less-expensive art prints, posters, and decorative maps. Look for Steffen Larsen's distinctive photographs of Cuba street scenes. Al Cohen Plaza, Raphune Hill, Rte. 38.   340\/777-3060. www.mangotango-art.com.\n\nNative Arts & Crafts Cooperative   Housed inside the V.I. Welcome Center, the slightly dilapidated 19th-century brick former headquarters of the U.S. District Court, this is one of the few places on island that specializes in locally made, non-art items and gifts, from hot sauces and handmade dolls to wooden crafts and jewelry. Tarbor Gade 1.   340\/777-1153.\n\nIn His Footsteps: Camille Pissarro (1830\u20131903)\n\nThe dean of the French Impressionist painters was the most famous resident ever born on the island of St. Thomas. Attracted by the work of Camille Corot and, later, Gustave Courbet, Pissarro moved in a lofty artistic circle of friends that included Monet, C\u00e9zanne, and Renoir. He painted landscapes and scenes of rural life and some portraits.\n\n  Birthplace: Danish St. Thomas, July 10, 1830, son of Jewish parents of French\/Spanish extraction\n\n  Residences: The Pissarro Building, off Main Street in Charlotte Amalie; Paris\n\n  Resting Place: Paris\n\nShaka-Man Zulu   Selling hand-crafted art and jewelry from Africa, this little shop has some interesting gift ideas. Look for the owner dressed in full Zulu costume prowling the streets. 33 Raadets Gade.   340\/514-8975.\n\nTillett Gardens Center for the Arts   This old Danish cattle farm has been one of the island's top arts-and-crafts centers since 1959. It's an indoor\/outdoor complex of buildings housing studios, galleries, a drum museum, a live performing theater, a hostel, and two restaurants. It's now also home to the Arts Alive Foundation, which displays original artworks from from oils and watercolors to acrylics. Tillett Gardens, 4126 Anna's Retreat.   340\/775-1405. www.tillettgardens.com. Take Rte. 38 east from Charlotte Amalie.\n\nDiamonds Are Forever\n\nJewelryis the most common item for sale in St. Thomas. Look carefully over the selections of gold and gemstones (emeralds are traditionally considered the finest savings). Gold that is marked 24-karat in the United States and Canada is marked 999 (or 99.9 percent pure gold) on European items. Gold marked 18-karat in the United States and Canada has a European marking of 750 (or 75 percent pure), and 14-karat gold is marked 585 (or 58.5 percent pure).\n\nFood\n\nThe Belgian Chocolate Factory   Get your handmade Belgian chocolates\u2014some made with local fruits like mango and papaya\u2014at this bustling factory\/store in the Charlotte Amalie historic district. 5093 Dronningens Gade, Ste. 3.   340\/777-5247. www.thebelgianchocolatefactory.com.\n\nGladys' Caf\u00e9   Be sure to enjoy local favorites like creamy conch chowder and jerk fish in this 30-year-old restaurant, but you don't have to dine to purchase a bottle of Gladys' delicious homemade hot sauce, in flavors from mango to mustard to tomato. Royal Dane Mall.   340\/774-6604. <http:\/\/gladyscafe.com>.\n\nLinens\n\nMr. Tablecloth   This shop has the best selection of tablecloths and accessories, plus doilies, in Charlotte Amalie. In addition to fine-linen tablecloths, the shops sells microfiber stain-resistant tablecloths. 6 Main St.   340\/774-4343. www.mrtablecloth-vi.com.\n\nSandals\n\nZora of St. Thomas   Zora has been making hand-crafted sandals for nearly 50 years. In addition to classic looking, full-grain leather sandals, Zora also offers a line of solidly practical, toe-enclosed footware that the islanders call \"limin' shoes.\" The store carries canvas backpacks, luggage, and even purses and briefcases made of that fabric. 5040 Norre Gade, Ste. 2.   340\/774-2559. www.zoraofstthomas.com.\n\nSt. Thomas After Dark\n\nSt. Thomas has a whole lot more nightlife than any other island in the U.S. or British Virgin Islands, but it's not as extensive as you might think. Charlotte Amalie is no longer the swinging town it used to be. Many of the city's streets have become dangerous after dark, so visitors have stopped visiting the area for nightlife, with the exception of a few places. Much of the Charlotte Amalie action has shifted to nearby Frenchtown, which has some great restaurants and bars and is generally safer at night. However, just as in Charlotte Amalie, some of these little hot spots lie along dark, badly lit roads, so keep a watchful eye.\n\nYou'll find the real action in Red Hook, on the island's east end, where a number of bars and casual seaside eateries feature live music. Things are jumping at the island's hotels and resorts as well, particularly Marriott Frenchman's Reef & Morning Star, Bolongo Bay, and Secret Harbour, each with lively after-dark scenes.\n\nThe Performing Arts\n\nPistarckle Theater   On the grounds of Tillett Gardens Center for the Arts (p. ), this professional theater presents six full-length plays yearly as part of its subscription season. Occupying a vacant print shop, the 100-seat theater is air-conditioned. There is also a summer drama camp for children. Tillett Gardens, 4126 Anna's Retreat.   340\/775-7877. www.pistarckletheater.vi. Tickets $20\u2013$50.\n\nReichhold Center for the Arts   The premier performing arts venue in the Caribbean lies west of Charlotte Amalie. Past performances have included the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater and Al Jarreau. Call the theater or check with the tourist office to see what's on at the time of your visit. The lobby displays a frequently changing free exhibit of paintings and sculptures by Caribbean artists. A Japanese-inspired amphitheater, permeated by the scent of gardenias, is set into a natural valley, with seating space for 1,196. Performances usually begin at 8pm. University of the Virgin Islands, 2 John Brewers Bay.   340\/693-1559. www.reichholdcenter.com. Tickets $15\u2013$75.\n\nBeach Bars, Bars & Clubs\n\nCaribbean Saloon   This is a popular spot to drink, eat, watch sports on widescreen TVs, or listen to live or DJ music on the weekends. It's one of the jumpin'est joints in Red Hook. Frozen concoctions, like the lethal Buckwackers (light and dark rum, Bailey's, Kahlua, Frangelico, Amaretto, and coconut), are priced to move at $6.50. It's open daily 11am to 10:30pm and serves an extensive menu of pub grub, burgers, and bar noshes. American Yacht Harbor, Red Hook.   340\/775-7060. www.caribbeansaloon.com.\n\nDuffy's Love Shack   Mingle with the locals at what has been called the coolest parking-lot bar in the Caribbean. Yep, it's pretty casual, which means you will probably be dancing with brand-new best friends by evening's end. It's open daily 11:30am till 2am. 6500 Red Hook Plaza, Rte. 38.   340\/779-2080. www.duffysloveshack.com.\n\nEpernay Bistro & Wine Bar   This cozy and stylish bistro is a touch of France in the tropics, with candlelit wood tables and walls lined with wine bottles and gleaming glasses. Tapas is served during the 5- to 7pm happy hour, a nice time to stop in for a good glass of vino. Have a bite to eat while you're there; the food is good and elegantly presented. 24A Honduras.   340\/774-5348.\n\nThe Greenhouse   his longtime waterfront bar and restaurant (the sister restaurant of the two equally lively Greenhouses in St. Maarten) is one of the few places we recommend in downtown Charlotte Amalie. (You can park nearby and walk to the entrance.) It's a cruise-ship hangout during the day, but after the ships slip away before dusk, the Greenhouse regroups with a daily happy hour (4:30\u20137pm) that offers two-for-one drinks and discounted appetizers. The Greenhouse is open daily 11am until the last customer leaves. Veterans Dr.   340\/774-7998. www.thegreenhouserestaurant.com.\n\nHull Bay Hideaway   This 30-year mainstay in an open-air pavilion is just a short stroll from one of the best surfing beaches on island. It's a friendly, rustic spot that attracts an eclectic crowd, from surfer dudes to beach lovers. Many locals and regulars like to spend lazy Sunday afternoons here. It's got lots of good, cheap eats\u2014look for fish tacos and hot dogs and hamburgers. Daily hours are 10am to 10pm. 10 Estate Hull Bay.   340\/777-1898.\n\nIggies Beach Bar   During the day, Iggies is your typical family-friendly, informal, open-air seaside restaurant serving hamburgers, sandwiches, and salads. In the evening, it's an ongoing Caribbean party, with karaoke, beach bonfires, and a Wednesday-night Cruzan Carnival extravaganza, with live calypso music and Moko Jumbie stiltwalkers (Nov to Labor Day). Saturdays are reggae nights. Bolongo Bay Beach Resort, 7150 Bolongo.   340\/693-2600. www.iggiesbeachbar.com.\n\nLatitude 18   This open-air waterfront spot is located down a dirt road near the Red Hook Marina, where the ferryboats depart for St. John. It's a casual restaurant and bar that sizzles with live entertainment every night from 7:30 to 10:30pm (including Reggae Sundays). It's a good cheap place to eat as well, serving up hot rotis, BBQ ribs, burgers, and catch of the day. It's open daily from 11am to 11pm or later. Take Rte. #33 and turn left on Vessup Lane. Red Hook Marina.   340\/777-4552.\n\nGay & Lesbian Nightlife\n\nSt. Thomas might be the most cosmopolitan of the Virgin Islands, but it is no longer the \"gay paradise\" it was in the 1960s and 1970s. The major gay scene in the U.S. Virgins is now on St. Croix (see chapter 5). That doesn't mean that gay men and lesbians aren't drawn to St. Thomas. They are, but many attend predominantly straight establishments, such as the Greenhouse (see \"Bars & Clubs,\" above).\nSt. Croix\n\nIf St. Thomas is the seasoned older sibling and St. John the dewy beauty, St. Croix is the region's cultural heart. It's an old soul with a lilting bohemian spirit. It also has a population so diverse and multicultural it's been called a \"cultural callaloo.\"\n\nAt 84 square miles, St. Croix is certainly the largest U.S. Virgin Island, but it has a small-town feel. That may be because the \"plantation island\" is a place of bucolic delights, with acres of rural farmland and roads draped in a canopy of mahogany trees. The island's agricultural heritage is undergoing a renaissance: Organic farms in the northwest highlands are flourishing, and a celebrated Agricultural Fair draws thousands of visitors annually. Tied in with this trend is the island's growing reputation as a health-and-wellness destination: St. Croix has more vegan cafes, juice bars, and organic farms than all the other Virgins combined.\n\nBut perhaps more than anything, St. Croix is a living museum of the region's tangled past. Much of the architecture from the 18th-century Danish occupancy remains enshrined in picturesque Christiansted, on the island's west end. The colorful Victorian buildings facing the scenic waterfront of the island's second-largest town, Frederiksted, have been revitalized\u2014a fetching welcome mat for the cruise-ship crowds that arrive weekly at the Frederiksted dock.\n\nSt. Croix is the most remote and least-visited of the Virgin Islands, separated from St. Thomas and St. John by one of the deepest ocean trenches in the Atlantic. But the island itself is protected by a natural necklace of coral reef, encircling gentle bays and powdery white-sand beaches. If R&R is at the top of your vacation criteria, this may be the spot for you; just ask U.S. Vice-President Joe Biden, who often spends his Christmas holidays in restorative serenity on the island of St. Croix.\n\nEssentials\n\nGetting There\n\nBy Plane\n\nCurrently, the best way to reach the island by plane, but a fast ferry was said to be in the works at press time. Most flights to St. Croix land at the small international Henry E. Rohlsen Airport, Estate Mannings Bay (  340\/778-1012; www.viport.com\/airports.html; airport code STT), 6 miles southwest of Christiansted on the island's southern coast. Seaplane flights with Seaborne Airlines (see below) from St. Thomas land right at the seaport on the Christiansted waterfront.\n\nAmerican Airlines (  800\/433-7300; www.aa.com) no longer offers frequent service to St. Croix. American has one direct flight daily from Miami, with one stop (but no change of plane) in St. Thomas. US Airways (  800\/428-4322; www.usairways.com) offers a nonstop flight from Charlotte in the high season. Most visitors arrive via connecting service through Puerto Rico or St. Thomas. Seaborne Airlines (  888\/359-8687 or 340\/773-6442; www.seaborneairlines.com) offers several flights daily, some on seaplanes that fly \"downtown to downtown\" between St. Thomas and the Christiansted waterfront (flight time: 25 min.). Cape Air (  800\/227-3247 in the U.S. and U.S.V.I.; www.capeair.com) flies between St. Croix and San Juan, Vieques Island, or St. Thomas. JetBlue (  800\/538-2583; www.jetblue.com) has daily afternoon connections from San Juan.\n\nA number of major car-rental firms maintain kiosks at the airport, including Avis (  340\/778-9355), Hertz (  888\/248-4261), and Budget (  888\/264-8894). At the Christiansted seaport, Avis (  340\/713-1347) is located at 1210 Watergut St. The oldest independent car agency in St. Croix, Olympic Rent-A-Car (  888\/USVICAR; www.olympicstcroix.com) offers free airport dropoff and pickup. Otherwise, taxis are on call at the airport and in downtown Christiansted to transfer you to your destination.\n\nTravel time to St. Croix from St. Thomas is 25 minutes; between St. Croix and San Juan 50 minutes; and between St. Croix and Vieques 25 minutes. There are no direct flights to St. Croix from Canada or the United Kingdom; connections are made via Miami.\n\nBy Boat\n\nThe SeaTrans fast ferry that traveled sporadically between St. Thomas and St. Croix was out of commission at press time (it ran aground on one of the small cays between the islands a couple of years ago), but government plans are in the works for the introduction of spiffy new catamaran ferries to travel between St. Thomas and St. Croix. Special ferries do run between St. Thomas and St. Croix in April for the St. Thomas Carnival and again in December around St. Croix's Carnival. It's a 1-hour trip over one of the world's deepest oceans, and when the seas are up, it can be rough passage for those with motion sickness.\n\nBy Cruise Ship\n\nThe island's main cruise ship pier, the Ann E. Abramson Pier, on the Fredricksted waterfront, was upgraded and now has the capacity to accommodate two mega-ships at a time. The dock enhancements have already upped cruise-ship visitation from one ship every 3 weeks to one or two ships making port stops weekly.\n\nVisitor Information\n\nThe St. Croix Visitor Bureau, 53A Company St., in Christiansted (  340\/773-0495), is located in a yellow building across from the open-air market. It's open Monday to Friday 8am to 5pm.\n\nThe U.S. Virgin Islands Tourism also has an office at the Customs House Building, Strand Street (  800\/372-8784 or 340\/772-0357; www.visitusvi.com), in Frederiksted. A local independent website, www.stcroixtourism.com, offers lots of good information. Another website to check is www.visitstcroix.com.\n\nTourist offices provide free maps to the island. \"St. Croix This Week,\" distributed free to cruise-ship and air passengers, has detailed maps of Christiansted, Frederiksted, and the entire island, pinpointing individual attractions, hotels, shops, and restaurants and listing the week's events and happenings.\n\nSt. Croix\n\nIsland Layout\n\nSt. Croix has only two sizable towns: Christiansted on the northcentral shore and Frederiksted in the southwest. The Henry E. Rohlsen Airport is on the south coast, directly west of the former HOVENSA oil refinery, for many years the island's main industry (at press time, the refinery was closed and up for sale). No roads circle St. Croix's coast.\n\nTo continue east from Christiansted, take Rte. 82 (also called the E. End Rd.). Route 75 will take you west from Christiansted through the central heartland. Melvin H. Evans Highway, Route 66, runs along the southern part of the island. You can connect with this route in Christiansted and head west all the way to Frederiksted.\n\nChristiansted\n\nThe historic district of Christiansted has four main streets leading toward the water: Strand Street, King Street, Company Street, and Queen Street. Because the city is compact, it can easily be explored on foot. All streets start at the harbor and go up slightly sloped hillsides, and each street heads back down the hill to the port so you can't get lost. The visitor information center is located at 53A Company St. The center of Christiansted can get very congested, and driving around is difficult because of the one-way streets. It's usually more practical to park your car and cover the small district on foot. You will find open-air parking on both sides of Fort Christiansvaern. See the \"Walking Tour: Christiansted\" map, on p. , to orient yourself.\n\nThe North Shore\n\nThis coastal strip that stretches from Cottongarden Point, the eastern tip of the island, all the way west past Christiansted and up and around Salt River Bay, comes to an end as it reaches the settlement of Northside in the far west. It is the most touristy region of St. Croix, site of the best beaches, the most hotels, and the densest shopping. It is also the takeoff point (at Christiansted Harbor) for excursions to Buck Island, St. Croix's most popular attraction. Many visitors confine their stay in St. Croix entirely to the north coast. The northern coastline is not only long but also diverse, going from a lush tropical forest that envelops most of the northwest to the eastern sector, which is dry with palm-lined beaches.\n\nThe East End\n\nThe East End begins immediately east of Christiansted, the capital, taking in Tamarind Reef Beach and Reef Beach before it reaches Teague Bay, coming to an end at Cottongarden Point, the far eastern tip of St. Croix. This section of St. Croix is linked by Rte. 82 (also called E. End Rd.). The Buccaneer, the major resort of St. Croix, is found here, along with the Tamarind Reef Hotel. The area is far less congested than the section immediately to the west of Christiansted, and many visitors prefer the relative isolation and tranquility of the East End. This section of St. Croix is somewhat dry, the landscape a bit arid, but its compensating factor is a number of palm-lined beaches. The best place for a beach picnic is Cramer Park at the far eastern tip, a U.S.V.I. territorial beach popular with islanders.\n\nFrederiksted\n\nLittle Frederiksted has a storied past. It was established in 1751, but its colonial architecture was destroyed by fire in 1878 during a legendary labor revolt. The town was rebuilt in the Victorian style, and its historic waterfront today has been revitalized, a boon for the big cruise ships that arrive at the town's deep-water pier weekly. The two major streets, both of which run parallel to the water, are Strand Street and King Street.\n\nAddress Chaos\n\nIn both Christiansted and Frederiksted, in St. Croix, buildings are numbered consecutively on one side, stretching all the way across town; then the numbers \"cross the street\" and begin consecutively on the opposite side. That means that even and odd numbers appear on the same side of the street. The numbering system begins in Christiansted at the waterfront. In Frederiksted, the first number appears at the north end of town for streets running north-south and at the waterfront for streets running east-west.\n\nGetting Around\n\nIf you plan to do some serious sightseeing on the island, you'll need to rent a car, as getting around by public transportation is a slow, uneven process.\n\nBy Car\n\nRemember to drive on the left. In most rural areas, the speed limit is 35 mph; certain parts of the major artery, Route 66, are 55 mph. In towns and urban areas, the speed limit is 20 mph. Keep in mind that if you're going into the \"bush country,\" you'll find the roads very difficult. Sometimes the government smoothes the roads out before the rainy season begins (often in Oct or Nov), but they rapidly deteriorate.\n\nSt. Croix offers moderately priced car rentals, even on cars with automatic transmissions and air-conditioning. However, because of the island's higher-than-normal accident rate (which is partly the result of visitors who forget about driving on the left-hand side of the road), insurance costs are a bit higher than elsewhere. Avis (  800\/331-1212 or 340\/778-9355; www.avis.com), Budget (  800\/472-3325 or 340\/778-9636; www.budget.com), and Hertz (  800\/654-3131 or 340\/778-1402; www.hertz.com) all maintain headquarters at the airport; look for their kiosks near the baggage-claim areas. Collision-damage insurance costs $14 per day, depending on the company and size of car, and we feel that it's a wise investment. Some credit card companies grant you collision-damage protection, if you pay for the rental with their card. Verify coverage before you go.\n\nBy Taxi\n\nAt Henry E. Rohlsen International Airport, official taxi rates are posted. From the airport, expect to pay about $16 to $36 to Christiansted and about $12 to $24 to Frederiksted. Even though taxi rates are standardized, cabs are unmetered, so agree on the rate before you get in. Taxis line up at the docks in Christiansted and Frederiksted.\n\nWe highly recommend the following taxi drivers (who double as wonderful tour guides): Ames Joseph (  340\/277-6133) and Francis M. Vazquez (  340\/690-4045). If they aren't available, contact the St. Croix Taxicab Association (  340\/778-1088).\n\nMore and more drivers are employing multi-passenger taxi vans and open-air safaris (converted truck beds with open-air seating), ideal for transporting cruise-ship passengers arriving weekly on island excursions.\n\nBy Bus\n\nAir-conditioned buses run between Christiansted and Frederiksted about every 45 minutes daily between 5:30am and 8pm. They start at Tide Village, to the east of Christiansted, and go along Route 75 to the Golden Rock Shopping Center. They transfer along Route 70, with stopovers at the Sunny Isle Shopping Center, La Reine Shopping Center, St. George Village Botanical Garden, and Whim Plantation Museum before reaching Frederiksted. The fare is $1, or 55\u00a2 for seniors. For more information, call   340\/773-1664.\n\n  St. Croix\n\nBanks FirstBank Virgin Islands (  340\/773-0440; www.firstbankvi.com) has full-service locations in Christiansted (12\u201313 King St. and Orange Grove); in Frederiksted (6A Strand St.); and at Sunny Isle Shopping Center. Scotiabank (  340\/693-2966; www.scotiabank.com) has a full-service locations in Sunny Isle Shopping Center. Banco Popular   800\/724-3655; www.popular.com\/vi) has full-service locations in Christiansted (Orange Grove) and Sunny Isle. Most are open Monday to Thursday 9am to 3pm and Friday 9am to 4pm; both Scotiabank and FirstBank have Saturday-morning hours.\n\nBusiness Hours Typical business hours are Monday to Friday 9am to 5pm, Saturday 9am to 1pm. The V.I. Dental Center, 2024 Estate Mt. Welcome, Ste. 15\u201316 (  340\/772-6000; <http:\/\/videntalcenter.com>), has a team of dentists that are members of the American Dental Association. Call for information or an appointment.\n\nDoctors For a referral, call Sunny Isle Medical Center (  340\/778-0069) or the Beeston Hill Medical Complex (www.vihealth.com).\n\nDrugstores Try the Golden Rock Pharmacy, Golden Rock Shopping Center (  340\/773-7666), open Monday to Saturday 8am to 7pm and Sunday 8am to 3pm.\n\nEmergencies To reach the police, fire department, or an ambulance, call   911.\n\nHospitals The main facility is Governor Juan F. Luis Hospital & Medical Center, 4007 Estate Diamond Ruby (  340\/778-6311).\n\nMaps See \"Visitor Information,\" in \"Orientation,\" above.\n\nNewspapers & Magazines St. Croix has its own online newspaper, \"St. Croix Source\" (<http:\/\/stcroixsource.com>). \"The Virgin Island Daily News\" (<http:\/\/virginislandsdailynews.com>) covers all the Virgin Islands. A good source of local information is \"St. Croix This Week,\" which is distributed free by the tourist offices to hotels, restaurants, and most businesses.\n\nPolice Police headquarters is on Market Street in Christiansted. In case of emergency, dial   911; for nonemergency assistance, call   340\/778-2211.\n\nPost Office The post office is on Company Street (  340\/773-3586), in Christiansted. The hours of operation are Monday to Friday 8:30am to 5:30pm.\n\nSafety St. Croix is safer than St. Thomas. Although there have been random acts of violence against tourists in the past, even murder, most crime on the island is petty theft, usually of possessions left unguarded at the beach while vacationers go into the water for a swim, or muggings (rarely violent) of visitors wandering the dark streets and back alleys of Frederiksted and Christiansted at night. Exercise caution at night by sticking to the heart of Christiansted and not wandering around in Frederiksted. Avoid night strolls along beaches. Night driving in remote parts of the island can also be risky; you might be carjacked and robbed at knifepoint.\n\nTaxes The only local tax is an 10 percent surcharge added to all hotel rates.\n\nTelephone You can dial direct to St. Croix from the mainland by using the 340 area code. Omit the 340 for local calls. Make long-distance, international, and collect calls as you would on the U.S. mainland by dialing 0 or your long-distance provider.\n\nToilets There are few public restrooms, except at the major beaches and the airport. In Christiansted, the National Park Service maintains some restrooms within the public park beside Fort Christiansvaern.\n\nTourist Offices See \"Visitor Information,\" above.\n\nWhere to Stay\n\nSt. Croix's deluxe resorts lie along the North Shore; its old waterfront inns are mostly in Christiansted. You may also choose to stay in a villa or condo, which offers privacy and the chance to save money by preparing your own meals. A location in Christiansted or Frederiksted puts you close to shops and nightlife, but away from the beach. Most resorts are either on the beach or a short walk from it but isolated from towns. You'll have to drive for a shopping binge or to dine out in restaurants and clubs.\n\nIn general, rates are steep, but in summer, hotels slash prices by as much as 50 percent; some close altogether in late summer and early fall. All rooms are subject to a 10 percent hotel tax, not included in the rates given below.\n\nNote: If you need a hair dryer, pack your own. Apparently, a lot of visitors have packed up hotel hair dryers upon departure, and some innkeepers are reluctant to provide them.\n\nNorth Shore\n\nExpensive\n\nThe Buccaneer   Family-run since the 1940s, this gracious resort is St. Croix's premier lodging. It's also steeped in the island's colonial plantation heritage. Three hundred years ago this was one of the island's biggest producers of sugarcane, and its crumbling stone sugar mill is but one of its historic touchstones (it's fun exploring the place to see the others). On the more modern side of the equation, the sprawling 340-acre resort is big enough to encompass a par-70 18-hole golf course, a 2-mile jogging path, two freshwater pools, and eight Laykold tennis courts (with a pro shop). The baronial-arched Great House has a restaurant, the open-air Terrace; and a full array of spa treatments is available at the newly renovated Hideaway Spa & Salon. The free daily Kid's Camp (ages 4\u201312) is available year-round, and introductory scuba lessons are complimentary. As for accommodations, they're either up in the hilltop Great House main building or dotted along the beach (it's a short but steep walk between the two). Rooms are big and comfortable, many outfitted in colorful floral prints, and those along the beachside are luxuriously over-sized\u2014particularly the Doubloons, which come with whirlpool tubs and patios overlooking the sea. The resort also has a handful of luxury suites, which range from roomy family cottages to swank honeymoon-ready units with four-posters and whirlpool tubs. A handful of former slave quarters have been turned into hotel rooms. It also has a beach house to rent at Whistle Point.\n\n  800\/255-3881 in the U.S., or 340\/712-2100. www.thebuccaneer.com. 138 units. Winter $300\u2013$782 double, $495\u2013$1,943 suite; off season $260\u2013$559 double, $443\u2013$1,338 suite. Children 2\u201317 $60 per night Dec\u2013Apr. Extra person $80 per night. Tax and energy surcharge 21%. Rates include full American breakfast and welcome cocktails. Amenities: 3 restaurants; bar; babysitting; children's program; health club and spa; 2 pools (outdoor); room service; 8 tennis courts (2 lit); watersports equipment; Wi-Fi (free).\n\nSt. Croix Hotels\n\nDivi Carina Bay All-Inclusive Resort & Casino   This all-inclusive resort brought gambling to the U.S. Virgin Islands\u2014and today remains the only casino in the island chain. But that's not its only perk (or downside, depending on your point of view). Opening onto a sugar-white beach, the Divi Carina's guest rooms and villa suites all offer unobstructed views of the Caribbean. Rooms are done in standard tropical d\u00e9cor, yes, but offer plenty of room to move around as well as kitchenettes and balconies. Note that 20 hillside villas are across the street, but they're still just a 3-minute walk to the sands\u2014and they still offer those glorious ocean views. The most up-to-date building contains 50 oceanfront accommodations with balconies. Be sure to sign up for regular e-mail blasts touting money-saving specials.\n\n  800\/823-9352 in the U.S., or 340\/773-9700. www.diviresorts.com. 180 units. Winter $448\u2013$470 double; off season $350\u2013$412 double. Rates are all inclusive, 7-night minimum. Children 15 and under stay free in parent's room. Amenities: 4 restaurants; 4 bars; babysitting; casino; health club and spa; mini-golf; 2 freshwater pools (outdoor); spa; tennis court (lit); watersports equipment\/rentals; Wi-Fi (free in lobby and public areas).\n\nThe Palms at Pelican Cove   Water-lovers take note: This elegant but casual boutique resort is not only set on 7 acres of gorgeous beachfront property, it boasts one of the largest pools on the island. Guest rooms are spacious, too, with private balconies or patios with ocean views. Social life revolves around an open-air lounge, bar, and restaurant with sea views (see the Palms, p. ). The coral reef is just 100 feet offshore, making The Palms a particular favorite of snorkelers.\n\n  800\/548-4460 or 340\/718-8920. www.palmspelicancove.com. 35 units. Winter $240\u2013$350 double, $360\u2013$650 suite; off season $210\u2013$310 double, $340\u2013$590 suite. Amenities: Restaurant; bar; Internet (free); pool (outdoor); watersports (scuba).\n\nRenaissance Carambola Beach Resort & Spa   The third in the triumvirate of RockResorts built in the U.S. Virgin Islands by the Rockefellers, this 28-acre resort lies 30 minutes west of Christiansted along a sugary-sand beach on the island's north shore. The jumble of red-roofed buildings overlooks Davis Bay from a forested bluff. The island's second-largest resort (after Divi; see below), it is well-known for its outstanding golf course, the Carambola Golf & Country Club  , adjacent to the resort. Many golfers fly over from the other Virgins just to tackle the course, designed by Robert Trent Jones, Jr., in 1966. The resort itself is comprised of 26 two-story buildings, each with six units, all furnished in Spanish colonial style (with Caribbean Creole touches) and dark (some say too dark) mahogany woodwork. Each room has its own screened porch, with garden or sea views, and many have full, modern kitchens with granite countertops and porcelain-top stoves.\n\n  888\/503-8760 in the U.S., or 340\/778-3800. www.carambolabeach.com. 150 units. Winter $349\u2013$549 double; off season $249\u2013$379 double. Amenities: 2 restaurants, including Saman; bar; exercise room; golf course; spa; pool (outdoor); 2 tennis courts (lit); Wi-Fi (free in public areas).\n\nModerate\n\nChenay Bay Beach Resort   Set on one of the island's finest beaches for watersports activities (swimming, snorkeling, windsurfing)\u2014a mile of talcum powder white sand\u2014these barefoot-casual West Indian\u2013style cottages are tucked into a terraced hillside just 3 miles east of Christiansted. Chenay Bay's a low-key boutique property, with just 50 cottages (each with its own charming front porch), and set on grounds that once held a sprawling sugar plantation. Chenay has a nimble versatility, its spacious cottages appealing both to honeymooners and families, the latter thanks to children's programs and adjoining units, one that sleeps 8. Plus, kitchenettes here include full-size refrigerators. Cottages are neat and clean and simply furnished, most with an understated tropical palette. Those numbered 21-50 are bigger than the older ones. The resort often offers money-saving online packages, so check out the resort website before booking.\n\nEstate Chenay Bay. 866\/357-2970 in the U.S., or 340\/718-2918. www.defenderresorts.com\/chenaybay. 50 cottages. Year-round $70\u2013$300 cottage for 1 or 2. Extra person $25. Children 17 and under stay free in parent's room. $50 per person for all meals. Amenities: Restaurant; bar; babysitting; children's program; pool (outdoor); 2 tennis courts (lit); 2 tennis courts (unlit); watersports equipment\/rentals; Wi-Fi (free).\n\nTamarind Reef Resort, Spa & Marina   You don't come to this modest, two-story property for top-end lodging. You come to be just steps away from a lovely, sandy beach with shade from thatched palapas and excellent snorkeling along the reef. You come to swim in the big oceanfront pool, or just sip cocktails at the poolside bar and grill, with the blue seas stretched out on the horizon before you. You pick the Tamarind Reef to take advantage of island-hopping trips offered by day-sail and charter-boat operators at the adjoining Green Cay Marina. And about the rooms: They're just fine\u2014clean, comfortable, roomy, if done in an uninspired tropical motif. Hey, they even have ocean-facing patios or terraces so you can be reminded of why you picked the Tamarind in the first place.\n\n  800\/619-0014 in the U.S., or 340\/773-4455. www.tamarindreefhotel.com. 38 units. Winter $275\u2013$325 double; off season $200\u2013$250 double. Extra person $35\u2013$50. Children 6 and under stay free in parent's room. Ask about dive, golf, and honeymoon packages. Amenities: 2 restaurants; bar; pool (outdoor); spa; 4 tennis courts (lit); watersports equipment\/rentals; Wi-Fi (free).\n\nInexpensive\n\nArawak Bay: The Inn at Salt River   Travelers praise this two-story North Shore B&B for its sweeping views of Salt River Bay; warm, accommodating staff; and its hearty, delicious home-cooked breakfasts (guaranteed to start your day off right). Each room has a king bed or two doubles, with top-quality bedding and vintage-style quilts; you step out of your room onto a long, shared balcony with sea views (the second-floor balcony has better sightlines). Help yourself to a nice glass of wine in the kitchen honor bar or take a dip in the (miniscule) pool. You will have to drive to reach the beach or nearby restaurants.\n\n  340\/772-1684. <http:\/\/arawakbayinn.com>. 14 units. Winter $160 double; off season $130 double. Rates include island breakfast. Amenities: Bar; outdoor pool; Wi-Fi (free).\n\nWaves at Cane Bay   This intimate 12-room property is set alongside the sea at one of the island's best beaches, Cane Bay Beach. It's an ideal spot to hang your hat if you're a diving or snorkeling aficionado: Cane Bay is one of the island's top scuba and snorkeling beaches; the coral reef is just off the shoreline here, and you can even scuba dive right off the beach. You can rent all the equipment you need next door at the Cane Bay Dive Shop (www.canebayscuba.com). Rooms are high ceilinged, large and colorfully outfitted, each with a well-equipped kitchenette, tiled floors, and a private veranda.\n\n  800\/545-0603 in the U.S., or 340\/718-1815. www.canebaystcroix.com. 12 units. Winter $175\u2013$200 double; off season $150\u2013$175 double. Extra person $20. From the airport, go left on Rte. 64; after 1 mile, turn right on Rte. 70; after another 1 mile, go left at the junction with Rte. 75; after 2 miles, turn left at the junction with Rte. 80; follow for 5 miles. Amenities: Restaurant; bar; pool (outdoor); watersports equipment\/rentals; Wi-Fi (free).\n\nChristiansted\n\nModerate\n\nKing's Alley Hotel   A location directly on the Christiansted waterfront within walking distance of the seaplane base makes this well-managed inn a convenient choice for business folk. The amenities are admittedly sparse (no pool, for one), but the small-to-mid-sized rooms have been nicely refreshed in a sunny palette of pale greens and yellows and feature better-than-normal beds (at least in this price range). Some overlook the hotel's tropical courtyard, while others offer views of the Christiansted harbor.\n\n  800\/843-3574 or 340\/773-0103. 35 units. Winter $180 double, $240 suite; off season $160 double, $220 suite. Amenities: Wi-Fi (free).\n\nInexpensive\n\nCompany House Hotel   Just a block or two from the downtown Christiansted waterfront, this good-value three-level inn is located in a vintage warehouse that once served the West Indies Company. It's within walking distance of the town's National Historic Site district. Although the public rooms have a historical elegance, the accommodations have a more generic feel, simply outfitted in earth tones, tile floors, and wicker furniture. Two suites, one on the third floor with balcony views overlooking Christiansted, have full kitchens, a perk for budget-minded travelers. The pool is small and narrow, but at these rates, who's complaining? From Friday through Tuesday, the Victor Borge Piano Bar offers live piano music from 6pm to 11pm\u2014and the first drink is on the house.\n\n  340\/773-1377. www.companyhousehotel.com. 35 units. Winter $125 double, $160 suite; off season $85 double, $150 suite. Children 12 and under stay free in parents' room. Rates include continental breakfast. Amenities: Piano bar; freshwater pool (outdoor); Wi-Fi (free).\n\nFrederiksted\n\nModerate\n\nCottages by the Sea   This hospitable and meticulously managed family-run resort is the kind of relaxing, laidback place where everyone is either digging their feet in the sand or curling up in some nook with a good book. Just outside Frederiksted (within walking distance), its set on a palm-fringed beach and consists of 21 nicely furnished cottages in tropical hues, each with its own private beachfront patio (and patio table) and fully equipped kitchen. Some are cinderblock, some wood, but all are well-maintained. It's an excellent value for St. Croix, especially for families\u2014up to two children 17 and under stay for free in their parent's cottage\u2014and the pretty beachfront locale gives it some real oomph.\n\n  800\/323-7252 or 340\/772-0495. <http:\/\/caribbeancottages.com>. 21 units. Beachside cottages $95\u2013$185 double; beachfront cottages $165\u2013$225 double. Extra person $15. Up to 2 children 17 and under stay free in parent's cottage; $10 per night for each additional child Amenities: Watersports equipment\/rentals; Wi-Fi (free).\n\nSand Castle on the Beach   This 21-room hotel right on Frederiksted Beach has long had a gay and lesbian following, but it's welcoming to all, with friendly service and splendid sunset views. It has plenty of sociable public spaces, including two freshwater swimming pools (one being clothing optional) and the alfresco resort restaurant, Beach Side Caf\u00e9 (p. ), a lively place to eat and drink that's set right in the soft white sand. It's a popular spot for live music on Saturday nights and meltingly lovely sunsets. Accommodations range from luxury beachfront villas with full kitchens and terra-cotta-tile floors to roomy courtyard suites around a private pool. Budget travelers will appreciate the good-value garden or queen studios\u2014they may lack views (and full kitchens and elbow room), but they're close to all the resort action.\n\n  800\/524-2018 or 340\/772-1205. www.sandcastleonthebeach.com. 21 units. Winter $149\u2013$199 double, $259\u2013$349 suite, $319\u2013$449 villa for up to 4 people; off season $109\u2013$219 double, $235\u2013$339 suite, $269\u2013$399 villa for up to 4 people. Rates include continental breakfast. Amenities: Restaurant; exercise room; high-speed Internet (free in lobby); 2 pools (outdoor); watersports equipment\/rentals.\n\nVillas, Condos & Cottages\n\nRenting a villa, condo, or house on St. Croix is an excellent option for vacationing groups and families, and couples. Most offer full kitchens and nailing down the details to rent is usually a snap.\n\nOne primo source of rentals is Vacation St. Croix (  877\/788-0361 or 340\/718-0361; www.vacationstcroix.com), which offers some of the best accommodations on the island, specializing in lodgings directly on the beach (villas, condos, and private homes). Two- to seven-bedroom units are available, with prices from $1,000 to $15,000 per week.\n\nWith 54 apartments, the Club St. Croix Beach & Tennis Resort, 3280 Estate Golden Rock, Christiansted (  800\/524-2025 or 340\/718-4800; www.clubstcroix.com; $140\u2013$285; children 12 and under stay free in parent's room) has an enviable location on a lovely quarter-mile, palm-fringedbeach; additional perks include a pool and three tennis courts.\n\nThe all-suites Colony Cove  , 3221 Estate Golden Rock (  800\/524-2025 or 340\/718-1965; www.colonycove.com; $140\u2013$255; children 11 and under stay free in parent's unit) offers 60 units and is 1 mile west of Christiansted on the same beach as Club St. Croix (see above). Of all the condo complexes on St. Croix, Colony Cove is most like a full-fledged hotel, with a large staff on hand, an on-site watersports desk, and a swimming pool.\n\nThe 43-unit Villa Madeleine  , off Rte. 82, Teague Bay (www.villamadeleine-stcroix.com;   800\/533-6863 or 340\/690-3465; weekly: $1,700\u2013$2,000 double, $2,300\u2013$2,450 quad), is a real hideaway, with beautifully furnished two-story condo villas in a lush tropical setting. Each condo has its own private courtyard and pool, many with views of the bay.\n\nRidge to Reef Farm Stay\n\nA creative alternative to the typical seaside resort is a stay on an organic rain-forest farm on the island's lushly forested western coast. Ridge to Reef Farm (  340\/220-0466; www.ridge2reef.org) offers a range of lodging from tent camps ($35\/night) to private stilted cabanas or treehouses ($125\/night) to the lofty Hawk's Nest villa ($275\/night), with views out over the tropical landscape. You can volunteer for farm work (like feeding the chickens) or simply relax and enjoy the bucolic setting.\n\nBed & Breakfasts\n\nCarringtons Inn   This peaceful, handsome five-room B&B just a 10-minute drive from Christiansted makes for an idyllic romantic escape. Rooms are sizeable and individually decorated, some with gleaming fourposters and pretty wicker chairs, and all with plump linens. After inhaling the fab home-cooked breakfasts (French toast, fresh fruit, pancakes), you can lounge around the tiled pool, framed in rounded stone arches and tropical greenery. A festive atmosphere prevails. Sorry, the inn does not accept children.\n\n  877\/658-0508 in the U.S., or 340\/713-0508. www.carringtonsinn.com. 5 units. Winter $125\u2013$200 double; off season $100\u2013$160 double. Rates include breakfast. Amenities: Breakfast room; health club (nearby); outdoor pool; tennis courts (nearby); Wi-Fi (free).\n\nRattan Inn   Set, literally, amid the ruins of an old sugarcane plantation, this inn has five elegantly appointed private residences, ideal for extended vacations. All but the Pool House have full kitchens, and three have their own laundry facilities (the Pink and Green houses share a laundry facility). The Main House has its own private courtyard, and the Master Suite has a private plunge pool and balcony.\n\n  340\/718-5098. www.rattaninnstx.com. 5 units. Cottages $150\u2013$250; Main House $4,500\/month. Amenities: Outdoor pool; Wi-Fi (free).\n\nCamping\n\nMount Victory Camp   Just a 10-minute drive north of Frederiksted, this beautifully landscaped eco-resort gives visitors an opportunity to immerse themselves in one of St. Croix's lesser-known natural environments: the forested farm valley of the wild western coast, where nights bring cooling tradewinds and the island's agricultural riches are being tapped once more. It's a refreshing departure from the beach scene, although you're only a 2-mile drive down the hill to a comely white sand beach.\n\nFour of the five camp lodgings are rustic Arts-and-Crafts-style bungalows handcrafted by a shipwright using salvaged tropical hardwoods. The lone Schoolhouse Apartment   was built around the ruins of a historic old schoolhouse (ca. 1841); it's a wonderful mix of tropical hardwoods and native stone walls. Both the bungalows and the apartment accommodate four to six adults. You can also do tent camping, but you'll have to bring your own gear. Each dwelling has basic cooking and eating facilities, and open-air showers use solar-heated water collected from a solar flat-plate thermal collector. A shady, breezy pavilion is the beating heart of the resort, its pitched slats fashioned from mahogany (using wood harvested from dead or dying trees\u2014mahogany is a protected species). The resort has its own orchard; you can also buy fresh organic fruit and produce from the celebrated Ridge to Reef farm, just a 10-minute stroll away. Outdoor activities include guided hikes in the rainforest and mountain biking (the camp has mountain bikes for rent)\u2014and feeding the gentle red-footed land tortoises in the resident tortoise colony.\n\n  340\/201-7983 or 340\/772-1651. <http:\/\/mtvictorycamp.com>. 5 dwellings. Winter $85\u2013$95 double; off season $75\u2013$85 double. Extra person $15. Credit cards through PayPal only. Amenities: Public phone; picnic tables; Wi-Fi.\n\nWhere to Eat\n\nSt. Croix has an amazing diversity of restaurants and cuisines, so don't limit yourself to your hotel for dining. The issue for most visitors\u2014particularly those staying outside of Christiansted and Frederiksted\u2014is often simply getting around at night. Many roads in St. Croix are badly lit, and driving on the left (for those used to driving on the right) can be challenging even during daylight hours. Don't let that deter you, though: Taxi drivers are happy to deliver you to a restaurant and return for you when your meal is done. Have your hotel call a taxi for you, and be sure to confirm the rate there and back with the driver before you set out.\n\nIf you're staying at one of the small hotels or guesthouses in and around Christiansted, you'll likely be able to walk to your restaurant of choice. If you're at a hotel in Frederiksted, the night is yours. The cruise-ship crowds will have departed, and the small dining rooms here have an earthier, more laid-back (and less expensive) feel than those in Christiansted.\n\nThe St. Croix Food & Wine Experience, is a highlight of the year, a weeklong food party on St. Croix in mid-April, when the island's food is highlighted with city food crawls, wine events, sunset BBQs, and the chance to sample local creations at the \"Taste of St. Croix.\" Go to www.stcroixfoodandwine.com to learn more.\n\nThe Chicken Shack\n\nIt's Martha Stewart's favorite restaurant on island, and after you sample one of the shack's spit-roasted barbecued chickens, it might be yours too. The La Reine Chicken Shack is known for its juicy, fall-off-the-bone chicken, but it also serves up exemplary ribs, johnnycakes, conch fritters, and specials like shrimp in butter sauce and curry chicken. It's good value, too; at press time you could get half a chicken and a couple of johnnycakes for $5.50! Eat in, or do as Martha does and take out. The Chicken Shack is located mid-island, on Centerline Road across from the old La Reine Shopping Plaza. It's open Monday through Wednesday 10:30am until 6pm, Thursday through Saturday 10:30am through 8pm, and Sunday 10:30am to 4pm (  340\/778-5717).\n\nNorth Shore\n\nExpensive\n\nThe Galleon   FRENCH\/NORTHERN ITALIAN Overlooking the sea, this upscale marina restaurant and bar is a special-occasion favorite. It serves northern Italian and French cuisine, occasionally including handmade pastas, osso buco, local fish\u2014wahoo, tuna, swordfish, or mahimahi\u2014or fresh Caribbean lobster. Order the beef tenderloin chateaubriand, and they will carve it right at your table. The wine list is extensive.\n\nE. End Rd.   340\/718-9948. www.galleonrestaurant.com. Reservations recommended. Main courses $22\u2013$40. Sun brunch $11\u2013$22 Mon\u2013Fri 4\u201310pm (happy hour 4\u20136pm, dinner 6\u201310pm), Sun 10am\u20132pm. Go east on Rte. 82 from Christiansted for 5 min.; after going 1 mile past the Buccaneer, turn left into Green Cay Marina.\n\nFlamboyant Beach Bar   AMERICAN Seating up to 100 guests beneath a vaulted cathedral ceiling, this informal open-air enclave is located in the Renaissance Carambola Beach Resort. It's one of the island's best hotel restaurants, offering fresh, creative takes on American classics and Caribbean seafood. Friday nights feature a Pirate's Buffet, with a Moko Jumbies show (6:30\u20139:30pm; $30).\n\nIn the Renaissance Carambola Beach Resort (p. ), Estate Davis Bay.   340\/778-3800. Main courses $22\u2013$35. Daily 11:30am\u20134pm and 5\u201310pm.\n\nSt. Croix Restaurants\n\nChristiansted\n\nExpensive\n\nKendrick's   FRENCH Some say this is the island's best fine-dining restaurant, and it's certainly has the good looks for it, with a beautiful courtyard and a setting in the historic Quin House cottage complex, built in 1762. Chef David Kendrick's food is memorable as well, with a seasonally changing menu. You might start with the exemplary Caesar salad, mussels steamed in white wine, or the sweet potato ravioli with pine nuts. For an entr\u00e9e, if its offered, try the pecan-crusted pork tenderloin or a filet in a port-wine demi-glace. Service is impeccable.\n\n2132 Company St.   340\/773-9199. Main courses $26\u2013$39. Tues\u2013Sat 6\u201310pm. Closed Mon Sept\u2013Oct.\n\nModerate\n\nRumRunners   CARIBBEAN This is an easy-breezy choice, an open-air restaurant that sits right on the boardwalk with sunset views of the Christiansted harbor. The ambience is pure Caribbean\u2014with waves rolling in in the background and pelicans wheeling above. During Sunday brunch a steel band plays. As for the food, it's surf and turf, from grilled New York strip steak to broiled whole lobster to meltingly tender baby-back ribs slow-cooked in island spices and Guinness. The bartender whips up some minxy drinks, or you may want to stop by for the $2 beer deals at happy hour.\n\nIn the Hotel Caravelle, on the boardwalk at Queen Cross St.   340\/773-6585. www.rumrunnersstcroix.com. Reservations recommended. Main courses $10\u2013$30. Mon\u2013Fri 7\u201310:30am, 11:30am\u20133pm, and 5:30\u20139:30pm; Sat 8\u201310:30am and 11:30am\u20133pm; Sun brunch 8am\u20132pm.\n\nSalud! Bistro   MEDITERRANEAN\/WINE BAR A buzzy, modern Mediterranean bistro and wine bar, Saludi has real local flavor, but not in the old-school-Caribbean sense. It's just a hopping place with a stylish local clientele, a window on the wide and wonderful diversity of folks who call St. Croix home. They come for the small plates, the expertly mixed mojiots and margaritas, the good wines and the warm ambience (walls are painted in richly saturated hues and hung with artwork). They also come for the expertly mixed mojitos and margaritas. Personal favorites among the starters: the platter of Mediterranean-style dips and spreads and the truffle mac 'n' cheese. The creative mains include lamb tagine, conch bolognese, and a zucchini pappadelle. Saludi is located 4 minutes west of Christiansted.\n\nPrincess Plaza, 9A Northside Rd.   340\/718-7900. <http:\/\/saludbistro.com>. Reservations recommended. Main courses $20\u2013$35. Mon\u2013Sat 5:30\u201310pm.\n\nSavant   CARIBBEAN\/THAI\/MEXICAN\/FUSION Just like St. Croix itself, a \"cultural callaloo,\" as one person put it, this is fusion on steroids. But it works, and this stylish bistro is a delightful place to dine, as the chefs take the food seriously. You can pinball from Thai curries to grilled fajitas to housemade egg rolls to fish tacos to maple-teriyaki pork tenderloin and not go wrong with any of it. Savant has only 20 candlelit tables, so call for a reservation as far in advance as you can.\n\n4C Hospital St.   340\/713-8666. www.savantstx.com. Reservations required. Main courses $14\u2013$39. Mon\u2013Sat 6\u201310pm.\n\nTutto Bene   ITALIAN A favorite among locals and visitors alike, this place has the warm, casual feel of a cantina, which meshes with the laidback island vibe. The food is simple and uncomplicated, the kind of hearty peasant dishes that built the Roman empire. They also happen to be delicious and built from the freshest ingredients. You'll dine in a warehouselike setting just east of Christiansted, amid warm colors and, often, lots of hubbub. The menu is written on oversize mirrors against one wall. You might begin with a grilled flatbread pizza and go on to one of the pastas, like spaghetti bolognese, traditional carbonara with pancetta, or the vegetarian-friendly rasta pasta: penne in a pesto cream sauce. Fresh fish, steak, and pork chops round out the menu.\n\nBoardwalk Building, Hospital St.   340\/773-5229. www.tuttobenerestaurant.com. Reservations recommended. Main courses $23\u2013$32. Wed\u2013Sun 6\u201310pm.\n\nInexpensive\n\nHarvey's   CARIBBEAN Good, honest, utterly delicious Crucian food\u2014that's what island matriarch Sarah Harvey delivers at her namesake restaurant. But Harvey's has plenty of fans, so you need to get here early for lunch....before the food runs out! We'd recommend you start with one of her homemade soups, or an appetizer of conch in butter sauce. Entrees will be barbecue chicken, goat stew, fried grouper, and, sometimes, even lobster. A side of cornmeal fungi comes with just about everything. Wash it all down with a fresh juice from exotic island fruits like gooseberry or tamarind. This is power eating, island style, so dig in.\n\n11B Company St.   340\/773-3433. Main courses $6\u2013$22. Mon\u2013Sat 11:30am\u20134pm.\n\nIn & Around Frederiksted\n\nModerate\n\nBlue Moon   INTERNATIONAL\/CAJUN Frederiksted's best little bistro is set in a 200-year-old stone house on the waterfront. It's a lively little caf\u00e9 that becomes a hot spot when live jazz is on tap Wednesday and Friday nights and during Sunday brunch. The atmosphere is casual and welcoming, abetted by a New Orleans\u2013influenced menu, featuring such classics as gumbo, jambalaya, and \"Jazzy Shrimp\": peel-and-eat shrimp with butter, garlic, and Cajun spices. There's also the usual array of fish, steak, and chicken dishes.\n\n17 Strand St.   340\/772-2222. www.bluemoonstcroix.com. Reservations recommended. Main courses $20\u2013$29. Tues\u2013Fri 11am\u201310pm; Sat 6\u201310pm; Sun 10am\u20132pm.\n\nVilla Morales   SPANISH\/CARIBBEAN Family run for more than 60 years, this is St. Croix's top Puerto Rican restaurant. It's only open 3 nights a week, so if you have a craving for home-cooked Latino classics, check the opening times and book well in advance. Nightly specials might be stewed or roasted goat, barbecue ribs, or roast pork served with boiled rice and fungi. Seafood is a house specialty, especially the excellent steamed red snapper, conch, or lobster. Sides, as you might expect, are rice and beans, johnnycakes, and fried plantains. Villa Morales also has a budget-friendly guest house adjacent to the restaurant ($55 double; extra person $10).\n\nPlot 82C, Estate Whim (off Rte. 70 about 2 miles from Frederiksted).   340\/772-0556. <http:\/\/villamorales.fsted.com>. Reservations recommended. Main courses $9\u2013$35. Thurs\u2013Sat 10am\u201310pm.\n\nInexpensive\n\nArmstrong's Homemade Ice Cream   ICE CREAM Since 1900, this family-run store has been making ice cream with local fruits, and it remains a must-visit. Flavors range from mango and soursop to guava, passionfruit and even gooseberry (not to mention basic choices like vanilla and chocolate). The recipes have been handed down in the family over three generations. The store makes a special guavaberry ice cream at Christmas.\n\n78-B Whim.   340\/772-1919. Ice cream $2\u2013$5. No credit cards. Tues\u2013Sat 7am\u20137pm; Sun 11am\u20137pm.\n\nMaggie's Snackett   CARIBBEAN This welcoming local lunch spot, painted in buttery yellow, is a haven of home cooking. Maggie's menu changes every day, but expect such Caribbean classics as smoked mackerel and goat or chicken stew and fresh-baked island breads.\n\n65 King St.   340\/772-5070. Breakfast $6\u2013$7; main courses $12\u2013$15. No credit cards. Daily 8am\u20133pm.\n\nPolly's at the Pier   COFFEE\/INTERNATIONAL This popular Art Deco spot is many things: an Internet caf\u00e9 with free Wi-Fi; a gourmet coffee shop; a breakfast and lunch caf\u00e9 (making fresh and delicious salads, sandwiches, burgers, soups); a mini-microbrewery selling Polly's Pale Ale; and an ice cream shop selling Armstrong's Homemade Ice Cream. It has a rotating art gallery. It even has the original Polly, an English bulldog for whom the shop is named, stopping in on occasion for photo ops.\n\n#3 Strand St.   340\/719-9434. Sandwiches, salads, and platters $10\u2013$30. Cash only. Mon\u2013Fri 7am\u20137pm; Sat\u2013Sun 8am\u20135pm.\n\nUca's Kitchen   VEGETARIAN Just off the cruise dock, Uca's serves island-style vegetarian fare. The kitchen is a creative wonder, offering up such tantalizing and unusual dishes as barbecued tofu kebab or callaloo (a local spinach) with a fungi polenta or even gooseberry stew. The house specialty is a tasty mushroom lasagna. Don't leave without sampling one of the fresh tropical fruit juices.\n\nKing St.   340\/772-5063. Reservations not required. Main courses $10\u2013$15. No credit cards. Daily 11:30am\u20137pm.\n\nOut on the Island\n\nDuggan's Reef   CONTINENTAL\/CARIBBEAN This popular open-air spot overlooks the placid blue seas of Reef Beach, where windsurfers and sailboats skim the water. Fresh lobster is a star here, from the fried johnnycakes and lobster salad to the lobster spring roll to Duggan's formidable Irish whiskey lobster. You'll find plenty of American classics here as well (burgers, steak, fried chicken). Set in an expansive green-and-white wood-frame structure with wraparound views, Duggan's is an island favorite.\n\nE. End Rd.   340\/773-9800. <http:\/\/duggansreef.com>. Reservations required for dinner in winter. Main courses $23\u2013$39; pastas $19\u2013$30. Mon\u2013Sat 6\u20139:30pm; Sun brunch 11am\u20132pm.\n\nModerate\n\nEat@canebay   INTERNATIONAL From the folks at the now-defunct Bacchus, this hot spot on the island's northwest end is getting raves for its fizzy beach atmosphere and solid food. The breakfast and lunch menus feature a build-your-own premise\u2014build your own burgers, salads, omelettes\u2014along with sandwiches (pulled pork, Cane Bay Reuben), peel-your-own shrimp, and a nifty roster of sides, including smoked-duck chili, sweet potato fries, roasted beefs. At night the menu goes uptown with a handful of elegantly prepared entrees listed on the blackboard. You might try pan-seared tuna, grilled steak, or linguine with scallops, mushrooms, and spinach in a garlicky cream sauce. The Sunday reggae brunch rocks the house; it's served from 11am to 4pm, and the music plays on till sunset.\n\ngroceries, markets & more: St. Croix Provisioning\n\nOn St. Croix, everyone should take advantage of the island's farm-fresh fruit and produce. You can do so at the following places, whether you're stocking a kitchen or just looking for a snack or pre-prepared meal. Note: Beyond the resources listed below, the restaurant Blue Water Terrace, Cotton Valley, on the island's East End, has a market and deli selling sandwiches, cheeses, wine, picnic foods and lunch boxes; it also caters (  740\/692-2583). Here are some essential St. Croix resources:\n\nGroceries: Plaza Extra (  340\/719-1870; <http:\/\/plazaextra.com>), with two locations on island, is stocked to the gills with, well, everything.\n\nFresh Seafood: Buy fresh fish (bluefish, tuna, alewife), Caribbean lobster, and conch at the fish market on the end of Strand Street on the Fredriksberg waterfront when the fishermen come in from 8:30am to 11am.\n\nFresh Meat: The family-run Annaly Meat Market (  340\/778-2229) sells cut-to-order custom cuts of meat, including local free-range organic Senepol beef, as well as U.S. choice beef, pork, lamb, and more. It's located on Route 72 on the way to the Carambola golf course. Sejah Farms (see below) raises chickens, goats, rabbits, and duck (the latter two to order) and sells fresh cuts from Thursday to Saturday at their farmstand.\n\nFresh Produce\/Fruit: The roads of St. Croix are dotted with farmstands. Look for farmers selling fat avocadoes, bananas, papayas, beans, and more along Centerline Road and on roads in Estate Upper Love. Sejah Farms (  340\/773-8065; <http:\/\/sejahfarm.com>) sells organic vegetables, eggs, honey, and chicken Monday to Friday 10am to 5pm and Saturday 7am to 5pm; it's on Casper Holstein Drive, near Fredriksted (they even accept farm volunteers). ARTFarm (  340\/514-4873; www.artfarmllc.com), a unique organic farm\/art gallery, sells organic produce and herbs every Saturday from 10am to noon The La Reine Farmers' Market is held on Saturday from 6:30am till 11am.\n\n1110c Cane Bay.   340\/718-0360. <http:\/\/eatatcanebay.com>. Reservations recommended. Main courses lunch $11\u2013$16, dinner $22\u2013$28. Wed\u2013Mon 11am\u20139pm; Sun reggae brunch 11am\u20134pm.\n\nThe Palms at Pelican Cove   CARIBBEAN\/INTERNATIONAL The food is good and fresh and prepared with a lot of TLC at the signature restaurant of the Palms at Pelican Cove, but the setting is sheer enchantment: You're right on the beach with tall palms rustling and lights twinkling in the cove. Yes, you can plant yourself in the indoors dining room, but we prefer the terrace, and if you're lucky you can find a seat there too. The food is called \"Caribbean-inspired\" and it's mighty fine, with an emphasis on the catch of the day, but the restaurant is often lauded for its perfectly char-broiled ribeye. Monday is the restaurant's Caribbean Night, with an all-you-can-eat buffet featuring ribs, fish, chicken, johnnycakes, sweet potato stuffing, and more ($30 adults, $15 children 11 and under) and Carnival entertainment.\n\nIn the Palms at Pelican Cove (p. ), 4126 La Grande Princesse.   340\/718-8920. www.palmspelicancove.com. Reservations recommended. Main courses $12\u2013$30. Daily 7:30\u201311am, 11:30am\u20132:30pm, and 6\u20139pm; Sun brunch 10am\u20132pm.\n\nExploring St. Croix\n\nBeaches\n\nBeaches are St. Croix's big attraction. Getting to them from Christiansted, however, home to most of the hotels, isn't always easy. It can also be expensive, especially if you want to beach it each day of your stay. From Christiansted a taxi will cost about $30 for two people to Davis Bay, $24 to Cane Bay, and $20 to Rainbow Beach. One solution is to rent a condo or stay in a hotel right on the water. Barring that, renting a car is a great way to hit the beaches\u2014and see the island's attractions.\n\nThe most celebrated beach is offshore Buck Island  , part of the U.S. National Park Service network. Buck Island is actually a volcanic islet surrounded by some of the most stunning underwater coral gardens in the Caribbean. The white-sand beaches on the southwest and west coasts are idyllic and the snorkeling is superb. The islet's interior is filled with cactus, wild frangipani, and pigeonwood. A number of operators runs excursions to Buck Island, leaving from Kings Wharf in Christiansted; the ride takes a half-hour. For details, see \"A Side Trip to Buck Island,\" later in this chapter.\n\nYour best choice for a beach in Christiansted is the one at the Hotel on the Cay  . This white-sand strip is on a palm-shaded island. To get here, take the ferry from the fort at Christiansted; it runs every 10 minutes from 6am to midnight. The 4-minute trip costs $3 round-trip, free for guests of the timeshare resort Hotel on the Cay. Five miles west of Christiansted is the Palms at Pelican Cove  , where some 1,200 feet of white sand shaded by palm trees attracts a gay and mixed crowd. Because a reef lies just off the shore, snorkeling conditions are ideal.\n\nRecommended highly are Davis Bay   and Cane Bay  , each with swaying palms, white sand, and good swimming. Because they're on the north shore, these beaches are often windy, and as a result their waters are not always calm. The snorkeling at Cane Bay, however, is truly spectacular; you'll see elkhorn and brain corals, all some 750 feet off the Cane Bay Wall. Cane Bay adjoins Route 80 on the north shore. Close to the Renaissance Carambola Beach Resort, Davis Beach doesn't have a reef; it's more popular among bodysurfers than snorkelers.\n\nOn Route 63, a short ride north of Frederiksted, lies Rainbow Beach  , with white sand and ideal snorkeling conditions. Nearby, also on Route 63, about 5 minutes north of Frederiksted, is another good beach, called La Grange  . Lounge chairs can be rented here, and there's a bar nearby.\n\nSandy Point  , directly south of Frederiksted, is the largest beach in all the U.S. Virgin Islands, but it's open to the public only on weekends from 10am to 4pm. Its waters are shallow and calm, perfect for swimming. Zigzagging fences line the beach to help prevent beach erosion. Sandy Point is protected as a nesting spot for endangered sea turtles. Continue west from the western terminus of the Melvin Evans Highway (Rte. 66). For more on visiting the refuge, see p. .\n\nThe island's East End has an array of beaches; they're somewhat difficult to get to, but much less crowded. The best choice here is Isaac Bay Beach  , ideal for snorkeling, swimming, or sunbathing. Windsurfers like Reef Beach, which opens onto Teague Bay along Route 82, East End Road, a half-hour ride from Christiansted. You can get food at Duggan's Reef (p. ). Cramer Park is a special public park operated by the Department of Agriculture. It's lined with sea-grape trees and has a delightful picnic area, a restaurant, and a bar. Grapetree Beach is off Rte. 60 (S. Shore Rd.), wide and sandy, with calm water. The beach is flanked only by a few private homes, although the beach at the Divi Carina is a short walk away.\n\nWatersports & Outdoor Adventures\n\nSt. Croix offers many outdoor adventures. In the east, the terrain is rocky and arid, getting little water. But the western part of the island is lush, including a small \"rain forest\" of mango, tree ferns, and dangling lianas. Between the two extremes are beautiful sandy beaches, rolling hills and pastures, and roads lined with mahogany trees and colorful flamboyant trees. Watersports galore abound, including boating, sailing, diving, snorkeling, fishing, hiking, and windsurfing.\n\nBicyling St. Croix has miles of relatively flat roadways that make it ideal for biking, but it also has lush hills for the more adventurous. Contact Freedom City Cycles, 2E Strand Square, 2 Strand St., Frederiksted (  340\/227-2433; www.freedomcitycycles.com), which, in addition to offering bike rentals, can arrange guided bike tours of the island. A 2- to 3-hour mountain bike tour begins at sea level and climbs through the rain forest on both paved and unpaved roads, costing $60 per person.\n\nFishing The fishing grounds at Lang Bank are about 10 miles from St. Croix. Here you'll find kingfish, dolphin fish, and wahoo. Using light-tackle boats to glide along the reef, you'll probably turn up jack or bonefish. At Clover Crest, in Frederiksted, local anglers fish right from the rocks. For more information on legal shore-fishing spots around the island, contact the tourist office in Christiansted or Frederiksted. Serious sport fishermen can head out with St. Croix Deep Blue Charters (  340\/643-5514; www.stcroixdeepbluecharters.com), on a 38-foot Bertram special anchored at Silver Bay Dock on the Christiansted waterfront. Reservations can be made by calling during the day. The cost for up to six passengers is $650 for 4 hours and $850 for 6 hours with bait and tackle and drinks included.\n\nGolf St. Croix has the best golf in the Virgin Islands. Guests staying on St. John and St. Thomas often fly over for a round on one of the island's three courses.\n\nCarambola Golf & Country Club, on the northeast side of St. Croix (  340\/778-5638; www.golfcarambola.com), adjacent to the Carambola Beach Resort (p. ), was created by Robert Trent Jones, Sr., who called it \"the loveliest course I ever designed.\" It's been likened to a botanical garden. The par-3 holes here are known to golfing authorities as the best in the Tropics. The greens fee of $95 in winter, or $65 in the off season, allows you to play as many holes as you like. Carts are included.\n\nThe Buccaneer, Gallows Bay (  340\/712-2144; p. ), 3 miles east of Christiansted, has a challenging 5,685-yard, 18-hole course with panoramic vistas. Nonguests pay $110 in winter or $70 off season, including use of a cart.\n\nThe Reef, on the east end of the island at Teague Bay (  340\/773-8844), is a 3,100-yard, 9-hole course, charging greens fees of $20 for 9 holes and $35 for 18 holes. Golf carts can also be rented at an additional $15 for 9 holes or $20 for 18 holes. The longest hole here is a 465-yard par 5.\n\nHiking Scrub-covered hills make up much of St. Croix's landscape. The island's western district, however, includes a dense, 15-acre forest known as the \"Rain Forest\" (although it's not a real one). The network of footpaths here offers fantastic nature walks. The area is thick with mahogany trees, kapok (silk-cotton) trees, and samaan (rain) trees. Sweet limes, mangoes, hog plums, and breadfruit trees, all of which have grown in the wild since the days of the plantations, are here. The \"Rain Forest\" is private property, but visitors are welcome to go inside to explore. To experience its charm, some people simply opt to drive along Route 76 (also known as Mahogany Rd.), stopping beside the footpaths that meander off on either side of the highway into dry riverbeds and glens. Stick to the most worn footpaths.\n\nOur favorite trail in the \"Rain Forest,\" Creque Dam Road (Rte. 58\/78), takes about 21\u20442 hours one-way. From Frederiksted, drive north on Route 63 to Creque Dam Road, where you turn right, park the car, and start walking. A mile past the Creque Dam, you'll be deep within the forest's magnificent flora and fauna. Continue on the trail until you come to the Western Scenic Road. Eventually, you reach Mahogany Road (Rte. 76), near St. Croix LEAP Project. The trail is moderate in difficulty.\n\nTo reach some of the most remote but scenic places on St. Croix, take a walking tour with Crucian Heritage & Nature Tourism (CHANT;   340\/772-4079; <http:\/\/chantvi.org>). Its \"Ay Ay Eco-Hike Tours\" include a steep walk down the mountainside to the crystalline tidal pools and saltwater baths of Annaly Bay, and a stroll along scenic Maroon Ridge, established by runaway slaves in the 17th century ($50 per person).\n\nThe St. Croix Environmental Association (  340\/773-1989; www.stxenvironmental.org) also offers interesting hikes, including a Butler Bay Falls guided hike to study the traditional cultural and medicinal uses of plants along the way. Buck Island (see the section \"A Side Trip to Buck Island,\" later in this chapter), just off St. Croix, also has nature trails.\n\nHorseback Riding Paul & Jill's Equestrian Stables, 2 Sprat Hall Estate, Rte. 58 (  340\/772-2880; www.paulandjills.com), the largest equestrian stable in the Virgin Islands, is known throughout the Caribbean for its horses. It's set on the sprawling grounds of the island's oldest plantation great house, Sprat Hall. The operators lead scenic trail rides through the forests, along the beach, and past ruins of abandoned 18th-century plantations and sugar mills. Beginners and experienced riders alike are welcome. A 11\u20442-hour trail ride costs $99. Tours usually depart daily in winter at 10:30am and 3pm, and in the off-season at 4pm, with slight variations according to demand. Reserve at least a day in advance.\n\nKayaking The beauty of St. Croix is best seen from a kayak. You can explore the waters of Sandy Point, Shell Island, and Salt River Bay National Park or kayak over the steep underwater wall at Cane Bay on half-day, full-day, and weeklong tours offered by Virgin Kayak (  340\/718-0071; www.virginkayaktours.com). The tour, lasting 3 hours, costs $45 per person and includes water and a light snack.\n\nSeeing St. Croix's magical bioluminescent bays   is a nighttime thrill on moonless nights. Both Virgin Kayak and Sea Thru Kayaks VI (  340\/244-8696; <http:\/\/seathrukayaksvi.com>) explore the island's two bioluminescent bays by kayak. See Thru Kayaks VI's see-through kayaks make the trip that much more memorable. Cost for an average 90-minute tour is $50 per person.\n\nKiteboarding Kite St. Croix (  340\/643-5824; www.kitestcroix.com), in Cotton Valley on the north shore of the island's East End, offers kiteboarding lessons ($100\u2013$225) and rentals ($50\/half-day) on-site. The times for good kiteboarding winds are December through March and June through August.\n\nScuba Diving & Snorkeling   Sponge life, black coral (the finest in the West Indies), and steep drop-offs near the shoreline make St. Croix a snorkeling and diving paradise. The island is protected by the largest living reef in the Caribbean, including the fabled north-shore wall that begins in 25 to 30 feet of water and drops to 13,200 feet, sometimes plunging straight down.\n\nBuck Island   is a major scuba-diving site, with a visibility of some 100 feet. It also has an underwater snorkeling trail. Practically all outfitters on St. Croix offer scuba and snorkeling tours to Buck Island. For more information on the island, see the section \"A Side Trip to Buck Island,\" later in this chapter.\n\nOther favorite dive sites include the historic Salt River Canyon   (northwest of Christiansted at Salt River Bay), for advanced divers. Submerged canyon walls are covered with purple tube sponges, deepwater gorgonians, and black coral saplings. You'll see schools of yellowtail snapper, turtles, and spotted eagle rays. We also like the gorgeous coral gardens of Scotch Banks (north of Christiansted) and Eagle Ray (also north of Christiansted), the latter so named because of the rays that cruise along the wall there. Cane Bay   is known for its coral canyons.\n\nFrederiksted Pier  , near the historic area of Frederiksted, is the jumping-off point (literally) for a scuba voyage into a world of sponges, banded shrimp, plume worms, sea horses, and other creatures.\n\nDavis Bay is the site of the 12,000-foot-deep Puerto Rico Trench. Northstar Reef  , at the east end of Davis Bay, is a spectacular wall dive, recommended for intermediate or experienced divers only. The wall here is covered with stunning brain corals and staghorn thickets. At some 50 feet down, a sandy shelf leads to a cave where giant green moray eels hang out.\n\nAt Butler Bay, to the north of Frederiksted on the west shore, there are the submerged ruins of three ships: the Suffolk Maid, the Northwind, and the Rosaomaira, the latter sitting in 100 feet of water. These wrecks form the major part of an artificial reef system that also contains abandoned trucks and cars. This site is recommended for intermediate or experienced divers.\n\nA top outfitter is the Cane Bay Dive Shop (  800\/338-3843 or 340\/773-9913; www.canebayscuba.com), with four locations around the island. The numerous locations means there's a variety of dive sites to choose from without having to take a long boat ride. A beginner's lesson goes for $60, and packages go all the way up the scale to a six-tank dive package for $295.\n\nSee \"Beaches,\" above, for the best snorkeling spots. Most beachside resorts offer complimentary snorkling equipment. You can also rent everything you need at all four locations of rthe Cane Bay Dive Shop (see above).\n\nStandup Paddleboarding Kite St. Croix (  340\/643-5824; www.kitestcroix.com) offers paddleboard rentals ($35\/per hour and $60\/per day) as well as beginner lessons ($50\u2013$75).\n\nTennis Some authorities rate the tennis at the Buccaneer  , Gallows Bay (  340\/773-3036), as the best in the Caribbean. The resort offers a choice of eight courts, two lit for night play, all open to the public. Nonguests pay $18 daytime, $22 nighttime per hour; you must call to reserve a court at least a day in advance. A tennis pro is available for lessons, and if you're looking for tennis partners, they are happy to match you up for singles or doubles.\n\nTaxi Tours\n\nOne of the best ways to explore St. Croix is on a taxi tour   with a local driver. We give our unqualified seal of approval to the following drivers, both of whom do wonderful and erudite sightseeing tours: Ames Joseph (  340\/277-6133) or Francis M. Vazquez (  340\/690-4045). In general, a 3\u00bd-hour island tour for one to four persons costs around $150; a 6-hour tour is $300. The fare should be negotiated in advance. Extra fees may be charged for the following sights: $10 for the botanical gardens, $10 for the Whim Estate House, and $8 for the rum distillery. Note: You may want to concentrate on the island's East End for one trip and the West End on another.\n\nHeritage & Cultural Tours\n\nSt. Croix's cultural riches are explored on tours run by Crucian Heritage & Nature Tourism (CHANT;   340\/772-4079; <http:\/\/chantvi.org>). In addition to historic walking tours   of the colonial towns of Christiansted and Frederiksted, CHANT offers a fascinating Ridge to Reef Farm Tour, showcasing the island's agricultural heritage and burgeoning farm-to-table movement with a tour of a 200-acre working tropical farm in a lush forest valley. The 3-hour tour is $55 per person.\n\nThe St. Croix Landmarks Society (  340\/772-0598; www.stcroixlandmarks.com) offers a terrific roster of Sunday-afternoon \"Places that Matter\/Ruins Rambles\"  : historic walking tours that let you \"walk in the footsteps of people\" who lived and worked here. A recent ramble took in the old slave market in Christiansted. It also holds Annual House Tours in February. Check the website for dates and hours.\n\nSeeing the Sights\n\nChristopher Columbus named the island Santa Cruz (Holy Cross) when he landed on November 14, 1493. He anchored his ship off the north shore but was quickly driven away by the spears, arrows, and axes of the Carib Indians. The French laid claim to the island in 1650; the Danes purchased it from them in 1733. Under their rule, the slave trade and sugarcane fields flourished until the latter half of the 19th century. Danish architecture and influence can still be seen on the island today. In a shrewd purchase deal with the Danes, the U.S. acquired the islands in 1917.\n\nAlthough the 21st century has definitely invaded St. Croix, with subdivisions, condo complexes, shopping centers, and modern strip malls, evidence of the past is everywhere across its 84 square miles. St. Croix contains the nostalgic ruins of some 100 slave-driven plantations where sugarcane was once grown.\n\nToday, the past is visible everywhere you go in St. Croix, from Fort Christiansvaern to Fort Frederick. Take the time to explore Christiansted and Frederiksted, where the island's Danish roots can be seen everywhere.\n\nIn His Footsteps: Alexander Hamilton (1755\u20131804)\n\nAlexander Hamilton was an American statesman from the West Indies who served brilliantly in the American Revolution. He wrote many of the articles contained in the Federalist Papers and became secretary of the Treasury under George Washington. He was noted for both his literary and oratorical skills. Although he was born on the island of Nevis, Hamilton spent his adolescence in St. Croix.\n\n  Birthplace: The British-held island of Nevis, on January 11, 1755\n\n  Residences: Nevis, St. Croix, various cities in the United States\n\n  Final Days: In a duel fought with Aaron Burr, Hamilton was mortally wounded and died on July 12, 1804.\n\nWalking Tour: Christiansted\n\nStart: | The Visitors Bureau.\n\n---|---\n\nFinish: | Christiansted's harborfront.\n\nTime: | 11\u20442 hours.\n\nBest Times: | Any day from 10am to 4pm.\n\nWorst Times: | Monday to Friday 4 to 6pm.\n\nThe largest town on St. Croix, Christiansted still has many traces of its Danish heritage. Constructed by the Danish West India Company, the heart of town is still filled with many imposing old buildings, mostly former warehouses, from the 18th century. Today they are registered as a U.S. National Historic Site. Across a small park stands Fort Christiansvaern, which the Danes built on the fortifications of a 1645 French fort. From its precincts, some of the best views of the harbor can be seen. Christiansted is best seen by walking tour.\n\n1The Old Scale House\n\nThis yellow-sided building with a cedar-capped roof is located near the harborfront. It was originally built as the Old Scale House in 1856 to replace a similar structure that had burned down. In its heyday, all taxable goods leaving and entering Christiansted's harbor were weighed here. In front of the building lies one of the most charming squares in the Caribbean. Its old-fashioned asymmetrical allure is still evident despite the mass of cars. Inside is an information center and a bookstore and gift shop.\n\nWith your back to the scalehouse, turn left and walk through the parking lot to the foot of the white-sided gazebo-like band shell that sits in the center of a park named after Alexander Hamilton, who spent his adolescence on St. Croix. The yellow-brick building with the ornately carved brick staircase is the:\n\n2Old Danish Customs House\n\nThis is currently the headquarters of the National Park Service. The gracefully proportioned 16-step staircase was added in 1829 as an embellishment to an older building dating back to 1734. During the island's Danish occupancy, this is where merchants paid their taxes. (There are public toilets on the ground floor.)\n\nContinue climbing the hill to the base of the yellow-painted structure, which is:\n\n3Fort Christiansvaern\n\nThis is the best-preserved colonial fortification in the Virgin Islands. It's maintained as a historic monument by the National Park Service. Its original four-sided, diamond-shaped design was in accordance with the most advanced military planning of its era. The fort is the site of the St. Croix military museum, which documents police work on the island from the late 1800s to the present with photos, weapons, and other artifacts. The admission price of $3 also includes admission to the Steeple Building (see below). The fort is open Monday through Friday from 8am to 5pm. For information, call   340\/773-1460.\n\nExit from the fort, and head straight down the tree-lined path toward the most visible steeple in Christiansted. It caps the appropriately named:\n\nWalking Tour: Christiansted\n\n4Steeple Building\n\nCompleted in 1753, the Steeple Building was embellished with a steeple between 1794 and 1796. For a time it served as the headquarters of the Church of Lord God of Sabaoth, the island's first Lutheran church. The original structure can still be visited (see below). Inside is a National Park Service museum with exhibits on plantation life on the island. Admission is included in the $3 ticket for Fort Christiansvaern.\n\nAcross Company Street from the Steeple Building is a U.S. post office.\n\n5The Danish West India & Guinea Warehouse\n\nThe building that houses the post office was built in 1749 as the warehouse for the Danish West India and Guinea Company. The structure was once three times larger than it is today and included storerooms and lodging for staff. Go to the building's side entrance, on Church Street, and enter the rear courtyard. For many years, this was the site of some of the largest slave auctions in the Caribbean.\n\nFrom the post office, retrace your steps to Company Street and head west for 1 block. On your left, you'll pass the entrance to Apothecary Hall, 2111 Company St., which contains a charming collection of shops and restaurants.\n\n6 Luncheria\n\nIf you need refreshment, try Luncheria, Apothecary Hall Courtyard, 2111 Company St. (  340\/773-4247). The bar's tables are grouped in a courtyard shaded by trees. The owners are margarita specialists, stocking more types of tequila (15-plus) than any other bar in the neighborhood. Luncheria serves burritos, tostadas, enchiladas, and tacos, as well as daily specials and vegetarian meals.\n\nExit Apothecary Hall and turn left onto Company Street. Walk across Queen Cross Street (Dronningens Tvergade). A half-block later, you'll arrive at the island's largest outdoor market:\n\n7Hendricks Square\n\nThe square was rebuilt in a timbered, 19th-century style after the 1989 hurricane. Fruits and vegetables are sold here Monday through Saturday from 7am to 6pm.\n\nRetrace your steps a half-block along Company Street, then turn left onto Queen Cross Street. Head downhill toward the harbor, walking on the right-hand side of the street. Within a half-block, you'll reach an unmarked arched iron gateway, set beneath an arcade. Enter the charming gardens of:\n\n8Government House\n\nThis grand Danish Colonial building was formed from the union of two much older town houses in the 1830s. It was used as the Danish governor's residence until 1871, when the Danish West Indies capital was moved to Charlotte Amalie, on St. Thomas. The European-style garden here contains a scattering of trees, flower beds, and walkways. The gardens are open Monday to Friday 8am to 5pm. The Virgin Islands Tourism Office is located downstairs.\n\nExit the same way you entered, turn right, and continue your descent of Queen Cross Street. At the first street corner (King St.), turn left and you'll see:\n\n9Lord God of Sabaoth Lutheran Church\n\nThis neoclassical church was built sometime before 1740 and was originally the site of the Dutch Reformed Church; it was turned over to the Lord God of Sabaoth congregation in 1834, when a Gothic Revival tower was added. Much inside predates the Lutheran occupation, including the tower bell, cast in Copenhagen in 1793, and an impressive 18th-century picture frame fashioned of local mahogany that resides behind the altar.\n\nContinue walking southwest along King Street. Within 2 blocks is the:\n\n10Limprecht Gardens & Memorial\n\nFor 20 years (1888\u20131908), Peter Carl Limprecht served as governor of the Danish West Indies. Today, an occasional chicken pecks at seedlings planted near a Danish-language memorial to him.\n\nAt the end of the park, retrace your steps to Queen Cross Street, and go left. One very short block later, turn right onto Strand Street, which contains some interesting stores, including at least two different shopping arcades. The streets will narrow, and the pedestrian traffic will be more congested. Pass beneath the overpass belonging to a longtime bar and restaurant, the Club Comanche.\n\nContinue down the meandering curves of King's Alley. Within 1 block you'll be standing beside:\n\nDriving the St. Croix heritage trail\n\nA trail that leads into the past, St. Croix Heritage Trail traces the island's Danish colonial heritage. All you need are a brochure and map, available at the tourist office in Christiansted (p. ). This 72-mile itinerary includes a combination of asphalt-covered roadway, suitable for driving, and narrow woodland trails which must be navigated on foot. Many aficionados opt to drive along the route whenever practical, descend onto the footpaths wherever indicated, and then return to their cars for the continuation of the tour. En route, you'll be exposed to one of the Caribbean's densest concentrations of historical and cultural sites. Consisting largely of existing roadways, the route connects Christiansted and Frederiksted, going past the sites of former sugar plantations, and traverses the entire 28-mile length of St. Croix. The brochure identifies everything you're seeing: cattle farms, suburban communities, even industrial complexes and resorts. It's not all manicured and pretty, but much is scenic and worth the drive. Allow at least a day for this trail, with stops along the way, including Point Udall, the easternmost point under the U.S. flag in the Caribbean, and the two highlights of the trail: the Estate Mount Washington (p. ), a strikingly well-preserved sugar plantation; and Estate Whim Plantation Museum (p. ), one of the best of the restored great houses, with a museum and gift shop. Of course, you'll want to stop and get a refreshment break. We recommend Smithens Market. Vendors at this market, which lies off Queen Mary Highway, offer freshly squeezed sugarcane juice and sell locally grown fruits and homemade chutneys.\n\n11Christiansted's Harborfront\n\nEnd your tour here by strolling the boardwalk of the waterside piers and watching the sailboats bob in the harbor (and perhaps a seaplane touching down).\n\nFrederiksted\n\nThis former Danish settlement at the western end of the island, about 17 miles from Christiansted, is a sleepy port town that comes to life when a cruise ship docks at its pier\u2014which is happening more frequently these days. Frederiksted was destroyed by a fire in an 1878 labor revolt, and the citizens rebuilt it by putting Victorian wood frames and clapboards on top of the old Danish stone and yellow-brick foundations.\n\nMost visitors begin their tour at russet-colored Fort Frederik, at the northern end of Frederiksted next to the cruise-ship pier (  340\/772-2021). This fort, completed in 1760, is said to have been the first fort in the Caribbean to salute the flag of the new United States. An American brigantine, anchored at port in Frederiksted, hoisted a crudely made Old Glory. To show its support for the emerging American colonies, the head of the fort fired a cannonball in the air to honor the Americans and their new independence. Such an act violated the rules of Danish neutrality. It was at this same fort, on July 3, 1848, that Governor-General Peter von Scholten emancipated the slaves in the Danish West Indies, in response to a slave uprising led by a young man named Moses \"Buddhoe\" Gottlieb. In 1998, a bust of Buddhoe was unveiled here. The fort has been restored to its 1840 appearance and today is a national historic landmark. You can explore the courtyard and stables. A local history museum has been installed in what was once the Garrison Room. Admission is $3, free for children 15 and under; it's open Monday through Friday from 8:30am to 4pm.\n\nThe Customs House, just east of the fort, is an 18th-century building with a 19th-century two-story gallery. To the south of the fort is the visitor bureau at Strand Street (  340\/772-0357), where you can pick up a free map of the town.\n\nSandy Point Wildlife Refuge\n\nSt. Croix's rarely visited southwestern tip is composed of salt marshes, tidal pools, and low vegetation inhabited by birds, turtles, and other wildlife. More than 3 miles of ecologically protected coastline lie between Sandy Point (the island's westernmost tip) and the shallow waters of the West End Salt Pond. This national wildlife refuge is one of only two nesting grounds of the leatherback turtle in the United States\u2014the other is on Culebra, an offshore island of Puerto Rico. It's also home to colonies of green and hawksbill turtles, and thousands of birds, including herons, brown pelicans, Caribbean martins, black-necked stilts, and white-crowned pigeons. As for flora, Sandy Point gave its name to a rare form of orchid, a brown\/purple variety. The area consists of 360 acres of subtropical vegetation, including the largest salt pond in the Virgin Islands.\n\nThe wildlife refuge is only open to the public on Saturday and Sunday from 10am to 4pm (admission is free). Park rangers are determined to keep the area pristine, and in doing so they have to face such problems as the poaching of sea turtles and their eggs, drug smuggling, dumping of trash, and the arrival of illegal aliens. Even the mongoose and feral dogs are a menace to the nesting female turtles.\n\nIf Sandy Point's rules and regulations seem a little stringent, then you haven't met a leatherback sea turtle. It's the largest of its species and can measure some 6 feet in length and weigh more than 1,000 pounds. Every 2, perhaps 3 years, the turtles come back to this refuge to nest from March to July. The average female will deposit anywhere from 60 to 100 eggs in her nest. The survival rate is only 1 in 1,000 hatchlings. The refuge is also home to the green sea turtle, which can grow to a maximum of 4 feet and weigh about 400 pounds. These turtles come here only from June to September, when the females lay from 75 to 100 eggs.\n\nBirders also flock to Sandy Point to see some 100 species of birds, five of which are endangered. Endangered brown pelicans, royal terns, Caribbean elaenias, bananaquits, and yellow warblers are among the birds that call Sandy Point home.\n\nTo reach the refuge, drive to the end of the Rte. 66 (Melvin Evans Hwy.) and continue down a gravel road. For guided weekend visits, call   340\/773-4554 to make arrangements.\n\nSightseeing around the Island\n\nNorth of Frederiksted, you can drop in at Sprat Hall, the island's oldest plantation, or continue along to the \"Rain Forest\" (see above). Most visitors come to the area to see the jagged estuary of the northern coastline's Salt River. The Salt River was where Columbus landed on November 14, 1493. Marking the 500th anniversary of Columbus's arrival, former President George H. W. Bush signed a bill creating the 912-acre Salt River Bay National Historical Park and Ecological Preserve (www.nps.gov\/sari). The park contains the site of the original Carib village explored by Columbus and his men, including the only ceremonial ball court ever discovered in the Lesser Antilles. Also within the park is the largest mangrove forest in the Virgin Islands, sheltering many endangered animals and plants, plus an underwater canyon attracting divers from around the world. If you visit on your own, a taxi from Christiansted will cost $22. See \"Watersports & Outdoor Adventures,\" earlier in the chapter, for suggestions on kayak and scuba tours to this very special park.\n\nWhere the Sun First Shines on the U.S.A.\n\nThe rocky promontory of Point Udall, jutting into the Caribbean Sea, is the easternmost point of the United States. Diehards go out to see the sun rise, but considering the climb via a rutted dirt road, you may want to wait until there's a bit more light before heading here. Once at the top, you'll be rewarded with one of the best scenic views in the U.S. Virgin Islands. Point Udall is reached along Rte. 82 (it's signposted).\n\nCarl and Marie Lawaetz Museum   MUSEUM This 1750 La Grange valley farmstead was built as a sugar plantation, but was converted to a cattle ranch after it became the home of Danish cattle farmer Carl Lawaetz in 1896. Here he and his wife, Marie, raised Senegal cattle and seven children. Today you can tour the house, filled with turn-of-the-20th-century antiques and family heirlooms. The grounds also hold the ruins of the plantation's old sugar mill, as well as flowers and tropical trees and bushes. Inside, touchingly, Marie's paintings still hang in almost every room.\n\nMahogany Rd., Rte. 76, Estate Little La Grange.   340\/772-0598. www.stcroixlandmarks.com. Admission $10 adults, $8 students and seniors, $5 children 6\u201312, free for children 5 and under. Tues, Sat, and cruise-ship days 10am\u20134pm.\n\nCruzan Rum Factory   FACTORY This vintage factory distills the famous Virgin Islands rum that some consider the finest in the world, although the stuff now detours through the Jim Beam bottling factory in the U.S.A. before it reaches your favorite beach bar. The grounds are quietly bucolic, with offices now ensconced in the 18th-century plantation house and a magnificent ficus tree spreading its wings on the lawn. The charmingly low-tech guided tours include a visit through the factory and the chance to peer into giant vats of bubbling molasses\u2014the scent is pure sugar perfume. Call ahead for reservations.\n\nEstate Diamond 3, W. Airport Rd., Rte. 64.   340\/692-2280. www.cruzanrum.com. Admission $5 adults, $1 children 18 and under. Tours given Mon\u2013Fri 9\u20134pm and Sat 10am\u20132pm.\n\nEstate Mount Washington Plantation   MUSEUM St. Croix's best-preserved sugar and cotton plantation was an island workhorse from 1780 to 1820, when sugar was king on St. Croix, then the second-largest sugar producer in the West Indies. The nine-bedroom great house is a private home and closed to the public, but you can go on a self-guided stroll of the 13 acres, where you'll see the stone ruins of the plantation's sugar factory, as well as the \"cockpit\" animal mill, where donkeys or horses would be utilized to crush the sugarcane.\n\nAt the very southwestern tip of the island, off Rte. 63, a mile inland from the highway that runs along the Frederiksted coast. Free admission.\n\nEstate Whim Plantation Museum   MUSEUM The beautifully restored great house of the island's oldest sugar plantation was built to last, with 3-foot-thick walls of coral, stone, and molasses. All around, tropical greenery threatens to swallow up the plantation structures\u2014which include a sugar factory and restored windmill\u2014and before the estate became a landmark, it almost did. Inside, the great house has only three rooms, but each is filled with antiques from the era. You can tour the house and 12-acre grounds, and look for special ongoing events held here by the St. Croix Landmarks Society, such as evening concerts and arts and crafts shows. Check the website (www.stcroixlandmarks.com) to see what's happening. It also has a fabulous museum store (p. ) on the premises, selling all manner of original island souvenirs.\n\nCenterline Rd. (2 miles east of Frederiksted).   340\/772-0598. Admission $10 adults, $8 seniors, $5 children. Wed\u2013Sat and cruise-ship days 10am\u20134pm.\n\nSt. George Village Botanical Garden   GARDEN This 16-acre garden of tropical trees, shrubs, vines, and flowers was built around the ruins of a 19th-century sugarcane workers' village. Self-guided walking-tour maps are available at the entrance to the garden's great hall. The gardens feature a lively roster of year-round events. Facilities include restrooms and a gift shop.\n\n127 Estate St., 1 St. George (just north of Centerline Rd.), 4 miles east of Frederiksted.   340\/692-2874. www.sgvbg.org. Admission $8 adults, $6 seniors, $1 children 12 and under; donations welcome. Daily 9am\u20135pm.\n\nShopping\n\nChristiansted is the shopping hub of St. Croix, though it pales in comparison to the turbo-charged shopping in Charlotte Amalie on St. Thomas. But may we venture to say that the goods sold on St. Croix often are more interesting and more original, and reflect the local, artisanal, handmade spirit of the island. Most of the shops are compressed into a half-mile or so; look for hole-in-the-wall boutiques selling handmade goods. Between Company Street and the harbor are many courtyards, antique buildings, arcades, and walkways riddled with shops, many of which are smaller branches of parent stores on St. Thomas. Along the boardwalk is the King's Alley Complex, a pink-sided compound filled with the densest concentration of shops on St. Croix.\n\nIn recent years, Frederiksted has also become a popular shopping destination. Many of its mall shops appeal to cruise-ship passengers arriving at Frederiksted Pier, but you can find a few gems among the cookie-cutter offerings.\n\nKeep in mind that shopping in St. Croix is duty-free, and U.S. citizens enjoy a $1,600 duty-free allowance (even children) per person every 30 days.\n\nSt. Croix Shopping A to Z\n\nArts & Crafts\n\nMany Hands   ART This shop has been selling local artworks for almost 50 years. The collection of local one-of-a-kind paintings is intriguing, as is the pottery and handmade jewelry. 110 Strand St.   340\/773-1990. <http:\/\/manyhands.stcroixtravelusvi.com>.\n\nSt. Croix LEAP   HOUSEWARES If you're on western St. Croix, near Frederiksted, St. Croix LEAP makes an offbeat adventure. Inside this open-air shop are stacks of rare salvaged native wood being fashioned into serving boards, tables, wall hangings, clocks, you name it (the protected mahogany is from trees felled in storms or that needed to be trimmed). The St. Croix Life and Environmental Arts Project is dedicated to manual work, environmental conservation, and self-development. St. Croix LEAP is located 2 miles up Mahogany Road from the beach north of Frederiksted. Look for large mahogany signs and sculptures flanking the driveway. Visitors will need to bear to the right to reach the woodworking area and gift shop. The site is open Monday to Friday 9am to 5pm and Saturday 10am to 5pm. Mahogany Rd., Rte. 76.   340\/772-0421.\n\nGifts\n\nFranklin's on the Waterfront   GIFTS This terrific gift and home-furnishing emporium stands out amid the mall clutter nearby. Franklin's sells a thoughtfully curated selection of beautiful things, including works made by local artisans (we got a charming Moko Jumbie Christmas ornament made by local artist Sandra Michael here), high-end candles, Caribbean bath and body products, and more. 4 Strand St.   340\/643-3830.\n\nRoyal Poinciana   GIFTS This gift shop has the look of an antique apothecary. You'll find such local items as hot sauces, Sunny Caribee spices, island herbal teas, Antillean coffees, and an array of scented soaps, toiletries, lotions, and shampoos. 1111 Strand St.   340\/773-9892.\n\nWhim Museum Store   GIFTS The Whim Museum Store has some intriguing gifts and souvenirs, both imported and local, including table linens, Madras cloth, jewelry, art prints, books, and local Guavaberry liqueur. Monies from the gift-store sales go toward the upkeep of the museum and the grounds (p. ). An associated store in downtown Christiansted, with different inventory, is at 58 Queen St. (  340\/713-8102). 52 Estate Whim Plantation Museum, east of Frederiksted on Centerline Rd.   340\/772-0598.\n\nJewelry\n\nCrucian Gold   JEWELRY This small West Indian cottage holds the gold and silver creations of island-born Brian Bishop. His most popular and distinctive item is the Crucian bracelet with a \"true lovers' knot\" design. Pendants framed in gold or silver encase shards of china dating from the 1600s or 1700s and found along the beaches of St. Croix. The shards were once collected by island kids who called them \"China money\" or \"chiny.\" Strand St.   340\/773-5241. www.cruciangold.com.\n\nib Designs   JEWELRY Local metalsmith Whealan Massicott crafts beautiful Caribbean-inspired jewelry in delicately wrought designs at his shop in downtown Christiansted. Corner of Queen Cross and Company sts.   340\/773-4322. www.islandboydesigns.com.\n\nJoyia   JEWELRY The working studio of local jewelry artist Joyia Jones is filled with her fine handcrafted pieces of gold, silver, copper, and precious stones. 3A Queen Cross St.   340\/713-4569. www.joyiajewelry.com.\n\nSonya Ltd.   JEWELRY Sonya Hough makes sterling silver or gold versions of her original design, the C-clasp bracelet. There's some symbolism to the design: If the \"C\" is turned inward, toward your heart, it means you have a significant others. Those on the hunt wear the \"C\" turned out (and many locals won't leave the house without putting on this piece of jewelry just right). She also sells rings, earrings, and necklaces. 1 Company St.   877\/766-9284 or 340\/773-8924. www.sonyaltd.com.\n\nRoll the Dice\n\nIn 1996, U.S. senators agreed to allow the opening of gambling casinos in the U.S. Virgin Islands. In a bow to the islanders, senators agreed that majority ownership of the casino hotels would be reserved for locals. It hasn't exactly been a casino bonanza since then, as only one casino is spinning its gambling wheels: St. Croix's Divi Carina Bay Casino (Divi Carina Bay Resort;   340\/773-7529; www.divicarina.com). The 10,000-square-foot casino has 20 gaming tables and 300 slot machines. No passport is needed to enter, but you do need some form of ID. It's open Sunday to Thursday 10am to 4am and Friday to Sunday 10am to 6am.\n\nPerfume\n\nViolette Boutique   PERFUME This small department store sells exclusive fragrances and hard-to-find toiletry items. A selection of children's gifts, Montblanc pens, and other brand names are also found here. In the Caravelle Arcade, 38 Strand St.   800\/544-5912 or 340\/773-2148.\n\nSt. Croix After Dark\n\nSt. Croix doesn't have the nightlife of St. Thomas. Find out what's happening while you're on island with \"St. Croix This Week,\" distributed free and available at hotels, restaurants, and the tourist office.\n\nTry to catch a performance of the Quadrille Dancers  , a genuine cultural treat. The Quadrille dances have changed little since plantation days. The women wear long dresses, white gloves, and turbans, and the men wear flamboyant shirts, sashes, and tight black trousers. When you've learned their steps, you're invited to join the dancers on the floor. Ask at your hotel if and where they're performing.\n\nNote: Women (or men, for that matter) entering bars alone at night in Christiansted or Frederiksted should not leave the bar alone and walk the lonely streets to your hotel. Take a taxi back\u2014it's worth the investment.\n\nThe atmospheric waterfront bistro Blue Moon, 7 Strand St., Frederiksted (  340\/772-2222), is also known as a hip local stop for visiting jazz musicians. It's a live-jazz hotspot on Wednesday and Friday nights and at Sunday brunch. 7 Strand St.\n\nThe Terrace Lounge at the Buccaneer Resort (  340\/712-2100), near Christiansted, features live music nightly, from calypso to jazz to steel pan, from 6 or 7pm till 10pm.\n\nThe Beach Side Caf\u00e9 at Sand Castle on the Beach (  340\/772-1205) offers live music every Saturday from 6:30 to 9:30pm.\n\nThe Palms at Pelican Cove (  340\/718-8920) has live music from 6pm to 9pm on Saturday night and a steel-pan sounds during Sunday brunch (10am\u20132pm).\n\nSide Trip to Buck Island\n\nThe crystal-clear waters and white-coral sands of Buck Island Reef National Monument, a satellite of St. Croix, are legendary. Some call it the single-most-important attraction of the Virgin Islands. Only about a half-mile wide and a mile long, Buck Island lies 11\u20442 miles off the northeastern coast of St. Croix. A vibrant barrier reef here shelters a wealth of reef fish, including queen angelfish and smooth trunkfish.\n\nBuck Island's greatest attraction is its underwater snorkeling trails, which ring part of the island and are maintained by the National Park Service. This 850-acre isle features a snorkeling trail through a forest of elkhorn coral. Equipped with a face mask, swim fins, and a snorkel, you'll be treated to some of the most beautiful underwater views in the Caribbean. Plan on spending at least two-thirds of a day at this famous ecological site.\n\nYou can hike the trails that twist around and over the island; circumnavigating the island takes only a couple of hours. Trails meander from several points along the coastline to the sun-flooded summit, affording views over nearby St. Croix. Warning: The island's western edge has groves of poisonous manchineel trees, whose leaves, bark, and fruit cause extreme irritation when they come into contact with human skin. Plus, always bring protection from the sun's merciless rays\u2014including a hat and sun block. The sandy beach has picnic tables and barbecue pits, as well as restrooms and a small changing room. There are no concessions on the island.\n\nA number of reliable tour operators offer regular excursions to Buck Island, providing snorkeling equipment, drinks, and all-you-can-eat island barbecues. We recommend National Park Service\u2013sanctioned Big Beard's Adventure Tours, in Christiansted (  340\/773-4483; <http:\/\/bigbeards.com>), which offers full- and half-day Buck Island excursions. Rum punch and other libations are served, but these are no music-thumping St. Maarten\u2013style booze cruises. The 42-foot catamaran Renegade can accommodate up to 39 passengers. Big Beard's full-day Adventure Tours go from 9:30am to 3:30pm and cost $99 adults, $80 children 6 to 12, and $26 children 5 and under.\n\nBuck Island\n\n6\n\nSt. John\n\nIt may be the smallest of the U.S. Virgin Islands, but St. John is a natural wonder of luminous crescent bays and perfumed forest groves. It's got miles of pristine parkland, fresh-scented hiking trails, and mossy peaks with panoramic views. It's got probably the best beaches per capita of any Virgin Island. It's got a sleepy, secluded feel\u2014if you can't chill out here, well, then better get thee to an apothecary. In fact, St. John is where St. Thomas locals come to \"plug out. They don't call it \"Love City\" for nothing.\n\nSt. John is no mere pretty face, however. It has in the ruins of 18th-century sugar plantations a landscape dotted with its own trail of tears. It's got churches: 18 at last count.\n\nSt. John has no airport and no cruise-ship pier. Nonetheless, it is a favorite day-trip destination from nearby islands and a popular ferry excursion for cruise-ship passengers from St. Thomas. But the day-tripper and cruise-ship crowds that stream over in the morning are generally gone before nightfall.\n\nEssentials\n\nGetting There\n\nBy Plane\n\nA number of major airlines have regularly scheduled nonstop air service from cities all over North America into St. Thomas\u2014the major international gateway to the Virgins. From St. Thomas you'll take a ferry to St. John.\n\nBy Ferry\n\nPublic ferries between St. Thomas and St. John run at regular times all day long. Ferry services link the ferry terminal at Red Hook, on the East End of St. Thomas, with Cruz Bay in St. John.\n\nThe Red Hook ferry dock is approximately 10 to 12 miles from the St. Thomas airport. If you've just landed on St. Thomas, your best bet is to take a taxi from the airport. Depending on the traffic, the cab ride on St. Thomas could take 30 to 45 minutes, at a fare between $20 and $22. Build taxi time into your schedule when planning your itinerary.\n\nFerries to St. John (  340\/776-6282) leave every hour on the hour from Red Hook ($6 per person) and last only 15 to 20 minutes; you can also catch less frequent ferries from the Charlotte Amalie ferry terminal ($12 per person).\n\nCar ferries also run between Red Hook and Cruz Bay, traveling from 7am to 7pm daily every half-hour; book ahead on one of three carriers: Boyson (  340\/776-6294); Love City (  340\/779-4000); or Global Marine (  340\/779-1739). Car-ferry rates run from $42 to $50 round-trip; arrive at least 15 minutes before departure.\n\nSt. John\n\nYou can also get to St. John via private water-taxi service. Contact Dohm's Water Taxi (  340\/775-6501; www.watertaxi-vi.com; St. Thomas to Red Hook, St. John: $25\u2013$50 per person, five-person minimum), a private, full-service (pickup and transfer) inter-island water taxi service in custom-built catamaran powerboats. Dohm's also offers direct water-taxi service between St. John and the Ritz and Marriott Frenchmans Reef on St. Thomas ($30\u2013$50 per person; five-person minimum).\n\nVisitor Information\n\nThe tourist office (  340\/776-6450) is located near the Battery, a 1735 fort that's a short walk from the St. Thomas ferry dock in Cruz Bay. It's open Monday to Friday from 8am to 5pm. A National Park visitor center (  340\/776-6201) is also found at Cruz Bay, offering two floors of information and wall-mounted wildlife displays, plus a video presentation about the culture of the Virgin Islands; it's open daily 8am to 4pm.\n\nYou can pick up a map of the island from the tourist office and also a copy of \"St. Thomas + St. John This Week,\" distributed free throughout the islands.\n\nIsland Layout\n\nMost visitors will arrive on St. John at Cruz Bay, on a ferry from St. Thomas. This charming little village, with its few restaurants and shops, is quite the departure from the bustle of Charlotte Amalie. Cruz Bay is also the first stop on any trip to Virgin Islands National Park, which sprawls through the interior and encompasses almost all the coastline. The park service runs an information center in town. Route 20 leads north out of Cruz Bay, and passes the beaches at Caneel, Hawksnest, Trunk, Cinnamon, and Maho bays.\n\nAt the far north, Route 20 leads to the start of the Annaberg Trail, a historic hike through the ruins of 18th-century sugar plantations. Route 10 cuts through the center of the island. Dozens of foot trails lead off this road, making for easy exploration of the peaks and mountains.\n\nOn the east end of the island is Coral Bay, the island's original settlement. It's a favorite among yachties and home to a smattering of small restaurants and bars. Crumbling ruins of forts and plantations also dot the coastline here. The far east end is undeveloped and pales in comparison to the lush greenery of the park. The south coast is a favorite hideaway for locals, but little known by visitors. The coastline here is sweeping and tranquil, yet rocky in parts and punctuated with a handful of small protected bays.\n\nGetting Around\n\nThe 20-minute ferry ride from St. Thomas will take you to Cruz Bay, the capital of St. John, which seems a century removed from the life you left behind. Cruz Bay is so small that its streets have no names, but it does have a couple of shopping centers, seaside restaurants and cafes, and a small park.\n\nBy Bus\n\nThe local Vitran (  340\/774-0165) service runs buses between Cruz Bay and Coral Bay, along Centerline Road about once an hour, costing $1 for adults and 75\u00a2 for children.\n\nBy Taxi\n\nYou'll have no trouble finding taxis to take you anywhere in St. John. Between midnight and 6am, fares are increased by 50 percent. Taxis meet the ferries as they arrive in Cruz Bay, or you can hail one if you see one. Taxi rates are set by the island's Taxi Association and fares are widely posted, even in taxis; check out the official fares in the free magazine \"This Week\" offered in most businesses. Typical fares from Cruz Bay are $8 to Trunk Bay, $9 to Cinnamon Bay, and $18 to Maho Bay. Waiting charges are $1\/minimum per minute after the first 5 minutes.\n\nMany taxi drivers operate multi-passenger taxi van shuttles or open-air safari taxis (converted truck beds with open-air seating). Taxi vans are equipped to transport approximately 8 to 12 passengers to multiple destinations on the island, while safaris can often fit up to 25 people. It's cheaper to hop on a van or safari than ride a taxi on your own if you're going between your hotel and Cruz Bay, but keep in mind you will be making stops along the way.\n\nIf you don't plan to rent a car, it's easy to find taxi drivers (who also double as tour guides). We highly recommend taxi driver Kenneth Lewis (  340\/776-6865), who will meet you at the ferry terminal in St. John for hotel or villa transfer and is also a wonderful sightseeing guide. Expect to pay about $50 for a single-passenger tour or $25 per person for two or more passengers for 2 hours of sightseeing in a shared car. Kenneth's vehicle can accommodate up to 18 passengers.\n\nBy Car or Jeep\n\nOne of the best ways to see St. John is by a car, in particular a four-wheel-drive vehicle, which you can rent in town (reserve in advance in winter). The steep roadside panoramas are richly tinted with tones of forest green and turquoise and liberally accented with flashes of silver and gold from the strong Caribbean sun. Remember: Drive on the left and follow posted speed limits, which are generally very low.\n\nThere are only two gas stations on St. John, one of which is often closed. The more reliable of the two stations is in the upper regions of Cruz Bay, beside Route 104.\n\nUnless you need to carry luggage, which should probably be locked away in a trunk, you might consider one of the sturdy, open-sided, jeeplike vehicles that offer the best view of the surroundings and are the most fun way to tour St. John. They cost around $76 to $84 a day.\n\nA recommended local car-rental agency on St. John is St. John Car Rental, across from the Catholic church in Cruz Bay (  340\/776-6103; www.stjohncarrental.com), operating on the island since 1974. They have two- and four-door Jeep Wranglers, Dodge Nitros, Nissan Pathfinders, and Dodge Durangos.\n\n  St. John\n\nBanks FirstBank Virgin Islands (  340\/776-6882; www.firstbankvi.com) has full-service bank and ATM in Cruz Bay. Scotiabank (  340\/776-6552; www.scotiabank.com) has a full-service location in Marketplace.\n\nBusiness Hours Stores are generally open Monday to Friday 9am to 5pm, Saturday 9am to 1pm.\n\nDentists The Virgin Islands Dental Association (  340\/775-9110) is a member of the American Dental Association and is also linked with various specialists.\n\nDoctors Call   911 for a medical emergency. Otherwise, go to Myrah Keating Smith Community Health Center, 3B Sussanaberg (  340\/693-8900), which has a helipad for serious emergencies. The nearest hospital is in St. Thomas.\n\nDrugstores Chelsea Drug Store, Marketplace Shopping Center, Route 104, Cruz Bay (  340\/776-4888), is open Monday to Saturday 8:30am to 6:30pm and Sunday 9:30am to 4:30pm.\n\nEmergencies For the police, an ambulance, or in case of fire, call   911.\n\nMaps See \"Visitor Information,\" p. .\n\nNewspapers & Magazines \"What to Do: St. Thomas + St. John,\" the official guidebook of the St. Thomas and St. John Hotel Association, is available at the tourist office (see \"Visitor Information,\" p. ) and at hotels. The Virgin Island Daily News covers the news in all the U.S. Virgin Islands.\n\nPost Office The Cruz Bay Post Office is at Cruz Bay (  340\/779-4227).\n\nSafety There is some crime here, but it's relatively minor compared to St. Thomas. Most crime against tourists consists of muggings or petty theft, but rarely violent attacks. Precautions, of course, are always advised. You are most likely to be the victim of a crime if you leave valuables unguarded on Trunk Bay, as hundreds of people seem to do every year.\n\nTaxes The only local tax is an 10 percent surcharge added to all hotel rates.\n\nTelephone All island phone numbers have seven digits. It is not necessary to use the 340 area code when dialing within St. John. Make long-distance, international, and collect calls as you would on the U.S. mainland by dialing 0 or your long-distance provider.\n\nWhere to Stay\n\nThe number of accommodations on St. John is limited, and that's how most die-hard fans would like to keep it. There are four basic types of choices here: resorts, condominiums and villas, guesthouses, and campgrounds. Prices are often slashed in summer by 30 percent to 60 percent.\n\nChances are that your location will be determined by your choice of resort. However, if you're dependent on public transportation and want to make one or two trips to St. Thomas by ferry, Cruz Bay is the most convenient place to stay. It also offers easy access to shopping, bars, and restaurants if you want to walk.\n\nImportant: Keep in mind that lodgings tack on a government room tax of 10 percent.\n\nResorts\n\nCaneel Bay   As a friend said, \"Caneel Bay is not fancy, it's just perfect.\" Though it's one of the top luxury resorts of the Caribbean, Caneel Bay shuns showy glitz and high-tech toys. If that means no phones or TVs in the rooms, so be it. The happy guests (many of them families) who keep this place booked solid aren't complaining.\n\nMega-millionaire Laurance S. Rockefeller opened this, the Caribbean's first eco-resort, in 1956. It was once the Pieter Duerloo plantation, where white settlers defended themselves against a slave revolt. It's a sprawling, lushly landscaped property, some 170 acres, with seven stunning beaches and low-rise buildings fronting the bays or set back near the tennis complex. Wild donkeys with a laidback, languid demeanor stroll the grounds, as do white-tailed deer. The bays are a snorkeler's dream; on Hawksnest you are almost guaranteed to see turtles, and the clear, placid waters of Honeymoon and Scott Beach feature fish in a rainbow of hues.\n\nThe room decor is thoroughly updated but feels timeless, with dreamy bedding, Indonesian wood furnishings, and vintage-style tropical fabrics. Bathrooms are fashioned with native stone. Touches like beds turned down with beautiful helmet shells left on the pillows make this a constant delight. Caneel Bay's public lobby areas have a more modern feel; here, the big breakfast buffet in the open-air Caneel Bay Beach Terrace is one of the island's best. Up in ruins of a sugar mill, ZoZo's (p. ) is serving exemplary Northern Italian in a splendid space, and on the resort's northern end, the magnificent Turtle Bay Estate House\u2014the site of Rockefeller's private estate\u2014has a lovely 4pm tea on the terrace and offers a new steakhouse menu on limited evenings.\n\n  888\/767-3966 or 340\/776-6111. www.caneelbay.com. 166 units. Winter $539\u2013$1,179 double; off season $459\u2013$999 double. MAP (breakfast and dinner) $90 per person per day extra. Extra person $80 per day. 1 child 5\u201311 $40 per day; children 4 and under stays free in parent's room. Service charge 10%. Private transfer from St. Thomas airport $110 adults, $55 children 5\u201311. Amenities: 4 restaurants; 2 bars; babysitting; children's center; concierge; health center and spa; pool (outdoor); room service; 11 tennis courts; Wi-Fi (free).\n\nConcordia Eco-Resort   This 20-year-old eco-resort is a pioneer in sustainable tourism, drawing electricity from photovoltaic power and collecting (and filtering) water in cisterns. Shower tanks are solar-heated, and eco-tents use composting toilets. But most don't stay here to be virtuous, they do so because the views are wonderful (Concordia's elevated structures cling to 50 acres of cliffside), the staff lovely and the prices reasonable (for St. John). Doubles come in a range of lodging styles, from eco-tents to full-kitchen lofts to resort-style studios. The wood-framed, soft-sided eco-tents (and premium eco-tents) are set on the hillsides and have a treehouse feel, with cooling breezes (no A\/C, of course) and those phenomenal views. Eight new eco-studios sleep four each with a queen bed and a queen futon. Some units come with full kitchens. For information on the on-site Concordia Eco-Tents, see \"Campgrounds,\" below.\n\n  800\/392-9004 in the U.S. and Canada, or 340\/693-5855. www.concordiaeco-resort.com. 42 units. Winter $175\u2013$289 double, $268\u2013$289 quad; off season $126\u2013$232 double, $175\u2013$185 quad. Amenities: Restaurant (seasonal); laundry; pool (outdoor); watersports equipment rentals; Wi-Fi (free).\n\nGallows Point Resort   This well-run resort is a short stroll from Cruz Bay. All rooms are sunny, spacious one-bedroom suites with full kitchens and terraces with ocean or harbor views. And each can accommodate up to 5 people, making this a great choice for families. You can stay on the one-story lower floors or duplex upper floors, but we'd recommend the latter, as the duplex living rooms are bright, airy, and high-ceilinged. All suites are furnished in wicker and soft island hues. Two negatives: Harborside villas can be noisy and the beach nearby is small and rocky (so you likely want to go farther afield for the sands).\n\n3 AAA Gallows Point Rd.   800\/323-7229 or 340\/776-6434. www.gallowspointresort.com. 60 units. Winter $495\u2013$695 suite; off season $265\u2013$495 suite. Amenities: Restaurant; bar; pool (outdoor); sundecks; Wi-Fi (free).\n\nGrande Bay Resort & Residence Club   Set above Cruz Bay and the harbor, these handsome condo suites come in studio and one- and two-bedroom configurations (with one three-bedroom suites) and lockout capability, making this a good choice for groups or families. Of the 54 units, only 19 are hotel rooms (these are studio doubles with kitchenettes with blenders); the rest are timeshares in the rental pool. Each is individually decorated, so you never quite know what the decor will look like, but all are nicely laid out, complete with full kitchens, balconies, and washer-dryers. Kitchens are state of the art, with granite countertops and induction cooktops.\n\nSt. John Hotels\n\n3 AAA Gallows Point Rd.   340\/693-4668. www.grandebayresortusvi.com. 73 units. Winter $646\u2013$800 studio\/1-bedroom, $810\u2013$890 2-bedroom; off season $595 studio\/1-bedroom, $695\u2013$750 2-bedroom, Minimum-stay requirements in high season. Amenities: Gym; pool (heated); Wi-Fi (free).\n\nWestin St. John Resort & Villas   Fronting its own gentle bay and a sprawling 34 acres, this is a big, American-style resort. Which means it's not for everyone: The grounds are so spread out that the mobility-challenged need golf carts to get around, and the air-conditioned rooms are hermetically sealed off from the balmy tradewinds. None of the rooms are on the beach (admittedly, it's not St. John's best beach). But now that the grandest pool   on St. John has reopened after a huge renovation, the resort's beating heart is back in business. The \"hotel\" side of the Westin has actually been slowly shrinking\u2014a resort whose rooms once numbered in the hundreds now has 96 (renovated) hotel rooms. The others have been converted to villas (Westin Vacation Ownership timeshare units, to be specific), some 172 fully equipped units that move in and out of the rental pool. More villas are in the works. The beautifully renovated Bay Vista Villas, up on the hillside, are virtually apartments, with full (state-of-the-art) kitchens, washer\/dryers, dining tables, and patios overlooking the bay. But back to that pool: It's a 3-quarter-acre beaut, with four chic cabanas and towering palm trees. It fronts the bay, which is dotted with sailboats and excursion boats; Cruz Bay Water Sports has a location right here for all your island-hopping needs. The resort has a small deli-grocery (look for Mango the resident cat), but you can also walk to the much better (and less pricey) St. John Market, on Chocolate Hole Road. The resort features excellent kids programs, though most require an extra outlay (boo! Hiss!).\n\nChocolate Hole Rd.   866\/716-8108 in the U.S., or 340\/693-8000. www.westinresortstjohn.com. 367 units. Winter $379\u2013$1,069 double, $489\u2013$1,349 villa; off season $305\u2013$600 double, $415\u2013$889 villa. Resort fee $50 per day. Round-trip shuttle and private ferryboat transfers from St. Thomas airport $120 per person, $80 ages 4\u201312. Amenities: 2 restaurants; 2 bars; deli; children's playground; children's programs; concierge; golf nearby; pool (outdoor); room service; 6 lit tennis courts; extensive watersports equipment\/rentals; Wi-Fi (free).\n\nCondos & Villas\n\nTravelers who want a home away from home are in luck on St. John. There are actually more villa and condo beds available on island than there are hotel beds. What you get is spaciousness and comfort, as well as privacy and freedom, and most come with fully equipped kitchens, dining areas, patio grills, and more. Rentals range from large multiroom resort homes to simply decorated one-bedroom condos.\n\nCaribbean Villas & Resorts (  800\/338-0987 or 340\/776-6152; www.caribbeanvilla.com), the island's biggest real estate agency, is an excellent choice if you're seeking a villa, condo, or private home. Most condos go for between $100 and $295 per night, though private homes are often much more expensive. Villa rentals begin at $1,750 per week. You can also look at such international sources as VRBO.com, Homeaway.com and FlipKey.com, all of which cover St. John.\n\nExpensive\n\nCoconut Coast Villas   Just a 10-minute stroll from Cruz Bay, this family-run boutique villa complex offers renovated studio doubles and two- and three-bedroom condos. Each unit faces the waterfront and is fully equipped with kitchens, private ensuite baths, private balconies, grills, and as a special perk, all you need to go beach-hopping: beach chairs, coolers, and beach towels. You will likely be beach-hopping as Coconut Coast's beach is rocky. But its just a 5-minute walk to nearby Frank Bay, where you can swim and snorkel off the sandy beach. The condos can be on the smallish side, and the kitchens, while fully equipped, are far from updated (let's just say they have a New York apartment coziness).\n\nTurner Bay.   800\/858-7989 or 340\/693-9100. www.coconutcoast.com. 9 units. Winter $289 studio, $389 2-bedroom condo, $559 3-bedroom condo; off season $189\u2013$229 studio, $289\u2013$329 2-bedroom condo, $349\u2013$439 3-bedroom condo. Minimum of 3 days required in high season. Amenities: Internet (free); outdoor pool.\n\nEstate Zootenvaal   With four seaside houses, this longtime family-owned Hurricane Hole property is a wonderful place to unplug and unwind. \"Zoot\" is very private, and you can cook in the full kitchen and swim and snorkel in the sparkling seas around Hurricane Hole. Each cottage has been crisply freshened in seaglass and earth colors, with wood and rattan furnishings and tile floors. Three of the cottages (Sunrise, Mangrove, and Spinnaker) have one bedroom, and Turtle Watch has two bedrooms and two baths, but each one can accommodate four people.\n\nHurricane Hole, near Coral Bay.   340\/776-6321 or 216\/861-5337. www.estatezootenvaal.com. 4 units. Winter $290\u2013$380 1-bedroom unit, $580 2-bedroom unit; off season $190\u2013$260 1-bedroom unit, $380 2-bedroom unit. Extra person $30 per day.\n\nModerate\n\nSerendip Vacation Condos   This well-managed, good-value hideaway offers 10 clean, newly updated and cheerfully decorated condo apartments, each with a fully equipped kitchen and covered veranda. It's not on the beach, but set on a hillside above Cruz Bay, with smashing sunset views. Book here early; Serendip gets a lot of repeat business.\n\n9\u20137 Serendip Rd.   888\/800-6445 in the U.S. and Canada, or 340\/776-6646. www.serendipstjohn.com. 10 apts. Winter $225 studio, $295 1-bedroom apt; off season $135 studio, $170 1-bedroom apt. Extra person $25; $15 children ages 3\u201310; children 2 and under stay free in parent's apt. Amenities: Pool (outdoor); Wi-Fi (free).\n\nInns & Bed & Breakfasts\n\nEstate Lindholm Bed & Breakfast   Overlooking Cruz Bay harbor, this is the island's best B&B. It was part of an 18th-century sugar estate, and is set fetchingly among the Danish ruins. An elegant guesthouse, it boasts 14 guest rooms, each with private covered balconies and many with four-poster beds, Tiffany-style lamps, and big wooden armoires. Some have garden views; others have harbor views. Many have wooden rockers on their private balconies. On the property is Asolare, one of the island's best (p. ) restaurants.\n\n  800\/322-6335 in the U.S., or 340\/776-6121. www.estatelindholm.com. 10 units. Winter $390\u2013$595 double; off season $240\u2013$550. Rates include continental breakfast. Amenities: Restaurant; exercise room; pool (outdoor); Wi-Fi (free).\n\nGarden by the Sea Bed & Breakfast   Overlooking the blue Caribbean, this colorful and quaint three-suite B&B is just a 10-minute walk from Cruz Bay. A classic West Indian cottage, it's done up in green and lavender hues, with a veranda shaded by genip trees and palm fronds. Both the Garden Suite and the Wild Ginger Room have fabulous outdoor tropical garden showers, with shower walls made of native stone. The Terrace View Room is upstairs, with views of the sea and a private veranda. (White-sand Frank Bay is a minute's walk from the B&B.) You can also rent the Rendezvous by the Sea villa  , a charming three-bedroom villa overlooking the Caribbean (winter $4,950\u2013$5,350; summer $2,900\u2013$3,900). The inn only accommodates adults 18 and older.\n\n  340\/779-4731. www.gardenbythesea.com. 3 units. Winter $250\u2013$275 double; off season $160\u2013$200 double. No credit cards. Closed Sept. Amenities: Wi-Fi (free).\n\nThe Inn at Tamarind Court   For casual comfort at economical rates, a warm, friendly welcome, and a convenient Cruz Bay location, you can't beat this 20-room inn. An effort has been made to give these rooms a little pizzazz, with bamboo-style furniture, buttery yellow walls, colorful linens, and tile floors. The Grand Suite and the Apartment can sleep four people comfortably. Standard rooms have twin or queen beds and private bathrooms. The inn has six rooms for single travelers that share two baths.\n\nCruz Bay.   800\/221-1637 in the U.S., or 340\/776-6378. www.tamarindcourt.com. 20 units, 14 with bathroom. Winter $75 single without bathroom, $148 double with bathroom, $240 apt for 4 with bathroom; off season $60\u2013$65 single without bathroom, $110\u2013$120 double with bathroom, $170\u2013$190 apt for 4 with bathroom. Rates include continental breakfast. Amenities: Restaurant; bar; Wifi (free in the courtyard).\n\nCampgrounds\n\nAlong with the listing below, consider the eco-tents solar- and wind-powered tent-cottages at Concordia Eco-Tents (see above under \"Resorts\"). (Note: Sadly, two of the most popular campgrounds on the island, Maho Bay, along with Harmony Studios, closed in 2013.)\n\nCinnamon Bay Campground   This National Park Service property is a dream of a campground, set right on the beach, with lush forests at your back and the serene blue seas of Cinnamon Bay before you. Choose from cottage, platform tent, or bare site. Cottages are more or less a room with two concrete walls and two screen walls. Canvas tents come with a floor and all cooking equipment. Bring your own tents and camping equipment to the primitive bare sites. Lavatories and showers are in separate buildings nearby. In winter, guests can camp for a maximum of 2 weeks; the rest of the year camping is limited to 30 days. The campground is closed to nonguests at 10pm. Onsite, the Cinnamon Bay Watersports Center (  340\/513-6330; www.cinnamonbay.com; see p. ) offers rentals, lessons, you name it.\n\n  340\/776-6330. www.cinnamonbay.com. 126 units, none with bathroom. Winter $126\u2013$163 cottage for 2, $93 tent site, $37 bare site; off season $87\u2013$105 cottage for 2, $67 tent site, $37 bare site. Extra person $20. Closed Sept. Amenities: Restaurant; extensive watersports equipment\/rentals.\n\nWhere to Eat\n\nSt. John has some pretty posh dining, particularly at luxury resorts like Caneel Bay, but it also has casual West Indian restaurants with plenty of local color and flavor. It's expensive to eat out anywhere you go, but you can sample the good spots at lunch at reasonable rates.\n\nSt. John Restaurants\n\nCruz Bay\n\nExpensive\n\nAsolare   ASIAN FUSION A new culinary team is bringing creative\u2014and determinedly locavore\u2014Asian fusion cuisine to the Asolare. Which means that a nice Caribbean ceviche is made with the day's catch and served with a passionfruit vinaigrette. A pan-roasted mahi drawn from local waters comes with curried local pumpkin, and the restaurant's signature shrimp and grits come with sesame-crusted shrimp over stone-ground grits (with goat cheese and star anise), sauteed local peppers, and sour collard greens. It's a beautiful concept, neatly realized, and we look forward to seeing where the muse takes them. The restaurant is set in the Estate Lindholm Bed & Breakfast, perched atop a hill with Cruz Bay spread out below.\n\nIn the Estate Lindholm Bed & Breakfast.   340\/779-4747. www.asolarestjohn.com. Reservations required. Main courses $19\u2013$45. Tues\u2013Sun 6\u20139pm.\n\nFatty Crab   ASIAN\/MALAYSIAN This New York transplant has not been lost in translation in its West Indies adventure. In fact, in no time it's become one of the more popular dining spots on the island. Look for Fatty Crab classics like Fatty Sliders (mini spiced beef and pork burgers) and Green Mango & Papaya Salad, but also look for new dishes with local spins (and a menu that speaks the local lingo, with appetizers listed under \"T'ings,\" and so forth). So you might order a very delicious local sauteed vegetable dish with smokey pork jus and a dash of chili or an island roti, here filled with local vegetables in a sassy green curry sauce. Pork ribs, smoked inhouse, are irresistible. Fatty Crab is so dellish it's upping the ante, we think, for the island's other eateries, and that's all for the good.\n\n18\u201311A Enighad, Cruz Bay.   340\/775-9770. www.fattycrab.com. Reservations recommended. Main courses $30\u2013$41. Wed\u2013Mon 5\u201310pm; Sun brunch 11am\u20133pm.\n\nLa Tapa   INTERNATIONAL\/MEDITERRANEAN A candlelit restaurant, set in a vintage West Indian structure, La Tapa features a smart, inventive menu with a locavore bent. The food is cooked to order by the talented chef\/owner, and is heavy on small plate dishes (as the name implies). We've been particularly impressed with the grilled shrimp in a passionfruit-cilantro aioli, the bacalao cakes with avocado lime cr\u00e8me fra\u00eeche and the braised pork belly with fennel apple slaw\u2014all can be ordered for the table and shared. You also can't go wrong starting with appetizer like gazpacho or organic greens grown in Coral Bay. Big plates\u2014platos grandes\u2014might be a classic paella or linguine tossed with shrimp, lobster, chanterelle mushrooms, and eggplant. Live jazz is on tap on Tuesdays.\n\nCenterline Rd. (across from FirstBank).   340\/693-7755. www.latapastjohn.com. Reservations recommended. Tapas $15\u2013$18; main courses $35\u2013$41; paella $68. Daily 5:30\u201310pm.\n\nRhumb Lines   CARIBBEAN\/PACIFIC RIM Don't expect views at this Asian-Caribbean spot, set in an alfresco courtyard in a shopping complex. They make up for it with twinkling lights, swaying palm trees, and a reliably good Asian fusion menu. Do not resist the shrimp and corn fritters, a match made in culinary heaven. Heady and aromatic, the kaffir-lemongrass bouillabaisse is also primo, a Thai-style version of the French classic. Other faves include spicy Asian fusion entrees like sesame-crusted Szechuan tuna, with a bok choy stir-fry, and chicken glazed in a plum-ginger sauce.\n\ngroceries, markets & more: ST. JOHN PROVISIONING\n\nIf you're doing any cooking on the island, you'll want to know where to stock your pantry and source fresh local food. But even if you don't have a kitchen, you'll want to know where to buy snacks, drinks, and prepared foods The restaurant Blue Water Terrace, on the East End, also has a market and deli selling sandwiches, cheeses, wine, picnic foods and lunch boxes; they also cater (  740\/692-2583). Here are some essential St. Croix resources:\n\nDeli\/Prepared Foods: Sam & Jack's Deli (  340\/714-3354; <http:\/\/sam andjacksdeli.com>) offers gourmet deli sandwiches, grab-and-go dinners, house-roasted meats and breads, pastas and ravioli, even homemade cookies. It's on the third floor of the Marketplace shopping complex in Cruz Bay.\n\nGroceries: Starfish Market (  340\/779-4949) is the island's largest grocery store; it's located on the first floor of the Marketplace in Cruz Bay; it also has a large selection of wine, liquor, and beer. A well-stocked grocery, St. John Market (  340\/779-6001) is located on Chocolate Hole Road near the Westin resort.\n\nFresh Seafood: The Seafood Market at the Fish Trap restaurant (www.thefishtrap.com) in Cruz Bay sells fresh fish, shellfish, prepared foods, and salads; it's open noon to 6pm daily. Buy fresh fish (bluefish, tuna, alewife), Caribbean lobster, and conch at the harbor at Cruz Bay direct from the fishermen early in the morning from 9am to 11am.\n\nFresh Produce\/Fruit: You can find vendors selling local fruits (papaya, bananas) and vegetables (tomatoes, okra) around the island. One vegetable stand is close to the Cruz Bay ferry connections.\n\nMeada's Plaza.   340\/776-0303. www.rhumblinesstjohn.com. Reservations recommended. Main dishes $22\u2013$35. Wed\u2013Mon 5:30\u201310pm; Sun brunch 10am\u20132:30pm.\n\nZoZo's Ristorante   ITALIAN This 2013 marriage of superstars installed the island's best restaurant in one of the island's most beautiful locations: atop the ruins of an 18th-century sugar mill at Caneel Bay resort. It's a thrilling mashup, where colonial Caribbean meets Frank Lloyd Wright, and yet you feel as if you're in a technicolor James Bond film. Got that? And did we mention views? Get here for mind-blowing sunsets or to see lights shimmer across the bay in the blue-black night. The food and service are better than ever. Squid-ink linguine comes with diver scallops, broccoli rabe, and a garlic pomodoro sauce. Pork comes three ways: a center-cut loin with fennel, rosemark, and Tuscan kale stuffing; crispy pork belly; and hot Italian sausage in a white bean ragout. Classics like osso buco, house-aged steaks, and Caribbean lobster tail round out the straightforward, but wonderful, menu.\n\nCaneel Bay, just outside Cruz Bay.   340\/693-9200. www.zozos.net. Reservations recommended. Main courses $38\u2013$46. Daily 5:30\u20139pm.\n\nModerate\n\nThe Fish Trap   SEAFOOD This casual spot is an easy walk from the ferry dock. It's an open-air affair, with tables on a breezy covered patio. Start with the signature seafood chowder, creamy and with a touch of peppery heat. Fish dishes include local catches like mahi or wahoo or farmed fish like tilapia and salmon. The sides are generally island-style, from sweet potato mash to rice and beans to fried plantains. You can even buy fresh seafood and pre-prepared Fish Trap dishes to take home to cook at the restaurant's Seafood Market (noon\u20136pm).\n\nCruz Bay, next to Our Lady of Mount Carmel Church.   340\/693-9994. www.thefishtrap.com. Reservations required for groups of 6 or more. Main courses $19\u2013$59. Tues\u2013Sun 4:30\u20139pm.\n\nMorgan's Mango   NEO-CARIBBEAN This open-air spot has a sociable drink scene, with a big bar and a lengthy list of frozen concoctions, many made with the juice from fresh island fruits. But Morgan's gets a lot of love for its gourmet Caribbean food as well, covering a broad range of island styles. That might include Anegada lobster and crab cakes, a nod to the lobster-rich B.V.I. island of Anegada, or the homemade Caribbean soup special. The St. John yellowfin tuna salad comes with local organic baby greens and local tuna. We also like the Island Fish Pot, a bouillabaisse-style French-Caribbean seafood m\u00e9lange, or Poppas Pickapepper Steak, marinated in peppercorn-infused Pickapeppa sauce (the famous Jamaican condiment).\n\nCruz Bay (across from the National Park dock).   340\/693-8141. www.morgansmango.com. Reservations recommended. Main courses $16\u2013$35. Daily 5:30\u201310pm.\n\nInexpensive\n\nThe Quiet Mon   AMERICAN In a song called \"Be as You Are,\" country singer Kenny Chesney sings about hanging with the locals at the Quiet Mon. Chesney continues to pop up at this atmospheric Irish pub from time to time. Does he come for the food? Hmmm. The menu is, kindly put, limited, with stuff like hot dogs, chili and french fries. But the atmosphere is funky and fun, so it still makes our list.\n\nCruz Bay.   340\/779-4799. <http:\/\/quietmon.com>. Lunch plates $4\u2013$7. No credit cards. Lunch specials Mon\u2013Fri 12:30\u20136pm. Bar daily 10am\u20134am.\n\nCoral Bay\n\nExpensive\n\nSweet Plantains Restaurant & Rhum Bar   CARIBBEAN\/CREOLE Fresh, seasonal, gourmet-global\u2014all of these adjectives can be applied to the cuisine of Sweet Plantains, which offers a wide-spanning taste of the tropics. Chefs here marry West Indian home cooking\u2014saltfish cakes with sweet mango puree, say or honey-jerked chicken drumettes\u2014with international flavors and techniques. It gives this Coral Bay favorite a real sizzle. Wednesday and Thursday nights are Latin Nights, where you might sample arroz con pollo (chicken and rice), carnes Latino (beef stew), or ceviche. Saturday is given over to \"Indo-Caribbean\" curries, and Sundays and Mondays the place goes Gallic by way of the West Indies with such dishes as duck a la Sweet Plantains (sauteed duck breast with a black currant chutney confit) or a Creole ragout. The West Indian cottage is done up in richly saturated colors and is set between the road and the bay.\n\n16118 Little Plantation.   340\/777-4653. www.sweetplantains-stjohn.com. Reservations recommended. Main courses $21\u2013$34. Wed\u2013Mon 5:30\u20139pm.\n\nModerate\n\nMiss Lucy's Beachfront Restaurant   CARIBBEAN This legendary spot is worth the wait\u2014and in high season or for Sunday brunch, you will likely have a wait before you. But the views of Friis Bay are lovely, so settle in and have a drink. You'll be glad you did. Pioneering Miss Lucy was St. John's first female taxi driver before she started this beloved eatery. If you're here for lunch or dinner, traditional conch fritters or callaloo soup are the starters to try followed by excellent grilled mahi. Main dishes come with sides like fried plantains, rice and peas, or fungi, a cornmeal side dish, here paired with okra. Her Sunday brunch, accompanied by a jazz duo, is fab: crab cakes Benedict, pain perdu, conch fritterdict. Every full moon, Lucy hosts Full Moon pig roasts (6\u20139pm; $18 per person), and that's something you won't want to miss. A new bar has 15 waterfront seats right by the sea.\n\nSalt Pond Rd., near Estate Concordia.   340\/693-5244. Reservations recommended. Main courses $13\u2013$30. Tues\u2013Sat 11am\u20134pm (limited menu 4\u20135pm) and 5\u20139pm; Sun 10am\u20132pm.\n\nShipwreck Landing   SEAFOOD\/CONTINENTAL A local hot spot, Shipwreck Landing serves a good but limited menu in a palm-shaded spot with water views off Route 107. Sandwiches are Caribbean inspired, like the grilled mahi served with citrus herb butter on a Kaiser roll. Conch fritters or coconut-crusted golden-fried shrimp to starters to get. If you want something more substantial, get one of the entrees that focus on local fish\u2014curry-nut-crusted grouper (with chopped peanuts) served with mango chutney, say, or a teriyaki grilled mahimahi marinated in Caribbean jerk spice and Asian teriyaki. Live music is on tap on Wednesday evenings and weekend nights, with no cover.\n\n34 Freeman's Ground, Rte. 107.   340\/693-5640. <http:\/\/shipwrecklandingstjohn.com>. Reservations requested. Lunch $9\u2013$17; main courses $16\u2013$26. Daily 11am\u20139pm. Bar daily until 11pm. Closed Sept\u2013Oct.\n\nAround the Island\n\nChateau Bordeaux   CARIBBEAN Dine to breathtaking views from your table at the Chateau Bordeaux, high atop Bordeaux mountain, overlooking Coral Bay and the British Virgin Islands. Under new ownership, this colorful spot located 5 miles east of Cruz Bay now serves casual island cuisine and is open for breakfast and lunch Monday to Friday (dinner is offered 3 nights a week). Start your St. John day with delicious French toast stuffed with mango, amaretto pancakes, or omelets served with yummy home fries that put the home in homemade. Lunch features island favorites like chicken roti, mahi mahi (grilled with pineapple sauce or in a sandwich), and conch with fungi and rice. Caribbean lobster stars at dinner. Stop by after a day of sightseeing for a fresh smoothie or ice-cream cone in the Bordeaux Mountain Shop and Ice Cream and Smoothie Store. It also has a shop selling local gifts, Hibiscus Jazz.\n\nJunction 10, Bordeaux Mountain.   340\/776-6611. www.chateaubordeaux.net. Reservations required for dinner. Main courses lunch $10\u2013$20, dinner $28\u2013$38. Mon\u2013Fri 7am\u20133:30pm (until 2:30 Fri); Tues\u2013Thurs 5:30\u20139:30pm.\n\nVie's Snack Shack   WEST INDIAN No, it's nothing fancy; in fact, it's little more than a hut cobbled out of plywood plunked down on a shady stretch of road. But don't judge by looks alone. This little lunch spot on the island's East End is the domain of one very talented home-style cook\u2014actually, that would be two cooks: St. John native Vie (Violet) Mahabir, for whom the Snack Shack is named, and her daughter. Its many fans think the Snack Shack serves some of the best native food on island, including favorites such as garlic chicken, honey-drizzled johnnycakes, curried stew, conch fritters, and coconut pie. It's across the road from Hansen Bay beach and next to Vie's beachfront Hansen Bay Campground.\n\nE. End Rd., Rte. 10 (13 miles east of Cruz Bay).   340\/693-5033. Main courses $5\u2013$12. No credit cards. Tues\u2013Sat 10am\u20135pm (but call first). Closed Oct.\n\nExploring St. John\n\nThe best way to see St. John quickly, especially if you're on a cruise-ship layover, is to take a 2-hour taxi tour. But if you aren't renting a car, arrange ferry pickup and transfer\u2014and an island tour!\u2014with a local taxi driver. We highly recommend Kenneth Lewis (  340\/776-6865), a former cop from Dominica who is one of the best guides on the island. If he can't accommodate you, he can refer you to someone who can. You can also contact the St. John Taxi Association (  340\/693-7530).\n\nThe ferries dock at Cruz Bay, St. John's main village. It's a jumble of waterfront bars, restaurants, boutiques, farmstands, and pastel-painted cottages. It's a bit sleepy, but relaxing after the fast pace of St. Thomas.\n\nMuch of the island is taken up with the Virgin Islands National Park   (  340\/776-6201; www.nps.gov\/viis), with the lushest concentration of flora and fauna in the U.S. Virgin Islands. The park totals 12,624 acres, including submerged lands and water adjacent to St. John, and has more than 20 miles of hiking trails to explore. From pelicans to sandpipers, from mahogany to bay trees, the park abounds in beauty, dotted with colorful accents from the blooms of tamarind and flamboyant trees. The mongoose also calls it home. Park guides lead nature walks through this park that often take you past ruins of former plantations. See \"Watersports & Outdoor Adventures,\" below, for information on trails and organized park activities.\n\nOther major sights on the island include Trunk Bay (see \"Beaches,\" below), one of the world's most beautiful beaches, and Fort Berg (also called Fortsberg), at Coral Bay, which served as the base for the soldiers who brutally crushed the 1733 slave revolt. Finally, try to make time for the Annaberg Sugar Plantation Ruins on Leinster Bay Road, where the Danes maintained a thriving plantation and sugar mill after 1718. It's located off Northshore Road, east of Trunk Bay. Admission is free. On certain days of the week (dates vary), guided walks of the area are given by park rangers. For information on the Annaberg Historic Trail, see \"Watersports & Outdoor Adventures,\" below.\n\nBeaches\n\nSt. John has so many delicious beaches it's hard to find a favorite. But the picture-perfect shoreline of Trunk Bay   is one of St. John's biggest attractions. Administered by the Virgin Islands National Park Service (PS), this heart-shaped bay has a bathhouse, snorkel-gear rental, a snack bar, lifeguards on duty, and a souvenir shop. When conditions are optimal, the beach is ideal for diving, snorkeling, swimming, and sailing. But erosion can be a problem in spots, and crowds can inundate the beach especially when cruise-ship passengers from St. Thomas arrive en masse. Among the beach's many wonderful aspects is the underwater marked snorkeling trail near the shore, great for beginners: The National Park Underwater Trail (  340\/776-6201) stretches for 650 feet and helps you identify what you see\u2014everything from false coral to colonial anemones. Trunk Bay is the only St. John beach that has an admission fee: It's $4 for adults 17 and over, and the beach is open from 7:15am to 4pm.\n\nSt. John's Mascot\n\nThe mongoose (plural mongooses) was brought to St. John to kill rats. It has practically been adopted as the island mascot\u2014watch for mongooses darting across roads.\n\nCaneel Bay resort, the stomping ground of the rich and famous, has seven beautiful beaches on its 170 acres. All are open to the public, but nonguests can only access two beaches from inside the resort: Caneel Bay Beach   and Honeymoon Beach  . (Otherwise you have to visit by boat.) Caneel Bay Beach is the resort's main beach and easy to reach from the main entrance of the Caneel Bay resort. You'll need to bring your own beach chairs and gear for Caneel Beach. Bring your own chairs and watersports equipment to Honeymoon Beach or take advantage of the package Honeymoon Day Pass offered through Virgin Islands Ecotours (  340\/779-2155; <http:\/\/viecotours.com>). It's $49 per adult ($10 children 12 and under) for chairs, lockers, and all watersports equipment (snorkel gear, paddleboards, kayaks) at the beach's Honeymoon Hut. Honeymoon has a secluded feel, and the waters are calm and clear and ideal for snorkeling and kayaking.\n\nOne of the most beautiful beaches near Caneel Bay, Hawksnest Beach   is administered by the NPS, with changing rooms, 24-hour restrooms, grills, and picnic tables. It's also near Cruz Bay, where the ferry docks, it can be crowded, especially when cruise-ship passengers come over from St. Thomas. Safari buses and taxis from Cruz Bay will take you along Northshore Road.\n\nCinnamon Bay   is one gorgeous strip of white sand, complete with hiking trails, great windsurfing, and laidback wild donkeys (don't feed or pet them). Administered by the NPS, the beach has a campground right on the beach; see \"Where to Stay,\" above, for contact information. It also has a water-sports center, the Cinnamon Bay Watersports Center (  340\/513-6330; www.cinnamonbay.com; see rates below), where you can rent watersports equipment (snorkel gear, kayaks). Snorkeling is popular here; you'll often see big schools of purple triggerfish. This beach is best in the morning and at midday, as afternoons can be windy. A marked nature trail, with signs identifying the flora, loops through a tropical forest on even turf before leading up to Centerline Road.\n\nIn 2014, Maho Bay Beach   and its forested hillsides became the newest addition to the National Park Service collection of St. John beaches through a $2.5 million deal made by the nonprofit conservation group Trust for Public Lands. It's just east of Cinnamon Bay. With calm green waters, it's ideal for standup paddleboarding, and snorkelers are almost always guaranteed to see turtles grazing on the grassy bottom. It's a popular beach with visitors and cruise-ship passengers.\n\nTraveling eastward along St. John's gently curving coastline, you'll come to Francis Bay Beach   and Leinster Bay  , the latter ideal for those seeking the solace of a private sunny retreat. You can swim in the bay's shallow water or snorkel over the spectacular and colorful coral reef, perhaps in the company of an occasional turtle or stingray. A tiny cay in one of the Leinster's inner bays, Waterlemon Cay Beach   has some of the island's best snorkeling, with hawksbill turtles dining on seagrass and big starfish stretching along the sea bottom. You can walk along the Leinster Bay Trail to reach the island\n\nRemote Salt Pond Bay   lies on the beautiful coast in the southeast, adjacent to Coral Bay. The bay is tranquil, but the beach is somewhat rocky. It's a short walk down the hill from a parking lot. The snorkeling is good along the bay's eastern shore, and the bay has some fascinating tidal pools. Facilities are limited but include an outhouse and a few tattered picnic tables.\n\nIf you want to escape the crowds, head for Lameshur Bay Beach  , along the rugged south coast, west of Salt Pond Bay and accessible only via a bumpy dirt road. The sands are beautiful and the snorkeling is excellent. You can also take a 5-minute stroll down the road past the beach to explore the nearby ruins of an old plantation estate that was destroyed in a slave revolt.\n\nWatersports & Outdoor Adventures\n\nSt. John offers some of the best snorkeling, scuba diving, swimming, fishing, hiking, sailing, and underwater photography in the Caribbean. Scuba connossieurs know that the diving here is highly rewarding, with a natural wall just 15 minutes offshore. The island is known for the Virgin Islands National Park, as well as for its coral-sand beaches, winding mountain roads, hidden coves, and trails that lead past old, bush-covered sugar-cane plantations. If you've come for golf, you'll have to travel to sister islands St. Thomas and St. Croix to get your rounds in.\n\nWatersports\n\nday sailing & Boat excursions Island-hopping by boat is one of the top activities in the Virgins. You can take half- and full-day boat trips, including a full-day excursion to the Baths at Virgin Gorda. Cruz Bay Watersports (  340\/776-6234; www.divestjohn.com) offers trips to the British Virgin Islands. Trips to the Baths, in Virgin Gorda, for example, cost $140 per person ($70 children 7 and under), including food and beverages. Note: Be sure to bring your passport for any excursions to the British Virgin Islands.\n\nSail Safaris (  866\/820-6906; www.sailsafaris.net) offers guided and custom sailing and snorkeling trips with a captain, sailing lessons, and sailboat rentals of their fleet of Hobie catamarans. Right on the beach in Cruz Bay, close to the ferry dock, this outfitter cruises in catamarans to remote spots in the Virgin Islands and features a range of destinations not available by charter boat or kayak, including trips to uninhabited islands. On guided tours, passengers can go island-hopping in the B.V.I. Sail Safaris also offers sailing lessons for those with an interest in sailing as a hobby. Half-day tours cost $79 to $90 per person; full-day jaunts, including lunch, go for $120 to $140; a 1-hour sailing lesson is $95 per person.\n\nFishing The boats of Offshore Adventures (  340\/775-0389; www.sportfishingstjohn.com) leave from the dock at the Westin resort and the National Park Dock in Cruz Bay. Count on spending from $600 to $700 per party for a half-day of fishing. Fisherman can use hand-held rods to fish the waters in Virgin Islands National Park. Stop in at the tourist office at the St. Thomas ferry dock for a listing of fishing spots around the island.\n\nKayaking   Arawak Expeditions, based in Cruz Bay (  800\/238-8687 in the U.S., or 340\/693-8312; <http:\/\/arawakexp.com>), provides kayaking gear, healthful meals, and experienced guides for full- and half-day kayak and snorkel outings. Trips cost $110 and $75, respectively. Multiday excursions with camping are also available; call their toll-free number if you'd like to arrange an entire vacation with them. These 5-day trips range in price from $1,250 to $1,450.\n\nWatersports Rentals\n\nThe most complete line of watersports equipment available, including rentals for windsurfing, snorkeling, kayaking, and sailing, is offered at the Cinnamon Bay Watersports Center, on Cinnamon Bay Beach (  340\/513-6330; www.cinnamonbay.com). One- and two-person sit-on-top kayaks rent for $20 to $30 per hour. You can also sail away in a Hobie monohull sailboat for $55 per hour.\n\nScuba Diving   St. John is a diving paradise, with some 25 dive sites within a 15-mile radius. One of the best dive operators on island is PADI five-star Low Key Watersports, Wharfside Village, Cruz Bay (  800\/835-7718 in the U.S., or 340\/693-8999; www.divelowkey.com). All wreck dives offered are two-tank\/two-location dives and cost $100 with rental gear, with night dives going for $95. Snorkel and sail trips are also available; full-day trips on a Seabiscuit power vessel or 40-foot catamaran at $115 to $125, respectively, per person. The center also rents watersports gear, including masks, fins, snorkels, and dive skins, and arranges kayaking and fishing excursions.\n\nCruz Bay Watersports, Cruz Bay (  340\/776-6234; www.divestjohn.com), is a PADI and NAUI five-star diving center. Open-water certifications can be arranged through a dive master, for $450 to $750. Beginner scuba lessons start at $120. Two-tank reef dives with all dive gear cost $100, and wreck dives, night dives, and dive packages are available. In addition, half-day snorkel tours are offered daily for $60.\n\nSnorkeling   St. John has so many great snorkeling sites it's impossible to list them all. The most popular spot for snorkeling is Trunk Bay (see \"Beaches,\" above), for its Underwater Snorkel Trail. Snorkeling gear can be rented from the Cinnamon Bay Watersports Center (see above) for $5, plus a $25 deposit. Other choice snorkeling spots around St. John are Leinster Bay\/Waterlemon Cay   and Haulover Bay  . Usually uncrowded Watermlemon Cay offers some of the best snorkeling in the U.S. Virgins. The water is calm, clear, and filled with brilliantly hued tropical fish. Haulover Bay is often deserted, and the waters are often clearer than in other spots around St. John.\n\nAnother amazing spot to snorkel are the mangrove stands at Hurricane Hole. Here coral grows in abundance on the mangrove roots\u2014attended by huge starfish, sponges (and the hawksbills that eat them), and anemones. Seas are calm and gin-clear, and it's magical. It's best reached by boat. SerenaSea runs snorkeling and sightseeing tours out of Coral Bay to Hurricane Hole (<http:\/\/serenasea.com>) in a 30-foot vintage touring yacht; half-day tours are $60 per perons. A guided kayak and snorkel tour of the Hurricane Hole mangroves is offered by Arawak Expeditions, based in Cruz Bay (  800\/238-8687 in the U.S., or 340\/693-8312; <http:\/\/arawakexp.com>); the full-day trip, including picnic lunch, is $120 per person.\n\nWindsurfing The windsurfing at Cinnamon Bay is some of the best anywhere, for either the beginner or the expert. The Cinnamon Bay Watersports Center (see above) rents high-quality equipment for all levels, even for kids. Boards cost $25 to $65 an hour; a 2-hour introductory lesson costs $80.\n\nOutdoor Adventures\n\nHiking   Carved into St. John's rocky coastline are beautiful crescent-shaped bays and white-sand beaches. But the interior is no less impressive. The variety of wildlife is the envy of naturalists around the world. And there are miles of hiking trails, leading past the ruins of 18th-century Danish plantations to panoramic views. At scattered spots along the trails, you can find mysteriously geometric petroglyphs of unknown age and origin incised into boulders and cliffs. The terrain ranges from arid and dry (in the east) to moist and semitropical (in the northwest). Many of the trails wind through the grounds of sugar plantations, past ruined schoolhouses, rum distilleries, molasses factories, and great houses wrapped in lush, encroaching vines and trees. The island boasts some 800 species of plants, 160 species of birds, and more than 20 trails maintained in fine form by the island's crew of park rangers.\n\nsustainable ST. JOHN: A ROCKEFELLER DREAM\n\nIn 1956 multimillionaire Laurance Rockefeller sailed around the island with friends on his yacht. Rockefeller was so enchanted that he established his own resort here (Caneel Bay) and donated 9,500 acres of rolling green hills and an underwater preserve to the federal government to be set aside as a national park that would be here for future generations to enjoy. Thanks to the efforts of Rockefeller and others, today two-thirds of the island's surface area and the island's shoreline waters (the Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument) make up the Virgin Islands National Park (  340\/776-6201; www.nps.gov\/viis). The hundreds of coral gardens that surround St. John (some 12,708 undersea acres) are protected rigorously\u2014any attempt to damage or remove coral is punishable with large and strictly enforced fines.\n\nToday St. John is the most tranquil, unspoiled island in the U.S. Virgin Islands. Sustainable tourism programs and eco-friendly practices keep the island clean and pristine. St. John, more than any other island in the Caribbean, works to ensure the preservation of its natural resources and ecosystems.\n\nAt least 20 clearly marked walking paths originate from Northshore Road (Rte. 20) or from the island's main east-west artery, Centerline Road (Rte. 10). Each is marked at its starting point with a preplanned itinerary; the walks can last anywhere from 10 minutes to 2 hours. Trail maps are available from the National Park Service Cruz Bay Visitor Center (  340\/776-6201, ext. 238; daily 8am\u20134:30pm), right at the ferry docks in Cruz Bay. Be sure to carry a lot of water and wear sunscreen and insect repellent when you hike.\n\nReef bay hike One of the most popular ranger-guided hikes on St. John is the guided 2.5-mile Reef Bay Hike. Many people think it's one of the best hikes in the Caribbean. This 6-hour hike includes a stop at the only known petroglyphs on the island and a tour of sugar-mill ruins, with a park ranger discussing the island's natural and cultural history along the way. The hike is from 9:30am to 3pm on Monday, Tuesday, Thursday, and Friday and costs $30 per person. Reservations are required and can be made by phone at least 2 to 3 weeks in advance   340\/779-8700).\n\nAnnaberg historic trail A short but terrific hike is the Annaberg Historic Trail (identified by the U.S. National Park Service as trail no. 10), about a .5-mile stroll. The Annaberg Historic Trail leads pedestrians around the ruined buildings of the best-preserved plantation on St. John. During the 18th and 19th centuries, the island was a sugarcane salt mine, with some 118 sugar plantations and 18 factories. The Danes brought slaves to the islands to work the plantations, and the smell of boiling molasses permeated the air. About a dozen NPS plaques identify and describe each building within the compound. The site has a sprinkling of onsite interpreters, including Miss Olivia in the small cookhouse, cooking and offering samples of traditional \"dumb\" bread (along with a glass of fresh passionfruit juice) and a gardener offering slices of fresh coconut. The walk takes about 30 minutes. From a terrace near the ruined windmill, a map identifies the British Virgin Islands to the north, including Little Thatch, Tortola, Waterlemon Cay, and Jost Van Dyke. Visiting the ruins is free.\n\nLeinster bay trail If you want to prolong your hiking experience from the Annaberg Historic Trail (above), take the Leinster Bay Trail (trail no. 11), which begins near the point where trail no. 10 ends. It leads past mangrove swamps and coral inlets rich with plant and marine life; markers identify some of the plants and animals.\n\nCinnamon bay trail\/cinnamon bay loop trail Both of these trails begin at the Cinnamon Bay Campground. The half-mile Cinnamon Bay Loop Trail is a marked nature trail, with signs identifying the flora. It's a relatively flat, shady walk through plantation ruins and forest. The 1.1-mile Cinnamon Bay Trail starts out steeply but leads into shaded forest along the rutted cobblestones of a former Danish road, past ruins of abandoned plantations, and eventually leading to Centerline Road.\n\nShopping\n\nCompared to St. Thomas, St. John's shopping isn't much, but what's here is interesting. The boutiques and shops of Cruz Bay are individualized and quite special. Most of the shops are clustered at Mongoose Junction (North Shore Rd., Cruz Bay), in a woodsy area beside the roadway, about a 5-minute walk from the ferry dock. Also in Cruz Bay, Wharfside Village (  340\/693-8210; www.wharfsidevillage.com), just a few steps from the ferry departure point, is a low-rise complex of courtyards, alleys, and seaside cafes with some unique boutiques. The Marketplace of St. John (  340\/776-6455; <http:\/\/stjohnmarketplace.com>) has St. John's biggest grocery store (Starfish Market), a pharmacy (Chelsea Drug Store), a hardware store (St. John Hardware), and a sprinkling of retail shops and cafes.\n\nAwl Made Here   (  340\/777-5757; www.awlmadehere.com), the Coral Bay studio of several enterprising island artisans, is owned by leather maker Tracey Keating, who makes handsome hand-tooled leather bags, cuffs, wallets, journals, and more.\n\nBajo El Sol  , Mongoose Junction (  340\/693-7070; www.bajoelsolgallery.com), is a cooperative gallery begun by a group of St. John artists in 1993. It's a wonderful place with lots of interesting pieces in a range of mediums, from paintings to glass and metal sculpture to jewelry, photography, and wood turning. This is the place to find a genuine St. John collectible.\n\nBamboula  , Mongoose Junction (  340\/693-8699; www.bamboulastjohn.com), is full of color and artisanal flavor, offering art (paintings from Haiti), unique homewares (hand-crafted wood bowls), world music, and African instruments. It also sells clothing, from flirty, sparkly skirts to jaunty straw hats.\n\nBougainvillea  , Mongoose Junction (  340\/693-7190; www.shoppingstjohn.com), sells a good selection of tropic wear and beachwear for men and women, with such brands as Tommy Bahama, Canovas, Gottex, and La Perla, along with shoes, bags, hats, and sarongs.\n\nCoconut Coast Studios, Frank Bay (  800\/887-3798 or 340\/776-6944; www.coconutcoaststudios.com), is the studio of artist Elaine Estern, who paints colorful Caribbean landscapes, seascapes, and beneath-the-sea-scapes. Her seaside studio is a 5-minute walk along the waterfron from Cruz Bay. Every Wednesday evening from November through April the artist hosts a Sunset Cocktail Party from 5:30 to 7pm.\n\nDonald Schnell Studio  , next to the Texaco gas station, Cruz Bay (  340\/776-6420; www.donaldschnell.com), is the working studio and gallery of Mr. Schnell, who fashions beautiful hand-crafted ceramics: planters, tableware, even fountains. The studio also sells the works of other artisans.\n\nCORAL BAY: ST. JOHN'S first settlement\n\nThis was the site of the first plantation on St. John, which was established in 1717 and abandoned long ago. Claimed by the Danes in the 1600s and used to unload Danish ships, the bay still contains a crumbling stone pier. Follow the posted signs to see the remains of Fort Berg, which stationed the soldiers that suppressed the 1733 slave revolt. Today, this charming little village shelters a close-knit community of yachting enthusiasts, artists, and expats. Like folks in St. Thomas who come to St. John to \"plug out,\" so people from Love City head to rustic Coral Bay to relax and chill out. Ringing the bay's perimeter is a handful of restaurants and bars. You can spend a day in Coral Bay hiking the area's beautiful trails (see above) and swimming and snorkeling in Salt Pond Bay (p. ), where the mud is thought to be rejuvenating for the skin. Have lunch or an early dinner at one of the village's quintessentially laidback cafes and beach shacks, whether Miss Lucy's (p. ), Shipwreck Landing (p. ), Skinny Legs (p. ), or the tiny treasure that is Tourist Trap  , 14B John's Folly (  340\/774-0912), a roadside shack that can pack in maybe 15 diners and serves cold beer and hot nachos. Also on the menu are tacos, hot dogs, good sandwiches (blackened grouper, pulled-pork), and it's pretty cheap and all delicious. Be on the lookout for Buster, the colorful resident rooster.\n\nR&I PATTON Goldsmithing  , Mongoose Junction (  340\/776-6548; <http:\/\/pattongold.com>), is the shop of \"designer goldsmiths\" Rudy and Irene Patton, who have been making and selling jewelry here since 1973. The island provides the jewelers with a wellspring of inspiration; their gold and sterling-silver petroglyph pieces are based on a petroglyph carved on a rock in Reef Bay. They also make molds of sea shells and sealife found on the beach to make earrings, pendants, and charms.\n\nSt. John Spice  , Cruz Bay (  877\/693-7046; <http:\/\/stjohnspice.com>), is located right at the ferry dock and up a set of brick stairs. It's the place to come for all things saucy and spicy, with a fantastic and comprehensive selection of locally made Virgin Islands hot sauces\u2014from Blind Betty's to Anna's to Jerome's\u2014as well as barbecue rubs, signature-blend spices, and Caribbean-made. It's a great place to stock up on hot sauce gifts to carry back home with you.\n\nSteinworks   (  340\/776-8355; <http:\/\/sandisteinworks.com>), on Coral Bay, is the studio and shop of Sandi Stein, who makes custom-designed jewelry in gold, silver, gemstones, and seaglass.\n\nSt. John After Dark\n\nBring a good book or two. When it comes to nightlife, St. John is no St. Thomas, and everybody here seems to want to keep it that way. Although you can hear live music most any night of the week at venues around the island, many people are content to have a leisurely dinner and call it a day. But check out the \"Live Music Scene\" section on the See St. John website (www.seestjohn.com) for an updated schedule of live music offerings around the island.\n\nCruz Bay\n\nThe newest hot spot in town is the Taproom, the sunny brewpub of new microbrewery St. John Brewers (  340\/715-7775; www.stjohnbrewers.com), the brainchild of a couple of University of Vermont grads. Located in Mongoose Junction in Cruz Bay, the Taproom already feels rooted, and when you visit you'll sit elbow to elbow with locals and visitors sampling from the Caribbean-pub menu and swigging the brewpub's craft beers and homemade sodas. We very much like their Virgin Islands Summer Ale. It's open Monday to Saturday 11am to midnight and Sunday noon to midnight.\n\nThe Motu Bar (  407\/758-6924; www.motubar.com) is an upscale departure from the corrugated beach shack bar model. It's still pretty casual\u2014St. John is no Miami\u2014but with dark wicker loungers plumped with blue cushions and a roster of designer cocktails, it's definitely got an uptown vibe. It's on the deck of the Low Key Watersports building across from Cruz Bay beach.\n\nThose who prefer their drinks \u00e0 la hole in the wall, should check out the action at Fred's Patio (  340\/776-6363), across from the Lime Inn in Cruz Bay. This little West Indian restaurant has bands on Wednesday and Friday nights that get folks up and dancing. It's open 10am to 5pm, but stays open until Saturday morning.\n\nJust 150 from the ferry dock in Cruz Bay, Woody's Seafood Saloon (  340\/779-4625) has a happening happy hour scene from 3pm to 6pm when drinks are dirt-cheap ($1 beers) and the crowd spills out onto the street.\n\nSt. John's one and only Irish pub, the Quiet Mon (p. ), is adjacent to Woody's and located in a West Indian cottage with walls crammed with photos, memorabilia, and shamrock-themed tchotchkes. Four large-screen TVs are on hand for your sporting-event viewing pleasure.\n\nCoral Bay\n\nSkinny Legs, Emmaus, Coral Bay, beyond the fire station (  340\/779-4982; <http:\/\/skinnylegs.com>) is little more than a laidback island shack made of tin and wood. It's also the place to bring the kids for the island's best burgers  . Skinny Legs has live music on Thursday, Friday and Saturday nights during high season when it stays open until 10pm or later.\n\nAnother laidback spot in Coral Bay,Shipwreck Landing (  340\/693-5640; www.shipwrecklandingstjohn.com; p. ), which has live music on Wednesday evenings and weekend nights, with no cover.\n7\n\nTHE BRITISH VIRGIN ISLANDS\n\nWith its turquoise bays and hidden coves, once havens for pirates, the British Virgin Islands are among the world's loveliest cruising areas. The islands attract sailors and yachties aplenty, but the secluded white-sand beaches and laidback geniality make this an escapist's paradise.\n\nThe British Virgin Islands embrace 60-odd islands, some no more than spits of rock jutting out of the sea. Only four islands are of any significant size: Virgin Gorda, Tortola, Anegada, and Jost Van Dyke. The smaller islands and cays have colorful names, such as Fallen Jerusalem. Norman Island is said to have been the prototype for Robert Louis Stevenson's novel \"Treasure Island.\" On Deadman's Bay, Blackbeard reputedly marooned 15 pirates and a bottle of rum.\n\nThese craggy and remote volcanic islands are just 15 minutes by air or 45 minutes by ferry from St. Thomas. Even though they are part of the same archipelago, the British Virgin Islands and the U.S. Virgin Islands have their differences. Where St. Thomas can sometimes seem like Hustle City, deep into mega-resort tourism, it's still a bit sleepy over in the B.V.I. Here the pace is much slower and development is less frenetic. Even the capital, Tortola, seems to exist in a bit of a time capsule.\n\nThen there's the seclusion. Tortola has its share of private retreats, and most of the high-end resorts on Virgin Gorda are so isolated from one another you'll feel your hotel has the island to itself. On the even smaller, more remote islands like Guana Island, Peter Island, and Necker Island, you will have the island to yourself (and your fellow guests). These rustically private hideaways are the ultimate in laidback luxury. Barefoot minimalists on a budget can do rustic, too, without spending a fortune. At modest beachside inns on Jost Van Dyke and Anegada, you'll get all the seclusion you want\u2014but you'll still probably end up knowing all the locals after a week. Forget casinos, splashy entertainment, TVs, and sometimes even air-conditioning: Who needs them when the balmy tradewinds blow, the rum is flowing, and sunlight dances like diamonds on the water?\n\nEssentials\n\nGetting There\n\nBy Plane\n\nYour gateway to the B.V.I. will most likely be Tortola or Virgin Gorda, although currently there are no direct flights from North America or Europe to any of the British Virgin Islands (American Eagle discontinued all service to the island in 2013). Most visitors arrive into the international airports in St. Thomas or San Juan, Puerto Rico, and then fly or ferry to the B.V.I. A handful of regional airlines also offer service between Tortola or Virgin Gorda and islands like St. Croix and St. Maarten\/St. Martin.\n\nThe British Virgin Islands\n\nAir Sunshine (  800\/327-8900 in the U.S. or Canada, or 284\/495-8900 in the B.V.I.; www.airsunshine.com) offers direct flights between San Juan (or St. Thomas) and both Tortola and Virgin Gorda; direct flights between Vieques, Puerto Rico, and both Tortola and Virgin Gorda; and direct flights between St. Croix and Virgin Gorda. Cape Air (  800\/227-3247 in the U.S. and U.S.V.I., or 284\/495-2100 in the B.V.I.; www.capeair.com) flies between San Juan and Tortola or Virgin Gorda and between St. Thomas and Tortola. Seabourne Airlines (  866\/359-8784, or 340\/773-6442 in the U.S.V.I.; www.seaborneairlines.com), which moved its headquarters from St. Croix to San Juan in late 2013, offers regularly scheduled flights between San Juan and both Tortola and Virgin Gorda, as well as service between St. Croix (and St. Thomas) and the B.V.I.\n\nFlying time between Tortola (or Virgin Gorda) and San Juan is 30 to 40 minutes; between Tortola and St. Thomas, 15 minutes; and between Tortola and St. Croix, 45 minutes.\n\nBeef Island, the site of the major airport serving the British Virgins, the Terrence B. Lettsome Airport (EIS), is connected to Tortola by the one-lane Queen Elizabeth Bridge. Supplies and services on the other islands are extremely limited.\n\nBy Ferry\n\nMany B.V.I.\u2013bound visitors who arrive in St. Thomas via the island's international airport then travel on by public ferry. (The more upscale resorts offer direct transfer from the airport by private ferry\u2014for a fee, of course.) Public ferries connect to the B.V.I. via St. Thomas's two ferry terminals (Charlotte Amalie and Red Hook). It's essential to plan your flights around ferry connections. The last ferries from St. Thomas to the British Virgin Islands leave around 4:30 or 5pm. If you're arriving on a late flight into St. Thomas or your flight arrives late it's likely you'll need to overnight on the island. If you're just a little bit late, you can arrange a private water taxi. However\u2014and this is a big however\u2014the B.V.I. Customs on Tortola's West End closes at 6pm, so any water-taxi ride will have to leave by, at the very latest, 5:30pm.\n\nIn addition, it's important to build time into your schedule for the taxi ride from the St. Thomas airport to the closest ferry terminal, Charlotte Amalie\u2014it's about a 15-minute trip, but traffic gridlock can make it longer\u2014and so can stops for other passengers along the way (most airport taxi vans load up with passengers no matter where the destination). If time is tight, consider hiring a private water-taxi service, which includes transfers from the airport in private taxis (see information below); it's pricier than public ferries, but it's also a hassle-free, crowd-free way to make your connections.\n\nTortola has two main ferry terminals, Road Town and West End. Beef Island (Trellis Bay), off Tortola's East End, also gets ferry traffic and is where many of the Virgin Gorda and private island resorts have water launches for connecting guests. Public ferries from the other islands have regular runs to both the Road Town and West End terminals, so plan your itinerary around the terminal (and the departure time) that's most convenient for you. If you're staying on the island's West End, for example, it makes sense to take a ferry to the West End.\n\nYou can also get direct ferry service from St. Thomas to Virgin Gorda, but runs are infrequent (and only operate on certain days of the week)\u2014so you may need to ferry to Tortola first (most likely Road Town) and then catch another ferry to Spanish Town, Virgin Gorda.\n\nFor those traveling on to the North Sound in Virgin Gorda, here's another option: Take a taxi ride from the Road Town ferry to Trellis Island, on Tortola's East End, and hop aboard the North Sound Express (  284\/495-2138), which has daily connections to Spanish Town, Leverick Bay, and the Bitter End Yacht Club on Virgin Gorda; round-trip fares are $40 to $55 adults, $20 to $32 children.\n\nPublic ferries making runs between the U.S. Virgins and the B.V.I. include Native Son (  284\/494-5674; www.nativesonferry.com), Smith's Ferry Services (  284\/495-4495; www.smithsferry.com), and Inter-Island Boat Services (  284\/495-4166). (The latter specializes in somewhat roundabout routing\u2014that is, you may find yourself traveling to St. John or Jost Van Dyke before you arrive in Tortola.) One-way and round-trip fares range from $25 to $49.\n\nB.V.I. Public Ferries: Sample Travel Times\n\nSt. Thomas (Charlotte Amalie) to Tortola (Road Town): 50 min.\n\nSt. Thomas (Red Hook) to Tortola (West End): 35 min.\n\nSt. John to Tortola (West End): 20 min.\n\nTortola (Road Town) to Virgin Gorda (Spanish Town): 25 min.\n\nTortola (West End) to Jost Van Dyke: 20 min.\n\nTortola (Road Town) to Anegada: 60 min.\n\nIf you prefer private water-taxi service, contact Dohm's Water Taxi (  340\/775-6501; www.watertaxi-vi.com; St. Thomas to Tortola: $325\u2013$625, five-person minimum; $65 each additional person), a private, full-service (pickup and transfer) inter-island water taxi service that offers travel anywhere in the Virgin Islands in custom-built catamaran powerboats; or Dolphin Water Taxi (  340\/774-2628; www.dolphinshuttle.com), which includes private taxi airport pickup to Red Hook with its private boat transfers to Tortola ($79\u2013$95 per person, four-person minimum). Dolphin also offers water-taxi services throughout the Virgin Islands and day-trip charters to Jost Van Dyke ($55 per person one-way).\n\nVisitor Information\n\nOn island, the British Virgin Islands Tourist Board (  800\/835-8530; www.bvitourism.com) is located in downtown Road Town, Tortola, in the AKARA building, 2nd Floor, De Castro St. (  284\/494-3134). Its New York branch is at 1 West 34th St., Suite 302, New York, NY 10001 (  212\/563-3117). In the United Kingdom, contact the B.V.I. Tourist Board, 15 Upper Grosvenor St., London W1K 7PJ (  207\/355-9585).\n\nGetting Around\n\nBy Ferry\n\nA number of ferry services offer regularly scheduled trips within the British Virgin Islands.\n\ntortola & virgin gorda Both Smith's Ferry (  284\/495-4495; <http:\/\/bviferryservices.com>) and Speedy's (  284\/495-5235; www.bviferries.com) operate daily ferry service between Tortola (both Road Town and Beef Island) and Virgin Gorda (both Spanish Town and Bitter End\/Leverick Bay); round-trip fares are $30 to $65 adults, $28 children 5\u201311. The North Sound Express (  284\/495-2138), near the airport on Beef Island, has daily connections to Spanish Town, Leverick Bay, and the Bitter End Yacht Club on Virgin Gorda; round-trip fares are $40 to $55 adults, $20 to $32 children.\n\nFamous British Virgin Islanders\n\n  Christopher Fleming (1851\u20131935): Born in the East End of Tortola, Fleming spent most of his life at sea and may even have been a smuggler. In 1890, a B.V.I. Customs officer seized a native boat, and in protest, Fleming led a group of armed men to the commissioner's house. Danish soldiers from St. Thomas put down the rebellion, and Fleming was sentenced to 6 months in jail. Today, islanders look upon Fleming as a hero who protested poverty and unfair economic conditions.\n\n  John Coakley Lettsom (1744\u20131815): Born into a Quaker family on Jost Van Dyke, Lettsom was educated in England and completed his medical education in Edinburgh, Scotland. Rising rapidly and brilliantly, he founded the Royal Human Society of England, the Royal Seabathing Hospital at Margate, and the London Medical Society. Regrettably, he is mainly remembered today for this famous but libelous doggerel: \"I John Lettsom . . . Blisters, bleeds, and sweats 'em. If, after that, they please to die . . . I, John Lettsom.\"\n\n  Frederick Augustus Pickering (1835\u20131926): Born in Tortola, Pickering became a civil service worker who, by 1884, had risen to become the first black president of the British Virgin Islands. He held the post until 1887 and was the last man to be known as president, as the job title after his presidency was changed to commissioner.\n\n  John Pickering (1704\u201368): Born into a fervent Quaker family in Anguilla, Pickering moved in the 1720s to Fat Hogs Bay in Tortola. In 1736, he became the leader of a congregation of Quakers, and by 1741 he was named first lieutenant governor of the island. Fearing the Virgin Islands would be drawn into war between Spain and Britain, he resigned his post because of his Quaker beliefs. Apparently, he was an \"enlightened\" plantation owner, as hundreds of slaves, islandwide, mourned his death\u2014or perhaps they feared their new master.\n\ntortola & anegada The Road Town Fast Ferry (  284\/495-2323) operates daily trips on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday between Tortola, Virgin Gorda, and Anegada; round-trip fares are $55 adults, $35 children.\n\ntortola & jost van dyke New Horizons Ferry (  284\/495-9278) makes daily runs between Tortola and Jost Van Dyke; round-trip fares are $25 adults, $15 children (free children 5\u201311).\n\ntortola & norman island A Norman Island ferry (  284\/494-0093) runs from Hannah Bay, Tortola, to Pirate's Bight restaurant (www.piratesbight.com). Call for schedules and fares.\n\ntortola & peter island The Peter Island Ferry (  284\/495-2000) shuttles passengers between Road Town on Tortola and Peter Island at least five times a day; non-guests pay round-trip fares of $20 adults; $10 children.\n\nChristmas Winds\n\nThe year-round weather in the British Virgin Islands is generally temperate, with few variations in temperature and winds usually out of the east. In late November and December, however, cold fronts in North America push cold air down from the north, bringing the so-called \"Christmas winds\" to the islands. While temperatures are minimally affected, Christmas winds can bring 25- to 30-knot blows to the islands for days at a time, making seas choppy and roiling placid bays that are generally calm for snorkeling. Christmas winds generally dissipate by January or early February.\n\nnorth sound, virgin gorda The private resorts around Virgin Gorda's North Sound offer complimentary daily ferry service from Gun Creek, Virgin Gorda, to the resorts, including Bitter End (  284\/494-2746), Biras Creek (  284\/394-3555), and Saba Rock (  284\/495-7711). Call for schedules.\n\nBy Car, Bus, or Taxi\n\nThere are car-rental agencies on Tortola, Virgin Gorda, Anegada, and Jost Van Dyke; numerous taxis also operate on these islands, as well as on some of the smaller ones; taxi rates are set by the government and posted on the BVI tourism website and in the free \"Welcome Guide\" tourist publication distributed everywhere. Bus service is available on Tortola and Virgin Gorda only. See the \"Orientation\" section for each island for further details.\n\nTORTOLA\n\nThere's no better place to launch your own sailing adventure than in the bareboat capital of the world: Tortola, the biggest (19\u00d75km\/12\u00d73 miles) and most populous of the British Virgin Islands. But you don't have to be a sailor to appreciate the quiet, understated beauty of Tortola and its warm, laidback soul. Unwind to the soft caress of tradewinds, the gentle green hills that slope down to sparkling waters, and the secluded white-sand beaches.\n\nOrientation\n\nVisitor Information\n\nThe offices of the British Virgin Islands Tourist Board (  800\/835-8530; www.bvitourism.com) are located in downtown Road Town, Tortola, in the AKARA building, 2nd Floor, De Castro St. (  284\/494-3134). Here you'll find information about hotels, restaurants, tours, and more. Pick up a copy of the \"Welcome Tourist Guide,\" which has a useful map of the island.\n\nIsland Layout\n\nTortola is the largest of the British Virgin Islands. Road Town is the capital, a scattered sprawl of modern buildings wrapped around the harborfront and tucked into the green hillsides. Here and there, particularly along the narrow lanes of old Main Street, you'll see historic landmarks and examples of the island's West Indian-style gingerbread architecture. Main Street has a number of shops and restaurants. Wickham's Cay (sometimes called Wickham's Cay I) and Wickham's Cay II together form a small Inner Harbor in Road Town. This harbor takes in the Moorings complex area with Fort Burt and Prospect Reef standing near the port entrance. The cruise ship pier juts out at the far right of the cay, and shops are within easy walking distance of the cruise ship dock.\n\nTortola\n\nGetting There\n\nBy plane On Tortola's eastern end is Beef Island, the site of the Terrence B. Lettsome International Airport, the main airport for all of the British Virgin Islands. This tiny island is connected to Tortola by the one-lane Queen Elizabeth Bridge. For information on flights into Tortola, see \"Getting Around: By Plane\" under the chapter \"Orientation,\" above.\n\nBoth Hertz (  800\/654-3131 in the U.S., or 284\/495-4405 on Tortola; www.hertz.com) and National (  284\/494-3197; www.nationalcar.com) have locations at the airport.\n\nTaxis, taxi vans, and multi-passenger safari buses meet every arriving flight. The fare from the Beef Island airport to Road Town is $15 for one to three passengers.\n\nBy ferry Many people arrive by air into St. Thomas and ferry over on one of the many public (and private) ferries traveling between the U.S. and British Virgin Islands. See \"Getting Around: By Ferry\" under the chapter \"Orientation,\" above.\n\nBy cruise ship Tortola recorded nearly 400,000 cruise passengers arriving in Road Harbour in 2012. Its pier in Road Town has the capacity to host two large cruise ships at a time; other cruise ships anchor just outside the harbor and tender in.\n\nAs we went to press, cruise ships scheduling stops in Road Harbour included Regent Seven Seas (Windstar); Costa Cruise Lines (Costa Magica); Crystal; Celebrity; Royal Caribbean (Jewel of the Seas); Cunard; Holland America; Silver Seas (Silver Spirit); and P&O Cruises (Arcadia).\n\nGetting Around\n\nThe roads in Tortola are steep and twisting\u2014not for the faint of heart. The island is fairly small, so driving distances aren't long. Plan your Road Town travel around rush hours and cruise-ship embarkations: You can easily become ensnared in Road Town traffic during arrival and departure times (around 8am and 4pm), when scores of taxi drivers pick up or drop off cruise-ship passengers around the pier at Wickhams Cay 1.\n\nBy Taxi We highly recommend Wayne Robinson as both taxi driver and tour guide (  284\/494-4097 or 284\/499-2251 [cell]). For other taxi options in Road Town, dial the BVI Taxi Association at   284\/494-3942; on Beef Island, call   284\/495-1982. Your hotel can also call a taxi for you; there is a taxi stand in Road Town, near the ferry dock. A typical fare from Road Town to Cane Garden Bay is $24; from Road Town to Josiah's Bay on the north coast, it's $25.\n\nBy Bus Scato's Bus & Taxi Services (  284\/494-2365; www.scatosbusntaxi.com) offers airport pickup and dropoff, lodging and ferry transfers, private and group tours, events transportation, and shopping expeditions in modern, air-conditioned buses.\n\nBy rental Car Ask your hotel concierge to recommend a local rental-car agency; many resorts have relationships with rental franchises that will deliver cars right to your hotel. Itgo (  284\/494-2639; www.itgobvi.com) is located at the Mill Mall, Wickham's Cay I, Road Town. Denzil Clyne (  284\/495-4900) offers rentals (Jeeps) on Tortola's West End near the ferry terminal. Avis (  800\/331-1212 in the U.S., or 284\/494-2193 on Tortola; www.avis.com) maintains offices opposite the J.R. Neal Botanical Gardens in Road Town; and Hertz (  800\/654-3131 in the U.S., or 284\/495-4405 on Tortola; www.hertz.com) has locations in Road Town, near the airport, and on the island's West End, near the ferryboat landing dock. National (  284\/494-3197; www.nationalcar.com) has locations on Long Bay, West End, Road Town, and near the airport.\n\nRoad Town\n\nRental companies will usually offer free hotel pickup. All require a valid driver's license and a temporary B.V.I. driver's license, which the car-rental agency will issue to you for $10; it's valid for 1 month. Because of the volume of tourism to Tortola, you should reserve a car in advance, especially in winter.\n\nRemember: Drive on the left! Roads are pretty well paved, but they're often narrow, winding, and poorly lit, and they have few, if any, lines but plenty of speed bumps. Driving at night can be tricky. It's a good idea to take a taxi to that difficult-to-find beach, restaurant, or bar. If you're queasy about maneuvering mountainous corkscrew roads, day or night, take the Sir Francis Drake coastal road, which for the most part is flat and runs the length of the island. The other main road, Ridge Road, follows the mountainous spine of the island; this was the old roadway linking the island's many plantations.\n\n  Tortola\n\nATMs\/Banks The major B.V.I. banks are Scotiabank (www.scotiabank.com); FirstBank (www.firstbankvi.com), First Caribbean (www.cibcfcib.com); and Banco Popular (www.bancopopular.com\/vi). ATMs are less prevalent in the British Virgin Islands than in the U.S. Virgin Islands; all of the aforementioned banks have ATMs in Wickham Cay I, Road Town, Tortola. A First Caribbean ATM is located at Myett's beach bar in Cane Garden Bay, and Nanny Cay Marina has a FirstBank ATM. Most other small islands do not have ATMs, so if you're planning a visit, be sure to visit an ATM on Tortola to cash up first. Each machine charges around $2 to $3 for a transaction fee.\n\nBookstores The best bookstore is the National Educational Services Bookstore, Wickham's Cay I, in Road Town (  284\/494-3921).\n\nBusiness Hours Most offices are open Monday to Friday 9am to 5pm. Government offices are open Monday to Friday 8:30am to 4:30pm. Shops are generally open Monday to Friday 9am to 5pm and Saturday 9am to 1pm.\n\nDentists For dental emergencies, contact Crown Dental (  284\/494-2770), or Premier Dental (  284\/494-8062).\n\nDrugstores Medicure Pharmacy is located in the Hodge Building, near Road Town Roundabout, Road Town (  284\/494-6189).\n\nEmergencies Call   999. If you have a medical emergency, call Peebles Hospital, Porter Road, Road Town, Tortola (  284\/494-3497). Your hotel can also put you in touch with the local medical staff.\n\nHospitals\/Clinics Peebles Hospital, Porter Road, Road Town (  284\/494-3497), has X-ray and laboratory facilities. The B&F Medical Complex, Mill Mall, Wickham's Cay I, Road Town (<http:\/\/bfmedicalcomplex.com>) is a public day clinic that accepts walk-ins. The Eureka Medical Centre (www.eurekamedicalclinic.com), Geneva Place, Road Town, Tortola, is a private-run urgent-care facility with both inhouse doctors and visiting specialists on call; call for an appointment.\n\nInternet Access Internet and free Wi-Fi access is available all over the islands, including Nanny Cay Marina, Tortola, and Village Cay Marina, Road Town, as well as in many bars and restaurants. If you're in transit or your hotel's Internet access is weak or nonexistent, try Serendipity Bookshop & Internet Cafe, Main St., Road Town (  284\/494-5865); the Pub, Waterfront Dr., Road Town (  284\/494-2608); or Trellis Bay Cybercafe, Trellis Bay (  284\/495-2447).\n\nNewspapers \"The BVI Beacon\" (www.bvibeacon.com) is a weekly newspaper published on Thursday. The weekly \"Island Sun\" (www.islandsun.com) is published every Friday. Both are good sources of information on local entertainment. You can find these in most supermarkets and shops.\n\nPolice The main police headquarters is on Waterfront Drive near the ferry dock on Sir Olva Georges Plaza (  284\/494-2945).\n\nPost Office The main post office on Tortola is in Road Town (  284\/468-3701, ext. 5160), and is open Monday to Friday 8:30am to 4:30pm. The beautiful and collectible B.V.I. stamps are sold here here.\n\nSafety The British Virgin Islands in general are quite safe, with a very low crime rate that many attribute to the illegality of owning guns. Minor robberies and muggings occur late at night outside bars in Road Town, especially in poorly lit areas around Wickham's Cay I and along Waterfront Drive. But outside of Road Town, Tortola is a very safe place to be.\n\nTaxes The British Virgin Islands has no sales tax. It charges a departure tax of $15 per person for those leaving by boat or $20 if by airplane. Most hotels add a service charge of around 10 percent; there's also a 7 percent government room tax. Most restaurants tack on an automatic 15 percent service charge.\n\nTelephone All island phone numbers have seven digits. You can call the British Virgins from the United States by just dialing 1, the area code 284, and the number; from the U.K. dial 011-44, then the number. To call the U.S. from the B.V.I., just dial 1 plus the area code and the number; to call the U.K. from the B.V.I., dial 011-44, then the number.\n\nTipping Go to \"Fast Facts,\" in Chapter 8 for tipping guidelines.\n\nToilets You'll find public toilets in restaurants, beach bars, at the ferry terminals, and at the airport.\n\nWhere to Stay\n\nTortola has few hotel-style lodgings. In fact, outside of villas, its accommodation choices are fairly stark. In addition to one or two topnotch boutique resorts, you have a sprinkling of modest marina hotels, informal guesthouses, and basic beach lodgings. None, however, is as big, splashy, and full service as the mega-resorts in the U.S. Virgin Islands\u2014or as high-end luxe as the choices on Virgin Gorda\u2014and many of the island's repeat visitors seem to like that just fine.\n\nMany visitors rent villas for their Tortola stays. Most rent by the week. Best of BVI (  1252-674878 from the U.K. and 011\/44-1252-674878 from the U.S.; www.bestofbvi.com) represents properties listed nowhere else, including a one-bedroom cottage on Little Thatch Island, a privately owned isle minutes from Soper's Hole. Best of BVI also has a hugely informative trip-planning website, with an up-to-date ferry schedule. Jewels of the BVI (  866\/468-6284; www.jewelsofthebvi.com) represents only BVI Islander\u2013owned properties, including villas, condos, and resorts. Villas can range from $150 all the way to $750 per night, based on location, amenities and the number of bedrooms. For more villa options, go to Chapter 8.\n\nRemember that most of Tortola's best beaches are on the northern shore, so guests staying elsewhere (at Road Town, for example) will have to drive or take a taxi to reach them. If you prefer to stay in a hotel or inn, we like the resorts on the island's leisurely West End best; not only do you have convenient access to West End ferry connections but you'll enjoy plenty of peace and serenity, few traffic woes, and easy proximity to the island's best beaches.\n\nNote: All rates given within this chapter are subject to a 10 percent service charge and a 7 percent government tax. Rates are usually discounted significantly in summer. Note that some resorts offer all-inclusive dining plans, such as a \"Modified American Plan,\" which means that the hotel provides meals (and sometimes additional amenities) for an extra charge.\n\nIn Road Town\n\nBusiness folks, yachties, and those who need to be near the center of the Tortola activity (such as there is) can opt for one of the basic hotels and inns in or around Road Town. Keep in mind that the daily arrival of two or more cruise ships into Road Harbour harbor can result in traffic gridlock. If you plan an extended stay on Tortola, we recommend combining a night here with a few other nights on a quieter, beachier part of the island.\n\nExpensive\n\nThe Moorings\/Mariner Inn   For those who love the buzz of a bustling marina, with a lively scrum of breezy bars and boaters ambling hither and thither, the Mariner Inn at the Moorings should fit the bill. Located right on Wickham's Cay II in Road Town, this full-service yachting resort offers not only support facilities and services but also better-than-average shoreside accommodations. It's a good way to sample Road Town life with fellow sailors and yachties. The rooms are nicely outfitted with dark wood furniture and tile floors; all have kitchenettes and balconies that open onto harbor or garden views.\n\nWickham's Cay II, Road Town.   800\/535-7289 in the U.S., or 284\/494-2333. www.bvimarinerinnhotel.com. 38 units. Winter $220\u2013$455 double; off season $160\u2013$420 double. Amenities: Restaurant; 2 bars; pool (outdoor); room service; watersports equipment\/rentals; Wi-Fi (free).\n\nModerate\n\nFort Burt Hotel   This intimate hotel was built in 1960 on the ruins of a 17th-century Dutch fort (it was rebuilt in 1776 by the English but little is left of the old fort but a cannon). The hotel is blanketed in flowering vines, with spectacular vistas from private terraces of the harbor below (best views from rooms on the second floor). Rooms have a cheerful pastel palette, with wicker furnitures and touches of elegance here and there\u2014plumped-up wingback chairs and high beamed ceilings\u2014but the best thing about them are the big windows and sliding-glass doors opening onto the harbor. The hotel has a pool, but honeymoon and condo suites come with their own private pools. Steep stairs may make getting up and down tough for visitors with mobility issues.\n\n  888\/692-0993 or 284\/494-2587. www.fortburt.com. 18 units. Winter $115\u2013$160 double, $200\u2013$385 suite; off season $99\u2013$120 double, $200\u2013$310 suite. Amenities: Restaurant; bar; pool (outdoor); Wi-Fi (free).\n\nMaria's by the Sea   This 38-room inn in central Road Town is a favorite of folks doing business in Tortola; it's close to the ferry and has little balconies that open right onto the harbor. Rooms have been updated and now add a modicum of stylish chic to their comfort (especially the enormous premium rooms in the hotel's new wing, sleekly outfitted in dark wood furniture, quality bedding, and rich buttery hues), but at night you may be too busy inhaling the sea breezes from your balcony and admiring the harbor lights to care. The hotel updates include a business center and fitness room. Sample excellent Caribbean cuisine at Maria's on-site restaurant, open for breakfast, lunch, and dinner on an alfresco patio overlooking Sir Frances Drake Channel.\n\n  284\/494-2595. www.mariasbythesea.com. 38 units. Winter $160\u2013$200 double, $205 1-bedroom suite, $280 2-bedroom suite; off season $130\u2013$170 double, $200 1-bedroom suite, $250 2-bedroom suite. Extra person $40\/a night. Amenities: Restaurant; bar; fitness room; pool (outdoor); Wi-Fi (free).\n\nVillage Cay Hotel   This small hotel overlooks the bustling 106-slip Village Cay Marina, and that's often reason enough for many people sailing through to stay here. Another is price: The one- and two-bedroom suites are nothing fancy but good value, each outfitted with gleaming wood-plank floors and colorful tropical linens; bathrooms are on the small side (some say cramped). Request one of the newly refurbished rooms, especially those with patios overlooking the harbor\u2014that's good value plus. The hotel has a nice big pool as well as a buzzing restaurant, Dockside Bar & Grille, that serves Caribbean and continental classics and jumps to live music every Wednesday and Saturday nights. Dockmasters' Deli serves New York\u2013style sandwiches and other tasty takeout fare, catnip to passing boaters. Just a 5-minute walk away are the shops of Wickham's Cay I and ferry service to other islands.\n\n  284\/494-2771. www.villagecayhotelandmarina.com. 23 units. Winter $125\u2013$350 double; off season $100\u2013$285. Children 11 and under stay free in parent's room. Amenities: 2 restaurants; bar; pool (outdoor); room service; watersports equipment\/rentals; Wi-Fi (free).\n\nCooper Island: eco-boutique Retreat\n\nOn the northwest corner of Cooper Island, a 30-minute boat ride from Tortola, the Cooper Island Beach Club   opens onto Manchioneel Bay in a splendid setting of coconut palms. It's popular with divers\u2014many of the Caribbean's most celebrated dive sites, including shipwreck-rich \"Wreck Alley,\" are easily accessible\u2014and snorkelers, who come to paddle around in the waters at the south end of Manchioneel Bay. It's a favorite of visiting yachties as well, who stop over to wine and dine in the resort's much-lauded beachfront restaurant and bar. (The resort's \"pop-up rum bar\" and artisanal coffee shop were in the works at press time and should be fully operational by the time you read this.) The on-site Sail Caribbean Divers offers snorkeling, kayaks, dinghy rentals, and full scuba services. This barefoot retreat has nine good-looking, smartly updated rooms (each with a private balcony), but it's far from luxurious, with an emphasis on simple, self-sufficient rusticity. To that end, Cooper Island is a local leader in green initiatives. It has no roads, no TVs, no air-conditioning. Seventy percent of the island's energy comes from solar power. A cistern under each room collects fresh rainwater, which is heated by solar power. All toilets are flushed with seawater. The fryer oil used in the kitchen is recyled as bio-diesel fuel. Bar stools and lounge furniture are made from old fishing boats. Oh, and did we mention that the resort is a serious good deal, all year-round? And that full-board multi-stays are even better deals?\n\nCooper Island: www.cooper-island.com;   800\/542-4624 or 284\/495-9084; nightly room only: winter $265 double; off season $210 double; extra person $25.\n\nGetting There: The resort does not operate a regular ferry service, but several (free of charge) boat trips are made each week to and from Hodges Creek Marina, Maya Cove, East End and Road Harbour Marina, Road Town, including the resort's supply boat. Otherwise, you'll have to pay for a private charter to the island.\n\nWest End & North Shore\n\nKeep in mind that the island's most popular beach, Cane Garden Bay, has a few simple lodgings, often a modest (and modestly priced) assemblage of rooms above Cane Garden's popular beach bars\u2014which means the musical entertainment below may rock well into the night. If you want a decent if frills-free place to hang your hat after a night of music and drinking on Cane Garden Bay, consider the following.\n\nThe east end of Cane Garden Bay is the domain of famed local musician Quito Rymer. Above Rhymer's Beach Bar, Rhymer's Beach Hotel (  284\/495-4639; www.canegardenbaybeachhotel.com; $90\u2013$120 double) offers 21 simple accommodations with kitchenettes and private bathrooms.\n\nFarther east, behind Quito's Gazebo, where you can hear the reggae star play 3 nights a week, is Quito's Ole Works Inn (  284\/495-4837; $85\u2013$165 double, $150\u2013$235 suite). The inn was undergoing renovations when we last visited but should be up and humming by the time you read this. Still, don't expect luxe: Rooms are cramped, but some have water views, even balconies.\n\nJust west, the spacious and attractive suites in Myett's Garden Inn   (  284\/495-9649; <http:\/\/myetts.com>; $150\u2013$220 double) are set in the gardens of one of the most happening beachfront spots on the island.\n\nAn easy 3-minute stroll through a coconut grove leads you to Mongoose Apartments (  284\/495-4421; www.mongooseapartments.com; $135\u2013$198 apt. for 2), where large, simply furnished one-bedroom apartments (with full kitchens and balconies) in a two-story building are one of the beach's best deals.\n\nAnother good deal: Cane Garden Bay Cottages (  780\/728-5934; www.canegardenbaycottages.com; $130\u2013$195 double), with stand-alone four cottages in a shady coconut grove.\n\nExpensive\n\nFort Recovery Beachfront Villas   Opening onto a lovely beach facing the Sir Francis Drake Channel and the Caribbean sea, this West End resort is built around what was once a 17th-century Dutch fort. The fort was actually rebuilt by the British in the late 1700s\u2014and this is the structure that stands today. Nevertheless, it's a pretty impressive sight to see\u2014the ruins of a large, squat stone tower from another era\u2014as you noodle around on the beach. Unlike hillside Tortola resorts that offer views from above, this resort is right on a beach, with cottages leading right onto the sand and gentle seas that are perfect for swimming and snorkeling. It's very lush, nestled in a palm grove and about 12km (71\u20442 miles) from Road Town and Choose from one-, two-, and three-bedroom suites or a spacious beach villa with up to eight bedrooms (can accommodate 30); most suites have full kitchens. Rooms are spacious and cheerfully decorated, with wood beamed ceilings and tile floors. The resort provides guests with a personal local cellphone with emergency and staff numbers, taxi contacts, and more. Ask about meal plans and special packages.\n\n  800\/367-8455 or 284\/541-0955. <http:\/\/fortrecoverytortola.com>. 30 units. Winter $310\u2013$360 1-bedroom suite, $360 2-bedroom suite, $750 3-bedroom suite, $1,560\u2013$3,120 villa; off season $210\u2013$250 1-bedroom suite, $750 2-bedroom suite, $560 3-bedroom suite, $1,260\u2013$2,520 villa. Extra person $50 per night; children 11 and under $35 per night. MAP (breakfast and dinner) $45 per day. Amenities: Restaurant; babysitting; bikes; exercise room; pool (outdoor); watersports equipment\/rentals; Wi-Fi (free).\n\nFrenchmans   This is the island's top lodging, a wonderful marriage of full-service resort and secluded villa. Comprised of nine pastel-hued cottages cunningly built into green bluffs overlooking Frenchmans Cay and the Caribbean Sea beyond, Frenchmans is the kind of place where you settle in for a few days to snorkel, swim, or simply do nothing but soak in the views.\n\nAll nine cottages face the blue sweep of Frenchman's Cay, with pelicans whirling and diving and terraces kissed by warm tradewinds. It's a quick drive (or leisurely stroll) to Soper's Hole marina, where you can shop or stock up on groceries in Harbour Market. The one- and two-bedroom cottages are outfitted with everything you need\u2014including full modern kitchens, dining tables, living rooms, and beautiful rain-shower baths. All have big balconies with views of Sir Francis Drake Channel; at night you can watch the lights of vehicles on the coastal road rounding the dark green hills. Frenchmans has a pool and a small, pebbly beach (but excellent snorkeling around the rocks), but the island's storied north-shore beaches are just minutes away. The on-site Clubhouse at Frenchmans (p. ) restaurant is magical, a wood-and-stone treehouse ablaze with warm light and real bonhomie, and its three-course Sunday brunches are legendarily delicious\u2014don't miss the mango pancakes.\n\nFrenchmans Cay.   284\/494-8811. www.frenchmansbvi.com. 9 units. Winter $398\u2013$625 1-bedroom villa, $565\u2013$985 2-bedroom villa; off season $245\u2013$365 1-bedroom villa, $395\u2013$525 2-bedroom villa. Rates include continental breakfast. Ask about provisioning services. Amenities: Restaurant; bar; concierge; pool (outdoor); tennis court (lit); watersports equipment; Wi-Fi (free).\n\nLong Bay Beach Club   A favorite of travelers since the 1960s, this resort has gone boutique, scaling down considerably in late 2013 from 156 units to 42 rooms and changing its name to Long Bay Beach Club. It has one of the nicest beachfront locales on Tortola, a 1\u00bd-mile-long stretch of sandy North Shore beach overlooking beautiful Long Bay. The low-rise complex has three lodging categories (beachfront rooms, beachfront deluxe suites, and beachfront cabanas), but all share that glorious ocean view (not to mention personal BBQ grills). Twelve suites have full kitchens and big two-person tubs; all other rooms have kitchenettes. The handsome beachfront deluxe rooms have big showers with seats and high wood-beamed ceilings. It's not swanky, but every room is pleasantly furnished, with state-of-the-art bedding, and the views from the patios or terraces are hard to beat. The resort has a dive shop on the premises, and a beachfront pool is in the works. And the snorkeling right off the beach is surprisingly rewarding (ask the manager to point you to the best spots).\n\nThe main restaurant is 1748 (p. ), and the main lobby and bar are built within the ruins of an 18th-century sugar mill.\n\nLong Bay.   866\/237-3491 in the U.S. and Canada, or 284\/495-4252. www.longbay.com. 42 units. Winter $385\u2013$430 double, $465 junior suite; off season $255\u2013$300 double, $325 junior suite. Extra person $35. Children 11 and under stay free in parent's room. All-inclusive plans available. Amenities: Restaurant; 2 bars; babysitting; pool (outdoor); 2 tennis courts (lit); limited watersports; Wi-Fi (free).\n\nThe Sugar Mill Hotel   Historic ruins, fine dining, and intimate accommodations make this boutique inn, on the site of a 300-year-old sugar mill, a favorite among travelers. Built on a hillside sloping down the beach and nestled in grounds filled with vibrant tropical foliage and big fruit trees, the Sugar Mill has a natural serenity. It's across the two-lane road from the sea, with not much of a beach to speak of (but spectacular bird action, as big-beaked pelicans plunge into the sea for silver bonito all day long). The contemporary accommodations vary in quality, but all are furnished with topnotch beds and linens; the tight quarters of the pool suites (with one king bed and a sleeper couch) are balanced by nice terraces, big stone outdoor showers, and the evening lullaby of tree frogs. In fact, we turned off the A\/C and slept like babies to the music of bird (and frog) song and hillside breezes. For a truly posh stay, opt for the luxury cottage, the deluxe villa, or the Plantation House suites\u2014the latter have two 1,100-square-foot bedroom suites, a spacious porch, and charming West Indian architectural flourishes, like wood-beamed ceilings and gingerbread trim.\n\nLunch is served down by the beach at Islands, which features standard Caribbean specialties such as jerk ribs and stuffed crab. The acclaimed Sugar Mill Restaurant (p. ) serves dinner in the old rum distillery's boiling house.\n\nApple Bay.   800\/462-8834 in the U.S., or 284\/495-4355. www.sugarmillhotel.com. 23 units. Winter $350\u2013$385 double, $400 triple, $415 quad, $405 cottage, $300\u2013$320 1-bedroom villa, $735 2-bedroom villa; off season $265\u2013$320 double, $325\u2013$350 triple, $350\u2013$370 quad, $320\u2013$355 cottage, $300\u2013$320 1-bedroom villa, $565\u2013$605 2-bedroom villa. Extra person $15\/night. Children 11 and under not accepted in winter but stay free in parent's room Apr to Dec 20. MAP (breakfast and dinner) $100 per person per day extra. Closed Aug\u2013Sept. Amenities: 2 restaurants; 2 bars; babysitting; concierge; pool (outdoor); Wi-Fi (free).\n\nModerate\n\nHeritage Inn   Locals smartly book a room here to avoid driving the spiraling roads home after dinner at Bananakeet (p. ), one of the best restaurants on island and reason enough to visit. It's not the only reason, though. The frills-free furnishings in this little seven-room inn are clean if motel-basic, but step onto your balcony, and a world of panoramic views   is laid out before you. Perched on top of Windy Hill, rooms command vistas out over three shimmering bays, including Carrot, Apple, and Long bays, and a dozen islands and cays, like Jost Van Dyke, Great Tobago, and Green Cay. Each of the (very modest) rooms (two two-bedroom, five one-bedroom) comes with a full kitchen\u2014which, if you're smart, you'll only need for breakfast and lunch; otherwise you'll want to reserve a sunset-viewing spot at Bananakeet. Spring for the two-bedroom units, which have terraces that stretch the length of your suite. With balmy breezes and that hushed sweep of glittering blue sea, you may never want to leave.\n\nWindy Hill.   877\/831-7230 or 284\/494-5842. www.heritageinnbvi.com. 7 units. Winter $200 1-bedroom suite, $315 2-bedroom suite; off season $125 1-bedroom suite, $185 2-bedroom suite. Extra person $25. Amenities: Restaurant; bar; pool (outdoor); Wi-Fi (free).\n\nSebastian's on the Beach   This good-value hotel is a happening spot, with live music in the beach bar and a popular restaurant. It's located on the North Shore at Little Apple Bay, about a 15-minute drive from Road Town. The rooms are housed in three buildings, with only one, a two-story, right on the beach. All are done in a sunny tropical motif, with tile floors, but the most sought-after are the light and airy beachfront rooms, some mere steps from the surf, others with views from second-floor balconies. The rear accommodations (\"tropical yard\" rooms) feel like country cottages, with apple-green wainscotting and beamed ceilings, but lack sea views\u2014but, really, nothing is farther than a short crawl to the beach. You can also stay in one of the seven spacious new Seaside Villas (winter $250\u2013$350; off season $150\u2013$250) all of which have stunning ocean views. Sebastian's Seaside Grille (p. ) overlooks the bay and has a solid menu of island and continental favorites.\n\nLittle Apple Bay.   800\/336-4870 in the U.S., or 284\/495-4212. www.sebastiansbvi.com. 39 units. Winter $135\u2013$285 double; off season $85\u2013$185 double. MAP $50 per person extra ($30 children). Children 12 and under stay free in parent's room. Amenities: Restaurant; bar, Wi-Fi (free in restaurant and courtyard).\n\nEast End\n\nBeef Island Guest House   This little B&B has the lived-in feel of someone's neat little home. It's a convenient and congenial spot to stay if you have an early flight out of Beef Island or are traveling on to Virgin Gorda in the morning. The converted cottage is set right on the sands at Trellis Bay, its doors and trim done in a happy salmon-pink. It offers four clean, private rooms with private bathrooms and a communal living room and sun room. Throughout, filmy curtains blow with the breezes (it has no air-conditioning). Join your neighbors for a drink on the tables and chairs on the beach, and watch sailboats coming in and out of the harbor.\n\nTrellis Bay.   284\/495-2303. www.beefislandguesthouse.com. 4 units. Winter $130 double; off season $100 double. Extra person $25. Rates include continental breakfast. Amenities: Restaurant; bar; limited watersports; Wi-Fi (free on patio).\n\nWhere to Eat\n\nIf you're in the British Virgin Islands around Thanksgiving, take advantage of the island-wide Restaurant Week, where some 40 participating restaurants throughout the B.V.I. feature discounted prix-fixe dinners. It's usually held the last week in November. Go to www.bvitourism.com to learn more.\n\nIn Road Town\n\nExpensive\n\nThe Dove Restaurant & Wine Bar   FRENCH\/ASIAN Set in an old West Indian cottage in Road Town, the Dove has its elegant, ambitious way with haute cuisine, with an eye to seasonality and exceptional ingredients. It's probably the best dining you'll do in Tortola. You might start with tomato and artichoke soup with a dollop of basil cream, or a braised beef rib with a yellow curry glaze. Entrees include pan-roasted duck with a red-wine raspberry ginger glaze, or a pork tenderloin with fried garlic honey glaze and cheddar bacon potato rosti. It's an intimate, romantic place, with a candlelit interior and a deck beneath a mango tree.\n\n67 Main St.   284\/494-0313. <http:\/\/thedovebvi.com>. Reservations recommended. Main courses $23\u2013$33. Daily 6\u201310pm.\n\nInexpensive\n\nCapriccio di Mare   ITALIAN Right on Waterfront Drive across from the ferry dock is this casual cafe, serving spot-on Italian and terrific pizzas in a sea of Caribbean eateries. The pastas are Italian favorites\u2014carbonara, pesto, amatrriciana\u2014but the execution is satisfying. Convenience to the ferry docks doesn't hurt.\n\n196 Waterfront Dr.   284\/494-5369. Main courses $10\u2013$18. Mon\u2013Sat 11:30am\u20139pm.\n\nMidtown Restaurant   CARIBBEAN This ultra-local caf\u00e9 in the heart of Road Town serves homemade island specialties. It's a great breakfast spot as well. Here is where you find classic island dishes: souse, curried chicken, stewed beef ribs, jerk chicken, and chicken roti. Sides are as good as the entrees, including fungi (a cornmeal polenta), plantains, and rice and peas.\n\nMain St.   284\/494-2764. Main courses $5\u2013$14. No credit cards. Daily 7am\u201310pm.\n\nPusser's Pub   CARIBBEAN\/ENGLISH Yes, this is Tortola's original Pusser's, standing proudly on the waterfront across from the ferry dock in Road Town. The storied pub still serves a few British standards like shepherd's pie and fish & chips\u2014but Caribbean influences have seeped in and now the menu is awash in conch, jerk chicken and pork, and grilled local fish. Take home Pusser's Navy mug filled with Pusser's Rum\u2014the classic \"single malt of rum\" favored by the British Royal Navy since the mid-1600s.\n\nWaterfront Dr. and Main St.   284\/494-3897. www.pussers.com. Reservations recommended. Main courses $7.95\u2013$22. Daily 11am\u201310pm.\n\nRoti Palace   CARIBBEAN Set on Road Town's historic old main street, this colorful West Indian cottage is the place to come for state-of-the-art roti. If you don't know roti, it's an East Indian transplant by way of Trinidad: a soft tortilla-like flatbread folded and filled with curry sauce and vegetables, fish, chicken, or meat. Be sure to have yours with a little hot pepper or mango sauce.\n\nOld Main St.   284\/494-4196. Main courses $8\u2013$25. No credit cards. Mon\u2013Sat 10am\u20136pm.\n\nWest End & North Shore\n\nExpensive\n\n1748 Restaurant   CONTINENTAL This beachfront restaurant in the Long Bay Beach Club (p. ) is set on the covered outside deck of an 18th-century sugar mill. It's a breezy spot to sample upscale continental classics like chicken cacciatore while watching the waves ripple onto Long Bay beach. Start with the popular white bean and sage soup and don't pass up the barbecued shrimp\u2014it's killer. The menu also includes a range of pastas and risottos.\n\ngroceries, markets & more: Provisioning Resources on Tortola\n\nTortola is a prime provisioning stop for boaters, but many people who rent houses, villas, condos and hotel rooms with full kitchens need to stock their pantries. Even if you're staying in a resort without self-catering facilities, it's always good to know where to buy snacks, drinks, and prepared foods. If you're in Road Town, consider a visit to Ample Hamper, Villa Cay Marina, Wickham's Cay I, Road Town (  284\/494-2494; www.amplehamper.com), which stocks packaged food, cheeses, and bottled wines.\n\nGourmet Deli: The French Deli  , on Wickham's Cay II (  284\/494-2195) sells high-end French and European gourmet prepared foods (including plats du jour and hearty soups), sandwiches, salads, wine, and pastries.\n\nGroceries: Shop in the store or provision online with RiteWay (  284\/437-1188; www.rtwbvi.com), the B.V.I.'s biggest grocery store chain, with seven locations on the islands (six on Tortola) including its flagship store in Pasea on Wickham's Cay II (with a Cash & Carry next door for bulk purchases). Bobby's Marketplace (  284\/494-2189; www.bobbysmarketplace.com), Wickham's Cay I, Road Town, delivers groceries straight to the ferry docks, marinas, and boat charters. The West End has Harbour Market (  284\/495-4541) at Soper's Hole Marina.\n\nFresh Seafood: Buy fresh fish, Caribbean lobster, and conch at the BVI Fishing Complex on Baughers Bay (  284\/494-3491). Another source for Caribbean lobster is Wayne Robinson (  284\/494-4097 or 284\/499-2251)\u2014he can hook you up with fishermen who go out daily filling orders for local restaurants.\n\nFresh Produce\/Fruit: Look for Movienne Fahie's farmstand set up across from Craft Alive village in Road Town on Fridays. The West End village of Sea Cow Bay has a Saturday vegetable market. Prophy's Farm sells organic eggs, fruit and vegetables and fresh salt from Salt Island (  284\/496-7190). Good Moon Farm (<http:\/\/goodmoonfarm.com>) will deliver fresh organic produce and fruit anywhere in the B.V.I., with free delivery offered in Tortola. A farmer's depot on old Main Street in Road Town sells local cow's milk, sweet potatoes, pumpkin, papaya, and cashew punch, peanut punch and passionfruit punch (  284\/544-6587). Call the BVI Dept. of Agriculture for more contacts (  284\/495-2110).\n\nOrganic Meat: L&C Poultry & Pig Plus, in Road Town (  284\/494-1310), sells pork, mutton, and eggs.\n\nIn the Long Bay Beach Club.   284\/495-4252. www.longbay.com. Reservations recommended. Main courses $15\u2013$27. Daily 7:30\u201310am, noon\u20133pm, and 6:30\u20139pm.\n\nThe Clubhouse at Frenchmans   CONTINENTAL The Clubhouse boasts a beautiful setting, up in the treetops in a round stone-and-wood aerie with wood-beamed ceilings and open-air views of the blue Caribbean. But we'd say the elegant food, overseen by Chef Paul Mason) is equal to the setting, as is the convivial atmosphere\u2014the place feels lit from within. The service is warm as well, with a small staff that cheerfully juggles a range of responsibilities. They might direct you to the grilled shrimp and black bean gateau, served with spicy mango salsa, to start. In a nod to French country cooking, Chef prepares a fine slow-roasted organic chicken Grandm\u00e8re, but then goes native with a gussied-up Caribbean lobster in saffron broth, fennel, and garlic. The island's most popular Sunday brunch is served here from 11am to 2pm ($27 three-course prix-fixe), with a menu that may include Belgian waffles with strawberry compote, a Boston beer bagel with house-made smoked salmon spread, and a Caribbean broiled steak marinated with Bajan herbs and served with Bernaise sauce.\n\nFrenchmans Cay Resort.   284\/494-8811. Reservations recommended. Main courses $15\u2013$27. Daily 5:30\u20139:30pm.\n\nSugar Mill Restaurant   CONTINENTAL\/CARIBBEAN Set in the ruins of an 18th-century sugarcane plantation, the Sugar Mill serves food that is immaculately and expertly prepared. No, it's not the cutting-edge California-fresh food that years ago set off fireworks at the Sugar Mill, won awards and spun off cookbooks\u2014that, in effect, brought the world to its door. Maybe the world caught up with the Sugar Mill playbook. At any rate, you can expect a quiet, gracious dining experience and often great food. And that setting! It's hard to believe that this romantic candlelit space was once the old rum distillery's superheated boiling house\u2014a place of misery in a tropical climate\u2014and that the mottled stone walls are made of cobblestone and rock slab wrenched from the streets of Liverpool nearly 400 years ago to use as ballast in trading ships on their way to the Americas. The walls were likely fashioned by slaves, who strengthened the cornerstones with brain and star coral drawn from the seas 200 yards away.\n\nIn the Sugar Mill Hotel (p. ).   284\/495-4355. www.sugarmillhotel.com\/restaurant. Reservations required. Main courses $26\u2013$40. Daily 7\u20139pm. Closed Aug\u2013Sept. From Road Town, drive west 11km (63\u20444 miles), turn right (north) over Zion Hill, and turn right at the T-junction opposite Sebastian's on the Beach; Sugar Mill is .8km (1\u20442 mile) down the road.\n\nModerate\n\nBananakeet   CARIBBEAN FUSION With some of the best food on the island, a truly warm and friendly staff, and views to kill for, this is a winner high above the North Shore on Windy Hill. The not-so-good news: It's located in the crook of a steep corkscrew road and a bit of a challenge to reach. The good news: You can call a taxi. Just don't miss a meal here\u2014or a sunset on the deck either, which is where you'll find the locals at quitting time. The specialty is seafood (the coconut shrimp is divine), but the menu also has a variety of other options, savory meat entrees like spicy grilled jerk pork loin with banana chutney, or a grilled steak topped wth caramelized onions, mushrooms, and Gorgonzola cheese. Live music is played on Sunday, Wednesday, and Friday.\n\nHeritage Inn, Windy Hill (p. ).   284\/494-5842. Reservations required. Main courses $15\u2013$35. Daily 11:30am\u2013midnight.\n\nNorth Shore Shell Museum Bar & Restaurant   CARIBBEAN Above the strange and wonderful North Shore Shell Museum, this laidback spot catches the breezes above Carrot Bay through big windows. This is as local as it gets, which means a homecooked vibe, overseen by Egberth Donovan, proprietor (and folk artist) of the museum on the first floor. Seafood is the highlight here, lobster and cracked conch are the house specialties. Call to reserve a table.\n\nLittle Carrot Bay.   284\/495-4714. Reservations required. Main courses $18\u2013$35. Daily 11:30am\u2013midnight.\n\nSebastian's Seaside Grille   CARIBBEAN\/INTERNATIONAL With wooden tables scattered indoors and out, you dine just feet from the waves. Which makes this casual spot a popular place to eat, though to be fair, it does island style food very well. Try the Anegada conch stew as a main course, served with Caribbean-style rice and peas. Other deftly done mains include shrimp Creole, ginger chicken, and jerk chicken, but if you're tired of island cuisine, know you can also get a solid grilled filet mignon here. The after-dinner treat: a small sample of Sebastian's rum.\n\nSebastian's on the Beach (p. ).   284\/495-4212. <http:\/\/sebastiansbvi.com>. Reservations required for dinner. Main courses $20\u2013$38. Daily 8\u201311:30am, noon\u20132:30pm, and 6:30\u20139:30pm.\n\nInexpensive\n\nIf you're looking for a good cup of espresso, head to Soper's Hole Marina to the D'Best Cup   (  284\/494-1096), where you can also get a range of other gourmet coffee drinks, sandwiches, and gelato.\n\nCruzin'   PIZZA\/CARIBBEAN For those looking for a satisfying pizza escape from all that conch and fish, this casual alfresco spot on Carrot Bay should do the trick. The specialty of the house is grilled pizza, and it comes in toppings that sound offbeat but execute nicely: shrimp curry, BLT, and BBQ chicken. You can also order grilled local lobster, rotis, and tacos.\n\nLittle Carrot Bay.   284\/340-3566. Main courses $13\u2013$16; pizza $18\u2013$25. Tues\u2013Sun 11:30am\u201310pm.\n\nQuito's Gazebo   CARIBBEAN\/INTERNATIONAL In an open-air wooden \"gazebo\" built right on the beach, this restaurant is one of two Cane Bay beach bars owned by Quito Rymer, the island's most famous musician. It's a gem hidden in plain sight. Not only does Rymer play here 3 nights a week (solo Tues and Thurs 8pm; Fri 9:30pm with a full band), but the kitchen serves up some of the island's best West Indian food, made to order by a real homestyle cook. The conch fritters are the finest on island. The curry roti, many think, ranks up there with the tops in Road Town. Grilled fish and jerk chicken come with superlative island slaw and fried plantains.\n\nCane Garden Bay.   284\/495-4837. Main courses $18\u2013$32; lunch platters, sandwiches, and salads $6\u2013$14. Tues\u2013Sun 11am\u20133pm and 6:30\u20139pm. Bar Tues\u2013Sun 11am\u2013midnight.\n\nEast End\n\nAt press time, locals were celebrating the reopening of The Last Resort (  284\/495-2520) on Bellamy Cay in Trellis Bay; this fun, popular spot, only reachable by boat, has good food and many fans. Another recommended spot to dine while you're waiting for a boat transfer on Trellis Bay is March\u00e9 at Trellis Bar & Grill (  284\/542-0586), with a surprisingly tasty roster of breakfast and lunch items, including a creamy conch chowder and grilled shrimp salad.\n\nExpensive\n\nBrandywine Estate Restaurant   MEDITERRANEAN BISTRO Set on a cobblestone garden terrace along Tortola's south shore, overlooking Sir Francis Drake Channel, this is easily one of the island's most beautiful restaurants. You can sit inside the elegant dining room, on a pretty patio with sea views, or back in the shady garden\u2014it's all alfresco, cooled by gentle tradewinds and tropical plantings. Although the menu changes seasonally, your meal might include a traditional Spanish paella; perfectly seared scallops served with a bacon and pea sauce; and a mahimahi and salmon \"braid,\" where the two filets are entwined and served with a savory saffron sauce.\n\nBrandywine Estate, Sir Francis Drake Hwy.   284\/495-2301. www.brandywinerestaurant.com. Reservations required. Main courses $26\u2013$38. Wed\u2013Mon noon\u201311pm.\n\nExploring Tortola\n\nBeaches\n\nTortola's wide, sandy beaches are rarely crowded, unless a cruise ship is in port. The best beaches are on the northern coast, especially Cane Garden Bay with its silky stretch of sand and gin-clear waters. Apple Bay is best for surfers, and Long Bay West is a dazzling strip of white sand running for a mile. Reached down a horrible road, riddled with pot holes, Smugglers Cove, with its palm-fringed beach, is worth the trouble to get there. Note: If you take a taxi to the sands, don't forget to arrange a time to be picked up.\n\nTortola's finest beach is Cane Garden Bay  , on the aptly named Cane Garden Bay Road, directly west of Road Town. You'll have to navigate some roller-coaster hills to get there, but these fine white sands, with sheltering palm trees and gentle surf, are among the most popular in the B.V.I. Outfitters here rent Hobie Cats, kayaks, and sailboards, and it's easy to rent beach chairs and umbrellas for $5. The calm seas make this a wonderful spot for standup paddleboarding (you can rent paddleboards here, as well). Beach bars line the sand, including Myett's and Quito's Gazebo. It's a real scene when cruise-ship passengers arrive in big safari vans, bringing vendors and hair braiders out of the woodwork. Still, with sparkling sapphire seas and forested hills and Jost Van Dayke on the horizon, it's quite a fetching place to be.Surfers like Josiah's Bay (for longboard surfing) and Apple Bay (locally known as Cappoons Bay), which is west of Cane Garden Bay along North Shore Road. There isn't much beach at Apple Bay, but that doesn't diminish activity when the surf's up\u2014so watch the locals take to the waves after 5pm. After enjoying the white sands here, you can have a drink at the Bomba Surfside Shack, a classic dive of a beach bar at the water's edge (p. ). Conditions all over the island are best in January and February. Smugglers Cove  , known for its tranquility and for the beauty of its sands, lies at the extreme western end of Tortola, opposite the offshore island of Great Thatch, and just north of St. John. It's a lovely crescent of white sand with calm turquoise waters. A favorite with locals, Smugglers Cove is also popular with snorkelers, who appreciate the fact that the reef is close to shore. The beach is located at the end of bumpy road through a grove of lush coconut palms. You can see the remains of the old set for the TV-movie remake of \"Old Man and the Sea,\" filmed here in 1990, but the long-standing honor bar is gone, replaced by a couple of enterprising fellows selling drinks and snacks out of the back of their cars.\n\nEast of Cane Garden Bay, Brewers Bay  , accessible via the long, steep Brewers Bay Road, has calm, clear waters that are ideal for snorkelers and small children. (When winter swells from the north kick up, it's a good surfing spot.) The only gold-sand beach on island is a great place to stroll or just sip a rum punch from the Bamboo beach bar and watch the world go by. It even has a sprinkling of plantation ruins. A bare-bones campground is tangled in the tropical foliage along the beach\u2014sometimes operational, sometimes not.\n\nThe 2km-long (11\u20444-mile) white-sand beach at Long Bay  , reached along Long Bay Road, is one of the most beautiful in the B.V.I. Joggers run along the water's edge, and spectacular sunsets make this spot perfect for romantic strolls. The Long Bay Beach Resort stands on the northeast side of the beach; many visitors like to book a table at the resort's restaurant overlooking the water.If you'd like to escape from the crowds at Cane Garden Bay and Brewers Bay, head east along Ridge Road until you come to Josiah's Bay Beach on the north coast. This beach lies in the foreground of Buta Mountain. If you visit in winter, beware: On many days there's a strong undertow, and there are no lifeguards.\n\nOn the island's south shore, Brandywine Bay is a pretty sweep of crescent beach right next to the highway and is rarely touristed. It was rebuilt with dredged sand and may see some development in the coming years.\n\nTouring the Island\n\nA taxi tour of the island is a must and a great way to get the lay of the land before you tackle the driving yourself. But the best taxi tours are even more than that, giving you an overview and insight into the island's culture, history, and sociology. Taxi drivers are great resources for insider travel tips as well, like tapping into a network of local fishermen for fresh lobster, or finding the beach that's just right for you. We highly recommend Wayne Robinson (  284\/494-4097 or 284\/499-2251) as a warm, reliable, and erudite guide. Expect to pay around $110 for two persons for a 2-hour tour; extra persons are $20. Wayne's van can hold up to 14 passengers.\n\nA taxi tour of the island might include a visit to Soper's Marina, on the island's West End; a sweep of the beautiful North Shore beaches (including Cane Garden Bay), also on the West End; a drive along historic Main Street in Road Town (and a retail expedition to the Craft Alive Village shops; see below); and a stop at Sage Mountain National Park (see below). Serious shoppers of local art and gifts should definitely include a trip to Aragorn's Local Arts and Crafts Center in Trellis Bay, on the island's East End (see below). If you want to dig deeper into the culture and history of island life, ask your driver to include the following little gems, all fascinating.\n\nCallwood Rum Distillery   DISTILLERY With 400 years of history, this, the last distillery still standing on Tortola (once there were 53!), continues to blend and bottle its own rum in an 18th-century stone structure, the very picture of beautiful decay, all tangled in tropical greenery. The ramshackle interior has a tobacco patina, and you can sample the rums, of which 50 gallons are produced every day. Buy a bottle or two; they're well-priced and make a nice souvenir.\n\nCane Garden Bay. Free admission.\n\nFahie Hill Murals   PUBLIC ART A series of colorful murals done by different local artists follows the narrow, sinuous curves of mountainous Ridge Road. Each mural is a vignette of an old way of island life, from \"banking\" (terracing) crops on the island's steep hills to cutting sugarcane to telling ghost stories by lantern light. Pull over to give the murals a good look (you may be joined by safari buses filled with cruise-ship passengers).\n\nFahie Hill, Ridge Rd., btw. Great Mountain Rd. and Johnson's Ghut Rd. Free admission.\n\nJ.R. Neal Botanical Gardens   GARDEN This little 1.6-hectare (4-acre) park in the middle of Road Town was created by the B.V.I. National Parks Trust and is becoming an increasingly important repository of endangered and threatened island species. It has an orchid house, a small rainforest, and a palm grove. The aptly named flamboyant tree, with its brilliant scarlet flowers, is one of the highlights here.\n\nBotanic Rd.   284\/494-2069. www.bvinpt.org. Free admission; donations taken.\n\nisland-hopper DAY-TRIPPING\n\nIf you'd like to island-hop, seeing as many of the different British Virgins as you can on your trip, your best bet is to base yourself in Tortola and take day-trips from there. A number of public ferries (and airlines) offer regular trips from Tortola to the larger islands. Speedy's (www.bviferries.com) travels between Road Town and Spanish Town. Virgin Gorda. New Horizons Ferry Service (  284\/495-9278) runs the 25-minute trip between Tortola and Jost Van Dyke. Spend the day at the beach and lunch at one of the local eateries, such as Foxy's, before returning to Tortola. Road Town Fast Ferry (www.roadtownfastferry.com) travels from Road Town to Anegada on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday. Once there, of course, you can have a taxi driver deliver you to the beach.\n\nBut many other hidden islets and tiny islands are only accessible by charter boat or yacht. We highly recommend taking a customized sailing, snorkeling, or island-hopping trip while you're on island. The following day-sail operators come highly recommended:\n\n  Aristocat Day Sails (  284\/499-1249; <http:\/\/aristocatcharters.com>): Hop aboard luxury 48-foot catamarans for intimate swimming and snorkeling island excursions. The Aristocat runs full-day swimming, snorkeling, and lunch trips out of Soper's Hole marina to Norman Island and Jost Van Dyke. The Lionheart has full-day excursions from Road Town's Village Cay to Peter, Salt, and Cooper islands as well as Virgin Gorda's the Baths. Cost is $120 per person, half-price for children, lunch included.\n\n  Kuralu (  284\/495-4381; www.kuralu.com): Swim, snorkel, and sail on uncrowded, all-inclusive day sails on this 50-foot cruising catamaran out of Soper's Hole. Kuralu goes to places like Norman Island and the Indians, Jost Van Dyke, and Green Cay and Sandy Spit. Full-day sails cost $110 per person, half-price for children, lunch included.\n\n  White Squall II (  284\/541-2222; www.whitesquall2.com): Sail in a circa-1936 day-sail schooner on full-day excursions of magical spots like Norman Island and the Caves, the Baths, and Cooper Island. Cost is $110 per person; the boat leaves from Road Town.\n\nNorth Shore Shell Museum   MUSEUM There may be no one manning the \"museum\" when you visit, but you're welcome to explore on your own. The folk artist\/poet\/proprietor\/chef Egberth Donovan has created this splendidly cluttered, open-air assemblage of shells. Shells comprise floors and walls and have been made into shell boats and shell mobiles. Lots of wise words scribbled on boards and surfaces are scattered about as well. The museum even has a restaurant on the second floor, serving local lobster and regional dishes to those who call and reserve a table.\n\nNorth Coast Rd. Free admission; donations taken.\n\n1780 Lower Estate SugarWorks Museum   MUSEUM Built by 18th-century slaves, this original 1780 sugar works structure was once part of a thriving harborside sugar plantation. Inside is a treasure trove of island artifacts, including old muskets, coal irons, bedding stuffed with banana leaves, woven baskets; a maritime display; a native folk medicine exhibit (slate bush is good for the kidneys, and angelica works for cataracts and colds); and a rotating art gallery.\n\nStation Ave.   284\/494-9206. Free admission.\n\nWatersports & Outdoor Adventures\n\nMost visitors come to Tortola not for historic sights but to explore the island's natural scenery, with its rugged mountain peaks, lush foliage, and wide, sandy beaches.\n\nBOAT CHARTERING\/BAREBOATING Tortola boasts the largest fleet of bareboat sailing charters in the world. One of the best places to get outfitted is the Moorings, Wickham's Cay (  888\/979-0153 in the U.S. and Canada, or 284\/494-2331 in the B.V.I.; www.moorings.com). Depending on your nautical knowledge and skills, you can arrange a bareboat rental (with no crew) or a fully crewed rental with a skipper, staff, and a cook. Boats come equipped with a portable barbecue, snorkeling gear, dinghy, linens, and galley equipment. If you're going out on your own, expect to get a thorough briefing session on Virgin Island waters and anchorages. The cost for bareboat rentals varies depending on the season and the boat. Powerboats, daysailers, and catamarans can range from $385 to $1,700 per day.\n\nHIKING No visit to Tortola is complete without a trip to Sage Mountain National Park  , rising to an elevation of 523m (1,716 ft.). Here, you'll find traces of a primeval rainforest, and you can enjoy a picnic while overlooking neighboring islets and cays. Covering 37 hectares (91 acres), the park protects the remnants of Tortola's original forests (those that were not burned or cleared during the island's plantation era). Go west from Road Town to reach the mountain. Before you head out, stop by the tourist office in Road Town and pick up the brochure \"Sage Mountain National Park.\" It has a location map, directions to the forest and parking, and an outline of the main trails through the park. From the parking lot at the park, a trail leads to the park entrance. The two main trails are the Rainforest Trail and the Mahogany Forest Trail.\n\nScuba diving The region has a number of excellent dive operators, most of which also offer snorkeling excursions. Among them are Sail Caribbean Divers (  284\/495-1675; www.sailcaribbeandivers.com), with seven locations in the B.V.I. including three full-service scuba centers on Tortola alone; and Blue Water Divers, Road Town (  284\/494-2847; www.bluewaterdiversbvi.com), with dive-shop locations at Soper's Hole and Nanny Cay. A resort course costs around $105; a PADI open-water certification is $410.\n\nSnorkeling Many who stay on Tortola do snorkeling trips to neighboring islands, but you don't have to leave the island to enjoy a fine snorkel. Many think Smugglers Cove (p. ) is swell. Another spot is Long Bay, with the best spots near the west end of the beach. Brewer's Bay has good spots along the reef. Frenchmans Cay has surprisingly good snorkeling around the rocks near Frenchmans resort. Another great place to snorkel is just offshore at Norman Island (see below) and its neighboring islands the Indians, four fingers of rock jutting out of sea at depths of between 10 and 50 feet. The Indians have no beach, just moorings to anchor, but if you break bread in the water, reef fish (like yellowtail snappers) will come up to meet you. Go to \"Island-Hopper Day-Tripping \" (p. ) for a list of operators that go to Norman Isle and the Indians.\n\nSurfing Apple Bay is the island's top surfing spot. You can rent surfboards from HIHO (  284\/494-0337; www.go-hiho.com) in advance and pick them up at HIHO's Road Town store or have them delivered to you at your lodging (for a fee). At Soper's Hole marina, Tortola Island Surf and Sail (  284\/494-0123; www.bviwatertoys.com) rents shortboards, longboards, and standup paddleboards, among other water-sports equipment.\n\nB.V.I. FAVORITE scuba SITES\n\nThe British Virgin Islands have a wealth of world-class dive sites, including the area between Salt and Cooper islands known as \"Wreck Alley,\" home to four shipwrecks. The following sites are just a sampling. Go to \"Scuba Diving,\" above, for recommended dive operators.\n\n  The wreck of the RMS Rhone   sank in 1867 near the western point of Salt Island. \"Skin Diver\" magazine called it \"the world's most fantastic shipwreck dive.\" The wreck was featured in the 1977 movie \"The Deep.\"\n\n  Chikuzen is another excellent dive site off Tortola. The 266-foot steel-hulled refrigerator ship sank off the island's eastern end in 1981 and is now home to yellowtail, barracuda, black-tip sharks, octopus, and drum fish.\n\n The newest wreck in Wreck Alley, the interisland cargo ship Island Seal went down in 2006 on a reef near Brandywine Bay near Salt Island. It was moved to Wreck Alley in 2013.\n\n South of Ginger Island, Alice in Wonderland is a deep-dive site with a wall that begins at around 3.6m (12 ft.) and slopes gently to 30m (98 ft.). It abounds with rainbow-hued fan coral and mammoth mushroom-shaped coral.\n\n  Spyglass Wall is another offshore dive site dropping to a sandy bottom and filled with sea fans and large coral heads. The drop is from 3 to 18m (10\u201359 ft.). Divers here should keep an eye out for tarpon, eagle rays, and stingrays.\n\nShopping\n\nUnlike the U.S. Virgin Islands, the British Virgins have no duty-free shopping. British goods are imported without duty, though, and you can find some good buys among these imported items, especially in English china. In general, store hours are Monday to Saturday from 9am to 4pm.\n\nRoad Town\n\nYou'll find the densest concentration of shops and restaurants at Wickham's Cay in Road Town.\n\nBamboushay Pottery   HOUSEWARES Bamboushay makes handsome kiln-fired stoneware\u2014homeware, tableware, scones, and more\u2014in its studio in Nanny Cay. In addition to pottery, this shop sells coffee and Island Roots homemade patties. 109 Main St.   284\/494-7752. www.bamboushay.com.\n\nCraft Alive Village   GIFTS This collection of colorful West Indian\u2013style cottages has been newly landscaped and revamped, and amid the mass-produced clutter is a growing assemblage of BVI\u2013made arts and crafts. Look for Asante Studio, where BVI master artist (and a founding member of the BVI Art Foundation) Joseph Hodge (  284\/53-0563) paints watercolors and acrylics (often genre scenes of local farming and fishing). Locally Yours sells homemade \"lollies\" made with the juice of local fruits like guava and Caribbean cherry. Joan Wilson makes embroidered children's dresses and hand-stitched linens. There is also a farmers' market on Saturday morning. Road Town Harbor.\n\nExploring \"Treasure Island\"\n\nAcross Drake Channel from Tortola lies the former pirate den known as Norman Island. Legend has it that Norman Isle was the inspiration for Robert Louis Stevenson's \"Treasure Island,\" first published in 1883. You can row a dinghy into the southernmost cave of the island\u2014with bats overhead and phosphorescent patches\u2014where Stevenson's Mr. Fleming supposedly stowed his precious treasure. A series of other Norman Isle caves are some of the best-known snorkeling spots in the B.V.I., teeming with spectacular fish, octopuses, squid, and colorful coral. The lively island beach bar, Pirate's Bight, has been reborn after a 2013 fire. Intrepid hikers climb through scrubland to the island's central ridge, Spy Glass Hill. Many cruisers make Norman Isle a favorite stop, and day-sail operators offer swimming and snorkeling excursions here; see \"Island-Hopper Day-Tripping,\" above.\n\nSunny Caribbee Spice Co.   FOOD This quaint and colorful shop specializing in Caribbean spices and condiments in located in a historic West Indian building that was the first hotel on Tortola. It also sells potions, botanicals, soaps, teas, and coffees. The spices make wonderful gifts and are charmingly packaged, but the ingredients are sourced from all over the Caribbean and not necessarily B.V.I.-specific. 119 Main St.   284\/494-2178. www.sunnycaribbee.com.\n\nPusser's Company Store   FOOD\/WINE The little empire that is Pussers sells clothing, nautical tchotchkes, and gourmet food items including Pusser's famous Rum Cake, meats, spices, fish, and a nice selection of wines. Pusser's Rum is one of the best-selling items here. Main St. and Waterfront Rd.   284\/494-2467. www.pussers.com.\n\nVirgin Islands Folk Museum   GIFTS You might find a few interesting BVI-centric souvenirs at this museum in the Penn House, a charming West Indian cottage built by a shipwright in 1911. 98 Main St.   284\/494-3701, ext. 5055.\n\nWest End\n\nYou'll find shops at Soper's Hole Marina, including Zenaida   (  284\/495-4867), an atmospheric little shop selling handblock fabrics and scarves, sarongs, and Moroccan lamps; outposts of both Sunny Caribbee and Pusser's (see above); the Arawak Surf Shop (  284\/494-5240), selling island clothing, crafts, and gifts; and the Harbour Market grocery (  284\/347-1250).\n\nGreen Glass Studio   GIFTS Founded by local nonprofit GreenVI, this outdoor glass-blowing studio on Cane Garden Bay in Tortola recycles the daily refuse from the local beach bars\u2014beer and booze bottles\u2014to fashion beautiful hand-blown glass delicacies, from starfish paperweights to turtle ornaments to flower glass sculptures. The GreenVI Glass Studio has trained a number of locals in the intricacies of glass-blowing, and a local octogenarian makes cloth bags out of donated clothing to carry them home in. It's open daily 9am to 5pm. Cane Garden Bay.   284\/542-2266.\n\nEast End\n\nAragorn's Local Arts and Crafts Center   ART\/GIFTS Aragorn's Studio is a showcase for the most talented artisans in the islands. Any search for wonderful local art should start at Aragorn's Studio. Tortola-born Aragorn is a printmaker, potter, and sculptor; his giant \"fireballs\"\u2014silhouetted metal sculptures\u2014are set ablaze during the monthly Fireball Full Moon Parties on Trellis Bay. Look for miniature fire balls (candle holders), beautiful original prints, pottery, jewelry, and gifts, the work of Aragorn, inhouse artisans, and regional artists. It also sells gourmet delicacies: organic produce and herbs from Aragorn's Good Moon Farm; salt raked from the old salt ponds on Salt Island; and traditional coconut bread and banana bread baked in the nearby Mangrove Bakery. Trellis Bay.   284\/495-1849. www.aragornsstudio.com.\n\nHIHO   CLOTHING Founded by two brothers who spent their childhood on Tortola, this clothing firm makes comfortable and stylish \"Caribbean-inspired\" clothing for men and women: cotton dresses and flirty tunics and sturdy T-shirts. It's several notches above your local T-shirt outlet. HIHO has three locations in Tortola, including this one in Trellis Bay, and also rents surfboards and paddleboards out of its Road Town shop. Trellis Bay.   284\/494-7694. <http:\/\/shop.go-hiho.com>.\n\nTortola After Dark\n\nAsk around to find out which hotel might have entertainment on any given evening. Steel bands and fungi or scratch bands (musicians who improvise on locally available instruments) appear regularly. Pick up a copy of \"Limin' Times,\" an entertainment magazine that lists what's happening locally; it's usually available at hotels.\n\nBomba Surfside Shack, Cappoons Bay (  284\/495-4148), is the oldest and most famous hangout on the island, a shack cobbled together with scrap driftwood, corrugated metal, rubber tires, and other flotsam and jetsam and plopped right on the beach near the West End. Undergarments swing in the breezes; graffiti covers the wood. Bomba Callwood is usually somewhere in attendance, a big man in overalls with a wreath of smoke around his head. Bomba's attracts a varied crowd, from surfers riding the swells at Cappoons to vans of cruise-ship passengers stopping for a photo op and a swig of Bomba's rum punch. Despite its makeshift appearance, the shack is quite a business enterprise, bringing in crowds of visitors every month for Bomba's Full Moon bashes, where Bomba's \"herbal\" mushroom tea simmers in a cauldron in the bushes. It's open daily from 10am to midnight (or later, depending on business).\n\nQuito Rymer, one of the island's most well-known musicians, oversees his own mini-empire along the eastern stretch of Cane Garden Bay. The more touristy spot is the bar\/restaurant Rhymer's (  284\/495-4639; p. ), where you can sip cold beer or tropical rum concoctions along with a casual menu of ribs, conch chowder, and more. The beach bar and restaurant is open daily 8am to 9pm. Quito's Gazebo   (  284\/495-4837; p. ) is where the guitarist plays solo on Tuesdays and Thursdays (8pm) and Friday with a full band (9:30pm). It serves any and every kind of alcoholic libation and excellent food from an open-air restaurant built almost directly above the waves.\n\nMyett's   (  284\/495-9649) is another Cane Garden Bay hot spot, with a prime location right on the beach and regular live music; look for a Caribbean party every Wednesday night. In the same area, but not directly on the beach, visit Columbus Sunset Bar, Cane Garden Bay (  284\/495-751), where locals gather to drink, talk, and sample good island food (they also have clean rooms to rent).\n\nFinally, over on Little Apple Bay, check out Sebastian's (  284\/495-4212; p. ), especially on Sunday, when you can dance to live music under the stars, at least in winter.\n\nVirgin Gorda\n\nThe second-largest island in the British cluster, Virgin Gorda has a population of some 3,000 people. It was named Virgin Gorda, or \"Fat Virgin,\" by Christopher Columbus on his second voyage to the New World in 1493. It's located 19km (12 miles) east of Tortola and 41km (25 miles) east of St. Thomas.\n\nVirgin Gorda was a fairly desolate agricultural community until Laurance Rockefeller established the resort of Little Dix here in the early 1960s, following his success with Caneel Bay on St. John in the 1950s. He envisioned a \"wilderness beach,\" where privacy and solitude reigned. Other major hotels followed in the wake of Little Dix, but seclusion is still highly guarded and respected. Many visitors think Virgin Gorda is home to some of the most beautiful natural attractions in the British Virgins, including the boulders-strewn beach known as the Baths; the island's highest point, Gorda Peak; and the gin-clear bays of the Valley.\n\nEssentials\n\nGetting There\n\nBy Plane Air Sunshine (  800\/327-8900 in the U.S. or Canada, or 284\/495-8900 in the B.V.I.; www.airsunshine.com) offers direct flights between San Juan (or St. Thomas) and Virgin Gorda; direct flights between Vieques, Puerto Rico, and Virgin Gorda; and direct flights between St. Croix and Virgin Gorda. Cape Air (  800\/227-3247 in the U.S. and U.S.V.I., or 284\/495-2100 in the B.V.I.; www.capeair.com) flies between San Juan and Virgin Gorda. Seabourne Airlines (  866\/359-8784, or 340\/773-6442 in the U.S.V.I.; www.seaborneairlines.com) offers regularly scheduled flights between San Juan and Virgin Gorda.\n\nBy Boat Both Smith's Ferry (  284\/495-4495; <http:\/\/bviferryservices.com>) and Speedy's (  284\/495-5235; www.bviferries.com) operate daily ferry service between Tortola (both Road Town and Beef Island) and Virgin Gorda (both Spanish Town and Bitter End\/Leverick Bay); round-trip fares are $30 to $65 adults, $28 children 5\u201311. The North Sound Express (  284\/495-2138), near the airport on Beef Island, has daily connections between Spanish Town, Leverick Bay, and the Bitter End Yacht Club on Virgin Gorda; round-trip fares are $40 to $55 adults, $20 to $32 children.\n\nYou can also get direct ferry service from St. Thomas to Virgin Gorda, but runs are infrequent (and only operate on certain days of the week)\u2014so you may need to ferry to Tortola first (most likely Road Town) and then catch another ferry to Spanish Town, Virgin Gorda.\n\nMost of the high-end resorts have their own boats to transfer guests from the airport on Beef Island to Virgin Gorda.\n\nGetting Around\n\nBy Taxi Taxis are widely available, and, much like everywhere else in the islands, drivers double as solid tour guides. Contact the good folks at Potters' Taxi Service for excellent taxi service and island tours (  284\/495-5329). The Valley Taxi Association is at   284\/495-5539. The standard fee for traveling between Spanish Town and Gun Creek is $30. Many drivers operate open-sided taxi safari buses that can hold up to 22 passengers. These buses charge upwards of $3 to $5 per person to transport a passenger, say, from the Valley to the Baths.\n\nBy Car If you'd like to rent a car, try one of the local firms, such as Virgin Gorda Car Rental (  284\/496-0383; www.virgingordacar.com) or Mahogany Rentals (  284\/495-5469; <http:\/\/mahogany.nfshost.com>), both in the Valley close to the yacht harbor. Both companies also offer taxi tours and transfers.\n\nVirgin Gorda\n\nRemember: Drive on the left. Road conditions on Virgin Gorda range from good to extremely poor. An aerial view of the island shows what looks like three bulky masses connected by two very narrow isthmuses. The North Sound resorts are not even accessible by road at all, requiring ferryboat transfers from Gun Creek.One possibility for exploring Virgin Gorda by car is to drive from the southwest to the northeast along the island's rocky and meandering spine. This route will take you to the Baths (in the extreme southeast), to Spanish Harbour (near the middle), and eventually, after skirting the mountainous edges of Gorda Peak, to the most northwesterly tip of the island's road system, near North Sound. Here, a miniarmada of scheduled ferryboats runs between Gun Creek and North Sound resorts.\n\n  Virgin Gorda\n\nBanks\/ATMs Scotiabank (www.scotiabank.com) has a full-service bank in Spanish Town near the Yacht Harbour Shopping Centre. Both Scotiabank and First Caribbean (www.cibcfcib.com) have ATM locations at the Yacht Harbour Shopping Centre.\n\nDentists & Doctors Contact Apex Medical Center, Millionaire Rd., the Valley (  284\/495-6557).\n\nDrugstore Go to Island Drug Centre at Spanish Town (  284\/495-5449).\n\nEmergencies Call   999 or 911.\n\nInternet Access The Bath & Turtle restaurant, in Yacht Harbour Marina (  284\/495-5239), has free Wi-FI.\n\nPolice There is a station in the Valley at Spanish Town (  284\/495-7584).\n\nTourist Information The island's tourist office is in Virgin Gorda Yacht Harbour, Spanish Town (  284\/495-5181).\n\nWhere to Stay\n\nMany people who come to the island rent villas. One of the best sources for villa rentals is Virgin Gorda Villa Rentals Ltd., P.O. Box 63, Leverick Bay, Virgin Gorda, B.V.I. (  800\/848-7081 or 284\/495-7421; www.virgingordabvi.com). A 5-night minimum stay is required in the off season, and a 7-night minimum stay is requested in winter. Most accommodations have access to an outdoor pool, dining facilities, a spa, tennis courts, and extensive watersports. Wi-Fi is free in most rentals. Weekly rates range from $900 to whopping $9,000 for seriously luxe digs.\n\nExpensive\n\nBiras Creek Resort   Reachable only by boat, Biras Creek delivers a kind of luxurious serenity that's thoroughly rejuvenating. This is not where the action is\u2014that would be next door at lively Bitter End, which you can reach by 20-minute hiking trail\u2014but for a soulful immersion in the natural world, with all the creature comforts at your fingertips, Biras Creek delivers. This is the kind of place where you can truly unplug (there's no TV, and cellphone coverage is spotty); where studying the antics of chickens, iguanas, and hermit crabs becomes part of your daily routine; where you can reach up and almost pluck a thousand stars from the velvety night skies.\n\nThey get the details right here: Each suite comes with state-of-the-art bedding, complimentary bottle of rum, big picture windows, and sweet little flashlights to help you navigate the pathways in the dark. The d\u00e9cor is chic and modern, with each suite book-ended by ultra-private patios and garden showers. The resort has two Grand Suites, each with two master suites and private plunge pools. Ask for a room facing the open Atlantic, where the wild surf is deliciously dramatic. Each suite comes with two bikes, a fun and helpful transport to fully cover the sprawling, 140-acre property. Bike to the beach on the Caribbean side; it has soft white sand, but the water is a little grassy\u2014still, it's a lovely spot to have the barbecue lunch. On the way you'll pass a paddock, home to the resort's five Paso Fino horses (rescued from Puerto Rico in 2009), ready to ride. Guests can also take the resort's little Boston Whaler boats out for 2-hour excursions to remote coves and beaches nearby\u2014it's great fun to tootle around the blue expanse of North Sound and stop in at Prickly Pear Island or Saba Rock for lunch and a swim.\n\nHilltop at Biras Creek (p. ), the on-site restaurant, is the best restaurant on the island, with magical views from its perch high above North Sound.\n\nBiras Creek is ideal for couples but is becoming more family-friendly, particularly in the summer and spring breaks.\n\n  877\/883-0756 or 284\/394-3555. www.biras.com. 32 units. FAP (Full American Plan) rates (all meals included, no drinks) winter $790\u2013$1,960 suite; off season $660\u2013$1,540 suite. You can also opt for room-only rates. Private motor launch from Beef Island airport $95 per person round-trip. No children ages 7 and under. Amenities: Restaurant; bar; babysitting; Boston whalers; exercise room; helipad; hiking trails; pool (outdoor); spa; 2 tennis courts (lit); watersports equipment\/rentals, Wi-Fi (free).\n\nBitter End Yacht Club   What began in the 1950s as a primitive and ramshackle sailors' stop is now the liveliest of the B.V.I. resorts, a full-service sailing complex that opens onto the North Sound's gorgeous deepwater harbor, accessible only by boat. You almost expect a Somerset Maugham heroine to come waltzing through the lobby, a British Empire outpost of Balinese teak and whirring fans. Accommodations have a breezy-casual rustic elegance, with lots of burnished wood and old clocks and a vintage-yacht look. You can stay in hillside chalets (North Sound Suites) or in the resort's original cottages along the beachfront\u2014either way, you'll have your own private patio or veranda to admire the views. True to its roots as a self-sustaining survivor, the Bitter End is an eco pioneer, generating its own electricity (much through solar power) and collecting and desalinating its own water.\n\nThere are activities aplenty at Bitter End, from movie screenings in the Sand Palace to sailing school lesson to Champagne cruises to snorkeling excursions. The resort has more shops than the rest of Virgin Gorda combined, practically. The pool is big and beautiful, enveloped in checkerboard tiles and coconut palms. The open-air Clubhouse Steak & Seafood Grille has front-row North Sound views, with high beamed ceilings hung with international nautical flags and Moroccan lamps; it's filled with happy chatter through breakfast, lunch, and dinner.\n\n  800\/872-2392 in the U.S. for reservations, or 284\/494-2746. www.beyc.com. 85 units, 5 yachts. Winter (double occupancy) $700\u2013$1,840 beachfront villa, suite, yacht, or hillside villa; off season (double occupancy) $500\u2013$1,360 all units. Rates include all meals. Take the private ferry from the Beef Island airport, $30 per person one-way. Amenities: 3 restaurants; pub; babysitting; exercise room; pool (outdoor); watersports equipment\/rentals; Wi-Fi (free).\n\nMango Bay Resort   Nestled on lushly landscaped grounds, these resort villas are set on a ridiculously beautiful beach around a ridiculously beautiful blue lagoon. You can stay in suites in resort duplex villas or in your own private villa, enjoying all the comforts and conveniences of home, plus resort services. In fact, all units but studios have full kitchens. The lodgings are extremely adaptable and have many lockout capabilities for larger groups. Resort villa duplexes have high-ceilinged great rooms with furnishings in warm earth tones and tile patios with dining tables and rattan chairs. Big picture windows and doors open to the tradewinds and the golden sands of Mahoe Bay.\n\n  284\/495-5672. www.mangobayresort.com. 26 units. Winter $295 studio, $435\/$495 1-bedroom suite\/villa, $585\/$755 2-bedroom suite\/villa, $985 3-bedroom villa; off season $220 studio, $300\/$360 1-bedroom suite\/villa, $440\/$580 2-bedroom suite\/villa, $695 3-bedroom villa. Amenities: Restaurant; bar; pool (private villas only); limited watersports; Wi-Fi (free).\n\nRosewood Little Dix Bay   This palace of casual elegance is mighty fine in every way. In fact, with new management freshening up the place and turning to eco-conscious innovations, Little Dix has never been better. To the relief of many long-standing guests, that means more of the same. Endearingly, rooms have not had keys since the resort opened in 1964\u2014Virgin Gorda is notable for its lack of crime\u2014although you can lock yourself in securely at night.\n\nCelebrating its 50th anniversary in 2014, this former RockResort holds a special place in the heart of many, and one big reason is the warm, insightful service from the best staff in the Virgin Islands. There is a wonderful sense of ownership by the staff, a good number of whom have worked here 20, 30, even 40 years (Little Dix is the island's second-largest employer, after the government).The setting doesn't hurt either: Little Dix is comfortably sandwiched between a half-mile of crescent beach and tropical forest. All of the bright, airy rooms face the beach, with private terraces that offer sea views. Trade winds breeze through wooden louvers and screens, and bathrooms are roomy and luxurious. The details matter, little touches like wooden walking sticks and complimentary bottles of rum in your room. Step outside and snorkel right off the beach; we saw hawksbill turtles chomping on seagrass and rays skimming the bottom. It's a quick boat ride (or 1.5-mile walk along a wooded trail) to the beautiful beach at Savannah Bay. Children are welcomed (kids under 5 eat free), and families generally stay at the Ocean Cottages, four buildings on the south end of the resort, close to the complimentary Rose Buds kids' activities club. Little Dix is also just a 20-minute stroll from Spanish Town, the island's main town. The Sense Spa   is utterly fabulous, with a dreamy setting in a tropical glade on the resort's western flank. You await your spa treatment around an infinity pool, with spectacular views of the Dog islands below fringed in rustling palms. Nonguests can arrange spa treatments here as well. In the fall, Little Dix partners with Necker Island for the annual Necker Cup, a Pro-Am charity doubles tournament where big-name tennis players compete and run clinics. The Pavilion (p. ) is one of the most romantic dinner spots on Virgin Gorda, serving themed buffets 6 nights a week.\n\n  888\/767-3966 in the U.S., or 284\/495-5555. www.littledixbay.com. 100 units. Winter $725\u2013$950 double, from $1,200 suite; off season $380\u2013$775 double, from $875 suite. Extra person $75. Private ferry from Beef Island airport: $115 per person round-trip (children 5\u201311 $58); air taxi transfers from St. Thomas also available. Amenities: 3 restaurants; 2 bars; babysitting; children's programs; exercise room; pool; room service; spa; 7 tennis courts (lit); watersports equipment; Wi-Fi (free).\n\nModerate\n\nFischer's Cove Beach Hotel   Set on the white-sand Paradise Beach, this good-value, locally owned barefoot beach hotel has eight free-standing stone cottages, each with one or two bedrooms and a living\/dining space, as well as 12 smallish hotel studio rooms with balconies to soak up the sea (or garden) views. Rooms have tile floors, gauzy curtains, and an oyster-shell palette. A food store near the grounds is a great place to stock up on provisions. An open-air restaurant onsite serves both Caribbean and Continental classics, not to mention live music twice weekly.\n\n  284\/495-5252. www.fischerscove.com. 20 units. Winter $165\u2013$175 double, $245\u2013$255 studio cottage, $370 family cottage; off season $145\u2013$155 double, $125\u2013$205 studio cottage, $255 family cottage. MAP (breakfast and dinner) $40 per person extra. Amenities: Restaurant; bar; babysitting; children's playground; watersports equipment\/rentals; Wi-Fi (free in lounge).\n\nGuavaberry Spring Bay Vacation Homes   Just minutes from the Baths and a short stroll to the beach at beautiful Spring Bay, these handsome redwood \"treehouses\" on stilts are a throwback to a simpler time. Don't expect TVs or phones; air-conditioning is offered (for a fee) only in some cottages. Do expect fully outfitted cottages with a private feel, where screened and louvered walls let in the sea breezes. Each one-, two-, or three-bedroom house comes with a complete kitchen, dining and living areas, and a splendid sundeck overlooking Sir Francis Drake Passage. Interiors are modest, with rattan furniture and linens in tropical prints. A well-stocked on-site provisioning store, the commissary, has groceries, wines and beers, and kitchen staples, but Spanish Town and the Yacht Harbour Shopping Centre are just a mile away. You can even swim to the famous Baths from the Spring Bay beach.\n\n  284\/495-5227. www.guavaberryspringbay.com. 18 units. Winter $235\u2013$420; off season $150\u2013$320. Extra person $25. No credit cards. Amenities: Babysitting; watersports equipment\/rentals; Wi-Fi ($2 per half-hour).\n\nSaba Rock Resort   A great escape, this idyllic retreat is perched on its own little 1-acre cay in the middle of North Sound; it's only accessible by free ferry or boat. The island belonged for 3 decades to the late legendary diver Bert Kilbride, who discovered some 90 shipwrecks in and around the B.V.I. and whose scuba-diving resort course is taught around the world. Bert's former private island has been transformed into a luxe complex of nine one- and two-bedroom suites. Today this boutique hotel is ideal for swimming, sailing, or exploring North Sound. But with a good restaurant and jaunty bar right on the property, you'll never have to leave. Look for the little nautical museum with shipwreck artifacts accumulated by Bert.\n\n  284\/495-7711. www.sabarock.com. 8 units. Winter $150\u2013$295 double, $295 quad, $495\u2013$550 2-bedroom suite; off season $140\u2013$250 double, $250 quad, $475 2-bedroom suite. Amenities: Restaurant; bar; watersports equipment\/rental; Wi-Fi (free).\n\nInexpensive\n\nLeverick Bay Resort & Marina   This good-value, happening spot is set along the southern edge of beautiful North Sound. The d\u00e9cor in the 14 colorful rooms may be in need of an update, but the seafront balcony or veranda makes up for any style issues. The complex offers a food market and two small beaches\u2014but the beauteous Savannah Bay is a 10-min. drive away. The Restaurant at Leverick Bay   is a winner, serving fresh local seafood right on the beach.\n\n  800\/848-7081 in the U.S., 800\/463-9396 in Canada, or 284\/495-7421. www.leverickbay.com. 14 units, 4 condos. Winter $149 double; off season $119 double. Extra person $36. Amenities: Restaurant; bar; dive shop; pool (outdoor); tennis court (lit); watersports equipment\/rentals; Wi-Fi (in some; free).\n\nWhere to Eat\n\nExpensive\n\nHilltop Restaurant at Biras Creek Resort   INTERNATIONAL For many people, this hilltop restaurant high above North Sound has the most beautiful setting on island. For others, Hilltop serves the island's best food. We fall in with both camps. The four-course prix-fixe menu changes nightly, but you may start with a curry lobster cake, served with homemade tartar sauce and move on to pan-seared salmon, grilled lobster, or steak. From 3 to 6pm, a cocktail menu is served, with daily 2-for-1 drink specials and snacks like Buffalo wings, burgers, and shellfish fritters. The breakfast buffet is delicious and often includes local delicacies like sauteed callaloo with onions, mushrooms, and cherry tomatoes.\n\nIn Biras Creek Resort (p. ).   284\/494-3555. www.biras.com. Reservations required. Fixed-price dinner $85\u2013$125. Daily 8\u201310am, 12:30\u20132pm (Wed, Sat, Sun only), and 6:30\u20139pm.\n\nThe Pavilion at Little Dix Bay   INTERNATIONAL The iconic Pavilion is magical place to dine, an open-air pavilion beneath handsome vaulted wooden rooftops with sea views and bay breezes. Six nights a week dinner is a themed buffet, from Italian to Asian to seafood. (You can also order a la carte if you like.) Standards are high here, and it shows: The buffets are innovative, fresh, and delicious, aided and abetted by the warm embrace of the staff and that soul-stirring setting.\n\nIn Rosewood Little Dix Bay (p. ), 1km (2\u20443 mile) north of Spanish Town.   284\/495-5555. www.littledixbay.com\/dine2.cfm. Reservations required. Nightly buffets (some including a la carte menu items) $55\u2013$100. Daily 11:30am\u20135:30pm and 6:30\u20139:30pm.\n\nModerate\n\nThe Bath & Turtle   CARIBBEAN\/INTERNATIONAL The most popular pub in Spanish Town is located inside (and outside) the Yacht Harbour marina, serving such island delights as pepperpot soup, curried mutton, and conch. The beer-battered fish and chips is rightly famous (the menu doesn't lie). We also like the ginger pineapple ribs (in various degrees of \"hurricane\" heat), salads, and Anegada fish fingers. A Caribbean buffet ($25 per person) is offered every Wednesday. Grab a table right on the waterfront for a ringside view of yachts pulling into the harbor, turtles coming up for air, and colorful roosters ruling their little fiefdom ashore.\n\nVirgin Gorda Yacht Harbour.   284\/495-5239. Reservations recommended. Entrees $17\u2013$24, burgers, wraps, and paninis $12\u2013$17. Daily 7am\u20139pm.\n\nThe Rock Caf\u00e9   ITALIAN\/CARIBBEAN Set between the big rocks of the Baths near Spanish Town, this cafe is one of the island favorites. There's something satisfyingly primal about dining among giant granite boulders to flickering candlelight and stars winking in the big night sky. It doesn't hurt that the Rock specializes in excellent Italian pastas and pizzas. Try the spaghetti Rock, with crispy bacon, peas, and cream, or the penne Boscaiola, with chicken and broccoli. You can also get steaks and local seafood, including fresh grilled Anegada lobster. At press time, the Rock Caf\u00e9 folks had opened an intriguing new spot above called the Treehouse, literally housed in a custom-built treehouse (with crazy-good views) and big enough to accommodate just 20 people at a time.\n\nThe Baths.   284\/495-5482. www.bvidining.com. Reservations recommended. Main courses $18\u2013$40. Daily 4pm\u2013late.\n\nTop of the Baths   CARIBBEAN This breakfast and lunch restaurant is one of the best in the Baths area. It overlooks the famous Baths beach and even has a nice pool to cool off in while you wait for your food. The setting is glorious, and the food\u2014a mix of standard Americanized bar food and Caribbean homestyle cooking\u2014is happily satisfying. You can order burgers, tuna salads, pastas, and wraps, or sample local cuisine like conch fritters, curried shrimp, and conch in butter sauce.\n\nThe Baths.   284\/495-5497. www.topofthebaths.com. Main courses $16\u2013$25; sandwiches and salads $12\u2013$18. Daily 8am\u20137pm.\n\nInexpensive\n\nFat Virgin's Cafe   CARIBBEAN FUSION This modest outdoor cafe on North Sound is good and local, with home-cooked meals whipped up right in front of you and a lively throng of visitors traversing the North Sound. Expect delicious chicken roti, barbecued ribs, and pan-fried fish\u2014and pass the homemade pepper sauce, please. Even if you don't sample the fine fare, this is a fizzy spot to sip a rum drink and watch the shadows of big yachts slip into the harbor.\n\nMarina Village, Biras Creek Resort.   284\/495-7052. <http:\/\/fatvirgin.com>. Breakfast $7\u2013$16; main courses lunch $10\u2013$19, dinner $10\u2013$24. Daily 7am\u20139pm.\n\nHog Heaven   BARBECUE It's barbecue with a view at this lunch and dinner hilltop joint, with sensational views   of North Sound and beyond from the heights of Virgin Gorda and a hearty menu of pulled pork sandwiches, barbecue ribs, barbecue chicken, potato salad, and fried plantains.\n\nNail Bay Rd. 9:30am\u2013closing.\n\nSugar Apple   CARIBBEAN This bright new spot features local dishes like fish and johnnycakes; stewed chicken with rice and peas; oxtail and rice; saltfish and coconut dumplings; and \"Okra Punch\" for dessert.\n\nSouth Valley.   284\/545-4841. $5\u2013$10. No credit cards. Daily 10am\u20136pm.\n\nExploring Virgin Gorda\n\nThe northern side of Virgin Gorda is mountainous, with Gorda Peak reaching 417m (1,368 ft.), the highest spot on the island. In contrast, the southern half of the island is flat, with large boulders appearing at every turn.\n\nThe best way to see the island is on an island tour. Call Andy Flax, who runs the Virgin Gorda Tours Association (  284\/495-5252; www.virgingordatours.com), which will give you a tour of the island. Cost is from $55 (1 hr.) to $220 (4 hr.) for one or two persons, adding $15 to $30 per person more depending on the group size. You can be picked up at the ferry dock if you give 24 hours' notice.\n\nYou should also see the island by water, and having a local take you on customized tours of hidden coves and bays in a small boat is pure pleasure. The genial Avery Baptist (averymbaptist@hotmail.com) runs small charters and customized beach-hopping trips to places like the Baths and lesser-known gems out of his base in the Valley.\n\nBeaches\n\nDon't miss the beauty of the Baths  , where giant boulders form a series of tranquil pools and grottoes flooded with seawater. Nearby snorkeling is excellent, and you can rent gear on the beach. Scientists think the boulders were brought to the surface eons ago by volcanic activity. The Baths and surrounding areas are part of a proposed system of parks and protected areas in the B.V.I. The protected area encompasses 273 hectares (675 acres) of land, including sites at Little Fort, Spring Bay, and Devil's Bay on the east coast.\n\nDevil's Bay National Park   can be reached by a trail from the Baths. A 15-minute walk through boulders and dry coastal vegetation ends on a secluded coral-sand beach.\n\nNeighboring the Baths is Spring Bay  , one of the best of the island's beaches, with white sand, clear water, and good snorkeling. Trunk Bay is a wide, sandy beach reachable by boat or along a rough path from Spring Bay. Savannah Bay   is a sandy beach north of the yacht harbor, and Mahoe Bay  , fronting the Mango Bay Resort, has a gently curving beach with neon-blue water.\n\nThe white-sand beach at Prickly Pear Island   in the North Sound, is protected national parkland and a sweet stopover for a dip in crystal-clear seas and lunch at the Sandbox beach bar; those staying in the North Sound area can call for free water taxi pickup and dropoff (  284\/342-3696).\n\nWatersports & Outdoor Adventures\n\nHiking Virgin Gorda has some of the most breathtaking panoramic vistas in the Caribbean. A good way to see the sights from the heights is on a trek along the stairs and hiking paths that crisscross Virgin Gorda's largest stretch of undeveloped land, the Gorda Peak National Park. To reach the best departure point for your uphill trek, drive north of the Valley on the only road leading to North Sound for about 15 minutes of very hilly driving (using a four-wheel-drive vehicle is a very good idea). Stop at the base of the stairway leading steeply uphill. There's a sign pointing to the Gorda Peak National Park.\n\nIt should take between 25 and 40 minutes to reach the summit of Gorda Peak, the highest point on the island, where views out over the scattered islets of the Virgin Islands archipelago await you. There's a tower at the summit, which you can climb for even better views.\n\nScuba Diving & Snorkeling Kilbrides Sunchaser Scuba is located at the Bitter End Yacht Club at North Sound (  800\/932-4286 in the U.S., or 284\/495-9638; <http:\/\/sunchaserscuba.com>). Kilbrides offers the best diving in the British Virgin Islands, at 15 to 20 dive sites, including the wreck of the ill-fated RMS Rhone. Prices range from $100 to $110 for a two-tank dive on one of the coral reefs. A one-tank dive in the afternoon costs $75. Equipment, except wet suits, is supplied at no charge. Hours are 7:45am to 5:30pm daily. Dive BVI (  800\/848-7078; www.divebvi.com) has four locations in and around Virgin Gorda and offers diving outings and snorkeling day-trips and island-hopper cruises.\n\nShopping\n\nShops are sparse here; most of the best shopping is found in the boutiques in the island's upscale resorts. The Bitter End Yacht Club's Reeftique (  284\/494-2745), has a good selection of sexy kurtas, cotton T's and henleys, and top-quality Bitter End beach bags. Also at the Bitter End, the Trading Post has great kids' gifts, including messages in the bottle.\n\nPusser's Company Store, Leverick Bay (  284\/495-7369), sells Pusser's usual lineup of rum products, sportswear, and gift and souvenir items.\n\nIn Spanish Town, stop in at the Yacht Harbour Shopping Centre, which has an outpost for Dive BVI (  284\/495-5513; www.divebvi.com), selling all sorts of scuba and snorkeling equipment, plus clothes and tchotchkes. You can buy interesting handmade Virgin glass gifts, straw baskets, and beautiful beaded bags at Next Wave Designs (  284\/495-5634), also in the Yacht Harbour Shopping Centre.\n\nVirgin Gorda After Dark\n\nThere isn't a lot of action at night. The Bath & Turtle pub, at Yacht Harbour (p. ;   284\/495-5239), brings in local bands for dancing in the summer on Wednesday and Friday at 8:30pm. Check out the weekly \"Welcome Guide to the British Virgin Islands\" to see what's happening at the time of your visit.\n\nJOST VAN DYKE\n\nThis rugged 10-sq.-km (4-sq.-mile) island (pop. 300) on the seaward (west) side of Tortola was named after a Dutch settler. In the 1700s, a Quaker colony settled here to develop sugarcane plantations. (One of the colonists, William Thornton, won a worldwide competition to design the Capitol in Washington, D.C.)\n\nOn the south shore are some fine, powdery beaches, especially at White Bay and Great Harbour. This tranquil island is a popular stopover point not only for the yachting set but also for many cruise ships.\n\nEssentials\n\nGetting There You can take the ferry to Jost Van Dyke's White Bay via St. Thomas, St. John, or Tortola. New Horizon (  284\/495-9278) has daily 25-minute ferryboat shuttles from the West End; round-trip fares are $25 adults, $15 children 5\u201311. (Note that departure times can vary widely throughout the year, and often don't adhere very closely to the printed timetables.) If all else fails, negotiate a transportation fee with one of the handful of privately operated water taxis on Tortola. Fees start around $100 one-way.\n\nGetting Around To get around the island, call Bun Taxi at   284\/495-9281. You can rent Jeeps from Abe's by the Sea (  284\/495-9329) at $65 to $80 per day and Paradise Jeep Rentals (  284\/495-9477) at $55 to $70 per day.\n\nFast Facts In a medical emergency, call VISAR (Virgin Islands Search and Rescue) at   284\/494-4357; you can be flown to Tortola. There are no banks, ATMs, or drugstores on the island. Stock up before you arrive here.\n\nWhere to Stay\n\nIvan's Stress Free Bar & White Bay Campground   Seventh-generation Jost Van Dyke native Ivan Chinnery oversees this campground right on White Bay Beach. It's got campsites and one-room plywood \"cabins\" outfiitted with screens, ceiling fans, fridges, and big beds. The campground is simplicity itself, but it's also one of the livliest spots on Jost. Take your place in Ivan's Stress Free Bar at happy hour, downing sundowners with sailors and locals at your elbows. Ivan plays guitar in the White Bay International Ever-Changing All Star Band (the house band), which plays regularly here. Visiting musicians often drop in\u2014yes, even Keith Richards or Jimmy Buffet.\n\n  284\/495-9358. www.ivanscampground.com. 8 cabins, 15 campsites, 5 tents. Year-round $65\u2013$75 cabin, $40 tent, $20 bare site, $150\u2013$260 studio. Amenities: Food service; Wi-Fi ($10).\n\nSandcastle Hotel   Joined at the hip to the legendary beach bar the Soggy Dollar, this barefoot retreat is for escapists who want total privacy. The six cottages are wrapped in lush tropical foliage and bougainvillea, with sweeping views of White Bay Beach. The roomy, breezy rooms are hung with local art and have king-size beds, rattan furniture, and tropical accents. Two units are air-conditioned, while all others have ceiling fans. You mix your own drinks at the Soggy Dollar, and keep your own tab\u2014the resident drink is the famed Painkiller (see below)\u2014and yes, cruise-ship passengers often flood the place for a few hours midday. The restaurant (see below) is an old standard on the island.\n\n  284\/495-9888. www.soggydollar.com\/sandcastlehotel. 6 units. Winter $310 double, $285 cottage; off season $250 double, $210 cottage. Extra person $35\u2013$45. 3-night minimum. Children 15 and under not permitted. Amenities: Restaurant; bar; watersports equipment\/rentals; Wi-Fi (free).\n\nSandy Ground Estates   These happily oversized two- and three-bedroom villas sit on the edge of a beach on the eastern part of Jost Van Dyke. The \"Castle\" has two terraces with commanding views of other islands; The \"Genip Tree House\" is a three-level villa above the beach, with terraces that boast sparkling sea views. Each villa is equipped with a full kitchen, and each is individually owned, so interiors vary widely, from fashionable to more modest. The managers help guests with boat and watersports rentals. Diving, day sails, and other activities can be arranged, and there are dinghies available.\n\n  284\/494-3391. Fax 284\/495-9379. www.sandyground.com. 7 units. Winter $1,950 villa for 2; off season $1,400 villa for 2. Extra person $500 per week in winter, $350 off season. Children 3\u201312 half-price. Amenities: Watersports equipment\/rentals; Wi-Fi (free).\n\nWhite Bay Villas & Seaside Cottages   With its eye-candy sea views and easy access to a white-sand beach, this is a real find and a first-rate, secluded retreat. Perched above the sea, all of the cottages were built by owner John Klein. The property is comprised of several different fully equipped accommodations ranging from one- to two-bedroom houses to a three-bedroom, three-bathroom villa for up to eight guests. The Plantation Villa is the largest in the complex, with a great room and kitchen decorated with murals depicting the island's culture.\n\n  800\/778-8066 or 410\/571-6692. www.jostvandyke.com. 3 villas, 7 cottages. Weekly rates winter $1,995 1-bedroom, $3,045 2-bedroom, $4,095 3-bedroom; off season $1,595 1-bedroom, $2,435 2-bedroom, $3,275 3-bedroom. No credit cards.\n\nWhere to Eat\n\nAbe's by the Sea   WEST INDIAN This all-purpose sailors' stop serves lunch and dinner and specializes in seasonal local seafood like lobster and conch. \"Casual\" doesn't begin to describe the low-key nature of this modest dockside spot, cobbled together with plywood and serving what fans say is the coldest beer on island.\n\nLittle Harbour.   284\/495-9329. Reservations recommended for groups of 5 or more. Dinner $20\u2013$45; nightly barbecue $30. Daily 11:30\u201311pm.\n\nThe Infamous Painkiller\n\nDon't leave the B.V.I. without sampling the notorious rum drink known as the Painkiller, which got its start at the Soggy Dollar Bar and has gone on to greater glory at all Pusser's outlets. An Englishwoman, Daphne Henderson, is said to have invented the drink in the 1980s, which is an orange-colored blend of island rum, orange juice, pineapple juice, cream of coconut, and a scraping of nutmeg on top. Today the Painkiller is probably the most popular drink among sailors in the B.V.I.\n\nJost Van Dyke\n\nAli Baba's   CARIBBEAN Fashioned from unvarnished beams and planks, this restaurant near the edge of the harbor, adjacent to the Customs house, has a breezy veranda right next to the Customs House. Expect well-executed version of island staples, such as conch chowder, conch fritters, and savory pumpkin soup. The fish is fresh and good, and you can get grilled lobster, mahimahi, and stewed conch. If you're on the island in time for breakfast, drop in to join the locals for a tasty wake-up meal.\n\nGreat Harbour.   284\/495-9280. Breakfast from $10; main courses lunch $9\u2013$12, dinner $18\u2013$22 Daily 9am\u201311pm.\n\nCorsairs Beach Bar & Restaurant   SEAFOOD\/CARIBBEAN Open for breakfast, lunch, and dinner this convivial beach bar is a happening hangout for a hearty breakfast and a post\u2013happy hour rib-sticking lunch and dinner. Start with conch fritters in a goat-cheese sauce, followed by seared tuna with a spicy mango-rum sauce or lobster Thai style in a coconut-and-pumpkin sauce. Four pastas, including fettuccine shrimp al pesto, are featured nightly.\n\nGreat Harbour.   284\/495-9294. www.corsairsbvi.com. Lunch from $10; dinner main courses $24\u2013$39. Daily 8:30am\u20132pm and 6:30\u20139pm.\n\nFoxy's Tamarind Bar   WEST INDIAN On an island chain known for its happening beach bars, this may be the most famous beach bar in the B.V.I. Sixth-generation Jost Van Dyke native Philicianno \"Foxy\" Callwood opened the place in the late 1960s and is a big part of the draw. Foxy plays the guitar and is deeply invested in preserving the environment and culture of his native Jost. In November 2013, several years after the Jost Van Dyke Preservation Society initiated the building of a traditional wooden \"Tortola\" boat behind Foxy's bar (with the help of the island children), the 32-foot Endeavor II was launched in Great Harbour to much fanfare among locals and visitors alike.\n\nMost nights feature rock 'n' roll, reggae, or soca. The food and drink aren't bad, either\u2014order up Foxy's Painkiller punch along with fish sandwiches, rotis, and burgers, lobster, ssteamed shrimp, or the catch of the day. Look for beach barbecues on the weekends and ongoing events all year-round, including Foxy's Old Year's Night celebration around New Year's.\n\nGreat Harbour.   284\/495-9258. www.foxysbar.com. Reservations recommended. Lunch $10\u2013$15; dinner $18\u2013$35. Daily 9am\u201311pm.\n\nOne Love Bar and Grill   CARIBBEAN Foxy's oldest son (see previous recommendation) operates one of the liveliest spots on the island. Seddy Callwood and his wife, Raquel, have a loyal following, and the house policy of \"No Shoes, No Shirt, No Problem\" is said to have inspired Kenny Chesney's hit song. The menu includes the catch of the day, kabobs, and tangy ribs\u2014washed down with a knee-knocking Bushwhacker. One Love features live reggae music on Saturday and Sunday afternoons, but as soon as the sun sets, Seddy locks up and goes home.\n\nWhite Bay.   282\/495-9829. www.onelovebar.com. Main courses $10\u2013$15. Daily 11am\u2013sunset.\n\nSandcastle   INTERNATIONAL This hotel restaurant serves lunch in the open-air dining room, while lighter fare and snacks are available at the Soggy Dollar Bar. At night, guests settle in with a three-course dinner that may feature good soups, mahimahi Martinique (marinated in orange-lemon-lime juice and cooked with fennel, onions, and dill), and \"Sandcastle hen\": grilled Cornish hen that's been marinated in rum, honey, lime, and garlic! Meals are served with seasonal vegetables and a variety of salads.\n\nAt the Sandcastle Hotel (p. ).   284\/495-9888. www.soggydollar.com. Reservations required for dinner by 4pm. Lunch main courses $10\u2013$15; fixed-price dinner $22\u2013$33. Daily 9am\u20133pm and 1 seating at 7pm.\n\nANEGADA\n\nThe most remote of the British Virgins, Anegada is the second-largest island in the B.V.I. chain. Yet is has a population of about 250, none of whom has found the legendary treasure from the more than 500 wrecks lying off notorious Horseshoe Reef. This is a remote little corner of the Caribbean: Don't expect a single frill, and be prepared to put up with a few minor hardships, such as mosquitoes.'\n\nLocated 30 miles east of Tortola and 15 miles north of Virgin Gorda, Anegada is different from the other British Virgins in many ways. First of all, in contrast to the voluptuous volcanic topography of the other islands, Anegada is a flat coral-and-limestone atoll. Its highest point only reaches 8m (26 ft.), and when you're sailing to it, it hardly appears on the horizon. (Its Spanish name doesn't mean \"drowned island\" for nothing.) At the northern and western ends of the island are some lyrical white-sand beaches, the main reason for coming here. Second, most of the island is reserved for birds and other wildlife. The B.V.I. National Parks Trust has established a flamingo colony here (they flock to the old salt ponds), and it's also the protected home of several varieties of heron, ospreys, and terns. The Trust has also designated much of the interior of the island as a preserved habitat for Anegada's animal population of some 2,000 wild goats, donkeys, and cattle.\n\nAnegada is a fishing paradise and the lobster capital of the B.V.I., celebrating its famous catch yearly with the Anegada Lobster Festival in November. Anegada is a low key, friendly, unspoiled place to kick back and relax to the retro rhythms of the Caribbean. Come here for tranquility, not for posh pampering. But come soon: Ever so slowly, the modern world is coming to Anegada.\n\nEssentials\n\nGetting There Fly BVI (  284\/495-1747; www.fly-bvi.com) operates an \"Anegada Day-Trip\" between Anegada and Beef Island off Tortola. It includes the round-trip airfare, round-trip taxi transfers on Anegada, and a lobster lunch at the Big Bamboo. Cost is $175 per person and up, depending on group size.\n\nYou can also take a day excursion to Anegada by ferry from Tortola. The Road Town Fast Ferry (  284\/495-2323) operates daily trips on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday between Tortola, Virgin Gorda, and Anegada; round-trip fares are $55 adults, $35 children.A number of day-sail operators also make full-day beach and snorkeling excursions to Anegada. Dive BVI (  800\/848-7078 or 284\/495-5513; www.divebvi.com) offers a full-day guided snorkeling tour of the island every Wednesday, leaving from Virgin Gorda. The cost is $95 per person ($75 children 12 and under) and does not include lunch.\n\nLoblolly Bay: A Day at the Beach\n\nAny trip to Anegada has to include a visit to the fantastic beach and reef at Loblolly Bay. If you're taking a day-trip from Tortola, make sure you call one of the taxi drivers mentioned under \"Getting Around,\" above ahead of time, and have them take you across the island to the bay, with one quick stop to see the legendary pink flamingos en route. Once you pull up at Loblolly Bay, stake out a place on the beach and enjoy some of the most spectacular snorkeling in the B.V.I. Break for lunch at Big Bamboo (see below), and have a drink at the small thatched-roof bar where scrawled signatures on the bar and roof supports are from Cindy Crawford, Brooke Shields, and Andre Agassi (the bartender swears they're real).\n\nGetting Around Taxi drivers offer both transfers and island tours. Recommended drivers include Lawrence Wheatley (  284\/495-8002); Aubrey Levons (  284\/443-9956); and Rondell at Tony's Taxis (  284\/495-8027). Taxi rates are standardized by the government; check the You can rent cars and scooters at DW Car Rental (  284\/495-9677) or SnK Scooters & Jeep Rentals (  284\/346-5658).\n\nFast Facts Anegada has a small fire department and a little library, but it has no banks, ATMs, or drugstores. Make adequate arrangements for supplies before coming here.\n\nWhere to Stay\n\nThe 15-room Anegada Beach Club (  800\/871-3551; www.anegadabeachclub.com), opened in late 2013 by Driftwood Resorts, is notable for its modern, upscale rooms and swimming pool\u2014the island's only pool.\n\nAnegada Beach Cottages   You'll feel like a castaway on your own curving slice of sugary sand at this unspoiled oceanfront hideaway. Set on the sands at Pomato Point, the three fully furnished one- and two-bedroom cottages are spread out, separated from one another by some 500 feet of sand and tropical brush. Each cottage is sweetly prim and neat as a pin, with beamed ceilings, louvered windows to let in the breezes, and a fully equipped kitchen. One cottage is actually two cottages built together and can be rented as a half or a whole. During the day, guests lounge about, snorkel, or go bonefishing.\n\n  284\/495-9234. www.anegadabeachcottages.com. 4 units. Year-round $140 double. 2-night minimum stay.\n\nAnegada Reef Hotel   For nearly 40 years, this has been the island's main lodging, opened in 1976 by Lowell and Vivian Wheatley. Still owned and operated by the Wheatley family, the Anegada Reef sits right on a white-sand beach, about a 5-minute drive west of the airport. It's a friendly, casual place that has freshened up the rooms, and all come with private porches and garden or ocean views. The hotel's restaurant serves breakfast, lunch, and dinner daily; its evening specialty is Anegada spiny lobster, served up at alfresco tables beneath the stars. If you're visiting the island for the day, you can use the hotel as a base and arrange to go deep-sea fishing or bonefishing (it has a tackle shop). In addition, it's a good place from which to set up snorkeling excursions and secure taxi service and jeep rentals. Call and they'll have a van meet you at the airport.\n\n  284\/495-8002. www.anegadareef.com. 20 units. Winter $265\u2013$400 double; off season $240\u2013$365 double. Rates include all meals. Amenities: Restaurant; bar; babysitting; Internet ($5 per 15 min.).\n\nAnegada\n\nWhere to Eat\n\nBig Bamboo   CARIBBEAN One of the most popular of the local beach bars and restaurants, the Big Bamboo has a large, open-air dining pavilion set right on gorgeous Loblolly Bay. Locals and daytrippers alike come for the famous fresh Anegada lobster (served with island sides like rice and vegetables) as well as locally caught conch. You can also order babyback ribs and spicy barbecue chicken. Chill out after a big meal in a nearby hammock beneath a coconut palm.\n\nLoblolly Bay.   284\/499-1680. Reservations recommended for large groups. Main courses $16\u2013$40 lunch, $22\u2013$45 dinner. Daily 9am\u20139pm.\n\nCow Wreck Beach Bar & Grill   WEST INDIAN Don't miss a sunset sun-downer at this family-run joint, a favorite among yachties anchoring at Anegada. Diners relax on a terrace where tables and plastic chairs feature a view of the water just steps away. If you go during lunch, you can snorkel in the clear seas until your food is ready. Fans claim the Cow Wreck serves the best lobster in the B.V.I., but it also offers tasty grilled steaks, ribs, chicken and local grilled fish.\n\nLower Cow Wreck Beach.   284\/495-8047. <http:\/\/cowwreckbeach.com>. Reservations required for dinner. Main courses $18\u2013$53. Daily 7am\u20136pm; dinner at 6pm but it can accommodate later reservations. Closing time for bar \"when the last customer departs.\"\n\nNeptune's Treasure   INTERNATIONAL The funky family-run bar and restaurant on the island's southwestern shore is the heart of this lodging\/dining establishment. Neptune's Treasure hosts a lively mix of yachties and locals. The Soares family (a legendary local fishing clan) serve heaping platters of lobster, fish, chicken, steaks, and ribs in the spacious indoor dining area, which also has a bar and scrapbooks of the family's record-breaking fishing catches. The family is happy to provide tips on local snorkeling sites and fishing spots, and deftly maintain order amid the festive atmosphere.\n\nThe restaurant also offers nine guest rooms and two cottages, all with beach views and air-conditioning. Depending on the season, rooms (with a private bathroom) rent for $97 to $150 per night, and cottages go for $300 to $370.\n\nBtw. Pomato and Saltheap points.   284\/495-9439, or shortwave channel 16. www.neptunestreasure.com. Reservations for dinner must be made by 4pm. Breakfast $8\u2013$12; main courses lunch $12\u2013$32, dinner $18\u2013$49. Daily 8am\u201310pm.\n\nPETER ISLAND\n\nHalf of this island is devoted to the yacht club, with a good marina and docking facilities. The other part is deserted. A gorgeous beach is found at palm-fringed Deadman's Bay, which faces the Atlantic but is protected by a reef. All goods and services are at the one resort (see below).\n\nThe public Peter Island Ferry (  284\/495-2000) shuttles passengers between Road Town on Tortola and Peter Island at least five times a day; nonguests pay round-trip fares of $20 adults; $10 children.\n\nYou can also get to the resort via a private Peter Island Ferry from the airport in St. Thomas, which includes taxi transport to the ferry terminal. It's a 90-minute trip and the round-trip cost is $199 per person; reservations must be made in advance. In addition, a private Peter Island ferry transports connecting guests between Beef Island and Peter Island (it includes the taxi ride from the airport to the Peter Island dock at Trellis Bay); the round-trip cost is $60 per person, and the trip takes 30 minutes.\n\nWhere to Stay & Eat\n\nPeter Island Resort   This 720-hectare (1,779-acre) tropical island is the domain of Peter Island Resort guests and those boat owners who moor their crafts here. The island is rimmed by five idyllic beaches, among them Deadman's Beach  , often voted one of the most romantic beaches in the world.\n\nThe resort itself is comprised of Oceanview Rooms in two-story, A-frame structures between the pool and the harbor and Beachfront Junior Suites at the far end of Deadman's Beach (and three villa \"estates\"). The Oceanview Rooms, with pitched ceilings, dark woods, and a blue-green palette, are the smallest and least expensive (and least desirable) units, although all rooms come with a balcony or terrace. A big step up are the luxuriously spacious and sunny Beachfront Junior Suites. More extravagant still are the ultra-swanky four- and six-bedroom villa estates, which come with private chef, valet, chauffeured vehicle, and housekeeper. The Crow's Nest, a posh four-bedroom villa, overlooks the harbor and Deadman's Bay, and features a private swimming pool. The Hawk's Nest villas are three-bedroom villas set on a tropical hillside.The resort has two restaurants. The more casual Deadman's Beach Bar & Grill is set right on the beach, enjoying a secluded setting amid sea-grape trees and fringing palms. It offers a Wednesday-night Caribbean buffet, accompanied by a steel-drum band. The Tradewinds restaurant hosts a Saturday-night Gala Buffet, featuring Caribbean seafood and meat-carving stations.\n\n  800\/346-4451 in the U.S., or 284\/495-2000. www.peterisland.com. 52 units. Winter $800\u2013$940 double, $1,280\u2013$1,560 junior suite, $4,600\u2013$14,500 villa; off season $400\u2013$640 double, $750\u2013$1,180 junior suite, $3,100\u2013$12,500 villa. Rates include all meals and beverages, except in Ocean View Rooms and Beachfront Junior Suites. Children 11 and under stay in parent's room for $50 per night. Amenities: 2 restaurants; 2 bars; babysitting; health club and spa; pool (outdoor); 4 tennis courts (lit); watersports equipment\/rentals; Wi-Fi (free in lobby and clubhouse).\n\nGUANA ISLAND\n\nThis 340-hectare (840-acre) island resort is one of the most private hideaways in the Caribbean. Don't come here looking for action; do come if you seek serenity and rustic old-school luxury. Just off the north coast of Tortola, Guana has virgin beaches, nature trails, and rare and unusual species of plant and animal life, including iguana, red-legged tortoise, and the Caribbean roseate flamingo. Arawak relics have even been discovered here. You can climb 242m (794-ft.) Sugarloaf Mountain for a panoramic view. Guana Island sends a boat to meet arriving guests at the Beef Island airport (trip time is 10 min.).\n\nWhere to Stay & Eat\n\nGuana Island   Guana Island was purchased in 1974 by dedicated conservationists Henry and Gloria Jarecki, and it's both a nature preserve and wildlife sanctuary. This is one stunning landscape: Upon your arrival by boat, a Land Rover meets you at the docks and transports you up one of the most scenic hills in the region. From above you can see an old salt pond dotted with pink flamingos and the lacy fringes of beautiful White Bay, the island's main beach. Guana even has the ruins of an old sugarcane plantation. The island is a model of self-sufficiency, with its own desalination plant and a private organic orchard, growing tropical fruits like papaya and key lime. The island has seven beaches in all, five of which require a boat to reach. All have sand as soft as baby powder, lapped by gin-clear sapphire seas.\n\nThe cluster of white stone cottages was built as a private club in the 1930s, on the foundations of a Quaker homestead. Each cottage has its own unique decor, but most have rustic wood-beam ceilings and New England\u2013style wainscotting. The resort never holds more than 35 guests, and because the dwellings are staggered along a flower-dotted ridge overlooking the Caribbean and Atlantic seas, the sense of privacy is almost absolute. The Sea View pool cottage has its own private pool and three rooms. The North Beach villa has its own pool and beach. In fact, all four villas have infinity pools. Sixty percent of the cottages have air-condioning, but most guests find the hillside breezes plenty cooling. Hors d'ouevres are served nightly (6:30pm) in the stone living room, followed by 7:30pm candlelight dinner on the veranda's communal tables. A new chef from Spain was getting raves in the kitchen at press time. Kids 8 and under stay free at Guana during \"Kids' Weeks\" in July and August. The entire island can be rented by groups of up to 35 ($22,000 and up per day).\n\n  800\/544-8262 in the U.S., or 284\/494-2354. www.guana.com. 15 units. Winter $1,250\u2013$2,125 cottage, $2,325\u2013$6,500 villa; off season $695\u2013$1,965 cottage, $1,535\u2013$6,500 villa. Rates include all meals and drinks served with meals. Closed Sept\u2013Oct. Children welcome certain times of year. Amenities: Restaurant; honor bar; babysitting; 2 tennis courts (lit); watersports equipment\/rentals.\n8\n\nPLANNING YOUR TRIP TO THE VIRGIN ISLANDS\n\nA little preparation is essential before you start your journey to the Virgin Islands, especially if you plan on making island-hopping a big part of your itinerary. This chapter tackles the how-tos of a trip to the Virgin Islands, including everything from finding the best airfare to deciding when to go to choosing the best tour or excursion. For on-the-ground resources, head straight to \"Fast Facts,\" beginning on p. .\n\nGETTING THERE\n\nFor American citizens, visiting the U.S. Virgin Islands is relatively easy and hassle-free: Because it's part of the U.S. territory, you won't even need a passport to enter the country on arrival. American citizens do need a passport to enter the British Virgin Islands, however. For complete information on passports and visas, go to \"Fast Facts,\" later in this chapter.\n\nBy Plane\n\nA number of major airlines have regularly scheduled nonstop air service from cities all over North America into St. Thomas\u2014the major international gateway to the Virgins. But most flights include stopovers in Miami or San Juan. Currently, there are no direct flights from North America or Europe to any of the British Virgin Islands. Anyone planning to visit the B.V.I. will likely have to fly into St. Thomas, San Juan (Puerto Rico), or Miami and make a connection by ferry or air in lieu of a direct flight (there are also connections through St. Kitts and Antigua). Those traveling from overseas will also most likely make a connection in St. Thomas, St. Croix, or San Juan after first connecting in the mainland U.S.\n\nThe major airports in the Virgin Islands are the Cyril E. King Airport (  340\/774-5100; www.viport.com\/airports.html; airport code STT) in St. Thomas and the Henry E. Rohlsen Airport, Estate Mannings Bay (  340\/778-1012; airport code STX), on St. Croix. From these airports, you can take ferries or small planes on to your destination in the Virgin Islands.\n\nFor more information on getting to each island, see the \"Getting There\" sections in the individual island chapters.\n\nBy Cruise Ship\n\nThe Virgin Islands are a popular stop for cruise ships traveling the Caribbean, in particular Charlotte Amalie in St. Thomas, one of the world's busiest cruise ports, which welcomed nearly 1,800,000 cruise passengers in 2012, and that number was expected to rise by 7.8 percent for the 2013\/2014 season. In comparison, the historic waterfront of St. Croix saw the arrival of only 117,000 cruise passengers in 2012. Tortola recorded nearly 400,000 cruise passengers in 2012 but lost a big chunk of its market when Carnival Cruise Line announced in late 2013 that it would suspend travel to Tortola indefinitely while the island overhauls its docking facilities.\n\nthe cruise ships\n\nSt. Thomas\n\nMost of the major cruise lines include regular stops in St. Thomas in their Caribbean itineraries, including the biggest cruise ships in the world, such as the Royal Caribbean's mega ships Allure of the Sea and Oasis of the Sea, each with a maximum passenger capacity of more than 6,000 people; Norwegian Cruise Line's Epic; and Princess Cruise Line's Royal Princess.\n\nThe port at Charlotte Amalie is one of the world's busiest cruise ports, welcoming nearly 1,800,000 cruise passengers in 2012 (the last date for which there are figures). Cruise ships dock at one of two major piers, each with room for two mega-ships at a time: Havensight Pier and Crown Bay. In high season for cruising, it's not unusual to have an additional one or two ships anchored in the harbor, delivering cruise-ship passengers to shore in tenders.\n\nA number of smaller cruise ships visit the waters of the Virgin Islands without docking, including Club Med, Star Clipper, and Windsar Cruises.\n\nSt. Croix\n\nCruise lines that make stops in St. Croix included Celebrity (Summit, Century); Norwegian Cruise Line (Jewel); Royal Caribbean (Vision, Adventure); Holland America (Maasdam); and Silversea (Silver Cloud).\n\nTortola\n\nCruise lines that dock in Road Town, Tortola, include Regent Seven Seas (Windstar); Costa Cruise Lines (Costa Magica); Crystal; Celebrity; Royal Caribbean (Jewel of the Seas); Cunard; Holland America; Silver Seas (Silver Spirit); and P&O Cruises (Arcadia).\n\nGETTING AROUND\n\nBy Plane\n\nRegular flights are scheduled between St. Thomas and St. Croix, and between St. Thomas and Tortola. Seaborne Airlines (  866\/359-8784; www.seaborneairlines.com) flies between St. Thomas and St. Croix on several runs daily; Seaborne also flies between St. Thomas and Beef Island, Tortola. Cape Air (  866\/227-3247 in the U.S. and U.S.V.I.; www.capeair.com) offers regularly scheduled flights between St. Thomas and both St. Croix and Tortola.\n\nSt. John has no airport; passengers usually land first at St. Thomas, then take the 20-minute ferry ride to St. John.\n\nferry COMPANIES: WHERE THEY GO\n\nFerry service is an essential transportation link in the Virgins, and most of the ferries get you where you want to go with speed and efficiency. But know that not all ferry companies are alike\u2014boats vary from sleek high-speed catamarans (Road Town Fast Ferry) to older, no-frills models (pretty much all the rest). Some ferries are more reliably on time than others; also check to see if your ferry is \"nonstop\"\u2014some ferries, like Inter Island, may make pit shops on the way to your final destination. Fares are not necessarily economical; in addition, nonresidents traveling by sea now have to pay a $15 passenger tax per person ($10 B.V.I. residents) anytime they depart the B.V.I. Still, we love the ferries\u2014they're scenic bliss. Here is a breakdown of the various public ferry companies and where they go; keep in mind that itineraries are subject to change. Note that children and seniors pay discounted fares, and that some ferries charge an extra $2 per piece of luggage. And note that you'll save by buying round-trip tickets.\n\nInter Island Boat Services (  284\/495-4166; www.interislandboatservices.com): Makes runs between Red Hook (St. Thomas), Cruz Bay (St. John), and the West End (Tortola), with stops on Virgin Gorda, Jost Van Dyke, and Anegada. Rates between St. Thomas and Tortola are $30 one-way; $45 round-trip.\n\nNative Son (  284\/495-4617 in the U.S.V.I. or 340\/774-8685 in the B.V.I.; www.nativesonferry.com): Makes daily runs between St. Thomas (both Red Hook and Charlotte Amalie) and Tortola (both West End and Road Town). Prices are $30 one-way; $50 round-trip.\n\nRoad Town Fast Ferry (  340\/777-2800 in the U.S.V.I or 284\/494-2323 in the B.V.I.; www.roadtownfastferry.com): Offers daily runs between Charlotte Amalie and Road Town, Tortola, on sleek air-conditioned high-speed catamarans. Fares are $35 one-way; $60 round-trip; group rates available.\n\nSmith's Ferry Service (  340\/775-5235; www.bviferryservices.com): Known as the \"Tortola Fast Ferry,\" Smith's operates daily service between Tortola and St. Thomas; between Tortola and Virgin Gorda; and charter service to outer B.V.I. islands. Prices $30 to $40 one-way; $50 to $60 round-trip.\n\nSpeedy's (  284\/495-7292; www.bviferries.com): Speedy's operates routes between Charlotte Amalie (St. Thomas) and Tortola (Road Town); Charlotte Amalie and Virgin Gorda; Tortola (Road Town and Beef Island) and Virgin Gorda. B.V.I. domestic fares are $20 one-way, $30 round-trip. Fares for travel between the U.S.V.I. and the B.V.I. are $25\u2013$40 one-way, $45\u2013$70 round-trip.\n\nBy Boat\n\nFerry service is a vital link on the Virgin Islands and a wonderful, leisurely way to see these beautiful islands by water. On the U.S. Virgin Islands, public ferries between St. Thomas and St. John (private water taxis also operate on this route) run at regular times all day long. Launch services link Red Hook, on the East End of St. Thomas, with both Charlotte Amalie in St. Thomas and Cruz Bay in St. John (not to mention Tortola and Virgin Gorda). At press time, there was no regular ferry between St. Thomas and St. Croix (although plans were in the works at press time for a high-speed ferry service between the islands).\n\nFerries are also a vital link between the U.S. Virgins and the B.V.I.\u2014and the interisland public ferries are generally a more economical alternative to flying between the U.S. Virgins and the B.V.I. Ferries run from both ferry terminals on St. Thomas (Charlotte Amalie and Red Hook) to either West End or Road Town on Tortola, a 45- to 55-minute voyage. In the B.V.I., ferries and private boats link Road Town, Tortola, with the island's West End; there's also service to and from Virgin Gorda and some of the smaller islands, such as Anegada and Jost Van Dyke. Note that on some of the really remote islands, boat service may be only once a week. Many of the private island resorts, such as Peter Island, provide launches from Tortola or from the airport in St. Thomas.\n\nFor more details on specific ferry connections, including sample fares, see the \"Getting Around\" sections of the individual island chapters.\n\nBy Car\n\nA rental car is often the best way to get around each of the Virgin Islands. Just remember the most important rule: In both the U.S. and the British Virgin Islands, you must drive on the left.\n\nAll the major car-rental companies are represented in the U.S. Virgin Islands, including Avis (  800\/331-1212; www.avis.com), Budget (  800\/626-4516; www.budget.com), and Hertz (  800\/654-3131; www.hertz.com); many local agencies also compete in the car-rental market (for detailed information, see the \"Getting Around\" sections in individual island chapters). On St. Thomas and St. Croix, you can pick up most rental cars at the airport. On St. John, there are car-rental stands at the ferry dock. Cars are sometimes in short supply during the high season, so reserve as far in advance as possible.\n\nParking lots in the U.S. Virgin Islands can be found in Charlotte Amalie, on St. Thomas, and in Christiansted, on St. Croix (in Frederiksted, you can generally park on the street). Most hotels, except those in the congested center of Charlotte Amalie, have free parking lots.\n\nEven though taxi service in the British Virgin Islands is readily available, we highly recommend renting a car, particularly in Tortola. Given that, you'll have to drive on the left along roads that can be hairy or feel like roller-coaster rides. (If you plan to stay in the B.V.I. longer than 30 days, you must purchase a temporary local driver's license for $10 from police headquarters or a car-rental desk in town.) You must be at least 25 years old to rent a car in the B.V.I. Most of the major U.S. car-rental companies are represented on these islands, but you'll find a number of reliable local companies as well, many conveniently located near the ferry docks and in the main towns. Vehicles come in a wide range of styles and prices, including Jeeps, Land Rovers, mini mokes, and even six- to eight-passenger Suzukis. Weekly rates are usually slightly cheaper.\n\nNote: There are no car-rental agencies at the airports on Tortola or Virgin Gorda.\n\nGasoline St. Thomas has plenty of service stations, especially on the outskirts of Charlotte Amalie and at strategic points in the north and in the more congested East End. On St. Croix, most gas stations are in Christiansted, but there are also some along the major roads and at Frederiksted. On St. John, make sure your tank is filled up at Cruz Bay before heading out on a tour of the island.\n\nGas stations are not as plentiful on the British Virgin Islands. Road Town, the capital of Tortola, has the most gas stations; fill up here before touring the island. Virgin Gorda has a limited but sufficient number of gas stations. Chances are you won't be using a car on the other, smaller British Virgin Islands.\n\nTaxes are already included in the printed price. One U.S. gallon equals 3.8 liters or .85 imperial gallons.\n\nBreakdowns All the major islands, including St. Thomas, St. John, St. Croix, Tortola, and Virgin Gorda, have garages that will tow vehicles. Always call the rental company first if you have a breakdown. If your car requires extensive repairs because of a mechanical failure, a new one will be sent to replace it.\n\nBy Taxi\n\nTaxis are the main mode of transport on all the Virgin Islands. On St. Thomas, taxi vans carry up to a dozen passengers to multiple destinations; smaller private taxis are also available. You'll find plenty of taxis on arrival at the airport. On St. John, both private taxis and vans for three or more passengers are available. On St. Croix, taxis congregate at the airport, in Christiansted, and in Frederiksted, where the cruise ships arrive. On all the islands, you'll see more and more open-air safari \"buses\" (more like retrofitted flat-bed trucks) capable of handling up to 30 passengers, which taxi drivers use largely to transport groups (for instance, cruise-ship passengers) on island tours and excursions. Increasingly, these safari buses are also used as pickup and dropoff taxis.\n\nThroughout the U.S.V.I, standard per-person taxi rates are set by the local government (look for a complete rate listing at the St. Thomas airport or in free local magazines like \"This Week\")\u2014but it's always good to confirm the rate before the ride begins.\n\nOn the British Virgin Islands, taxis are readily available and, on some to the smaller islands, often the best way to get around. Service is available on Tortola, Virgin Gorda, and Anegada, and rates are fixed by the local government.\n\nTip: It's highly recommended that if you find a good taxi driver on the islands, get his or her card\u2014not only will you have a reliable driver to drop you off and pick you up places but most drivers are smart and entertaining island guides. Rates for sightseeing taxi tours are also generally regulated by the government. The standard taxi tour on St. Thomas, for example, is $50 for one or two passengers and $25 per extra passenger.\n\nBy Bus\n\nThe only islands with recommendable bus service are St. Thomas and St. Croix. On St. Thomas, buses leave from Charlotte Amalie and circle the island; on St. Croix, air-conditioned buses run from Christiansted to Frederiksted. Bus service elsewhere is highly erratic; it's mostly used by locals going to and from work.\n\nTIPS ON ACCOMMODATIONS\n\nThroughout this book, we provide detailed descriptions of the lodging properties so that you get an idea of what to expect. Keep in mind that many of the more high-end island resorts charge a daily resort fee of between $35 and $50.\n\nResorts and hotels in the Virgin Islands offer money-saving package deals galore, and you can find land-air (and land-air-rental-car) packages on almost all of the online travel agencies (Expedia.com, Orbitz.com, Priceline.com, VacMart.com, CheapCaribbean.com). Be sure to check the hotel's own websites: Many hotels offer terrific online-only multi-stay or theme deals (especially in the off season).\n\nLike most Caribbean islands, the Virgins have high and low seasons, and properties are priced accordingly. The most exorbitant rates are charged during the Christmas and New Year's holidays. If you have flexibility in your travel times, keep in mind that during the off season (mid-Apr to mid-Dec), most hotels offer tremendous deals, often slashing 25 to 50 percent off their regular-season prices.\n\nRenting Your Own Villa or Vacation Home\n\nAnother popular lodging alternative, and a smart money-saving option if you're traveling with a large party of family or friends, is renting a villa, condo, apartment, or cottage for your Virgin Islands vacation. Having your own self-catering facilities can be a big money-saver\u2014dining out is chillingly pricey in the Virgin Islands. Note: If you're planning your trip for the high season, reservations should be made at least 5 to 6 months in advance.\n\nDozens of agencies throughout the United States and Canada offer rentals in the Virgin Islands. Villas of Distinction (  800\/289-0900; www.villasofdistinction.com) offers \"complete vacations,\" including car rental and domestic help. Its private luxury villas have one to seven-plus bedrooms, and many have swimming pools. Rates run from $500 a night and up.\n\nVacation St. Croix, 4000 La Grande Princesse, Christiansted (  877\/788-0361 or 340\/718-0361; www.vacationstcroix.com), offers some of the best properties on St. Croix, specializing in villas, condos, and private homes, many of which are on the beach. Two- to seven-bedroom units are available, with prices from $1,000 to $15,000 per week.\n\nBest of BVI (  1252-674878 from the U.K. and 011\/44-1252-674878 from the U.S; www.bestofbvi.com) handles properties you won't find anywhere else, including a one-bedroom cottage on Little Thatch Island, a privately owned island minutes from Soper's Hole; Best of BVI also has a hugely informative trip-planning website, with an up-to-date ferry schedule). Jewels of the BVI (  866\/468-6284; www.jewelsofthebvi.com) represents only BVI Islander\u2013owned properties, including villas, condos, and resorts.\n\nAt Home Abroad (  212\/421-9165; www.athomeabroadinc.com) has a roster of private luxury homes, villas, and condos for rent in St. Thomas, St. John, Tortola, and Virgin Gorda; maid service is included in the price. In the U.K., browse the options offered through Holiday Rentals (  020\/8846-3441; www.holiday-rentals.co.uk).\n\nYou can also find excellent deals on popular owner-rented vacation lodging websites, including VRBO (www.vrbo.com) and HomeAway (www.homeaway.com); both websites list numerous attractive villas and condos throughout the Virgins. What you will not get with these rentals is service (unless advertised) or even guarantees that the rental is what is appears to be. Both VRBO and HomeAway sell rental guarantee insurance ($39 and up) that guarantees your money back under certain circumstances (the property has been double-booked or grossly misrepresented, for example)\u2014so you may want to weigh that extra fee against the low rental rates.\n\nSPECIAL-INTEREST TRIPS & TOURS\n\nThere's no rule that says you have to confine yourself to a beach chair while visiting the Virgin Islands (although there's no rule against it, either). You will have endless opportunities to sit by the surf sipping rum drinks, but remember that these islands offer more than just ribbons of fetching white-sand beach. Coral reefs and deepwater channels provide backdrops for a variety of watersports, from snorkeling to sea kayaking to sailing, and the lush island interiors make ideal playgrounds for scenic hikes and breathtaking vistas. This section presents an overview of tours, special-interest trips, and outdoor excursions on the Virgin Islands. See individual chapters for more specific information on locations and outfitters. Note: During the low summer season, tours and excursions may not run regularly unless enough people book, so always call in advance to confirm.\n\nAir Tours\n\nIt's a pricey option, but well-heeled visitors may want to see the Virgin Islands as the birds do. Helicopter sightseeing tours, island-hopping day-trips, and heli-adventures (heli-fishing in Anegada, for example) are available through Caribbean Buzz Helicopters, in St. Thomas (  340\/775-7335; <http:\/\/caribbean-buzz.com>). A Full Moon tour takes you over St. Thomas and St. John on 15- or 30-minute jaunts by moonlight. Helicopters seat five passengers and a pilot and are also available to rent for island transfers.\n\nIf you can't afford such a luxury, you can get a panoramic aerial view from Paradise Point on St. Thomas (p. ).\n\nAdventure Trips\n\nDive in: The Virgin Islands is one big outdoor playground, with aquatic pleasures, rain-forest peaks, and breathtakingly scenic sightseeing. For general guided tours, contact the following three tour operators:\n\nOne of the best tour operators in the U.S.V.I. is Adventure Center, in the Marriott Frenchman's Reef Resort, Flamboyant Point, St. Thomas (  340\/774-2992; www.adventurecenters.net). It offers a wide variety of tours, on both land and sea, and many tours of both St. Thomas and St. John depart right from the hotel's dock. Their 21\u20442 hour \"Scenic Island Drive\" tour explores St. Thomas's highlights, including the Botanical Gardens, Drake's Seat, and Charlotte Amalie; this tour costs $49 per person. Their \"St. John Land and Snorkel Safari\" is a full-day tour that takes visitors through the beaches and national parks in St. John, including a snorkel stop in Trunk Bay, in open-air buses; it costs $95 per person. Adventure Center offers an array of other quality guided tours throughout the Virgin Islands.\n\nSea Turtle Etiquette\n\nThese are some of the most highly endangered species in the oceans. Catching even a passing glimpse of one is a magical experience, but you'll blow the chance unless you heed some basic guidelines. When you first spot a sea turtle, resist the urge to move in and get a closer look; you will only scare it off and ruin the opportunity for others to see it. Instead, stay still and watch at a respectful distance as it goes about its business, searching for food or gliding along gracefully. Keep an eye out for identification tags on their flippers or shells\u2014a sure sign these fellas are being closely studied and well protected. You should never approach a turtle or its nest, and never touch or try to touch one\u2014for your safety and theirs. Although it seems harmless to humans, it is in fact quite stressful for the turtles (how'd you like to be chased around the grocery store by strangers all day?). Warning: Do not swim above the turtles; it will prevent them from surfacing to breathe and subject them to undue respiratory stress. And, of course, if someone offers you sea turtle shell, egg, or meat products, just say no.\n\n\u2014Christina P. Col\u00f3n\n\nTan Tan Tours (  340\/773-7041; www.stxtantantours.com) is a tour operator based in St. Croix that offers off-the-beaten-path jeep tours of the island. A 21\u20442-hour guided swim in the Anally Bay tide pools costs $100 per person, while a full-day (8-hr.) tour of the island costs $160 per person; custom tours are also available.\n\nB.V.I. Eco-Tours (  284\/495-0271; www.bvi-ecotours.com) offers a variety of guided tours, including snorkeling, hiking, bird watching, sightseeing, diving, and general tours of the British Virgin Islands.\n\nVirgin Gorda Tours (  284\/495-5240; www.virgingordatours.com) offers guided taxi tours of Virgin Gorda, including stops at Savannah Bay, Gorda Peak, the historical Copper Mine ruins, and the famous Baths; tours vary, but a 1-hour tour (for two people) costs $55.\n\nBicyclE TOURS Bike riding can be a wonderful way to explore the islands. Water Island Adventures (  340\/775-5770; www.waterislandadventures.com) offers guided bike tours on Water Island, off of St. Thomas. Tours depart from the Crown Bay cruise-ship dock at St. Thomas, where you'll take a ferry to Water Island\u2014from there the biking tour begins.\n\nSt. Croix has miles of relatively flat roadways that make it ideal for biking, but it also has lush hills for the more adventurous. Contact Freedom City Cycles, 2E Strand Sq., 2 Strand St., Frederiksted (  340\/227-2433; www.freedomcitycycles.com), which, in addition to offering bike rentals, can arrange guided bike tours of the island. A 2- to 3-hour mountain bike tour begins at sea level and climbs through the rain forest on both paved and unpaved roads, costing $60 per person.\n\nFishing The Virgin Islands are home to some of the best fishing grounds in the world. More than 20 sportsfishing world records have been set in the Virgin Islands in the last few decades, mostly for the big kahuna of the sea, blue marlin. Other abundant fish in these waters are bonito, tuna, wahoo, sailfish, and skipjack. Sport-fishing charters, led by experienced local captains, abound in the islands; both half-day and full-day trips are available. But you needn't go out to sea to fish. On St. Thomas, St. John, and St. Croix, the U.S. government publishes lists of legal shoreline fishing spots (contact local tourist offices for more information). Closer inshore, you'll find kingfish, mackerel, bonefish, tarpon, amberjack, grouper, and snapper.\n\nOn St. Thomas, many people line-fish from the rocky shore along Mandahl Beach, which is also a popular spot for family picnics. The shore here is not the best place for swimming, because the seafloor drops off dramatically and the surf tends to be rough. On St. John, the waters in Virgin Islands National Park are open to fishermen with hand-held rods. No fishing license is required for shoreline fishing, and government pamphlets available at tourist offices list some 100 good spots. Call   340\/774-8784 for more information.\n\nHiking TOURS The best islands for hiking are Tortola and St. John. In Tortola, the best hiking is through Sage Mountain National Park, spread across 37 hectares (91 acres) of luxuriant flora and fauna. On St. John, the most intriguing hike is the Annaberg Historic Trail, which takes you by former plantation sites. Most of St. John is itself a national park, so there are dozens of opportunities for hiking.\n\nSt. Croix also has good hiking opportunities. To reach some of the most remote but scenic places on St. Croix, take a walking tour with Crucian Heritage & Nature Tourism (CHANT;   340\/772-4079; <http:\/\/chantvi.org>). Its \"Ay Ay Eco-Hike Tours\" include a steep walk down the mountainside to the crystalline tidal pools and saltwater baths of Annaly Bay, and a walking trip along scenic Maroon Ridge, established by runaway slaves in the 17th century ($50 per person).\n\nBuck Island, off the coast of St. Croix, is beloved by snorkelers and scuba divers but also fascinating to hike. You can easily explore the island in a day\u2014it's just a half-mile wide and a mile long. While hiking in the Virgin Islands, you'll encounter many birds and flowers\u2014but no poisonous snakes. Be sure to look for the trumpet-shaped Ginger Thomas, the U.S. Virgin Islands' official flower.\n\nSailing & Yachting The Virgin Islands are a sailor's paradise, offering crystal-clear turquoise waters, secluded coves and inlets, and protected harbors for anchoring. The most popular cruising area around the Virgin Islands is the deep and lushly scenic Sir Francis Drake Channel, which runs from St. John to Virgin Gorda's North Sound. The channel is rimmed by mountainous islands and boasts steady tradewinds year-round. In heavy weather, the network of tiny islands shelters yachties from the brute force of the open sea. The waters surrounding St. Croix to the south are also appealing, especially near Buck Island. Outside the channel, the Virgin Islands archipelago contains reefy areas that separate many of the islands from their neighbors.\n\nFor details on arranging a multi-day boat charter\u2014bareboat (on your own) or fully crewed\u2014see \"Chartering Your Own Boat,\" below. Most visitors, however, are content with day sails, which are easy to organize, especially at the harbors in St. Thomas, Tortola, and Virgin Gorda. Regardless of where you decide to cruise, you really shouldn't leave the islands without spending at least 1 day on the water, even if you have to load up on Dramamine or snap on your acupressure wristbands before you go. For sailing companies on each island, go to the individual chapters.\n\nSailing, Sailing: Distances by Nautical Mile\n\nExcept for Anegada, a low-lying atoll of coral limestone and sandstone, all the Virgin Islands are high and easily spotted. The shortest distance between St. Thomas and St. Croix is 35 nautical miles; from St. John to St. Croix, 35 nautical miles; from St. Thomas to St. John, 2 nautical miles; from Tortola to St. Thomas, 10 nautical miles; from Virgin Gorda to Anegada, 13 nautical miles; and from St. John to Anegada, 30 nautical miles. Virgin Gorda to St. Croix is about the longest run, at 45 nautical miles. (Specific distances between the islands can be misleading, however, because you often need to take roundabout routes from one point to another.)\n\nIf you don't know how to sail but want to learn, there's no better place than the Virgin Islands. On Tortola, the Tortola Sailing School (  800\/390-7594; <http:\/\/tortolasailingschool.com>) is an accredited American Sailing Association sailing school, with courses in both sailing and bareboating running out of Soper's Hole Marina on the island's West End. It offers a full-day \"Learn the Ropes\" basics course on a 36-foot monohull for $175 per person. It also offers multi-day liveaboard sailing and bareboating courses. On St. Croix, call Jones Maritime Sailing School, 1215 King Cross St., Christiansted (  340\/773-4709; www.jonesmaritime.com), which has three 24-foot day-sailors and charges $325 per person for a 2-day course, held on Saturdays and Sundays.\n\nCHARTERING YOUR OWN boat\n\nThere may be no better way to experience the \"Sailing Capital of the World\" than on the deck of your own yacht. Impossible? Not really. No one said you had to own the yacht. Experienced sailors and navigators with a sea-wise crew might want to rent a bareboat charter\u2014a fully equipped boat with no captain or crew, where you are the master of the seas, charting your own course, and do your own cooking and cleaning. If you're not an expert sailor but yearn to hit the high seas, consider a fully crewed charter, which includes a captain and chef. The cost of a crewed boat is obviously more than that of a bareboat, and varies according to crew size and experience.\n\nMost boats, bareboat or crewed, are rented on a weekly basis and come equipped with a GPS system. Full-service crewed boats come in all shapes and sizes, from traditional sailboats to roomy multihulls to elegant motor yachts. Crewed charters generally come with a fully stocked kitchen (or a barbecue) and bar, fishing gear, and watersports equipment. For details on crewed yachts, go to www.bvicrewedyachts.com. Private boats are given up to 30 days to cruise the B.V.I. and are required to pay a 30-day cruising fee based on tonnage (maximum fee $55). Contact the British Virgin Islands Customs Department (  284\/494-3475 or 284\/468-3701, ext. 2533) for current cruising permit requirements.\n\nAmong the outfitters in the Virgin Islands, the Moorings in Tortola (  888\/952-8420; www.moorings.com) offers both bareboat and fully crewed charters equipped with such extras as a barbecue, snorkeling gear, a dinghy, and linens. The company even supplies windsurfing equipment for free with crewed boats (and for an extra cost with bareboats). The experienced staff of mechanics, electricians, riggers, and cleaners is extremely helpful, especially if you're going out on your own. They'll give you a thorough briefing about Virgin Islands waters and anchorages. If you're looking for bareboat and full-crew charter companies in St. Thomas, you'll find the craft you're looking for through IGY: American Yacht Harbor (  340\/775-6454; www.igy-americanyachtharbor.com), a full-service marina located in Red Hook and home to numerous charter companies.\n\nThe Offshore Sailing School, Prospect Reef Resort, Road Town (  284\/494-5119) is the official sailing school for the Moorings, the bareboat charter outfitter based in Road Town; it offers sailing instruction year-round (  888\/454-7015 or 239\/454-1700; www.offshore-sailing.com).\n\nSea Kayaking Arawak Expeditions, Cruz Bay, St. John (  800\/238-8687 or 340\/693-8312 in the U.S.; www.arawakexp.com), offers not only kayaking day-trips but multi-day sea-kayaking\/island-camping excursions. The vessels with Arawak Expeditions are in two-person fiberglass kayaks, complete with foot-controlled rudders. The outfit provides all the kayaking gear, healthy meals, camping equipment, and experienced guides. The cost of a full-day trip is $110, half-day $75; you can also book longer expeditions, such as a 5-day excursion costing $1,195 per person or a 7-day trip going for $2,495 per person.\n\nSnorkeling & Scuba Diving St. John has spectacular snorkeling right offshore at beaches like Trunk Bay, Maho Bay, Cinnamon Bay, and Hawksnest Beach. A steep undersea wall just 15 minutes offshore makes for excellent scuba diving.\n\nOn St. Croix, the best site for both is Buck Island, easily accessible by day sails from the harbor in Christiansted. St. Croix is also known for its dramatic \"drop-offs,\" including the famous Puerto Rico Trench.\n\nOn St. Thomas, all major hotels rent fins and masks for snorkelers, and most day-sail charters have equipment on board. Many outfitters, like the St. Thomas Diving Club (  340\/776-2381; www.stthomasdivingclub.com), also feature scuba programs.\n\nOn the British Virgin Islands, some of the best snorkeling is around Norman Island and the Indians; Smuggler's Cove, in Tortola; and the Baths, Virgin Gorda's major attraction. Anegada Reef, which lies off Anegada Island, has been a \"burial ground\" for ships for centuries; an estimated 300 wrecks, including many pirate ships, have perished here. The wreckage of the RMS Rhone, near the westerly tip of Salt Island, is the most celebrated dive spot in the B.V.I. This ship went under in 1867 in one of the most disastrous hurricanes ever to hit the Virgin Islands.\n\nHeritage & Cultural Tours\n\nSt. Croix's cultural riches are explored on tours run by Crucian Heritage & Nature Tourism (CHANT;   340\/772-4079; <http:\/\/chantvi.org>). In addition to historic walking tours of the colonial towns of Christiansted and Frederiksted, CHANT offers a fascinating Ridge to Reef Farm Tour, showcasing the island's agricultural heritage and burgeoning farm-to-table movement with a tour of a 200-acre working tropical farm in a lush valley amid the island's tropical forests. The 3-hour tour is $55 per person.\n\n  The Virgin Islands\n\nArea Codes The area code for the U.S.V.I. is 340; in the B.V.I., it's 284. You can dial direct from North America; from outside North America, dial 001, plus the number for the U.S.V.I., and 011-44 plus the number for the B.V.I.\n\nBusiness Hours See \"Fast Facts\" in individual island chapters for information on business hours.\n\nCrime See \"Safety,\" later in this section.\n\nCustoms Every visitor to the U.S.V.I. 21 years of age or older may bring in, free of duty, the following: (1) 1 liter of wine or hard liquor; (2) 200 cigarettes, 100 cigars (but not from Cuba), or 3 pounds of smoking tobacco; and (3) $100 worth of gifts. These exemptions are offered to travelers who spend at least 72 hours in the United States and who have not claimed them within the preceding 6 months. It is altogether forbidden to bring into the country foodstuffs (particularly fruit, cooked meats, and canned goods) and plants (vegetables, seeds, tropical plants, and the like). Foreign tourists may carry in or out up to $10,000 in U.S. or foreign currency with no formalities; larger sums must be declared to U.S. Customs on entering or leaving, which includes filing form CM 4790. For details regarding U.S. Customs and Border Protection, consult your nearest U.S. embassy or consulate, or U.S. Customs (  800\/232-5378; www.cbp.gov).\n\nVisitors to the B.V.I. can bring in food, with the exception of meat products that are not USDA-approved. Visitors can bring up to $10,000 in currency and 1 liter of alcohol per person.\n\nAustralian Citizens: A helpful brochure available from Australian consulates or Customs offices is \"Know Before You Go.\" For more information, contact the Australian Customs Service, Customs House, 5 Constitution Ave., Canberra City, ACT 2601 (  1300\/363-263, or 61 2 9313 3010 from outside Australia; www.customs.gov.au).\n\nCanadian Citizens: For a clear summary of Canadian rules, write for the booklet \"I Declare,\" issued by the Canada Border Services Agency, Ottawa, Ontario, K1A 0L8 (  800\/461-9999 in Canada, or 204\/983-3500; www.cbsa-asfc.gc.ca).\n\nNew Zealand Citizens: Most questions are answered in a free pamphlet available at New Zealand consulates and Customs offices: \"New Zealand Customs Guide for Travellers, Notice no. 4.\" For more information, contact New Zealand Customs Service, the Customhouse, 1 Hinemoa St., Harbour Quays, Wellington 6140 (  04\/901-4500; www.customs.govt.nz).\n\nU.K. Citizens: From the B.V.I., U.K. citizens can bring back (duty-free) 200 cigarettes (250g of tobacco), 2 liters wine, 1 liter strong liquor, 60cc perfume, and \u00a3145 of goods and souvenirs. Larger amounts are subject to tax. For further information, contact HM Revenue & Customs, Crownhill Court, Tailyour Road, Plymouth, PL6 5BZ (  0300 200 3700; www.hmrc.gov.uk).\n\nU.S. Citizens & Residents: From the U.S.V.I., U.S. citizens can bring back 5 liters of liquor duty-free, plus an extra liter of rum (including Cruzan rum) if one of the bottles is produced in the Virgin Islands. Goods made on the island are also duty-free, including perfume, jewelry, clothing, and original paintings; however, if the price of an item exceeds $25, you must be able to show a certificate of origin.\n\nBe sure to collect receipts for all purchases in the Virgin Islands, and beware of merchants offering to give you a false receipt\u2014he or she might be an informer to U.S. Customs. Also, keep in mind that any gifts received during your stay must be declared. For the most up-to-date specifics on what you can bring back from the B.V.I. and the corresponding fees, contact the U.S. Customs & Border Protection (CBP), 1300 Pennsylvania Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20229 (  877\/227-5511; www.ct.gov\/dcp.gov).\n\nDisabled Travelers For the most part, the accessibility of hotels and restaurants in the U.S.V.I. remains far behind the progress made on the mainland. Of the U.S. Virgins, St. Thomas and St. John remain the most difficult islands for wheelchair-bound visitors to maneuver because of their hilly terrain. St. Croix is flatter and is an easier place to get around.\n\nAlthough most hotels in the Virgin Islands have a long way to go before they become a friend of a person with disabilities, some have made inroads. As of this writing, about a third of the major resorts in St. Thomas or St. Croix have the facilities to accommodate vacationers who have disabilities. Many inns, guesthouses, and villas terraced in the hills of Charlotte Amalie can present challenges to those with mobility issues\u2014a number have steep steps and no elevators. Of the resorts in the U.S.V.I., the Ritz-Carlton, St. Thomas (p. ), is the most hospitable to persons with disabilities. It maintains \"accessible rooms\"\u2014rooms that can be reached without navigating stairs\u2014in every price category. The Ritz also offers beach wheelchairs (resting on balloon tires).\n\nAccessible Island Tours (  340\/344-8302; <http:\/\/accessvi.com>) is a tour operator in St. Thomas that offers a land-based tour of St. Thomas in a custom wheelchair-accessible vehicle. Originating from Wico Dock at Havensight or Crown Bay at the Sub Base, tours stop at Magens Bay, Drakes Seat, and the Skyline Drive, and cost $37 per person (minimum of six passengers).\n\nDoctors You should have no trouble finding a good doctor in the Virgin Islands. See \"Fast Facts\" in individual island chapters for information on doctors.\n\nDrinking Laws In the U.S. Virgins, the legal age for purchase and consumption of alcoholic beverages is 18. Proof of age is required and often requested at bars, nightclubs, and restaurants, so it's always a good idea to bring ID when you go out. Do not carry open containers of alcohol in your car or any public area that isn't zoned for alcohol consumption. The police can fine you on the spot. Don't even think about driving while intoxicated. Although 18-year-olds can purchase, drink, and order alcohol, they cannot transport bottles back to the United States with them. If an attempt is made, the alcohol will be confiscated at the Customs check point. The same holds true for the B.V.I.\n\nIn the B.V.I., the legal minimum age for purchasing liquor or drinking alcohol in bars or restaurants is 18. Alcoholic beverages can be sold any day of the week, including Sunday. You can have an open container on the beach, but be you can be fined if you litter.\n\nDriving Rules In both the U.S.V.I. and the B.V.I., you must drive on the left. See \"Getting Around,\" earlier in this chapter.\n\nElectricity The electrical current in the Virgin Islands is the same as on the U.S. mainland and Canada: 110 to 120 volts AC (60 cycles), compared to 220 to 240 volts AC (50 cycles) in most of Europe, Australia, and New Zealand. Downward converters that change 220 to 240 volts to 110 to 120 volts are difficult to find in the United States, so bring one with you.\n\nEmbassies & Consulates There are no embassies or consulates in the Virgin Islands. If you have a passport issue, go to the local police station, which in all islands is located at the center of government agencies. Relay your problem to whomever is at reception, and you'll be given advice about which agencies can help you.\n\nEmergencies Call   911 in the U.S.V.I. or 999 in the B.V.I.\n\nFamily Travel The Virgin Islands, both U.S. and British, are very family-friendly. St. Thomas and St. Croix have the most facilities and attractions for families. The British Virgin Islands have fewer attractions that cater specifically to children, although families who love watersports, boating, and nature activities will have a great time. When compared with some of the other major destinations in the Caribbean (such as Jamaica, where crime is high), the U.S. Virgins are generally safe, and the British Virgin Islands are even safer.\n\nGasoline Please see \"Getting Around,\" earlier in this chapter, for information.\n\nHealth Other than the typical tropical environment health concerns, like sun exposure and seasickness (see below), there are no major health concerns in the Virgin Islands.\n\nSt. Thomas has the best hospital in the U.S. Virgin Islands (Schneider Regional Medical Center; p. ). St. Croix also has good hospital facilities (St. Croix Regional Medical Center; p. ). There is only a health clinic on St. John; more serious cases are transferred to the hospital on St. Thomas.\n\nThe B.V.I. has one small general hospital, Peebles Hospital (p. ) on Tortola. Day clinics are available on Tortola, Virgin Gorda, Anegada, and Jost Van Dyke. Both Tortola and Virgin Gorda are served by ambulances with paramedics. The Eureka Medical Centre (www.eurekamedicalclinic.com), Geneva Place, Road Town, Tortola, is a private-run urgent-care facility. There is also no hyperbaric chamber in the B.V.I. Patients requiring treatment for decompression illness are transferred to St. Thomas.\n\nIn very serious cases, patients in the U.S. Virgins and the B.V.I. are transported to Puerto Rico.\n\nIt is not difficult to get a prescription filled or find a doctor on St. Thomas, St. Croix, and Tortola. Pharmacies are few and far between on the smaller islands, so you should get any prescriptions refilled before you venture into more remote territory. Often it requires a phone call from the U.S.V.I. to a stateside pharmacy or to the doctor who prescribed the medicine in the first place. CVS and Wal-Mart are the best for contacting a stateside branch of those chains, if your prescription is on a computer file. To avoid possible hassles and delays, it is best to arrive with enough medication for your entire vacation.\n\n  Bugs & Bites Mosquitoes do exist in the Virgin Islands, but they aren't the malaria-carrying mosquitoes that you might find elsewhere in the Caribbean. They're still a nuisance, though. Sand flies, which appear mainly in the evening, are a bigger annoyance. Screens can't keep these critters out, so use bug repellent.\n\n  Dietary Red Flags If you experience diarrhea, moderate your eating habits and drink only bottled water until you recover. If symptoms persist, consult a doctor. Much of the fresh water on the Virgin Islands is stored in cisterns and filtered before it's served. Delicate stomachs might opt for bottled water. Some say a nightly drink of ginger ale and bitters helps soothe tummies.\n\n  Seasickness The best way to prevent seasickness is with the scopolamine patch by Transderm Scop, a prescription medication. Bonine and Dramamine are good over-the-counter medications, although each causes drowsiness. Smooth Sailing is a ginger drink that works quite well to settle your stomach. You might also opt for an acupressure wristband available at drugstores (www.sea-band.com). Some say a ginger pill taken with a meal and followed by Dramamine an hour before boating also does the job.\n\n  Sun Exposure The Virgin Islands' sun can be brutal. To protect yourself, consider wearing sunglasses and a hat, and use sunscreen (SPF 15 and higher) liberally. Limit your time on the beach for the first few days. If you overexpose yourself, stay out of the sun until you recover. If your sunburn is followed by fever, chills, a headache, nausea, or dizziness, see a doctor.\n\nHospitals The largest hospital in St. Thomas is the Schneider Regional Medical Center (p. ), with 24-hour emergency-room service. Islanders from St. John also use this hospital, which is about a 5-minute drive from Charlotte Amalie. The other major hospital is the St. Croix Regional Medical Center on St. Croix (p. ); it has a Level IV trauma center offering 24-hour emergency-room service. Both offer air and ground-level support to hospitals with more extensive facilities. The payment of Medicare and Medicaid operates as it does in the United States. If you walk into a hospital without any coverage or insurance, you are expected to pay.\n\nOn Tortola, in the British Virgin Islands, the main hospital in the little country is Peebles Hospital (p. ), with surgical, X-ray, and laboratory facilities. If you are on one of the out islands, you are generally taken to Tortola for treatment. In addition to these hospitals, there are a number of private doctors' offices throughout the islands, charging higher rates than the hospitals.\n\nInternet & Wi-Fi Internet access is becoming increasingly available all around the Virgin Islands, but it can still be spotty on some of the more remote islands. Most hotels and resorts are ratcheting up their Internet capabilities. Many bars and cafes throughout the Virgin Islands have free Wi-Fi access.\n\nIf you're in transit and looking for a spot with Internet access, see the \"Fast Facts\" section of each island chapter for recommendations on where to go.\n\nLanguage English is the official language of both the U.S. and British Virgin Islands.\n\nLegal Aid While driving, if you are pulled over for a minor infraction (such as speeding), never attempt to pay the fine directly to a police officer; this could be construed as attempted bribery, a much more serious crime. Pay fines by mail, or directly into the hands of the clerk of the court. If accused of a more serious offense, say and do nothing before consulting a lawyer. In the U.S.V.I., the burden is on the state to prove a person's guilt beyond a reasonable doubt, and everyone has the right to remain silent, whether he or she is suspected of a crime or actually arrested. Once arrested, a person can make one telephone call to a party of his or her choice.\n\nLGBT Travelers The Virgin Islands are some of the most gay-friendly destinations in the Caribbean. However, discretion is still advised. Islanders tend to be religious and conservative, and displays of same-sex affection, such as hand holding, are frowned upon.\n\nSt. Thomas is the most cosmopolitan of the Virgin Islands, but it is no longer the \"gay paradise\" it was in the 1960s and 1970s. Most gay vacationers now head for Frederiksted, in St. Croix, which has more hotels and other establishments welcoming to the gay market. In Charlotte Amalie, on St. Thomas, the most boisterous gay nightlife takes place in the Frenchtown section of the city.\n\nMail At press time, domestic postage rates in the U.S.V.I. were 33\u00a2 for a postcard and 46\u00a2 for a letter up to 1 ounce. For international mail, a first-class postcard or letter stamp costs $1.10. For more information, go to www.usps.com. Always include zip codes when mailing items in the U.S. If you don't know your zip code, visit www.usps.com\/zip4.\n\nIf you aren't sure what your address will be in the U.S. Virgin Islands, mail can be sent to you, in your name, c\/o General Delivery at the main post office of the city or region where you expect to be. (Call   800\/275-8777 for information on the nearest post office.) The addressee must pick up mail in person and must produce proof of identity (driver's license, passport, and so on). Most post offices will hold your mail for up to 1 month, and are open Monday to Friday 8am to 6pm, and Saturday 9am to 3pm.\n\nPostal rates in the British Virgin Islands to the United States or Canada are 35\u00a2 for a postcard (airmail), and 50\u00a2 for a first-class airmail letter (1\u20442 oz.). Mailing a postcard to the U.K. costs 50\u00a2 and a first-class letter via airmail costs 75\u00a2 (1\u20442 oz.). B.V.I. postage stamps are beautiful and highly coveted; contact the BVI Philatelic Bureau (  284\/494-7789) for information about exhibitions.\n\nMedical Requirements Unless you're arriving from an area known to be suffering from an epidemic (particularly cholera or yellow fever), inoculations or vaccinations are not required for entry into the U.S. Virgin Islands or the British Virgin Islands.\n\nIf you have a medical condition that requires syringe-administered medications, carry a valid signed prescription from your physician; syringes in carry-on baggage will be inspected. Insulin in any form should have the proper pharmaceutical documentation. If you have a disease that requires treatment with narcotics, you should also carry documented proof with you\u2014smuggling narcotics aboard a plane carries severe penalties in the U.S.\n\nFor HIV-positive visitors, requirements for entering both the U.S.V.I. and B.V.I. are somewhat vague and change frequently. Anyone who does not appear to be in good health may be required to undergo a medical exam, including HIV testing, prior to being granted or denied entry. For up-to-the-minute information, contact AIDSinfo (  800\/448-0440 or 301\/519-0459 outside the U.S.; www.aidsinfo.nih.gov) or the Gay Men's Health Crisis (  212\/367-1000; www.gmhc.org). Also see \"Health.\"\n\nMobile Phones In the U.S. Virgin Islands: The two largest cellphone operators in the U.S.V.I. include Sprint PCS (www.sprint.com) and AT&T Wireless (www.att.com\/wireless). Phones operating in the mainland U.S. under those plans will usually operate seamlessly, and without any excess roaming charges, in the U.S.V.I. If your phone presently operates through some other carrier, it's wise to call them before your departure about signing up (at least temporarily) for one of their international plans, which will save you money on roaming charges during the duration of your trip. If your cellphone is not equipped for reception and transmission in the U.S.V.I., consider renting (or buying) a cheap cellphone for temporary use, or, less conveniently, head for a Sprint PCS or AT&T sales outlet (each maintains offices on all three of the U.S.V.I.'s major islands) for a substitute SIM card, a key operating component that can be inserted into your existing phone, making it operational. Throughout the U.S.V.I., the electrical system is the same as within the U.S. mainland (115 volts and female sockets which accept the U.S.-style \"flat\" plugs), so most U.S. residents won't need any special transformers or adaptors.\n\nIn the British Virgin Islands: The three largest cellphone operators in the B.V.I. are CCT Global Communications (www.cctwireless.com), LIME (www.lime.com), and Digicell BVI (www.digicelbvi.com), all with offices in Road Town and on Virgin Gorda. Other than that, the cellphone situation is roughly equivalent to what's described immediately above in the U.S.V.I. The electrical system in the B.V.I. is the same as that within the U.S.V.I. and the mainland U.S. (115 volts), so British and European visitors may want to bring adaptors and transformers. Hotels in the B.V.I. often have the appropriate adaptors, and in some cases, those adaptors are physically built directly into the wall sockets.\n\nMoney & Costs The U.S. Virgin Islands and the British Virgin Islands both use the U.S. dollar as the form of currency. Frommer's lists exact prices in the local currency. The currency conversions quoted above were correct at press time. However, rates fluctuate, so before departing consult a currency exchange website such as www.xe.com to check up-to-the-minute rates.\n\nBanks on the islands are your only option if you need to exchange currency. These rates can be expensive, and additional charges are often tacked on; it is best to change money before you arrive.\n\nATMs throughout the Virgin Islands dispense U.S. dollars. ATMs are most prevalent on St. Thomas in Charlotte Amalie (on the downtown streets, near the cruise-ship terminals, within the large resorts, and in shopping malls) and in Christiansted on St. Croix. You will also find several ATMs in Cruz Bay on St. John. ATMs are less prevalent in the British Virgin Islands; you will find a cluster of banks in Wickham Cay I, Road Town, Tortola, and a couple in the harbor in Spanish Town, Virgin Gorda. The other islands do not have ATMs, so if you're planning a visit, be sure to visit an ATM to get some cash first (or have your resort front you some petty cash). Each machine charges around $2 to $3 for a transaction fee. Nearly all of the machines are operated by three banks: Scotiabank (www.scotiabank.com), FirstBank (www.firstbankvi.com), and Banco Popular (www.bancopopular.com\/vi).\n\nMost establishments in the Virgin Islands accept credit cards; we note in our reviews those places that accept cash only. MasterCard and Visa are widely accepted on all the islands that cater to visitors, especially Virgin Gorda, Tortola, St. John, St. Croix, and, of course, St. Thomas. In the past few years, there has been a tendency to drop American Express because of the high percentage it takes from transactions.\n\nHowever, visitors should not rely solely on credit cards, as a number of establishments in the Virgin Islands accept only cash. You will want to arm yourself with cash while browsing the small boutiques and curio shops throughout the islands\u2014many do not take credit cards. Most taxi drivers only deal in cash.\n\nBeware of credit card fees while traveling. Check with your credit or debit card issuer to see what fees, if any, will be charged for overseas transactions. Recent reform legislation in the U.S., for example, has curbed some exploitative lending practices. But many banks have responded by increasing fees in other areas, including fees for customers who use credit and debit cards while out of the country\u2014even if those charges were made in U.S. dollars. Fees can amount to 3 percent or more of the purchase price. Check with your bank before departing to avoid any surprise charges on your statement.\n\nPassports If you're a U.S. citizen and you travel directly to the U.S.V.I. and do not visit the British Virgin Islands, you do not need a passport\u2014but you are highly encouraged to carry one. If you return to the mainland U.S. from the U.S.V.I. through another country (Mexico or Bermuda, for example), you will need a passport to get back home. For non\u2013U.S. citizens, visiting the U.S. Virgin Islands is just like visiting the mainland United States: You need a passport and visa.\n\nA passport is necessary for all visitors to the British Virgin Islands (including citizens of the U.K.).\n\nFor information on how to get a passport, contact your passport office (see below). Allow plenty of time before your trip to apply for a passport; processing normally takes 3 weeks but can take longer during busy periods. And keep in mind that if you need a passport in a hurry, you'll pay a higher processing fee. When traveling, safeguard your passport in an inconspicuous, inaccessible place like a money belt, and keep a copy of the critical pages with your passport number in a separate place. There are no foreign consulates in the Virgin Islands, so if you lose your passport, go to the local police station.\n\nPassport Offices\n\nAustralia Australian Passport Information Service (  131-232; www.passports.gov.au).\n\nCanada Passport Office, Passport Canada Program, Gatineau QC K1A 0G3 (  800\/567-6868; www.ppt.gc.ca).\n\nIreland Passport Office, Frederick Buildings, Molesworth Street, Dublin 2 (  353 1 671 1633; www.dfa.ie).\n\nNew Zealand Passports Office, Department of Internal Affairs, 109 Featherston St., Wellington, 6140 (  0800 22 50 50 in New Zealand, or 64 4 463 9360; www.passports.govt.nz).\n\nUnited Kingdom Visit your nearest passport office, major post office, or travel agency, or contact the HM Passport Office, 4th Floor, Peel Building, 2 Marsham St., London, SW1P 4DF (  0300 222 0000; www.ips.gov.uk).\n\nUnited States To find your regional passport office, check the U.S. State Department website (<http:\/\/travel.state.gov\/passport>) or call the National Passport Information Center (  877\/487-2778) for automated information.\n\nPetrol Please see \"Getting Around,\" earlier in this chapter for information.\n\nPets To bring your pet to the U.S.V.I., you must have a health certificate from a mainland veterinarian and show proof of vaccination against rabies. Very few hotels allow animals, so check in advance. If you're strolling with your dog through the national park on St. John, you must keep it on a leash. Pets are not allowed at campgrounds, in picnic areas, or on public beaches. Both St. Croix and St. Thomas have veterinarians listed in the Yellow Pages.\n\nYour dog or cat is permitted entry into the B.V.I. without quarantine, if accompanied by an Animal Health Certificate issued by the Veterinary Authority in your country of origin. This certificate has a number of requirements, including a guarantee of vaccination against rabies.\n\nPolice Dial   911 for emergencies in the U.S.V.I. The Crime Line phone number is   340\/777-8700. The main police headquarters is currently located in the Alexander Farrelly Criminal Justice Center in Charlotte Amailie (  340\/774-2211). In the B.V.I., the main police headquarters is on Waterfront Drive near the ferry docks on Sir Olva George's Plaza (  284\/494-2945) in Tortola. There are also police stations on Virgin Gorda (  284\/495-5222) and on Jost Van Dyke (  284\/495-9345). See individual island chapters for more detailed information.\n\nSafety The Virgin Islands are a relatively safe destination. The small permanent populations are generally friendly and welcoming. That being said, St. Thomas is no longer as safe as it once was. Crime, especially muggings, is on the rise in Charlotte Amalie. Wandering the town at night, especially on the back streets (particularly on Back St.), is not recommended. Guard your valuables or store them in hotel safes if possible.\n\nThe same holds true for St. Croix and the back streets of Christiansted and Frederiksted. Although these areas are safer than St. Thomas, random acts of violence against tourists in the past, even murder, have been known to happen. Know that most crime on both these islands is petty theft aimed at unguarded possessions on the beach, unlocked parked cars, or muggings at night. Exercise the same amount of caution you would if you were traveling to an unfamiliar town on the mainland. Whether on St. Thomas or St. Croix, always take a taxi home after a night out.\n\nSt. John is a bit different, because there is no major town and most of the island is uninhabited. Muggings and petty theft do happen, but such occurrences are rarely violent. You are most likely to find your camera stolen if you leave it unattended on the beach.\n\nThe British Virgin Islands are very safe, with a very low crime rate that many attribute to the illegality of owning guns. Minor robberies and muggings do occur late at night outside bars in Road Town, especially in poorly lit areas around Wickham's Cay I and along Waterfront Drive. Car theft in Trellis Bay and by the Road Town ferry has also been on the rise. On Virgin Gorda, most resorts don't even have room keys (although you can lock yourself in at night), and some people have reported dropping off rental cars at the airport with the keys in the lock.\n\nDriving safety: In general, the Virgin Islands' steep, curvy roads are often poorly lit at night; many are potholed or have been eroded by rain runoff. St. Croix's road network is composed of rocky, steep dirt roads through the interior. As a result, car-rental insurance is higher on this island than the others. St. John's national park roads are for the most part excellent. For those travelers who are unaccustomed to driving on the left, we suggest leaving the night driving up to a taxi driver. Do not attempt the most rural roads at night, as cellphone service is spotty at best and breakdowns (or worse) are an all-too-perfect way to ruin your Virgin Islands vacation; see \"Getting Around,\" earlier in this chapter.\n\nSmoking In the U.S.V.I, smoking is prohibited in restaurants and public buildings; bars may allow smoking outdoors as long as it's 20 feet from entrance and service areas. On the B.V.I., smoking is banned in public places (bars, restaurants, nightclubs, airports, offices, and sports facilities) and within 50 feet of any public space.\n\nStudent Travel St. Thomas has perhaps the most youth-oriented scene of any of the Virgin Islands, British or American. Many young people who visit St. Thomas stay in the guesthouses in and around Charlotte Amalie. Beyond St. Thomas, the island of St. Croix attracts a large array of young, single travelers, mainly to the inns in and around Christiansted and Frederiksted.\n\nTaxes For the U.S. Virgin Islands, the United States has no value-added tax (VAT) or other indirect tax at the national level. The U.S.V.I. may levy their own local taxes on all purchases, including hotel and restaurant checks and airline tickets. These taxes will not appear on price tags. A 10 percent room tax is added to hotel bills.\n\nThe British Virgin Islands has no sales tax. It charges a departure tax of $15 per person for those leaving by boat or $20 if by airplane. Most hotels add a service charge of around 10 percent; there's also a 7 percent government room tax. Most restaurants tack on an automatic 15 percent service charge.\n\nTelephones In the Virgin Islands, hotel surcharges on long-distance and local calls are usually astronomical, so you're better off using your cellphone or a public pay telephone. Many convenience stores, groceries, and packaging services sell prepaid calling cards in denominations up to $50; for international visitors these can be the least expensive way to call home. Many public pay phones at airports now accept American Express, MasterCard, and Visa credit cards. Local calls made from pay phones in most locales cost either 25\u00a2 or 35\u00a2 (no pennies, please). Many of the most rural or expressly private resorts and hotels in the Virgin Islands do not provide phones in the rooms, but have phones in their lobbies or common areas.\n\nTo make calls within the United States, including the U.S. Virgins, and to Canada, dial 1 followed by the area code and the seven-digit number. For other international calls, dial 011 followed by the country code, city code, and the number you are calling.\n\nYou can call the British Virgins from the United States by just dialing 1, the area code 284, and the number; from the U.K. dial 011-44, then the number. To call the U.S. from the B.V.I., just dial 1 plus the area code and the number; to call the U.K. from the B.V.I., dial 011-44, then the number.\n\nCalls to area codes 800, 888, 877, and 866 are toll-free. However, calls to area codes 700 and 900 (chat lines, bulletin boards, \"dating\" services, and so on) can be very expensive\u2014usually a charge of 95\u00a2 to $3 or more per minute, and they sometimes have minimum charges that can run as high as $15 or more.\n\nFor reversed-charge or collect calls, and for person-to-person calls, dial the number 0, then the area code and number; an operator will come on the line, and you should specify whether you are calling collect, person-to-person, or both. If your operator-assisted call is international, ask for the overseas operator.\n\nFor local directory assistance (\"information\"), dial 411; for long-distance information, dial 1, then the appropriate area code and 555-1212.\n\nTime The Virgin Islands are on Atlantic Standard Time, which is 1 hour ahead of Eastern Standard Time. However, the islands do not observe daylight saving time, so in the summer, the Virgin Islands and the East Coast of the U.S. are on the same time. In winter, when it's 6am in Charlotte Amalie, it's 5am in Miami; during daylight saving time it's 6am in both places.\n\nTipping In hotels, tip bellhops at least $1 per bag ($2\u2013$3 if you have a lot of luggage) and tip the chamber staff $1 to $2 per day (more if you've left a disaster area for him or her to clean up). Tip the concierge only if he or she has provided you with some specific service (obtaining difficult-to-get dinner reservations, for example). Tip the valet-parking attendant $1 every time you get your car.\n\nNote that many local restaurants tack on a service charge to the total bill, often between 10 and 15 percent; you may want to add extra if the service was good. Otherwise tip waitstaff 15 to 20 percent of the check. In bars and nightclubs, tip bartenders 15 to 20 percent of the check, tip checkroom attendants $1 per garment, and tip valet-parking attendants $1 per vehicle.\n\nAs for other service personnel, tip taxi drivers 15 percent of the fare; tip skycaps at airports at least $1 per bag ($2\u2013$3 if you have a lot of luggage); and tip hairdressers and barbers 15 to 20 percent. It's always a good idea to tip tour guides or charter captains at the end of an excursion, generally 15 to 20 percent of the cost.\n\nToiletsYou won't find public toilets or restrooms on the streets, but they can be found in hotel lobbies, bars, restaurants, museums, department stores, bus stations, and service stations. Large hotels are often the best bet for clean facilities.\n\nVisas Non\u2013U.S. visitors to the U.S. Virgin Islands should have a U.S. visa; those visitors may also be asked to produce an onward ticket. In the British Virgin Islands, visitors who stay for less than 6 months don't need a visa if they possess a return or onward ticket.\n\nFor information about U.S. Visas, go to <http:\/\/travel.state.gov> and click on \"Visas.\" Or go to one of the following websites:\n\nAustralian citizens can obtain up-to-date visa information from the U.S. Embassy Canberra, Moonah Place, Yarralumla, ACT 2600 (  02\/6214-5600), or by checking the U.S. Diplomatic Mission's website at <http:\/\/canberra.usembassy.gov\/visas.html>.\n\nBritish subjects can obtain visa appointments the U.S. Embassy Visa Appointment Line (  020-3608-6998 from within the U.K., or   703\/439-2367 from within the U.S.; https:\/\/ais.usvisa-info.com\/en-gb). Irish citizens can obtain up-to-date visa information through the U.S. Embassy Dublin, 42 Elgin Rd., Ballsbridge, Dublin 4 (  01 903-6255 from within the Republic of Ireland; <http:\/\/dublin.usembassy.gov.visas.html>).\n\nCitizens of New Zealand can obtain up-to-date visa information by contacting the U.S. Embassy New Zealand, 29 Fitzherbert Terrace, Thorndon, Wellington (  04 462 6000 from within New Zealand; <http:\/\/newzealand.usembassy.gov\/visas.html>).\n\nVisitor Information Go to the U.S.V.I. Division of Tourism's website at www.visitusvi.com. The British Virgin Islands Tourist Board can be found at www.bvitourism.com.\n\nWater Many visitors to both the U.S. and British Virgins drink the local tap water with no harmful effects. To be prudent, especially if you have a delicate stomach, stick to bottled water. Many hotels and resorts have their own desalination plant, making delicious and highly potable water out of seawater.\n\nWomen Travelers St. John and the British Virgin Islands have a low crime rate, while St. Thomas and St. Croix have the highest crime rate against women in the archipelago. To put that into context, however, you are far safer in the Virgin Islands than you would be walking the streets of any major U.S. city. Follow the usual precautions that you'd follow in any major U.S. city.\nIndex\n\nSee also Accommodations and Restaurant indexes, below.\n\nGeneral Index\n\nA\n\nAccessible Island Tours,\n\nAccommodations, 3. See also Condo, apartment, and villa rentals; and Accommodations Index\n\nAnegada, ,\n\nbest resorts, 5\u20138\n\neco-friendly,\n\nJost Van Dyke, 181\u2013182\n\nPeter Island,\n\nSt. Croix, 93\u201399\n\nSt. John, 125\u2013130\n\nSt. Thomas, , 49\u201359\n\ntips on, 195\u2013196\n\nTortola, 155\u2013160\n\nVirgin Gorda, 174\u2013178\n\nAccra,\n\nAdventure Center (St. Thomas), , ,\n\nAdventure trips, 197\u2013198\n\nAgricultural & Cultural Food Fair (St. Thomas),\n\nAgrifest: St. Croix Agricultural Fair,\n\nAir Sunshine (British Virgin Islands), ,\n\nAir tours,\n\nAir travel, 191\u2013192\n\nAnegada,\n\nBritish Virgin Islands, ,\n\nPeter Island,\n\nSt. Croix, 87\u201388\n\nSt. John,\n\nSt. Thomas, ,\n\nTortola,\n\nVirgin Gorda,\n\nAlice in Wonderland (deep-dive site, south of Ginger Island), ,\n\nAmerican Airlines, ,\n\nAmerican Yacht Harbor (St. Thomas), ,\n\nAmple Hamper (Tortola),\n\nAnegada, , , , 185\u2013188\n\nAnegada Lobster Festival, ,\n\nAnegada Reef,\n\nAnnaberg Historic Trail (St. John), , 140\u2013141\n\nAnnaberg Sugar Plantation Ruins, ,\n\nAnnaberg Trail (St. John),\n\nAnnaly Meat Market (St. Croix),\n\nAnn E. Abramson Pier (St. Croix),\n\nAnnual House Tours (St. Croix),\n\nAnnual St. Croix International Regatta,\n\nAntilles Resorts (St. Thomas and St. Croix),\n\nAntiques, St. Thomas,\n\nApple Bay (Tortola), ,\n\nAqua Action Dive Center (St. Thomas), ,\n\nAragorn's Local Arts and Crafts Center (Tortola), , 170\u2013171\n\nArawak Expeditions (St. John), , ,\n\nArawak Indians,\n\nArawak Surf Shop (Tortola),\n\nArchitecture,\n\nArea codes,\n\nAristocat Day Sails (Tortola),\n\nARTFarm (St. Croix),\n\nArt galleries\n\nSt. Croix,\n\nSt. John, 141\u2013142\n\nSt. Thomas,\n\nArt in the Garden Arts & Crafts Festival (St. Thomas),\n\nAsante Studio (Tortola),\n\nAt Home Abroad,\n\nAvis, , , , ,\n\nAwl Made Here (St. John),\n\nB\n\nBack Street (Charlotte Amalie), ,\n\nBajo El Sol (St. John),\n\nBamboula (St. John),\n\nBamboushay Pottery (Tortola),\n\nBanks\/ATMs, 206\u2013207\n\nSt. Croix,\n\nSt. John,\n\nSt. Thomas,\n\nTortola,\n\nVirgin Gorda,\n\nBaptist, Avery,\n\nBath & Turtle (pubbn),\n\nThe Baths (Virgin Gorda), , , , 179\u2013180\n\nBeaches\n\nbest, 2\u20134\n\nJost Van Dyke,\n\nSt. Croix, 106\u2013107\n\nSt. John, , 136\u2013138\n\nSt. Thomas, 67\u201369\n\nTortola, 165\u2013166\n\nVirgin Gorda, 179\u2013180\n\nBeach Side Caf\u00e9 at Sand Castle on the Beach (St. Croix),\n\nBed & breakfasts (B&Bs), St. John, 129\u2013130\n\nBeef Island,\n\nThe Belgian Chocolate Factory (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nBest of BVI, ,\n\nBicycle tours,\n\nBicyling, St. Croix,\n\nBig Beard's Adventure Tours, ,\n\nBioluminescent bays, St. Croix,\n\nBiras Creek (Virgin Gorda),\n\nBirding, , ,\n\nBlue Moon (St. Croix),\n\nBlue Water Divers (Tortola),\n\nBlue Water Terrace (St. Croix),\n\nBlue Water Terrace (St. John), market and deli,\n\nBoating and sailing, , 199. See also Kayaking\n\nchartering your own boat,\n\nresponsible travel,\n\nSt. John,\n\nSt. Thomas, 69\u201370\n\nspecial events, ,\n\nTortola, , ,\n\nBoat travel, 193\u2013194. See also Cruise ships; Ferries; Water taxis\n\nSt. Croix,\n\nSt. John, ,\n\nSt. Thomas,\n\nVirgin Gorda,\n\nBobby's Marketplace (Tortola),\n\nBomba Surfside Shack (Tortola),\n\nBooks, 31\u201332\n\nBookstores, Tortola,\n\nBoolchand's (St. Thomas),\n\nBordeaux farmer's market (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nBotany Bay, Preserve at, ,\n\nBougainvillea (St. John),\n\nBoyson,\n\nBrandywine Bay (Tortola),\n\nBrewers Bay (St. Thomas),\n\nBrewers Bay (Tortola),\n\nBritish Virgin Islands, 144\u2013190\n\nbrief description of, 23\u201324\n\nhistory of, , 27\u201329\n\nlandmass,\n\nsuggested itineraries, 15\u201316\n\ntransportation, 147\u2013149\n\ntraveling to, , 146\u2013147\n\nU.S. Virgin Islands compared to,\n\nvisitor information,\n\nThe Buccaneer (St. Croix)\n\ngolf course,\n\ntennis,\n\nBuck Island (off St. Croix),\n\nbeach,\n\nnature trails,\n\nscuba diving,\n\nside trip to, 119\u2013120\n\nsnorkeling, , ,\n\nBuck Island National Park,\n\nBuck Island Reef National Monument (off St. Croix),\n\nBudget car rentals, , , ,\n\nBugs and bites,\n\nBusiness hours\n\nSt. Croix,\n\nSt. John,\n\nSt. Thomas,\n\nTortola,\n\nBus travel,\n\nSt. Croix,\n\nSt. John,\n\nSt. Thomas,\n\nTortola,\n\nButler Bay (St. Croix),\n\nB.V.I. Conservation & Fisheries Department,\n\nB.V.I. Eco-Tours, ,\n\nB.V.I. Emancipation Celebrations (Tortola), 38\u201339\n\nBVI Fishing Complex (Tortola),\n\nB.V.I. Music Festival (Tortola),\n\nBVI Restaurant Week,\n\nB.V.I. Spring Regatta & Sailing Festival,\n\nBVI Taxi Association (Tortola),\n\nC\n\nCalendar of events, 37\u201339\n\nCallaloo,\n\nCallwood Rum Distillery (Tortola),\n\nCalypso,\n\nCalypso Realty (St. Thomas),\n\nCamille Pissarro Building (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nCampgrounds, , , ,\n\nCane Bay (St. Croix), , , ,\n\nCane Bay Dive Shop (St. Croix),\n\nCane Bay Wall (St. Croix),\n\nCaneel Bay Beach (St. John),\n\nCane Garden Bay (Tortola), , , , , ,\n\nCape Air, , , , , ,\n\nCarambola Golf & Country Club (St. Croix), ,\n\nCardow Jewelers (St. Thomas),\n\nCaret Bay (St. Thomas),\n\nCar ferries, St. John, ,\n\nCaribbean Saloon (St. Thomas),\n\nCaribbean Villas & Resorts (St. John),\n\nCarib Indians,\n\nCarl and Marie Lawaetz Museum (St. Croix),\n\nCar rentals\n\nBritish Virgin Islands,\n\nJost Van Dyke,\n\nSt. Croix,\n\nSt. Thomas, ,\n\nTortola,\n\nVirgin Gorda, ,\n\nCartanser Sr. (wreck), 71\n\nCar travel, 194\u2013195\n\nSt. Croix,\n\nSt. John,\n\nVirgin Gorda, ,\n\nCasino, St. Croix,\n\nCellphones, 205\u2013206\n\nCentral Post Office (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nCharlotte Amalie (St. Thomas)\n\naccommodations, 52\u201354\n\narchitecture,\n\nlayout of,\n\nrestaurants, 61\u201364\n\nsightseeing, 72\u201378\n\ntraffic congestion,\n\nCharteryacht League (St. Thomas),\n\nChikuzen (wreck), , 169\n\nChristiansted (St. Croix), ,\n\naccommodations,\n\narchitecture,\n\nrestaurants, 102\u2013103\n\nshopping,\n\nsuggested itinerary,\n\nwalking tour, 111\u2013114\n\nChristiansted's Harborfront (St. Croix),\n\nChristmas in St. Croix,\n\nCinnamon Bay (St. John),\n\nCinnamon Bay Campground (St. John),\n\nCinnamon Bay Trail\/Cinnamon Bay Loop Trail (St. John),\n\nCinnamon Bay Watersports Center (St. John), 137\u2013139\n\nClover Crest (St. Croix),\n\nClub St. Croix Beach & Tennis Resort,\n\nCoconut Coast Studios (St. John),\n\nCoki Beach (St. Thomas), ,\n\nCoki Dive Center (St. Thomas), , ,\n\nCoki Point Beach (St. Thomas), ,\n\nColonization, 26\u201328\n\nThe Color of Joy (St. Thomas),\n\nColumbus, Christopher, ,\n\nColumbus Sunset Bar (Tortola),\n\nConch,\n\nCondo, apartment, and villa rentals\n\nJost Van Dyke,\n\nSt. Croix,\n\nSt. John, 128\u2013129\n\nSt. Thomas,\n\ntips on,\n\nTortola, ,\n\nVirgin Gorda,\n\nContinental Airlines,\n\nCookbooks,\n\nCoral Bay (St. John), , , 134\u2013137,\n\nCoral World Ocean Park (St. Thomas),\n\nCow and Calf Rocks (St. Thomas), 4\u20135,\n\nCraft Alive Village (Tortola),\n\nCramer Park (St. Croix),\n\nCreque Dam Road (St. Croix),\n\nCrown Bay (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nCrown Bay Center (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nCrown House (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nCrown Mountain Road (St. Thomas),\n\nCrucian Christmas Carnival,\n\nCrucian Gold (St. Croix),\n\nCrucian Heritage & Nature Tourism (St. Croix), , , ,\n\nCruise ships, , , ,\n\nCruzan Carnival Night (St. Thomas),\n\nCruzan Rum Factory (St. Croix),\n\nCruz Bay (St. John), , ,\n\nnightlife,\n\nrestaurants, 132\u2013134\n\nCruz Bay Watersports (St. John), ,\n\nCrystal Shoppe (St. Thomas),\n\nCuisine, 34\u201335\n\nCurrency,\n\nCustoms, 201\u2013202\n\nCustoms House (St. Croix), ,\n\nCyril E. King Airport (St. Thomas), ,\n\nD\n\nThe Danish West India & Guinea Warehouse (St. Croix), 112\u2013113\n\nDanish West India Company, , , ,\n\nDavid Yurman (St. Thomas),\n\nDavis Bay (St. Croix), ,\n\nDelta,\n\nDenmark, ,\n\nDentists\n\nSt. Croix,\n\nSt. John,\n\nSt. Thomas,\n\nTortola,\n\nVirgin Gorda,\n\nDependable Car Rental (St. Thomas),\n\nDevil's Bay National Park (Virgin Gorda),\n\nDezarie,\n\nDiamonds International (St. Thomas),\n\nDietary red flags,\n\nDining. See Restaurants\n\nDisabled travelers,\n\nDiscount Car Rental (St. Thomas),\n\nDive BVI, 180\u2013181,\n\nDIVE IN! (St. Thomas), ,\n\nDivi Carina Bay Casino (St. Croix),\n\nDoctors,\n\nSt. Croix,\n\nSt. John, 124\u2013125\n\nSt. Thomas,\n\nVirgin Gorda,\n\nDohm's Water Taxi, ,\n\nDolphin Water Taxi,\n\nDonald Schnell Studio (St. John),\n\nDon't Stop the Carnival (Wouk), 31\n\nDrinking laws,\n\nDriving rules, ,\n\nDriving safety,\n\nDrugstores\n\nSt. Croix,\n\nSt. John,\n\nSt. Thomas,\n\nTortola,\n\nVirgin Gorda,\n\nDuffy's Love Shack (St. Thomas),\n\nDutch settlers, ,\n\nE\n\nEagle Ray (St. Croix),\n\nEast End (St. Croix),\n\nEast End (St. Thomas),\n\naccommodations, 56\u201358\n\nbeaches, 68\u201369\n\nrestaurants, 66\u201367\n\nEast End (Tortola),\n\naccommodations,\n\nrestaurants, 164\u2013165\n\nshopping, 170\u2013171\n\nEating and drinking, 34\u201336. See also Food stores and markets; Restaurants\n\nsustainable eating,\n\nEconomy, 29\u201330\n\nEcotourism,\n\nElectricity,\n\nEmancipation Park (Charlotte Amalie), ,\n\nEmbassies and consulates,\n\nEmergencies,\n\nJost Van Dyke,\n\nSt. Croix,\n\nSt. John,\n\nSt. Thomas,\n\nTortola,\n\nVirgin Gorda,\n\nEnid M. Baa Public Library (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nEnvironmental Protection Agency, U.S.,\n\nEpernay Bistro & Wine Bar (St. Thomas),\n\nEstate Bordeaux (St. Thomas), farm-fresh produce,\n\nEstate Bordeaux Agricultural & Cultural Food Fair (St. Thomas),\n\nEstate Concordia Preserve,\n\nEstate Mount Washington (St. Croix), ,\n\nEstate St. Peter Greathouse & Botanical Gardens (St. Thomas), 78\u201379\n\nEstate Whim Plantation Museum (St. Croix), , 116\u2013117\n\nEureka Medical Centre (Tortola),\n\nF\n\nFahie Hill Murals (Tortola),\n\nFamily travel,\n\nbest resorts, 6\u20137\n\nFantasy (boat), 70\n\nFerries, 193\u2013194\n\nAnegada,\n\nBritish Virgin Islands, 146\u2013148\n\nJost Van Dyke,\n\nPeter Island,\n\nSt. John, ,\n\nTortola, ,\n\nFerries to St. John,\n\nFilms,\n\nFishing,\n\nSt. Croix,\n\nSt. John,\n\nSt. Thomas,\n\nU.S. Virgin Islands Open\/Atlantic Blue Marlin Tournament,\n\nFish market, St. Croix,\n\nFlax, Andy,\n\nFleming, Christopher,\n\nFood stores and markets\n\nSt. Croix,\n\nSt. John,\n\nSt. Thomas, ,\n\nTortola, ,\n\nFort Berg (St. John), ,\n\nFort Christian (Charlotte Amalie), , ,\n\nFort Christiansvaern (St. Croix),\n\nFort Frederik (St. Croix), 114\u2013115\n\nFoxy's Old Year's Night (Jost Van Dyke),\n\nFrance, ,\n\nFrancis Bay Beach (St. John),\n\nFranklin's on the Waterfront (St. Croix),\n\nFrederik Church Parsonage (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nFrederik Lutheran Church (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nFrederiksted (St. Croix), , 90\u201391\n\naccommodations, 97\u201398\n\nshopping,\n\nsightseeing,\n\nFrederiksted Pier (St. Croix), ,\n\nFred's Patio (St. John),\n\nFreedom City Cycles (St. Croix), ,\n\nFrench Cap Pinnacle (off St. Thomas),\n\nThe French Deli (Tortola),\n\nFrenchman's Bay Beach (St. Thomas),\n\nFrenchtown (St. Thomas), , ,\n\nrestaurants,\n\nFungi, ,\n\nG\n\nGallery Camille Pissarro (Charlotte Amalie), ,\n\nGallery St. Thomas,\n\nGasoline, 194\u2013195\n\nGay and lesbian nightlife, St. Thomas,\n\nGladys' Caf\u00e9 (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nGlobal Marine,\n\nGolf\n\nSt. Croix, ,\n\nSt. Thomas,\n\nGood Moon Farm (Tortola),\n\nGorda Peak National Park (Virgin Gorda),\n\nGovernment Hill (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nGovernment House\n\nCharlotte Amalie, ,\n\nSt. Croix,\n\nGovernor Juan F. Luis Hospital & Medical Center (St. Croix),\n\nGrand Beach (St. Thomas),\n\nGrand Beach Palace (St. Thomas),\n\nGrand Galleria (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nGrapetree Beach (St. Croix),\n\nGreat Harbour (Jost Van Dyke),\n\nGreen Glass Studio (Tortola),\n\nThe Greenhouse (Charlotte Amalie), ,\n\nGreen Ridge Guavaberry Farm (St. Thomas),\n\nGroceries. See Food stores and markets\n\nGuana Island, , , 189\u2013190\n\nH\n\nHamilton, Alexander,\n\nHarbour Market (Tortola), ,\n\nHassel Island (St. Thomas), 80\u201381\n\nHaulover Bay (St. John), ,\n\nHavensight Mall (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nHavensight Pier (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nHawksnest Beach (St. John),\n\nHealth concerns, 203\u2013204. See also Doctors; Hospitals\/clinics\n\nHendricks Square (St. Croix),\n\nHenry E. Rohlsen Airport (St. Croix), ,\n\nHeritage and cultural tours,\n\nHerring gundy,\n\nHertz, , , , ,\n\nHigh season (winter season),\n\nHIHO (Tortola), ,\n\nHiking\n\nBuck Island, 119\u2013120,\n\nSt. Croix, 107\u2013108,\n\nSt. John, 139\u2013141,\n\nTortola, ,\n\ntours, 198\u2013199\n\nVirgin Gorda,\n\nHistory books,\n\nHistory of the Virgin Islands, 24\u201330\n\nHIV-positive visitors,\n\nHodge, Joseph,\n\nHoliday Rentals,\n\nHolidays,\n\nHomeAway, ,\n\nHoneymoon Beach (St. John),\n\nHoneymoon Beach (St. Thomas), ,\n\nHoneymoon Day Pass (St. John),\n\nHorseback riding, St. Croix,\n\nHospitals\/clinics,\n\nSt. Croix,\n\nSt. Thomas, 48\u201349\n\nTortola,\n\nHotel 1829 (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nHotel on the Cay (St. Croix), beach at,\n\nHotels. See Accommodations\n\nHot lines, St. Thomas,\n\nHot sauce,\n\nH. Stern Jewelers (St. Thomas),\n\nHull Bay (St. Thomas),\n\nHull Bay Hideaway (St. Thomas),\n\nHurricane Hole (St. John),\n\nHurricanes,\n\nI\n\nIb Designs (St. Croix),\n\nIggies Beach Bar (St. Thomas),\n\nIGY: American Yacht Harbor,\n\nIndependence (boat), 69\n\nIndependence Day (St. John),\n\nThe Indians. See Norman Island & the Indians\n\nInner Visions,\n\nInter-Island Boat Services, ,\n\nInternet and Wi-Fi,\n\nSt. Thomas,\n\nTortola,\n\nVirgin Gorda,\n\nIsaac Bay Beach (St. Croix),\n\nIsland-hopping,\n\nfor 10 days, 16\u201317\n\nlesser-known islands,\n\nTortola,\n\nIsland Seal (wreck), 169\n\nIsland slaw,\n\nItineraries, suggested, 10\u201317\n\nBritish Virgin Islands, 15\u201316\n\nisland-hopping for 10 days, 16\u201317\n\nU.S. Virgin Islands in 10 days, 10\u201315\n\nJ\n\nJetBlue, ,\n\nJewelry and watches\n\nSt. Croix,\n\nSt. John,\n\nSt. Thomas, ,\n\nJewels of the BVI, ,\n\nJohnnycakes,\n\nJones Maritime Sailing School (St. Croix),\n\nJoseph, Ames, ,\n\nJosiah's Bay (Tortola),\n\nJosiah's Bay Beach (Tortola),\n\nJost Van Dyke, , , , 181\u2013185\n\nJoyce, Sistah,\n\nJoyia (St. Croix),\n\nJ.R. Neal Botanical Gardens (Tortola),\n\nJumbies,\n\nK\n\nKayaking,\n\nSt. Croix,\n\nSt. John, 138\u2013139\n\nSt. Thomas, 70\u201371\n\nKilbrides Sunchaser Scuba (Virgin Gorda),\n\nKing's Alley Complex (St. Croix),\n\nKing's Wharf (Charlotte Amalie), 73\u201374\n\nKiteboarding, St. Croix,\n\nKite St. Croix, ,\n\nKuralu (catamaran), 167\n\nKyst Vejen (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nL\n\nLa Grange (St. Croix),\n\nL&C Poultry & Pig Plus (Tortola),\n\nLang Bank (St. Croix),\n\nLanguage,\n\nLa Reine Farmers' Market (St. Croix),\n\nLatitude 18 (St. Thomas),\n\nLaundry & dry cleaning, St. Thomas,\n\nLegal aid, 204\u2013205\n\nLegislative Building (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nLeinster Bay (St. John), , ,\n\nLeinster Bay Trail (St. John),\n\nLettsom, John Coakley,\n\nLewis, Kenneth, , ,\n\nLGBT travelers,\n\nLimprecht Gardens & Memorial (St. Croix),\n\nLindbergh Beach (St. Thomas),\n\nLindquist Beach (St. Thomas), ,\n\nLiterature, 31\u201332\n\nLittle Dix Bay (Virgin Gorda),\n\nLittle Lameshur Bay (St. John), ,\n\nLittle Magens Bay (St. Thomas),\n\nLittle Switzerland (St. Thomas),\n\nLoblolly Bay (Anegada),\n\nLocally Yours (Tortola),\n\nLong Bay (Tortola), 165\u2013166\n\nLord God of Sabaoth Lutheran Church (St. Croix),\n\nLove City,\n\nLow Key Watersports (St. John),\n\nM\n\nMcLaughlin Anderson Luxury Caribbean Villas (St. Thomas),\n\nMagens Bay (St. Thomas), , ,\n\nbeach, 67\u201368\n\nMagens Bay Beach (St. Thomas), ,\n\nMaho Bay Beach (St. John),\n\nMaho Bay Camp,\n\nMahoe Bay (Virgin Gorda),\n\nMahogany Run (St. Thomas),\n\nMail, ,\n\nMain Street (Charlotte Amalie), ,\n\nMaj. General Rogers (wreck), 71\n\nMango Melee and Tropical Fruit Festival (St. Croix),\n\nMango Tango Art Gallery (St. Thomas),\n\nMany Hands (St. Croix),\n\nMardi Gras Annual Parade (St. Croix),\n\nMarine Terminal (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nMarketplace of St. John,\n\nMarket Square (Charlotte Amalie), , ,\n\nMedical requirements,\n\nMerengue,\n\nMidnite,\n\nMobile phones, 205\u2013206\n\nMoney and costs,\n\nMongoose Junction (St. John),\n\nMongooses,\n\nThe Moorings (Tortola), ,\n\nMorning Star (Frenchman's Bay Beach, St. Thomas),\n\nMotu (St. John),\n\nMount Sage (Tortola),\n\nMount Victory Camp (St. Croix), ,\n\nMovies,\n\nMr. Tablecloth (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nMusic,\n\nMyett's (Tortola),\n\nMy Name Is Not Angelica (O'Dell), 31\n\nN\n\nNational car rentals,\n\nNational Park Underwater Trail (St. John),\n\nNational Park visitor center (St. John),\n\nNative Arts & Crafts Cooperative (St. Thomas),\n\nNative Son, ,\n\nNature walks. See also Hiking\n\nbest,\n\nNecker Island,\n\nNew Horizons (boat), 70\n\nNew Horizons Ferry Service, ,\n\nNew Horizons II (boat),\n\nNewspapers & magazines\n\nSt. Croix,\n\nSt. John,\n\nSt. Thomas,\n\nTortola,\n\nNext Wave Designs (Virgin Gorda),\n\nNightlife\n\nSt. Croix,\n\nSt. John, 142\u2013143\n\nSt. Thomas, 84\u201386\n\nTortola,\n\nVirgin Gorda,\n\nNile, Mada,\n\n99 Steps (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nNorman Island & the Indians (off Tortola), , , , ,\n\nNorth Coast (St. Thomas),\n\nbeaches, 67\u201368\n\nNorth Shore (St. Croix),\n\naccommodations, , 95\u201397\n\nrestaurants, ,\n\nNorth Shore (Tortola)\n\naccommodations, 157\u2013160\n\nbeaches,\n\nrestaurants, 161\u2013164\n\nNorth Shore Shell Museum (Tortola),\n\nNorth Sound Express (British Virgin Islands), ,\n\nNorthstar Reef (St. Croix),\n\nO\n\nO'Dell, Scott,\n\nOff season, 36\u201337\n\nOffshore Adventures (St. John),\n\nOffshore Sailing School (Road Town),\n\nOkra,\n\nOld Danish Customs House (St. Croix), ,\n\nOld Scale House (St. Croix),\n\nOlympic Rent-A-Car (St. Croix),\n\nOrganic Act Day,\n\nOrganic Act of the Virgin Islands, ,\n\nOverdevelopment,\n\nP\n\nThe Painkiller,\n\nPalms at Pelican Cove (St. Croix), ,\n\nParadise Jam College Basketball Tournament (St. Thomas),\n\nParadise Point Tram (St. Thomas),\n\nParking, St. Thomas,\n\nPassports, ,\n\nPaul & Jill's Equestrian Stables (St. Croix),\n\nPeanut Gallery Fishing Charters (St. Thomas),\n\nPeas and rice,\n\nPerfume, St. Croix,\n\nPerserverance Bay (St. Thomas),\n\nPeter Island, , 188\u2013190\n\nPets,\n\nPhillips, Water,\n\nPickering, Frederick Augustus,\n\nPickering, John,\n\nPirate's Bight (Norman Island),\n\nPissarro, Camille,\n\nPlaza Extra (St. Croix),\n\nPoint Udall (St. Croix), ,\n\nPolice, 207\u2013208\n\nSt. Croix,\n\nSt. Thomas,\n\nTortola,\n\nVirgin Gorda,\n\nPost office\n\nSt. Croix,\n\nSt. John,\n\nSt. Thomas,\n\nTortola,\n\nPowell, Llewelyn, ,\n\nPreserve at Botany Bay, ,\n\nPrickly Pear Island (Virgin Gorda),\n\nProphy's Farm (Tortola),\n\nPusser's Company Store\n\nTortola,\n\nVirgin Gorda,\n\nQ\n\nQuadrille Dancers (St. Croix),\n\nQuiet Mon (St. John),\n\nQuito's Gazebo (Tortola),\n\nR\n\nRainbow Beach (St. Croix),\n\nRainfall, average,\n\n\"Rain Forest\" (St. Croix), , 107\u2013108\n\nR&I PATTON Goldsmithing (St. John),\n\nRed Hook (St. John),\n\nRed Hook (St. Thomas), , ,\n\nThe Reef (St. Croix),\n\nReef Bay Hike (St. John),\n\nReef Beach (St. Croix),\n\nReeftique (Virgin Gorda),\n\nReggae,\n\nReichhold Center for the Arts (St. Thomas),\n\nResorts. See also Accommodations\n\nbest, 5\u20136\n\nSt. John, 125\u2013126\n\nResponsible travel, 40\u201341\n\nRestaurants. See also Restaurants Index\n\nAnegada,\n\nbest,\n\nJost Van Dyke, , 184\u2013185\n\nPeter Island,\n\nreservations,\n\nSt. Croix, , 99\u2013105\n\nSt. John, 130\u2013135\n\nSt. Thomas, , 59\u201367\n\nCharlotte Amalie, 61\u201364\n\nEast End, 66\u201367\n\nFrenchtown,\n\nnorth of Charlotte Amalie, 64\u201365\n\nSouth Coast,\n\ntips on,\n\nTortola, 160\u2013165\n\nVirgin Gorda, 178\u2013179\n\nRestaurant Week (Tortola),\n\nRey, Campbell, , ,\n\nRhone, RMS (wreck), , , , , 201\n\nRhymer's (Tortola),\n\nRidge to Reef Farm (St. Croix),\n\nRidge to Reef Farm Tour (St. Croix), ,\n\nRiteWay (Tortola),\n\nRoad Town (Tortola), ,\n\naccommodations, 155\u2013156\n\nrestaurants,\n\nshopping, 169\u2013170\n\nRoad Town Fast Ferry,\n\nRobinson, Wayne, ,\n\nRockefeller, Laurance,\n\nRoti joints,\n\nRoyal Caribbean (St. Thomas),\n\nRoyal Poinciana (St. Croix),\n\nRum,\n\nRymer, Quito,\n\nS\n\nSafety,\n\nSt. Croix,\n\nSt. John,\n\nSt. Thomas,\n\nTortola,\n\nSage Mountain National Park (Tortola), , ,\n\nSail Caribbean Divers, ,\n\nSailing and boating. See Boating and sailing\n\nSail Rock (off St. Thomas),\n\nSail Safaris (St. John),\n\nSt. Croix, , , 87\u2013120\n\naccommodations, 93\u201399\n\narchitecture,\n\nbeaches, 106\u2013107\n\nbrief description of,\n\ncamping,\n\nexploring, 106\u2013117\n\ngetting around, 91\u201392\n\nlayout of, 90\u201391\n\nnightlife,\n\nrestaurants, , 99\u2013105\n\nshopping, 117\u2013119\n\nside trip to Buck Island, 119\u2013120\n\nsightseeing, 110\u2013117\n\nsuggested itineraries,\n\ntraveling to, 87\u201388,\n\nvisitor information,\n\nwatersports and outdoor adventures, 107\u2013109\n\nSt. Croix Deep Blue Charters,\n\nSt. Croix Environmental Association, ,\n\nSt. Croix Food & Wine Experience, ,\n\nSt. Croix Heritage Trail,\n\nSt. Croix House Tours,\n\nSt. Croix Landmarks Society,\n\nSt. Croix LEAP (St. Croix),\n\nSt. Croix Taxicab Association,\n\nSt. Croix Visitor Bureau,\n\nSt. George Village Botanical Garden (St. Croix),\n\nSt. John, , , 121\u2013143\n\naccommodations, 125\u2013130\n\nbeaches, 136\u2013138\n\nbrief description of, 22\u201323\n\ncampgrounds,\n\nday-tripping to,\n\nexploring, 136\u2013141\n\ngetting around, 123\u2013124\n\nlayout of,\n\nnightlife, 142\u2013143\n\nrestaurants, 130\u2013135\n\nshopping, 141\u2013142\n\nsuggested itineraries, ,\n\ntraveling to, ,\n\nvisitor information,\n\nSt. John Brewers,\n\nSt. John Car Rental,\n\nSt. John Festival,\n\nSt. John Market,\n\nSt. John Spice (St. John),\n\nSt. John Taxi Association,\n\nSt. Peter Great House & Botanical Gardens (St. Thomas),\n\nSt. Thomas, , , 42\u201386\n\naccommodations, , 49\u201359\n\nbeaches, 67\u201369\n\nbrief description of, ,\n\nexcursions from, 79\u201381\n\nexploring, 67\u201381\n\ngetting around, 46\u201348\n\nlayout of, 45\u201346\n\nnightlife, 84\u201386\n\nrestaurants, , 59\u201367\n\nshopping, 81\u201384\n\nsightseeing, 72\u201379\n\nsuggested itineraries, , 14\u201317\n\ntemperatures and rainfall,\n\ntraveling to, , ,\n\nwatersports and outdoor adventures, 69\u201372\n\nSt. Thomas Diving Club, ,\n\nSt. Thomas International Regatta,\n\nSt. Thomas Pistarckle Theater (St. Thomas), 84\u201385\n\nSt. Thomas Reformed Church (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nSt. Thomas-St. John Agriculture and Food Fair,\n\nSt. Thomas Synagogue (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nSalt fish and rice,\n\nSaltfish salad,\n\nSalt Pond Bay (St. John),\n\nSalt River (St. Croix),\n\nSalt River Bay National Historical Park and Ecological Preserve (St. Croix), 115\u2013116\n\nSalt River Canyon (St. Croix),\n\nSam & Jack's Deli (St. John),\n\nSandbox beach bar (Virgin Gorda),\n\nSandy Point (St. Croix), , 106\u2013107\n\nSandy Point Wildlife Refuge (St. Croix),\n\nSapphire Beach (St. Thomas), ,\n\nSaturday morning market (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nSavannah Bay (Virgin Gorda), , ,\n\nScato's Bus & Taxi Services (Tortola),\n\nSchoolhouse Apartment (St. Croix),\n\nScotch Banks (St. Croix),\n\nScuba diving, 200\u2013201\n\nbest sites, 4\u20135\n\nSt. Croix, 108\u2013109\n\nSt. John,\n\nSt. Thomas,\n\nTortola, ,\n\nVirgin Gorda,\n\nSeabourne Airlines, , , , , ,\n\nSeafood Market (St. John),\n\nSea kayaking. See Kayaking\n\nSea Lion Encounter (St. Thomas),\n\nSea Lion Splash (St. Thomas),\n\nSeaplane flights, St. Croix,\n\nSeasickness,\n\nSeasons, 36\u201337\n\nSea Thru Kayaks VI (St. Croix),\n\nSea Trek (St. Thomas),\n\nSea turtles,\n\nSebastian's (Tortola),\n\nSecret Harbour (St. Thomas), ,\n\nSejah Farms (St. Croix),\n\nSerenaSea, ,\n\nSeven Arches Museum (Charlotte Amalie),\n\n1780 Lower Estate SugarWorks Museum (Tortola), 167\u2013168\n\nShaka-Man Zulu (St. Thomas),\n\nShark Encounter (St. Thomas),\n\nShipwreck Landing (St. John),\n\nShopping\n\nSt. Croix, 117\u2013119\n\nSt. John, 141\u2013142\n\nSt. Thomas, 81\u201384\n\nTortola, 169\u2013171\n\nVirgin Gorda, 180\u2013181\n\nSir Francis Drake Channel,\n\nSir Francis Drake coastal road (Tortola),\n\nSistah Joyce,\n\nSkinny Legs (St. John),\n\nSlaves, , , , , , , , 114, , , , , 199\n\nSmithens Market (St. Croix),\n\nSmith's Ferry Services, , ,\n\nSmoking,\n\nSmuggler's Cove (Tortola), , ,\n\nSnorkeling, 200\u2013201\n\nbest spots,\n\nBuck Island,\n\nSt. Croix, 108\u2013109\n\nSt. John, ,\n\nSt. Thomas,\n\nsuggested itineraries, ,\n\nTortola, ,\n\nVirgin Gorda,\n\nSoca,\n\nSolstice celebrations,\n\nSonya Ltd. (St. Croix), 118\u2013119\n\nSoper's Hole,\n\nSoper's Marina (Tortola),\n\nS.O.S. Antiques (St. Thomas),\n\nSouth Coast (St. Thomas),\n\naccommodations, 55\u201356\n\nbeaches,\n\nSpain,\n\nSpeedy's,\n\nSpeedy's (Virgin Gorda),\n\nSpirit Airlines,\n\nSprat Hall (St. Croix),\n\nSpring Bay (Virgin Gorda),\n\nSpyglass Wall (dive site),\n\nStandup paddleboarding, St. Croix,\n\nStarfish Market (St. John),\n\nStatehood,\n\nSteeple Building (St. Croix),\n\nSteinworks (St. John),\n\nStevenson, Robert Louis, ,\n\nStreet of 99 Steps (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nStudent travel,\n\nSun exposure,\n\nSunny Caribbee Spice Co. (Tortola),\n\nSurfing\n\nSt. Thomas,\n\nTortola, 168\u2013169\n\nSweet potato pie,\n\nSwimming,\n\nT\n\nTan Tan Tours,\n\nTaproom (St. John),\n\nTaxes, 208\u2013209\n\nSt. Croix,\n\nSt. John,\n\nSt. Thomas,\n\nTortola, 154\u2013155\n\nTaxis, ,\n\nAnegada,\n\nBritish Virgin Islands,\n\nJost Van Dyke,\n\nSt. Croix,\n\nSt. John,\n\nSt. Thomas, 47\u201348\n\nTortola, 152\u2013153\n\nVirgin Gorda,\n\nTaxi tours\n\nSt. Croix, 109\u2013110\n\nSt. John,\n\nSt. Thomas,\n\nTortola,\n\nTelephones,\n\nSt. Croix,\n\nSt. John,\n\nSt. Thomas,\n\nTortola,\n\nTemperatures, average,\n\nTennis, St. Croix, ,\n\nTerrace Lounge at the Buccaneer Resort (St. Croix),\n\nTerrence B. Lettsome Airport (EIS),\n\nThornton, William,\n\nTiffany & Co. (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nTillett Gardens Center for the Arts (St. Thomas), ,\n\nTime zone,\n\nTipping,\n\nToilets,\n\nSt. Croix,\n\nSt. Thomas,\n\nTortola,\n\nTortola, , , 149\u2013171\n\naccommodations, 155\u2013160\n\nbeaches, 165\u2013166\n\nboating,\n\nbrief description of, 23\u201324\n\nexploring, 165\u2013169\n\ngetting around, 152\u2013153\n\nlayout,\n\nnightlife,\n\nrestaurants, 160\u2013165\n\nsuggested itineraries, ,\n\ntouring, 166\u2013168\n\ntransportation, 147\u2013149\n\ntraveling to, ,\n\nvisitor information,\n\nwatersports and outdoor adventures, 168\u2013169\n\nTortola Island Surf and Sail,\n\nTortola Sailing School,\n\nTourism, ,\n\nTourist information. See Visitor information\n\nTours. See also Taxi tours; Walking tours\n\nair,\n\nbicycle,\n\nspecial-interest, 196\u2013199\n\nTrading Post (Virgin Gorda),\n\nTransfer Day,\n\nTransit information, St. Thomas,\n\nTransportation, 192\u2013195\n\nBritish Virgin Islands, 147\u2013149\n\nSt. John, 123\u2013124\n\nSt. Thomas, 46\u201348\n\nTransportation Services (St. Thomas),\n\nTreasure Island (Stevenson), , 170\n\nTree Limin' Extreme, ,\n\nTropical Publishers (St. Thomas),\n\nTropic Tours (St. Thomas),\n\nTrunk Bay (St. John), , , , ,\n\nTrunk Bay (Virgin Gorda),\n\nTurtle Encounter (St. Thomas),\n\nU\n\nUnited Airlines,\n\nUS Airways, ,\n\nU.S. Virgin Islands\n\nbrief description of, , 22\u201323\n\nBritish Virgin Islands compared to,\n\nhistory of, 26\u201330\n\nlandmass,\n\nstatehood,\n\nsuggested itineraries, 10\u201315\n\nU.S. Virgin Islands National Park.,\n\nU.S. Virgin Islands Open\/Atlantic Blue Marlin Tournament (St. Thomas),\n\nU.S. Virgin Islands Tourism, St. Croix,\n\nV\n\nVacation St. Croix, ,\n\nVazquez, Francis M., ,\n\nVendors Plaza (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nVilla rentals. See Condo, apartment, and villa rentals\n\nVillas of Distinction,\n\nViolette Boutique (St. Croix),\n\nVirgin Gorda, , , , 172\u2013181\n\naccommodations, 174\u2013178\n\nbrief description of,\n\nexploring, 179\u2013180\n\ngetting around, ,\n\nrestaurants, 178\u2013179\n\ntransportation, 147\u2013149\n\ntraveling to,\n\nVirgin Gorda Easter Festival,\n\nVirgin Gorda Peak (Virgin Gorda),\n\nVirgin Gorda Tours,\n\nVirgin Gorda Tours Association (Virgin Gorda),\n\nVirgin Gorda Villa Rentals Ltd. (Virgin Gorda),\n\nVirgin Islands Campground (St. Thomas),\n\nVirgin Islands Carnival (St. Thomas),\n\nVirgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument,\n\nVirgin Islands Ecotours,\n\nSt. John,\n\nSt. Thomas, 70\u201371, 80\u201381\n\nVirgin Islands Fashion Week (St. Thomas),\n\nVirgin Islands Folk Museum (Tortola),\n\nVirgin Islands National Park (St. John), , ,\n\nVirgin Islands Snuba Excursions (St. Thomas),\n\nVirgin Islands Sustainable Farm Institute,\n\nVirgin Kayak (St. Croix),\n\nVisas, 209\u2013210\n\nVisitor information\n\nBritish Virgin Islands,\n\nSt. Croix,\n\nSt. John,\n\nSt. Thomas, 44\u201345\n\nVirgin Gorda,\n\nVitran (St. John),\n\nVRBO, ,\n\nW\n\nWalking, St. Thomas,\n\nWalking tours\n\nCharlotte Amalie (St. Thomas), 73\u201378\n\nSt. Croix, ,\n\nWater, drinking, ,\n\nThe Waterfront (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nWaterfront Highway (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nWater Island (St. Thomas), , 79\u201380\n\nWater Island Adventures, ,\n\nWater Island Ferry (St. Thomas),\n\nWaterlemon Cay (St. John), , , ,\n\nWatersports and outdoor adventures\n\nSt. Croix, 107\u2013109\n\nSt. John, 138\u2013141\n\nSt. Thomas, 69\u201372\n\nTortola, 168\u2013169\n\nVirgin Gorda, 180\u2013181\n\nWater taxis\n\nSt. John,\n\nSt. Thomas, ,\n\nTortola, ,\n\nWeather,\n\nBritish Virgin Islands,\n\nSt. Thomas,\n\nWe Grow Food (St. Thomas),\n\nWeibel Museum (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nWelcome Center (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nWest End (Tortola)\n\naccommodations, 157\u2013160\n\nrestaurants, 161\u2013164\n\nshopping,\n\nWharfside Village (St. John),\n\nWhim Museum Store (St. Croix),\n\nWhite Bay (Guana Island),\n\nWhite Bay (Jost Van Dyke),\n\nWhite Squall II (schooner), 167\n\nWickham's Cay (Road Town),\n\nWildlife refuge, St. Croix,\n\nWilson, Joan, 169\u2013170\n\nWindsurfing, St. John,\n\nWomen travelers,\n\nWoody's Seafood Saloon (St. John),\n\nWouk, Herman,\n\nWreck Alley (between Salt and Cooper islands), ,\n\nWyndham Margaritaville Vacation Club resort (St. Thomas),\n\nY\n\nYacht Haven Grande (Charlotte Amalie), , ,\n\nYachting. See Boating and sailing\n\nYacht Nightwind (boat), 70\n\nYellow-Brick Building (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nZ\n\nZiplining, St. Thomas,\n\nZora of St. Thomas,\n\nZouk,\n\nAccommodations\n\nAnegada Beach Club,\n\nAnegada Beach Cottages,\n\nAnegada Reef Hotel, 7\u20138, ,\n\nArawak Bay: The Inn at Salt River (St. Croix),\n\nBeef Island Guest House (Tortola),\n\nBellavista Bed & Breakfast (Charlotte Amalie), ,\n\nBest Western Emerald Beach Resort (St. Thomas),\n\nBiras Creek Resort (Virgin Gorda), , 174\u2013175\n\nBitter End Yacht Club (Virgin Gorda), , , ,\n\nBolongo Bay Beach Resort (St. Thomas), ,\n\nThe Buccaneer (St. Croix), , ,\n\nCaneel Bay (St. John), ,\n\nCane Garden Bay Cottages (Tortola),\n\nCarringtons Inn (St. Croix),\n\nChenay Bay Beach Resort (St. Croix), 95\u201396\n\nClub St. Croix Beach & Tennis Resort,\n\nCoconut Coast Villas (St. John),\n\nColony Cove (St. Croix),\n\nCompany House Hotel (St. Croix),\n\nConcordia Eco-Resort (St. John),\n\nConcordia Eco-Tents (St. John), ,\n\nCooper Island Beach Club (Tortola), , ,\n\nCottages by the Sea (St. Croix),\n\nThe Crystal Palace Bed and Breakfast (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nDivi Carina Bay All-Inclusive Resort & Casino (St. Croix),\n\nElysian Beach Resort (St. Thomas),\n\nEstate Lindholm Bed & Breakfast (St. John),\n\nEstate Zootenvaal (St. John),\n\nFischer's Cove Beach Hotel (Virgin Gorda),\n\nFort Burt Hotel (Tortola),\n\nFort Recovery Beachfront Villas (Tortola),\n\nFrenchmans (Tortola), ,\n\nFrenchman's Cove (St. Thomas),\n\nGallows Point Resort (St. John),\n\nGarden by the Sea Bed & Breakfast (St. John),\n\nGrande Bay Resort & Residence Club (St. John), ,\n\nGuana Island, , 189\u2013190\n\nGuavaberry Spring Bay Vacation Homes (Virgin Gorda),\n\nHeritage Inn (Tortola), 159\u2013160\n\nAt Home in the Tropics (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nThe Inn at Tamarind Court (St. John),\n\nIsland Beachcomber Hotel (St. Thomas),\n\nKing's Alley Hotel (St. Croix),\n\nLeverick Bay Resort & Marina (Virgin Gorda), 177\u2013178\n\nLong Bay Beach Club (Tortola), ,\n\nMafolie Hotel (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nMango Bay Resort (Virgin Gorda),\n\nMaria's by the Sea (Tortola),\n\nMarriott Frenchman's Reef & Morning Star Beach Resort (St. Thomas), 55\u201356\n\nMongoose Apartments (Tortola),\n\nThe Moorings\/Mariner Inn (Tortola), 155\u2013156\n\nMyett's Garden Inn (Tortola), 157\u2013158\n\nThe Palms at Pelican Cove (St. Croix), ,\n\nPavilions and Pools (St. Thomas), 58\u201359\n\nPeter Island Resort,\n\nQuito's Ole Works Inn (Tortola),\n\nRattan Inn (St. Croix),\n\nRenaissance Carambola Beach Resort & Spa (St. Croix),\n\nRhymer's Beach Hotel (Tortola),\n\nRidge to Reef Farm (St. Croix),\n\nThe Ritz-Carlton, St. Thomas, , 56\u201357\n\nRosewood Little Dix Bay (Virgin Gorda), ,\n\nSaba Rock Resort (Virgin Gorda),\n\nSandcastle Hotel (Jost Van Dyke),\n\nSand Castle on the Beach (St. Croix), 97\u201398\n\nSebastian's on the Beach (Tortola),\n\nSecret Harbour Beach Resort (St. Thomas),\n\nSerendip Vacation Condos (St. John),\n\nSugar Bay Resort and Spa (St. Thomas), 57\u201358\n\nThe Sugar Mill Hotel (Tortola),\n\nTamarind Reef Resort, Spa & Marina (St. Croix),\n\nVilla Blanca (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nVillage Cay Hotel (Tortola),\n\nVilla Madeleine (St. Croix),\n\nVilla Santana (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nWaves at Cane Bay (St. Croix), 96\u201397\n\nWestin St. John Resort & Villas,\n\nWestin St. John Resort & Villas (St. John),\n\nWindward Passage Hotel (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nRestaurants\n\nAbe's by the Sea (Jost Van Dyke), ,\n\nAli Baba's (Jost Van Dyke),\n\nAmalia Caf\u00e9 (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nArmstrong's Homemade Ice Cream (St. Croix), 103\u2013104\n\nAsolare (St. John),\n\nBananakeet (Tortola),\n\nBanana Tree Grille (Charlotte Amalie), 61\u201362\n\nThe Bath & Turtle (Virgin Gorda),\n\nBig Bamboo (Anegada),\n\nBleuwater (St. Thomas),\n\nBlue Moon (St. Croix),\n\nBlue Orchid (St. Thomas),\n\nBrandywine Estate Restaurant (Tortola), 164\u2013165\n\nBumpa's (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nCaf\u00e9 Amici (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nCapriccio di Mare (Tortola),\n\nThe Caribbean Fish Market (St. Thomas),\n\nChateau Bordeaux (St. John),\n\nThe Clubhouse at Frenchmans (Tortola), 162\u2013163\n\nCorsairs Beach Bar & Restaurant (Jost Van Dyke),\n\nCow Wreck Beach Bar & Grill (Anegada),\n\nCruzin' (Tortola),\n\nCuzzin's Caribbean Restaurant & Bar (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nD-Best Cup (Tortola),\n\nThe Dove Restaurant & Wine Bar (Tortola),\n\nDuggan's Reef (St. Croix),\n\nEat@canebay (St. Croix), 104\u2013105\n\nFatty Crab (St. John),\n\nFat Virgin's Cafe (Virgin Gorda),\n\nFish Tails (St. Thomas),\n\nThe Fish Trap (St. John), 133\u2013134\n\nFlamboyant Beach Bar (St. Croix),\n\nFoxy's Tamarind Bar (Jost Van Dyke),\n\nFrenchtown Deli (St. Thomas),\n\nThe Galleon (St. Croix),\n\nGladys' Cafe (Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas),\n\nGladys' Caf\u00e9 (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nHarvey's (St. Croix),\n\nHavana Blue (St. Thomas), ,\n\nHilltop Restaurant at Biras Creek Resort (Virgin Gorda),\n\nHog Heaven (Virgin Gorda),\n\nHook, Line & Sinker (St. Thomas),\n\nIggies Beach Bar & Grill (St. Thomas),\n\nIvan's Stress Free Bar & White Bay Campground (Jost Van Dyke),\n\nJen's Island Caf\u00e9 & Deli (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nKendrick's (St. Croix),\n\nLa Reine Chicken Shack (St. Croix),\n\nThe Last Resort (Tortola),\n\nLa Tapa (St. John),\n\nLuncheria (St. Croix),\n\nMafolie Restaurant (Charlotte Amalie), ,\n\nMagens Bay Beach Bar & Caf\u00e9 (St. Thomas),\n\nMaggie's Snackett (St. Croix),\n\nMarch\u00e9 at Trellis Bar & Grill (Tortola),\n\nMidtown Restaurant (Tortola),\n\nMiss Lucy's Beachfront Restaurant (St. John), 134\u2013135\n\nMorgan's Mango (St. John),\n\nNeptune's Treasure (Anegada),\n\nNorth Shore Shell Museum Bar & Restaurant (Tortola),\n\nOceana (St. Thomas),\n\nThe Old Stone Farmhouse (St. Thomas), 64\u201365\n\nOne Love Bar and Grill (Jost Van Dyke),\n\nThe Palms at Pelican Cove (St. Croix),\n\nThe Pavilion at Little Dix Bay (Virgin Gorda),\n\nPetite Pump Room (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nPolly's at the Pier (St. Croix),\n\nPusser's Pub (Tortola),\n\nThe Quiet Mon (St. John),\n\nQuito's Gazebo (Tortola),\n\nRhumb Lines (St. John), 132\u2013133\n\nThe Rock Caf\u00e9 (Virgin Gorda),\n\nA Room with a View (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nRoti Palace (Tortola),\n\nRumRunners (St. Croix),\n\nSalud! Bistro (St. Croix),\n\nSandcastle Hotel (Jost Van Dyke), , 184\u2013185\n\nSandy Ground Estates (Jost Van Dyke),\n\nSavant (St. Croix),\n\nSebastian's Seaside Grille (Tortola),\n\nSe\u00f1or Pizza (St. Thomas),\n\n1748 Restaurant (Tortola), 161\u2013162\n\nShipwreck Landing (St. John),\n\nSugar Apple (Virgin Gorda),\n\nSugar Mill Restaurant (Tortola),\n\nSunset Grille (St. Thomas), ,\n\nSweet Plantains Restaurant & Rhum Bar (St. John),\n\nTavern on the Waterfront (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nTop of the Baths (Virgin Gorda),\n\nTourist Trap (St. John),\n\nTutto Bene (St. Croix), 102\u2013103\n\nUca's Kitchen (St. Croix),\n\nVie's Snack Shack (St. John),\n\nVilla Morales (St. Croix),\n\nVirgilio's (Charlotte Amalie),\n\nWhite Bay Villas & Seaside Cottages (Jost Van Dyke),\n\nZoZo's Ristorante (St. John), \n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}}
+{"text":"\n\nTHE  \nCOMING  \nREVOLUTION\n\nTHE  \nCOMING  \nREVOLUTION\n\n_Signs from America's Past That  \nSignal Our Nation's Future_\n\nDR. RICHARD G . LEE\n\n\u00a9 2012 Richard G. Lee\n\nAll rights reserved. No portion of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means\u2014electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, scanning, or other\u2014except for brief quotations in critical reviews or articles, without the prior written permission of the publisher.\n\nPublished in Nashville, Tennessee, by Thomas Nelson. Thomas Nelson is a registered trademark of Thomas Nelson, Inc.\n\nThomas Nelson, Inc., titles may be purchased in bulk for educational, business, fund-raising, or sales promotional use. For information, please e-mail SpecialMarkets@ThomasNelson.com.\n\nUnless otherwise noted, Scripture quotations are taken from the King James Version.\n\nScripture quotations marked NKJV are from the New King James Version\u00ae. \u00a9 1982 by Thomas Nelson, Inc. Used by permission. All rights reserved.\n\n**Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data**\n\nLee, Richard, 1946\u2013   \nThe coming revolution : signs from America's past that signal our nation's future \/ Richard G. Lee.  \np. cm.  \nIncludes bibliographical references (Notes) and index.  \nISBN 978-0-8499-4829-9 (hardcover) 1. Christianity and politics\u2014United States. I. Title.  \nBR515.L43 2012   \n261.70973\u2014dc23\n\n2011036213\n\n_Printed in the United States of America_\n\n12 13 14 15 16 QG 5 4 3 2 1\n\nTO MY FELLOW COUNTRYMEN,   \nPAST AND PRESENT, WHO HAVE   \nSACRIFICED SO MUCH FOR LIBERTY,   \nJUSTICE, AND THE AMERICAN WAY.\nCONTENTS\n\n_Acknowledgments_\n\n_Introduction_\n\nONE: Portrait of a Nation\n\nTWO: The Promise of America\n\nTHREE: What the Founders Believed\n\nFOUR: The Birth of the American Spirit\n\nFIVE: Faith in the Twenty-First Century\n\nSIX: The Coming Revolution\n\nSEVEN: What You Can Do\n\n_Notes_\n\n_Topical Index_\n\n_About the Author_\nACKNOWLEDGMENTS\n\nMy deepest gratitude to the following individuals at Thomas Nelson Publishers who, through their time and many talents, helped to bring this book to print: Vice President and Publisher Matt Baugher, along with Paula Major, Emily Sweeney, Stephanie Newton, and Julie Faires; and Jack and Marsha Countryman, dearest friends, who have played such a vital role in all of my recent writings concerning God and country.\n\nAnd finally to my longtime friend and scholar, Dr. Jim Nelson Black, who helped to bring my many thoughts together into this one volume.\n\nAs in most everything that has worth, it takes a great team working together, and this book is no exception. So to each of these team members and many more, I express a special thanks.\nxi\n\nINTRODUCTION\n\nWho could have anticipated, even a year or two ago, that the backlash against increasing government control we are seeing in Washington and in state capitals all around the country would be happening now? The truth is, traditional conservatives and people of faith have been speaking out about the direction of government and the need for accountability for years. There have been books and broadcasts of all kinds warning about the risks\u2014I have produced a number of them myself\u2014but it wasn't until there was a critical mass of concerned men and women willing to stand up and speak out that such a moment could actually happen.\n\nLed by their own deeply held convictions and the promptings of their faith, men and women with highly visible public platforms helped spread the word, and that vital spark has helped to set a whole range of events in motion. The Restoring Honor rally on the Washington Mall on August 28, 2010, was a striking example of that emerging spirit, but it was just one event. There will be many others, so long as the need is there and the will of the people remains as strong as it is today.\n\nSurprisingly similar to those who birthed another Revolution on these shores 236 years ago, ordinary citizens are the real voices of this anti-big-government revolution. All they really want is to get back to the kind of government the Founders gave us in the first place. There are no signs of violence at the moment, and that is because most Americans are still optimistic that their voices are being heard by our newly elected officials. They believe the results of the 2010 midterm elections will help to restore power to the citizenry. The new conservative majority in the U.S. House of Representatives is moving toward less government spending and reduced regulations for the moment, but if something should happen to derail that progress or if enough people feel they are being disenfranchised by our political leaders, then anything could happen.\n\nxii\n\nMany of the identical social and religious provocations that spurred the American colonists to revolt in the eighteenth century are present again today, inspiring a new generation of patriots to seek what the Founders called \"a new birth of freedom.\" To appreciate where we are and where all these things can lead, I believe we will need a better understanding of our history and of why the founding documents were written as they were, granting unprecedented freedoms to the people and establishing the rule of law. If we understand the environment of the revolutionary era as well as the political conditions we are facing today, we will have a much better idea of how things will likely play out in the future, and that will be an important part of this book.\n\nA NEW SENSE OF URGENCY\n\nRevolutions don't just happen. They happen because of widespread frustration and a history of disappointments, insults, and provocations of many kinds that eventually compel people to respond. Whether they happen in politics or some other area of society, revolutions are always volatile phenomena. They generally come only after years of agitation, but they are never about just one thing. They result from a long list of offenses, both perceived and real, that set off a natural chain reaction that quickly becomes irreversible. And in the right environment, the situation can be explosive.\n\nxiii\n\nAs Malcolm Gladwell pointed out in his 2000 bestseller, _The_ _Tipping Point: How Little Things Can Make a Big Difference_ , revolutionary change often comes suddenly and dramatically. When a large enough group of people reach a high enough level of frustration, they take action first by speaking out more and more forcefully. But if their concerns are ignored or rebuffed, and if there is no sign that things are getting better, there can be a sudden and momentous change of direction. It doesn't take much imagination to see that this is precisely what's going on in America today.\n\nI am convinced we are on the threshold of a revolution of some kind. I don't believe it will be a violent revolution\u2014it doesn't need to be. We have many other alternatives, and no one is suggesting that direct action will be needed. Thanks to the success and endurance of the Tea Party movement, we're seeing reasonable and measured resistance to the expansion of big government in this country, and it is peaceful resistance. Thousands of ordinary Americans are joining forces to challenge the direction our leaders have been taking us. For the most part these are all ordinary citizens, men and women from all walks of life, and people who have never been politically engaged in this way before. But through their combined efforts, they are speaking out with a new sense of urgency, determined to bring an end to what millions now perceive as arrogant and predatory behavior by Washington bureaucrats and other elected and unelected officials who wield too much power.\n\nThere is no mistaking the emotion or the intensity of those who are speaking out. The conservative news media have been talking about it for years now. But for the hundreds of thousands of men and women who came to Washington at their own expense to participate in Glenn Beck's Restoring Honor rally in August 2010, as well as for the millions who watched those events on TV or on the Internet, that was a monumental occasion. As a participant myself\u2014and as a representative of the newest generation of what the Founders called the Black Robe Regiment\u2014I can vouch for the powerful emotions we all felt.\n\nxiv\n\nThat event was a way of making our grievances known in a respectful and honorable way. We came because we were upset with Washington, but we also realized that the surge of individuals' involvement in social and political issues today is of revolutionary proportions because a dramatic restoration of our constitutional values needs to happen. Those who came on that beautiful August day were of one mind: they all wanted to make a difference. They had seen what the Obama administration's idea of hope and change was all about, and they'd had enough.\n\nEVIDENCE OF FAITH\n\nThe American people don't need to be reminded that this is not the first time a large-scale popular rebellion has taken place in this country. The first Revolution was preceded and inspired, I believe, by the Great Awakening\u2014a powerful and seminal event. As I have reexamined and written about conditions during the nation's founding era over the past several years\u2014and especially since completing my Foundation House studies at Oxford University, focusing on the relationship between the American Revolution and the Great Awakening\u2014I have come to believe that we are in the early stages of another awakening, perhaps of even greater magnitude.\n\nThe Christian faith of the founding generation inspired their love of liberty and emboldened them to demand freedom from British rule, and the greatest expression of that love of liberty was visible in the Great Awakening from the 1730s to 1750s. The sparks of the American Revolution were fanned into flame by pastors and teachers\u2014the Black Robe Regiment\u2014who taught the people the biblical basis of personal liberty and obedience to the call of conscience. Today we're seeing a new wave of pastors and teachers who are speaking out about these issues, warning about the abuse of power by our public officials and stressing the importance of \"restoring honor\" in all areas of life.\n\nxv\n\nWhat we are seeing is nothing less than a new American revolution: not with muskets and cannonballs this time but with ideas. It is a revolution of conscience, of morality, and of honor, dedicated to responsible social, moral, and political reforms. I confess I don't care too much for the word \"change\" these days, but vast numbers of men and women are standing up and speaking out, demanding change from the socialistic direction our political, judicial, and intellectual leaders have been taking us, and back to the values of the Founders.\n\nBy any measure, this is a time of monumental change. Washington's idea of change has failed, and that is why so many people are reacting as they are. We are witnessing a rebirth of the American Spirit and a recommitment to our cherished American ideals. And just as in that earlier Revolution, this one involves an amazing outpouring of religious commitment as well. We see it in the tea parties taking place from coast to coast, and we see it in the explosion of conservative book sales, the tsunami of grassroots activism, and the sudden appearance of a new generation of political leaders who are motivated by their Christian faith and who are having a tremendous impact in the voting booths.\n\nGETTING OUR PRIORITIES RIGHT\n\nThis book is a response to the growing demand for information, insight, and inspiration. In it I will examine the connections between our Christian faith and responsible political action, focusing on the importance of personal liberty and showing how revolutions past, present, and future may be connected. In the final sections of the book, I will also take a brief look at the darker side of revolution, which emerged nearly a century ago in a formerly Christian nation, the Soviet Union, and which continues to threaten democratic institutions to this day.\n\nxvi\n\nIt is my hope that a renewed appraisal and understanding of our nation's core values will motivate many people to take positive action in their homes, communities, workplaces, and especially the voting booths. The information contained in this book may be taken in a prophetic or predictive context, based on lessons learned from social conditions today as well as the events of the Great Awakening and the American Revolution. I conclude the book with a discussion of some of the ways every citizen can become involved now to help shape the future.\n\nI am convinced that every one of the problems confronting this nation today can be solved through concerned citizen action. Lawlessness, economic insolvency, and government interference in people's lives can be stopped. Sound political action that arises from sound moral judgment and individual initiative can help turn the tide and restore order in all these areas. We have to make personal commitments to be involved for any of these things to happen, and most of all, we need to have our priorities right.\n\nOne of the most important things we can do is to follow through as the Founders did, not merely by changing our representatives in the state and national legislatures but by holding all our leaders accountable for their actions and insisting they serve as our representatives, not as irresponsible and unresponsive dictators. And, not least, we need to make sure our own houses are in order, that we have a resilient faith and express our reverence for the One who is the true Author of Liberty.\n\nDuring the fall of 2011 we witnessed a very different expression of dissent, the so-called _Occupy Wall Street_ demonstrations in the streets of New York and other American cities. While the protesters claimed to represent 99 percent of real America, researchers described them as \"an unrepresentative segment of the electorate that believes in radical redistribution of wealth, civil disobedience and, in some instances, violence.\" Writing for the _Wall Street Journal_ , former Clinton pollster Douglas Schoen said that more than half of the OWS crowds are serial protesters. Approximately 98 percent of those interviewed said they support civil disobedience, and 31 percent support the use of violence to achieve their goals. Some of those questioned by reporters could not explain coherently the issues they were protesting, and many admitted they were being paid by left-wing groups and labor unions. These are not the voices of hope and change but of anarchy, dissipation, and despair. Groups such as OWS are likely to become more numerous in the days ahead as socialistic-minded elites become more and more fearful of the growing strength and number of outspoken conservatives who are beginning to rise up and be heard. The revolution that I see coming is a good and needful one, one of faith and virtue, of responsibility and positive action, and a radical return to the values and beliefs that made America great.\n\nxvii\n\nAs I have spoken about these ideas from coast to coast, I have discovered that many people sense the hand of divine Providence moving in America today. Consequently we cannot help feeling we are engaged in something beyond the merely temporal and transitory concerns of the day. It is not just that we may be in the early stages of a popular rebellion but that we are part of a bold new awakening. The signs are all around us, and if we can grasp and reconsider the unique and extraordinary events that shaped our nation during its illustrious history, it ought to be possible to understand how many of those same factors that energized those events will prepare and propel us toward the Coming Revolution.\n\nHistory does repeat itself, so with a better grasp of our history\u2014 focusing on the unique relationship between faith and freedom\u2014we can gain a new understanding of the political, social, and religious events that are likely to occur in this country within the next few years. And that's a substantial part of what I feel compelled to say in these pages. It is my hope and prayer that many may be awakened, empowered by the Holy Spirit, and prepared for the events that will be taking place in our nation in the coming days.\n\n\u2014Richard G. Lee \n1\n\n[_**One**_  \nPORTRAIT OF A NATION](Lee_9780849949463_epub_c5_r1.html#d6e3)\n\nWhat is the source of America's greatness? By any standard this country has a remarkable story to tell, with its dramatic history and an enviable record of achievements in almost any area you can think of. America is the world's longest surviving democratic republic, operating under the same Constitution and laws for the past 236 years. The nation enjoys the greatest level of personal liberty, the highest standard of living, the largest economy, the most dynamic commercial and industrial sectors, and the most consequential foreign policy of any nation\u2014all of it defended by the best-trained and most technologically sophisticated military in human history.\n\nBut America is not merely the world's richest and most powerful nation. It is also the most benevolent, rushing to the four corners of the earth to bring relief to nations stricken by wars, famines, and disasters of every kind. Public and private charities, relief organizations, and international aid societies are constantly on the move, reaching out to \"the least of these\" wherever there is pain and suffering. They do it without pay and often without credit of any kind because they understand that the blessings of prosperity have made this nation a beacon of hope to the rest of the world.\n\n2\n\nOn average, the American people give more than $300 billion each year to charitable causes. According to the most recent report from Giving USA, Americans donated more than $303 billion in 2009, $315 billion in 2008, and $295 billion in 2007. These donations are distributed among approximately 1.2 million IRS-registered charities and 350,000 religious congregations. This is in addition to the $25 billion the U.S. government spends each year in foreign aid to countries around the globe. Germany's foreign aid, by comparison, ranks second with contributions of about $13 billion.\n\nAmericans give the largest percentage of their charitable donations to religious organizations, at approximately $101 billion, followed by educational organizations at $40 billion, charitable foundations at $31 billion, human services organizations at $27 billion, and health organizations at $22.5 billion. Especially interesting is the fact that 65 percent of U.S. households with annual incomes less than $100,000 donate to charity. Wealthy Americans may give more, but middle-class Americans give a larger percentage of their income. In addition to the financial gifts, America also leads the world in volunteerism, donating time and service to charitable and faith-based organizations. And that's a custom as old as the nation itself.\n\nIn the 1830s, the French statesman Alexis de Tocqueville visited America and was impressed by many things, but the one thing that really surprised him was the great number of \"voluntary associations\" in this country. In his classic work, _Democracy in America_ , he writes:\n\nAmericans of all ages, all stations in life, and all types of disposition are forever forming associations. There are not only commercial and industrial associations in which all take part, but others of a thousand different types\u2014religious, moral, serious, futile, very general and very limited, immensely large and very minute. Americans combine to give f\u00eates, found seminaries, build churches, distribute books, and send missionaries to the antipodes. Hospitals, prisons, and schools take shape in that way. Finally, if they want to proclaim a truth or propagate some feeling by the encouragement of a great example, they form an association.\n\n3\n\nThis spirit of generosity and commitment to worthy causes was unique in that day, he felt, and was matched only by the industry and imagination of the American businessman. When he looked at all the incredible achievements this country had racked up in less than a century, he marveled at the wealth of the American Spirit:\n\nThe Americans arrived but yesterday in the land where they live, and they have already turned the whole order of nature upside down to their profit. They have joined the Hudson to the Mississippi and linked the Atlantic with the Gulf of Mexico across a continent of more than 500 leagues separating the two seas. The longest railways yet constructed are in the United States.\n\nEntrepreneurship and vision were the hallmarks of American business then just as they are today, but what Tocqueville found most compelling was the fact that everywhere he looked the citizens were working together, building things, giving freely of their time and labor. \"I am even more struck,\" he writes, \"by the innumerable multitude of little undertakings than by the extraordinary size of some of their industrial enterprises.\"\n\nMost of what this nation has achieved over the past three centuries is due, I believe, to the faith and character of the American people. These qualities are under great stress today, that's true, but where would the world be if it weren't for the resolute faith and indomitable spirit of America's pioneers? If you ask the average person to name our greatest achievements, many would no doubt point to education. As early as the mid-1600s, public education was already widespread in New England. Thomas Jefferson was among the first to formulate plans for universal public education, and by the end of the nineteenth century that goal had been accomplished.\n\n4\n\nAmerica is also home to some of the world's leading universities\u2014 the whole world sends its sons and daughters to this country for the advanced studies that will allow them to succeed in whatever professions they may choose. The context and character of secondary and higher education have changed dramatically over the past half century\u2014not for the better, unfortunately\u2014but it's true nevertheless that the emphasis on education is among our most noteworthy achievements.\n\nVisitors like Tocqueville, as mentioned above, have been impressed by such things as the vast network of railroads spanning the continent, but from the earliest days of the republic, we have profited from the contributions of individual inventors and innovators, such as Benjamin Franklin, who gave us the lightning rod, the Franklin stove, bifocal reading glasses, improved printing presses, and countless other inventions. The Wright brothers were among the first to discover the basic principles of lift and thrust in fixed-wing aircraft, which opened the door to modern aviation. Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin, which transformed the processing of cotton fiber and revolutionized the textile industry.\n\nThomas Edison, \"the genius of Menlo Park,\" was granted more than one thousand patents during his life for his inventions with electricity, including the incandescent lightbulb, the telephone, the telegraph, and the motion picture camera. And there was Henry Ford, whose goal was not simply to build a better car, but to build an automobile that every family could afford. He built the first Model-T Ford in 1908\u2014the Tin Lizzie\u2014and shortly thereafter developed the concept of the assembly line, which revolutionized manufacturing the world over. George Eastman, who invented and popularized the Kodak camera, gave us the first portable and affordable cameras that anyone could operate. Such inventions have literally changed the world.\n\nAt the same time, American scientists and engineers have pioneered some of the most formidable advances in civil engineering, such as the construction of the Hoover Dam during the midst of the Great Depression. It was a monumental undertaking, and it continues to provide electricity and water today for more than eight million people in the states of California, Nevada, and Arizona. Any list of American achievements in science would have to include the great strides this country has made in medicine and medical technology, improving the lives of billions around the world.\n\n5\n\nAdvances in medical practice and emergency treatment save lives every day through fast-response trauma teams and state-of-the-art surgical procedures. Modern medicines have extended life-expectancy by decades while advances in audiology, dentistry, and optometry have improved the quality of life for millions more. America is still the only country to put a man on the moon or to send an unmanned rover vehicle to the planet Mars, some forty million miles from Earth. And I should also mention the successes of Hollywood, the cinema, documentary filmmakers, radio, television, and the broadcast media in all their various forms. No other medium has done more to inform, educate, and entertain us than the arts of broadcast and film.\n\nAlong with all of this, the telephone may be the real success story of our time. Telephone technology has come a long way since the days of Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas Edison, giving us the Internet, high-speed local-and wide-area networks, cellular telephones, the iPhone and iPad, and countless other modern inventions. America leads the world in the development, distribution, and commercial success of all these modern marvels, and has unleashed a new era of mass communications.\n\nNo one disputes the importance of these things, but few realize that none of them would have happened if it weren't for the even greater achievements in political discourse: specifically, the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States, including the Bill of Rights. These two documents, which for the first time in history laid out the principles of limited government and natural rights in a precise, ordered, and prescriptive manner, are America's gift to the world. The War of Independence that led to the establishment of this new nation was not simply a blow for personal freedom; it was above all a statement of the value the American people place on liberty and freedom of conscience for all people. And it was a statement of our willingness to defend those liberties at home and abroad.\n\n6\n\nAMERICA'S GREATEST ACHIEVEMENT\n\nAs we consider these various achievements, it's important to recognize that the true source of America's greatness is not merely the inventions and creature comforts we've accumulated over the years but the wisdom and vision that made them possible. That legacy comes to us from men such as John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, Benjamin Franklin, and George Washington, through the values and beliefs they enshrined in our founding documents. Among the greatest gifts one generation could ever give to another are freedom of worship, freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of association, and the right to a fair and just hearing. These were all gifts from the Founders.\n\nIt is important to understand, furthermore, that these liberties are the outward expressions of our Judeo-Christian heritage. When the Pilgrims left the safety and comfort of their homes in Europe to cross an angry sea and plant the first colonies in the New World, they were guided by their strong Christian faith. The principles they lived by have been the cornerstone of America's success for the past 250 years and are still the moral compass we follow today. Despite the claims so often repeated these days that the Founders were simply Deists who believed in a watchmaker God who left the creation to fend for itself, we now know that fifty-two of fifty-six Founding Fathers were devout believers in Jesus Christ.\n\nI have written about this in previous works and won't recite all the evidence here, but even the man whom most people agree was the least religious of the Founders, Benjamin Franklin, knew that no great nation would ever rise upon these shores without the aid and intervention of a great and wise God. In one of the most surprising speeches of the revolutionary era, the sage of Philadelphia reminded his colleagues in the Continental Congress that, \"Except the Lord build the house, they labour in vain that build it\" (Psalm 127:1). He then petitioned that body, which had been hopelessly mired in debate, to begin each day's deliberations with prayer. The delegates were humbled by his words because they knew he was right. They paused then for a time of prayer, and they vowed to pray every day in the same manner until they had resolved their differences. The document they produced has guided this nation ever since, and it was even hailed by an English prime minister, William Gladstone, who said, \"The American Constitution is, so far as I can see, the most wonderful work ever struck off at a given time by the brain and purpose of man.\"\n\n7\n\nThe story of America's greatness is not only about glory and triumph. Some of the nation's greatest achievements were only made possible by the adversity our ancestors endured. Between 20,000 and 25,000 Americans lost their lives in the American Revolution, and nearly the same number were seriously wounded. Despite the risks, they were willing to sacrifice their lives for the great prize of independence and individual liberty. More than 600,000 Americans died in the Civil War, but that struggle preserved the nation and transformed our understanding of human and civil rights. Add to that the more than 115,000 Americans who died in the First World War and the 292,000 in the Second, and you have a glimpse of the enormous price our predecessors paid to keep this country free.\n\nMore than any other nation, including all the great empires of the past, America has spread the dream of liberty around the world and helped to bring a higher standard of living to untold millions. And like those ancient empires, which were the standard-bearers of culture and learning for a time, today America has been entrusted with transmitting the blessings of freedom. More than mere business connections or scientific expertise, what America has to share with other nations is our appreciation of the values of integrity, self-discipline, and self-determination passed down to us by the Founders. Whether it's in regard to politics or economics or industry or any of the modern disciplines, we will find that in every area America's greatness is founded upon the moral and religious values of those pioneers.\n\n8\n\nAs the scholar and historian Russell Kirk has written, \"Every people, no matter how savage or how civilized, have some form of religion: that is, some form of belief in a great supernatural power that influences human destiny.\" Culture, Kirk said famously, comes from the cult. That is, the distinctive qualities and customs of every culture arise from the religious beliefs of its people. The Communists attempted to deny the existence of God and made atheism the only acceptable form of belief. But as the Soviet Union's collapse in 1989\u2013 1990 made clear, the empire had failed to stamp out religious faith completely, and today Christianity is thriving once again in the former Soviet bloc. The Communists discovered that no nation can survive for long without a foundation of sound moral principles.\n\nConcern for the well-being of others is one of the key traits of good character. Unfortunately, we see less and less of that these days. And when we see rising crime rates, evidence of corruption in business and government, the breakdown of the family, the increase in out-of-wedlock childbirths, the ongoing tragedy of abortion, and a rising climate of immorality and vulgarity in the popular culture, we have to wonder if our great moral heritage can survive. Author and attorney Charles Colson has written that, \"A nation or a culture cannot endure for long unless it is undergirded by common values such as valor, public-spiritedness, respect for others and for the law; it cannot stand unless it is populated by people who will act on motives superior to their own immediate interest.\"\n\nThe American ideals of freedom and individual rights, charity, duty, honesty, and love for others are, above all, religious beliefs. Even though America is less visibly a religious nation today than it was a century ago, it is the depth and strength of the foundations laid down by our Christian forebears that have allowed us to thrive in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. And, even with all our struggles and doubts, we are still living on the dividends of that investment.\n\n9\n\nAmerica's success in almost any area is a tribute to the beliefs that shaped the American character. \"These beliefs,\" writes Russell Kirk, \"are the fatherhood of God, the brotherhood of man, and the dignity of man. From these beliefs have developed Christian convictions as to how we should conduct our lives, how we should treat our fellow human beings, and what makes life worth living.\" Even though we may be troubled by growing hostility toward our Christian faith and the increasing coarseness of American culture, we can be certain that God will not give up on this country so long as a faithful remnant continues to seek His favor and proclaim these truths.\n\nTHREATS FROM WITHIN\n\nThe problem is that we have already come a long way down the road of dissolution, and it will take more than a little effort to recover our losses. According to the most recent Census Bureau reports, the number of people between the ages of twenty-five and thirty-four who have never married is now greater than those who have married. This has never happened before in our history\u2014or in world history for that matter. Married adults now make up just 52 percent of the population, which is the lowest level since records have been kept.\n\nThis has a direct impact, of course, on the illegitimacy rate, which is now almost 41 percent overall, and 72 percent among African Americans. No wonder so many young people find themselves trapped in chaotic and empty lives. The link between illegitimacy and poverty is well documented, and the link between poverty and crime is undeniable. Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan was among the first to warn the nation what was in store for this country if the breakdown of the traditional family persisted. In a stern warning penned in 1965, he said,\n\nFrom the wild Irish slums of the nineteenth-century Eastern seaboard to the riot-torn suburbs of Los Angeles, there is one unmistakable lesson in American history: A community that allows a large number of young men to grow up in broken families, dominated by women, never acquiring a stable relationship to male authority, never acquiring any rational expectations about the future\u2014that community asks for and gets chaos . . . [In such a society] crime, violence, unrest, unrestrained lashing out at the whole social structure\u2014these are not only to be expected, they are virtually inevitable.\n\n10\n\nA complex society such as ours is made up of a whole range of unspoken commitments. We agree to respect one another's privacy, property, and personal dignity. We agree to abide by a code of ethics, legal and moral restraints. We agree to care for our loved ones and family, and to be responsible members of our community. We also agree to pay our taxes, participate in free elections, and contribute to the common defense. But what happens when those commitments no longer matter? What happens when young men and women give up on marriage and responsible family formation? What happens when a generation of young Americans, or more than one, is abandoned to the wasteland of idleness, drugs, and premarital sex?\n\nWhen a culture is vital and thriving, we take our roles as citizens seriously. We agree to support causes that are worthy and to avoid behaviors that are destructive. These commitments are part of the common code of decency passed down from one generation to the next. Although there are individuals in the media, the popular culture, and the halls of academia who insist these old-fashioned ideas no longer matter, we need to remember what the Soviets learned after seventy years of communism: no nation can survive for long without a body of sound moral principles.\n\nIn a small but important little book called _The Broken Hearth: Reversing the Moral Collapse of the American Family_ , former secretary of education William Bennett makes the case that the American family is the most important incubator of the values that allow individuals and their communities to prosper. Healthy families instill values and beliefs that are essential for happiness and success. Among these are the habits of trust, altruism, personal responsibility, and mutual obligation. Unfortunately the well-being of the American family has been subverted in recent years by a sustained assault on marriage and family, and the evidence of that is not a pretty sight. Bennett writes:\n\n11\n\nSince 1960, the divorce rate has more than doubled, out-of-wedlock births have skyrocketed from one in twenty to one in three, the percentage of single-parent families has more than tripled, the number of couples cohabiting has increased more than elevenfold, the fertility rate has decreased by almost half. In record numbers, we have seen fathers deserting their wives and children\u2014and being permitted to do so without reproach or penalty of any kind. We have seen stay-at-home mothers mocked.\n\nThroughout most of human history marriage has been regarded as a sacred covenant, yet today we are told that marriage and family life are a burden, outdated customs with little or no importance. Unfortunately it is not just the rock stars and teen idols who are propagating this nonsense, Bennett writes, but \"feminists, academic analysts with an agenda, and libertines masquerading as liberationists.\" There are celebrities and popular television personalities who would have us believe that \"sin is in\" and faith in God is a dangerous myth. Those assumptions are not only false but dangerous to our entire way of life. As Bennett concludes, \"There is a natural order that we may build on and improve but that we attempt to do away with at peril of the very fabric of our lives, our happiness, our true and solid contentment. Too many of us have attempted to do just that and have reaped a whirlwind.\"\n\nYou don't have to spend a lot of time browsing the morning's headlines to recognize the levels of controversy and chaos that pervade American society these days. The nation is socially, politically, and morally divided on so many issues; immersed in disputes of one kind or another; and wrangling over questions unimaginable just a few years ago. It often seems as if everything is now up for grabs.\n\n12\n\nThe Pledge of Allegiance, which every American ought to be able to recite with pride, has become a topic of debate in many places, and concepts such as American exceptionalism and manifest destiny are either forgotten or ignored by the mainstream culture. Simply flying the American flag is considered controversial in some places, and posting the Ten Commandments in schools or public buildings is out of the question. All of this compels me to ask, are we still \"one nation under God\"? Is this once-proud nation of immigrants from every corner of the globe still, in fact, \"indivisible\"? The red and blue maps emblazoned across the front pages of newspapers and websites after every election tell pretty much the same story. The social consensus is fragmented. We are a nation of red and blue states, red and blue counties, and even red and blue neighborhoods. Our political and cultural differences are magnified by the media to such an extent that we often wonder if the republic can survive.\n\nNot long ago we learned that Washington lawmakers were working behind closed doors, plotting and planning through the night to pass a massive health-care bill and other legislation they knew the American people had overwhelmingly rejected. The results of the 2010 elections were a partial response to that, but we still have many areas of concern. With shocking regularity, the courts have been handing down edicts, overruling the voters on important social issues, defying both common sense and traditional moral values. At the same time, the mass media are continually bombarding us with coarse and violent images that stagger the imagination.\n\nTRUE STRENGTH OF CHARACTER\n\nIt would be easy to lose hope in this environment, but sometimes in the midst of all the noise and confusion we hear about an act of kindness that gives us renewed hope that the American Spirit is not dead just yet. We want to believe that, deep down, there is still something good and decent about the American people, and I don't think that is a false hope. The courage and resolve that made this the greatest, freest, and most prosperous nation on earth refuse to fade away, and every once in a while we witness a spark of humanity that reminds us of that fact. We are still a God-fearing people. And despite the bickering and name-calling, there is still a strong sense that we're in this thing together.\n\n13\n\nThat is how many of us felt when we first heard the story of Captain Chesley \"Sully\" Sullenberger, who was the pilot on U.S. Airways Flight 1549 from New York to Charlotte on January 15, 2009. Shortly after takeoff that afternoon, Captain Sullenberger radioed the tower that his plane had hit a large flock of birds, and at least one engine was on fire. They talked about landing the Airbus A320 at another airport but soon realized that was going to be impossible. Sully knew they would never make it, so he decided to ditch the plane in the only place where his passengers might actually survive: Manhattan's Hudson River.\n\nHundreds of men and women standing on the embankment, driving their cars on the parkway that runs alongside the river, and sitting in the skyscrapers nearby watched in amazement as Sully maneuvered his plane toward the middle of the river and then splashed down with the fuselage and both wings resting safely on top of the water. Coast Guard and Port Authority boats, as well as a couple of sightseeing boats, quickly encircled the aircraft to pick up the stranded passengers and crew.\n\nThen after two quick tours of the cabin to make sure no one was left onboard, Captain Sullenberger grabbed the pilot's log from the cockpit and joined the others. He was the last man out, and moments later, as the rescue boats were making their way to shore, the plane began listing to one side and then slipped farther into the water.\n\nWhen reporters looked into everything that happened that day, they discovered that life had prepared Sully Sullenberger for that moment. He had learned to fly airplanes as a teenager, attended and graduated from the Air Force Academy near the end of the Vietnam War, and flown fighter jets in the military. He had become an expert on aviation safety and had spoken to professional groups about maintenance and safety procedures. Later when he was interviewed on national television about the events of that day, Sullenberger said, \"One way of looking at this might be that for forty-two years I've been making small, regular deposits in this bank of experience: education and training. And on January 15 the balance was sufficient so that I could make a very large withdrawal.\"\n\n14\n\nThat's a nice way of putting it, but it isn't the whole story. Captain Sullenberger's first concern was the safety of the people on that plane, and this was what motivated his heroic actions. Certainly education and training can help prepare a person for making critical decisions, but other things are needed as well\u2014things such as faith, courage, determination, and love for others. Captain Sully's words inspired a lot of people and reminded us what really matters, but they also reminded us of all the brave men and women who serve this country in times of crisis.\n\nWho will ever forget the example of the New York firefighters who raced into the World Trade Center in the aftermath of the 9\/11 terrorist attacks, knowing they might never return? The towers were weakened\u2014smoke and debris were everywhere\u2014it was just a matter of time until they began to collapse. But people were dying in those buildings, and there was no time to waste. Without hesitation the firefighters climbed the stairs, hundreds of them, with no thought for their own safety, guiding thousands toward the exits, bringing hope and relief and renewed determination to men and women who might otherwise have been stranded in those doomed towers.\n\nThose public servants weren't in it for the money. Not one of them was looking for glory. They could have refused to go up, but they accepted the risks and went in because they believed in something greater and more enduring than their own personal safety\u2014the call of duty, the love of others, and the pledge that each of them had made to defend, protect, and serve. Like thousands of police officers and firefighters all across this country who risk their lives each day, the New York firefighters embodied the finest traditions of honor and bravery. And a grateful nation will never forget what they did.\n\n15\n\nIt's important to remember that spirit of caring and compassion when we are constantly bombarded by bad news. The shooting of Arizona congresswoman Gabrielle Giffords by an irate gunman on January 10, 2011, was yet another reminder that there is still a lot of senseless violence in our streets. But even in that case, where more than a dozen people were wounded or murdered by a deranged psychopath, it was the courage and heroic actions of ordinary Americans who risked their lives to subdue the shooter and render aid to the injured that will be remembered long afterward.\n\nLater that day during a live TV interview with NBC's Brian Williams, one of the heroes made the comment that those of us living in the age of 9\/11 can no longer just stand by and watch when something bad is happening. We have to be prepared to jump in and resist evil, to take a stand even when it means almost certain peril. I thought that was a perceptive observation. Unfortunately, it is a lesson that can only be learned through adversity.\n\nWe've all heard stories of cowards who stand by and watch when innocent people are being victimized or people who refuse to get involved because it is inconvenient or dangerous. But I think there is less of that today than there was a decade ago. One of the best examples of that sort of bravery is the story of the five young men who rushed the cockpit of United Flight 93 to stop a fourth group of 9\/11 terrorists from crashing that plane into the White House or the Capitol building. During cell phone conversations with wives and friends back home, the young men learned that two planes had already struck the twin towers in New York and a third had hit the Pentagon. Then, when they realized their own plane was being hijacked, those five brave men\u2014 Todd Beamer, Jeremy Glick, Mark Bingham, Tom Burnett, and Lou Nacke\u2014decided to take action. It was an all-or-nothing gamble, and they knew it could ultimately cost them their own lives, but they were determined to stop the terrorists in their tracks.\n\n16\n\nMost of us remember the rest of the story: there was a violent struggle in the cockpit; the plane spiraled out of control, then crashed in a field in Shanksville, Pennsylvania, approximately 125 miles from Washington, DC. Although America still grieves the loss of the passengers and crew of United 93 and the heroes who refused to let an even greater disaster take place on their watch, their actions gave the nation a new sense of hope at a very difficult time. Since that day the heroes have been memorialized for their bravery. Books and articles have been written about them, and Todd Beamer's call to action, \"Let's roll!\" has become a rallying cry that will be remembered forever.\n\nJust thinking about that amazing act of self-sacrifice reminds us once again of the inner core of goodness that still survives, as strong as ever, in so many Americans. Hearing about such acts of valor brings things back into focus. It is as if we have to experience such horrors before we understand what really matters. And when there is so much disappointment and self-doubt all around us, it helps to know there are still people who care enough to risk everything for others.\n\nBEYOND THE CALL OF DUTY\n\nJesus said, \"Greater love hath no man than this, that a man lay down his life for his friends\" (John 15:13), and that is the story of another American hero, Marine Corporal Jason Dunham, who served in Iraq during Operation Iraqi Freedom. In the spring of 2004, Jason was a team leader with the 3rd Battalion, 7th Marines. While on patrol in the village of Husaybah, Iraq, his team spotted a suspicious-looking individual in a white SUV. As they approached the vehicle, the man jumped out and began threatening the marines. During the brief struggle that ensued, Jason realized the man was going to throw an armed grenade. As soon as he saw it, the corporal yelled to his men to take cover. Then, in a flash, he knocked the grenade from the man's hand, took off his Kevlar helmet and covered the grenade, then threw himself on top of it.\n\n17\n\n_Wall Street Journal_ reporter Michael Phillips, who was embedded with Jason's battalion at the time, was so moved by the young man's act of bravery that he told the story in his book, _The Gift of Valor_. Corporal Dunham had less than five seconds to make that fateful decision, Phillips wrote, but he didn't hesitate to sacrifice himself for others. If he hadn't reacted so quickly, the carnage would have been much worse, but Jason Dunham willingly gave his own life to save his fellow marines.\n\nCorporal Dunham survived in a coma long enough to be evacuated to Bethesda Naval Hospital in Maryland. The magnitude of his wounds was just too great, but his mother and father were at his bedside when Jason died eight days later. They were heartbroken, but they nevertheless understood the courage and commitment that had motivated their son's actions.\n\nOn January 11, 2007, President George W. Bush presented the Medal of Honor to the Dunham family in a ceremony at the White House. Afterward, Jason's father said he wanted everyone to understand that while he was proud of his son's act of bravery, these are the types of heroic actions our young service men and women are prepared to perform every day. They are all heroes, he said. And we can't help but ask, as many others have asked before, where do we find such brave men and women?\n\nThe answer, I believe, is that we find them among people who understand the true meaning of duty, honor, country, and all those fine virtues the mainstream culture loves to ridicule and disdain. We find them among people who have seen the arrogance and selfishness of those who refuse to risk anything for anyone else and have rejected that kind of thinking. Even if we sometimes feel that decency and concern for others are disappearing from our culture, it's encouraging to discover it is still there, and there are still men and women willing to go beyond the call of duty.\n\nIf we want to see our communities restored, mothers and fathers will need to instill self-discipline and good judgment in their children, teaching them by example. Our churches will need to teach the precepts of faith, hope, and love; and the schools ought to be teaching our children the importance of personal responsibility and self-respect. But for these lessons to be understood and applied, there has to be something even more essential: there has to be an awareness that we are not alone. We are part of a family, a community, and a nation; and the privilege of citizenship in this great nation means that we have a number of important rights and responsibilities.\n\n18\n\nThe Founders believed education was an essential component of citizenship, as was instruction in moral and religious values. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 expressed it this way: \"Religion, morality, and knowledge, being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged.\" Schools, they said, were entrusted with the task of helping to mold the character of young people, and the Christian faith was a vital part of that.\n\nBenjamin Rush, a signer of the Declaration of Independence and delegate to the Continental Congress, offered this counsel:\n\nLet the children who are sent to those schools be taught to read and write and above all, let both sexes be carefully instructed in the principles and obligations of the Christian religion. This is the most essential part of education. The great enemy of the salvation of man, in my opinion, never invented a more effectual means of extirpating Christianity from the world than by persuading mankind that it was improper to read the Bible at schools.\n\nThe constitution of the commonwealth of Massachusetts at that time went even further, stating that, \"It is the right, as well as the duty, of all men in society, publicly, and at stated seasons, to worship the Supreme Being, the Great Creator and Preserver of the Universe. . . .\" It may be surprising to some people to realize that this was the common view of practically all Americans during the founding era, and for more than a hundred years afterward. But no one expressed the views of the citizens of New England better than our second president, John Adams, who said,\n\n19\n\n[I]t is religion and morality alone which can establish the principles upon which freedom can securely stand. . . . We have no government armed with power capable of contending with human passions unbridled by morality and religion. . . . Our constitution was made only for a moral and religious people. It is wholly inadequate to the government of any other.\n\nThere is no way to explain away such statements. The United States of America was founded on Christian principles because the Founders were building a nation and laying the foundations for an empire. They understood that good citizenship demands good character. They were well educated, steeped in the history of great nations of the past, and they knew that no nation can survive unless the citizens are infused with the principles of sound moral judgment from their earliest years. The president of the Continental Congress, Elias Boudinot, explained why this was so important: \"Good government generally begins in the family,\" he said, \"and if the moral character of a people once degenerate, their political character must soon follow.\"\n\nMen and women with shabby morals and weak character cannot be expected to sustain a great nation. They can't vote wisely, lead productive lives, or educate their own children. The Founders understood that character and virtue grow out of the spiritual truths we learn in our earliest years, but that view is no longer taught in the nation's public schools and universities. Over the past century, our leading educational institutions have made Christianity virtually unmentionable\u2014not just prayer in the schools but any mention of Jesus Christ or the beliefs of at least 80 percent of the American people.\n\nEven though all of our first universities\u2014including Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Dartmouth, Brown, and Columbia\u2014were founded as Christian institutions with seminaries to train clergy and educate future leaders of the republic, today's educators no longer tolerate those beliefs. Instead of sound moral instruction, students on thousands of campuses all across the country are being exposed to a steady drumbeat of anti-Americanism, race and gender hostility, and a preoccupation with social and sexual experimentation. Classes and entire academic departments are devoted to \"oppression studies,\" \"women's studies,\" \"queer studies,\" and other forms of politically correct programming.\n\n20\n\nAt many schools, incoming freshmen are required to attend mandatory sensitivity training sessions and seminars on race and gender. Dorm counselors are expected to hold encounter sessions in which new students are indoctrinated into the pro-homosexual campus culture through role-playing and other types of psychological manipulation. The campus code words _diversity_ and _tolerance_ , which are so pervasive, are simply a mask for the anti-American, hypersexualized, pro-homosexual, and anti-Christian bias that is now the norm in the vast majority of our colleges.\n\nWith all this happening on high school and college campuses, how can we expect our young people to develop the character and commitment to duty that will make them good citizens? American sociologist Paul Hollander has described the modern university as \"the reservoir of the adversary culture.\" Rather than teaching our bright young men and women to respect their country and its heritage of freedom and self-reliance, professors and administrators have created an environment that is openly hostile to the beliefs and aspirations of the Founders.\n\nSilly ideas we laughed at back in the 1960s are now the reigning dogma on many of America's most prestigious campuses. Students are taught that all values and beliefs are relative, that truth is in the eye of the beholder, that conventional religion is a myth, and only science and mathematics are to be trusted. Subjects such as history and literature have become vehicles for indoctrinating students in the doctrines of multiculturalism and diversity. Our children are taught by their sociology professors that the American way of life is no better than that of the most backward tribes. And for purveyors of the environmental movement, our way of life is a threat to global ecology. Some members of that movement claim that human beings are the problem, so the number of people on the planet needs to be dramatically reduced to save the earth.\n\n21\n\nConcepts such as civic virtue, character building, and moral restraint, on the other hand, are scorned by faculty members while the false doctrines our parents rejected, including communism and Marxism, are applauded. I am told by university associates that the surest path to tenure for young professors these days is to espouse a Marxist interpretation of their academic discipline. And the surest way to be denied tenure or fired is to let it be known that you have a Christian worldview.\n\nThe greatest evils are no longer sloth, gluttony, envy, and pride, but capitalism and Christianity, which are openly mocked in some places. As one recent study puts it, \"Since the social revolution of the sixties, the agenda of the Left has been to transform the United States into a socialist utopia; consequently, the issue of greatest concern on America's most distinguished university campuses is no longer traditional learning but a new form of social and sexual indoctrination.\"\n\nASSESSING THE DAMAGE\n\n\"Professing to be wise, they became fools, and changed the glory of the incorruptible God into an image made like corruptible man . . .\" (Romans 1:22\u201323 NKJV). So wrote the apostle Paul, proving that, ages before today's radical professors came onto the scene, such behaviors were well known. Sadly, the results were much the same then as now, and we can see the impact of declining standards in a long list of reports detailing the poor performance of American students on standardized tests.\n\n22\n\nOn the 2005 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) science test, for example, 46 percent of American twelfth-grade students scored \"below basic.\" On the math portion of the exam, 39 percent scored \"below basic\"\u2014which tells us that nearly half of all high school seniors cannot answer even the most basic algebra and geometry questions. Researchers found that very few students were excelling. In science, just 29 percent of twelfth-grade students scored at the \"proficient\" level, and just 3 percent scored \"advanced.\" Math scores were equally disappointing, with 35 percent of U.S. students in the \"proficient\" group, and a shocking 5 percent at the \"advanced\" level.\n\nPerformance of American students compared to students in other countries is even more disturbing. The percentage of American college students earning degrees in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics lags well behind the percentage of students from China, India, Japan, Russia, Mexico, and the Middle East. According to research from the Heritage Foundation, the 2007 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) report reveals that students in other countries (especially the Asian countries) consistently outperform U.S. students in science and math.\n\nResults from the 2009 Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) exam, which is administered every three years to students from sixty-five countries, reveal that American teenagers rank well below their peers in the top thirty industrialized countries, and they continue to score well below average in critical subject areas. While students from Singapore and China scored consistently at the highest levels in all categories, American fifteen-year-old students scored seventeenth in reading, twenty-third in science, and thirty-first in math. They came in twenty-third or twenty-fourth in most subjects, and even lower in subjects in which they were expected to excel.\n\nFor years the evidence of deteriorating educational standards has been most pronounced in the upper grades, with twelfth-grade students scoring generally worse than students in the lower grades. But according to results of the 2009 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) assessments, just 34 percent of fourth graders, 30 percent of eighth graders, and 21 percent of twelfth graders are performing at or above the \"proficient\" level. Furthermore, just 1 or 2 percent at each grade level scored at the \"advanced\" level, and relatively large numbers of students didn't even attain the most basic level.\n\n23\n\nEven the current secretary of education, Arne Duncan, had to admit that current levels of educational attainment are a threat to America's future success. At the first public unveiling of the latest results, Duncan said, \"The results released today show that our nation's students aren't learning at a rate that will maintain America's role as an international leader in the sciences.\" He added that, \"When only 1 or 2 percent of children score at the advanced levels on NAEP, the next generation will not be ready to be world-class inventors, doctors, and engineers.\"\n\nIn a stunning comment on the state of public education in this country, the National Commission on Excellence in Education said that, \"If an unfriendly foreign power had attempted to impose on America the mediocre educational performance that exists today, we might well have viewed it as an act of war. As it stands, we have allowed this to happen to ourselves . . . we have, in effect, been committing an act of unthinking, unilateral, educational disarmament.\"\n\nYou would think such findings would prompt massive changes in public and higher education, but the authors of the summary report for the 1990 National Assessment of Educational Progress were obliged to admit that \"large proportions, perhaps more than half, of our elementary, middle, and high-school students are unable to demonstrate competency in challenging subject matter in English, mathematics, science, history, and geography. Further, even fewer appear to be able to use their minds well.\" Comments like these, reported by author and educational sociologist Charles J. Sykes, provide a staggering array of anecdotal and statistical information confirming the risks to children in America's public schools. His book, _Dumbing Down Our Kids_ , ought to be required reading for every parent and educator.\n\n24\n\nCombining the candor of such statements with the fact that the professional \"educrats,\" the major teachers' unions, and many of our universities are mainly concerned with the social and sexual indoctrination of America's young people, you realize we have a big problem. Fortunately not everyone is happy with this situation, and as more and more evidence of the damage being done to the next generation of Americans comes to light, more and more of our citizens are rising to the challenge.\n\nFor many of the educational programmers, money is a major motivating factor; but many of those at the forefront of the radical transformation of American values in the schools and colleges are losing supporters and funding. Some of those giant endowments are shrinking. Furthermore the results of the 2010 midterm elections suggest that large numbers of people in this country are giving up on the progressive agenda, and this means many more parents and public officials will be looking for answers concerning what's been going on in the schools.\n\nCHANGING DIRECTIONS\n\nA Rasmussen Reports national telephone survey taken in December 2010 revealed that Americans are deeply troubled by the way things have been going in this country. Leading up to the presidential inauguration in January 2009, the number of voters who felt the country was heading in the right direction was below 20 percent. Confidence rose briefly to 40 percent in early May, but it began falling after that. While approximately half of black voters still believed the country was heading in the right direction, 74 percent of whites and 76 percent of all other voters were pessimistic about the course the country was on.\n\nSubsequently the Rasmussen Poll for June 18, 2011, found just 21 percent of American voters strongly approve of the way President Obama is performing as president. Meanwhile 41 percent said they strongly disapprove, giving the president an approval index rating of \u201320. In his book _In Search of Self-Government_ , published in late 2010, Scott Rasmussen offered the perceptive observation that \"the gap between Americans who want to govern themselves and politicians who want to rule over them may be as big today as the gap between the colonies and England during the 18th century.\"\n\n25\n\nThe concerns that led to the American Revolution were taxation without representation and the imposition of unjust laws by the British Parliament. Among them was the act of Parliament closing the Port of Boston to normal commerce, the appointment of British aristocrats to oversee colonial governments, the protection of English criminals from the judgment of colonial courts, the quartering of British troops in American homes without payment of rent or lodging expenses, and the interference in religious customs with punitive policies and statutes that favored Canada and the growing wave of Catholic immigrants to that country. Furthermore the colonists were not allowed to elect their own representatives to the English House of Commons, and they had no standing in the House of Lords. Ultimately it was these \"Intolerable Acts\" that propelled the American patriots toward revolution. Because they had no say in their own government and were subject to the whims of autocratic English governors, the colonists concluded that England had no legitimate claim on America.\n\nWe are not seeing signs of an insurrection on that scale in this country so far, but a lot of people are on edge because of the incompetent handling of the economy, the bailouts of corrupt financial institutions, the government takeover of automobile and insurance companies, the passage of universal health care, and the threats of increased taxation. There have been no violent demonstrations or marches on the White House\u2014most people believe the 2010 midterm elections sent a message to Congress and are still optimistic that our voices are being heard.\n\nWe are by nature a peaceful people who are accustomed to an orderly and natural transition of power. We are hopeful that the presidential election in 2012 will help reduce the interference of the federal government in business and our private lives. But if something should happen to derail those hopes or if enough people begin to feel they are being cheated and disenfranchised by the administration or its allies on Wall Street and in the federal courts, then who knows what could happen? It doesn't have to result in a massive demonstration of discontent, and I doubt that it will. It is possible to deal with all these issues politically and diplomatically. But if for some reason the American people come to believe they are being cheated out of their constitutional right to determine how they are governed, then it is possible things could take a very different turn.\n\n26\n\nAll conservative voters really want is to get back to the type of government the Founders gave us in the first place. It is very important that we have a better understanding of our history and why the founding documents were written as they were. We need to understand how revolutionary those documents were and still are, granting unprecedented freedoms to the people and establishing the foundations of the rule of law. If we understand the environment of the revolutionary era as well as the environment we are dealing with today, then we will have a much better grasp of how things will play out from here on.\n\nBut let me be clear about this: I believe we are on the threshold of a revolution\u2014a peaceful revolution, to be sure\u2014but a genuine change in how We the People relate to our elected representatives from now on. We believe that substantial changes will have to be made, and the difficult task of undoing some of the laws enacted by the last Congress and safeguarding our sacred liberties will mean resisting the impulse to compromise while defending our time-tested conservative principles against the charges and countercharges our political opponents will make.\n\nBut we are trusting that the men and women we've sent to Washington as our representatives in the most recent housecleaning operation will be faithful to the challenges we have given them and do the right things. We are not being naive, thinking things will suddenly change in Washington without the need for voters to exercise due caution and vigilance, but we do believe salutary changes will come.\n\n27\n\nWe are deeply concerned that a generation of young people has been taught that America is corrupt and our system of government is not worth saving. They have been taught this in our schools, and their heads have been filled with politically correct nonsense. The generation coming up may not even be equipped to take the reins of government when its time comes. That is why we will have to start making changes from the top down.\n\nWe used to think reform would come from the bottom up, but that is not going to happen. Changes will need to be made in the centers of power, from the administration in Washington and all the various agencies of government to the state and local levels. At the same time, we will need to lobby for reforms in both public and higher education if we expect to see real, long-lasting change.\n\nACCEPTING THE CHALLENGE\n\nWe are going through difficult times in America today, but it is not the worst we have endured. The country is in the midst of an economic downturn, and most people are not living as well as they did a decade ago. Nevertheless, sometimes it takes a little stress to make people stop and think about what they've been doing. I believe these may turn out to be some of the best times we have ever seen if we are able to recapture a vision of who we are and what this nation was meant to be.\n\nAs a Christian minister, I tend to believe that God may have allowed these tough times to come about so that the men and women of this nation will wake up and reclaim their patrimony. We need to take a look around and remember the incredible privilege we have as Americans. The rally on the Washington Mall hosted by Glenn Beck back in August 2010 was dedicated to restoring honor, and that's really what it's all about. We have to rededicate ourselves to the essential virtues of honor, truth, integrity, and faithfulness if there is any hope of restoring our lost honor.\n\n28\n\nDuirng a speech I heard Ronald Reagan deliver in the late 1980s, he said, \"Never has there been a time when people with so much to lose have done so little to keep it.\" I think that may have been the case in recent years, but it is not going to be the case much longer. We have lost more than enough ground, but I see the banners of a million dedicated patriots rising above the horizon, and bigger and better changes are on the way. Regardless of what happens in Washington this year or next, I believe there is hope. Throughout all the years, from the American Revolution through the Civil War and two world wars until this very day, the thing that has kept this nation going is hope, which comes from knowing who we are and whose we are. And that vision is still very much alive.\n\nIt is such an important message: yes, there is going to be a tomorrow, and we can make that tomorrow better. We have already begun to prove that by our actions at the polls. The citizens of Iowa proved it when they removed three liberal judges from the bench for ignoring the wishes of the people in order to push a far-left agenda. Voters crowding into town hall meetings all over the country are proving it by showing up and confronting unaccountable senators and congressmen. And all these changes are coming straight from the hearts of decent, hardworking Americans.\n\nOne of the tremendous things about this country is that we are a republic that can correct itself through informed citizen action without resorting to violence. President Obama made a dramatic promise of hope and change during his 2008 election campaign. That promise, along with the fact that he would become the first African American president, was apparently enough to persuade the voters to elect him to the nation's highest office. Mr. Obama knew that we have a constitutional system that allows us to make major changes of policy. We can change direction without a violent revolution, and his administration made some of the most dramatic changes in the history of the republic. But there is also a safety net, which is the will of the people.\n\n29\n\nThe Founders designed a system in which those who are elected to public office may only make major decisions with the consent of the governed. And when a government strays too far to the left or the right, the people have the right and constitutional duty to hold those elected individuals accountable. They have the power to right the ship of state through citizen action and the choices they make at the ballot box.\n\nThose who want to make the most radical changes in our form of government, to take the country in a new and untested direction, identify themselves today as \"progressives.\" Underlying their platform and their belief system is the idea that there is some new territory, some golden new sunrise, or some shining utopia out there that guarantees equality and peace and plenty for all if we can just shake off the shackles of the past and strike out in a new direction. But what they are offering is not new at all: it is the oldest fabrication known to man.\n\nThe idea of a man-made utopia has been the promise of every totalitarian society since the collapse of the Roman republic. But it is a false vision, a mirage, a wisp of smoke, and we would be foolish indeed to abandon the achievements of the greatest republic in the history of mankind for a system that has been the source of some of the greatest miseries ever known. The progressive promise is in reality a hallucination.\n\nThe men and women who took control of the United States Congress in January 2009 were on a mission, and the legislation they passed is clear evidence of the direction in which they were headed. I have heard from some of our representatives in Washington that if many of the most liberal members of Congress had not been turned out by the voters in the 2010 election, the progressives were poised to go much, much further. Within a couple of years they would have been calling for a total revision of the United States Constitution. That's how radical the aims of some of our leaders have become.\n\n30\n\nBut the 2010 election was a watershed. It was in effect a firewall against further encroachments and further legislative destruction from the Left. It was a good start, but it was just a start. Those who would like to undermine our form of government, our traditional values and beliefs, and our way of life haven't gone away. They're just waiting for an opportunity to strike again. That's one of the reasons why I've written this book, as a warning and a wake-up call to every citizen to stand up, speak up, and become engaged in the contest for America's future.\n\nMake no mistake; we are in a contest to see what this nation will be for the next two hundred years. Will we uphold the values of the Founders, who were dedicated to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness? Will we defend the moral and ethical values our forefathers fought and died for? Or will we stand by silently, like the dazed and defeated citizens of a half-dozen fallen empires of the past, and watch this nation sink into the swamp of socialism, totalitarianism, and anarchy, ultimately leading to collapse? This is the choice we have to make, and it is one contest we can't afford to lose.\n31\n\n[_**Two**_  \nTHE PROMISE OF AMERICA](Lee_9780849949463_epub_c5_r1.html#d6e4)\n\nBefore we can take corrective action to restore the foundations of American culture and regain a vision of this country's high calling, it is imperative that we understand the premises upon which the nation was built. Unfortunately the authentic history of the founding era and the birth of the republic has been almost completely forgotten. A generation or two ago schoolchildren celebrated the arrival of the Pilgrims with plays and vignettes of the landing at Plymouth Rock or the first Thanksgiving, but even these were incomplete and not very faithful accounts of what really happened.\n\nEven more troubling, many schools no longer teach very much about the colonial period at all, and what they do teach is so loaded with revisionist history that the miracle of America's founding is lost. This is tragic because we need to remember. If we truly understood what the first Americans endured to bring forth on this continent a new nation\u2014as Abraham Lincoln phrased it\u2014we could never again ignore their courage and determination, and no one would ever doubt that this is a Christian country. So to help us remember where they came from and what our forefathers accomplished, I would like to step back in time for a moment to see where it all started and how America came to be what it is today.\n\n32\n\nThere is no way of knowing how many ancient explorers may have set foot on the continent of North America before Christopher Columbus came ashore at San Salvador\u2014Spanish, French, Dutch, English, and Scandinavian sailors all claimed to have done so\u2014but news of the Genoese navigator's discovery in 1492 spread quickly through the palaces and public houses of Europe, prompting wild speculation about what kinds of fantastic treasures were simply waiting to be discovered in the New World.\n\nEnglish explorers and privateers had been scouting the coastline of North America for more than fifty years before the Cavaliers under John Smith arrived in 1607 in search of new territory for the British empire. Pirates and traders had come looking for new sources of gold and precious spices. Adventurers such as John Cabot and Francis Drake reached our northern coasts years before the first settlements were established at Roanoke and Jamestown, but without leaving any settlements of their own.\n\nQueen Elizabeth I, who reigned from 1558 to 1603, was intrigued by the tales she heard from seafarers such as Francis Drake and adventurers such as Walter Raleigh and Richard Hakluyt, who spoke of vast new lands and wealth beyond the dreams of avarice. Tantalized by these reports, the queen gave official sanction for further exploration, along with authorization for English trading companies to issue land grants establishing colonies in the New World.\n\nFor the Puritan congregations of England, however, rumors of a new land where men could be free from persecution, political oppression, and bodily mutilation awakened a very different set of emotions. Religious conflict had been raging across Europe for centuries. As many as two thousand men and women were tortured, beheaded, or burned alive during the Inquisition, and thousands more suffered terrible wounds. At least thirty thousand Protestants were slaughtered during the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre in France in 1572. Those purges had taken place in continental Europe, but when the Protestant Reformation reached the British Isles in the mid-sixteenth century, English dissenters who followed the new teachings suddenly became an endangered species.\n\n33\n\nTo put all this in perspective, what we know today as the Protestant Reformation began in the year 1517, when Martin Luther nailed his Ninety-Five Theses to the door of the castle church at Wittenberg in northeastern Germany. Luther, who was an ardent student of the Bible, realized that many common practices in the churches of that day were unbiblical and not in keeping with the teachings of Saint Paul. However, when he attempted to inform the bishops of his concerns during a trip to Rome, church officials ordered Luther to stop complaining. He was warned of serious consequences if he persisted, at which point he returned to Wittenberg deeply shaken.\n\nAfter a long period of anguish and introspection, Luther realized he could not remain silent. Heresy had crept into the church over many centuries and needed to be stopped. The letters of Saint Paul taught that salvation comes by grace through faith, not by works, yet the church was saying that acts of devotion, including gifts of money, could purchase \"indulgences\" that ensured salvation and forgiveness of sins. And there were many other concerns.\n\nThe list of questions and complaints Luther nailed to the church door created an immediate sensation, but the cardinals and bishops in Rome were not amused. The charges and countercharges that followed exacted a tremendous toll on Luther and his followers, and they led to insurrections, open defiance, and several bloody confrontations with church authorities. When he was summoned to appear before a papal court at Worms in 1521, Luther refused to admit he had been wrong, at which point he was excommunicated and forced into hiding.\n\nThe eight months he spent in a secret apartment at Wartburg Castle were agonizing for Luther, but he used the time profitably, translating the New Testament into everyday German and writing dozens of pamphlets and tracts to explain key biblical teachings in a pure and simple way. When he eventually returned to Wittenberg, he was hailed as a hero and the leader of the reform movement. Over the next half century, the controversy he had ignited spread like wildfire across Europe and far beyond.\n\n34\n\nCongregations that adopted Luther's reforms in England were declared heretics by the archbishop of Canterbury. The English church was Catholic at that time, and dissenters were subjected to severe punishments. The word _Puritans_ was originally a form of mockery, but the dissenters liked the name because the purity of the gospel was all they really wanted. Throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, those who refused to conform were declared outlaws and subjected to severe persecution. Hundreds were whipped, hung, burned, or branded with hot irons or had their ears cut off or their noses slit. Some were drawn and quartered. The lucky ones escaped and went into hiding, or were simply killed outright.\n\nProtestant pastors in England, many of whom were graduates of the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, were stripped of their positions and livelihoods. Some were tried by the ecclesiastical courts and banished, and sometimes they faced much worse. As the persecutions became more and more intense, some of the reformed congregations, identified as \"separatists,\" began looking for safer places across the English Channel in Europe where they could practice their beliefs without fear.\n\nOne of those congregations in the village of Scrooby in Nottinghamshire was led by a group of faithful Christian men; which included William Brewster, William Bradford, and John Carver; and two separatist pastors, Richard Clifton and John Robinson. Brewster, who had served as private secretary to a member of the royal court in London, learned from foreign travelers that Holland was the safest place in Europe for dissenters. When he shared the news with his congregation, a group of 125 separatists voted to sell their homes, farms, and all they had, and relocated to that country.\n\n35\n\nTHE YEARS OF SEPARATION\n\nThe story of what happened during the difficult months and years that followed was recorded by William Bradford in his detailed history, _Of_ _Plymouth Plantation (1620\u20131647)_. Although Bradford served as governor of Plymouth Colony for more than thirty years and is remembered as one of the guiding lights of the American founding, his book was generally unknown for nearly two centuries until it was republished in 1856. Since that time the book has been called the first great work of American literature and a classic of American history. Even so, it is seldom read today.\n\nIn his narrative Bradford describes how the separatists arranged for a ship to transport them to Holland under cover of darkness, only to be betrayed by the ship's captain. When they arrived to begin the voyage, the villagers were attacked by thugs who ransacked their baggage and clothing, taking all their valuables and leaving them destitute. Nevertheless, they didn't give up, and when they were able to reorganize and secure additional funds, they set out from a different port the following spring. This time William Brewster made a bargain with a trustworthy Dutch sea captain to take them to Holland.\n\nBradford then describes how the men boarded the ship at night, and how the women and children, who waited offshore in small boats, were chased by the authorities and attacked by gangs of cutthroats. Seeing the mayhem and fearing for his own safety, the Dutch captain set sail immediately, forcing the women and children to stay behind in England until the men could return weeks later to gather what was left of their families. Eventually, by the grace of God and their extraordinary perseverance, the separatists arrived in Holland in the year 1607 and were able to find lodgings in Amsterdam, where they remained for one year.\n\nThe following year they relocated from Amsterdam to the village of Leiden, where they remained for eleven more years in relative peace and quiet. They had to learn a new language, find new occupations, and fit in with their Dutch neighbors without losing their own culture and traditions. By 1617, however, they could see that their children were becoming more Dutch than English and picking up bad habits from the locals, so they began making preparations for the even more ambitious journey to the New World.\n\n36\n\nThrough the Brewster family's friendship with Sir Edwin Sandys, who was treasurer of the London Company, the congregation was granted patents to establish a new colony in \"the northern parts of Virginia.\" King James I, who succeeded Elizabeth to the throne in 1603, was nominally protestant in his beliefs but was brutal in his attacks upon the Puritans. He had authorized publication of the King James Version of the Bible in 1611 as an act of compromise with Puritan dissenters\u2014it was his most important contribution to the separatist movement and to religious liberty. But he had also declared the separatists to be outlaws and enemies of the Crown, and he said in one famous outburst, \"I will make them conform themselves, or else I will harry them out of the land, or else do worse.\"\n\nThe separatist congregation in Holland had prayed for years that they might be able to return to their homes in England in due time. But at age fifty-four and in his fifty-second year as king of Scotland and seventeenth year as king of England, James I showed no signs of relenting. It was common knowledge that the king was strongly influenced by his Catholic wife and many court favorites who despised the dissenters. This left only two options for the separatists: they could either stay where they were or risk the dangerous voyage to an untamed wilderness in North America.\n\nWhen it came time to leave Holland, half of the English separatists decided to stay behind. The others arranged for passage to Southampton, England, on the ship _Speedwell_ , where they joined another group of separatists who had chartered the 180-ton cargo vessel _Mayflower_. By the time they set sail on September 16, 1620, about half of the 102 passengers and crew aboard the _Mayflower_ were from the original Scrooby congregation.\n\n37\n\nIt was a long and difficult crossing\u2014sixty-five days at sea before they came within sight of land on November 19. Four members of the party died during the journey, but two babies were born\u2014the boy Oceanus Hopkins was born at sea, and another, Peregrine White, was born while the ship lay at anchor off Cape Cod. Strong winds and heavy seas prevented them from going ashore in Virginia as originally planned. The ship was forced back, then farther up the coast until they were finally able to anchor at the site of Provincetown, on the tip of Cape Cod.\n\nBefore going ashore, the men William Bradford identifies as the Pilgrim Fathers met in the captain's stateroom to draw up the legal covenant that became known as the Mayflower Compact, creating the first form of government in the new colony. The document reads in its entirety:\n\nIn the name of God, Amen. We whose names are underwritten, the loyal subjects of our dread sovereign Lord King James, by the grace of God, of Great Britain, France, and Ireland king, defender of the faith, etc.\n\nHaving undertaken, for the glory of God, and the advancement of the Christian faith, and honor of our king and country, a voyage to plant the first colony in the northern parts of Virginia, do by these presents solemnly and mutually in the presence of God, and one another, covenant and combine ourselves together into a civil body politick, for our better ordering, and preservation and furtherance of the ends aforesaid; and by virtue hereof, to enact, constitute, and frame such just and equal laws, ordinances, acts, constitutions, and offices, from time to time, as shall be thought most meet and convenient for the general good of the colony: unto which we promise all due submission and obedience.\n\nIn witness whereof we have hereunder subscribed our names at Cape Cod, the 11th of November in the year of the reign of our sovereign Lord King James of England, France, and Ireland, the eighteenth and of Scotland the fifty-fourth. Anno Domine 1620.\n\n38\n\nThe covenant was signed by forty-one members of the ship's company, including William Bradford, William Brewster, Myles Standish, and John Alden. It was originally drafted as a temporary measure to avoid dissension among the passengers and crew, some of whom were angry that the ship had landed at Provincetown instead of Virginia. The aim of the agreement was to establish the ground rules for what they called a \"Civil Body Politick\" until revised patents could be sent from England granting them official permission to settle at the new site.\n\nThe Mayflower Compact has since been called the birth certificate of America and America's first constitution. Our sixth president, John Quincy Adams, the son of John Adams and a descendant of John Alden, referred to the compact as the true foundation of the U.S. Constitution. William Bradford included a copy of it in his history. The document makes it perfectly clear that the Pilgrims had come to America \"for the glory of God, and the advancement of the Christian faith,\" and not out of greed or imperialism or any of the reasons often given by the revisionists.\n\nAfter all the hardships they had miraculously survived, the leaders of the expedition were anxious to find a safe landing place. They scouted the coastline for several days and ultimately decided on Plymouth Harbor on the western side of Cape Cod Bay. They made their historic landing at Plymouth Rock on December 21, and the settlers disembarked with all their remaining goods on December 26. It was only later that they discovered how the hand of Providence had protected them and delivered them safely to their present destination.\n\nBY THE GRACE OF GOD, AMEN\n\nIf the _Mayflower_ had actually landed in \"the northern parts of Virginia\" as originally planned, the passengers would have been exposed to even greater perils than those they survived in England. The coastal marshlands in the south were infested with plague and malaria, and the local Indian tribes were hostile to European settlers. Chances are they would not have survived. They did not realize it at the time, but God had sent strong winds to push the _Mayflower_ farther north until they arrived at the one place where they would find safe harbor.\n\n39\n\nGod's grace was upon them there as well. After they landed they learned that the Patuxet tribe that inhabited the area had been wiped out by disease. The first Native American the settlers met at Plymouth was the lone survivor of the Patuxets, Squanto. They were surprised to learn that Squanto had been captured by English traders and taken to England years earlier. He was exhibited as a curiosity for several years\u2014the first \"Red Indian\" the English had ever seen\u2014but he returned to his home just one year before the colonists arrived. While he was away learning the English language and customs, his tribe simply disappeared. Finding no trace of his own people, he went to the Wampanoag tribe and was adopted by its chief, Massasoit.\n\nThe Wampanoags were generally peaceful, and Squanto introduced the chief and tribal leaders to the settlers. These were the Indians with whom the Pilgrims celebrated their first Thanksgiving in America, in 1621. There were skirmishes at various times, and during the first tragic winter that William Bradford called \"the starving time,\" Massasoit would not allow any of his tribesmen to offer the Pilgrims food, shelter, or assistance. It was a tragic and potentially crippling time, but eventually Squanto was able to show the men how to fish and hunt for the local game, and how to plant corn and other native crops. He also helped them find safe places to build homes and begin their new lives.\n\nThe colonists knew they would have to face many hardships, but the prospects for success were few, indeed, in the beginning. William Bradford describes the sorrows of that first winter:\n\nBeing thus past the vast ocean, and a sea of troubles before in their preparation . . . they had now no friends to welcome them, nor inns to entertain or refresh their weather-beaten bodies, no houses or much less towns to repair to, to seek for succor. It is recorded in scripture as a mercy to the apostle and his shipwrecked company, that the barbarians showed no small kindness in refreshing them, but these savage barbarians, when they met with them (as after will appear) were readier to fill their sides full of arrows than otherwise. And for the season it was winter, and they that know the winters of that country know them to be sharp and violent and subject to cruel and fierce storms, dangerous to travel to known places, much more to search an unknown coast.\n\n40\n\n\"What could now sustain them,\" Bradford asked, \"but the Spirit of God and His grace?\" But would anyone remember the sacrifices the Pilgrims made to find a new home for religious liberty? Would the men and women of our own time tell their children where the story of America really began? Bradford then goes on to ask, \"May not and ought not the children of these fathers rightly say, 'Our fathers were Englishmen which came over this great ocean, and were ready to perish in this wilderness; but they cried unto the Lord, and He heard their voice and looked on their adversity'?\"\n\nThen, reciting from various passages from the Psalms, he writes:\n\nLet them therefore praise the Lord, because He is good: and his mercies endure forever. Yea, let them which have been redeemed of the Lord, show how He hath delivered them from the hand of the oppressor. When they wandered in the desert wilderness out of the way, and found no city to dwell in, both hungry and thirsty, their soul was overwhelmed in them. Let them confess before the Lord His loving-kindness and His wonderful works before the sons of men.\n\nDuring that first cruel winter twenty-six men and eighteen women died. Only three of the married women survived. According to Edwin Gaustad's account, \"It was a small and terribly depleted group that survived to give thanks for the first harvest in the fall of 1621.\" Nevertheless the survivors began to adapt to their surroundings and settle into a practical routine, and over time they found ways to overcome the limitations of the harsh environment. Little by little the colony began to grow and prosper, and the rumors of its progress were being cautiously weighed by the Puritan congregations back in England who were growing more and more desperate under unrelenting persecution.\n\n41\n\nKing Charles I, who succeeded James in 1625, made no pretense of compromise with the separatists. After marrying a Catholic Spanish princess, Charles was even more determined to stamp out Puritan influence on the Church of England than his predecessors had been. With the cooperation of Catholic-leaning bishop William Laud, who would be appointed archbishop of Canterbury in 1633, Charles made life hell for English Puritans.\n\nIn particular Laud exploited the Star Chamber system of the English courts with draconian efficiency. Prominent pastors and members of Parliament who favored the Puritan reforms to the Church of England were dragged before the court, where they were accused and humiliated. Trials before the Star Chamber were conducted in secrecy, like a kangaroo court. Prisoners were allowed to present no witnesses; they had no right of appeal and no opportunity to defend themselves since the outcomes were predetermined. In the hands of Laud and the privy counselors chosen by the royal court, the Star Chamber was the religious and political weapon par excellence. The practice was finally halted in 1641 as a result of the uprisings among Puritan supporters that would ultimately lead to the English Civil War in 1642.\n\nCharles battled with Parliament throughout his reign, but he probably sealed his own fate when he disbanded Parliament in 1629 for a period of eleven years\u2014a time known as the Eleven Years' Tyranny. Laud would remain his most trusted ally, always eager to please his monarch. But the more Laud tried to defy the Parliamentarian objections to rising taxation of the people and Catholic influence on the Church of England, the louder the protests of the Puritan separatists became. As journalist and historian Rod Gragg describes it:\n\n42\n\n[Bishop Laud] preferred unmarried ministers, like the Catholic priesthood, and the Puritans objected. He advocated Catholic-style prayers for the dead, and the Puritans called it unbiblical. He ordered church members to kneel for communion; and the Puritans said it was worshipping the elements rather than the Lord. He required bowing at the church altar, and the Puritans said it was misplaced devotion. He implemented a relaxed observance of the Sabbath, and the Puritans considered it irreverent. He called for more ceremony in worship services, and the Puritans saw it as prideful. He required ministers to wear the Catholic-style surplice or tunic, and the Puritans insisted it was man-centered adornment.\n\nUltimately Laud would not win the debate. Supporters of the republican leader Oliver Cromwell, who sided with the Parliamentarians and defended the Puritan reforms, accused Laud of treason and confined him to the prison in the Tower of London. When he was put on trial for his crimes in 1644, Laud was found guilty and sentenced to death. He was executed in January 1645, and Charles I would meet a similar fate four years later when the new Parliament, led by Cromwell, convicted the king of treason and he was beheaded. Two years later, following the Battle of Worcester, the English Civil War came to an end.\n\nA CITY UP ON A HILL\n\nThroughout the long years of controversy, the good reports coming from New England contrasted sharply with the troubles in Britain and convinced dozens of Puritan congregations to follow the example of the Scrooby separatists and relocate to the New World. A group of two hundred settlers arrived with grants at the new Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630. They were followed by groups of seven hundred, eight hundred, then more than three thousand in a single year. The promise of religious liberty and the prospect of a healthy distance from the political oppression they had suffered at home were more than enough to persuade the faithful to abandon their native land for a new start in the American wilderness.\n\n43\n\nThese travelers did not come, as the _Mayflower_ Pilgrims had, in a leaky old cargo vessel. Instead, they journeyed in fleets\u2014seventeen ships in one flotilla delivered more than a thousand souls. Between 1630 and 1640, more than twenty thousand English settlers crossed the Atlantic Ocean to North America. So many made the journey that it became known in England as the Great Migration. Never before had so many Englishmen left their native land in such a short span of time for such an arduous and uncertain adventure.\n\nAfter 1630, most of the new arrivals settled in the Massachusetts Bay Colony, which was situated just a few miles north of the Plymouth Colony. While the original settlements remained reasonably small and close-knit, the Massachusetts Bay Colony grew rapidly, with a more diverse population. The foundations of the first city in New England were laid there in 1630, on the Sawmut Peninsula at the confluence of the Mystic and Charles Rivers. The town was named for the Port of Boston in Lincolnshire, England, from which many of the new immigrants had come.\n\nA decade after their arrival, the population of Plymouth Colony was still only a few hundred, scattered among seven small villages. By 1660, the same year the English monarchy was restored under Charles II, there were just over two thousand in that colony, at which point the Plymouth colonists voted to join the larger and more prosperous Massachusetts Bay Colony. As the number of Puritan congregations continued to grow, both in America and Britain, there was mounting pressure on the English Church to disavow the anti-Puritan purges, but it was not until the Act of Toleration in 1689, under William and Mary, that the persecutions finally came to an end.\n\nAll of the men and women who had risked so much to come to the New World had to give up much, leaving homes and families and in many cases bringing nothing with them except the clothes on their backs. But John Winthrop, who served several terms as governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, wanted the Puritan congregations of New England to remember that they had all come to America to fulfill a sacred promise. In the Arbella Covenant, which was drafted in 1630, Winthrop wrote, \"We must love one another with a pure heart, fervently,\" and \"we must bear one another's burdens. . . .\" Above all, he said, \"we are a Company professing ourselves fellow members of Christ.\" Regardless of their wealth or status in life, he said, they had all made a solemn pledge to live godly lives and abide by the teachings of Scripture. Winthrop said they must never forget their dependence upon the Lord who had brought them there. Then, reminding the people of what was really at stake, the Covenant states:\n\n44\n\nThus stands the cause between God and us: we are entered into covenant with Him for this work; we have taken out a commission, the Lord hath given us leave to draw our own articles, . . . if we shall neglect the observation of these articles . . . the Lord will surely break out in wrath against us. . . . Therefore, let us choose life, that we, and our seed may live; by obeying His voice and cleaving to Him, for He is our life and our prosperity.\n\nEchoing the words of Jesus in Matthew 5:14, Winthrop penned some of the most famous words of the colonial era: \"We must consider that we shall be as a city upon a hill. The eyes of all people are upon us.\" The settlers of Plymouth Colony were all separatists, and the world was truly watching them. Calvinist in their doctrinal stance and Congregationalist in their church polity, they had made a clean break with the Anglican communion. The men and women who built the Massachusetts Bay Colony, on the other hand, were devoutly Puritan but still considered themselves to be part of the Church of England. And none of them doubted the truth of Winthrop's words or the importance of the oath they had taken.\n\nJohn Cotton, who was one of the best-known pastors in the town of Boston in those years, outlined the Puritans' complaints against the Church of England. The national church, he said, was subject to rigid conformity according to the edicts of the bishops and the threats of English law. The Book of Common Prayer, he believed, violated the second commandment\u2014which says, \"Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image . . .\" (Exodus 20:4). The Anglican prayer book was a work of human invention, not of God, and ought to be abandoned. Cotton further held that the governance of the churches should be congregational in form, not Episcopal or Anglican because the congregants were the authentic source of authority in the churches, not the bishops or even the local pastors. The church, he said, is not a building but a gathering of believers. It is a fellowship of the redeemed\u2014bound together in a covenant relationship\u2014not subject to the arbitrary policies and judgments of any government or legislative body.\n\n45\n\nSome historians of the colonial period have suggested that New England church polity tended to be Presbyterian in form, with important decisions left in the hands of elected elders (presbyters) and deacons who spoke for the congregation. The New England churches insisted that the congregations should be free to select their own ministers and make their own rules of church governance. Whereas farther south in Virginia, colonies that grew out of the Jamestown Plantation founded in 1607 tended to favor the Episcopalian form of worship and were somewhat skeptical of their Puritan brethren in the north.\n\nFirst at Massachusetts Bay, then in the Connecticut Colony and each of the subsequent towns and villages settled by the Puritans, there emerged a spirit of unity that became known as the New England Way, \"molding itself with such firmness and care,\" as one writer describes it, \"that it stamped upon that region a way of thinking and living that would endure far beyond the colonial period.\"\n\nA DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE\n\nThe Puritans had come to America for religious liberty and the opportunity to practice their beliefs as they saw fit. That is simply a fact that cannot be explained any other way. In our own time, many historians have often focused on the lack of tolerance and diversity in the Puritan settlements, which is a wholly unjustified approach. In the first place, it is unreasonable to judge the men of that time by twenty-first century standards: it was a very different world, and there were perfectly good reasons for maintaining uniformity. And second, what's missing in the revisionists' account is the fact that the Pilgrims never intended to establish a colony that was open to any and all persuasions. \"The Puritans,\" reliable historians tell us, \"came to create a pure church and to conduct a holy experiment free of opposition, distraction, and error. They were not hypocrites who demanded freedom of religion then denied that same freedom to others. Freedom of religion across the board was never the plan, never the commission or errand.\"\n\n46\n\nInstead, the Pilgrims came to show that it was possible to establish a society and a church so faithful to the biblical model of purity that the churches they had left behind in England might be transformed by their example. If the Pilgrims saw themselves as \"a city upon a hill,\" it was not because they lacked admirers but because they wanted to be examples of the life Christ and the apostles had ordained for the church. They meant to be \"a light to the world,\" and this meant the community was expected to live faithfully, according to the precepts and biblical beliefs that bound them together.\n\nThroughout the nation's formative years, the clearest statement of the values and beliefs of the American people was to be found in their sermons, and this would be the case well into the nineteenth century. Pastors and teachers in separatist churches gave voice to the hopes, fears, and aspirations of the people, and this was only possible because the colonists were in general agreement on such matters. For more than a century their understanding of the duty of citizens and believers in Jesus Christ was virtually unanimous. This uniformity of conviction made the meeting house the preeminent place for preserving civic and spiritual discipline, and the unity of purpose was communicated best by the sermons.\n\n47\n\nThe spoken word has remained an essential component of American culture. As historian and former librarian of Congress Daniel J. Boorstin points out, \"The public speech, whether sermon, commencement address, or whistle-stop campaign talk, is a public affirmation that the listeners share a common discourse and a common body of values. The spoken word is inevitably more topical than the printed word: it attempts to explain the connection between the shared community values and the predicament of man at a particular time and place. It is directed to people whom the speaker confronts, and to their current problems.\"\n\nThe seventeenth century, Boorstin says, became known as the great age of the English sermon. Back in Great Britain, Anglican pastors such as John Donne and Jeremy Taylor were the best-known preachers of the day. They delivered homilies in what was known as the \"metaphysical\" or \"high\" style, drawing upon sophisticated allusions and philosophical turns of phrase. In the Plymouth Colony, on the other hand, the most compelling pastors were those like John Robinson, the original pastor of the Scrooby congregation, who preached in what the Puritans described as the \"plain\" style. Although Robinson did not make the journey to New England with his flock, his teachings had a profound influence on the character of the early church in America.\n\nThe characteristics of the plain style were laid out in a slim handbook called _The Art of Prophesying_ , written by William Perkins, a Cambridge University lecturer and pastor in the late-sixteenth and early-seventeenth centuries. The book, which was published in Latin in 1592 and in English in 1606, was on nearly every list of essential books, and few pastoral studies in New England would have been without a copy. The basic style of the Puritan sermon, Perkins says, was that it ought to be straightforward, with natural and logical development of ideas. To be a \"plain sermon,\" it didn't have to be simplistic or superficial but direct and free of the sort of elevated rhetoric favored by the Anglican divines.\n\nThe New England sermon was evangelical, to be sure, in the sense that it was meant to persuade the listeners and convince them of their need of saving grace. But it was above all practical, logical, and delivered in the common language of the day. Many of these sermons were more like a lawyer's brief than a work of art. Perkins proposed that each sermon should be composed of three main parts: \"doctrines, reasons, and uses.\" The doctrine came directly from the biblical text, which was where every Puritan sermon began. The reasons offered a brief discussion of the text, along with the meaning of the passage and its importance. The uses, then, were the practical application of the teaching to the lives of the members of the congregation.\n\n48\n\nIn New England, Boorstin says, the sermon was far more than a literary form: it was an institution. \"It was the ritual application of theology to community-building and to the tasks and trials of everyday life. It was not, as it was inevitably in England, a mere sectarian utterance of a part of the community. It was actually the orthodox manifesto and self-criticism of the community as a whole, a kind of reiterated _declaration_ _of independence_ , a continual rediscovery of purposes. The pulpit, and not the altar, held the place of honor in the New England meetinghouse. So too the sermon itself, the specific application of the Word of God, was the focus of the best minds of New England.\"\n\nRULES OF FAITH AND PRACTICE\n\nSince the church played such a key role in the daily life of Puritan communities, the people would have expected there to be sermons presented at every important occasion. There were usually two of them on Sundays, along with a Weekday Lecture on Thursdays, sometimes called the Fifth-Day Lecture. Thursday Lectures were begun by John Cotton in 1633, and were continued weekly for two hundred years. These were combined with Market Day Lectures, where congregants came together to discuss social and political events of the day. This was the custom in Boston, and the other New England colonies followed their example. In the beginning, attendance at these services was required by law, and skipping them was punishable by a fine. This practice eventually faded away because of the sheer size of the community and the difficulty of enforcement. Still, faithful church attendance was a fact of life.\n\n49\n\nIn addition to the routine church programs, there were sermons for all sorts of public occasions, including holidays, barn raisings, and harvest celebrations. There were also Election Day Sermons, in which the pastors reminded the citizens of their civic duties and the responsibility to choose wisely. Such sermons would have stressed the importance of selecting orderly and self-disciplined leaders, according to the admonitions found in passages such as Deuteronomy 1:15, 1 Peter 5:5, and 1 Timothy 3:2, which emphasized wisdom, accountability, and a godly concern for the well-being of the community. The Election Day Sermon was a New England institution throughout the American Revolution.\n\nAnother standard was the Artillery Sermon, given whenever there was need to raise a militia for protection from attacks by local tribes or to issue a call for the election of military officers\u2014a custom that began in the year 1659. There were also, of course, sermons for days of fasting and prayer, of which there were many during the Pilgrims' first half century in America. Daniel Boorstin indicates there were at least ten Thanksgiving celebrations in the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1639, and as many as fifty between 1675 and 1676. Some of them lasted anywhere from three days to a week.\n\nAttendance at these events was often compulsory, but the sermons were always greeted with enthusiasm. There were few books in the colonies in the early years, so the sermons given on special occasions offered the men and women of these communities a sense of participation in the events of the day. The sermon was, in that sense, the essential community forum as well as a constant reminder of their dependence upon a benevolent heavenly Father. Consequently many congregants would bring along notebooks in which to record whatever they heard. These notebooks would, in turn, become invaluable resources for later generations to recall the beliefs and customs of the colonial era.\n\n50\n\nDespite the vast distances separating them from the land of their birth, the citizens of New England were remarkably well informed. They were blessed with a well-developed attention span, and they were in no need of trivial amusements or seeker-sensitive entertainments to hold their interest. They were hungry for knowledge and, for the most part, they were perceptive in their grasp of ideas. \"All these circumstances,\" writes Boorstin, \"served to hold the early New England preacher to a high intellectual standard and encouraged him to make his performances merit their central place. The New England sermon, then, was the communal ceremony which brought a strong orthodoxy to bear on the minutiae of life.\"\n\nThe men who were entrusted with preserving orthodoxy were uniformly men of the cloth. Richard Mather (1596\u20131669) and John Cotton (1584\/85\u20131652) were the most gifted preachers in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In matters of both church and state, they tended to be authoritarian, which helped preserve stability in the colony but led to divisions among the clergy. Thomas Hooker (1586\u20131647), who agreed with Cotton's theology in the broadest sense, nevertheless, disagreed with him on governance and elected to move his parish farther west, to the town of Hartford, where he and one hundred followers founded the Colony of Connecticut in 1635.\n\nThere were also Christian leaders who came to be classified as nonconformists. Among them, Roger Williams (1603\u20131683) rejected the authoritarian style that was common in the Plymouth Colony. After several disagreements, and after having been tried and convicted of nonconformism, he was exiled. Then, with the help of Indian tribes he had befriended, he established Providence Colony farther west on a small strip of land sandwiched between Plymouth and Connecticut known as Rhode Island.\n\nWilliams, who was leader of the Baptists in the colonies, was never comfortable with traditional Puritan customs, and his new colony attracted many nonconformists and others of a more democratic spirit. He maintained that his purpose was to preserve freedom of conscience, and to allow his followers to pursue godliness in their own ways.\n\n51\n\nTHE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES\n\n_Circa 1641_\n\nAs previously mentioned, most of the pastors and teachers in the founding generation were Calvinist in their interpretations of Scripture. Not all were in complete accord with the five points of Calvinist theology, but the doctrine of salvation by grace through faith alone was universal. The five points of Calvinism, then and now, focus on (1) the total depravity of man, (2) unconditional election, (3) limited atonement, (4) irresistible grace, and (5) the perseverance of the saints. Each of these would require a more detailed analysis, which I won't attempt to offer here, but more importantly, all the Puritan churches would have stressed the importance of a personal salvation experience.\n\n52\n\nBy the same token, colonial ministers held the view that Christians were expected, as Jesus instructed the church, to \"render to Caesar the things that are Caesar's, and to God the things that are God's\" (Mark 12:17). This meant the laws ought to be obeyed, and reasonable taxes and levies ought to be paid. But Christians also had a duty to hold their leaders accountable for their decisions, and property-owning \"freemen\" were obliged to participate in the life and governance of the commonwealth.\n\nWhile they recognized that government was not the church, and that the governing authority must never interfere in the affairs of the churches, there was no question that they expected government leaders to be believers in Jesus Christ. While they did not set out to create a theocracy per se, they did believe church and state were mutually supportive institutions, due to their mutual commitment to order and civic discipline. In a healthy society, both church and state contribute to the common good.\n\nIn order to facilitate the administration of justice and public order in the colonies, the Puritans had been given the right to establish their own self-governing society with royal approval. Rather than being forced to answer to Parliament or to any particular instructions from the trading companies in England, the Puritan leaders were able to make their own rules and manage their own business with minimal interference from abroad. As the colonies grew in size and became more and more productive, however, this convenient relationship would change, as we shall see in subsequent chapters.\n\nIn the beginning the New England colonies were self-governing and faith-based. And like the settlers at Plymouth, the citizens of the Massachusetts Bay Colony based their government on the biblical model of a covenant relationship. Accordingly, free, nonindentured adult males, known as \"freemen,\" were obliged by the terms of the covenant to submit to the authority of the General Court, which was the main governing body. Each local government followed the same basic model. The Salem Church Covenant of 1629 spelled out the terms of the agreement:\n\n53\n\nWe Covenant with the Lord and with one another and do bind ourselves in the presence of God, to walk together in all his ways, accordingly as he is pleased to reveal himself to us in his blessed word of truth. And do more explicitly, in the name and fear of God, profess and protest to walk as followeth through the power and goodness of the Lord Jesus Christ.\n\nIt was a \"Covenant with the Lord and with one another,\" based on the \"blessed word of truth.\" The civil government was a representative democracy based on biblical models, but with leaders who exercised a great deal of discretion in how the laws were applied. The book of Acts describes how the early church selected its leaders, and the Puritans attempted to follow that model in both church and civil government. This gave the first Americans biblical grounds for resisting civil magistrates and authorities in England who attempted to undermine the civil order and moral balance of the community. The apostles had resisted the civil authorities by declaring, \"We ought to obey God rather than men\" (Acts 5:29), and the colonists declared, \"No king but King Jesus.\" In time the American spirit of independence would lead to an escalation of the hostilities between the colonists and their rulers in London.\n\nTHE AMERICAN BIRTHRIGHT\n\nThe Massachusetts Body of Liberties (1641) was the first formal register of the legal statutes of New England, and it would eventually be a model for the patriots of 1776 as they sought to codify the distinctive elements of American law and government. The Body of Liberties spelled out America's birthright and included a \"bill of rights\" declaring the right (in John Locke's original phrasing) to life, liberty, and the pursuit of property. It guaranteed equality under the law, free and regular elections, protection from self-incrimination, and the right to trial by jury. It also placed restrictions on \"taxation without representation.\"\n\n54\n\nThe document began with a paraphrase of the English Magna Carta (1215) that restrained the authority of the monarch and asserted that even kings are subject to the authority of Almighty God. It then placed certain limitations on judicial proceedings and outlined the rights of freemen, women, children, foreigners, and even \"the brute creature.\" The document described the organization of the churches as the \"Liberties the Lord Jesus hath given to the Churches.\"\n\nAlthough public order was rigidly enforced, no one should assume the colonists were passive when it came to matters of controversy. Many disputes in early New England arose out of debates over what sort of men were best suited to serve as magistrates and governors, and how leaders ought to be selected. The political history of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, Daniel Boorstin suggests, could be written as a history of their disagreements over such questions. What was the proper relationship between magistrates and deputies? How many deputies were needed for each town? What restrictions could be imposed on judges and juries, and what were the justifiable grounds for corporal punishment? Many a sermon was devoted to such topics.\n\nBy 1644, the colony had established a bicameral legislature with a governor, deputy governor, and other officials elected annually. John Cotton offered a somber warning concerning the limits of political power, however, saying, \"Let all the world learn to give mortal men no greater power than they are content they shall use\u2014for use it they will. And unless they be better taught of God, they will use it ever and anon. . . . And they that have liberty to speak great things, you will find it to be true, they will speak great blasphemies.\" Because they understood the doctrine of original sin, the colonists had a profound respect for law and order; but they also understood the dangers of unlimited power.\n\n55\n\nAs the population of the colonies continued to grow in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries\u2014and particularly as the generation of young people born on American soil came to maturity and moved into positions of leadership\u2014the Puritanism of the founding generation began to lose some of its influence on everyday life. The powerful preaching of ministers such as Jonathan Edwards (1703\u2013 1758) and Samuel Hopkins (1721\u20131803) helped to preserve the main tenets of Puritan beliefs in the eighteenth century, but rapid growth also brought rapid change.\n\nIn the beginning Puritanism had a beneficial effect on the moral and intellectual life of the people. Although after about 1820, the religious beliefs of the founding generation were no longer as dominant as they had once been, Puritan ideals were still very much alive and could be seen in the community's emphasis on education, in the people's concern for the religious views of candidates for public office, and in the benefits derived from the \"Protestant work ethic,\" which was without question a gift of the founding generation. But the Puritan spirit was particularly alive in the passion for liberty that was, and still is, the defining characteristic of the American people.\n\nMany young people learned a trade through informal apprenticeships. The custom for centuries had been that each family would train its children to pursue the same professions their fathers had pursued. But during the eighteenth century, this custom began to change as well. Reading, writing, and ciphers, which were the principal focus of education in the colonies, were also the responsibility of the family, but the churches played an important role in educating the children, ensuring that each child was able to read the Bible for himself or herself.\n\nWhen public schools were established, approximately forty years after the foundation of the colony, the General Court of Massachusetts Bay authorized public funding of schools. Plymouth Colony was the first to begin operating a publicly funded school in 1673. Ten years later there were five such schools in the colonies.\n\n56\n\nAll the colonies in New England experienced dramatic growth in both population and wealth during the eighteenth century. The rough-cut colonial society that had fought and scratched to eke out a living in the midst of a vast and unforgiving wilderness was, at long last, acquiring an image of sophistication and polish. The town of Boston, which was New England's most important seaport, was rapidly becoming a cosmopolitan center. The census of 1765, which was the last one taken before the American Revolution, listed 1,676 houses and 2,069 families. This included 2,941 adult males and 3,612 adult females, along with 4,109 males and 4,010 females under the age of 16. The census also listed the number of blacks and mulattoes in Boston at 510 males and 301 females. There were 37 Indians, male and female, and 32 residents of French origin, which brought the total in Boston to 15,552 souls. This is minuscule by today's standards, but there were approximately 250,000 settlers in New England by the year 1700. Before the first shots were fired at Lexington and Concord in 1775, the number had increased to 2,250,000. By 1800 the total was more than 5,300,000.\n\nAs the nation expanded, large numbers of non-English-speaking immigrants began streaming into the colonies as well. By 1775, there were more than 250,000 Germans, most of whom settled in the middle colonies and farther south. These newcomers were generally Lutheran or German Reformed although, like the Puritans, they were also Calvinist in their doctrinal views. And there was a substantial influx of Moravian, Mennonite, Amish, and other pietist denominations who were doctrinally Arminian.\n\nBeginning in the 1730s, there was a continuous wave of immigrants from Scotland and Ireland, including entire communities of Scotch-Irish Presbyterians escaping from the political and religious persecutions in their home countries. By 1776, the number had grown to more than 250,000, and many of these individuals were native Gaelic speakers with little or no fluency in English. Many, in fact, could not read or write. This was especially the case with the eighteenth-century immigrants who came to this country as indentured servants, meaning they were obliged to work for a specified period of time (usually seven years) to repay the cost of their passage to America.\n\n57\n\nThere was also a smaller percentage of criminals transported to America from the jails of England, most of whom were imprisoned for debts or certain other offenses. The Georgia Colony, which was chartered in 1732 by the English reformer James Oglethorpe, was the principal destination for debtors and other persons exiled by the English courts. The Colony of Carolina was chartered in 1663 but remained largely unsettled until about 1670. Then, in the third decade of the eighteenth century, Carolina was divided into two separate colonies, South Carolina in 1721 and North Carolina in 1729.\n\nIn 1686, the colonies were reorganized for a brief interval as the Dominion of New England. It included the colonies of Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire. New York, West Jersey, and East Jersey, which had been part of the Dutch colony of New Netherland, became part of the Dominion in 1688; however, the merger didn't last long. After two years, Plymouth Colony withdrew from the Dominion, and the entire unification effort collapsed in the wake of the Glorious Revolution of 1688, which substantially altered colonial relations with England.\n\nThe Plymouth Colony's return to self-rule was short-lived, however. A delegation led by Increase Mather, who was the son of Richard Mather and father of Cotton Mather, traveled to London to negotiate renewal of the colonial patents that had preceded the Dominion agreement. At that point a new charter was issued, making the Plymouth Colony a permanent part of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The last official meeting of the Plymouth General Court took place in the summer of 1692.\n\n58\n\nAN ENDURING LEGACY\n\nLooking back across this amazing panorama, it is remarkable that in the span of just seventy-two years, from the landing at Plymouth Rock to the emergence of Massachusetts as the most dominant social and political entity in the New World, a nation was born, built on endurance, an irresistible passion for liberty, and the covenants of the Christian faith. To claim that this country was a secular nation, that the Founders were ambivalent about religion, or that the Christian faith was not an essential part of their daily lives, one would either have to be ignorant of the facts or intentionally deceitful. Unfortunately, as I argued in the previous chapter, that actually may be the case for many Americans today.\n\nThere is no question that the spiritual heritage passed down to us from the colonial period has had a long-lasting impact on the nation, not simply because a band of religious extremists successfully crossed an ocean and erected the framework of a prosperous society in North America, but because the character, resilience, and moral fiber they exhibited has remained the hallmark of the American experience ever since.\n\nIn the year 1820, the great nineteenth-century statesman Daniel Webster expressed the hope that the American people might never forget \"the religious character of our origin.\" In remarks celebrating the two-hundredth anniversary of the landing at Plymouth Rock, Webster said, \"Our fathers were brought hither by their high veneration for the Christian religion. They journeyed by its light and labored in its hope. They sought to incorporate its principles with the elements of their society and to diffuse its influence through all their institutions, civil, political, or literary.\"\n\nNo one hearing those words in 1820 would have been the least surprised by what Webster was saying. No one would have disagreed. It is only now, after a hundred and fifty years of material comfort and academic reprogramming, that the average American is predisposed to believe that the faith of our fathers had no lasting importance in the nation's founding. But nothing could be further from the truth.\n\n59\n\nDuring an address in New Hampshire honoring the _Mayflower_ Pilgrims, a distinguished former professor of history at Harvard University offered a tribute to the men and women who risked so much to lay the foundations of the republic. The year was 1936\u2014316 years after the signing of the Mayflower Compact\u2014when Professor Samuel Eliot Morison spoke these words. Why should anyone still care about the Pilgrims today?\n\nHere is a story of simple people impelled by an ardent faith in God to a dauntless courage in danger, a boundless resourcefulness in face of difficulty, an impregnable fortitude in adversity. It strengthens and inspires us still, after more than three centuries, in this age of change and uncertainty. . . . The story of their patience and fortitude, and the workings of that unseen force which bears up heroic souls in the doing of mighty errands, as often as it is read or told, quickens the spiritual forces in American life, strengthens faith in God, and confidence in human nature. Thus the Pilgrims in a sense have become the spiritual ancestors of all Americans, whatever their stock, race, or creed.\n\nIf only we could somehow persuade all Americans to grasp the truth and importance of those words. But for one of the leading icons of the secular Left, Professor Noam Chomsky of MIT, the story of the American founding is a dark saga\u2014an example of over-the-top religious extremism. In an interview for _The Humanist_ , he said, \"There's that something about the history of the United States, going back to the Pilgrims, that I would call religious extremism. It's a major theme in this society and culture.\" The villain for this humanist isn't the persecution that brought the Puritans to this country but their religious fundamentalism, along with a penchant for exploiting the natives.\n\nI would propose that it is Chomsky's views that are extreme, but he is not alone. There are other Americans, including some very much in the public eye, who are only too glad to assure the world that America is not a Christian nation. During a press conference in Turkey on April 6, 2009, President Barack Obama said, \"One of the great strengths of the United States is . . . we do not consider ourselves a Christian nation. . . . We consider ourselves a nation of citizens who are bound by ideals and a set of values.\" The only problem with the statement is, it's not true. Upward of 80 percent of Americans today say they are Christians\u2014the highest percentage of any industrialized nation\u2014and it has been that way for the last three hundred years.\n\n60\n\nA 2006 ABC News poll found that 83 percent of Americans self-identify as Christians while 2.2 percent say they are Jewish, and just under 1 percent are Muslim. In fact, the total number of Americans of \"other faiths\" is less than 4 percent. A 2006 Gallup survey reported that 42 percent of Americans say they attend church or synagogue every week or almost every week. The numbers vary from state to state, from 60 percent in the South to less than 25 percent in Vermont.\n\nThe president's words may cheer secularists, but the words of the Founders\u2014along with the history we have seen in these pages\u2014make it clear that the Christian faith was the single most dynamic force in the discovery, population, and unification of America. Over and over again throughout our history, this fact has been reinforced in public declarations.\n\nJames Madison, the father of the Constitution, said, \"We have staked the whole future of American civilization, not upon the power of government, far from it . . . but upon the capacity of mankind for self government; upon the capacity of each and all of us to govern ourselves, to control ourselves, to sustain ourselves according to The Ten Commandments of God.\" The revolutionary-era patriot Patrick Henry agreed, saying, \"It cannot be emphasized too strongly or too often that this great nation was founded, not by religionists, but by Christians; not on religions, but on the Gospel of Jesus Christ.\"\n\nA century later in 1846, the Supreme Court of South Carolina rendered the judgment that \"Christianity is a part of the common law of the land, with liberty of conscience to all. It has always been so recognized . . . it is the foundation of those morals and manners upon which our society is formed; it is their basis. Remove this and they would fall.\" Forty-six years later, after an exhausting ten-year review of all the founding documents of the republic, the United States Supreme Court said in its 1892 Trinity decision, \"There is a universal language pervading them all, having one meaning: they affirm and reaffirm that this is a religious nation. These are not individual sayings, declarations of private persons: they are organic utterances; they speak the voice of the entire people . . . that this is a Christian nation.\" And later still, in _Zorach v. Clauson_ (1952), liberal justice William O. Douglas announced the majority opinion of the United States Supreme Court, declaring, \"We are a religious people whose institutions presuppose a Supreme Being. When the state encourages religious instruction or cooperates with religious authorities by adjusting the schedule of public events to sectarian needs, it follows the best of our traditions. For it then respects the religious nature of our people and accommodates public service to their spiritual needs.\"\n\n61\n\nNo one would argue that America in the twenty-first century is a paragon of virtue or that we still exhibit the same strength of character, resilience, and moral fiber of the founding generations. But no one can deny that the nation rose to greatness in large part because of the beliefs and behaviors of the men and women who gave birth to this nation; and those beliefs were, above all, a gift of their profound Christian faith.\n\n62\n\nOur challenge today is to live up to those high standards, and I believe that can still happen; but when it does, it will not be some jumped-up man-made affair. But I am getting ahead of myself. Before returning to this subject, let us turn the page and step back briefly to consider the achievements of the first generation of English colonists who paid a tremendous price to establish the Colony of Virginia. Theirs is a very different story, but it is an essential link in the history of American independence.\n63\n\n[**_Three_**  \nWHAT THE FOUNDERS BELIEVED](Lee_9780849949463_epub_c5_r1.html#d6e5)\n\nBy the mid-sixteenth century, it was becoming commonplace. English seafarers made landfall in North America at least a half-dozen times, accompanied by groups of wealthy adventurers eager for riches and personal acclaim. It is astonishing how many of these gentlemen were quick to publish their journals and sketchbooks. A few even managed to bring back Native Americans they had captured in the wilds of Virginia for exhibit in London. But none of the early expeditions had been resourceful enough to establish even one successful colony in the New World, and we can't help but wonder why. Why were the earliest expeditions so different from the landing at Plymouth just a few years later?\n\nUnlike the English colonies in New England that had begun with strong Puritan roots and noble aspirations, the first colonies in Virginia were commissioned with more conventional objectives. The earliest groups of explorers from Britain were sent abroad with instructions to search for gold and silver, and if possible to locate a westward passage to the Pacific Ocean. They succeeded in none of those objectives, but rather than spending time clearing land, building permanent dwellings, or planting the crops necessary for their own survival, the would-be settlers quarreled among themselves constantly.\n\n64\n\nThe most notorious attempt to exploit the uncharted wilderness of North America was the English settlement at Roanoke Island, just off the coast of North Carolina. Walter Raleigh, who was knighted by Queen Elizabeth I in 1584, was given a charter that year to organize an expedition to colonize North America. With royal patents in hand, Raleigh christened the new territory Virginia, in honor of the Virgin Queen. An Oxford-educated gentleman and a court favorite, Raleigh wisely chose not to make the journey himself, but by the spring of 1585, he managed to outfit seven ships and a party of 108 able-bodied men to undertake the adventure.\n\nThe expedition would be led by Raleigh's cousin, Sir Richard Grenville, who was a military officer and scientist, along with one experienced explorer, Ralph Lane. They set out from the port of Plymouth, England, for the coast of North America, where they intended to establish a new plantation. The Atlantic crossing was unusually rough, and the two gentlemen Raleigh had put in charge were constantly at odds with each other. When they finally reached their destination after ten weeks at sea, Ralph Lane assembled work parties and began construction of a makeshift outpost on the island. Then, just days later, Richard Grenville and most of the ship's crew said their brief farewells and set sail for England, leaving the remaining colonists to fend for themselves.\n\nRalph Lane acted as governor on the island. He organized scouting parties to go into the wilderness, searching the entire region in a 130-mile radius. The laborers and carpenters in the group made good use of the abundant timber in the area and built a small fort to protect themselves during the frequent surprise visits from the local Indian tribes. However, by the time the English privateer Sir Francis Drake stopped briefly at the site in June of the following year, Lane and the others were exhausted, hungry, and profoundly dispirited. Lane was only too glad to give up on the experiment and return with Drake to London.\n\n65\n\nWalter Raleigh, however, refused to admit his plan had failed, and one year later he dispatched three more ships to continue the Roanoke experiment. The newly mounted expedition set sail with 150 settlers on May 8, 1587, under the command of a new leader, Captain John White. The party arrived at Roanoke three months later, in mid-August, at which time the settlers participated in the first recorded Protestant service in the colonies.\n\nLater that month John White's daughter, Elenor, who was married to Ananias Dare, gave birth to the first English baby born on American soil, Virginia Dare. Finding little of the previous settlement still intact, and painfully aware that the provisions they had brought with them would be insufficient for their long-term needs, John White decided to return to England to gather additional food, tools, and supplies. Unfortunately, the English navy was fully occupied when White returned, waging war against the Spanish, and it would be four long years before he was able to arrange passage back to America.\n\nWhen he finally landed at the site of the Roanoke settlement in 1590, there was nothing left. His family was gone, the fort he helped build was broken and deserted, and there was no sign of what may have happened to the colonists. His daughter and grandchild were nowhere to be found. Today, more than four centuries later, the \"Lost Colony of Roanoke\" remains one of the most perplexing unsolved mysteries of the founding era.\n\nDespite the misfortunes of the Roanoke colonists, the men who helped launch the age of English exploration in the New World\u2014 including the two Anglican clergymen Richard Hakluyt and Samuel Purchas who were such prolific writers and travel enthusiasts\u2014 continued to lobby king and Parliament for additional forays into North America where, they said, vast wealth and unrivaled imperial glory were ripe for the taking.\n\n66\n\nDAZED BUT UNDAUNTED\n\nNews of the Roanoke debacle aroused doubts and disappointment in London and could have ended the efforts to colonize North America except for the relentless ambition of the merchants and promoters. Although the prospect of great treasure now seemed much less likely, the colonists had discovered an important new crop in the New World, tobacco, that would eventually provide sufficient motivation and revenue to persuade the financial backers to continue pouring money into the expedition.\n\nIn 1606, King James I, who succeeded Elizabeth as monarch in 1603, granted two trading companies exclusive rights to establish colonies in America between the thirty-fourth and forty-first degrees north latitudes. On December 20, 1606, the London Company sent 143 settlers on three ships\u2014 _Godspeed_ , _Discovery_ , and _Susan Constant_ \u2014 under the command of Captain Christopher Newport. Most of the passengers, according to at least one eighteenth-century report, were poorly suited for survival in an untamed wilderness. The ships landed first at Cape Henry near the mouth of Chesapeake Bay on April 26, 1607; then they moved farther inland. Two weeks later on May 14, they named the new settlement Jamestown, in honor of the king.\n\nThese \"reprobates of good families,\" as the Virginia diarist William Byrd would refer to them later, apparently made the voyage expecting the sort of lush vistas, abundant crops, and fat cattle that promoters like Richard Hakluyt had promised. What they actually discovered was a mosquito-infested swamp in the middle of a jungle, with the constant threat of attack by hostile \"savages.\" There were no conveniences of any sort. What was needed at Jamestown was backbreaking labor. For the most part, however, these men and women were utterly unsuited to work of any kind. Many simply refused to work. Instead, they sat around fanning themselves, expecting to be fed and cared for by their social inferiors.\n\nIn time the newcomers managed to construct a stockade, a palisade of tall timbers laid out in the shape of a large triangle. It included a central storehouse, a church, and several small buildings where the settlers could take shelter. In the first seven months the settlement was nearly wiped out by disease, famine, and unceasing attacks. The total number of settlers, which was just over a hundred souls in May 1607, was less than half that number the following September. Indians had attacked before the fortifications were in place, and no sooner had the living quarters been completed than fire broke out, destroying several houses, the church, and chaplain Robert Hunt's entire library.\n\n67\n\nUnlike Walter Raleigh and the men he had previously given leadership roles, the leader of the Jamestown expedition, Captain John Smith, was not an English gentleman. He was a practical man of modest means who was not averse to hard work and was, fortunately for the settlers, a compassionate, determined, and capable leader. It was his energies during the worst of times that kept the colony going. And Smith's most able assistant during all this time, the young Anglican chaplain Robert Hunt, had left a young wife and two small children back in England, feeling that God had called him to accompany the Jamestown colonists as their minister.\n\nThe colonists, on the other hand, could be loud and offensive, \"little better than Atheists,\" one settler quipped. But they showed dutiful respect for their young preacher. On April 29, 1607, on the morning of their third day in the New World, the colonists planted a cross made of solid oak at water's edge\u2014they had brought the cross with them from England for that purpose. Hunt prayed first, then the whole company joined him in offering prayers of thanksgiving to God for their safe arrival.\n\nIn his official capacity Hunt served as minister, vicar, and chaplain of the settlement, but he was always quick to lend a hand in every important task. No job, regardless how menial or exhausting, was too much for him. He had dedicated the new colony in the name of God on the day of their arrival, but he was glad to take up tools and share in their daily chores. \"We are all laborers in a common vineyard,\" he told them. He led public prayers every morning and evening, preached two sermons on Sundays, administered communion, and ministered to the souls of his flock.\n\n68\n\nSurviving in this environment proved to be much more demanding than any of the settlers had anticipated. Yet the Reverend Robert Hunt was never heard to complain, even when his precious books and personal effects went up in flames. He nursed the sick and prayed for the dying. From beginning to end, Hunt was the most even-tempered and considerate member of the group, and when he came down with a fever and died just one year after the arrival in Jamestown, many of the colonists were heartbroken.\n\nThe preacher's death left a vacuum, but his Christ-like example of self-sacrifice and devotion was a blessing and served as a poignant reminder of the original charter for the Virginia Colony that cited \"propagating of Christian Religion\" as one of the expedition's primary purposes. An inscription on the bronze plaque honoring Robert Hunt at the Jamestown historical site today bears the words of the settlers who knew him: \"We all received from him the Holy Communion together, as a pledge of reconciliation, for we all loved him for his exceeding goodness. He planted the First Protestant Church in America and laid down his life in the foundation of America.\"\n\nLife in the colony was a day-by-day affair, and life was never easy. Food they had stored in crates and sealed lockers rotted before it could be eaten, and precious supplies simply disappeared. They were constantly plagued by rats and vermin of all kinds; and famine, sickness, and malarial fevers were a never-ending threat. All these things took a tremendous toll on the population, and it began to feel as if they were cursed. It wasn't until the Powhatan Indians came in peace, offering to trade food and other common necessities for glass beads and implements made of iron and copper, that the settlers were able to rest at all. But this act of benevolence was no guarantee of safety.\n\nThe attacks may have slowed temporarily, but they would continue indefinitely. The settlers were ravaged by diseases, but at times they were their own worst enemies. The uncertainties of their precarious existence were taking a toll on their souls as well as their bodies, and it showed. Less than two years after they had built it, the church the men erected to replace the temporary structure John Smith had rigged up with old canvas sails and cedar poles was on the verge of falling apart.\n\n69\n\nWhen Sir Thomas Gates arrived as the new governor in 1609, he made a thorough inspection of the living quarters, fortifications, and other facilities within the compound. Much of it was serviceable, he said, but he was disappointed to see the pathetic condition of the church. It symbolized the state of religion in the colony, and he ordered the settlers to immediately begin restoration. As a distinguished military officer, Gates had been sent by the London Company to take whatever steps might be needed to strengthen the colony and get the men back to work. He realized that the vitality of their Christian faith was every bit as important as their commitment to building a productive economy.\n\nOne of Gates's first official acts was to call for a renewal of religious services. From that point on, there would be two Sunday sermons each week and a Weekday Sermon every Thursday. In addition, a bell was to be rung every morning at ten o'clock and every evening before supper, calling each man to a time of personal prayers. The governor believed a revitalized faith would help the settlers deal more effectively with the hardship of their daily lives.\n\nEqually important, the governor wanted to emphasize the majesty and solemnity of the worship service. When he went to church on Sunday, he was accompanied by his councilors, captains, and officers. There was also a company of fifty armed soldiers, called halberdiers, surrounding him in their brilliant red tunics. The governor took his seat in the choir where everyone could see him, and vice versa. He sat, as Frank Lambert reports, \"in a green velvet chair, with a velvet cushion before him on which he knelt, and the council, captains, and officers sat on each side of him, each in their place.\"\n\n70\n\nTHE FINGER OF GOD\n\nVery much like the Pilgrims in New England (who would not arrive in the New World for another eleven years), the Jamestown colonists suffered through their own \"starving time\" in 1609\u201310. All but 60 of the original 214 settlers died during that fateful winter. For many of the men and women in the settlement, the losses, defeats, and constant struggles were unbearable. To make matters worse the ship they expected to arrive in the fall of 1609, bringing food and desperately needed provisions, did not survive the voyage. Without the new cargo, which included clothing, tools, and many other staples they desperately needed, the settlers knew there was no way they could survive.\n\nBut this would be one of the most amazing miracles of the entire Jamestown saga. During the passage from England to Virginia, the cargo ship _Sea Venture_ , carrying all the provisions for the struggling colony, went aground off the coast of Bermuda, and the entire crew was given up for dead. The colonists waited expectantly, searching the horizon day after day for any sign of hope, but the ship never came, at which point the men voted to bury their cannons and armor, abandon the colony, and return to England at the first possible opportunity. If they had left the colony, the settlement at Jamestown would have gone the way of all the other failed attempts. But on June 10, 1610, the day before their planned departure, Providence intervened, and the ships bearing their new governor, Lord de La Ware, and all the goods and supplies for which they had been praying suddenly appeared at the mouth of the James River. When the captain and his crew came ashore, the colonists learned the _Sea Venture_ crew had not been lost at sea after all. They had not only survived the shipwreck but also managed to save the entire cargo, then built new ships. As soon as they were able, they continued the journey to Virginia.\n\nThere was no doubt in the minds of any of the Jamestown settlers that this was a miracle from heaven, and when the news reached England, preachers on both sides of the Atlantic declared the rescue to be an act of divine mercy. And just as important, they believed it was a sign from heaven that the English flag was meant to fly over the New World. In Virginia the Reverend Alexander Whitaker wrote, \"The finger of God hast been the only true worker here.\" In London the Reverend William Crashaw agreed, saying, \"If ever the hand of God appeared in action of man, it was here most evident: for when man had forsaken this business, God took it in hand.\"\n\n71\n\nMany of the men and women who had been the most childish and unreasonable before the relief ship arrived were seemingly transformed by the experience. They could see that miracles do happen and that obedience to God and king was essential for their survival. They realized God is sovereign\u2014God rules in the affairs of men\u2014and He intervenes in ways that sometimes defy human reason. The wreck of the _Sea Venture_ and the relief of the colony convinced the colonists that\u2014just as He had spared the children of Israel from the wrath of Pharaoh\u2014God could and would suspend the laws of nature for His faithful servants.\n\nAlthough they had been saved from disaster in the nick of time, the struggling colony was by no means in the clear. Their \"seasoning time\" would continue for years to come, but occasional shipments of goods and fresh provisions from England, along with the success of the tobacco plantations established by John Rolfe, gave the settlers renewed confidence and good reasons to go on. Rolfe's marriage in 1614 to the Indian princess, Pocahontas, who was the daughter of the Powhatan chief, Wahunsenacawh, improved the settlers' prospects for a while, but it was still no guarantee of lasting peace.\n\nDespite their efforts to appease the local tribes, the troubles never ceased. It was painfully clear that something had to change. Then in 1618, representatives of Sir Edwin Sandys, the London Company's treasurer, suggested the colonists try and integrate the families into the settlements. At that point several Indian groups were given houses, and schools were built for their children so they would be introduced to the Christian religion and English customs.\n\n72\n\nThe colonists assumed the Powhatan nation would be grateful for their benevolence and welcome the opportunity to participate in English community life, but that was not the case. Furthermore the Powhatans did not miss the fact that most of the settlers held them and their way of life in contempt. \"There is scarce any man among us,\" one sympathetic settler wrote, \"that doth so much as afford them a good thought in his heart, and most men with their mouths give them nothing but maledictions and bitter execrations.\"\n\nBy the year 1622, the Powhatan elders realized the English intended to claim all of their nation's lands, expanding English towns and villages across Virginia. They saw this as a threat to their way of life. The colonists' offer to educate their children was seen as an even greater threat\u2014an effort to steal their children's hearts and eradicate their native customs. At that point the Powhatan chief, Opechancanough, conceived a plan he hoped would drive the foreigners out of Virginia once and for all.\n\nThe attack of March 22, 1622, began with a clever bit of deception when a large group of Powhatans came into the English village, bearing gifts of meat and fruit. The following morning they returned to the settlement and moved from house to house, greeting the colonists warmly. Then at a given signal the natives suddenly grabbed their weapons and other implements and began butchering as many settlers as they could find. They massacred entire families in their homes and killed all their servants and field hands. By the time the mayhem was done, the Powhatans had killed 347 men, women, and children. Then, to make sure no one failed to get the message, they desecrated the bodies of the dead, burned the villages, and destroyed the remaining livestock and crops.\n\nWhen news of the attack and the colony's devastating losses reached London, King James was livid. He canceled the London Company's charter in 1624, and the entire colony of Virginia along with its governing body, the House of Burgesses, was placed under royal control. That was how things continued for the next half century until September 1679, when the fortress and village of Jamestown were finally burned to the ground during a violent clash between the settlers and their governor, William Berkeley, known as Bacon's Rebellion. When the capital of the Virginia Colony was moved to Williamsburg in 1699, the Jamestown settlement was abandoned and fell into ruin. A re-creation of the original village can be seen today at the site, thanks to a project funded by the Colonial National Historical Park.\n\n73\n\nCLERGY UNDER DISTRESS\n\nThe Virginia commonwealth of the mid-to late-seventeenth century did not look much like the settlements of New England, but the citizens of all the English colonies had many things in common, including their religious faith. Most of the ministers who came to Virginia during those years were Anglicans. They were Episcopalian in doctrine and demeanor but subscribed to Calvinist teachings regarding salvation by grace through faith, and they preached in the Puritan plain style. Regardless of style, they all believed the Church of England provided the best expression of the Christian religion.\n\nWhile the Puritan churches in Massachusetts maintained their Congregationalist identity, the churches in Virginia were becoming more aggressively Anglican with each passing year. An act of the House of Burgesses in 1632 made uniformity of belief and practice a matter of common law, ensuring the Church of England would be the official faith of the colony and that the Episcopalian form of worship would be the norm. As some of the other colonies were doing, Virginia also enacted anti-Quaker laws to avoid schism in the church, even prescribing the death penalty for Friends who refused to stay away.\n\nThe middle colonies, however, were much more tolerant of minority denominations. Quakers, Amish, Mennonites, and various other sects were welcomed in Pennsylvania and the colonies of Delaware, New York, and New Jersey. Rhode Island was chartered by Roger Williams as a refuge for those of a more democratic spirit. Pennsylvania was established as a Quaker colony by a royal land grant to the English Quaker, William Penn, in 1638; but none of these denominations would have been welcome in either the northern or southern colonies until late in the following century.\n\n74\n\nBy the end of the seventeenth century, the church in Virginia was still growing, but it lacked the intensity of the congregations farther north. James Hutson, who is the author of a Library of Congress publication tracing the history of faith in America, writes that \"religion was the salt that flavored life in seventeenth-century British North America.\" But there were many Virginians in the closing decades of the century who feared the salt was losing its savor.\n\nA half century after the demise of the Jamestown settlement, the Anglican church held a virtual monopoly on religion in the colony; however, as Hutson points out, the churches were so widely scattered that regular church attendance was often difficult, and next to impossible in bad weather. Some Anglican ministers were assigned multiple widely separated parishes, which made Sunday and weekday services incredibly stressful, and officiating at the growing number of weddings, baptisms, funerals, and other special occasions was next to impossible. In some instances, specially trained laymen were allowed to conduct services, but the end result was a general decrease in the orthodoxy and level of Christian commitment in many parts of the colony.\n\nThere were never enough ministers, and there never would be as long as the life of the typical pastor remained stressful as he was underappreciated and underpaid. The Virginia legislature attempted to introduce measures to make life a little easier for the clergy by offering to increase salaries, which were often paid in tobacco and corn. But many parishes failed to provide even a modest living for their ministers. Each community was required to set aside a certain amount of property, called glebe land, where crops were cultivated for the benefit of the clergy. But one English visitor to the Virginia Colony wrote that ministers there were condemned to \"see their families disordered, their children untaught, the public worship and service of the great God they own neglected.\"\n\n75\n\nSome parishes, on the other hand, could complain that their preachers were receiving better support than they deserved. A certain percentage of the ministers who came to the colonies had done so to escape bad debts, bad marriages, and other problems. This situation eventually became so common that the House of Burgesses issued a decree: \"Ministers shall not give themselves to excess in drinking, or riot, spending their time idly by day or night playing at dice, cards, or any other unlawful game; but they shall . . . occupy themselves with some honest study or exercise, always doing the things which shall appertain to honesty, and endeavor to profit the Church of God.\" Apparently, however, the government's caution had little effect. Another English visitor remarked a decade later that Virginia seems to attract mainly the kind of ministers who \"babble in a pulpit\" and \"roar in a tavern.\"\n\nTHE OLD DOMINION\n\nThe contrast between the colonies of Virginia and New England in the late seventeenth century was striking. The population in both areas was still mainly English, but while the citizens of the northern colonies were staunchly Puritan with separatist sympathies, Virginia was resolutely Anglican with loyalist sympathies. And while the Puritans were evangelical and passionate about soul-winning, the Virginians avoided displays of enthusiasm or emotion in the churches. Furthermore in New England practically every man, woman, and child could read and write, whereas in Virginia education and learning were reserved mainly for the ruling class.\n\nNew England was also supported by numerous trades, crafts, and budding industries while Virginia was all about agriculture, mainly centered around the tobacco trade. Not least, while New England was generally democratic in spirit, Virginia retained the attitudes and habits of an Old World aristocracy. As historian Francis Parkman points out, Virginia society was stratified with slaves, indentured servants, and poor whites at the low end of the social spectrum, farmers and small planters in the middle, and the landed gentry who made up the ruling class at the high end. Parkman writes:\n\n76\n\nMany of them were well born, with an immense pride of descent, increased by the habit of domination. Indolent and energetic by turns; rich in natural gifts and often poor in book learning, though some, in the lack of good teaching at home, had been bred in the English universities; high-spirited, generous to a fault; keeping open house in their capacious mansions, among vast tobacco fields and toiling negroes, and living in a rude pomp where the fashions of St. James were somewhat oddly grafted on the roughness of the plantation . . .\n\nBut what the Virginia planters lacked in formal schooling, Parkman adds, was compensated for by power and position, along with a bold spirit of independence and a patriotic attachment to the Old Dominion. \"They were few in number; they raced, gambled, drank, and swore; they did everything that in Puritan eyes was most reprehensible; and in the day of need they gave the United Colonies a body of statesmen and orators which had no equal on the continent.\"\n\nThe Pennsylvania Colony, by contrast, was by design a wild mixture of races and creeds\u2014English, Irish, Germans, Dutch, and Swedes, who were Quakers, Lutherans, Presbyterians, Catholics, Moravians, and many other denominations. The Quaker tradition, to which William Penn and the colony's founding families all belonged, dominated in the eastern part of the colony while German Lutherans, most of whom were simple farmers, were most numerous in the middle parts of the territory, and Scots and Irish immigrants occupied the western regions.\n\nBecause of this wide diversity it was only natural that Philadelphia would play a key role in the revolutionary period. Second only to Boston, Philadelphia was the largest town in British America and the intellectual hub of the colonies. Ironically the Quaker influence suggested that Pennsylvania would be pacifist and noncombatant in the revolutionary era, but the colonies were under increasing stress from British policies, and even the most deeply rooted beliefs can change in such circumstances.\n\n77\n\nThe Colony of New Netherland was settled by Dutch traders in 1614, and remained under Dutch control for the next fifty years. The English navigator Henry Hudson was the first to explore the region on behalf of Dutch merchants, but when James I learned of Hudson's involvement, he commanded him to cease all such efforts. The town of New Amsterdam, on the western end of Long Island, was home to Dutch Calvinists, French Huguenots, and German Lutherans, as well as large numbers of Independents, Scottish Presbyterians, and others of little or no religion. In 1664, James laid claim to the territory for England. Unable to defend his prior claim, the Dutch governor, Peter Stuyvesant, had no choice but to accept a bloodless defeat. New Amsterdam was then renamed New York, in honor of the king's brother, the Duke of York.\n\nThe Colony of New Jersey was mainly farm territory while Maryland, very much like its larger and more prosperous neighbor to the south, was a tobacco-growing region. Unlike Virginia, however, Maryland had been established as a home for Roman Catholics who were out of favor everywhere else. The Colony of Delaware, established by Virginia's former governor, Lord de La Ware, was essentially an extension of Pennsylvania, and the southern colonies\u2014North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia\u2014were predominantly agrarian societies with a mixture of English plantation owners, poor white farmers, and large numbers of slaves, indentured servants, and castoffs from the British Isles.\n\nThe attitudes of all these colonies toward each other are hard to imagine today. Their only source of unity was the fact that they were European immigrants with an allegiance to the English king. As Francis Parkman points out, communication between the colonies was slow and tedious. Messengers traveled over rough roads poorly cut through dense forests. In addition, there were long-held animosities between some of them because of land disputes and commercial rivalry. Each man considered his own colony to be his native land; the concept of a united North America simply did not exist.\n\n78\n\nTHE LAND OF OPPORTUNITY\n\nAs social and political institutions in the colonies increased in maturity and status, and as the populations of all the colonies became more numerous, it was obvious on both sides of the Atlantic that these Americans were building an economic powerhouse. There were still poverty and hardship in many places, particularly in the western territories where communities of any size were few and far between, but business was booming in the cities and towns. After a century of toil and constant uncertainty, there was now a gratifying and unprecedented level of prosperity.\n\nThe wealth of the colonies began with agriculture. Land was plentiful, and the climate was ideal for growing a wide variety of cereals, fibers, fruits, and vegetables that were highly prized in Europe. Rice, wheat, corn, hemp, and tobacco were grown commercially on both small and large farms. There were highly productive fisheries in Massachusetts Bay and all along the Atlantic coast, and every colony could boast of a thriving trade in horses, cattle, sheep, pigs, and poultry. South Carolina became the wealthiest of the thirteen colonies in the mid-eighteenth century, thanks primarily to the large number of rice plantations cultivated there by slave labor.\n\nAmerica's forests were seemingly endless, and the timber merchants harvested tremendous quantities of oak, poplar, elm, cedar, and pine for construction projects in the colonies as well as for shipbuilders in the maritime colonies and the overseas trade. In addition, there were now mines in the mountains of Carolina, Virginia, and Pennsylvania, producing iron ore, copper, and lead. These and many other commodities\u2014including animal hides, whiskey, rum, sugar, and tobacco\u2014contributed to the colonies' growing economic strength.\n\n79\n\nCotton and other fiber-producing plants were grown and harvested in the southern colonies for the looms in England. Weaving was still a cottage industry in the early years, but by the end of the eighteenth century, there would be large textile mills in Carolina, Delaware, and the middle colonies. Wool products, however, were not produced commercially until the end of the century, due to trade restrictions imposed by Parliament. Sheep, goats, and wool products had been a mainstay of England's economy for centuries, and the last thing the lawmakers in London wanted was competition from America.\n\nThanks to abundant natural resources, business was thriving in the early years of the eighteenth century. Wages for American workers were as high as or higher than those in England at the time, but fewer than half of the working men owned their own homes or land. Tax records from the period indicate that the bottom 30 percent owned nothing, but from the beginning there was a strong work ethic in the colonies. Thanks to low tax rates and a less rigid class system than that of the Old World, it was possible for a common man with a quick wit and a strong back to acquire wealth and rise in society.\n\nBenjamin Franklin, as perhaps the most conspicuous example, was born into a middle-class family. His father, Josiah, was a soap and candle maker. The elder Franklin hoped his youngest son would become an Anglican minister, but Benjamin had other ideas. He was obstinate, independently minded, and curious about many things; but he was not a good student. He was much too impatient and undisciplined and, consequently, spent just two years in grammar school before taking an apprenticeship with his older brother, James, who was a printer.\n\nOnce he had learned the trade, Ben left his father's home in Boston and headed to Philadelphia, where he worked in several print shops before he decided to go into business on his own. It wasn't long before Ben and a financial partner, Hugh Meredith, purchased one of the colony's first periodicals, the _Philadelphia Gazette_ , and turned it into the most successful newspaper in the country. Franklin is also credited with creating the first political cartoon, \"Join, or Die.\" The cartoon appeared in the _Gazette_ on May 9, 1754, calling for the American colonies to unite against further encroachments by Parliament and King George II.\n\n80\n\nAlmost every American home at the time had a copy of the King James Bible, but Franklin believed there was a need for other kinds of literature as well. Relying upon his quick wit, a quirky sense of humor, and an ear for a colorful anecdote, he composed _Poor Richard's_ _Almanac_ , which would become, second only to the Bible, the most popular book in the country. At a time when the entire population of Philadelphia was less than twenty-five thousand, the almanac reportedly sold more than ten thousand copies a year.\n\nIn time Franklin would become a successful inventor, postmaster, humorist, scientist, political commentator, statesman, diplomat, and ambassador to France. He taught himself to read French, Spanish, Italian, and Latin, and he was considered by delegates to the Continental Congress to be among the most illustrious members of that body. He never denied his working-class background, but by age forty-two he had achieved enough wealth and status to turn over the day-to-day management of his business to others. By any standard Franklin was exceptional. Not many men could equal his achievements, then or now. But the point is that in England such a career would have been inconceivable while in America every man had the opportunity to rise to whatever level his skill and determination would allow.\n\n81\n\nA CHANGING LANDSCAPE\n\nWhat was happening in America in the early years of the eighteenth century was unique in human history, a fact that did not go entirely unnoticed in England. The explosion of prosperity and the rise of an independent spirit in the colonies, which ought to have been cause for celebration, actually contributed to a growing rift between England and America. Sir Robert Walpole, known as \"England's first Prime Minister,\" was the voice of the British government between 1721 and 1742, and he was a vocal supporter of a policy of \"salutary neglect\" regarding the colonies. This had been the unofficial policy of Parliament ever since Jamestown, enabling colonial governments to achieve autonomy and efficiency without undue interference from London. Walpole said, \"If no restrictions were placed on the colonies, they would flourish.\" And the more the American colonies flourished, he believed, the better for Britain.\n\nThe American alliance was opening up new territory for Britain in the West; it brought them new and exotic commodities, and it added much-needed revenue to the Exchequer through taxes, fees, and duties on certain American goods. A laissez-faire policy made perfect sense, he believed, but not everyone in London agreed with Walpole's assessment. England was deeply in debt as a result of back-to-back wars in Europe, Canada, and the British Isles. Strapped for cash and with English troops strung out halfway around the world, it was inevitable that both king and Parliament would look to America for relief, in the form of new and higher taxes\u2014along with intervention in many other areas.\n\n82\n\nThe Navigation Acts, which dated to the mid-seventeenth century, prohibited the colonies from trading with nations other than England, Scotland, and Ireland. These policies raised little or no alarm in the beginning since foreign trade was not yet a major concern, but as America's factories, farms, and mills became more and more productive, English laws restricting commercial growth and taxing profits were suddenly a sore spot for the colonies. Domestic taxes were lower in America than in Britain, but each new increase provoked an angry response, and the increases were suddenly coming more and more often.\n\nThe Molasses Act of 1733 placed a duty on sugar and sugar-based products but caused little stir in America because the rum manufacturers in New England ignored it. They found that smuggling was a much better alternative. The colonies continued to trade lumber, furs, and agricultural products for sugar from the West Indies without paying duties, but thirty years later when Parliament passed the Sugar Act with stricter enforcement, resentment spread throughout the colonies. The Sugar Act\u2014along with the Stamp Act, passed in 1765\u2014became one of the first irritants leading to the eventual showdown between America and Britain.\n\nBut prosperity had other consequences as well. As life in colonial America continued to improve materially and economically, there was a growing sense that something was being lost in the moral and spiritual vitality of the nation. The pace of expansion along with improvements in mobility and economic opportunity led, not to euphoria, but to anxiety, and the fallout could be felt in all sectors of society\u2014especially in the churches, which were losing members and influence. As historian William McLoughlin reports,\n\n83\n\nThe ministers no longer elicited deeply felt responses but rather a vague and undefinable discomfort. Men and women in every colony recognized that their efforts to succeed in this world were compelling departures from older behavior patterns and values. Businessmen had to cut corners to compete with their rivals. Farmers had to charge high prices to pay off mortgages on new land. Political leaders distorted the truth to win votes or gain influence. Town fathers enriched themselves and slighted the needs of the community. Lawyers and judges seemed unable to reach verdicts recognizably just to both parties. Legislators seemed to yield to special interests instead of serving the general welfare. On the frontier, where institutional restraints were weakest, men increasingly took the law into their own hands\u2014against Indians, horse thieves, or an interloper overreaching himself.\n\nThe result was social and political disorder. But the most important reaction was a new level of soul-searching, particularly in the churches of New England that had been wrestling with the issue of doctrinal purity for some time. Throughout the founding era, there had been strict adherence to Scripture and the principles of the Reformed faith. Calvinism taught that man is by nature sinful and in need of redemption, which comes through belief in the atoning death of Jesus Christ and is only attainable by a sincere confession of sin, repentance, and conversion.\n\nChurch membership and the sacraments of baptism and holy communion were limited to those who could give evidence of a salvation experience. But a new kind of rationalism was being preached in many Congregationalist churches in New England, best exemplified by the Halfway Covenant of 1662, which in its original formulation allowed the children of church members to receive baptism without making a profession of faith. Fifty years later the covenant was being applied to those wishing to join the church, whether or not they were confessing believers.\n\n84\n\nIn the beginning the idea was to make sure that unbaptized children of members would remain in the church family as adults, but the new liberalized policies made full fellowship available to all adults who wished to be affiliated, regardless of their reasons. Many public offices at the time required evidence of church membership, and this brought some people into the churches purely for expedience, not because of religious conviction.\n\nPastors initially approved of the idea because it increased church attendance, but the actual effect was a watering down of theological integrity. Halfway churches offered membership to all comers\u2014any so-called \"moral person\" was welcomed. Offering the sacraments to nonbelievers was, liberal clergy argued, a \"means of grace\" by which the Holy Spirit might work upon the souls of the unconverted and draw them into fellowship. \"Better to have them in the church than out of it,\" they said. But in time this weakening of long-established tradition would have serious repercussions. \"By 1720,\" as McLoughlin writes, \"the vast majority of ministers were telling their parishioners that regular prayer, church attendance, right behavior, and responsible citizenship were all means of preparation for the salvation God would send when the time was ripe.\"\n\nThe new doctrine offered congregants the assurance that man is not inherently evil, as the traditionalist preachers had insisted, but is basically good and capable of great things. God does not condemn His children to hell but wants the best for them. In this environment even the most unprincipled and profane members of the community were inclined to think of themselves as the best of men. But deep down there were lingering uncertainty and spiritual malaise.\n\nTHE ROOTS OF AWAKENING\n\nThe Reverend Solomon Stoddard was among the best-known Congregationalist preachers in New England at the time, and one of the most controversial. His enthusiastic embrace of the Halfway Covenant put him at odds with a number of his peers in Boston, yet by opening church membership to any man of moral character, Stoddard doubled his congregation in Northampton while more orthodox congregations were shrinking. Ironically Stoddard's staunchest critic turned out to be his own grandson, Jonathan Edwards, who would offer the most formidable challenge to the rationalist approach. In 1741, Edwards preached the sermon that, more than any other, has been credited with launching the Great Awakening.\n\n85\n\nJonathan Edwards (1703\u20131758) was the son of a Congregationalist minister in East Windsor, Connecticut. He was a brilliant student, entering Yale College at the age of thirteen where he studied Hebrew, Greek, Latin, geometry, rhetoric, and logic. Near the end of his second year, the young man experienced a dramatic conversion that transformed his life and his understanding of Scripture. After completing his baccalaureate in 1720, he spent the next two years at Yale studying theology; then at the age of eighteen, he was named pastor of a small church in New York.\n\nEdwards held that position for only a few months before the church ran out of money. He then returned to Connecticut and accepted a position as a teacher and administrator at Yale. After several years in that post, he was called to his grandfather's church in Northampton, Massachusetts, where he served as assistant pastor for two years. When Solomon Stoddard died in 1729, Edwards was elevated to the position of senior minister. The problem he wrestled with in this new position was that he had never agreed with the Halfway Covenant his grandfather supported. He served as pastor of the church for twenty years before he made his feelings known, and, at that point, he was summarily dismissed by the congregation.\n\nFor the next seven years Edwards served as a missionary to the Indian communities at Stockbridge, Massachusetts, and devoted himself to study. During this time, he wrote four of the most respected theological works of the Puritan era, including \"Freedom of the Will\" and \"The Great Christian Doctrine of Original Sin Defended.\" But the contributions for which Edwards is remembered today are two works composed during his time at Northampton: \"A Faithful Narrative of the Surprizing Work of God in the Conversion of Many Hundred Souls in Northampton,\" published in London in 1737, and the sermon \"Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God,\" which he preached at Enfield, Massachusetts, on July 8, 1741.\n\n86\n\nThe revival that broke out in the Northampton Church in 1733 took Edwards and many others by surprise. He was unquestionably a gifted preacher, but Edwards insisted that what happened there over the next seven years was not an act of man but a move of God. The revival began among the youth of the church, then spread from Northampton to surrounding communities with such passion that it could not be restrained. Edwards later wrote:\n\nThe congregation was alive in God's service, everyone earnestly intent on the public worship, every hearer eager to drink in the words of the minister as they came from his mouth; the assembly in general were, from time to time, in tears while the Word was preached; some weeping with sorrow and distress, others with joy and love, others with pity and concern for the souls of their neighbors.\n\nMore than three hundred men and women joined the church in 1734 alone. The power of the Holy Spirit was so strong, changing the daily routines of so many citizens in Northampton, that local shop owners complained they were being driven out of business by the revivalists.\n\nBy 1735, the revival reached across the Connecticut River valley, as far away as New York and New Jersey. When news of what was happening in America reached England in 1735, the revivalists John and Charles Wesley immediately took notice, as did their colleague and fellow member of the \"Holy Club\" at Oxford University, George Whitefield. John Wesley, who had been ordained in 1728, was widely known as the leader of the Methodist movement, so named for the group's diligent study of Scripture and devotion to works of charity. He was anxious to see America for himself and to find out what the Awakening was all about.\n\n87\n\nThe Wesley brothers sailed to America on October 14, 1735, hoping to preach to the Indians. However, the governor of the Georgia Colony, James Oglethorpe, insisted John speak in the churches. After two years John and Charles returned to London, deeply disappointed and consumed by doubts about their own salvation. The Anglican churches in the South had been insulted by Wesley's insistence that faith in Christ demands a personal salvation experience, and the Indian groups who received him were not the least impressed by his style of preaching. All of this precipitated a spiritual crisis in Wesley's own life that led, in 1738, to a miraculous conversion experience and the blossoming of his ministry in England.\n\nUp until that time John Wesley had taken a dim view of his friend Whitefield's enthusiastic style of preaching. Nothing quite like it had been seen in the Church of England, and many accused the young man of insanity or worse. He had been ordained as a priest, but he was never given a church appointment because of his evangelistic fervor. Nevertheless Whitefield, like Wesley, was determined to go to America to see for himself what was happening there.\n\nWhen he arrived in Massachusetts in 1738, George Whitefield was a novelty. Traditional Anglican congregations, very much like those in England, were offended by Whitefield's style of preaching. When he began preaching at open-air services in the countryside, however, dozens, then hundreds, and ultimately tens of thousands came out to hear him preach. Older and more traditional ministers, such as the Reverend Charles Chauncy of Boston, claimed that Whitefield's \"enthusiasm\" was a form of mental derangement. But rather than being deterred by such comments, Whitefield was inspired by them and preached more powerfully. Wherever the sound of his voice was heard, the presence of the Holy Spirit was undeniable, and before long it was apparent that the Awakening that started at Northampton in 1734 was just the beginning.\n\n88\n\nAs an indication of what was about to happen in the American churches during the Great Awakening, we have stirring accounts from individuals whose lives and attitudes were transformed. Nathan Cole was a member of a Congregationalist church in rural Connecticut. In his journal Cole writes that he was an \"Old Light,\" meaning a died-in-the-wool pew-sitter of the old order, until he ventured to a camp meeting in 1741 to hear Whitefield preach. He was changed, he says, and became a \"New Light.\" It took a while to summon the strength of will, but he eventually resigned from his church because of the Halfway Covenant and the easy acceptance of nonbelievers. He became a separatist first, then a Baptist and a lay pastor.\n\nHerman Husband was the son of a tobacco planter in Maryland and a member of the Anglican Church. At age fifteen he went to hear Whitefield preach and, like Nathan Cole, was radically transformed. Over the next several years he went from the Anglican to the Presbyterian church and then to Quakerism, where he became involved in ministries to the poor, the widow, the orphan, and others in need of God's love.\n\nAs James Hutson relates in his history of religion and the American founding, Christianity in rural areas of the colonies was essentially a \"do-it-yourself\" project throughout most of the eighteenth century. Ordained ministers with school training were few and far between, except in the larger cities, and those larger congregations attracted mainly sedate and scholarly ministers who still preached in the old style. Outside the cities, congregations often depended on devout laymen or schoolmasters to read from books of collected sermons that were very popular at the time. Hutson writes:\n\nThese groups, often close in spirit to primitive Christianity, existed in every colony, although they were far more numerous south of New England. Some German Reformed and Lutheran congregations in frontier Maryland, for example, operated for decades, until ordained ministers, who were greeted with \"tears of joy,\" caught up with them.\n\n89\n\nScotch-Irish Presbyterians, steeped in the Reformation doctrines of their Calvinist forebears, were quick to adapt to this situation, forming churches with dedicated lay pastors until trained ministers were available. These men and women had come from Northern Ireland in large numbers, and they contributed greatly to the \"frontier spirit\" and the \"spirit of independence\" that would be so important during the revolutionary period. As James Hutson writes, \"Recent scholarship has put an even higher estimate on the strength of their religious convictions. Scotch-Irish Presbyterians now appear to have introduced as much religious energy into the eighteenth-century middle and southern colonies as the Puritans did in seventeenth-century New England.\"\n\nBIRTH OF THE AMERICAN SPIRIT\n\nBetween 1730 and 1750, there was an explosion of faith from one end of America to the other. It is touching, Hutson writes, to read accounts of the \"thirst for the gospel\" among the men and women who were building the settlements and family farms during the eighteenth century. Itinerant preachers and \"circuit riders\" were begged to stay. The members of some frontier congregations were \"willing to sell their coats and the rest of their clothing to help support a preacher.\" Communities in many places formed cooperatives and built new churches on speculation, in the hope that God would send them a minister who might be willing to accept a call.\n\nLetters, journals, and other accounts of community life in the mid-seventeenth century tell of churches packed to the rafters with men and women who were hungry for the Word of God. In some cases itinerant pastors preached to congregants who were \"forced to stand without doors and others hanging out the window.\" In other cases entire families would pack into tiny oxcarts or walk \"10 to 12 Miles with their Children in the burning Sun, so earnest, so desirous [were they] of becoming good Christians.\" There are also reports of individuals who joined other denominations, different from the ones they had known, \"being willing to embrace anything that looks like a religion, rather than have none at all.\"\n\n90\n\nSuch strong reactions were remarkable because, then as now, denominational distinctions were not a small matter. As discussed in the previous chapter, New England Congregationalists and the Anglicans in the middle and southern colonies held firmly to very different views on matters of church polity. Church officials in the middle and southern colonies, where the Anglican communion was strongest, soon began to feel threatened by denominational differences. Concerned about the prospect of losing members, they immediately began taking steps to fortify the local churches.\n\nThe establishment of religion was not an issue in the eighteenth century. All the colonies had established churches, funded by the government until after the American Revolution. The Anglican Church had been established in New York since 1693, while the Church in Maryland was established in 1702, South Carolina in 1706, and North Carolina in 1715. In addition to the state support they received, the churches began cooperating in the founding of colleges and other educational institutions to train their ministers, and associations were created to regulate denominational standards and encourage uniformity.\n\nAlong with the wave of conversions that came from the Awakening, these organizations reaped the benefits of a sustained boom in new church formation. The number of Anglican congregations increased from 111 in 1700, to more than 400 by 1780. Meanwhile Baptist congregations grew from 33 to 457, Congregational churches went from 146 to 749, German and Dutch Reformed parishes increased from 26 to 327, Lutherans from 7 to 240, and the Presbyterian churches from 28 to 475. It has been estimated that during the first half of the eighteenth century\u2014encompassing the years of the Great Awakening\u2014between 75 and 80 percent of the entire population of North America attended church on a regular basis.\n\n91\n\nOne writer suggests that the type of Christianity we recognize today as evangelicalism actually began in the 1730s through the preaching of men such as Jonathan Edwards, George Whitefield, Gilbert Tennent, James Davenport, and others who had no idea they were starting a movement. Instead, they saw themselves as throwbacks to the old-fashioned Calvinist preaching. Edwards claimed he was preaching nothing but \"the common plain Protestant doctrine of the Reformation.\" Likewise, the Methodists believed they were \"restoring the 'old divinity' of the Reformation.\" But the men and women who experienced the Awakening firsthand were under no illusions: they knew that they had been touched by the hand of God.\n\nBefore the Great Awakening the colonies had very little in common. They didn't even like each other very much. But as the Awakening began to spread from town to village throughout the country, there was a new sense of connection and cooperation between the colonies. Whenever the people of one colony heard that one of these famous preachers was going to be anywhere in the area, they would pack up their families and travel miles, even hundreds of miles, to the campsites where they could hear the messages.\n\nThis was a tremendous social phenomenon. And the more it happened, the more the colonies came together, not only politically but spiritually. This was really the first widespread sense of brotherhood that allowed Americans of the eighteenth century to see themselves not merely as unrelated communities of farmers and merchants, but as men and women with a common bond\u2014as citizens of the united colonies of America.\n\n92\n\nThis new sense of unity eventually developed into what we would recognize today as the American Spirit. It would take a great deal of unity for these same men and women to rebel against King George. Even after the first shots were fired at Lexington and Concord in 1775, most Americans resisted the Revolution\u2014they thought of themselves as Englishmen and subjects of the Crown, and it would be very hard for them to break that bond of kinship. But in due time the provocations and punishments inflicted on them by the English would overcome their resistance. At that point, the understanding of spiritual and political liberty infused in them through the Great Awakening gave them the courage and resolve to break their bonds.\n93\n\n[_**Four**_  \nTHE BIRTH  \nOF THE AMERICAN SPIRIT](Lee_9780849949463_epub_c5_r1.html#d6e6)\n\n18TH-CENTURY POPULATION IN THOUSANDS  \n---  \n| 1700  | 1780   \nNEW ENGLAND COLONIES  \nMAINE| .1 | 49.1   \nNEW HAMPSHIRE| 5.0 | 87.8   \nVERMONT| .1 | 47.6   \nPLYMOUTH\/MASS. BAY| 55.9 | 268.6   \nRHODE ISLAND| 5.9 | 52.9   \nCONNECTICUT| 26.0 | 206.7   \nSUBTOTAL: | 93.0 | 712.7   \nMIDDLE COLONIES   \nNEW YORK| 19.1 | 210.5   \nNEW JERSEY| 14.0 | 139.6   \nPENNSYLVANIA| 18.0 | 327.3   \nDELAWARE| 2.5 | 45.4   \nSUBTOTAL: | 53.6 | 722.8   \nSOUTHERN COLONIES   \nMARYLAND| 29.6 | 245.5   \nVIRGINIA| 58.6 | 538.0   \nNORTH CAROLINA| 10.7 | 270.1   \nSOUTH CAROLINA| 5.7 | 180.0   \nGEORGIA| .1 | 56.1   \nKENTUCKY| .1 | 45.0   \nTENNESSEE| .1 | 10.0   \nSUBTOTAL: | 104.9 | 1,344.7   \nESTIMATED TOTALS: | 251.5 | 2,780.2\n\n94\n\nColonial America had come a long way since the first settlements at Roanoke and Jamestown. By the year 1700, there were nearly 100,000 inhabitants in New England, just over half that number in the middle colonies, and another 105,000 in the southern colonies with Virginia the largest and most prosperous. Thanks to a high birthrate and the steady flow of immigrants from all parts of Europe, the population of British North America was suddenly booming.\n\nThroughout the colonial period immigration continued to accelerate, surpassing the natural rate of increase. Between 1607 and 1700, as many as 200,000 Europeans made the journey to America, including large numbers of English, Irish, Scottish, and Welsh, along with growing numbers of Germans, Italians, and Scandinavians. Notably missing in these totals were the French settlers who journeyed farther north to Quebec. Later, when the French began occupying new lands in the west, as part of the Louisiana Territory, communities of French-speaking Europeans settled at St. Louis and other sites along the Mississippi River, as far south as New Orleans, which had been colonized by the French Mississippi Company in 1718.\n\n95\n\nBetween 1700 and 1763, immigrants from the British Isles arrived seeking the freedom and autonomy they had been denied in their native lands. Settlement in North America was now possible for men and women of all classes and backgrounds, not merely the young and adventurous or the persecuted and discontent. An expanding network of shipping companies, land promoters, bankers, plantation owners, and merchants offered passage to British America on credit. Some colonists came bearing royal charters that enabled them to establish large plantations or entire colonies, as was the case with William Penn in Pennsylvania and James Oglethorpe in Georgia. However, for those of lower estate who could not afford the cost of passage, the most common alternative was to sign a letter of indenture. It has been estimated that fully two-thirds of all English-speaking settlers in the seventeenth century came to this country as indentured servants. And as many as 80 percent of those who came in the eighteenth century were either indentured servants or \"redemptioners.\"\n\nMany who came from central Europe were convinced to make the journey to America by couriers carrying letters between Pennsylvania and Germany. Known as \"newlanders,\" these couriers were former emigrants themselves, either returning home for a visit, collecting debts, or claiming an inheritance. They were paid by their neighbors to carry letters and conduct business in their former homelands. By recruiting others to emigrate, the newlanders could earn free passage back to Philadelphia, along with a modest commission in the process.\n\nThanks to advancements in shipping at all levels, from the improved seaworthiness of English vessels to the greatly reduced threat of piracy, transatlantic crossings were becoming more frequent and reasonably safe. There was a steady stream of information, merchandise, and people traveling back and forth between Europe and America. The number of transatlantic crossings tripled from about 500 during the 1670s to more than 1,500 each year by the late 1730s. The increased traffic also meant lower costs for shippers and merchants, which led in turn to a greater abundance of goods of all kinds.\n\n96\n\nScottish emigration to the colonies soared to more than 145,000 between 1707 and 1775. Generally poorer than the English, the Scots also had greater incentive to emigrate because of the oppression they had endured in their own country. The Act of Union, which united England and Scotland under the banner of Great Britain in 1707, accelerated the process by encouraging thousands to abandon their ancient homeland in search of greater freedom in the New World. Good reports from early emigrants who prospered, particularly in the middle colonies, attracted large numbers of emigrants through \"chain migration,\" reuniting them with family members who had come earlier, or in some cases actually relocating entire communities from Scotland and other parts of Europe to the New World.\n\nNearly half of the Scottish emigrants came from Ulster, Northern Ireland, which had been colonized by lowland Scots in the 1690s. Like the Highlanders, who were driven from their ancestral lands by the English during the eighteenth century, the Ulster Scots sought to escape punitive laws (particularly regarding religious freedom) at home. Scottish settlers tended to emigrate in groups organized by their Presbyterian ministers, who negotiated with shippers to arrange passage. When they arrived in the colonies, they generally settled in the Carolinas or on the western frontier, where land was cheap and regulations were few. In America all these Scottish immigrants were known as Scotch-Irish even though the name only applies to the Ulster Scots.\n\nEstimates based on colonial records, personal letters, newspaper reports, and other fragments of data from the period suggest that in 1763 about 50 percent of the population was English, 18 percent Scottish or Scotch-Irish, 18 percent African slaves, 6 percent German, and 3 percent Dutch; the rest were a mixture of all the other European nationalities who immigrated to North America. By the mid-eighteenth century, intermarriage was already making America a melting pot.\n\n97\n\nA NEW SPIRIT OF UNITY\n\nIn this environment the Founding Fathers faced a monumental task: How would they ever form a unified nation of men and women from such an ethnically, linguistically, and economically divided population? When Thomas Paine published his powerful diatribe, _Common_ _Sense_ , on the threshold of the American Revolution, he began it by saying, \"The cause of America is in a great measure the cause of all mankind.\" It was one thing to say that all men desire freedom from oppression and the opportunity to succeed, but Paine didn't miss the fact that eighteenth-century America was now a land inhabited by people of many nations:\n\nThis New World has been the asylum for the persecuted lovers of civil and religious liberty from every part of Europe. Hither have they fled, not from the tender embraces of the mother, but from the cruelty of the monster; and it is so far true of England that the same tyranny which drove the first emigrants from home pursues their descendants still.\n\nLarge parts of America had been settled by Englishmen, but there were other parts where the citizens spoke languages other than English and celebrated customs that were quite different from those of their British neighbors. But Paine realized that there were two things all these people had in common\u2014love of country and love of God\u2014and in _Common Sense_ he appeals to both of these emotions. Regarding the common bond of national unity, Paine says:\n\nThe sun never shined on a cause of greater worth. 'Tis not the affair of a city, a county, a province, or a kingdom, but of a continent\u2014of at least one-eighth part of the habitable globe. 'Tis not the concern of a day, a year, or an age; posterity are virtually involved in the contest, and will be more or less affected even to the end of time by the proceedings now. Now is the seedtime of continental union, faith, and honor.\n\n98\n\nThe writer makes it clear that regardless of where they emigrated from, the men and women of this country were engaged in a universal struggle for freedom and the right of self-determination. Everyone who made the pilgrimage to America, or whose fathers and mothers had risked everything to make a new life for their children, had a stake in America's success. They had all come here to escape oppressive circumstances, and they were united in their love of liberty and their common bond of citizenship in this \"New World.\" Even though most had rarely (or perhaps never) thought about the possibility of rebellion or the formation of an independent republic\u2014the consequences of which were literally unthinkable\u2014they nevertheless understood the appeal to union, faith, and honor.\n\nPaine knew very well that his readers would have plenty of objections, so then, addressing himself to the shift of loyalties from the British monarchy to the Monarch who rules over all men, he writes:\n\nBut where, says some, is the king of America? I'll tell you, friend, he reigns above, and does not make havoc of mankind like the royal brute of Britain. Yet that we may not appear to be defective even in earthly honors, let a day be solemnly set apart for proclaiming the charter; let it be brought forth placed on the divine law, the word of God; let a crown be placed thereon, by which the world may know that, so far as we approve of monarchy, that in America the law is king.\n\nThe impact of Paine's words, contained in a slim volume of barely fifty pages, was tremendous. Word of mouth spread quickly, and the pamphlet sold upwards of 120,000 copies in the first three months, and more than a half million copies in the first year. These were unprecedented numbers. The pamphlet went through twenty-five printings in the first year of the Revolution, but to demonstrate the sincerity of his words, Paine donated all royalties from the sale of the work to the Continental Army, under the command of General George Washington.\n\n99\n\nMuch has been made of the fact that Paine was not a Christian in any orthodox sense. He has been described as a Deist, leading some critics to suggest he was simply exploiting the religious sentiments of the colonists to provoke the reaction he desired. Based on later writings, such as _The Rights of Man_ (1791) and _The Age of Reason_ (1794), which echo the liberal sentiments of the French Revolution more clearly than our own, that would seem to be a reasonable evaluation of Paine. As an Englishman, Paine witnessed religious controversy firsthand before coming to this country, and he adopted the rationalist worldview.\n\nHe may have been an Enlightenment thinker, but Thomas Paine understood very well that the Puritans and many others had come to America, first and foremost, for religious liberty. Most of all, he understood that the Christian religion was the one common denominator uniting all Americans, regardless of their origins or condition of life. It was the one thing they all believed. His appeal to faith, honor, and union had the desired impact, but it did so because the groundwork had been laid by Jonathan Edwards, George Whitefield, Gilbert Tennent, and all the great preachers of the Great Awakening a generation earlier.\n\nPREPARING THE HARVEST\n\nWhen Jonathan Edwards preached his famous sermon, \"Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God,\" in 1741, he worried that the churches of New England had grown cold and halfhearted in their worship. Unlike their Puritan fathers and mothers who had survived deadly winters, diseases, Indian attacks, and the challenges of building new lives in an alien environment, many eighteenth-century Americans were now prosperous, comfortable, and complacent. The New England meetinghouse, in Edward's estimation, was in danger of becoming a clubhouse, where well-fed and overly self-righteous ladies and gentlemen came on a Sunday, not to prostrate themselves before a holy God but to be seen and admired by their neighbors.\n\n100\n\nIn 1727, less than ten years before the first tremors of the Great Awakening, the area around Boston had been struck by a devastating earthquake. Contemporary reports tell of a period of several months in which there was severe drought followed by weeks of high winds and flooding throughout the region, culminating in the Boston Earthquake of October 29. Many people felt as if the colonies were being chastened, driven to their knees by God Himself.\n\nAs a result, Ellis Sandoz writes, there was \"a quickening of religious impulses,\" which prepared the population for the spiritual awakening that was to come, not only at Northampton but in many other places over the next five or six years. In Jonathan Edwards's powerful sermon he deliberately reminded the congregation at Enfield of that earlier time, and he assured them that God is omnipotent, omnipresent, and omniscient. That is, He is all-powerful, present in all times and places, and all-knowing and all-wise. For those who might be inclined to neglect their religious duty and fall into sin with no fear of eternal judgment, Edwards warned, \"The world would spew you out, were it not for the sovereign hand of him who hath subjected it in hope.\" Then in his characteristically solemn and measured tones, Edwards added that, \"There are the black clouds of God's wrath now hanging directly over your heads, full of the dreadful storm, and big with thunder; and were it not for the restraining hand of God, it would immediately burst forth upon you.\"\n\nThere is no question that Jonathan Edwards anticipated the impact of his words. What he had in mind was a general and widespread revival in the churches of New England. For much too long, he believed, a generation of staid and sedentary pastors had made it all too easy for congregants to ignore the warnings of Scripture and the very real dangers of eternal damnation. So in that sermon he says, \"How dreadful is the state of those that are daily and hourly in the danger of this great wrath and infinite misery! But this is the dismal case of every soul in this congregation that has not been born again, however moral and strict, sober and religious, they may otherwise be.\"\n\n101\n\nSome of Edwards's critics in his own day and many more in ours have accused him of shameless alarmism, trying to frighten people into making a religious conversion. But Edwards did not leave that option open. The alarm, he said, was a genuine forewarning of imminent disaster. In the sermon he says that any minister who would set out to terrify the people with lies, to create pandemonium by making the case out to be worse than it actually is, ought to be condemned. But he also says that if the message is not of men but of God and if the people are justifiably frightened by it because of their sinful ways, then the minister who brings the warning is more than justified and ought to be commended.\n\nIn his book _Some Thoughts Concerning the Present Revival of_ _Religion_ , published in 1742, one year after the sermon at Enfield, Edwards writes:\n\nWhen consciences are greatly awakened by the Spirit of God, it is but light imparted, enabling men to see their case, in some measure, as it is; and, if more light be let in, it will terrify them still more. But ministers are not therefore to be blamed that they endeavor to hold forth more light to the conscience. . . . To say any thing to those who have never believed in the Lord Jesus Christ, to represent their case any otherwise than exceeding terrible, is not to preach the word of God to them; for the word of God reveals nothing but truth; but this is to delude them.\n\nThe objective of all his preaching was to call the men, women, and children within the sound of his voice to repentance. At the conclusion of his famous sermon, Edwards reached out to the congregation in steady and unemotional tones, saying, \"Let every one that is yet out of Christ, and hanging over the pit of hell, whether they be old men and women, or middle aged, or young people, or little children, now hearken to the loud calls of God's word and providence. . . . Therefore, let every one that is out of Christ, now awake and fly from the wrath to come.\" Despite the mixed reactions the sermon has received ever since, many thousands have heard that warning and responded.\n\n102\n\nTHE GREATEST AWAKENER\n\nBy the time that sermon was given in New England, the evangelist George Whitefield was already traveling from one end of North America to the other, awakening the hearts of the colonists to a message of repentance. Like Edwards, he warned of the bondage of sin and offered his listeners the hope of emancipation from their shackles through the liberation that only comes through the gospel of Jesus Christ.\n\nDuring seven separate visits to America, he traveled between his base in Savannah, Georgia, and the towns and villages of New England. In each of these tours he encountered a backlash from the pastors of the established churches who disliked his theology and resented his ever-growing popularity. But nothing could dissuade the evangelist from preaching to the massive crowds\u2014often as many as twenty thousand men, women, and children of all types and all races\u2014who came from miles around to hear him.\n\nWhitefield was widely known for his powerful speaking voice. But the most impressive demonstration of his gifts took place during an outdoor sermon in Boston in which he compared the violence of an approaching thunderstorm to the storm of God's judgment of sin. At the very instant he raised his arm and pointed a finger toward heaven, a brilliant flash of lightning illuminated the sky, and a blast of thunder shook the earth, to which Whitefield roared, \"See there! It's a glance from the angry eye of Jehovah! Hark!\" Then, after a dramatic pause, he once again declared, \"It's the voice of the Almighty as He passed by in His anger.\" It is not hard to imagine how the people would have reacted to such an amazing display.\n\n103\n\nHis passionate delivery drew thousands upon thousands from cities and towns in every part of the country, leading to thousands of dramatic conversions, often accompanied by physical manifestation, such as uncontrollable trembling, ecstatic prostration, glossolalia, and many other signs and wonders. These manifestations were described by detractors as shameful displays of enthusiasm and emotion, but Whitefield's impact on the men and women of North America for more than a decade cannot be overestimated. More than any other evangelist of the day, he helped to usher in the Great Awakening, without which the unification of the American people and the success of the American Revolution may not have happened.\n\nIt is stunning to realize how much he accomplished. Whitefield preached an average of five hundred sermons a year throughout his active life, each sermon lasting from one to two hours. He often preached forty hours in a week, and sometimes more. This was in addition to everything else, including travel and correspondence, building and promoting an orphanage in Savannah, Georgia, and raising funds for missions work. In addition he made a preaching tour of England almost every year, traveled to Scotland fourteen times and Ireland three times, and also made several trips to Wales. He crossed the Atlantic thirteen times, traveling back and forth to the colonies, and he reached an estimated ten million souls during three decades of ministry.\n\nWhitefield's eloquence was legendary. One famous story relates the reaction of the renowned British actor David Garrick, exclaiming, \"I would give a hundred guineas if I could only say 'Oh!' like Mr. Whitefield.\" Benjamin Franklin was not necessarily a candidate for baptism; he had been raised as an Anglican but showed little interest in spiritual matters for most of his life. Nevertheless, being worldly-wise and curious about most things, he went to hear Whitefield in his professional capacity\u2014a newspaper publisher looking for a story. In his autobiography he describes the experience:\n\n104\n\nIn 1739 arrived among us from Ireland the Reverend Mr. Whitefield, who had made himself remarkable there as an itinerant preacher. He was at first permitted to preach in some of our churches; but the clergy, taking a dislike to him, soon refus'd him their pulpits, and he was oblig'd to preach in the fields. The multitudes of all sects and denominations that attended his sermons were enormous, and it was matter of speculation to me, who was one of the number, to observe the extraordinary influence of his oratory on his hearers, and how much they admir'd and respected him, notwithstanding his common abuse of them, by assuring them that they were naturally half beasts and half devils.\n\nFranklin's comments were only partly in jest because he understood very well that men who are convinced of their iniquity and inclined to petition heaven for forgiveness and undertake a course of moral reform were likely to be better citizens. Then he says,\n\nIt was wonderful to see the change soon made in the manners of our inhabitants. From being thoughtless or indifferent about religion, it seem'd as if all the world were growing religious, so that one could not walk thro' the town in an evening without hearing psalms sung in different families of every street.\n\nIn one of the most amusing anecdotes from his autobiography, Franklin reveals just how persuasive Whitefield could be:\n\nI happened soon after to attend one of his sermons, in the course of which I perceived he intended to finish with a collection, and I silently resolved he should get nothing from me. I had in my pocket a handful of copper money, three or four silver dollars, and five pistoles in gold. As he proceeded I began to soften, and concluded to give the coppers. Another stroke of his oratory made me asham'd of that, and determin'd me to give the silver; and he finish'd so admirably, that I empty'd my pocket wholly into the collector's dish, gold and all.\n\n105\n\nThe changed lives of Whitefield's hearers were even more impressive than the preacher's oratory. One New England farmer who heard Whitefield preach described the experience in his journal, where he wrote: \"He looked almost angelical, a young slim tender youth. He looked as if he was clothed with authority from the great God. A sweet solemnity sat upon his brow. My hearing him preach gave me a heart wound. . . . I saw that my righteousness would not save me.\" The preacher's words hit home in similar fashion and transformed untold thousands of hearts, and in time the message of repentance and redemption would change the spiritual landscape.\n\nPREPARING FOR REVOLUTION\n\nTrue religion for George Whitefield, the scholars tell us, meant \"a thorough, real, inward change of nature, wrought in us by the powerful operations of the Holy Ghost, conveyed to and nourished in our hearts, by a constant use of all the means of grace, evidenced by a good life, and bringing forth the fruits of the spirit.\" Like their Calvinist forebears, prerevolutionary Americans believed Christ's commandment to \"render to Caesar the things that are Caesar's\" (Mark 12:17) meant not only that each man ought to be obedient to the ruling authority but that each man had the right and duty to hold the ruler accountable when reasonable boundaries were crossed.\n\nFor this reason the transformation of the spirit taking place in the hearts of tens of thousands of Americans would have dramatic political implications as well. \"The political culture of this country,\" historian and legal scholar Ellis Sandoz writes, \"was deeply rooted in the core religious consciousness articulated above all by the preachers; theirs were the pulpits of a new nation with a privileged, providential role in world history.\" Because the churches were such an essential part of community life, this was where the beliefs and actions of the men and women who would become the patriots of 1776 were shaped. As Daniel Boorstin explains:\n\n106\n\nThe New England meeting-house, like the synagogue on which it was consciously modeled, was primarily a place of instruction. Here the community learned its duties. Here men found their separate paths to conversion, so they could better build their Zion in the wilderness, a City upon a Hill to which other men might in their turn look for instruction. As the meeting-house was the geographical and social center of the New England town, so the sermon was the central event in the meeting-house.\n\nAll these things taken together led not just to a deeper spiritual commitment but to a transformation of \"the American mind.\" The awakening of the spirit would have a direct impact not only on American Protestantism but on the political consciousness of an entire generation.\n\nThe call coming from eighteenth-century pulpits for a renewal of faith translated into a call to resist all forms of tyranny, which elicited an impulse to resist the kinds of intimidation endured under British rule. These were the provocations making their lives miserable. Each new insult\u2014whether it was the Tea Tax, the Stamp Tax, the Currency Act, the blockade around the Port of Boston, the Boston Massacre, the quartering of British troops in American homes, or the Quebec Act (a direct assault on the Protestant churches)\u2014was further reason for rebellion. The men and women of colonial America had been educated in the school of liberty by their ministers, and in the process they were being prepared to stand their ground when the time came.\n\nIt was in this spirit that Samuel Adams, often referred to as the father of the American Revolution, wrote, \"He therefore is the truest friend to the liberty of his country who tries most to promote its virtue, and who, so far as his power and influence extend, will not suffer a man to be chosen into any office of power and trust who is not a wise and virtuous man. . . . The sum of all is, if we would most truly enjoy this gift of Heaven, let us become a virtuous people.\"\n\n107\n\nBetween 1765, when the Stamp Act was passed, and 1775, when the first shots of the Revolution were fired at Lexington and Concord, a visible transformation had taken place in the American Spirit. Inspired by the call to duty, honor, and love of country, a new generation was prepared to consider the prospect of a separation from its English masters. The colonists were prepared to take up arms against the most powerful military force on earth. This would prove to be the greatest moment in American history. It was the moment when the flame of faith that had been lit during the Great Awakening burst forth, helping to shape the character and destiny of a nation.\n\nTwo and a half centuries after that great explosion of righteous anger, we are still humbled by what they accomplished. The more I have studied that fifty-year period preceding the American Revolution, the more amazed I am by the transformation that had taken place in the hearts and minds of the people. As we have seen in previous chapters, there was a lot of religious activity in early America but not a lot of evidence of the kind of life-changing faith that would be needed in the Revolution. There wasn't much passion, and there were no religious movements until the late 1730s. The colonists observed religious ceremonies and traditions, and a majority attended church services regularly. But there was no evidence of a deeper spiritual commitment.\n\nIf there was going to be a great spiritual revival, it would have to be a move of God, and that's precisely what it was. So what was the impact of the Great Awakening? How did the preaching of a handful of pastors and evangelists change the disposition of the people and prepare them for a war of independence? The following list, I believe, offers a reasonable summary of some of the ways the Great Awakening shaped the thinking of the patriots in the years prior to the Revolution.\n\n108\n\nTHE LEGACY OF THE GREAT AWAKENING\n\n1. A UNITY AND COMMUNITY AMONG THE COLONIES\n\nPrior to the Great Awakening the colonies viewed themselves as separate and independent bodies. They shared few things in common. But with the coming of the revivals, they began traveling from colony to colony, and in the process they found common ground with others who had the same religious experiences. This proved to be a powerful force in laying the foundation for a unified people and ultimately a unified nation.\n\nThis new spirit of unity was a necessary element in bringing together enough of the colonists to declare independence, to fight a war for freedom, and to form a new republic. The first steps of national unity that began in the church houses, town squares, and open fields as people gathered to hear the preaching of men such as Whitefield, Davenport, and Tennent would lead ultimately to the First Continental Congress that met in Philadelphia's Carpenters' Hall on September 5, 1774.\n\n2. A SPIRIT OF RELIGIOUS TOLERANCE\n\nPreviously, followers of one religious denomination or another would stay within the four walls of their own churches in worship, but Whitefield and other evangelists held open-air meetings that brought the people out of doors and into fellowship with those of many other traditions and doctrinal views. Some denominations saw this as a threat, and the denominational hierarchies were strongly against fanning the \"fires of revival.\"\n\nThe eighteenth-century revivals may not have turned out in just the way Jonathan Edwards had hoped, since they led to division and rancor in some places. At times the evangelists seemed to be just one more group competing for the people's religious allegiances. However, as McLoughlin points out, \"while the Awakening split the very churches its leaders set out to renew, it also secured for them a niche from which to prosecute their agenda.\" In spite of the quarrels that occurred among the clergy, for the most part the ordinary people paid little attention to all the fuss and found fellowship and friendships across denominational lines to be refreshing.\n\n109\n\n3. A MORAL AND SPIRITUAL WORLDVIEW\n\nStrong preaching about living out the Christian life through \"good works\" ignited a fire of social action, which included the beginnings of the antislavery movement in America, women's rights, and other types of civic action. This was demonstrated by the most powerful preacher of the Great Awakening, George Whitefield. Whitefield thundered that Christians were called to be \"servants of all.\" Not only did he preach it, but he put it into practice by the formation of orphanages for underprivileged children in Georgia, and his own personal aid to clergy who suffered from financial pressures. John Wesley testified at Whitefield's funeral in 1770 regarding not only his powerful preaching but also his tenderheartedness and charitable nature. Thomas S. Kidd writes:\n\nThe convictions, however, that Jesus died to save women and men of all ethnicities and classes, and the Holy Spirit empowers each believer equally, produced mixed social consequences in the first generation of American Evangelical Christianity. Evangelical beliefs worked at times to erode traditional barriers of race, class and gender. Radical evangelicals of the eighteenth century opened up unprecedented, if ultimately limited, opportunities for African Americans, Native Americans, women, the uneducated, and the poor to assert individual religions and even social authority. Early American evangelicalism also helped pioneer the American abolitionist movement that emerged more fully in the nineteenth-century North.\n\nIn fact, men such as Elisha Williams, Samuel Davies, George Whitefield, and others preached to large numbers of blacks attending their revival gatherings. At the same time, black Christians with assistance from their white brothers began building their own churches and evangelizing their own people. Two former slaves, Richard Allen and Absalom Jones, became the best-known black evangelists of the period, and they went on to found the African Methodist Episcopal denomination in Philadelphia in 1816. This \"black preaching\" resulted in the conversion of tens of thousands of slaves who believed the gospel message. At the first General Conference of Methodism, the owning or selling of slaves was recognized as sinful and worthy of dismissal from the church.\n\n110\n\nAmong the British aristocracy, however, few acts of compassion and understanding of the rights of others took place. People of a different color, language, or national origin were normally treated either as slaves or, at best, people of a lower class. There was a clear and growing disconnect between the worldview of the leadership in the motherland and the opinions of the men and women of the colonies, concerning individual rights and the dignity of human life. This divide grew larger over time, adding to the friction between the colonists and the British. For these and other reasons, many Americans began to believe that conflict was inevitable.\n\n4. A RISE IN THE NUMBER OF TOWERING LEADERS\n\nColonial preachers\u2014such as Edwards and Tennent\u2014along with Whitefield and Wesley were elevated to positions of leadership and esteem because of their great moral influence. Backed by favorable press reports, revivalists such as Whitefield enjoyed unprecedented public acclaim. In his book _Inventing the Great Awakening_ , Frank Lambert describes the masses that attended Whitefield's meeting across New England:\n\nThe biggest crowds assembled in colonial America's two largest cities, Boston and Philadelphia, each located in a revival region. On each of his three preaching tours, Whitefield made Philadelphia a center for his itinerating. From his first outdoor sermon there, he attracted progressively huger crowds, from the 6,000 who first gathered at the courthouse to hear him, to 8,000, and eventually 10,000 at the farewell sermon ending his first tour. At three subsequent Philadelphia services, Whitefield reported crowds of at least 10,000, and then during spring 1740 they swelled to 15,000 and reached the amazing number of 20,000, a figure that Franklin reported without dispute. Whitefield attracted similar crowds in Boston during the one trip he made there in fall 1740. For his farewell sermon delivered on Boston Common, he reported a gathering of 20,000, but two Boston newspapers estimated that 23,000 attended.\n\n111\n\nThis new attitude of respect and admiration for these and other distinguished men of God paved the way for other public figures, including political leaders. Many of these men were not just politicians, but men of God who would lead the fight for independence. Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Patrick Henry, Richard Henry Lee, and George Washington were recognized as men of courage and virtue, and they commanded the respect of all Americans.\n\n5. A SPIRIT OF INDEPENDENCE\n\nA personal spirit of independence developed as people embraced the idea that each man was personally accountable to God. Corporate worship was an important custom, but every man was responsible for his own \"spiritual awakening\" apart from the church. This new feeling of accountability and independence grew into an equal, if not greater, desire for independence from British rule. This was especially true in 1769, when King George III threatened to send an Anglican bishop to oversee the American church and \"set the colonies right.\"\n\nWhen this news reached America, the colonists were furious, fearing the loss of religious freedom altogether. The great Massachusetts lawyer and statesman John Adams viewed this as one of the most provocative acts of the Crown, sparking the spirit of rebellion. He said, \"Apprehension of Episcopacy contributed . . . as much as any other cause, to arouse the attention, not only of the inquiring mind, but of the common people, and urge them to close thinking on the constitutional authority of parliament over the colonies.\" The threat of returning to a state religion enforced by royal edict that denied religious liberty was more than the colonists could bear.\n\n112\n\nBy the same token when news of the Stamp Act reached the colonies in 1765, the people felt a \"heavy cloud hanging over us, big with slavery and all its dreadful attendants.\" They looked upon the imposition of punitive taxes as one of the gravest threats to their own prosperity. They had already made the connection between civil and religious liberties; they knew that when religious liberties were threatened, the assault on civil liberties could not be far behind. And this passion for religious independence clearly carried over to governmental independence as well.\n\n6. A NEW BELIEF IN MANIFEST DESTINY\n\nThe idea of manifest destiny was based on the beliefs of many Americans that God had a divine plan for the New World, and that each person, regardless of social or economic status, was a part of God's work in bringing about a new and better world in America. Never before had the common man been empowered in such a way; never had an entire society been given the opportunity to reach for their own goals, achieve independence, and recognize their potential. The Great Awakening ignited the flames of an inclusive democracy in the hearts of millions of Americans, and it spawned the vision of the New Jerusalem\u2014a land where God had led the immigrants and prepared them for greatness.\n\nThey could see now that British rule could only inhibit the dreams in the hearts of the people; ultimately, revolution was the only answer. As William McLoughlin notes, \"Part of the American culture has been the myth that we are a 'covenanted people.' As such, God has a special interest in helping, and a special reason for punishing us. The covenant applies both to individuals and to the nation as a whole. . . . But if each does his or her part to adhere to the new rules, then God promises, according to his prophets, a glorious new day of peace, fraternity, and perfection\u2014a time in which all human needs will be met, both physical and spiritual. Thus the experience of hearing, yielding to, and experiencing this call is one of ecstatic release from the burden of guilt and fear.\"\n\n113\n\n7. A NEW APPRECIATION FOR AMERICA'S NATURAL RESOURCES\n\n\"The earth is the Lord's, and the fulness thereof\" (Psalm 24:1). This and similar texts were common in the sermons of the Great Awakening, resulting in a new appreciation for the land God had given the colonists. Like the children of Israel who had been led from bondage in Egypt to the promised land called Canaan, they had been brought through tribulation to a land of milk and honey. The settlers on the American frontier were accustomed to hard work, and they took full advantage of the land and its resources. Clearing the land, building their homes, planting and harvesting crops, and living on the abundance gave them profound respect for the environment.\n\nBut there was more, and it was something none of them had ever experienced before: the sheer awe and majesty of the North American landscape, the mountains and valleys, and the riches they contained. Even the songs of the patriots spoke of their love of nature. American artists produced images of an unspoiled landscape that enticed tens of thousands to strike out into the utopia, opening the door to the era of westward expansion. Throughout the late-eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, caravans of lumbering ox-drawn wagons crossed the prairies, from sea to shining sea, with one consuming vision: to occupy and take dominion of the new world God had given them.\n\nThe Great Awakening taught these bold travelers that God had brought them to this place: \"Then God blessed them, and God said to them, 'Be fruitful and multiply; fill the earth and subdue it; have dominion over the fish of the sea, over the birds of the air, and over every living thing that moves on the earth'\" (Genesis 1:28 NKJV). The art and literature of the day describe vast, unspoiled landscapes and mighty rivers; it was not until after the Industrial Revolution that the ingenuity of man would rival the power of God, and the landscape would suffer from neglect and abuse.\n\n114\n\n8. A DESIRE FOR PERSONAL ADVANCEMENT\n\nBreaking down the barriers of a collective worldview where individual rights were few, the new era of independence that came in the wake of the Great Awakening brought with it a desire for improvements in education, material comforts, and personal wealth. Perhaps no act of resistance exemplified this new spirit better than the Boston Tea Party of 1773. When Parliament passed the Tea Act earlier that year, they intended to give the British East India Company an unfair price advantage, which threatened the profits of American merchants.\n\nThe Americans saw clearly what was happening and objected, demanding that three ships carrying English tea be sent back to London still filled with their cargo. When the British refused to leave, colonists dressed in Native American costume and war paint boarded the vessels by night and tossed the entire shipment into Boston Harbor. Predictably the English governors took severe reprisals against the colonists, but it would not be enough. A spirit of resistance had been awakened, and things would not change for eight years until the British had been soundly defeated at Yorktown and sent home to lick their wounds.\n\nCourage, independence, self-reliance, and a willingness to stand one's ground and defend one's honor were important by-products of the Great Awakening: these were the traits that brought the colonists victory in battle and awakened in the men and women of America the belief that they could overcome any obstacles and make a better life for themselves and their children.\n\n115\n\n9. A BELIEF IN THE VALUE OF ACTION OVER DEBATE\n\nAs the revivals swept through the colonies, the volume of debate among colonial-era preachers and theologians was intense, but those who had participated in the Great Awakening had experienced for themselves the \"new birth.\" They were not interested in all the verbal gymnastics. They had placed their faith in a living, powerful, and transcendent God, and their own emotional encounters were all the justification they needed. Emotional intensity is necessary for any revolution to succeed. Emotion produces action that triumphs over debate, and that was the spirit that prevailed through the Revolution.\n\nSome historians have suggested that the new spirit of evangelicalism gave the Revolution one of its most potent ideological resources, as the new evangelical temperament shaped the political practices of the people. \"Evangelicalism,\" writes Thomas Kidd,\n\ntaught the common people who embraced it that sometimes they must take matters into their own hands, a subversive tendency that exploded during the imperial crisis. The church separations and disruptions of the revivals have been identified as a \"practice model\" which enabled the provincials to \"rehearse\"\u2014though unwittingly\u2014 . . . the arguments . . . that would reappear. . . . The evangelical revivals caused the greatest social upheaval of any movement in the colonies prior to the Revolution. This massive defiance of traditional authority must certainly have exercised some shaping influence on the Revolution.\n\n10. THE SHAPING OF NATIONAL IDENTITY\n\nAs religious, social, and economic barriers were broken down between the colonies, a new sense of identity was being shaped. It was the beginning of what we now recognize as the American Spirit, based on belief in personal liberty and individual rights. As this new attitude became more and more common, the desire for independence and personal freedom became the defining characteristic of the nation. The men and women of America no longer thought of themselves as subjects of an English king but as Americans. The Declaration of Independence spoke boldly of \"unalienable rights,\" among them the rights of \"life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.\" The American people did not need to be told, but the Declaration affirmed that these rights are not man-made but God-given. As theologian Richard Niebuhr has said, \"America cannot eradicate, if it would, the marks left upon its social memory, upon its institutions and habits, by an awakening to God that was simultaneous with its awakening to national self-consciousness.\"\n\n116\n\n11. A CHRISTIAN COVENANT ETHIC\n\nThe development of a Christian worldview, aroused initially during the Great Awakening, meant every believer in Jesus Christ has a duty to the community. All Christians have a holy responsibility to honor God and live according to the tenets of the Christian faith, but we are also expected to contribute to the common good. The doctrine of grace teaches that we are not the authors of our own salvation, but God has shed His grace upon us and through the sacrifice of His Son made salvation available. The doctrine of works explains that while works cannot save anyone, they are the evidence of salvation. Jesus said, \"Let your light so shine before men, that they may see your good works and glorify your Father in heaven\" (Matthew 5:16 NKJV), and the apostle Paul gave similar counsel, saying, \"For we are His workmanship, created in Christ Jesus for good works, which God prepared beforehand that we should walk in them\" (Ephesians 2:10 NKJV). These were among the fundamental principles of both Wesley's and Whitefield's Methodism and are still very much alive in the Protestant ethic today. By the end of the period of the Great Awakening, more than 80 percent of all Americans shared a common set of beliefs regarding the Christian faith and its central role in the social order.\n\n117\n\n12. A NEW EMPHASIS ON EDUCATION\n\nBefore the Great Awakening it was rare for the common man or woman to have a formal education. Most colonists who possessed a higher education came from the elite families of New England. Following the Awakening there was an explosion in the founding of colleges and schools for the education of the general populace. Fully 106 of the first 108 colleges in America were founded as Christian institutions. By the mid-nineteenth century there were 246 colleges in this country, virtually all of them founded either by Christian denominations or by individuals motivated by their Christian convictions. Among these were Harvard College in 1636, the College of William and Mary in 1693, Yale College in 1701, and Princeton (formerly the College of New Jersey) in 1746. Jonathan Dickinson, Jonathan Edwards, Samuel Davies, and John Witherspoon (a signer of the Declaration of Independence) were among the first presidents of Princeton, and the preeminent figure of the Awakening, George Whitefield, was instrumental in the founding of the University of Pennsylvania in 1751.\n\n13. BELIEF THAT FAITH IS A PERSONAL MATTER\n\nAfter the Great Awakening there was universal belief that the Christian faith is not a collectivist doctrine but a personal matter. There is no such thing in Scripture as \"collective salvation.\" Furthermore, ministers and denominations were no longer in a position to dictate what any person could or could not believe in his or her individual understanding of the Scriptures. Such a democratic spirit would have been frowned on by the established churches prior to the Great Awakening, but the explosion of faith that took place in pastures and meadows and village greens all over the country was all the proof the Americans of that generation needed that true faith is a relationship between the individual and God.\n\n118\n\n14. AN AGE OF PUBLIC GATHERINGS AND OPEN DISSENT\n\nThe open-air sermons of the Great Awakening brought together enormous crowds of people of every sort, eager to hear what the revivalists had to say. Often these outdoor rallies would be accompanied by outbursts of emotion and enthusiasm from those who attended. Instead of being condemned, however, the people were free to express their feelings. In the years following the Awakening, similar gatherings were held in public places, but this time the people were gathering to protest the unfair policies of their British governors. When these crowds assembled to express their grievances, there were no riots\u2014 these were not vandals and looters but men and women who had learned to make their voices heard. In time, the widespread feeling that something had to be done to bring an end to British oppression prepared the way for the American Revolution.\n\nTHE CONSENT OF THE GOVERNED\n\nWhen I think about the preaching of the great evangelists like George Whitefield, I often wonder what it was that made their ministries so powerful. Whitefield was anointed to preach the Word, that's true. He had experienced a genuine religious conversion in the courtyard of Christ Church at Oxford, England, in 1735. But what was it that transformed him so thoroughly and prepared him for the amazing ministry he would have just three years later in the New World? Something like that could only come from God.\n\nEven the most secular men of the era were changed. We see the hand of God as He moved upon men such as Benjamin Franklin, a newspaper printer and publisher with a secular bent. Franklin was not a religious man, yet he began spreading the word by publishing the sermons of many of the leading preachers of the day. We might even say that the printers and publishers of the colonial era made it possible for the Great Awakening to happen.\n\n119\n\nSermons were the most popular literature in the colonies, and as a result of the publicity he received, George Whitefield became one of the best-known public figures in the country. Without that kind of exposure, it is doubtful the Great Awakening could have happened. Benjamin Franklin, with all his civic, scientific, and political clout, was the one man who had the ability to publicize the man who came to America to publicize the Savior.\n\nAs far as he was personally concerned, Benjamin Franklin was a skeptic. He was offended that so many people would go to hear Whitefield and then give him all their money, but after hearing the evangelist for himself, Franklin emptied his pockets. It is remarkable how God used men like Franklin.\n\nBut one of the greatest stories from the colonial period is the story of Franklin's rebuke of the First Continental Congress when he called upon the delegates to pause for a time of prayer. His words are preserved in the records of the Library of Congress, and they are just as poignant today as they were when first spoken. The delegates were having a hard time coming to terms on how their new government should respond to the Coercive Acts that, among other things, had imposed martial law on the colonies. The Massachusetts delegates couldn't agree with the Virginia delegates, and both Delaware and New Jersey were on the verge of leaving in a huff. When the bickering and name-calling escalated, and the hope of a resolution appeared to be vanishing, eighty-one-year-old Benjamin Franklin rose to his feet and asked for an opportunity to speak, which was immediately granted. Stepping forward to a place where he could be seen by all the delegates, he said,\n\nI've lived, Sir, a long time, and the longer I live, the more convincing Proofs I see of this Truth\u2014That God governs in the Affairs of Men. And if a sparrow cannot fall to the ground without his Notice, is it probable that an Empire can rise without his Aid? We have been assured, Sir, in the Sacred Writings, that except the Lord build the House they labor in vain who build it. I firmly believe this,\u2014and I also believe that without his concurring Aid, we shall succeed in this political Building no better than the Builders of Babel: We shall be divided by our little partial local interests; our Projects will be confounded, and we ourselves shall become a Reproach and Bye word down to future Ages.\n\n120\n\nNeedless to say, all eyes were fixed on the illustrious old man. But he wasn't finished. Seeing that the truth of his remarks had hit the mark, Franklin continued, \"I therefore beg leave to move that henceforth prayers imploring the assistance of Heaven, and its blessing on our deliberations, be held in this Assembly every morning before we proceed to business, and that one or more of the clergy of this city be requested to officiate in that service.\"\n\nAfter a very brief discussion there was quick and humble concurrence with Franklin's proposal. Several names were submitted of local clergymen who might be prevailed upon to open the deliberations with prayer. The members decided on the Reverend Jacob Duch\u00e9, who was widely known as an eloquent orator and pastor of the best-known Anglican parish, Christ Church in Philadelphia.\n\nBut as further evidence of the spirit of compromise that had suddenly arisen among the delegates, it is interesting to note that it was Sam Adams, a staunch Congregationalist, who first recommended Duch\u00e9, despite the feeling expressed by several delegates that the Anglicans, who were strongly identified with the Church of England, were too closely connected to the British Crown. The Revolution was still fresh in the minds of all Americans, but Duch\u00e9 was unanimously chosen, and he made the trip from his church each morning to open every session of the First Continental Congress with prayer.\n\nBenjamin Franklin had a reputation\u2014and deservedly so\u2014as a rogue. Nevertheless, God used him in a remarkable way. Isn't it amazing that God can use every sort of person to accomplish His will? But, here again, such a spirit of compromise and cooperation could only have happened as a consequence of the changes brought about by the Great Awakening. Before going to hear Whitefield preach, it is doubtful that Franklin would ever have spoken in such a way. But the writer of Proverbs assures us, \"The king's heart is in the hand of the Lord, like the rivers of water; He turns it wherever He wishes\" (Proverbs 21:1 NKJV). When Franklin's heart was turned, he became a vocal advocate for Christian virtue.\n\n121\n\nThe Bible says, \"where the Spirit of the Lord is, there is liberty\" (2 Corinthians 3:17), and the people of the revolutionary era had learned that lesson very well. Along with the importance of personal holiness, the evangelists had been preaching a gospel of transformation and liberation. But considering the price our forefathers paid for the rights and privileges we enjoy today, shouldn't we be asking ourselves, \"Who are the American people today? Are we living up to the high standards of the patriots who risked their lives, their fortunes, and their sacred honor for the cause of liberty? And are we prepared to stand our ground when we're confronted by men and women promoting some very dangerous ideas and beliefs?\"\n\nThere is no question that we owe our freedom to the patriots of 1776, but I have to wonder if we still have that kind of courage. The men who composed the nation's founding documents belonged to one of the best-informed, best-educated, and most conscientious generations in history. Historian Barbara Tuchman refers to the Founding Fathers as \"the most remarkable generation of public men in the history of the United States or perhaps of any other nation.\" Who could doubt it? These men had read Plato, Cicero, Locke, Montesquieu, and all the great classical scholars. They understood that every democracy eventually descends into mob rule. That's what happened in France in 1789, just thirteen years after the American Revolution. The cry of the French Jacobins for \" _libert\u00e9, \u00e9galit\u00e9, fraternit\u00e9_ \" led not to liberty and justice for all but to anarchy and mob violence, which soon became the blood bath known as the \"Reign of Terror.\"\n\nThe American Founders believed that individual liberty was a sacred right, which is why they enshrined in the Declaration of Independence the affirmation that we are \"endowed by our Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.\" But they also understood that the best form of government is a republic in which the citizens empower their elected representatives with authority to manage the affairs of state. As citizens of a democratic republic, we have the duty to elect honorable men and women to serve in public office, but it is We the People, not the government, who are the ultimate power and authority.\n\n122\n\nIn America that authority is spelled out in clear and unambiguous terms in the Constitution of the United States, which specifies that elected representatives are subject to \"the consent of the governed.\" No doubt this is why so many people in Washington today spend so much time trying to avoid living by those statutes. The progressives in Washington want us to believe the patriots gave us a \"living, breathing Constitution\"\u2014a document that provides some general guidelines for government but is, in fact, simply a set of suggestions: not binding law. But the Founders did not leave them that option.\n\nJames Madison, the principal author of the Constitution, makes it clear in Federalist 51, which was written to clarify the intentions of the Founders, that the Constitution is the nation's best guarantee of an \"ordered liberty.\" The efficiency of the document is stunning\u2014a mere 4,500 words without amendments\u2014yet the Constitution provides time-tested guidance for administering the political affairs of a nation of 300 million people. The reason it has survived so long with so few amendments is because it is so logical and straightforward, based on the Framers' hard-won understanding of law, liberty, and justice.\n\nThe Constitution _is_ the law. It is the foundation of our government. \"But what is government itself,\" Madison asks, \"but the greatest reflection of human nature?\" He continues,\n\nIf men were angels, no government would be necessary. If angels were to govern men, neither external nor internal controls on government would be necessary. In framing a government which is to be administered by men over men, the great difficulty lies in this: you must first enable the government to control the governed; and in the next place oblige it to control itself.\n\n123\n\nThe government of a free people, the Framers insisted, can never be arbitrary. To be a credible instrument of such a government, the Constitution cannot be altered, ignored, or amended haphazardly but must be respected by all men at all times. This is what the Founders believed. This is what they gave us.\n\nIn his Farewell Address, delivered in 1796, just twenty years after the signing of the Declaration of Independence, President George Washington expressed the hope that future generations of Americans would never forget the price his generation had paid for the liberties we enjoy. It was his hope that the spirit of unity that emerged during the Revolution might endure. It was his fervent prayer, he says, \"that the free Constitution . . . may be sacredly maintained; that its administration in every department may be stamped with wisdom and virtue.\" And he affirmed that the Constitution, as written and adopted by the several states, demands full confidence and support from every American:\n\nRespect for its authority, compliance with its laws, acquiescence in its measures, are duties enjoined by the fundamental maxims of true liberty. The basis of our political systems is the right of the people to make and to alter their constitutions of government. But the Constitution which at any time exists, till changed by an explicit and authentic act of the whole people, is sacredly obligatory upon all.\n\nTo understand how the Founders' understanding of ordered liberty has shaped the nation, we need only consider America's record of success over the past 235 years. Through wars, natural disasters, depressions, recessions, and emergencies of every kind, the American Spirit has prevailed. Faith in God has remained constant in the hearts of millions despite the efforts of humanists and progressives to wipe it out. The faith of our fathers may not be as widespread or as vigorous as it was during the founding era, but it survives in millions of homes and churches, and more and more today in civic and political life.\n\n124\n\nA FATEFUL TRANSFORMATION\n\nWe are still \"one nation under God.\" As author and Heritage Foundation researcher Matthew Spalding points out, \"We still hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights. In a world of moral confusion, and of arbitrary and unlimited government, the American founding is our best access to permanent truths and our best ground from which to launch a radical questioning of the whole foundation of the progressive project.\" Contrary to the claims of progressives that conservatives in this country want to drag America back to the Dark Ages, ignoring the progress of the last two hundred years, Spalding writes:\n\nRenewing America's principles doesn't mean going back to the eighteenth century, or some other time for that matter. Think of principles as the unchanging standards that inform changing experiences. The question is not, \"What Would the Founders Do?\" but what will we do as we go forward toward an unknowable future with these fixed principles as our trustworthy guides? It is not about looking back to the past, but rather looking down at our roots in order to look up to our highest ideals.\n\nWhen you consider all of these things, you soon realize many if not all of these elements are present and active in American society today. Furthermore, I am convinced we are on the verge of a second American revolution\u2014not a revolution of guns and bullets but a revolution in the voting booth and in the major forums of public opinion. It is a revolution of principle, demanding accountability from our public servants and everyone else engaged in government at any level.\n\n125\n\nI am deeply committed to getting people out to vote. The fact that I am a pastor of a large suburban church doesn't disqualify me from speaking resolutely about the need for character and moral discipline in our elected officials. It is not a matter of voting for Republicans or Democrats. At least 65 million evangelical Christians in this country are eligible to vote, but in a typical presidential election, barely half of them are registered. And, sadly, not all who are registered actually show up at the polls. Apathy is not what the Founders had in mind.\n\nIn the eighteenth century the sparks of revolution were fanned into flame by what became known as the Black Robe Regiment. These were the pastors and revivalists who taught the people the importance of personal liberty and challenged them to obey the call of conscience. Today we are seeing a new wave of pastors who are boldly speaking out about the abuses of power by our public officials and the importance of restoring honor in all areas of life. We are going to see a new demand for accountability in our public servants, above and beyond what this nation witnessed in the eighteenth century. I believe this is one of the things we learned from the 2010 midterm elections.\n\nThe Declaration of Independence and the Constitution were given to us by the Founding Fathers to set the standards by which we administer the government. But they are also documents of accountability. As our public officials (and particularly the courts) have chipped away at them, doing their best to weaken the Constitution\u2014reinterpreting it in ways the Founders never envisioned, and saying that it is a \"living, breathing document\" that changes with the times\u2014they are, in reality, destroying their own credibility with the American people.\n\nOne of the most important things we can do is to follow through as the Founders did, not only by changing our representatives in the legislatures but by holding all leaders accountable and insisting that they serve as our representatives and not as self-styled dictators. It is not just that we are in the midst of a popular revolution today; these things have all happened before. Thanks to the lessons of history, we have copious examples of how such things have transpired in the past, which tell us where the nation may be headed. But this we know: the action we take today will affect the lives of our children and grandchildren for decades to come.\n\n126\n\nWhat this book proposes is a revolution that is far superior to a violent rebellion. It is a revolution of faith and ideas, a new commitment to a higher cause. It is a revolution that will fulfill the charge our forefathers gave us during the founding era. It means knowing who we are and what we are all about. A tremendous hunger for restoration of accountability exists in this country, and the popular reaction to the progressive agenda in Washington may be a blessing. Excessive control and burdensome taxation are driving the people of this country back to basics and, hopefully, leading to a renewal and resurgence of the American Spirit.\n\nI occasionally come across good people who are quick to tell me they are not political. I have friends who simply neglected to vote or take any interest in politics until they woke up one day and realized that the country is headed in the wrong direction. They suddenly understood what the promise of \"hope and change\" really meant. Now those same people cannot get enough information. They are surfing the Internet, listening to talk radio, or watching cable TV most of the time, and they are becoming engaged in the battle for the soul of America.\n\nPeople need a creed and a cause, and millions of patriotic Americans are finding their voices. Thomas Jefferson, who was the principal author of the Declaration of Independence, wrote that governments are established to secure the rights of the people. But when government fails to protect our rights and liberties, the people have the right to demand change. They can abolish the government entirely, or they can become personally involved and change it for the better. Today we have some big decisions to make about the future of the republic and about the authentic Source of our rights and liberties. But the good news is, we are listening, we are tuned in, and we are not going home until we get what we came for.\n127\n\n[_**Five**_  \nFAITH IN THE TWENTY FIRST CENTURY](Lee_9780849949463_epub_c5_r1.html#d6e7)\n\nWhen did America become a secular nation? When did we decide \"the faith of our fathers\" is no longer a vital concern? There's no question that this country is more secular today than it was during the founding era, and no one would deny that anti-Christian words and deeds are more common in the twenty-first century than ever before. But have we really given up on this nation's remarkable heritage of faith? Are we becoming the kind of country that celebrity atheists like Richard Dawkins, Christopher Hitchens, Bill Maher, and Michael Newdow would like us to be?\n\nIt can be amusing to read some of the inflammatory rhetoric of secular liberals, claiming this country isn't just secular but was never a Christian nation in the first place. Anyone with even a superficial knowledge of history knows that's false. Nevertheless, in the days following President Obama's April 6, press conference in Ankara, Turkey, during which he stated, \"We do not consider ourselves a Christian nation,\" the policy director of a left-wing think tank in Washington, DC, called out the cheering section in an article for the liberal web-site Salon.com titled \"America Is Not a Christian Nation.\" The writer, Michael Lind, was seemingly ecstatic that an American president had finally said what Lind always believed.\n\n128\n\nWhile admitting that George Washington and other Founders used religious language from time to time, he questioned their motives. He recited the famous lines from Washington's Farewell Address, \"Of all the dispositions and habits, which lead to political prosperity, Religion and Morality are indispensable supports,\" and even included the less-often-cited portion of that quote: \"The mere Politician, equally with the pious man, ought to respect and to cherish them.\" But then he claimed such statements were simply a cheap way of enforcing good behavior. In other words, the Father of His Country and the man whom Parson Weems tells us \"could not tell a lie\" was simply exploiting religious language for a secular purpose. Lind writes, \"In Washington's day, it may have been reasonable for the elite to worry that only fear of hellfire kept the masses from running amok, but in the twenty-first century it is clear that democracy as a form of government does not require citizens who believe in supernatural religion. . . . Most of the world's stable democracies are in Europe, where the population is largely post-Christian and secular, and in East Asian countries like Japan where the 'Judeo-Christian tradition' has never been part of the majority culture.\"\n\nIt is hard to fathom why anyone would hold up Western Europe as a model of anything, especially a stable democracy. There isn't much stability in Europe these days, and many of those secular cultures are on the verge of social and economic collapse. In a 2006 book called _Menace in Europe_ , Claire Berlinski offers a chilling portrait of a continent in the midst of profound spiritual and political crisis. Wracked by an unending series of labor strikes, bomb threats, and terrorist attacks, along with declining birthrates, out-of-control taxes, and crippling levels of immigration from Third World countries, Western Europe is on the ropes. Add to this fifty years of destructive socialist programs and the rising threats of Islamization and neo-Nazism, and you soon discover that Europe is hardly a model for America. And these are just the problems that make headlines; there are many others.\n\n129\n\nWeekly church attendance in Europe is less than 5 percent today, compared to more than 40 percent in America. So what does that tell you? Berlinski reports, \"A poll conducted in 2002 found that while 61 percent of Americans had hope for the future, only 42 percent of the residents of the United Kingdom shared it. Only 29 percent of the French reported feeling hope, and only 15 percent of the Germans.\" These statistics, she says, suggest that \"without some transcendental common belief, hopelessness is a universal condition.\" Berlinski concludes, \"I do not believe it is an accident that Americans are both more religious and more hopeful than Europeans, and more apt, as well, to believe that their country stands for something greater and more noble than themselves.\"\n\nI couldn't agree more, and that's why the evangelistic ministry I lead today is called There's Hope. Since our first television broadcast in 1984, There's Hope Ministries has extended the hand of fellowship to millions around the world, supplying food, clean water, and other much-needed supplies to suffering people in Africa, and offering the unconditional hope of God's love to millions more in this country and abroad who might otherwise never hear the gospel message.\n\nHopelessness is always tragic, and the people of Western Europe have turned away from the Author of hope to pursue the empty promises of secularism. But the glories of secularism are greatly overrated. Columnist and author Don Feder, who reported on Berlinski's book, concurs with her assessment: \"No one ever founded a republic, or freed slaves, or created a great work of art, or wrote a symphony, or established a charity or a university based on a secular worldview.\" All those things happened here in America, a Christian nation, because faith in God stimulates hope, compassion, and mercy. \"Faith, hope, love,\" the Bible says in 1 Corinthians 13:13 NKJV. They belong together.\n\nBut ever since the French Enlightenment, secular liberals have been proclaiming the death of God. The German nihilist Friedrich Nietzsche famously declared, \"God is dead, and we have killed him!\" Religion is dead, the skeptics roared. The shackles of religion have been forever broken, and science has won the day! But there's just one problem: Nietszche is dead, the Soviet Union is dead, but God is very much alive. Our Judeo-Christian heritage is untarnished and those secular liberal countries are all in serious trouble\u2014morally, culturally, and economically\u2014while the Christian faith grows stronger every day, not just in America but around the world.\n\n130\n\nAN UNFAILING PROMISE\n\nNo matter what country it is\u2014whether it is America or the former Soviet Union\u2014cultural foundations come from what we believe, and more to the point, values and morals are determined by our religious beliefs. The historian Russell Kirk put it this way: \"Civilization grows out of religion: the morals, the politics, the economics, the literature, and the arts of any people all have a religious origin. Every people, no matter how savage or how civilized, have some form of religion: that is, some form of belief in a great supernatural power that influences human destinies.\"\n\nEven large and powerful nations such as the former Soviet Union, which tried to deny the existence of God and eradicate any memory of the Christian faith, soon discovered they could not eliminate the need for an informing belief in God. They could not erase the supernatural from the minds of the people. Communism attempted to replace Christian theology with the doctrine of \"dialectical materialism,\" which was at best a caricature of religion. But that man-made creed failed to restrain the darker impulses of the citizens and gave them no higher calling, no moral purpose, and no altruistic values to which to aspire.\n\nAs a result, the Soviet Empire collapsed, overcome by greed, duplicity, suspicion, and sloth, which were the direct by-products of that wicked philosophy. When the iron curtain came down and the Berlin Wall was crushed to rubble by the men and women who had been prisoners of that system, the people immediately cried out for Bibles. They begged for preachers and teachers to come and help them rebuild their churches. To the age-old question, \"Can man live without God?\" the answer of the men and women of Eastern Europe was a resounding _no!_\n\n131\n\nIn September 1994, shortly after the fall of the iron curtain, I went to Moscow to meet the Russian people and preach with Dr. Jerry Falwell in Moscow's Olympic Stadium. It was an amazing opportunity to share the Word of God with people who had been under communist oppression for more than seventy years.\n\nThe Moscow Ballet Theatre was performing a new presentation on the life of Christ, and our hosts thought it would be a nice touch to have a couple of Christian ministers come in and tell the audience the story of Jesus as part of the program. The ballet was in two acts, the early life of Jesus and then the ministry years, leading up to the crucifixion. So after the dancers had performed the first half of the story, I explored the question \"Who Is Jesus?\" Then after the dance company performed the second half, which ended with the resurrection, Dr. Falwell explained \"How You Can Know Jesus as Your Savior.\"\n\nSeveral of Russia's top officials were there. The KGB was there, of course, but everyone was curious about the Christian faith. We had already spoken to the leaders of the Russian Orthodox Church, and they gave us their blessing. They also told us we were free to say whatever we liked\u2014they wanted the Russian people to know Jesus. They didn't know very much about Jerry Falwell or me before we got there, but apparently someone had recommended us. They just knew we were American pastors, and they had been told our ministries were dedicated to telling people around the world about Christ.\n\nThe most surprising part was when Dr. Falwell finished his sermon and asked for all those who would like to know Jesus to stand up\u2014no one moved. I didn't know what to make of that at first because there was no way to witness that performance and hear the testimony of Scripture and not be moved to tears. Dr. Falwell just stood there with his arms extended, but nobody moved. Seated all across the front row were the leaders of the Orthodox Church\u2014the patriarch along with several bishops, priests, and prelates, all in their elegant black robes and head coverings.\n\n132\n\nWe stood there for several minutes, and then, way back in the auditorium, slowly one elderly woman stood up\u2014we could barely see her over the heads of the crowd. The people all looked around to see if anyone was standing\u2014they were watching each other to see who would go first\u2014and when they saw the older lady stand, others stood up, first a few, then a few more, and then thousands all across that massive building. It looked like the morning tide rolling in, and maybe that's what it was. It was a moving sight.\n\nWhen the commotion stopped and thousands were standing, we asked them to pray with us, and we led them in the prayer of salvation. Then, as men and women all across the building were standing, one of the officials of the Orthodox church walked up to the microphone and told the audience of more than ten thousand men and women that the things we had been telling them were all true, and he hoped all the people would believe what we said and accept Jesus Christ as their Savior.\n\nAt that point many who had been hesitant to get up suddenly leaped to their feet and indicated they wanted to know Jesus too. Before all was said and done, more than five thousand men and women had prayed for salvation. Fortunately, we had brought thousands of Bibles in the Russian language with us, and the organizers had ordered thousands of copies of my book, _The Unfailing Promise_ , in Russian. All of them were offered to the people as they left that evening, and the Russians literally snapped them up.\n\nHere was an entire culture that had tried to eradicate any mention of Jesus or the Christian faith, but it didn't work. It couldn't work because, as Saint Augustine said, there is a Christ-shaped void in every human heart that can only be filled by Christ Himself, the One who is the genuine object of our faith. You can try to fill that void with every kind of amusement, philosophy, or political or intellectual substitute you can think of, but you will never be satisfied by anything but the presence of Jesus Christ Himself. Any world system that denies the deep-down hunger for the presence of God in our lives is destined to fail.\n\n133\n\nThe Russian people had been evangelized a thousand years ago, during the Byzantine Empire, and Russia remained a devout Christian country until the Bolsheviks came to power in 1917 and made Christianity a crime against the state. The people's religious beliefs had been stolen from them, but there was residual hunger for the Word of God. I think they always knew that life under the communist system was wrong. It was utterly immoral. Life was much too hard, and the state that claimed to be their god could not save them.\n\nThe new socialist order that began with a wave of excitement and promises of material abundance and well-being quickly turned into a nightmare of villainy, greed, ignorance, and starvation. But through all of that, the hope of a Christian revival never completely disappeared: there was something in the collective memory or maybe something in their DNA. They knew there had to be a better way, and I believe they were holding onto the hope of a restoration of the Christian faith.\n\nA KEEPSAKE TO REMEMBER\n\nFormer president George H. W. Bush was vice president when Leonid Brezhnev died in 1982. Brezhnev had been general secretary of the Communist Party in the Soviet Union. For some reason President Reagan could not attend the funeral himself, so the vice president went over as the American representative. When he returned from Russia and spoke about what took place at the funeral, he said he looked on as Brezhnev's mother bent over and kissed her lifeless son. What surprised him, however, was when she reached out and made the sign of the cross on his forehead. Even though the state was officially atheistic and even though her son had been a promoter of the communist dogma for most of his life, the flame of Christianity had never died. Beneath all the trappings of power and politics, the embers of faith were still alive, and they are very much alive in Russia today.\n\n134\n\nOne afternoon my wife, Judy, and I left the hotel with our guide and took a walk around Red Square, which is still the ceremonial heart of Russia. It is the place where soldiers, tanks, and rockets are paraded every year to remind the world of Russia's military strength. We could not help being impressed by the Kremlin's colorful domes and some of the buildings surrounding the square, but the overall effect was depressing\u2014everything else we saw was very gray and lifeless.\n\nAt one point I asked our guide, \"Why is everything so drab? The cars, the people, the buildings are all so plain and dull.\"\n\nHe said, \"Sir, it's because we don't want to be noticed. Nobody stands out in this country. Nobody wants to be different from all the rest.\"\n\nWhen he said that, I realized what had happened. It was because of the loss of freedom under the Communists. Under socialism the state always comes first, and the individual comes last. The Soviets stripped away the freedom, the pride, and the sense of individuality from the people in order to build the power of the state. If the American people had remained under the thumb of King George III during the eighteenth century, we could well have been in a similar situation today. Life without Christ is futile, and without personal liberty, freedom of conscience, and all the rights and privileges the Founders insisted upon, the American story could have had a very different ending.\n\nWithout liberty life loses its appeal, and everything fades into boring sameness. The Bible says, \"Now the Lord is the Spirit; and where the Spirit of the Lord is, there is liberty\" (2 Corinthians 3:17 NKJV). No philosophy, no ideology, no collection of beliefs or principles can overcome the feelings of emptiness when the love of liberty that comes from a resilient faith in Jesus Christ is missing. Life without God is going to be empty and dull when there is no greater purpose and no hope of eternity, and any society that attempts to eradicate the knowledge of God will inevitably perish.\n\nThe Russian people must have instinctively known this, and that is why Jerry and I were invited to come to Moscow. After the concert we were asked to visit the schools and speak to the students and teachers about the Christian faith. I did not have notes or prepared remarks from which to speak. Somewhere along the way I had learned there are still leper colonies in Russia, so I decided to tell the young people the Old Testament story of Naaman the leper.\n\nWhen the prophet Elisha told Naaman to go and bathe in the River Jordan to be healed of his disease, the great Syrian general was outraged. Bathing in that dirty river was beneath his dignity, he said, but a servant persuaded him to go ahead and do it anyway. Sure enough, when he obeyed the prophet's instructions and took that \"leap of faith,\" he was miraculously healed.\n\nWith the help of an interpreter, I told them that story, and when I finished, I asked for those who wanted to know Jesus as their Lord and Savior to come to the front of the room. They just streamed forward. They were thrilled to learn that they could be children of God and know Jesus as their personal Savior. But as they were coming forward, one little girl walked over to speak to me, and she held out a little icon with the image of Christ embossed on it. When she handed it to me, the interpreter told me, \"She said, 'I want to give this to you. I don't need it any longer.'\"\n\nI asked her name, and she said, \"My name is Tanya.\" I thought that was especially nice because Judy and I have a daughter named Tonya.\n\nOne of the local pastors who had been standing with us also spoke English, so I asked him to explain what this meant. I said, \"I'm grateful and touched by this little girl's generosity. It's a beautiful ornament, and I'm honored to receive it. But why is Tanya giving me such a lovely keepsake?\"\n\nHe said, \"Dr. Lee, this is a special gift from her family. This icon has been passed down from mother to child in her family for many, many years. What she just said to you is, 'I don't need this picture of Jesus anymore because now I have Him here in my heart.'\"\n\n136\n\nThe icon is a beautiful reminder of how Christ changes lives, and I have kept it on the desk in my study ever since. Every now and then when I need a little encouragement, I will pick it up and think about what little Tanya said to me that day.\n\nCHOOSE THIS DAY . . .\n\nWhen the president spoke to the Muslim nations during his speech in Turkey, he told them the United States no longer considers itself a Christian nation. I doubt if anyone really believed that statement, regardless what skeptics may say. But even so, those words were a tacit acknowledgment of the fact that we were a Christian nation at one time. As we have seen throughout these pages, it was the dedication of the Puritans in New England and men such as the Reverened Robert Hunt at Jamestown who impressed the indelible stamp of faith upon this nation. From the first settlements in Virginia through the Great Awakening and, ultimately, through the American Revolution, the hand of God was upon the Founders, guiding them every step of the way. Since the beginning, faith has been the secret of America's success.\n\nIf we expect to remain successful and prosperous as a nation, we will never do it by following the socialist model or the European model, for that matter. And we cannot do it by trading our form of republican democracy for the social engineering schemes we have been offered by the progressives in Washington, DC. If we want to continue to enjoy freedom and opportunity and a culture of creativity, compassion, and mutual respect, then we need to stick to our beliefs and the values the Founders built into the republic.\n\nWe've had it very good in this country for most of the past 250 years\u2014we might even say 400 years if we trace it back to the Puritan era\u2014and the reason we have had it so good is because we were\u2014and still are in many ways\u2014a Christian nation. There are a lot of detractors, and the long list of books by Dawkins, Hitchens, and all the others will keep coming, proclaiming a virulent form of atheism. But that won't change a thing. Men and women just like them have been attacking Christian beliefs for centuries, trying to undermine the faith of millions. But they are just \"whistling past the graveyard\"\u2014hoping there is no God because if He really exists, they know they are in big trouble.\n\n137\n\nAll the carping about Christianity by skeptics on TV and the Internet can't hurt us. Faith is not determined by public opinion polls or left-wing propaganda; it is based on the unfailing promises of Scripture. Furthermore, every believer has additional confirmation through the indwelling presence of the Holy Spirit. We have endured a decades-long assault on traditional moral values from the cultural elites, and while this may have contributed to the coarseness of the popular culture, it hasn't made the gospel any less relevant or important.\n\nBut there is something we ought to consider: If great empires of the past were defeated by the moral decadence, loss of vision, deterioration in educational standards, and failure to remember the lessons of history, what's to keep this country from collapsing in the same way? As we saw in the first chapter, marriage and family are in serious trouble today. Children in many homes are growing up on their own without responsible adult supervision. Church attendance is down in some places, and many of our young pastors aren't sure how to respond.\n\nWherever secular liberals are in charge of the schools, we see a level of disdain for traditional moral values that is unprecedented in our history. There are signs of change in many places today, but this level of social fragmentation is dangerous anywhere, and that is one of the reasons I am encouraging Christians to become politically active. The only way America can remain strong and free is to restore the foundations of the republic while there is time; we need to take aggressive action in our communities and at all levels of government while so many Americans are mobilized and ready to respond.\n\n138\n\nVladimir Lenin, Joseph Stalin, and other leaders of the Soviet Empire tried for more than seventy years to stamp out the traditional religious values of the Russian people. They used intimidation, mass murder, indoctrination, and every threat imaginable. They even tried exploiting religious imagery, using symbols of communism as emblems of devotion, but it did not work. Today Christianity is alive and growing all across Eastern Europe. Communism may still be the reigning orthodoxy in China, but as author and former _Time_ magazine correspondent David Aikman writes in his compelling book, _Jesus in_ _Beijing_ , Christianity is thriving in that country as well. Despite the persecutions being waged against the house-church movement, the Christian gospel is the hottest thing going in China today.\n\nThe irony of all this for secular liberals is that the United States, with its deep religious roots, also happens to be the most technologically sophisticated society in history. Liberals like to characterize us as the \"barefoot and pregnant brigade,\" clinging to our guns and religion. But in all areas of innovation and technology, Christians were there first. The nation that sent men to the moon and created the transistor and the microchip, along with all the marvels of modern mass communications, also happens to be the most Christian nation on the planet. Christian and conservative books top the bestseller lists. Christian bookstores, Christian radio and television stations, and religious programming are everywhere. You can't miss them. No wonder so many atheists are fit to be tied!\n\nOn the other hand, as Don Feder reminds us, \"the worst horrors of the modern era were perpetrated by godless political creeds. The death toll from sectarian conflict over the ages is dwarfed by ideological violence, from the Jacobinism of revolutionary France to the charnel houses of communism and fascism.\" In Proverbs, God warns, \"All they that hate me love death\" (8:36). Utopian schemes of every stripe always end up becoming totalitarian nightmares, merciless to those who refuse to bow to the dictates of ideology.\n\nIt was this understanding of the link between the rise of absolute power and the loss of personal liberty that led the first chief justice of the United States Supreme Court, John Jay, to write:\n\n139\n\nAlmost all nations have peace or war at the will and pleasure of rulers whom they do not elect, and who are not always wise or virtuous. Providence has given to our people the choice of their rulers, and it is the duty, as well as the privilege and interest, of our Christian nation to select and prefer Christians for their rulers.\n\nThis is not to say that Christian leaders are perfect or always blameless: it was, after all, the warfare between Catholics and Protestants that caused the Puritans to seek shelter in this country in the first place. But nothing in history comes close to the atrocities of the Holocaust, the Soviet gulags, or the Chinese Cultural Revolution. The dream of state socialism has been one of the most persistent social and economic experiments in history, and it is responsible for the deaths of more than 128 million men, women, and children in the twentieth century alone, as well as almost 30 million in the wars and rebellions it provoked. Submission to utopian ideologies has led to the greatest disasters in human history.\n\nFAITH IN ACTION\n\nThe Founding Fathers knew their history; they knew that no nation could survive unless it was built on a sound moral foundation, and they believed that the Christian faith was the best way to ensure the health and longevity of the republic. Some liberal scholars will admit that the Founders were religious, but they are quick to say that the Founders established a secular government based on the doctrine of \"separation of church and state.\" But that's false. All the colonies had established churches at one time, but the Founders had witnessed the dark side of establishment in England\u2014centuries of religion-inspired bloodshed. That wasn't what any of them wanted.\n\n140\n\nTheir idea of \"separation\" did not mean, however, that religion should have no influence in government. It was our second president, John Adams, a Unitarian, who said, \"Statesmen . . . may plan and speculate for Liberty, but it is Religion and Morality alone, which can establish the Principles upon which Freedom can securely stand.\" Their concern was not that religion should be disestablished but that no single denomination should be favored. Consequently each colony separated church and state by ending tax-funded subsidies to the churches. In 1833, John Adams's home state of Massachusetts became the last to disestablish the state church, the Congregationalist denomination, which had been tax supported since the founding.\n\nYou can't read far into the lives of any of the signers of the Declaration of Independence without discovering that these were deeply religious men who believed that religion and morality were essential for good government. This was precisely what George Washington meant when he referred to them as \"indispensable supports.\" The journals of our first president leave no doubt he was a man of sincere Christian convictions. In the book _Sacred Fire_ , Peter Lillback gives powerful examples of the depth and richness of George Washington's personal beliefs.\n\nAmerica needed an awakening in 1776, and that is why the pastors, teachers, and evangelists of the Great Awakening had such a tremendous impact on the nation. One pastor who was deeply disappointed by conditions in New England in the years just prior to the Great Awakening worried about the large number of legal disputes and courthouse battles taking place in that part of the country. The Reverend John Cleaveland described it as \"a want of brotherly love.\" There were disputes over the use of the common lands, and everyone was up in arms over the kinds of currency to be used in trading between the colonies. But rather than resolving the disputes amicably, Cleaveland complained, everything ended up in court.\n\nThe remarkable thing was not that the colonies were struggling with such questions but that as soon as the first signs of revival began to appear, there was \"a tempering of the fierce social, economic, and political antagonisms that had racked the colonies since the beginning of the century.\" For many who witnessed these changes, the surprising thing about the revivals of the 1730s and '40s was the restoration of social and civic harmony. In 1741, the same year he delivered his most famous sermon, Jonathan Edwards said he was delighted to see that the people of New England had ceased their usual quarrels, and there was a greater measure of peace and unity than that he had seen in the previous thirty years.\n\n141\n\nAs the troubles with England intensified, that sense of unity helped foster resistance to British policy. Eventually it would be the pastors known as the Black Robe Regiment who helped mobilize their congregations for the Revolution, and many of these men went on to serve as chaplains in the army. Despite his disappointment with the changes taking place in colonial society, Cleaveland had been a revival leader during the mid-1760s. He wrote a series of articles for the _Essex Gazette_ between 1768 and 1775, decrying the actions of king and Parliament that were pushing the colonists toward armed rebellion. Regarding the Townshend Acts, he said it is the \"Birth Right of Englishmen to be free.\" The Townshend duties were unjust, he said, and he asked, \"wherein . . . we differ from the Slaves\" if Parliament can levy taxes without the Americans' consent?\n\nAs the prospect of war grew nearer, Cleaveland's tone became more insistent, calling for boycotts of British goods. He urged New Englanders to pray that God would \"maintain our Rights and Privileges, civil and religious; and above all Things to make us a holy, a truly virtuous People.\" Then, putting teeth to his request, he called for a boycott of British merchants who refused to support the actions of the patriots, and he called for the names of colonial merchants who resisted the boycotts to be published.\n\nWhen news of the battle at Lexington and Concord reached him at his home in Ipswich, Cleaveland lost all patience with the British Parliament and penned his strongest diatribe yet, saying, \"Great Britain adieu! no longer shall we honour you as our mother. . . . King George the third adieu! no more shall we cry to you for protection! no more shall we bleed in defence of your person\u2014you breach of covenant!\" Then to the British general Thomas Gage, that \"profane, wicked\u2014monster of falsehood and perfidy,\" he said, \"The God of glory is on our side and will fight for us.\" Days later Cleaveland put his strong faith into action as he and his four sons enlisted as privates in the New England militia.\n\nThe spirit that had arisen in men such as John Cleaveland was not ideology but righteous indignation. They tried everything in their power to reason with the English governors and the Parliament in London, but they were met with one insult after another. Perhaps no act of Parliament better illustrates the growing tensions than the Declaratory Act of 1766, which was enacted shortly after the repeal of the Stamp Tax. In it the English lawmakers declared that regardless of what the Americans might say or do, the colonists were subjects of the Crown and were obliged to obey any and all laws of Parliament. It was, in effect, a slap in the face and one of the most unforgivable provocations for the coming war.\n\n142\n\nWHERE THERE IS LIBERTY\n\nThe Black Robe Regiment played an important role in recruiting members of their congregations for the patriot cause, and one of my favorite examples is the story of the Reverend Peter Muhlenberg, who was pastor of an Anglican congregation in Woodstock, Virginia. As the youngest son of a family of German immigrants, Muhlenberg had been cautious about criticizing King George III, but when it became apparent that war could not be avoided, he was more than prepared to respond.\n\nHis sermon on Sunday, January 21, 1776, was from Ecclesiastes 3, which begins, \"To everything there is a season, a time for every purpose under heaven: a time to be born, and a time to die; a time to plant, and a time to pluck what is planted\" (vv. 1\u20132 NKJV). He read through the passage eight times, and when he came to the eighth verse, which says, \"a time of war, and a time of peace,\" he laid aside his text, turned to the congregation, and said, \"and this is the time of war.\" At that point Muhlenberg untied his clerical robe to reveal the uniform of a colonel in the Continental Army. At the conclusion of the service, the men of the church turned to kiss their wives and children; then they all marched outside to enlist as the sound of the regimental drums echoed through the church.\n\n143\n\nMuhlenberg's nephew reported later that 162 men signed up for military service that day, and the following day the minister took command of a company of 300 men from the surrounding county. Muhlenberg, who had been recruited by George Washington, led the Eighth Virginia Infantry throughout the war and eventually retired as a major general of the Continental Army.\n\nWhen King George refused every offer of reconciliation from the Continental Congress, the Americans felt they had no choice but to take up arms. The king had rejected the Olive Branch Petition offered by Congress in 1775, and he, instead, issued a proclamation declaring the colonies in open rebellion against the Crown. At that point King George ordered all American ports to be closed as he had done to Boston the previous year. This time the king's decree would be enforced by the British navy and marines, who were already laying siege to several towns along the coast.\n\nWhen it became clear that peace was no longer an option, John Adams, Samuel Adams, Richard Henry Lee, and several other members of Congress began calling for a declaration of independence. As that momentous proposal was being debated and discussed by the delegates, members of the Black Robe Regiment petitioned for a day of \"fasting, humiliation and prayer,\" and the Continental Congress formalized their request by decree. The motion was introduced by William Livingston of New Jersey, who once served as a missionary to the Mohawk Indians.\n\nThe motion was approved, and the date was set for May 17, 1776. To make sure everyone was informed of this important day, the Congress placed public notices in the colonial newspapers, recommending that all Americans spend the day in fasting and prayer, humbly seeking God's favor and asking for His protection. The resolution concluded with a prayer that God \"would be graciously pleased to bless all his people in these colonies with health and plenty, and grant that a spirit of incorruptible patriotism, and of pure undefiled religion, may universally prevail; and this continent be speedily restored to the blessings of peace and liberty, and enabled to transmit them inviolate to the latest posterity.\"\n\n144\n\nNo one doubted the seriousness of the request or the urgency of their situation. The prospect of war with the English would have been terrifying to anyone. How could a ragtag army of farmers, merchants, townspeople, and clergymen ever hope to prevail over such an awesome force? In fact, the conflict had been going on since the skirmishes at Lexington and Concord in April 1775. The colonies had offered a peaceful compromise, but the British were incensed by the arrogance of their subjects and fully intended to make the Americans pay.\n\nBecause of their faith in God and their allegiance to the American cause, the colonies put aside everything else and flocked to the churches to seek the will of God. Meanwhile the delegates to the Continental Congress, who represented a wide range of sympathies and emotions regarding the prospect of war, ceased all their deliberations and took the day off to attend worship services in Philadelphia.\n\nOne week earlier John Adams had put forth a motion calling for each colony to declare independence from England. This, he thought, would be a first step toward a declaration of independence for all colonies, but not all the delegates were so optimistic. The previous month, the legislature of North Carolina passed a unanimous resolution calling for independence. The Virginia House of Burgesses did the same thing on June 29, declaring Virginia's independence from Great Britain and naming a committee to draft the state's first constitution. The Virginia legislature then ordered their delegate to the Continental Congress, Richard Henry Lee, to call for a vote on independence for all the colonies.\n\n145\n\nOn Friday, June 7, 1776, Lee stood before the delegates in Philadelphia to offer the resolution: \"That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states, that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved.\" The vote for the resolution was unanimous. Every delegation was in favor of independence, which meant the thirteen colonies would cease to exist and the United States of America was about to be born.\n\nOn June 11, Congress appointed a committee to prepare a draft Declaration of Independence. Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and Benjamin Franklin were the principal architects. Jefferson worked on the initial draft in his rented room on High Street in Philadelphia between June 11 and 28; when he returned to Carpenters' Hall, Adams and Franklin read the document and made changes. A revised draft was presented to Congress on July 2, following adoption of the independence section put forth by Richard Henry Lee. The members of Congress each read the document and offered changes or revisions; this process lasted most of the day on July 3 and half of the following day. On the afternoon of July 4, the Declaration of Independence was formally adopted.\n\nThe Declaration was printed July 5, bearing only the names of John Hancock, who was president of the Continental Congress, and Charles Thomson, secretary. On July 19, Congress ordered that the Declaration be engrossed on parchment with the title \"the unanimous declaration of the thirteen united states of America.\" On August 2, John Hancock signed the engrossed copy in enormous, bold strokes that even a half-blind English king could read. Then, according to protocol, each of the remaining members signed the document, beginning with the northern states and continuing down the list to the southernmost, Georgia. Fifty-six delegates signed the document. Robert Livingston of New York and two other delegates were not present to sign.\n\n146\n\nRETHINKING THE AMERICAN SPIRIT\n\nThe Declaration of Independence, as drafted by Jefferson and revised by the members of that body, was a work of genius that would become a source of inspiration and a model of political wisdom to freedom-seeking peoples everywhere. After reviewing the initial draft, John Adams wrote to his wife that July 2, the day the Declaration was approved, ought to be celebrated as the nation's birthday, with \"pomp and parade, with shows, games, sports, guns, bells, bonfires, and illuminations, from one end of this continent to the other. . . .\" He proposed that Independence Day forever after should be a day of thanksgiving to God for His deliverance.\n\nToday's secular liberals like to say the Declaration of Independence was a humanist manifesto inspired by the writings of Locke, Hume, Voltaire, and other Enlightenment figures. Jefferson, who was well versed in French thought and a man of science, may not have been a Christian in any traditional sense. Nevertheless, he had written in the front of his Bible, \"I am a real Christian, that is to say, a disciple of the doctrines of Jesus. I have little doubt that our whole country will soon be rallied to the unity of our creator.\" In reality, the Declaration of Independence reflects not just Jefferson's views but the Christian worldview of the men who signed the document \"with a firm reliance on the Protection of Divine Providence,\" and mutually pledged to each other \"our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor.\"\n\nI first began thinking about writing this book when I was doing some research into the philosophical and spiritual mindset of the Founders. I remember writing in my notes the words, \"The Rise of the American Spirit.\" I had been asking myself: _What is the American Spirit? And_ _where did it come from_? Today, after many long months of study, I am convinced the American Spirit came from the Great Awakening. It is the essence of who we are as a people. Even though that spirit has been through some difficult times of testing, I believe it is still there.\n\nWhat concerns me most is that so many Americans no longer seem to recognize it or to regard the American Spirit as highly as they ought. If the American people do not know who they are, they cannot respond appropriately in times of crisis. If our politicians do not know who we are as a nation, they cannot represent us and make decisions on our behalf as well as they should. But if We the People do not know who we are, how can we expect our leaders to know?\n\n147\n\nWith the unexpected emergence of the Tea Party movement in 2009\u201310, I realized, _That's the Spirit of America. That's the voice of_ _millions of Americans who believe in the achievements and values of our_ _forefathers, and they want to prevent those values from being eroded_. If the spirit that has been so important for more than three hundred years is still there, it will rise up. We have seen it rise up before, especially in times of war and during various national emergencies. We certainly saw it in the aftermath of 9\/11, and I am convinced we saw it again in the 2010 midterm elections.\n\nAll those Tea Party events that took place over several months were evidence that the American Spirit is not dead. The huge number of people who came to the Restoring Honor event on the Washington Mall made it clear that there is a deep yearning in the hearts of millions of men and women\u2014from sea to shining sea\u2014for a renewal of that marvelous something that made this the greatest country on earth. I doubt if all of them could name it, and many were too young to have learned very much about the history of their country in the public schools, but they knew instinctively that something was missing, and they wanted it back.\n\nIf you were to ask the average person if he or she loves America, you would probably hear, \"Sure, I love my country!\" But what the person is really saying is, \"I love the Spirit of America.\" That needs to be identified, and I believe that spirit will lead us into what I have described in these pages as the Coming Revolution. That revolution is simply a reawakening of the spirit that made us what we are. It was visible during the American Revolution more than 230 years ago. It was put forth foundationally in the Great Awakening. It began to crystallize and come to fruition in the years leading up to the Revolution, and it has been strong with us through all the years since. But today it is being corrupted by the radical left and the gradual incursion of socialist policies from the 1960s by unelected judges and bureaucrats in the nation's capital. That is why we need to start holding their feet to the fire and making some serious changes.\n\n148\n\nI was in a meeting not long ago with a group of pastors, and one of them was a young man in his midthirties. He is the pastor of a large church of upwardly mobile suburbanites, and when we began talking about the importance of patriotism and respect for this country, he listened in silence for a few minutes. Then he interrupted the conversation and asked, \"Can I say something?\" We all nodded, and he said, \"I'm as much of a patriot as anyone around this table, but if I start talking about patriotism to the people in my church, they won't know what I'm talking about. They don't have any concept of what it means to be an American.\"\n\nAs shocking as it is to think about what he was saying, no one at that meeting was entirely surprised because we have seen it coming for years. The education establishment has been turned upside down, and no one is teaching America's young people about the tremendous privileges they have as citizens of this country. They take our freedoms for granted and assume this country is no better than any other\u2014even though most of the world is still in the hands of dictators and tyrants. To make matters infinitely worse, they and their children are being taught that America is greedy, corrupt, and unworthy of respect.\n\nAs a result, millions of young people have no concept of the American Spirit. They don't know what it is. They have been denied the privilege of sharing in the dream that has drawn tens of millions of men, women, and children from every continent to these shores. Now we are seeing a generation coming up who are the children and grandchildren of the men and women who fought, bled, and died for our freedom, and they have been robbed of their inheritance as Americans.\n\nIt started with the rise of communism in the 1920s, mainly in Europe but also among the intellectuals and academics in this country. It really took off during the 1960s with the hippies and flag burners and war protesters. That spirit of anti-Americanism got a boost from President George H. W. Bush when he started talking about the New World Order. Many people were surprised to hear him use that term. Was he making some sort of prophecy? Did he know something we didn't? The fact is, the New World Order was an idea that had been in circulation for decades among the intellectual elites and backroom deal makers of the foreign policy establishment.\n\n149\n\nBut what all those great minds thought should lead to peace and harmony in the world has not had the effect they imagined. The long-term goals of the European Union, the move toward a unified world currency, the purposeful devaluation of the dollar, and so many other things that the progressives have been plotting and planning for generations were unfamiliar and unnatural for most of us. Those ideas did not ring any bells, but the globalists have not given up. They are moving right ahead with their one-world agenda, unabated and unabashed. And I have to admit, if they are trying to create global unity by stomping out the flames of the American Spirit, they have done a pretty good job of it so far.\n\nTHIS EXCEPTIONA L NATION\n\nThe whole idea of American exceptionalism has been under attack for decades, as if the uniquely valuable role this country performs by lifting untold millions out of poverty is something for which we should be ashamed. This is a serious problem that needs to be addressed, but I have hope that things are changing for the better in all these areas. You do not have to be a Tea Party advocate to see it, but there is a revival of the American Spirit taking place all around us, and it is transforming the social and political landscape.\n\nIt is not the kind of hope and change we were promised by the Obama administration; instead, it is a reaction from the heartland against the unrelenting pressure from the Left to deny what we truly are and to make us into something else. This is the change that is making headlines, and the Tea Party movement is evidence that the attempt to remake America into a socialist state is not going over very well with large numbers of Americans.\n\n150\n\nIf you even try to mention the idea of manifest destiny in a classroom in Europe\u2014as I did on one occasion during a lecture at Oxford\u2014the academic elite will go ballistic. The idea that America has had a providential role in history or that this country has a very special destiny is more than it can handle. But our forefathers certainly believed it. You cannot read the history of this nation without seeing just how uniquely and providentially we have been blessed. And America has been a blessing to the nations of the world ever since.\n\nAmerican military might stopped the Nazis, the Japanese Empire, and Mussolini's Fascists. It shut down the concentration camps at the end of World War II. From 1947 to 1951, the Marshall Plan helped bring Europe back from the brink. Economic development in Germany and Japan after the war was spearheaded by American businessmen, allowing those countries to become two of the most competitive and successful economies on the planet. For more than a hundred years, America's wealth has fed the poor, rescued the downtrodden, and fought to help nations recover from disasters and diseases of every kind. This country's record of compassion and service to the world is unrivaled, and we have never done it for profit; we do it because that's the kind of people we are. We do it because this is a Christian nation\u2014 an exceptional Christian nation.\n\nIn a 1776 letter to family friend Mercy Otis Warren, John Adams wrote, \"Public virtue cannot exist without private; and public virtue is the only foundation of republics.\" He continued,\n\nThere must be a positive passion for the public good, the public interest, honour, power, and glory, established in the minds of the people, or there can be no republican government, nor any real liberty. And this public passion must be superior to all private passions. Men must be ready, they must pride themselves, and be happy to sacrifice their private pleasures, passions, and interests, nay their private friendships and dearest connections, when they stand in competition with the rights of society.\n\n151\n\nThat is a powerful statement of the American Spirit, arising from the wellspring of faith. The men and women of the founding era understood that the judgment of history was upon them. If they fought so valiantly to gain independence from Britain and then gave us a government run by selfish, mean-spirited, and corrupt bureaucrats lacking all concern for the public good, they would have failed. How would this country be any different from the European monarchies they had escaped? Adams spoke for all the Founders when he said that commitment, self-sacrifice, and personal devotion are essential if there is to be \"real liberty.\"\n\nI am also reminded of the words of other leaders who faced equal or greater challenges in their lifetimes. For example, President Franklin Roosevelt at the outset of the D-Day Invasion of Europe, June 6, 1944, knew that millions of lives already had been lost in the Second World War and that the fate of millions more would soon be at stake. He went on the radio to inform the American people of the landings in France and to offer a heartfelt prayer for our servicemen and the success of their mission. This is what he said:\n\nMy Fellow Americans:\n\nLast night, when I spoke with you about the fall of Rome, I knew at that moment that troops of the United States and our Allies were crossing the Channel in another and greater operation. It has come to pass with success thus far. And so, in this poignant hour, I ask you to join with me in prayer:\n\n\"Almighty God:\n\n\"Our sons, pride of our nation, this day have set upon a mighty endeavor, a struggle to preserve our Republic, our religion, and our civilization, and to set free a suffering humanity. Lead them straight and true; give strength to their arms, stoutness to their hearts, steadfastness in their faith.\n\n\"They will need Thy blessings. Their road will be long and hard. For the enemy is strong. He may hurl back our forces. Success may not come with rushing speed, but we shall return again and again; and we know that by Thy grace, and by the righteousness of our cause, our sons will triumph. They will be sore tried, by night and by day, without rest\u2014until the victory is won. The darkness will be rent by noise and flame. Men's souls will be shaken with the violences of war.\n\n\"For these men are lately drawn from the ways of peace. They fight not for the lust of conquest. They fight to end conquest. They fight to liberate. They fight to let justice arise, and tolerance and goodwill among all Thy people. They yearn but for the end of battle, for their return to the haven of home. Some will never return. Embrace these, Father, and receive them, Thy heroic servants, into Thy kingdom. And for us at home\u2014fathers, mothers, children, wives, sisters, and brothers of brave men overseas, whose thoughts and prayers are ever with them\u2014help us, Almighty God, to rededicate ourselves in renewed faith in Thee in this hour of great sacrifice.\n\n\"Many people have urged that I call the nation into a single day of special prayer. But because the road is long and the desire is great, I ask that our people devote themselves in a continuance of prayer. As we rise to each new day, and again when each day is spent, let words of prayer be on our lips, invoking Thy help to our efforts.\n\n\"Give us strength, too\u2014strength in our daily tasks, to redouble the contributions we make in the physical and the material support of our armed forces. And let our hearts be stout, to wait out the long travail, to bear sorrows that may come, to impart our courage unto our sons wheresoever they may be. And, O Lord, give us faith. Give us faith in Thee; faith in our sons; faith in each other; faith in our united crusade. Let not the keenness of our spirit ever be dulled. Let not the impacts of temporary events, of temporal matters of but fleeting moment\u2014let not these deter us in our unconquerable purpose.\n\n153\n\n\"With Thy blessing, we shall prevail over the unholy forces of our enemy. Help us to conquer the apostles of greed and racial arrogances. Lead us to the saving of our country, and with our sister nations into a world unity that will spell a sure peace\u2014a peace invulnerable to the schemings of unworthy men. And a peace that will let all of men live in freedom, reaping the just rewards of their honest toil.\n\n\"Thy will be done, Almighty God.\n\n\"Amen.\"\n\nThose powerful words brought the reality of war home to millions in a way nothing else could have done. These were not the punched-up and calculated exhortations of the political soapbox but a passionate cry from every heart for the men who were at that very hour descending upon the most ambitious military landing in history. This was a prayer for America's sons, fathers, friends, and loved ones and a commitment to continue in prayer for as long as it would take to achieve victory.\n\nWhatever you may think of Franklin Roosevelt, no one can deny the depth of faith he demonstrated in that hour. Because of his genuine compassion for the American people, he was able to speak for all of them with words that could not help but touch the heart of God. And we know God did answer that prayer by giving the American forces and our Allies the victory. The war in Europe would continue for eleven long months until the final German surrender on May 2, 1945, but the die was cast when the president and all of America prayed.\n\nThis is how Americans have dealt with adversity for more than three hundred years, by prayer and humble supplication and by the appeal for divine guidance combined with a fierce determination to conquer whatever obstacles may lie before us. When we appeal to heaven, God does not expect us to come to Him with some grand scheme. He wants us to be willing to seek His face, to do His will, and to follow His leading\u2014which can be awfully hard to detect at times. When God called Abraham to leave Ur of the Chaldeans, Abraham had no idea where he was going. When God instructed him to sacrifice his son, he had no idea that God would provide another sacrifice\u2014a ram\u2014so that Isaac could be spared. But as Paul tells us, \"Abraham believed God, and it was accounted to him for righteousness\" (Romans 4:3 NKJV).\n\n154\n\nThroughout Scripture we see the same pattern: God is seeking those who will step out in faith, believing that He still causes all things to \"work together for good to those who love God, to those who are the called according to His purpose\" (Romans 8:28 NKJV). The fact that our forefathers and foremothers, with remarkably few exceptions, actually believed that promise and acted on it, would\u2014if nothing else\u2014make this a truly exceptional nation.\n[_**Six**_  \nTHE COMING REVOLUTION](Lee_9780849949463_epub_c5_r1.html#d6e8)\n\nIf you wanted to take one of the world's largest and most dynamic economies and fundamentally change it from top to bottom, what would you do? Where would you begin? This was the question the young lawyer asked himself. He was full of questions, full of ideas. He dreamed of doing something big and important, but he didn't know where to begin. He had grown up in a middle-class family; both of his parents were teachers who were socially and politically aware. His father always said there were too many poor people, all of them working too hard for too little pay, and too many rich people who never seemed to work at all. Couldn't somebody do something about that?\n\nThe young man was a mediocre student\u2014his teachers said he was too impatient and undisciplined\u2014but he was a man of action, and he believed he could do something. He could be somebody. Like his older brother, Alex, Vladimir Ulyanov wanted to challenge the status quo. He just needed a plan. After college he worked as a small-town lawyer for a while, but he hated the job. He knew he was destined for bigger things. So he kept thinking, kept reading, and by his mid-twenties Vladimir had found his plan. He found it in the writings of the revolutionary thinkers and philosophers of the previous generation, but the plan was big and ambitious: so big, in fact, that he would need thousands of volunteers to make it happen.\n\n156\n\nThat is what he decided to do. He would write articles, papers, and books; he would get out in public and give speeches so he could raise the people's awareness, change the public consciousness, and raise an army of volunteers motivated by a vision of hope and change. Before all was said and done, his plan would lead to a total transformation of society. He would change the culture and reshape the economy, beginning with the graduated income tax, centralized control of banking and credit, and nationalization of the media, mass communications, and transportation. It also included government control of the environment and farming and the confiscation of public lands.\n\nUnionization and regimentation of the labor force were essential\u2014 this was the foundation of his army of volunteers\u2014along with control of public education and the universities. And the biggest and grandest plan of all, the abolition of private property and the confiscation of inherited wealth would pay for everything he hoped to accomplish. With all these things in place, Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov\u2014now known as V. I. Lenin\u2014turned his attention to the one obstacle that stood in the way of his \"Worker's Paradise,\" the one thing preventing final and absolute control of the economy and the success of all his plans: the Christian faith of the Russian people.\n\nUnlike Karl Marx, who had originally conceived and published a plan for world domination in the _Communist Manifesto_ of 1848, Lenin was never one for subtlety. If Marx was the academic and the theorist, Lenin was the agitator and the warrior. Marx provided the nail, but Lenin had the hammer. As Malachi Martin writes:\n\nMarx's dry discussions and the touch of poetic pretense in his forecasts contrast with the bloody realism of Lenin, whose predictions were far from idyllic. His plans all were aimed at a complete and bloody break with the past, and at the violent death and final entombment of capitalists and capitalism. . . . The one poetic touch in Lenin's otherwise abrasive mind, in fact, concerned that almost dreamlike \"Worker's Paradise\" he foresaw at the end of the proletarian rainbow. To find a parallel, you would have to go back to the early Hebrew prophets and their forecast of the Messianic Age. . . . On the near side of that rainbow, however, the reality Lenin foresaw and worked so feverishly to bring about was the grinding tyranny that has been witnessed by the world for seventy years and more.\n\n157\n\nLenin referred to the war against Christianity and the universal acceptance of atheism as \"the cause of our state.\" Christianity made the people soft, he believed, and unwilling to join the revolution. Orthodox Christians were content with their lives and tended to believe that with God's help they could overcome their own limitations and the disadvantages life had thrust upon them. For Lenin, who had long since renounced morality and religion, that kind of thinking was infuriating. He needed an army of zealots to help him carry forward his revolutionary dream. Christianity would have to go.\n\nAfter the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917, Lenin created the Communist International (the Comintern), and his followers launched a massive campaign against the churches. Nothing would stand in their way. During the seventy-year history of the Soviet Union, millions of churches were desecrated, burned, or converted to secular purposes (turned into shops, offices, theaters, museums, and warehouses). The few houses of worship that were not destroyed or converted to other uses became state property, and the charitable programs previously run by the churches were taken over by the government.\n\nOrthodox monasteries were turned into prison camps, and millions of believers were persecuted, tortured, or killed. Some Christians and Jews who refused to renounce their faith were sent to labor camps or mental hospitals. Thousands more were exiled and shipped off to other countries, but believers of all faiths were ridiculed and harassed, and by 1925, official courses in atheism were being taught in all the schools and colleges.\n\n158\n\nFrom the start the Communists used whatever language they needed to mislead the people. In the midst of all the social and political turmoil of the post\u2013World War I era, words like _socialism_ and _democracy_ sounded reassuring. Many people still feel that way: What's so bad about socialism? What's wrong with democracy? Lenin knew these terms could be useful because they allowed the government to increase control over the people (the bourgeoisie), and socialism was just the first step toward Lenin's ultimate objective, full-blown communism. This was what he meant by \"democracy.\" But for the initiated, Lenin spelled out his meaning in the \"Program of the Communist International\" (1928), in which he said,\n\nThe Soviet form of State, being the highest form of democracy, namely, proletarian democracy, is the very opposite of bourgeois democracy. . . . The Soviet State is the dictatorship of the proletariat, the rule of a single class\u2014the proletariat. Unlike bourgeois democracy, proletarian democracy openly admits its class character and aims avowedly at the suppression of the exploiters in the interests of the overwhelming majority of the population.\n\nLenin made sure the Comintern understood the objective was total and absolute domination by any means necessary, and he added ominously, \"The Soviet State completely disarms the bourgeoisie and concentrates all arms in the hands of the proletariat; it is the armed proletarian State.\"\n\nIn the wake of the Bolshevik Revolution, Lenin promised tolerance for dissent, but that was a lie. It was simply a talking point he never intended to honor. When Czar Nicholas II, his wife and four daughters, and his son and heir, Alexis, were brutally murdered in July 1918, the story was immediately spread that local anarchists were responsible for the crime, but that was also a lie. After an investigation that included a detailed review of archival material from Lenin's personal bodyguard, the Russian historian Edvard Radzinsky was able to confirm in 1990 that Lenin had ordered the executions. In fact, his bodyguard had delivered the order to the telegraph office and then saved the original telegraph tape as a record of the secret order.\n\n159\n\nIn the words of the Orthodox priest and dissident Gleb Yakunin, \"Russia turned crimson with the blood of martyrs.\" In the first five years after Lenin's army of radicals and labor organizers seized power, 28 bishops and more than 1,200 priests were murdered in cold blood. Later under Joseph Stalin, who ruled as general secretary of the Communist Party from 1922 to 1953, the level of state-authorized terror only increased, and, according to records from the era, \"by the end of Khrushchev's rule [1953\u20131964], liquidations of clergy reached an estimated 50,000.\"\n\nTHE GREAT LIBERAL DREAM\n\nKarl Marx, who died in 1888, did not live to see the tragic results of his big idea, and Lenin, who died in 1924, just seven years after the Bolsheviks seized power, never saw the great \"Worker's Paradise\" he had envisioned. But the tyranny they unleashed on the world would not die so easily, and it has continued to haunt the planet ever since. In January 2011, the religious watchdog group Freedom House reported that freedom is in decline around the globe. In 2010, just 87 countries qualified as \"free countries,\" and 25 of the world's 194 countries faced significant deterioration in the levels of personal freedom.\n\n\"Authoritarian regimes like those in China, Egypt, Iran, Russia, and Venezuela,\" the report stated, \"continued to step up repressive measures with little significant resistance from the democratic world.\" Not surprisingly, Marxist-Leninist ideology is implicated in every case. More recently we have seen a wave of violence and instability in Mexico and South America, along with riots and insurrection all across the Middle East inspired by equal parts of Islamic extremism and Communist agitation. Our own government, instead of calling for order and an end to the violence, has apparently taken sides with the rioters calling for revolution, supporting the spread of Islamic Sharia law, encouraging groups like the Muslim Brotherhood while turning its back on leaders who have been supportive of U.S. policy in the past and forcefully condemning the only democratic nation in the region, the state of Israel.\n\n160\n\nBut some will ask, why should all these things matter to me? They matter because we have good reason to fear for our country when American foreign policy no longer represents the beliefs of a majority of the citizens, and when lawmakers in Washington continue creating outrageously expensive new programs that rob people of their self-reliance and push the nation further down the road toward socialism. As Russell Kirk pointed out in _The American Cause_ , tyrants of all stripes draw their strength from their ideologies, and ideology is always the enemy of faith in God. People whose lives have been turned upside down by war or famine or disasters will naturally look for comfort wherever they can find it. In the absence of genuine faith in God, many will give their allegiance to any charismatic leader who can offer a vision of peace and plenty. But this is an environment ripe for exploitation.\n\nDuring the French Revolution liberal ideologues calling themselves \"New Men\" promised a classless society where all men would be happy and prosperous, but those promises were empty and resulted in the \"Reign of Terror\" and more than fifty years of social and political anarchy. During the Enlightenment's assault on both church and state, the boulevards of Paris ran red with the blood of its victims, and the promise of liberation became a death sentence for thousands.\n\nBy the same token, communism, which is an even more insidious ideology, has claimed the lives of more than 100 million men, women, and children worldwide. Despite the widely celebrated collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989\u201390, the Marxist ideology is very much alive, still attracting followers, and still wreaking havoc in this country and around the world. What the destitute and hungry are being offered today is a false vision of utopia, the promise of a world in which war and sorrow and inequality will no longer exist. But as discussed in the first chapter of this book, that is a promise no one on this earth can keep.\n\n161\n\nWhen the Russian dissident Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn came to this country in 1974, he was shocked to discover that while communism was already in decline in the Soviet Union, it was thriving in America's newsrooms and on our university campuses. How could \"the best and brightest\" in academia and the news media have fallen for the Communist lie when so many in his own country were waking up from a decades-long nightmare and praying for the collapse of the socialist regime?\n\nThe great man never received a satisfactory answer, but in 1994, after twenty years in this country, during which he was vilified by liberal elites for his Christianity and his conservative political views, Solzhenitsyn returned to Russia, where he could serve as a witness of his resolute faith in God and his hope for an authentic democracy in that country. By the time he died in 2008, however, the former KGB director Vladimir Putin was president of Russia.\n\nTo comprehend why liberals are so inclined to support socialist policies and condemn those who hold traditional values, it is important to understand that liberal ideology rejects the doctrine of \"original sin.\" The Bible teaches that sin separates mankind from God and only belief in the substitutionary death of Jesus Christ can restore a right relationship with the Father. Liberal ideology, on the other hand, teaches that humanity is naturally good and even perfectible when given the right opportunities. As defined by James Burnham, \"Modern liberalism . . . holds that there is nothing intrinsic to the nature of man that makes it impossible for human society to achieve the goals of peace, freedom, justice, and well-being that liberalism assumes to be desirable and to define 'the good society.'\"\n\nThe Founding Fathers went to great lengths in the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution to protect the rights of the individual. The entire Bill of Rights is a defense of personal liberty and a limit on the power of the state. Unfortunately, this is not what liberals in America are after. In his book _Liberty and Tyranny_ , author and attorney Mark Levin writes that liberals are intellectually committed to the supremacy of the state rather than the rights of the individual. \"For the Modern Liberal,\" he says, \"the individual's imperfection and personal pursuits impede the objective of a utopian state. In this, Modern Liberalism promotes what French historian Alexis de Tocqueville described as a _soft tyranny_.\" Consequently Levin argues that today's liberals ought to be characterized as statists because their main concern is empowering government while curtailing the rights and privileges of individual citizens.\n\n162\n\nOne of the best definitions of liberalism comes from a twentieth-century liberal, the former vice president under Lyndon Johnson, Hubert Humphrey, who said _change for the sake of change_ is the hallmark of political liberalism. In an article in the _New York Times Magazine_ , Humphrey said, \"It is this emphasis on changes of chosen ends and means which most sharply distinguishes the liberal from a conservative in a democratic community . . . liberals recognize change as the inescapable law of society, and action in response to change as the first duty of politics.\"\n\nWhat each of these definitions tells us is that in liberal ideology the belief that public officials can make radical changes to our government while basically ignoring the will of the people is perfectly legitimate. This was never what the Founders had in mind. However, I believe this is why presidential candidate Barack Obama chose the slogan Hope and Change for his 2008 campaign. This was the language of the ultraliberal communities in which he had spent his entire life. From boyhood on Mr. Obama was exposed to no other point of view, and he concluded that this was what a majority of the voters wanted to hear. Apparently he guessed right since they elected him president. But I doubt if even a fraction of the voters had any idea what that promise would ultimately entail.\n\n163\n\nTHE JUDEO-CHRISTIAN ETHIC\n\nStanding in dramatic opposition to the liberal view of human nature and the socialist vision of the perfectibility of mankind is the Judeo-Christian ethic, which was embraced without exception by the Founding Fathers and the generations afterward who laid the foundations of American democracy. I described this in the opening pages of _The American_ _Patriot's Bible_ , published in 2009, but I think it is important at this point to outline briefly the seven principles that \"people of the book,\" meaning Christians and observant Jews, have traditionally embraced.\n\n1. THE DIGNITY OF HUMAN LIFE\n\nWithout respect for human life at all stages, from conception to natural death, any claim of decency and morality is meaningless. Jesus said, \"I have come that they may have life, and that they may have it more abundantly\" (John 10:10 NKJV). Because Americans hold all life in high regard, millions of men and women have come to this country from around the world. This is also why we send missionaries, aid workers, and military forces to foreign lands: we believe human life is precious. But we are far from blameless, and history will take a dim view of some of our policies regarding human life. With a bloodstained history of more than thirty-five years and 50 million deaths, the abortion industry has left an indelible stain on this nation's honor. The good news, however, is millions of Americans are beginning to see the light and are changing their views on abortion. If the American people cannot show compassion for the most innocent human life, the unborn child in his mother's womb, we have no right to speak about human dignity. This is God's standard, and it ought to be our hope and prayer that the evil practice of abortion will be ended very soon.\n\n2. THE TRADITIONAL MONOGAMOUS FAMILY\n\nThere is nothing more natural or more essential to the health and well-being of the community than the traditional two-parent family. This was God's plan from the beginning, and the very first institution He created. Before the community, before the church, and before government, God created man and woman as partners, each with unique strengths and attributes that would be needed to raise happy and healthy children and build stable communities. While there are times when the loss of a spouse or loved one may alter this arrangement, any deliberate attempt to circumvent God's design\u2014to change this natural balance that is common throughout nature\u2014will have serious and long-term consequences.\n\n164\n\n3. A NATIONAL WORK ETHIC\n\nDating back to the landing at Plymouth Rock, what has sometimes been called the \"Protestant work ethic\" has been one of the most important characteristics of the American way of life. The Bible says, \"If anyone will not work, neither shall he eat\" (2 Thessalonians 3:10 NKJV). The Pilgrim Fathers knew they would not survive if each man and woman did not do his or her part, and the success of those first settlements was a testament to the determination and energy they exhibited.\n\nIn times of stress\u2014the Great Depression of the 1930s, for example, or the economic difficulties in America today\u2014it's not always easy to find work, but God expects each of us to be willing and ready to contribute when we can. The fact that millions of Americans have done their part to support their families and earn an honest living is one of the main reasons this country has been such a beacon of hope to the rest of the world. Any government policy that subverts the right to work or holds individuals and families in bondage in the name of welfare threatens this most basic human right.\n\n4. THE RIGHT TO A GOD-CENTERED EDUCATION\n\nAny society that fails to teach its children the proper relationship between mankind and the Creator will experience hardship and sorrow. If children do not understand the vertical relationship between themselves and God, they will have difficulty understanding the role of parents, teachers, and other authority figures, and consequently they will have problems with the horizontal relationship with their peers. The Founders had no misgivings about the importance of a God-centered education: they believed the purpose of education at all levels was to inculcate the virtues and moral values essential for good citizenship.\n\n165\n\nThis is why all the universities of the founding era were established as seminaries. Every academic discipline, whether it is science, mathematics, history, literature, or the arts, has deep Christian roots; it is impossible to read about the origins of any of them without encountering the godly men and women who paved the way. When our schools, in the name of diversity and tolerance, deny children the privilege of a proper understanding of our Judeo-Christian heritage, they handicap their understanding of the world and, worse, dishonor the very Source of wisdom and prosperity.\n\n5. THE ABRAHAMIC COVENANT\n\nOne of my favorite verses in the Bible is Psalm 33:12, which says, \"Blessed is the nation whose God is the Lord, the people He has chosen as His own inheritance\" (NKJV). There is no question that America has been blessed by God. Columbus believed God brought him to these shores for the purpose of establishing a godly nation. The Pilgrims, who began their journey in the New World with a covenant called the Mayflower Compact, survived overwhelming odds, upheld by their strong faith and fervent prayers, and God allowed them to prosper.\n\nEvery American president has honored God, at least in his public statements, and we have built a \"city on a hill.\" When God made a covenant with Father Abraham, He promised to bless and prosper the patriarch and his descendants forever if they would remain faithful and never forget where their blessings came from. I believe God has allowed this country to undergo severe hardships in recent years largely because America is at risk of forgetting those things. If we really want to see our situation take a turn for the better, we need to get back on our knees, ask for forgiveness, and honor this nation's covenant with the Creator.\n\n166\n\n6. COMMON DECENCY\n\nIs there anything more gratifying than being treated with decency and respect? And is there anything more exemplary of the American Spirit than showing common courtesy to other people, regardless of their race, religion, or social status? The radicals of the French Enlightenment promised equality and opportunity for all, but the _nouvelle regime_ they created in the eighteenth century was a disaster because they deliberately left God out of the picture and showed respect for no one. If we understand, as the Bible says, that we are created in the image of God, then we honor the Creator when we treat others as we wish to be treated. \"Therefore,\" Jesus said, \"whatever you want men to do to you, do also to them, for this is the Law and the Prophets\" (Matthew 7:12 NKJV). Demonstrating respect and common decency toward others is recognition of the Christian belief that \"I serve myself best when I serve you.\"\n\n7. OUR PERSONAL ACCOUNTABILITY TO GOD\n\nModern sociologists are apt to say that criminals and other kinds of offenders are victims of society. Rather than placing the blame for wrong choices where it actually belongs, they prefer to blame some vague institution called _society_. But God is under no such illusion. The belief that each person is accountable to God and will have to answer for his or her choices in life is one of the most basic principles of the Judeo-Christian ethic.\n\nGenerations of Christians have believed the words of Saint Peter: \"The eyes of the Lord are on the righteous, and His ears are open to their prayers; but the face of the Lord is against those who do evil\" (1 Peter 3:12 NKJV). Knowing that God hears and sees every word and deed ought to be a source of great comfort because, as the Bible assures us, \"He cares for you\" (1 Peter 5:7 NKJV). But a sense of personal accountability is equally important because it reminds us that when this life is over, there will be a day of judgment.\n\n167\n\nLIVING UP TO OUR IDEALS\n\nWhy does America send soldiers, aid workers, and cultural emissaries around the world to extend a helping hand to the people of other nations? Because Americans are decent people who care about the welfare of others. We believe national defense and military readiness are essential, and we understand that we must be willing to stand our ground against the forces of evil in the world. For the most part, Americans have never shirked their civic duty in these areas.\n\nOn the other hand, concern for the well-being of others was a major failing of the Soviet Union. Because of the corrupt system in which they were trapped, the people became corrupt, self-centered, and skeptical of everything and everyone. The government poured billions into armaments and made a huge display of Russia's military strength, but deprived of faith in God, the people lost their common decency; and as the Soviet economy was slowly grinding to a halt in the 1980s and '90s, no one would risk his or her own safety for the well-being of others.\n\nJust think of what happened with abortion in that country. I have been told the average woman in Russia today has had four abortions. Obviously for these women abortion is not about the health of the mother. It is simply a contraceptive. If the pregnancy is deemed inconvenient, she can just get rid of it. How sad to realize that much the same thing is now happening in this country, especially on the college campuses where sexual promiscuity is actively encouraged. Nevertheless, there is also good news that many people are beginning to see abortion as a sin against human nature. I am seeing more and more reports each year indicating that a growing number of Americans believe that abortion is wrong and ought to be legally ended.\n\nThere's Hope Ministries sponsors a pregnancy clinic in the Atlanta suburbs. We helped save the lives of 72 babies in 2010 alone; these are all beautiful children who would otherwise have been victims of the so-called _pro-choice movement_ if we had not intervened. Unfortunately we can't save them all. We could save ten times that number if we had the funds and manpower to expand our outreach. But even with all we know about the horrors of abortion and with the loss of more than 50 million lives to the abortion holocaust since the Supreme Court's 1973 _Roe v. Wade_ decision, it is difficult to raise money for crisis pregnancy centers in many communities. Too many people have decided the abortion crisis is somebody else's problem. The Left has done a good job of politicizing the debate, and it is uncomfortable to protest for the rights of the unborn, so many people just look the other way and stay home.\n\n168\n\nUnfortunately the government has no problem using our tax dollars to promote abortion, advocating for abortion services through the Department of Health and Human Services and pouring millions into organizations such as Planned Parenthood, which is the largest abortion provider in America. Despite the efforts of conservative lawmakers and constant protests from pro-life groups and concerned citizens, the Obama administration increased funding for Planned Parenthood from $350 million in 2009 to $363 million in the 2009\u20132010 fiscal year. For political liberals in Washington and in state legislatures around the country, this is the defining issue of their public life, and they are not about to back down\u2014which says a lot about what motivates people on that side of the aisle.\n\nEvery time we turn around, government is digging deeper into our pockets, creating new and more expensive social programs that invariably fail to deliver the benefits they promised but always lead to higher taxes. Liberal social programs have been a disaster for America, leading to higher levels of crime, joblessness, generational dependency, poverty, and profound resentment, not only among the recipients of these services but from the taxpayers who are required to fund them. The American family has been devastated by well-meaning but misguided sociology. Entire industries have been driven to the point of bankruptcy and beyond, so now our economy stands on the threshold of collapse.\n\n169\n\nA big part of the resentment expressed by members of the Tea Party movement is due to government's inability to deliver on its promises. But even more troubling, too many Washington policy makers and bureaucrats refuse to admit that we are already over our heads in debt and the American economy is sinking fast. Even with a national debt of $14 trillion, a $1.6 trillion budget deficit in fiscal year 2011, and the threat of foreclosure by China and the other countries funding our debt, liberal lawmakers do not seem to know when to stop.\n\nThe Democratic majority that took control of Congress after the 2008 general election has expanded the size of government in almost every area. Policies the voters overwhelmingly rejected have been forced down our throats, pushing the nation deeper into debt and further into the grip of state socialism. At this pace, by the end of President Obama's term, the government will have borrowed as much money in four years as it had in the previous 223 years since the Constitution was adopted in 1789. According to the administration's own numbers, the accumulated debt will top $19 trillion by the year 2021, consuming 80 percent of the nation's gross domestic product (GDP).\n\nMany young people have been persuaded in their schools and colleges that socialism is a good thing, a compassionate way of caring for the less fortunate. At the same time they are being taught that capitalism is a bad thing because it exploits workers and empowers the rich. The vast majority of Americans know better than that: we have no interest in going the way of the Soviet Union or Eastern Europe or Western Europe for that matter. But unless we can convince the next generation of the profound danger of that way of thinking, it will be immeasurably harder to turn things around.\n\nFor a closer look at some of the reasons we need to resist the direction the federal government has been taking us the past few years, I would like to offer a quick review of some of the policy issues that have become major sources of irritation.\n\n170\n\nTHE HEALTH-CARE DILEMMA\n\nDespite the claims trumpeted by the mainstream media and members of the president's party in Congress that health care in this country suffers in comparison to the nationalized health services in places such as Great Britain and Canada, a new study by British researchers found that American doctors do a much better job of treating and curing serious diseases such as cancer. As reported in the August 2008 issue of the medical journal _Lancet Oncology_ , American patients have a better survival rate for thirteen of the sixteen most common cancers than their British counterparts. American men are 40 percent more likely than European men to live for five years after their first diagnosis, the study says, and American women are 12 percent more likely to live at least five years longer than European women.\n\nFor years we have been told the American health-care system is broken and only government can fix it. Anyone who has ever stood in line at the DMV or tried to communicate with an IRS agent about a tax problem ought to know better. Any time government bureaucrats get involved in any issue, the problem gets worse. In a recent study of key issues in the health-care debate, author and researcher Sally Pipes offers a somber observation, stating, \"Health care and K\u201312 education are the two sectors in America that have more government involvement than any other, and they both suffer from serious quality problems.\"\n\nDuring debates leading up to passage of the 2010 health-care bill, effectively mandating nationalized health care for all Americans despite overwhelming resistance from the public, Congress began the process of simultaneously nationalizing a large segment of the insurance industry. Rather than making the system more affordable, easier to use, or less restrictive, these new laws are having the opposite effect. Before insurance companies can offer coverage to the public, each policy must be reviewed by all fifty state insurance administrations. Consumers are barred from purchasing insurance across state lines, and then they are forced to purchase one-size-fits-all packages that include many services they will never need. In 2007, there were 1,901 different federal mandates that health insurance providers must observe; this is what always happens whenever the federal government starts making the rules.\n\n171\n\nGovernment regulations regarding Medicare and Medicaid have multiplied the amount of red tape involved in processing medical claims and complicated the process of delivering appropriate care. Bureaucratic interference hampers the work of physicians beyond any reasonable limits. Both of these programs impose strict price controls on health care by determining what doctors and hospitals can charge for their services, which has led to serious inequities and caused thousands of doctors to opt out of the government-managed programs.\n\nAccording to a 2008 survey of medical services for elderly Americans, approximately a third of all senior citizens reported having difficulty finding a doctor who would accept them as patients. As Sally Pipes points out, \"The government may efficiently control the costs at which doctors are reimbursed. This does not, however, account for the pain and suffering people endure waiting for care or the value of their time spent searching for a doctor.\"\n\nIn their efforts to persuade Americans of the need to radically remake the U.S. health-care industry, congressional Democrats told us repeatedly that 47 million Americans were living in fear that they could not receive adequate care because they did not have medical insurance. The truth is, at least 10 million of the reported 47 million were not American citizens. Those individuals would have been treated without cost at virtually any American hospital. Another 18 million were between eighteen and thirty-four years of age and unlikely to purchase health insurance at all. Another 17 million, with incomes over fifty thousand dollars, could afford to purchase health insurance but decided for their own reasons not to do so. And, finally, many of the supposed 47 million were temporarily unemployed and would be eligible for benefits as soon as they returned to work.\n\n172\n\nBy far the greatest problem regarding the implementation of national health care in this country is the enormous financial burden it would place on the federal government. As with Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid, all that cost eventually comes back to the taxpayers without any guarantee the government can actually deliver the goods. The government's insistence on plunging ahead with mandatory health-care initiatives despite the obvious risks and complications led syndicated columnist Michael Medved to conclude:\n\nThe likelihood of further explosions in the national debt represent a genuine threat to national security, with real chances for outof-control inflation, a badly battered and devalued dollar, and the disastrous downgrading of federal debt by worried creditors. The utter disregard to any sense of fiscal discipline represents a menace to our way of life at least as serious as the murderous minions of Islamo-Nazi terror.\n\nEver since the Social Security Administration was created by the Roosevelt administration in 1935, the government has pretended there is a big trust fund somewhere in Washington where the contributions of individual wage earners are safely kept, gaining interest until the individual retires. The truth is, there never was such a trust fund, no lock box, no bank account of any kind. Instead, tax monies paid to the IRS for all these services go straight to the general budget, where they are promptly spent by Congress for other things.\n\nEvery new program, every government expense, and every promise of relief winds up being simply another way of extorting money from taxpayers for inefficient programs. In each of these programs, as former Reagan administration lawyer Mark Levin points out, \"the individual is tethered to the state, literally and utterly reliant on it for his health and survival. . . . Rather than the individual making cost-benefit and cost-quality decisions about his own condition, the Statist will do it for him. And the Statist will do it very poorly, as he does most other things.\"\n\n173\n\nThere is no question there needs to be improvement in the cost and accessibility of health care in this country, but the answer is not more government inefficiency and interference in the doctor-patient relationship. Instead of allowing bureaucrats in Washington, DC, to decide what treatments are acceptable and how much they should cost, the free market system that has worked so well for most of our history\u2014at least until the beginning of Lyndon Johnson's Great Society schemes in the 1960s\u2014has a natural self-regulatory apparatus: if it works, people will use it, and they will pay a fair price. That's the American way. If the quality of care is poor, the results are disappointing, or the physician fails to render professional treatment at a fair price, the consumer will vote with his feet and find a doctor who can do a better job. That's how it ought to work in a free society.\n\nMARRIAGE AND FAMILY ISSUES\n\nRecently the Family Research Council issued a report based on 2008 Census data entitled \"Index of Belonging and Rejection,\" which indicates that the percentage of American children growing up in intact homes with a birth mother and biological father who remain legally married to each other until the child becomes a teenager has fallen dramatically over the past thirty years. The figures in this report are deeply troubling. Just 45 percent of young people in this country manage to grow up with both parents. For whites the average is 54 percent, and for blacks it is just 17 percent. The average for Asian Americans is somewhat better at 62 percent but still disappointing.\n\nThe out-of-wedlock birthrate for blacks was 26 percent in 1965, when Daniel Patrick Moynihan first identified the problem, and the white illegitimacy rate was just 3 percent. Today it's 28 percent for whites, 72 percent for blacks, and 40.6 percent overall. As Tom Bethell writes in the _American Spectator_ :\n\n174\n\nWe are living in the midst of a revolution that few want to talk about even though, if not reversed, it will spell the end of Western Civilization. Accompanying this revolution has been the collapse of fertility rates, especially in Europe. This demographic revolution, aided by contraception and abortion, ensures that income transfer programs will not be sustainable for much longer\u2014perhaps no more than another ten years in Europe. Only the immigration to the U.S. of more fertile Latinos has postponed (but has not averted) the same outcome here.\n\nThe traditional two-parent family has been the bedrock of society throughout history. Even though some cultures, such as the ancient Greeks and the French Jacobins, flirted disastrously with other sorts of arrangements, no nation has successfully challenged the value of this God-given and time-honored institution. Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story affirmed the importance of the traditional bond of husband and wife, saying, \"Marriage is treated by all civilized societies as a peculiar and favored contract. It is in its origin a contract of natural law.\" When the home is built around a faithful monogamous marriage, social welfare programs are seldom necessary. Or as the social critic Michael Novak put it, the family is the original Department of Health and Human Services.\n\nMultiple studies show that married adults have better health, live longer, have fewer accidents, and are generally happier than single or unmarried cohabiting adults. Married women experience less domestic violence and are less likely to become victims of violent crime than single or divorced women. Equally important, children raised in traditional two-parent families perform better in school, are more likely to graduate from high school, and are less likely to be involved in juvenile crime. Girls raised in such families are much less likely to have a teen pregnancy. Married women are also less likely to experience poverty, whereas the number one predictor of childhood poverty is growing up in a household headed by a single mother. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, children living in households headed by single mothers are more than five times as likely as children living in households headed by married parents to be living in poverty\u201442.9 percent compared with 8.5 percent.\n\n175\n\nIn spite of all the evidence linking disruptions in traditional family formation to serious social pathologies, the federal government continues to issue bureaucratic mandates that reward dysfunction and penalize the two-parent family. In the 1960s, it was \"no-fault divorce,\" which made it relatively easy for couples experiencing normal marital difficulties to separate and file for divorce before fully considering the consequences for themselves and their dependent children. Then in the 1970s, leaders of the feminist movement, such as Betty Friedan and Gloria Steinem, managed to persuade millions of women that marriage and child-rearing was a prison devised by men to keep them in bondage. Friedan later recanted and apologized for the mayhem she caused, but the damage had already been done.\n\nWhen we measure the harm inflicted by all these reckless attempts to redefine the family, we have to wonder where such ideas come from. The sources of the chaos are the same ones we have run into time and time again. As reported by Jennifer Roback Morse, the socialist view of family formation, which is derived from classical Marxist dogma, has been one of the most insidious and persistent enemies of the two-parent family in our time. Marxist theory, she says, holds that relationships between men and women are characterized by conflict because of the problem of male dominance.\n\nAccording to Marx and Friedrich Engels, the authors of the _Communist Manifesto_ , the transition from group marriage to monogamy in primitive societies led to the subordination of women. Originally, they said, the typical household was a commune in which groups of men were the hunter-gatherers and groups of women were in charge of the household. When Betty Friedan published her bestseller, _The Feminine Mystique_ , in 1963, she picked up the Marxist line; but she was merely expressing the perspectives of the leftist intellectuals she had lived among during her student days at Smith College. The book became a dangerous weapon in the hands of the sixties radicals.\n\n176\n\nNot surprisingly, as Dr. Morse reports, liberal divorce laws were among the first priorities of the Bolsheviks following the Russian Revolution of 1917. Although Lenin remained married to the same woman for twenty-six years, he realized that the attack on marriage and family could be a powerful way of destabilizing bourgeois society and furthering his revolutionary goals. Ever since that time, the trend in liberal family law, Morse writes, has been to \"knock marriage off its perch.\"\n\nThe state, according to this trend, has no particular interest in channeling parenthood into marriage or assigning social and legal parental rights to the biological parents. Currently the family courts have enormous discretion in allocating custody and financial support among known parents. If the family-law radicals have their way, the state will not simply be recording parentage but actually determining parentage. This will vastly increase the discretion and, hence, the power of the family courts. In fact, this happened in December 2009, when a Vermont court ordered a Christian child to be taken away from her biological mother and given to a former lesbian partner.\n\nWe have to wonder how the American people allow such things to happen, but those who want to change the laws so that unspecified numbers and genders of people can claim the benefits of legal marriage have been very clever, using the language of \"choice\" and \"rights\" to gain public approval. As Dr. Morse suggests, this language has powerful appeal to many people today, but the rhetoric is deceptive and dangerous because it removes the stigma from aberrant behaviors that endanger children and their parents and ensures that the state will be involved at every level.\n\nThe government cannot seem to keep its hands off the family, constantly advocating for liberal causes that violate the sanctity of the family and the moral authority of Judeo-Christian beliefs. As an example, in February 2011, the attorney general of the United States informed Congress that the federal government would no longer enforce the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), which became law under President Clinton in 1996. This law, affirming marriage as the legal union of one man and one woman, effectively prohibits federal recognition of so-called _gay marriage,_ which is clearly why liberals in Washington are anxious to see DOMA repealed.\n\n177\n\nAt the same time the government's way of solving any problem always ends up robbing the federal treasury in order to fix the problems that government policy created in the first place. In 2008, total government spending on welfare programs such as Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) came to $714 billion. That amounts to more than $16,800 for every so-called poor person in America. As reported by the Heritage Foundation in January 2011, all of the welfare agencies and programs administered by the federal government have gotten substantial raises under the Obama administration. The 2011 federal budget increased funding for food stamps from $39 billion to $75 billion: a whopping 92.3 percent increase.\n\nDuring the first year of the Obama presidency, the number of Americans on food stamps increased by 5 million\u2014the largest single-year increase since the Carter administration of the mid-70s. The Republican majority in the House of Representatives has taken the first step in trying to get a grip on many of these unproductive schemes, including the effort to repeal the administration's nationalized healthcare bill, but if we really care about what kind of nation our children and grandchildren will inherit, we will have to increase our efforts to get the nation and the economy back on track.\n\nPROBLEMS IN AMERICA'S CLASSROOMS\n\nInscribed on the walls of the Widener Library at Harvard University are the words, \"You shall know the truth, and the truth shall make you free.\" Without referring to the person who spoke those words, many people on that Boston campus would naturally assume they were spoken by a great civil rights leader or some former president. The problem is not that many people don't know that Jesus Christ is the source of the quote but that hardly anyone on the campus today believes that truth can be known.\n\n178\n\nLittle by little over the past forty years, social and cultural revisionists have taken over the schools, the media, and the government institutions in this country. The speech codes enforced in some of those places would be more appropriate in Nazi Germany than \"the home of the free and the brave.\" Despite the blowback from conservative groups, speech codes and campus civility standards are increasingly common. University administrators and faculty members condone every sort of perversion these days, but the one thing they will not tolerate is the idea that somebody might claim to have \"truth.\" So much for Western civilization.\n\nAccording to a survey of university students conducted by former education secretary William J. Bennett, more than 70 percent of the 634 college students surveyed disagreed that the values of the United States are superior to those of other countries, with 34 percent strongly disagreeing. More than a third disagreed with the statement, \"The United States is the best country in the world.\" Eighty percent rejected the claim that Western civilization, with all our unparalleled achievements, is superior to Arab civilization. And as Bennett pointed out, perhaps the most striking finding was that a third of the respondents said they would actively evade a military draft in the War on Terrorism, while another third would refuse to serve abroad, and just one-third would be willing to fight for their country overseas.\n\nDespite the ongoing War on Terror and the tragic events of September 11, 2001, college students refused to condemn the actions of the 9\/11 terrorists. The multiculturalism being taught in American schools and colleges has been taken to such an extreme that college students today embrace virtually any culture but their own. The tendency for academics and their students to \"blame America first\" for the world's problems\u2014which has now apparently made its way into the highest levels of government\u2014can't help but have a negative impact on the nation's prospects for the future.\n\n179\n\nA few years ago a review of textbook requirements in New Jersey found that the state's guidelines for history omitted any mention of the Founding Fathers, the Pilgrims, or the _Mayflower_. A history textbook being used in Florida public schools, called _A World in Conflict_ , devotes the first five pages on the subject of World War II entirely to information about women in the armed forces, black soldiers on the home front, and Japanese internment camps. Surprising, perhaps, but this is typical of the situation in many school districts today.\n\nThe textbooks favored by multiculturalists generally ignore the contributions of Western civilization, particularly with regard to religious tolerance, individual liberty, democratic institutions, and the rule of law. The foreword to a textbook used in one New Mexico school district, called _500 Years of Chicano History in Pictures_ , states that the book was \"written in response to the Bicentennial celebration of the 1776 American Revolution and its lies.\" The author writes that her purpose is to \"celebrate our resistance to being colonized and absorbed by racist empire builders.\"\n\nUnfortunately the typical university classroom is not much better. Colleges are supposed to be places that encourage a free and open exchange of ideas, but that is not the case on most campuses these days. Many college courses focus on narrow areas that are highly specialized, narrowly interpreted, politically charged, and unabashedly promoting the holy grail of \"race, class, and gender.\" For centuries men and women from every continent, race, and socioeconomic background have come to this country to escape classification, but on today's campus, the emphasis is on group identity, racial differences, and liberal social policies.\n\nBy and large, America's universities have lost sight of what a college education is supposed to be. In this environment it is no surprise that students have little respect for their cultural heritage and little knowledge of the sacrifices our forefathers made for the freedoms they enjoy. When the National Association of Scholars surveyed course offerings at the nation's top fifty universities, they found only a third of those schools required a course in freshman English. Just 12 percent required any type of math, only 34 percent required students to study science, and only 4 percent had a philosophy requirement. None of them required students to study literature. But the most disturbing discovery was that just one of the top fifty colleges in America required students to take a course in American history.\n\n180\n\nIs it any wonder that so many young people do not seem to know who they are? Students arrive on campus unsure of themselves, ignorant about most things, except what is happening on Facebook or who is texting them on their iPhones. Critical thinking skills, which have been discouraged from their earliest years in public school, are often severely limited. Everything is about fitting in, not making waves, and getting a college diploma for the least possible amount of work. Students today are as bright as ever, but they have been raised in relative comfort in a country where life is pretty easy, and the vast majority have never learned to question what they have been taught.\n\nThe tragedy is that students and their parents are paying the price for what is happening on campus in more ways than one. Mom and Dad are paying tuition for an education that subjects their sons and daughters to speech codes, sexual intimidation, anti-American indoctrination, and anti-intellectual mind control. Students from inner-city schools and other low-demand environments often arrive on campus without the academic or social skills to resist this kind of indoctrination. They become easy prey for liberal ideologues and tend to accept the rhetoric of their professors without question.\n\nCurricula in our schools and colleges rarely, if ever, focus on America's greatness or the nation's contributions to democracy, language, culture, science, and industry. Instead, students are exposed to a steady drumbeat of criticism, blaming America for slavery, cultural chauvinism, imperialism, and religious intolerance. There was a time when Americans had so much confidence in the superiority of our way of life, columnist Mona Charen points out, that we taught our values to immigrants and insisted they master the basics of American history, language, and government before becoming eligible for citizenship. Today we are not even teaching those things to our own children.\n\n181\n\nA poll commissioned by the American Council of Trustees and Alumni (ACTA) examined knowledge of American history among seniors at the top fifty-five liberal arts colleges in the country. The questions covered subjects professors in the sixties would have considered high-school level, but 81 percent of those college seniors earned a grade of D or F on the exam. When they were asked to identify the source of the statement \"To each according to his needs, from each according to his ability,\" 35 percent guessed the phrase was from the U.S. Constitution. In fact, it is a principle of Marxist communism.\n\nMore than half of the students thought Germany, Italy, or Japan were United States allies in the Second World War rather than our enemies, the Axis powers. Fewer than a third knew that the Reconstruction era had to do with the Civil War, and 40 percent could not place the Civil War in the correct half century. Only 25 percent could identify James Madison as the \"father of the Constitution\" while just 22 percent knew that the words \"government of the people, by the people, and for the people\" come from Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address.\n\nIf you wonder why there is such a shocking lack of knowledge in the nation's schools, consider that of the fifty-five highly rated institutions in the survey, not one of them requires a single survey course in American history. The implications of such studies should be obvious. Our schools are turning out a generation of functional illiterates who have little or no regard for the great gifts of liberty we enjoy, so how can we expect them to defend, protect, and preserve this great country when they know so little about it? Washington's solution is to simply define the problems away, but that is an unacceptable alternative.\n\n182\n\nTHE CANARY IN THE MINE\n\nA lot of things have gone right for America since the _Mayflower_ landed at Plymouth Rock over four centuries ago. The first Americans barely survived that first winter, but they persevered and proved themselves worthy of their calling. They were men and women of a resolute Christian faith, and God provided for their needs. He sent help when they needed it, just as He prepared the way for their descendants for generations to come.\n\nMany battles of the American Revolution were close calls; the patriots lost most of them for the first six years. The English army was the most formidable fighting force in the world at that time, and no one believed the colonists could defeat them. The final victory at Yorktown was nothing short of a miracle, but the Americans won because there was something even bigger at stake: God had plans for America.\n\nGod had prepared this land before the colonists ever arrived\u2014it was to become a \"city on a hill,\" a beacon of personal freedom and religious liberty to the world, a land where freedom could thrive. For most of our history we enjoyed unprecedented freedom and opportunity, but considering the struggles we face today from an out-of-control economy, the ongoing assault on traditional values, and the escalating threats to religious liberty, I have to wonder how much longer God will extend His hand of blessing to this nation.\n\nAs a Christian minister, I am deeply troubled by threats from the ACLU and other secular activists to change the tax status of our churches, preventing pastors from speaking freely about critical social issues from the pulpits. Without a renewed commitment to religious liberty and the freedom to speak openly in any venue, what is to prevent us from falling victim to intimidation, blackmail, and totalitarian ideologies of one sort or another? The welfare state cannot save us. Green energy will not save. us. More police, more jails, and more threats won't save us. Only God can save us, and unless the American people rise up and demand that the government get back on track, stop these predatory behaviors, and return to our founding principles, we are in for a long and bumpy ride over the next several years.\n\n183\n\nWe are already borrowing money from our grandchildren to pay for the government's reckless spending. How much longer can that continue? If someone had told the people of Russia back in the mid-1980s that their economy would collapse by the end of the decade, they would have laughed. But people who ought to know are warning us now, \"Stop spending! Get back to basics! We are headed in the wrong direction!\"\n\nI believe members of the Republican majority in Congress have heard the message. They are doing their best to respond, but they are also facing entrenched resistance from the liberals in the Senate and the executive branch. We have to wonder, however, what will it take for Washington to change course and take the steps necessary to avoid an impending collapse? Are the president, the Congress, and the American people willing to make the hard decisions that will be needed? Or will we have to wait until the economy collapses as it did for the Soviets? If so, there is no guarantee we can recover: there won't be anybody standing by to give us a bailout. But there are plenty of folks in the Middle East and the Far East who would love nothing better than to see America crash and burn. There are people in this nation, for that matter, who would love to take advantage of a struggling economy while we are still weak and defenseless. God help us.\n\nIn an article about religious liberty around the world, Cato Institute Senior Fellow Doug Bandow remarked that religious liberty is like the proverbial canary in the mine\u2014advance warning that things may be going wrong. \"If a state won't respect this most basic freedom of conscience,\" he said, \"it isn't likely to respect people's lives and dignity in any context.\" I believe that is a perceptive observation that applies not just to repressive Third World societies but to ours as well.\n\n184\n\nWhat we really need in this country is a restoration of Christian values and beliefs. I believe God may be withholding His judgment for the time being, giving us a chance to return to our founding principles. That does not mean Christians expect everyone to believe as we do or to agree with us on every issue. God cannot bless an immoral nation, but freedom of conscience is an essential right. The Constitution guarantees every citizen the right to believe according to the dictates of his or her own conscience. We wholeheartedly support the principle of \"religious liberty\" for others, and that is all we ask for ourselves and our families. But we will never sacrifice our God-given right to defend our beliefs and to share the hope within us with the world.\n185\n\n[_**Seven**_  \nWHAT YOU CAN DO](Lee_9780849949463_epub_c5_r1.html#d6e9)\n\nWhen the colonists of New England reached the point of utter exasperation with the predatory laws and policies of King George III and the British Parliament, Samuel Adams and the Sons of Liberty organized what the patriots referred to as \"Committees of Correspondence.\" These groups were created to make sure people in all parts of the colonies were informed about what was going on in the never-ending disputes with the Crown. Adams and the others wrote circular letters and pamphlets, delivered rousing speeches in the streets, town halls, and taverns, and distributed broadsides warning the people about the provocative actions of the English authorities, constantly fanning the flames of resistance.\n\nWhen Paul Revere made his famous midnight ride to Lexington, he did so as a member of the Boston committee, carrying the news that a large company of British regulars was moving in their direction. In the months leading up to the Revolution, there were reportedly as many as seven thousand members of these committees, led by Adams and such distinguished figures as John Dickinson, Patrick Henry, Richard Henry Lee, and Thomas Jefferson.\n\n186\n\nWhen Adams, along with Joseph Warren and James Otis, presented a \"Report of the Committee of Correspondence\" at Boston's Faneuil Hall on November 20, 1772, they recited a long list of grievances against the British and spelled out the core beliefs of the Founders that would be enshrined just a few years later in the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. \"Among the natural rights of the Colonists,\" they said, \"are these: First, a right to life; Secondly, to liberty; Thirdly, to property; together with the right to support and defend them in the best manner they can. These are evident branches of . . . the first law of nature.\" They went on:\n\nAll men have a right to remain in a state of nature as long as they please; and in case of intolerable oppression, civil or religious, to leave the society they belong to, and enter into another. When men enter into society, it is by voluntary consent; and they have a right to demand and insist upon the performance of such conditions and previous limitations as form an equitable original compact. Every natural right not expressly given up, or, from the nature of a social compact, necessarily ceded, remains. All positive and civil laws should conform, as far as possible, to the law of natural reason and equity.\n\nThese words, so similar to the language of the Declaration, affirm the belief that all people possess a moral sense as a component of conscience and an innate sense of moral accountability. Furthermore these men believed the principles of right and wrong could be found in copious detail in the Bible, which was commonly available and generally accepted by the men and women of the founding generation as the Word of God. As the apostle Paul had written: \"For the wrath of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of men, who suppress the truth in unrighteousness, because what may be known of God is manifest in them, for God has shown it to them\" (Romans 1:18\u201319 NKJV).\n\n187\n\nLater, when the authors of the Declaration of Independence declared, \"all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights,\" this is what they were saying. They believed no man-made law should arbitrarily abrogate or interfere with these natural rights, which are imbued by the laws of nature and the laws of God. Thomas Jefferson made this clear several years later in a letter to Richard Henry Lee regarding the process of drafting the Declaration:\n\nThis was the object of the Declaration of Independence. Not to find out new principles, or new arguments, never before thought of, not merely to say things which had never been said before; but to place before mankind the common sense of the subject, in terms so plain and firm as to command their assent, and to justify ourselves in the independent stand we are compelled to take. Neither aiming at originality of principle or sentiment, nor yet copied from any particular and previous writing, it was intended to be an expression of the American mind, and to give to that expression the proper tone and spirit called for by the occasion.\n\nJefferson's point of view had been expressed by Samuel Adams and the Boston Committee when they wrote in their report, \"In the state of nature every man is, under God, judge and sole judge of his own rights and of the injuries done him. By entering into society he agrees to an arbiter or indifferent judge between him and his neighbors; but he no more renounces his original right than by taking a cause out of the ordinary course of law, and leaving the decision to referees or indifferent arbitrators.\"\n\nNone of the Founders denied the authority of statutory law. Crimes ought to be punished, they said, and judges and juries were established for that purpose. But there was a law greater than the laws of men. When they spoke of \"the laws of nature and of nature's God,\" they were referring to commonly held standards of right and wrong. They believed all human beings have an inborn sense of right and wrong. While this knowledge can become corrupted, in a healthy society, they believed, the vast majority of people would naturally agree on these basic principles.\n\n188\n\nBy 1768, when four thousand British troops arrived in Boston to enforce the Townshend Acts, the patriots realized there could be no turning back. They realized the English were intentionally provoking the colonists, and the Townshend Acts were just one more attempt to undermine the autonomy of the colonies by compelling American merchants to comply with British trade regulations. Very much like the Declaratory Act of 1766, which was a poke in the eye demanding unquestioned obedience to the Crown, these new articles dared the Americans to rebel by declaring the British Parliament had the right to rule the colonies and to tax them as they wished. To make the point, they immediately placed new duties on paper, lead, paint, and imported tea.\n\nSamuel Adams and the Committees of Correspondence wasted no time publicizing these new threats. After the Boston Massacre of March 5, 1770, in which a British patrol fired on a crowd of angry colonists and killed five unarmed men, colonial outrage became even more intense. The British governor withdrew his troops to Castle Island to avoid further bloodshed, but the colonists were not appeased. Instead, they saw this as a sign of weakness. When the public funeral for the five victims of the massacre was held a few days later, more than ten thousand Americans joined the procession as a demonstration of unity. Yet when the Revolution began five years later, it was not the result of any one act but, as the Declaration of Independence expressed it, the result of \"a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object.\"\n\nA NEW DECLARATION OF GRIEVANCES\n\nThe Committees of Correspondence's most important contribution in the colonial era was in providing a consistent, reliable, and readily accessible flow of information that would help mold the American people into a unified and cohesive force. Today, when the nation is confronted by a new and even more strident \"train of abuses,\" that function is being carried out by a new generation of patriots who are making a wide range of assets available to the public over the Internet and through talk radio, cable TV, cellular telephones, and many other kinds of twenty-first-century media. And, very much like that original band of rebels, these Americans are preparing for some major changes of their own.\n\n189\n\nIn a televised campaign address to his supporters on October 31, 2008, given on the campus of the University of Missouri, Barack Obama made a statement that drew little attention at the time. He said, \"We are five days away from fundamentally transforming the United States of America.\" To many viewers it sounded like a typically arrogant boast, not uncommon in politics. But within weeks of the January 2009 inauguration and the installation of a new cast of characters in the White House, the voters began to see what Candidate Obama actually meant by those words. Since that time there has been a stunning change in the tone and emphasis of national policy, but there has also been an equally stunning change of attitude toward the direction this administration has been taking the nation.\n\nThe Tea Party movement that emerged in early 2009, seemingly out of nowhere, would soon become the most visible response of middle America to this sudden shift in policy. The movement stands for smaller government, fiscal responsibility, individual freedom, and a conservative view of the nation's founding documents. Millions of Americans, motivated by their commitment to faith, family, and freedom, are joining forces across party lines to express their concerns.\n\nOne of the first appearances of the movement came on January 19, 2009, the day before the presidential inauguration, when a group of New York stock traders, concerned that the new administration would do serious harm to American business, began sending e-mails to their colleagues suggesting that everyone send tea bags to their representatives and senators. It was a modest beginning.\n\n190\n\nIn the following weeks Tea Party protests began to appear all across the country, with increasing sophistication and appeal. On February 1, 2009, the tea bag suggestion was picked up by individuals in several cities; then on February 27, an organized event was staged to protest the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 that had been signed by the president just ten days earlier. By Tax Day, April 15, 2009, the protests were a nationwide phenomenon with more than eight hundred Tea Party events all across the country and as many as a million participants.\n\nBy July 4, 2009, the number of Independence Day events was too great to count, but Tea Party events of all sizes took place in thousands of communities from coast to coast, focused on love of country and the uniquely American Spirit of patriotism, expressing displeasure with the leftward lurch of government under the Obama administration. Millions of Americans were profoundly concerned about the direction of economic policies that, even at that stage, threatened to bankrupt the nation. By that point dozens of Tea Party organizations were being founded with sophisticated websites and a highly visible presence. These new groups began recruiting members and creating a network of like-minded citizens, most of whom had never before been politically active but who were anxious to take a stand against the bizarre vision of America they saw reflected in the White House and both houses of Congress.\n\nPopular conservative broadcasters, such as Rush Limbaugh, Sean Hannity, and Glenn Beck, are more popular today than ever. Beck, a radio and TV celebrity, asked his audience during a December 3, 2009, broadcast,\n\nIf I would have told you last year at this time that the government would own General Motors, Chrysler, and many of the banks and financial institutions, and AIG, that they would fire the CEOs, that they would threaten the banks, that they would shut them down unless they would take that [bailout] money . . . would you have believed it?\n\n191\n\nThe answer was a resounding _no!_ No one could have anticipated such changes, but this was the attitude of \"shock and awe\" that many people were feeling. And these were just some of the issues that would awaken the nation and sound the alarm for an all-out popular rebellion.\n\nIn a powerful book challenging the Obama administration's efforts to \"fundamentally transform\" the United States into a socialist nation on the European model, economist and syndicated columnist Thomas Sowell accused the administration of attempting to dismantle the constitutional framework of the republic by ignoring legal limitations on executive power and inventing laws to suit its own purposes, without the \"consent of the governed.\" A century ago, he said, politicians of the Progressive Era were the first to try to rewrite the Constitution according to their own left-wing ideology.\n\nBut what we are seeing today is an even more sinister attempt to transform the nation in ways that can only lead to disaster. Sowell writes, \"The Constitution was not only a challenge to the despotic governments of the time, but has been a continuing challenge\u2014to this day\u2014to all those who think the ordinary people should be ruled by their betters. . . .\" From day one the administration's idea of \"betters\" could be seen in the unprecedented appointment of a large number of public-policy czars with cabinet-level authority. Many of these individuals were financial experts from Wall Street firms such as Goldman Sachs and social activists with long-standing leftist connections. Within weeks the administration was carrying out a systematic raid of the public treasury. And this was accomplished with the aid of a compliant Congress intent on passing a string of massive spending bills so fast the public could not possibly keep up\u2014 laws, not coincidentally, that members of the House and Senate had not even bothered to read.\n\n192\n\nLittle by little the administration was able to carry off a wholesale restructuring of government, like nothing the country had seen in more than two hundred years. It was the New Deal, the Great Society, and the Great Leap Forward rolled into one. The long-established principles of \"checks and balances\" and \"separation of powers\" were ignored, but all this has led to a loud and predictable backlash from the American people, and the 2010 midterm elections were just the first step toward a return to normalcy. Suddenly the Tea Party movement was better organized, better connected, and better prepared for the confrontation with Washington\u2014prepared for what some deemed a second American revolution.\n\nAccording to a Gallup poll taken in the second week of January 2011, just 19 percent of Americans were satisfied with the way things are going in America, and the level of satisfaction among conservatives (at 12 percent) was less than half that of liberals (at 27 percent). Topping the list of voter concerns were the troubled economy, high unemployment, and the intrusiveness of Washington policy makers in practically every area of their lives. Whether the restrictions are on drilling for oil or on McDonald's Happy Meals, most Americans believe Washington liberals are sticking their noses into places where they have no business, and growing levels of public concern are stoking a grassroots rebellion like nothing this country has ever seen.\n\nIt may surprise some folks in Washington to know that, as reported by a December 2010 Rasmussen poll, more than half of Democrats (52 percent) and more than three out of four Independents (76 percent) now say the country is on the wrong track\u2014and 86 percent of Republicans strongly agree. Researchers found that 87 percent of all voters rate the ongoing problems with the economy as \"very important\"\u2014the highest level since August 2008. At the same time, 67 percent rate the concerns with government ethics and corruption as \"very important.\" And perhaps most surprising, Rasmussen researchers found that the number of adults identifying themselves as Republicans has jumped to 37 percent while the number of Democrats has dropped to 33.7 percent\u2014the lowest level since November 2002.\n\n193\n\nA February 2011 TIPP poll by _Investors Business Daily_ found that the majority believe the federal government should be smaller and provide fewer services. Overall, nearly six in ten of those surveyed said the government has too much power. Not surprisingly, 83 percent of Republicans and 72 percent of self-identified conservatives believe government is too powerful, but 64 percent of Independents and 62 percent of self-identified moderates feel the same way. In their assessment of these figures, the researchers concluded, \"This political alignment of Republicans with independents and the ideological alignment of conservatives and moderates make small-government supporters a force to be reckoned with.\"\n\nIF WE FORGET WHAT WE DID\n\nIn his farewell address, delivered on January 11, 1989, President Ronald Reagan offered a powerful statement of the importance of this nation's founding principles. He expressed his deep love for America, but he wondered if the American people really understand the dangerous challenges we face. He said,\n\nAn informed patriotism is what we want. And are we doing a good enough job teaching our children what America is and what she represents in the long history of the world? Those of us who are over thirty-five or so years of age grew up in a different America. We were taught, very directly, what it means to be an American. And we absorbed, almost in the air, a love of country and an appreciation of its institutions. If you didn't get these things from your family, you got them from the neighborhood, from the father down the street who fought in Korea or the family who lost someone at Anzio. Or you could get a sense of patriotism from school. And if all else failed, you could get a sense of patriotism from the popular culture. The movies celebrated democratic values and implicitly reinforced the idea that America was special. TV was like that, too, through the mid-sixties.\n\n194\n\nAnyone who grew up in this country during the first half of the twentieth century was schooled in the values and beliefs of the Founders. American history was an essential part of that. We were justly proud of the patriots' struggle for independence, and we understood that our free, republican, capitalist system was an engine of prosperity, not just for Americans but for the world. We believed the love of liberty engendered here could bless untold millions if we continued to abide by those principles.\n\nBut as the levels of affluence and material comfort expanded during the second half of the century, many people began to drift away from those core values. Intellectuals, academics, and media elites who had been influenced by leftist ideologies began to question the morality of their own country so that today, as President Reagan noted in his speech, \"some things have changed.\" He further stated,\n\nYounger parents aren't sure that an unambivalent appreciation of America is the right thing to teach modern children. And as for those who create the popular culture, well-grounded patriotism is no longer the style. Our spirit is back, but we haven't reinsti-tutionalized it. We've got to do a better job of getting across that America is freedom\u2014freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom of enterprise. And freedom is special and great. It's fragile; it needs protection. So, we've got to teach history based not on what's in fashion but what's important: Why the Pilgrims came here, who Jimmy Doolittle was, and what those thirty seconds over Tokyo meant.\n\nAnd then he added, more forcefully, \"If we forget what we did, we won't know who we are.\" That is the challenge we are facing at this moment in our history\u2014to remember not only what we did but also the enormous price our forefathers paid for the liberties we enjoy.\n\n195\n\nIf we expect to maintain the strength and vitality of this country for another two hundred years, we will need to insist that our children and grandchildren are taught the great and noble history of this nation, remembering the sacrifices of all the valiant warriors who paid the ultimate price for liberty. But they also need to know there are men and women, basking in the bounty of this great nation, who want nothing more than to undermine our freedoms and through persistent indoctrination bind the American people in ideological chains. The acid test of our willpower and resilience will be whether or not we still have the courage and strength to resist such people, to take a stand for righteousness, and to do whatever it takes to restore the foundations of the republic before it is too late.\n\nThe Reverend Jonathan Mayhew, who is often cited as the first member of the famed Black Robe Regiment of New England, was the pastor of the Old West Church in Boston and among the first to light the flame of rebellion in the hearts of the patriots. Refusing to be silenced by moderates and loyalists in his congregation, Mayhew dared to speak the truth regardless of the consequences. When he delivered his most famous sermon, \"A Discourse Concerning Unlimited Submission and Non-Resistance to the Higher Power,\" there were many who felt the young minister had gone too far.\n\nThose who expected men like Mayhew to bow to British demands cited the apostle Paul's admonition in Romans 13:1, \"Let every soul be subject to the governing authorities. For there is no authority except from God, and the authorities that exist are appointed by God\" (NKJV). But Mayhew was having none of it and declared, \"Common tyrants and public oppressors are not entitled to obedience from their subjects, by virtue of anything here laid down by the inspired apostle.\" Furthermore, he said, \"when [the king] turns tyrant, and makes his subjects his prey to devour and to destroy, instead of his charge to defend and cherish, we are bound to throw off our allegiance to him, and to resist.\"\n\n196\n\nWhen his sermon was published a few days later, Mayhew was obliged to pen a short preface in which he warned, \"Civil tyranny is usually small in its beginning, like 'the drop of a bucket,' till at length, like a mighty torrent, or the raging waves of the sea, it bears down on all before it, and deluges whole countries and empires.\" Then, in the text of the sermon he delivered on January 30, 1750, he said,\n\nWe may very safely assert these two things in general, without undermining government: One is, that no civil rulers are to be obeyed when they enjoin things that are inconsistent with the commands of God: all such disobedience is lawful and glorious. . . . Another thing that may be asserted with equal truth and safety, is, that no government is to be submitted to, at the expense of that which is the sole end of all government\u2014the common good and safety of society. . . . But it is equally evident, upon the other hand, that those in authority may abuse their trust and power to such a degree that neither the law of reason, nor of religion, requires that any obedience or submission should be paid to them: but, on the contrary, that they should be totally discarded; and the authority which they were before vested with, transferred to others, who may exercise it more to those good purposes for which it is given.\n\nMayhew was not a firebrand at that point\u2014he would become one a short time later and has been credited as being the first to utter the words, \"No taxation without representation!\" But at the conclusion of the sermon, he admonished the congregation to be cautious: \"Let us prize our freedom,\" he said, \"but not use our liberty for a cloak of maliciousness.\" Mayhew died at age forty-six, a full decade before the first shots were fired at Lexington and Concord, but he was memorialized years later as the first to sound the alarm, to awaken the colonists to their rights as free men and members of the family of God, and to proclaim from the pulpit that the defense of liberty in the face of tyranny is a just and righteous cause.\n\n197\n\nTHE LOYAL RESISTANCE\n\nWhen a new generation of patriots stands up today to resist the incursions of government, they are not doing so in a malicious spirit. There have been many attempts to link the tea parties to thugs and zealots of one kind or another, but the charges won't stick. Amid all the confusion following the shooting of Congresswoman Gabrielle Giffords in January 2011, as one example, reporters and national news anchors were too quick to suggest that this detestable act was the work of a rogue \"teabagger.\" Within hours, however, it became apparent that the shooter was a known psychopath who was not connected to the tea parties or conservatives of any stripe but was, in fact, attracted to satanism and other crazy ideas.\n\nEven a cursory look at the websites and literature of some of the better-known Tea Party organizations makes it clear their members are normal, everyday Americans who care deeply about the well-being and safety of their country. Confronted by trillion-dollar deficits, outrageous bailouts to Wall Street billionaires, and a laundry list of payoffs to political cronies, the Tea Party faithful are simply doing what the patriots of 1776 felt obliged to do: they are standing up and saying no to the perversion of our constitutional form of government by the unjust governing authorities.\n\nGroups such as Tea Party Patriots, FreedomWorks, Let Freedom Ring, the Tea Party Express, and several others that are growing in size and influence were founded by average Americans who have become profoundly concerned with the leftward lurch of the federal government. All these groups have become mobilized to express the concerns of millions of men and women about the direction the progressive establishment has been taking the country. Representing a wide range of views, these folks are everyday patriots who want to make sure their voices are heard loud and clear in the nation's capital and in state legislatures around the country.\n\nThe groups include individuals who are vocal advocates of lower taxes, less government interference in our everyday lives, and a restoration of individual liberty. To accomplish all these goals, most of the Tea Party organizations recruit, train, and mobilize thousands of volunteer activists in all parts of the country, providing them with facts, information, and other important resources that will help them speak up and stand up in defense of our core values.\n\n198\n\nIn general, all of them agree that congressional spending is out of control. Dating back to the first bailouts of subprime mortgage lenders by the Bush administration in 2008, the federal government has been on a spending binge that threatens not just the economy but the survival of the nation. At the same time irrational restraints on energy production and the growth of American business have dealt a crippling blow to the economy and contributed to the ongoing scourge of joblessness while new government regulations and exorbitant taxes have slowed the growth of innovation and job creation in all sectors. This is why freedom-loving groups of all kinds are speaking up, demanding economic reforms.\n\nAnother major concern of the movement is border security. With twenty million to forty million illegal aliens already in this country, it is obvious the Obama Justice Department is not interested in protecting American sovereignty. They are allowing millions of poorly educated and unskilled workers to cross into this country with little or no resistance, primarily because they believe these individuals\u2014who have only limited knowledge of the country's history and values and even less knowledge of democratic institutions\u2014are likely to become supporters of the president's party in the voting booth.\n\nJob-killing measures are also a major concern of Tea Party activists. The union policy of \"card check\" would strip employees of the right to express by secret ballot their wishes concerning unionization. Without secret ballots, workers could run the risk of jeopardizing their personal safety and job security if they disagree with the union bosses. Conservatives are also concerned about the unrealistic demands of the Environmental Protection Agency and other government agencies that are strangling new energy development while gobbling up private property and public lands all over the country.\n\n199\n\nFinally, they support repeal of the disastrous health-care legislation passed by the 111th Congress, along with tort reform limiting the ruinous rewards currently being paid to predatory trial lawyers and their clients. Government mandates passed by presidential fiat, bypassing Congress through the use of executive orders, have been disastrous for the economy and every American. To restore balance, Congress must, at the very least, begin a disciplined study of the problems within large government programs, such as Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid, in order to preserve what is best about each of these programs and eliminate exploitation, overregulation, and waste.\n\nTHE GREAT REPUDIATION\n\nFor many moderates, Independents, and others who may be getting their first glimpse of the Tea Party movement, there is a certain amount of curiosity and perhaps a little nervousness about what really is going on. They want to know what's behind this new attitude of dissent: What is causing so many average Americans to rebel against the government? Where do these people get their ideas, and what is motivating such a large, diverse, and apparently leaderless segment of the electorate to do what they are doing?\n\nThe spirit of rebellion we are seeing in cities and towns all across America comes from the same spirit that motivated the colonists to demand independence from the British Empire in 1776. It is the knowledge that essential principles and beliefs are being compromised by an administration with a very different idea of what this nation is all about. As author and scholar Michael Novak has recently written, this uprising is not simply a political rebellion or a rejection of Washington's out-of-control spending habits: it is \"a revolution against moral decline.\"\n\nThe spirit that came out of the Great Awakening of the early eighteenth century was a rededication by hundreds of thousands of men, women, and children to the foundational principles of the Christian faith. It was also a response to the knowledge that a righteous God will not withhold His judgment forever. This was the first full expression of the American spirit of independence, and it brought with it a willingness to stand up for what we believe to be true and right. That same spirit is alive in the Tea Party movement today.\n\n200\n\nThe 2010 midterm election was a landslide victory for conservative voters. As James Ceaser has pointed out at RealClearPolitics.com, the Democratic Party suffered \"the greatest defeat for a newly elected president in a midterm since the Republican Party under Warren Gamaliel Harding in 1922.\" The Democrats lost sixty-three seats in the House of Representatives, making them the minority party. They also lost six seats in the Senate but still hold a slight numerical advantage with fifty-one Democrats, forty-seven Republicans, and two Independents in that body.\n\nThe Democrat defeat was historic not only because of the number of House seats lost but also because of the number of seats lost in any midterm election\u2014it was the most since 1938. As James Ceaser says, it is the performance of the president's party following his first election that offers the most critical point of comparison. He writes that the 2010 midterm elections turned out to be the closest this nation has ever come to a national referendum on the \"ideology\" of a presidential administration.\n\nMr. Obama disguised his true ideology with a vague promise of hope and change during the campaign; then he immediately became the most ideological and divisive president in history after the election. Ceaser writes,\n\nSome of his supporters like to argue in one breath that he is a pragmatist and centrist only to insist in the next that he has inaugurated the most historic transformation of American politics since the New Deal. The two claims are incompatible. Going back to the major political contests of 2009, beginning with the Governors' races in Virginia and New Jersey and to the Senate race in Massachusetts, the electorate has been asked the same question about Obama's agenda and has given the same response. The election of 2010 is the third or fourth reiteration of this judgment, only this time delivered more decisively. There is one label and one label only that can describe the result: _The Great Repudiation_.\n\n201\n\nIn the same spirit Michael Novak has written, \"No president in American history has ever been so thoroughly discredited after two years as Barack Obama.\" The loss of fifty-four House seats in 1994 was a shocker for the Clinton White House, but the debacle of 2010 was even greater because it could only be interpreted as a rejection not only of administration policies but also of its overall ideology.\n\nIn his first two years as president, Novak says, Mr. Obama convinced millions of Americans he wanted to make this country more like France or Germany or some other European welfare state, but the American people hated the idea and rebelled with undisguised intensity. The shakeup taking place in Congress and in state houses nationwide contributes to a trend that the recently elected Republican governor of South Carolina, Nikki Haley, calls a new generation of rock-star governors who don't care if they aren't reelected as long as they get results.\n\nThe most revolutionary aspect of such changes is how a popular movement with no national leader has risen up spontaneously from the grassroots and is now changing the political climate in this country and far beyond. This new generation of Tea Party patriots is not looking to opinion polls or talking points for their ideas: instead, they are looking to the Founding Fathers and to the principles of personal responsibility and limited government that have been a part of our American heritage for generations. While the Obama administration may occasionally pay lip service to these ideas, it is increasingly apparent that the administration's eyes are fixed on the European model of the welfare state. Fortunately the people are saying no to that insidious plan, and the Tea Party movement is in the process of installing speed bumps all along the way.\n\n202\n\nDrawing the attention of millions of Americans back to the authentic source of our laws and policy\u2014the United States Constitution and the revolutionary ideas it contains regarding individual freedom and republican democracy\u2014has been the greatest achievement of the movement. As I suggested in chapter 1, sometimes adversity can be our best ally, and the awakening we are seeing today is due in large part to the nightmare we have endured.\n\nWe are not out of the woods by a long shot. The challenges for our elected representatives have never been greater. The popular culture is still spreading its tentacles, submerging millions of America's young people in decadent, pointless, and empty lives. We have to wonder in this environment if God can continue to bless a nation so deeply immersed in sensationalism, sensuality, and sin. While many people are working hard to restore our political fortunes, the media-driven culture is, as Michael Novak writes, \"becoming more and more decadent, less and less under the sway of personal moral responsibility, more relativist, less under the self-control of reason.\"\n\nThe \"superculture,\" he says, hangs over the nation like a miasma of moral smog. Rather than holding up an image of hope and restoration, our liberal elites have become cheerleaders for moral decline. In his classic six-volume study of ancient civilizations, _A Study of History_ , the English historian Arnold Toynbee wrote that one of the signs of collapse in the great empires of the past was what he described as a \"schism in the soul,\" which was an unresolved struggle between right and wrong that ultimately led to moral chaos. When the elites of a culture, the \"creative minority,\" become utterly dissipated and immoral, they become an \"oppressive minority,\" and such a nation invariably enters a \"time of troubles\" that inevitably leads to collapse.\n\nThe hope for America in this second decade of the twenty-first century is that we will not allow our nation to be utterly corrupted, either politically or morally, by today's cultural elites. The 2010 midterm elections were an indication that a political and moral revolution has begun; however, it is my prayer that a cultural revolution\u2014with a new attitude of personal responsibility, compassion, and reverence for the things that truly matter\u2014will not be far behind. We are not without resources; God forbid that Toynbee's prophecy of national decline should ever happen here.\n\n203\n\nTHE PATHWAY TO VICTORY\n\nAt the close of the Constitutional Convention on September 18, 1787, a large crowd of anxious citizens had gathered outside of Philadelphia's Independence Hall, waiting to learn whether or not the delegates had successfully completed the task of drafting the new Constitution. One by one the delegates left the building, making their way home through the mass of onlookers. As he was leaving, the delegate from Maryland, James McHenry, happened to overhear a lady, later identified as Mrs. Powel of Philadelphia, calling out to Benjamin Franklin. \"Well, Doctor,\" she said, \"what have we got\u2014a Republic or a Monarchy?\" Glancing her way, Franklin replied, \"A Republic, if you can keep it.\"\n\nFranklin knew what millions of Americans have discovered since that day. It takes a lot to keep our republic. There are always those within and without who are trying to take our liberties from us. America's Founding Fathers and early patriots gave their lives as well as their possessions to preserve and protect our freedoms. Our fathers and mothers and sisters and brothers have given the ultimate sacrifice on battlefields and beaches around the world in the effort to preserve our liberties\u2014and those sacrifices continue even today. But what are we to do? Those of us who are here in the homeland, those of us who are the ordinary folks, those the politicians call the American People\u2014what can we do to bring about a new revolution to preserve our nation, the greatest nation in the free world, and recapture the liberties and ideals that have been stolen from us over the past few years?\n\nThe hope and change we were promised during the 2008 campaign season has turned out to be something quite different from what most Americans had in mind. But I believe the plan for real constructive change is not all that complex or confusing: every American can become a part of the national movement for God and Country. The first step is to stop complaining and whining about the problems in Washington, DC. That won't get the job done. The second step is to take action; there are things we can do to counteract the progressive assault on America and take our country back\u2014as Ben Franklin put it, to preserve the republic. So let me suggest a clear and honorable pathway that any generation of Americans may follow in order to protect what is right and to change what is wrong within this great nation.\n\n204\n\nFIRST: WE MUST PREPARE PERSONALLY\n\nPreparation is a vital part of every successful endeavor. When we read about the struggles of the fifty-six signers of the Declaration of Independence in their efforts to reach an agreement on the contents of that document, we can be certain their decisions were not made without a great deal of forethought and personal preparation. The final words of the Declaration make it clear they had settled in their hearts that they were all taking a great personal risk. They knew the formation of this new nation would come at a high personal cost to each of them.\n\nWritten just above their signatures are these words: \"And for the support of this Declaration with a firm reliance on the Protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes, and our sacred Honor.\" Once they signed their names to the document, there would be no turning back. Once their names were penned on that page, they had committed an act of treason against the Crown. After writing his name in large, bold strokes, John Hancock quipped to the assembled delegates, \"Gentlemen, we must all hang together.\" To which Benjamin Franklin replied without hesitation, \"We must, indeed, all hang together, or most assuredly we shall all hang separately.\"\n\nWe ought to take a lesson from the Founding Fathers: If we are willing to pay whatever price is demanded from us, to go any distance set for us, to endure any battle fought against us in order to reclaim America in our generation, then and only then, through such personal dedication we will be prepared to turn the tide of anti-Americanism that is overtaking our land. That determination is powerful and personal, but it is also essential if there is to be any chance of victory.\n\n205\n\nSECOND: WE MUST PARTNER WITH OTHERS\n\nThe strength of the Founders and those forces that achieved victory in America's first Revolution came from their sense of unity and the common goal of advancing the cause of liberty. It would be foolish to think all the colonists were in favor of the Revolution. It is doubtful, in fact, that the forces that did join together even liked each other very much. There was a great deal of distrust and friction between the colonies over a myriad of issues, but the patriots of 1776 believed the common good far outweighed the likes or dislikes of the individual. They found their desire for \"a land of the free\" to be a more noble passion than their petty differences.\n\nLook across America today, and you will see millions of good and ordinary people who love this country. They go out every morning and put in an honest day's work. They honor our flag, and they get tears in their eyes at the singing of our national anthem. They don't understand why anyone would want to destroy what we have been given. These men and women are ready to go out and do something to make a difference.\n\nMeanwhile the social elitists look down from their ivory towers with disdain for the ordinary man and woman, never realizing that if these \"ordinary Americans\" ever partner to recapture their land, there is no force on earth that can stop them. And the need for a dedicated, committed, unified, and unwavering band of freedom-loving patriots has never been greater than it is today. Today we are seeing signs of that unity all around us. Everywhere we look, Americans are rising up together. We see it on the Internet as literally dozens of organizations have been formed, dedicated to the idea of restoring American values. Tea Party organizations at the national, regional, and local levels are all a part of that movement, and if and when all these various groups come together for the sake of liberty, they will be a mighty force indeed.\n\n206\n\nThis is not just some idea for the future; it can start now. Let's not wait to follow the groups. Individually, let's find and befriend someone else who loves America, someone else who sees it as his or her calling to stand for those foundational liberties that are so valuable and so rare.\n\nTHIRD: WE MUST LEARN THE PROCESS\n\nWithin the God-given wisdom of our founding documents, we have been granted clear and certain processes for bringing about change in those areas we perceive to be wrong for our land. From the local municipalities to the halls of Congress and the White House, embedded in the laws and governmental processes of America are pathways for nonviolent moral, social, and political reform. But those processes must be learned and understood before they can be properly applied. Being passionate about an issue is fine, but real and lasting change requires a disciplined approach, using the systems that are already in place for us, by which we can make those changes take place.\n\nIf you don't like the votes your elected representatives are casting in Congress or the state legislature, then you have the power to remove them and elect others who will do the job better. If you don't like the idea of forced health care or of redistribution of wealth through excessive taxation, stop complaining and do something about it. The process for making changes\u2014from the schoolhouse to the courthouse to the White House\u2014is available to every citizen. So learn the process, and dig into your rights as a citizen. Learn the American process of government, and use it for the good.\n\nFOURTH: WE MUST PARTICIPATE IN THE ARENA\n\nParticipating within the process for change is the ultimate key to success. It is futile to gripe and complain concerning what we consider wrong or unjust if we are not willing to participate in making changes for the better. Most Americans would be startled if they knew how many of their friends and fellow citizens never bother to vote. According to statistics compiled through Restore America's demographic study of voting, there are now fifty-two million evangelical Christians of voting age in this country. In the 2010 general election, however, only twenty-two million of them voted. Another twenty million who were registered chose not to vote. And at least ten million who were eligible to vote didn't even bother to register. The other side loves to see statistics like that, but we must not give them the pleasure of laughing at us next time.\n\n207\n\nEven if these numbers are disappointing, they nevertheless show the great potential for positive change if we can rally not just these uncommitted evangelicals but also the millions of patriotic Americans who love their country and who have every reason to participate in the process of government.\n\nFIFTH: WE MUST PROCLAIM THE TRUTH\n\nThe Bible tells us, \"you shall know the truth, and the truth shall make you free\" (John 8:32 NKJV). But as Christians we also believe that when the truth is known, those who have found it have a duty to make it known to others. I often fear that many of the problems we have experienced in this country over the past half century are due in large part to the fact that the men and women in the pews and pulpits of America have not taken the challenge seriously. No other nation has as many churches and places of worship as we do in this country, yet the mighty roar of honor, virtue, and truth that arose from the churches in times past now seems to have been replaced with a pitiful whimper. Where there was once courage and conviction, too often today we find apathy and self-doubt. But we have no one to blame but ourselves.\n\nIt was the preaching of men such as Jonathan Edwards, Gilbert Tennent, and George Whitefield during the Great Awakening that forged upon the anvil of truth the foundational values so vividly inscribed in our founding documents. Throughout the revolutionary era, America's pastors preached with a fiery passion against the tyranny of the British monarchy\u2014they cried out for revolutionary change. They spoke the truth boldly, without fear of men or governments because they believed this nation had been given a special mission by God Himself. They were fully committed to the cause of liberty.\n\n208\n\nThanks to the propaganda machine of groups such as the ACLU, People for the American Way, and the Freedom from Religion Foundation, along with secular liberals in the mainstream media, our pastors and teachers have been beaten into submission, silenced. They say nothing that would offend the dogma of political correctness. Hollow threats concerning the loss of their tax-exempt status, or violation of the policy of \"separation of church and state,\" have turned the power of the pulpit into something far less than it is intended to be. What has happened to the backbones of our pastors? My prayer is that a new generation of pastors and teachers will arise who will preach with power and boldness, with the knowledge that they have no one to fear other than our eternal God Himself.\n\nBut none of this should suggest that it is only pastors, teachers, and other leaders who are called to speak up boldly about what is going on in America today. We all have our pulpits. They may be in our homes, our workplaces, our schools, or our neighborhoods; there are many places where we can speak up and express our views on the issues of the day, where we can take a stand for what is right and do whatever we can to help bring about a restoration of virtue and honor in this nation.\n\nFINALLY: WE MUST PERSEVERE UNTIL WE PREVAIL\n\nWhen fighting for the right, we must never cease until we prevail. The battle is not always won by the strongest, the smartest, or the most gifted, but ultimately the victory comes to those who persist and persevere to the end. When General and soon-to-be president George Washington led his troops into battle during the first six years of the American Revolution, he lost most of those battles. He and his troops endured tremendous challenges and suffered great hardships in taking on the most powerful army in the world, but through perseverance and faith in the nobility of their cause, they won the battles that really mattered, and ultimately they won the War of Independence. It is because of that fierce determination and perseverance that we are a free and independent nation today.\n\n209\n\nBut here is the best news: All the resources we need to regain our freedom are available now. There really is no reason we cannot reclaim America now. The forces threatening our liberties today are small, compared to the obstacles Americans of previous generations have had to overcome. So instead of moaning and complaining, we need to get up, get out, gather with others who share our passion, and do it.\n\nIf we have the courage of our convictions, we are able to take this country back from those who are doing their best to destroy it from within. And when we make the decision to become engaged, we are not just doing it for ourselves but for all those who come after us. We are also doing it to honor the legacy that was given to us by all those brave men and women who came before us. What a tragedy it would be if, having been given so much, we should fail to pass on to future generations the blessings of liberty that have been entrusted into our hands.\n\nTHINGS YOU CAN DO TODAY\n\nThe renewal of a culture is not a job for any one individual, group, or political party; it is a challenge for every citizen. The motivation for this book is the hope that every American will think carefully about all the achievements the men and women of this nation have made over the past four hundred years, and will make a personal commitment to join the struggle for renewal\u2014that would be the greatest Great Awakening I can imagine.\n\nThat process begins on a personal and private level, between you and God. Following that spirit of rededication, there needs to be evidence of renewed hope and resolve, and I would suggest that one of the ways all the various conservative groups can make a big difference is by making cultural renewal a part of the overall game plan.\n\n210\n\nHere are some things all of us can do today to get involved in this growing movement:\n\n1. Pray for America, and pray that with God's help We the People will prevail in the struggle for the heart and soul of the nation.\n\n2. Register to vote; then make sure you know the positions of the candidates on all the critical issues.\n\n3. Let your national, state, and local representatives know how you feel by attending town hall meetings, writing letters, calling their offices, and writing letters to the editors of your local newspapers, magazines, and community websites.\n\n4. Join a group in your area that is speaking up about these concerns, and if there isn't one already, start one yourself.\n\n5. Help support organizations that are standing up for fiscal, social, and moral responsibility.\n\n6. Subscribe to newsletters, blogs, Twitter feeds, and other media updates to help you stay informed.\n\n7. Use the Internet to find out what the candidates and incumbents are saying on both sides of the issues.\n\n8. Attend meetings of your local political organizations.\n\n9. Attend meetings and scheduled events of the organizations you support, and offer to help with promotion, arrangements, and logistics or in any way you can.\n\n10. Spread the word among your friends and neighbors, and help others in your community become active in the movement to restore the founding principles of this great nation.\n\nAll these things are in the best traditions of the revolutionary spirit. John Adams once wrote, \"What do we mean by the American Revolution? Do we mean the American war? The revolution was effected before the war commenced. The revolution was in the minds and hearts of the people; a change in their religious sentiments, of their duties and obligations. . . . This radical change in the principles, opinions, sentiments, and affections of the people was the real American Revolution.\" This is what I have been saying: the real revolution is always in the minds and hearts of the people.\n\n211\n\nUntil recently I often sensed an attitude of hopelessness in this country, of which President Obama and company were the progenitors. I saw it in many settings, but I believe things are changing now. There are still many challenges and plenty of work yet to do, but I am seeing a new spirit of hope emerging. It is not just a slogan of Hope and Change but real hope, coming from a renewed sense of purpose.\n\nAll of this brings us back once again to the American Spirit, to our identity as citizens of this great nation, and to what we stand for as a people. It is about the American experience. Why are you here? What is your purpose as a man or woman, a member of a family, a citizen, an employee or employer, a taxpayer, a child of God? The way we answer such questions says a lot about what we believe and where we stand.\n\nWhat I hope to see in coming weeks and months is a new level of optimism about America's future. We have every reason to be optimistic if we continue to walk in the footsteps of the Founders\u2014politically, morally, and spiritually. Not every man or woman putting in eight or ten hours a day on the job can run out and join the march on city hall, and I don't expect every mother with three children at home to go out and join the Tea Party and carry banners on the Capitol steps. But there are things everyone who cares about the future of the republic can do.\n\nMoms and dads can teach their children what it means to be an American; they can take time for family devotions, pausing to consider the important role faith played in the lives of the Founders. They can send e-mails, make phone calls, donate to good causes, and contribute to a blog or a social network. They can make a difference by speaking out about what they believe in. If all of us who care for this country would do just one or two of these things, we would be making as valuable a contribution as anyone. It doesn't have to be big, but it ought to be something. Each of us can do our part as a caring citizen and be a voice for righteousness in our national culture.\n\n212\n\nThis is the Coming Revolution: this is a transformation we can all take part in, living up to the dream the Founders gave us all those years ago. The American Dream is not about government handouts or class warfare with one class of citizens fighting against another. It is about a way of life in a free society, where each man and woman has the right of self-determination. The fact that such a life is so incredibly rare is what has made this country the envy of the world.\n\nEach facet of liberty that we now enjoy has been given to us by the sacrifices\u2014and often the very blood\u2014of those who have gone before us. Let every American go out into the public arena and speak proudly about those great freedoms that we cherish as Americans and refuse to surrender to the onslaught of the radical left-wing minority. But most importantly, we must flood America's voting booths in the coming elections and put into office those men and women who are willing to go to Washington for the distinct purpose of reinstating those rights and freedoms that are currently being stolen and reinstituting the values that once made our nation great.\n\nIf and when this happens, the feeble wall of ultra-liberalism and godless socialism will crumble beneath the force of the will of the people. Once again the economic might of our free enterprise system will strengthen us. The principles of common sense and decency will have their rightful place in our nation's capitol, and America will return to its place in the world as the \"shining light upon a hill.\"\n\nBest of all, a much-needed revival of patriotism and pride will fill our nation's heart. For we will have fought the noblest of battles and won our own revolution to return America to \"the land of the free and the home of the brave\" once again. We can. We must. And I truly believe we will!\nNOTES\n\nINTRODUCTION\n\n. Douglas Schoen, \"Polling the Occupy Wall Street Crowd,\" _Wall Street Journal_ , October 18, 2011, <http:\/\/online.wsj.com\/article\/SB100014240529704479504576637082965745362.html>.\n\nCHAPTER ONE: PORTRAIT OF A NATION\n\n. Giving USA Foundation, Giving Report 2009 (Center on Philanthropy at Indiana University, June 9, 2010), <http:\/\/www.givingusa.org\/press_releases\/gusa\/gusa060910.pdf> (accessed May 2, 2011).\n\n. Alexis de Tocqueville, _Democracy in America_ , ed. J. P. Mayer, trans. George Lawrence (New York: Harper Perennial, 1988), 513.\n\n. Ibid., 554.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. William Ewart Gladstone, \"Kin Beyond Sea,\" _The North American Review_ , September\u2013October 1878, 185.\n\n. Russell Kirk, The American Cause (Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, 2002), 18\u201319.\n\n. Charles Colson with Ellen Santilli Vaughn, _Against the Night: Living in the New Dark Ages_ (Ann Arbor, MI: Servant Publications, 1989), 67.\n\n. Kirk, _American Cause_ , 19.\n\n. Mark Mather and Diana Lavery, \"In U.S., Proportion Married at Lowest Recorded Levels,\" Report of the Population Reference Bureau, Sept. 2010, https:\/\/www.prb.org\/Articles\/2010\/usmarriagedecline.aspx.\n\n. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, \"Births: Preliminary Data for 2008,\" _National Vital Statistics Report_ 58, no. 16 (April 6, 2010): 13, table 7, <http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchs\/data\/nvsr\/nvsr58\/nvsr58_16.pdf> (accessed May 2, 2011).\n\n214\n\n. Daniel Patrick Moynihan, _The Negro Family: The Case for National Action_ 1, U.S. Department of Labor, Office of Policy Planning and Research, 1965, 44.\n\n. William J. Bennett, _The Broken Hearth: Reversing the Moral Collapse of the American Family_ (New York: Doubleday, 2001), 178\u201379.\n\n. Ibid., 179\u201380.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Jon Kraushar, \"We Need More 'Sullys,'\" FoxNews.com, January 15, 2010, <http:\/\/www.foxnews.com\/opinion\/2010\/01\/15\/jon-kraushar-miracle-hudson-sully-sullenberger-usairways-hero#ixzz1PXqeYeW9> (accessed May 2, 2011).\n\n. Michael Phillips, interview by Dena Ross, \"Beyond Fighting for the Flag,\" Beliefnet.com, <http:\/\/www.beliefnet.com\/Inspiration\/2005\/07\/Beyond-Fighting-For-The-Flag.aspx> (accessed May 2, 2011).\n\n. \"Medal of Honor Nominee Celebrated,\" ABC News, May 27, 2005, http:\/\/abcnews.go.com\/GMA\/story?id=796298&page=1. See also: Michael M. Phillips, \"In Combat, Marine Put Theory to Test, Comrades Believe,\" _The Wall Street Journal_ , May 25, 2004.\n\n. _Northwest Ordinance_ , art. III (1787).\n\n. Rush to the Citizens of Philadelphia, March 28, 1787, in _Letters of Benjamin Rush_ , vol. 1, 1761\u20131792, ed. L. H. Butterfield (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1951).\n\n. Massachusetts Constitution of 1780, part 1, art. 2.\n\n. John Adams to Zabdiel Adams, June 21, 1776, in _Letters of Members of the Continental Congress_ , vol. 1, _August 29, 1774, to July 4, 1776_ , ed. Edmund Cody Burnett (Washington: Carnegie Institute, 1921), 501.\n\n. Elias Boudinot to Society of the Cincinnati, September 23, 1783, in _The Life, Public Services, Addresses and Letters of Elias Boudinot, LL. D_., ed. Jane J. Boudinot (Cambridge, MA: Riverside Press, 1896), 365.\n\n. Paul Hollander, _Anti-Americanism: Rational and Irrational_ (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1995). \"Higher Education: Reservoir of the Adversary Culture\" is a section included in Part I of this work.\n\n. \"World population must be stabilized and to do that we must eliminate 350,000 people per day. This is so horrible to contemplate that we shouldn't even say it. But the general situation in which we are involved is lamentable.\" Jacques Cousteau, interview by Bahgat Elnadi and Adel Rifaat, _UNESCO Courier_ , November 1991, 13.\n\n. Jim Nelson Black, _Freefall of the American University: How Our Colleges Are Corrupting the Minds and Morals of the Next Generation_ (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2004), 4.\n\n. Wendy S. Grigg, Mary A. Lauko, and Debra M. Brockway, \"The Nation's Report Card: Science 2005,\" U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, May 2006, <http:\/\/nces.ed.gov\/nationsreportcard\/pubs\/main2005\/2006466.asp>.\n\n. Dan Lips and Jena Baker McNeill, \"A New Approach to Improving Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math Education,\" Heritage Foundation, April 15, 2009, <http:\/\/www.heritage.org\/Research\/Reports\/2009\/04\/A-New-Approach-to-Improving-Science-Technology-Engineering-and-Math-Education> (accessed May 2, 2011).\n\n215\n\n. \"2009 Program for International Student Assessment Scores,\" _Wall Street Journal_ , December 7, 2010, <http:\/\/online.wsj.com\/public\/resources\/documents\/st_PISA1206_20101207.html> (accessed May 2, 2011); Sam Dillon, \"Top Test Scores from Shanghai Stun Educators,\" New York Times, December 7, 2010, <http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2010\/12\/07\/education\/07education.html?_r=1andpagewanted=2> (accessed May 2, 2011).\n\n. Amanda Paulson, \"'Report Card' on Science: Most U.S. Students Aren't 'Proficient,'\" _Christian Science Monitor_ , January 25, 2011, <http:\/\/www.csmonitor.com\/USA\/Education\/2011\/0125\/Report-card-on-science-Most-US-students-aren-t-proficient>.\n\n. Statement by U.S. Secretary of Education Arne Duncan on the release of the NAEP Science Report Card, U.S. Department of Education, January 25, 2011, <http:\/\/www.ed.gov\/news\/press-releases\/statement-us-secretary-education-arne-duncan-release-naep-science-report-card>.\n\n. National Council on Excellence in Education, \"A Nation at Risk,\" April 1983, <http:\/\/www2.ed.gov\/pubs\/NatAtRisk\/risk.html> (accessed May 2, 2011); Dan Lips, \"Still 'A Nation at Risk,'\" Heritage Foundation, May 15, 2008, <http:\/\/www.heritage.org\/Research\/Commentary\/2008\/05\/Still-A-Nation-at-Risk> (accessed May 2, 2011).\n\n. Charles J. Sykes, _Dumbing Down Our Kids: Why America's Children Feel Good about Themselves but Can't Read, Write, or Add_ (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1995).\n\n. \"Daily Presidential Tracking Poll,\" Rasmussen Reports, December 12, 2010, <http:\/\/www.rasmussenreports.com\/public_content\/politics\/obama_administration\/daily_presidential_tracking_poll> (see Daily Archives).\n\n. \"Daily Presidential Tracking Poll,\" Rasmussen Reports, June 18, 2011, <http:\/\/www.rasmussenreports.com\/public_content\/politics\/obama_administration\/daily_presidential_tracking_poll>.\n\nCHAPTER TWO: THE PROMISE OF AMERICA\n\n. Historical revisionists have taught our children that Columbus was motivated by greed and imperialism, but the explorer made his purposes perfectly clear in his journals. In his _Book of Prophecies_ , he writes, \"For more than forty years, I have sailed everywhere that people go. I prayed to the most merciful Lord about my heart's great desire, and He gave me the spirit and the intelligence for the task: seafaring, astronomy, geometry, arithmetic, skill in drafting spherical maps and placing correctly the cities, rivers, mountains, and ports. . . . It was the Lord who put into my mind (I would feel His hand upon me) to sail from here to the Indies.\" What motivated the great adventurer was his Christian faith. The idea of discovering new lands where the gospel could go forth was a mission placed in his mind, he says, by the Lord.\n\n. The Scrooby separatists left England in the same year that the first colony of the London Company was established at Jamestown under the leadership of Captain Christopher Newport, Captain John Smith, and the Reverend Robert Hunt. The Jamestown settlement suffered many losses but eventually became the first successful colony in Virginia.\n\n. King James I, Hampton Court Conference, January 16, 1604.\n\n216\n\n. William Bradford, _Of Plymouth Plantation (1620\u20131647)_ , ed. Charles Deane (Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 1856), 78.\n\n. Ibid., 78.\n\n. Edwin Gaustad and Leigh Schmidt, _The Religious History of America: The Heart of the American Story from Colonial Times to Today_ (New York: HarperOne, 2002), 52.\n\n. Rod Gragg, _Forged in Faith: How Faith Shaped the Birth of the Nation 1607\u2013 1776_ (New York: Howard Books, 2010), 45\u201346.\n\n. John Winthrop, quoted in Gaustad and Schmidt, _Religious History of America_ , 53.\n\n. John Winthrop, \"A Modell of Christian Charity, written on board the Arbella, on the Atlantic Ocean, by the Hon. John Winthrop, Esq., in his passage from the Island of Great Brittaine to New-England in the North America, Anno 1630,\" in _Life and Letters of John Winthrop, Governor of Massachusetts_ , ed. Robert C. Winthrop (Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 1869), 2:18.\n\n. Winthrop in Gaustad and Schmidt, _Religious History of America_ , 53.\n\n. Gaustad and Schmidt, _Religious History of America_ , 54.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Daniel J. Boorstin, \"The Puritan Tradition: Community Above Ideology,\" in Grady McWhiney and Robert Wiebe, _Historical Vistas: Readings in United States History, vol. 1, 1607\u20131877_ (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1963), 107.\n\n. William Perkins, \"The Art of Prophesying,\" in Boorstin, \"Puritan Tradition,\" 108.\n\n. Boorstin, \"Puritan Tradition,\" 108 (emphasis added).\n\n. Ibid., 109.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. New England Colonies, 1620\u20131636, in Robert Hall, Harriet Smither, and Clarence Ousley, _A History of the United States_ (Dallas, TX: The Southern Publishing Company, 1920). Downloaded from Maps ETC, <http:\/\/etc.usf.edu\/maps> (map #05273).\n\n. \"Salem Church Covenant,\" quoted in Gaustad and Schmidt, _Religious History of America_ , 54.\n\n. \"Massachusetts Body of Liberties,\" quoted in Gragg, _Forged in Faith_ , 56\u201357.\n\n. Boorstin, \"Puritan Tradition,\" 109.\n\n. John Cotton, \"Limitation of Government,\" in _The American Puritans, Their Poetry and Prose_ , ed. Perry Miller (New York: Columbia University Press, 1956), 85.\n\n. Josiah H. Benton, Jr., _Early Census Making in Massachusetts, 1643\u20131765_ (Boston: C. E. Goodspeed, 1905), 102.\n\n. The Glorious Revolution (1688\u201389) led to the overthrow of James II (who is believed to have converted to Catholicism in 1668) by Parliamentarian forces (who remained Protestant) and the ascension of the Protestant monarchs William of Orange (a Dutch Protestant) and Mary, his English Protestant queen. The restoration of the throne from Catholic to Protestant monarchs would have a major impact on the form and structure of British government ever after.\n\n217\n\n. Daniel Webster, \"A Discourse Delivered at Plymouth, on the 22d of December, 1820,\" in _Great Speeches of Daniel Webster_ (Coln St. Aldwyns, UK: Echo Library, 2006), 38.\n\n. Samuel Eliot Morison, \"The Pilgrim Fathers: Their Significance in History,\" in _By Land and by Sea: Essays and Addresses by Samuel Eliot Morison_ (New York: Knopf, 1953), 235\u201336.\n\n. Noam Chomsky, interview by David Niose, \"Noam Chomsky: On Humanism, the Vulnerability of Secular Nationalism, and the Mother of All Book Plugs,\" _The Humanist_ , January 1, 2007, <http:\/\/www.thefreelibrary.com\/Noam+Chomsky%3a+on+humanism%2c+the+vulnerability+of+secular+nationalism%2c...-a0159178785> (accessed May 3, 2011).\n\n. Barack Obama, press conference with President Gul, Cankaya Palace, Ankara, Turkey, April 6, 2009, <http:\/\/www.whitehouse.gov\/the_press_office\/Joint-Press-Availability-With-President-Obama-And-President-Gul-Of-Turkey> (accessed May 3, 2011).\n\n. Gary Langer, \"Poll: Most Americans Say They're Christian,\" ABC News, July 18, 2006, <http:\/\/abcnews.go.com\/US\/Story?id=90356andpage=1> (accessed May 3, 2011).\n\n. Frank Newport, \"Church Attendance Lowest in New England, Highest in South,\" Gallup News Service, April 27, 2006, <http:\/\/www.gallup.com\/poll\/22579\/Church-Attendance-Lowest-New-England-Highest-South.aspx> (accessed May 3, 2011).\n\n. James Madison to the General Assembly of the Commonwealth of Virginia, 1778.\n\n. Patrick Henry to the Virginia House of Burgesses, May 1765.\n\n. Supreme Court of South Carolina, 1846. _City of Charleston v. S.A. Benjamin_ ; 2 Strob. 520 (1846).\n\n. _Church of the Holy Trinity v. U.S_.; 143 U.S. 457, 458 (1892).\n\n. _Zorach v. Clauson_ ; 343 U.S. 306 (1952).\n\nCHAPTER THREE: WHAT THE FOUNDERS BELIEVED\n\n. William Byrd, _The Secret Diary of William Byrd of Westover, 1709\u20131712_ , ed. Louis B. Wright and Marion Tinling (New York: Arno Press, 1972).\n\n. Rod Gragg, _Forged in Faith: How Faith Shaped the Birth of the Nation 1607\u2013 1776_ (New York: Howard Books, 2010), 16.\n\n. The plaque inscription at the site of the Robert Hunt Memorial may be seen online at Historical Marker Database, <http:\/\/www.hmdb.org\/marker.asp?marker=17023>.\n\n. Frank Lambert, _The Founding Fathers and the Place of Religion in America_ (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003), 49.\n\n. The settlers' benefactor and new governor was Thomas West, the third Baron de La Warr, and the man for whom the Colony of Delaware would be named, as well as the Delaware River, Delaware Bay, Delaware Indian tribe, and eventually the state of Delaware.\n\n218\n\n. Lambert, _Founding Fathers_ , 48.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Crandall Shifflett, \"The Powhatan Indian Attack of March 22, 1622,\" Virtual Jamestown, 1998, <http:\/\/www.virtualjamestown.org\/phatmass.html> (accessed May 3, 2011).\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. James H. Hutson, _Religion and the Founding of the American Republic_ (Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1998), 18.\n\n. Edwin Gaustad and Leigh Schmidt, _The Religious History of America: The Heart of the American Story from Colonial Times to Today_ (New York: HarperOne, 2002), 41.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Francis Parkman, \"The American Colonies in the 1750s,\" in Wiebe and McWhiney, _Historical Vistas_ (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1963), 147.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Frank E. Smitha, \"From British Colony to Independence: The American Revolution, 1701\u20131791,\" Macrohistory and World Report, <http:\/\/www.fsmitha.com\/h3\/h32-rv.htm> (accessed May 3, 2011).\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. The British statesman, philosopher, and advocate of American independence Edmund Burke first used the term _salutary neglect_ in remarks before the English House of Commons on March 22, 1775, in which he said: \"[T]he colonies in general owe little or nothing to any care of ours, and that they are not squeezed into this happy form by the constraints of watchful and suspicious government, but that, through a wise and salutary neglect, a generous nature has been suffered to take her own way to perfection.\" Cited in Edmund Burke, _The Works of the Right Hon. Edmund Burke, with a Biographical and Critical Introduction_ (London: Hodsworth and Ball, 1834), 186.\n\n. William G. McLoughlin, _Revivals, Awakenings, and Reform: An Essay on Religion and Social Change in America, 1607\u20131977_ (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), 51.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Jonathan Edwards, quoted in Douglas A. Sweeney, _Jonathan Edwards and the Ministry of the Word_ (Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press Academic, 2009), 111.\n\n. Patricia Bonomi, _Under the Cope of Heaven: Religion, Society, and Politics in Colonial America_ (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 105.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Hutson, _Religion and the Founding_ , 22.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. The journal of the Reverend Charles Woodmason, entry for Saturday, September 3, 1767: \"Baptized negro man, 2 negro children, and 9 white infants and married 1 couple. The people thanked me in the most kind manner for my services. I had very pleasant riding but my horse suffered greatly. The mornings and evenings now begin to be somewhat cool, but the midday heat is almost intolerable. Many of these people walk 10 or 12 miles with their children in the burning sun. Ought such to be without the word of God, when so earnest, so desirous of hearing it and becoming good Christians, and good subjects?!\"\n\n219\n\nCharles Woodmason (1720\u20131776), _Journal: The Carolina Backcountry on the eve of the Revolution; the Journal and other writings of Charles Woodmason, Anglican itinerant_ , ed. with an introd. by Richard J. Hooker (Chapel Hill, NC: Institute of Early American History and Culture, 1953).\n\n. Edwin S. Gaustad, _Historical Atlas of Religion in America_ (New York: Harper and Row, 1962), 3.\n\n. Patricia Bonomi, _Under the Cope of Heaven_ , 274.\n\n. Hutson, _Religion and the Founding_ , 25.\n\nCHAPTER FOUR: THE BIRTH OF THE AMERICAN SPIRIT\n\n. \"Estimated Population of American Colonies, 1630\u20131780,\" _World Almanac and Book of Facts_ , ed. Robert Famighetti (New York: St. Martin's, 1998), 378, <http:\/\/merrill.olm.net\/mdocs\/pop\/colonies\/colonies.htm> (accessed May 3, 2011).\n\n. Indentured servants, also referred to as \"bound boys\" or \"bound girls,\" were generally British subjects under the age of twenty-one who were obligated to work for planters, farmers, merchants, or other affluent families for a specific period of time, usually three to seven years. They received no salary, but food, clothing, and lodging were normally provided. Redemptioners, who were mostly Germans, were given free passage to America under similar circumstances.\n\n. Alan Taylor, _American Colonies_ , Penguin History of the United States, ed. Eric Foner (New York: Viking Penguin, 2001), 319.\n\n. John A. Garraty and Peter Gay, ed. _The Columbia History of the World_ (New York: Harper and Row, 1972), 672\u201373.\n\n. Thomas Paine, _Common Sense (Addressed to the Inhabitants of America), and Other Political Writings_ (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1953), 21.\n\n. Ibid., 19.\n\n. Ibid., 32.\n\n. Ellis Sandoz, from the foreword to Alan Heimert and Perry Miller, eds., _The Great Awakening: Documents Illustrating the Crisis and Its Consequences_ (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1967), xiv.\n\n. Jonathan Edwards, \"Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God,\" Life-Changing Pamphlet Series (Murfreesboro, TN: Sword of the Lord, 1741), 13.\n\n. Ibid., 19.\n\n. Jonathan Edwards, _Some Thoughts Concerning the Present Revival of Religion, in The Works of President Edwards_ (London: James Black and Son, 1817), 6:87.\n\n. Edwards, \"Sinners,\" 21.\n\n. Arnold A. Dallimore, _George Whitefield: God's Anointed Servant in the Great Revival of the Eighteenth Century_ (Westchester, IL: Crossway, 2010), 83\u201386.\n\n. George Whitefield, quoted in Dallimore, _George Whitefield_ , 91.\n\n. Benjamin Franklin, _Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin_ , ed. John Bigelow (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincot, 1869), 251.\n\n. Ibid., 253.\n\n. Ibid., 255.\n\n. From the journal of New England farmer Nathan Cole, in George Leon Walker, _Some Aspects of the Religious Life of New England_ (New York: Silver, Burnett, and Company, 1897), 89\u201392.\n\n. James Downey, _The Eighteenth-Century Pulpit: A Study of the Sermons of Butler, Berkeley, Secker, Sterne, Whitefield and Wesley_ (London: Oxford, 1969), 157.\n\n. Ellis Sandoz, ed., _Political Sermons of the American Founding Era: 1730\u20131805_ (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1998), 1:18.\n\n. Daniel J. Boorstin, \"The Puritan Tradition: Community Above Ideology,\" in Grady McWhiney and Robert Wiebe, _Historical Vistas: Readings in United States History, vol. 1, 1607\u20131877_ (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1963), 108.\n\n. Perry Miller and Alan Heimert, ed., _The Great Awakening: Documents Illustrating the Crisis and Its Consequences_ (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1967), 9.\n\n. Samuel Adams, from the essay \"Loyalty and Sedition,\" published in _The Advertiser_ , 1748.\n\n. McLoughlin, _Revivals, Awakenings, and Reform_ , 96\u201397.\n\n. Thomas S. Kidd, _The Great Awakening: The Roots of Evangelical Christianity in Colonial America_ (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), 323.\n\n. Frank Lambert, _Inventing the Great Awakening_ (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999), 118.\n\n. John Adams to Dr. J. Morse, December 2, 1815, in _The Works of John Adams, Second President of the United States_ , ed. Charles Francis Adams (Boston: Little, Brown, and Co, 1856), 10:185.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. McLoughlin, _Revivals, Awakenings, and Reform_ , 21.\n\n. Kidd, _The Great Awakening_ , 289.\n\n. H. R. Niebuhr, _The Kingdom of God in America_ (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1988), 126.\n\n. Benjamin Franklin, in _Farrand's Records of the Federal Convention of 1787_ , ed. Max Farrand (Washington, DC, 1911): 1:451.\n\n. Ibid., 452.\n\n. Barbara W. Tuchman, _The March of Folly_ (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1984), 381.\n\n. Federalist 51, <http:\/\/www.constitution.org\/fed\/federa51.htm> (accessed May 3, 2011).\n\n. George Washington, \"Farewell Address,\" in _Independent Chronicle_ , September 26, 1796, <http:\/\/avalon.law.yale.edu\/18th_century\/washing.asp> (accessed May 3, 2011).\n\n. Matthew Spalding, _We Still Hold These Truths_ (Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, 2010), 221.\n\nCHAPTER FIVE: FAITH IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY\n\n. Michael Lind, \"America Is Not a Christian Nation,\" Salon.com, April 14, 2009, <http:\/\/www.salon.com\/news\/opinion\/feature\/2009\/04\/14\/christian_nation> (accessed May 3, 2011).\n\n. Claire Berlinski, _Menace in Europe: Why the Continent's Crisis Is America's Too_ (New York: Crown Forum, 2006), 8\u20139.\n\n. Don Feder, \"Bill Maher: The Village Atheist Meets the Village Idiot,\" Coldsteel Caucus Report, <http:\/\/www.donfeder.com\/articles\/0604maher.pdf> (accessed May 3, 2011).\n\n. Russell Kirk, _The American Cause_ (Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, 2002), 18.\n\n. Don Feder, \"Atheists Write, Believers Yawn,\" Coldsteel Caucus Report, <http:\/\/www.donfeder.com\/articles\/0703atheistBooks.pdf> (accessed May 3, 2011).\n\n. John Jay to John Murray, October 12, 1816, in _The Life of John Jay: with Selections from His Correspondence and Miscellaneous Papers_ , ed. William Jay, (Freeport, NY: Books for Libraries, 1972), 2:376.\n\n. R. J. Rummel, \"How Many Did Communist Regimes Murder?\" _Death by Government_ (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1994), 4, table 2.1.\n\n. John Adams, letter to Zabdiel Adams, June 21, 1776.\n\n. Alan Heimert, _Religion and the American Mind: From the Great Awakening to the Revolution_ (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 2006), 9.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. John Cleaveland, in Thomas S. Kidd, _The Great Awakening: The Roots of Evangelical Christianity in Colonial America_ (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), 294.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. James H. Hutson, _Religion and the Founding of the American Republic_ (Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1998), 46.\n\n. Rod Gragg, _Forged in Faith: How Faith Shaped the Birth of the Nation 1607\u2013 1776_ (New York: Howard Books, 2010), 173.\n\n. Declaration of Congress for a national day of prayer and fasting, March 16, 1776, from the Journals of the American Congress, 1774 to 1788 (Washington: Way and Gideon, 1823), vol. 1, 286\u201387.\n\n. Engrossing is the process of copying a document in a large and clearly legible hand.\n\n. Gragg, _Forged in Faith_ , 175.\n\n. Ibid., 182.\n\n. Adams to Mercy Otis Warren, April 16, 1776, in _Warren-Adams Letters_ , vol. 1, 1743\u20131777 (Boston: Massachusetts Historical Society, 1917), 221.\n\n. Franklin D. Roosevelt, radio address, June 6, 1944, _Congressional Record_ 153 (June 6, 2007): S 14867.\n\nCHAPTER SIX: THE COMING REVOLUTION\n\n. Malachi Martin, _The Keys of This Blood: The Struggle for World Dominion_ (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1990), 209.\n\n. Dimitry V. Pospielovsky, _A History of Soviet Atheism in Theory, and Practice, and the Believer_ (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1987), 1:34.\n\n. V. I. Lenin, \"Program of the Communist International,\" in William Henry Chamberlin, ed., _Blueprint for World Conquest: The Official Communist Plan_ (Washington, DC: Human Events, 1946), 187.\n\n222\n\n. Ibid., 189.\n\n. Edvard Radzinsky, _The Last Tsar_ (New York: Doubleday, 1992), 344\u201346; Mark Weber, \"Assessing the Grim Legacy of Soviet Communism,\" Institute for Historical Review, <http:\/\/www.ihr.org\/jhr\/v14\/v14n1p-4_Weber.html> (accessed May 3, 2011).\n\n. Richard N. Ostling, \"Cross Meets Kremlin,\" _Time_ , June 24, 2001, <http:\/\/www.time.com\/time\/magazine\/article\/0,9171,150718,00.html> (accessed May 3, 2011).\n\n. \"Freedom in Decline Worldwide: U.S. Report,\" Freedom House, January 13, 2011, <http:\/\/www.breitbart.com\/article.php?id=CNG.b7ab9f89dccc945f6545ca445a6fac5a.4a1andshow_article=1> (accessed May 3, 2011).\n\n. For chilling evidence of the horrors of communism, visit the Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation at <http:\/\/www.globalmuseumoncommunism.org>.\n\n. James Burnham, _The Suicide of the West: An Essay on the Meaning and Destiny of Liberalism_ (Washington, DC: Regnery Gateway, 1985), 59\u201360.\n\n. Mark Levin, _Liberty and Tyranny: A Conservative Manifesto_ (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2009), 4.\n\n. Hubert H. Humphrey, \"Six Liberals Define Liberalism,\" _New York Times Magazine_ , April 19, 1959, 13.\n\n. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn believed that Russian society fell victim to communism because, thanks to the atheist creed of Marxist-Leninism, it fell under the grip of atheistic totalitarianism. He recognized the truth in the words of an old peasant he overheard years earlier. \"Men have forgotten God,\" the old man said. \"That's why all this has happened to us.\" Of course, he was right, and that ought to be fair warning for America.\n\n. For more information, see Robert Kulak, \"Abortions: Safe, Legal and Not So Rare,\" _Hartford Independent Examiner_ , February 13, 2011, <http:\/\/www.examiner.com\/independent-in-hartford\/is-abortion-as-rare-as-it-should-be-democrats-collectivist-or-indivualist#ixzz1RXOyKhEc>.\n\n. James Capretta, \"Obama's Plainly Unserious Budget,\" _National Review_ , February 17, 2011, <http:\/\/www.nationalreview.com\/articles\/259947\/even-president-seems-oppose-his-budget-james-c-capretta> (accessed May 3, 2011).\n\n. M. Coleman, et al., \"Cancer Survival in Five Continents: A Worldwide Population-Based Study (CONCORD),\" _The Lancet Oncology_ , vol. 9, no. 8. (August 2008), 730\u201356.\n\n. Sally Pipes, \"The Myth of Efficient Government Health Care,\" in _The Top Ten Myths of American Health Care_ : A Citizen's Guide (San Francisco: Pacific Research Institute, 2008).\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. David Limbaugh, \"Obama Can't Afford to Tell Truth on Health Care,\" _Human Events_ , August 4, 2009, <http:\/\/www.humanevents.com\/article.php?id=32995>. See also N. Gregory Mankiw, \"Beyond Those Health Care Numbers,\" _New York Times_ , Nov 4, 2007, http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2007\/11\/04\/business\/04view.html?ex=1351828800&en=7ebf86b6773f35bd&ei=5090.\n\n. Michael Medved, \"The Spending Sickness Makes for Unhealthy Reform,\" Creator's Syndicate, August 26, 2009.\n\n. Levin, _Liberty and Tyranny_ , 113.\n\n. Tom Bethell, \"Culture versus Economy,\" _American Spectator_ , February 2011, <http:\/\/spectator.org\/archives\/2011\/02\/22\/culture-versus-economy> (accessed May 3, 2011).\n\n. Joseph Story, _Commentaries on the Conflict of Laws_ (Cambridge, MA: Charles Folsom, 1834), 100.\n\n. U.S. Census Bureau, \"Annual Social and Economic Supplement, 2007,\" Current Population Survey, <http:\/\/pubdb3.census.gov\/macro\/032008\/pov\/toc.htm> (accessed May 3, 2011).\n\n. Jennifer Roback Morse, \"The Limited-Government Case for Marriage,\" _Indivisible: Social and Economic Foundations of American Liberty_ (Washington, DC: Heritage Foundation, 2009), 32\u201333.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Bob Unruh, \"Lesbian Awarded Custody of Christian's Only Child,\" WorldNetDaily.com, December 5, 2009, <http:\/\/www.wnd.com\/?pageId=117969#ixzz1EvhDuOZl> (accessed May 3, 2011).\n\n. William J. Bennett, \"A Nation Worth Defending,\" _USA Today Magazine, Nov_ 1, 2002, also available at FindArticles.com, <http:\/\/findarticles.com\/p\/articles\/mi_m1272\/is_2690_131\/ai_94384312>.\n\n. Paul Weyrich, \"Western Civilization at Stake,\" Newsmax.com, March 24, 2006, <http:\/\/archive.newsmax.com\/archives\/articles\/2004\/3\/24\/93948.shtml> (accessed May 3, 2011).\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Jim Nelson Black, _Freefall of the American University_ , (Nashville: WND\/ Nelson Current, 2004), 137\u201338.\n\n. Mona Charen, \"Don't Know Much About History,\" Jewish World Review, July 15, 2003, <http:\/\/jewishworldreview.com\/cols\/charen.html> (accessed May 3, 2011).\n\n. \"Losing America's Memory: Historical Illiteracy in the 21st Century,\" American Council of Trustees and Alumni, February 21, 2000, https:\/\/www.goacta.org\/publications\/downloads\/LosingAmerica%27sMemory.pdf (accessed May 3, 2011).\n\n. Doug Bandow, \"Religious Liberty Lost Worldwide,\" _American Spectator_ , December 7, 2010, <http:\/\/spectator.org\/archives\/2010\/12\/07\/religious-liberty> -lost-worldwi (accessed May 3, 2011).\n\nCHAPTER SEVEN: WHAT YOU CAN DO\n\n. Samuel Adams, \"The Rights of the Colonists: The Report of the Committee of Correspondence to the Boston Town Meeting, November 20, 1772,\" in _Old South Leaflets_ no. 173 (Boston: Directors of the Old South Work, 1906), 7:417\u2013428.\n\n. Thomas Jefferson to Richard Henry Lee, May 8, 1825, in _Thomas Jefferson's Writings_ (New York: The Library of America, 1984), 1501.\n\n. Adams, \"Rights of the Colonists,\" 7:417\u2013428.\n\n. Glenn Beck, \"Do You Recognize America?\" _Glenn Beck Show_ , December 3, 2009, <http:\/\/www.glennbeck.com\/content\/articles\/article\/198\/33794\/> (accessed May 3, 2011).\n\n. Thomas Sowell, \"Dismantling America,\" _National Review_ , August 17, 2010, <http:\/\/www.nationalreview.com\/articles\/243918\/dismantling-america-thomas-sowell> (accessed May 3, 2011).\n\n. Elizabeth Mendes, \"U.S. Satisfaction Remains Near 12-Month Low,\" Gallup Poll, January 14, 2011, <http:\/\/www.gallup.com\/poll\/145610\/Satisfaction-Remains-Near-Month-Low.aspx> (accessed May 3, 2011).\n\n. \"Right Direction or Wrong Track,\" Rasmussen Reports, February 23, 2011, <http:\/\/www.rasmussenreports.com\/public_content\/politics\/mood_of_america\/right_direction_or_wrong_track> (accessed May 3, 2011).\n\n. \"Voter Concern about Economy Hits Highest Level in Over Two Years,\" Rasmussen Reports, January 4, 2011, <http:\/\/www.rasmussenreports.com\/public_content\/politics\/mood_of_america\/importance_of_issues> (accessed May 3, 2011).\n\n. Raghavan Mayur, \"Gov't That Governs the Least Is One Americans Want Most,\" _Investors Business Daily_ , February 28, 2011, <http:\/\/www.investors.com\/NewsAndAnalysis\/Article\/564494\/201102281859\/Govt-that-Governs-the-Least-Is-One-Americans-Want-Most.htm> (accessed May 3, 2011).\n\n. Ronald Reagan, \"Farewell Address,\" January 11, 1989, <http:\/\/www.americanrhetoric.com\/speeches\/ronaldreaganfarewelladdress.html> (accessed May 3, 2011).\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Jonathan Mayhew, \"A Discourse Concerning Unlimited Submission and Non-Resistance to the Higher Power,\" delivered at Old West Church, Boston, Massachusetts, January 30, 1750. (Subsequently printed as a pamphlet and distributed throughout New England.)\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Michael Novak, \"God Bless the Tea Party,\" _National Review Online_ , November 8, 2010, <http:\/\/www.nationalreview.com\/articles\/252720\/God-bless-tea-party-michael-novak> (accessed May 4, 2010).\n\n. James Ceaser, \"The 2010 Verdict,\" RealClearPolitics.com, November 10, 2010, <http:\/\/www.realclearpolitics.com\/articles\/2010\/11\/10\/the_2010_verdict_107908.html> (accessed May 4, 2010).\n\n. Ibid, emphasis added.\n\n. Novak, \"God Bless the Tea Party.\"\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. James McHenry in _The American Historical Review_ , ed. George B. Adams (New York: Macmillan, 1906), 11:618; James McHenry in _Farrand's Records of the Federal Convention of 1787_ , ed. Max Farrand (Washington, DC, 1911), 3:85.\n\n. John Adams to H. Niles, February 13, 1818, in _Works of John Adams_ , 10:282.\nTOPICAL INDEX\n\n**A**\n\nabortion, , , \u2013,\n\nAbraham (patriarch), ,\n\nAbrahamic covenant, \u2013\n\naccountability to God, \u2013\n\nACLU (American Civil Liberties   \nUnion), ,\n\nAdams, John, , , , \u2013, ,   \n\u2013, \u2013,\n\nAdams, John Quincy,\n\nAdams, Samuel, \u2013, , ,   \n\u2013\n\nAfrica,\n\nAfrican Americans, , ,\n\nAfrican Methodist Episcopal Church,\n\nAid to Families with Dependent   \nChildren (AFDC),\n\nAIG,\n\nAikman, David,\n\nAllen, Richard,\n\n\"America Is Not a Christian Nation\"  \n(Lind), \u2013\n\n_American Cause, The_ (Kirk),\n\nAmerican  Liberties Union. _See_  \nACLU\n\nAmerican Council of Trustees and   \nAlumni (ACTA) poll,\n\nAmerican exceptionalism, , \u2013\n\n_American Patriot's Bible_ ,\n\nAmerican Recovery and Reinvestment   \nAct of 2009,\n\nAmerican Revolution, xiv, xvi, , , ,   \n, , , , , \u2013, , ,   \n\u2013, , , , , , \u2013\n\n_American Spectator_ ,\n\nAmerican Spirit, xvii, , , , ,   \n, : birth of, \u2013, \u2013;   \na powerful statement of, \u2013;   \nrethinking the, \u2013\n\nAmish, ,\n\nanarchy, , ,\n\nAnglican: Church, , , ; churches   \nin the South, ; communion, , ;   \nprayer book, ; ministers, , , ,   \n, , , ,\n\nanti-Americanism, , , ,\n\nArbella Covenant,\n\n_Art of Prophesying, The_ (Perkins),\n\natheism, , , \u2013\n\natheists, , ,\n\n**B**\n\nbailout(s), , \u2013, ,\n\nBandow, Doug,\n\nbaptism, ,\n\nBaptists,\n\nBattles of Lexington and Concord, ,  \n, , , ,\n\nBeamer, Todd, \u2013\n\nBeck, Glenn, xv, , \u2013\n\nBell, Alexander Graham,\n\nBennett, William, \u2013,\n\nBerlinski, Claire, \u2013\n\nBethell, Tom,\n\nBill of Rights, ,\n\nBlack Robe Regiment, xvi, , \u2013,\n\nblogs,\n\nBolshevik Revolution, \u2013\n\nBolsheviks, , ,\n\n_Book of Prophecies_ (Columbus), n1\n\nBoorstin, Daniel J., \u2013, ,\n\nBoston Massacre, ,\n\nBoudinot, Elias,\n\nBradford, William, , , \u2013\n\nBrewster, William, \u2013,\n\nBrezhnev, Leonid,\n\n_Broken Hearth: Reversing the Moral  \nCollapse of the American Family_  \n(Bennett), \u2013\n\nbudget deficit, ,\n\nBurke, Edmund, n17\n\nBurnham, James,\n\nBush, George H. W., ,\n\nBush, George W., : administration,\n\nbusiness (American), , , \u2013, ,\n\nByrd, William,\n\n**C**\n\ncable TV, ,\n\nCalvinism, \u2013,\n\nCanada, , ,\n\ncancer,\n\ncapitalism, , ,\n\nCarter administration,\n\nCeaser, James,\n\ncellular telephones, ,\n\nCensus Bureau. See U.S. Census Bureau\n\nCharen, Mona,\n\ncharity, -ies, \u2013, ,\n\nCharles I (king), \u2013\n\nCharles II (king),\n\nchecks and balances,\n\nChina, , , ,\n\nChomsky, Noam,\n\nChristian: books, radio, and television,   \n; worldview, , ,\n\nChristianity (as an \"evil\"),\n\nChristians: percentage of Americans   \nself-identified as,\n\nChrysler Corporation,\n\nchurch attendance, , , , :  \nEurope and U.S. compared,\n\nChurch of England, , , \u2013, ,   \n,\n\ncircuit riders. See itinerant preachers\n\ncivil rights,\n\nCivil War: American, , , ; English,   \n\u2013\n\nCleaveland, John, \u2013\n\nClinton, Bill, ,\n\ncohabiting, ,\n\nCole, Nathan,\n\nCollege of William and Mary,\n\nCommittees of Correspondence,   \n\u2013, \u2013\n\ncommon decency, , ,\n\n_Common Sense_ (Paine), \u2013\n\ncommunism, , , , , \u2013,   \n, \u2013, , n8, n12\n\nCommunist International (Comintern),   \n\u2013\n\n_Communist Manifesto_ , ,\n\nCommunist Party, ,\n\nCommunists, , ,\n\nColson, Chuck,\n\nColumbus, Christopher, , , n1\n\nconcerned citizen action, xvi\n\nCongregationalist: churches, , ,   \n; ministers, \u2013\n\nCongregationalists (New England),   \n,\n\nCongress, , , , \u2013, , ,   \n, , , , , . _See also_  \nContinental Congress\n\nconscience, xvi\u2013xvii, , \u2013, \u2013,   \n, , , , ,\n\n\"consent of the governed,\" , \u2013,\n\nConstitution of the United States. _See_  \nUnited States Constitution\n\nContinental Congress, , , , , ,   \n, , \u2013\n\ncorruption, ,\n\nCotton, John, \u2013, , , \u2013,\n\nCrashaw, William,\n\ncrime (in America), \u2013, , ; link   \nbetween poverty and,\n\ncritical thinking skills,\n\n**D**\n\nDavenport, James, ,\n\nDavies, Samuel, \u2013,\n\nDawkins, Richard, ,\n\nD-Day Invasion of Europe: presidential   \nprayer following, \u2013\n\nDeclaration of Independence, , ,   \n, , \u2013, , , , ,   \n\u2013, \u2013, \u2013,\n\nDeclaratory Act (1766), ,\n\nDefense of Marriage Act (DOMA),\n\nde La Ware, Lord. See West, Thomas\n\n_Democracy in America_ (Toqueville), \u2013\n\nDemocratic Party: defeat in 2010 midterm   \nelections,\n\nDepartment of Health and Human   \nServices, ,\n\nDickinson, Jonathan, ,\n\ndignity of human life,\n\ndiversity, \u2013, ,\n\ndivorce rate since 1960,\n\ndomestic violence,\n\ndonations,\n\nDouglas, William O.,\n\nDrake, Francis, , \u2013\n\ndrugs,\n\nDuch\u00e9, Jacob,\n\n_Dumbing Down Our Kids_ (Sykes),\n\nDuncan, Arne (secr. of education),\n\nDunham, Jason (marine corporal), \u2013\n\n**E**\n\nEastman, George,\n\neconomy (America's), , , , ,   \n\u2013, , ,\n\nEdison, Thomas, ,\n\neducation, , , , , , , :  \nhigher, , , , , , , \u2013;   \na new emphasis on (after the Great   \nAwakening), ; \u2013; public, \u2013,   \n, , ; right to a God-centered,   \n\u2013; secondary,\n\neducational performance (American),   \n\u2013\n\nEdwards, Jonathan, , \u2013, , ,   \n\u2013, , , , ,\n\nEgypt, ,\n\nelection: general: 2008, ; 2010, ;   \nmidterm: 2010, xii, , , , \u2013,   \n, , , \u2013; presidential:  \n2008, ; 2012, \u2013\n\nElizabeth I (queen), , , ,\n\nEngels, Friedrich,\n\nEngland, , , \u2013, , , , ,   \n, , , , , , \u2013, , ,   \n\u2013, , , , , , , ,   \n, , n2\n\nEnlightenment, , , , ,\n\nentrepreneurship,\n\nEnvironmental Protection Agency,\n\nevangelicalism, , ,\n\n**F**\n\nFacebook,\n\nFalwell, Jerry, \u2013\n\nfamily (traditional two-parent), ,   \n\u2013, \u2013\n\nFamily Research Council,\n\nfathers (deserting families),\n\nFeder, Don, ,\n\nfederal budget, 2011,\n\nFederalist No. ,\n\n_Feminine Mystique, The_ (Friedan),\n\nfeminist movement,\n\nfeminists, . _See also_ feminist   \nmovement\n\nfertility rate, ,\n\nFirst Continental Congress, , ,\n\nFirst Great Awakening, xiv, xvi, \u2013,   \n\u2013, , , \u2013, \u2013, ,   \n, , , \u2013, : the   \nlegacy of, \u2013\n\nFirst World War. _See_ World War I\n\nfood stamps,\n\nFord, Henry,\n\nforeign aid,\n\nFounding Fathers, xii, xiv\u2013xvi, \u2013,   \n\u2013, , , , , , , \u2013,   \n, , , , , , \u2013,   \n, , \u2013, , , \u2013,   \n\u2013: what they believed, ,   \n\u2013,\n\nFrance, , , , , , ,\n\nFranklin, Benjamin, , , \u2013, \u2013,   \n, \u2013, , ,\n\n\"free countries\" (as of 2010),\n\nFreedom House,\n\nfreedom of the press,\n\nFreedom from Religion Foundation,\n\nfreedom of speech, ,\n\nfreedom of worship,\n\nFrench Enlightenment. See   \nEnlightenment\n\nFrench Revolution, ,\n\nFriedan, Betty, \u2013\n\n**G**\n\nGallup poll, ,\n\nGarrick, David,\n\nGates, Thomas,\n\nGaustad, Edwin,\n\nGeneral Motors,\n\nGeorge II of Great Britain (king), ,\n\nGeorge III of the United Kingdom   \n(king), , , \u2013,\n\nGermany, , , , , , ,\n\nGiffords, Gabrielle, ,\n\n_Gift of Valor, The_ (Phillips),\n\nGiving USA,\n\nGladwell, Malcolm, xiii\n\nGlorious Revolution, , n24\n\nGoldman Sachs,\n\ngovernment interference, xvi, ,   \n\u2013\n\ngovernment spending, xii, , , ,   \n,\n\nGragg, Rod, \u2013\n\nGreat Awakening (1734\u20131750s). _See_  \nFirst Great Awakening\n\nGreat Britain: survival rate for cancer   \npatients,\n\nGreat Depression, \u2013,\n\nGreat Leap Forward,\n\nGreat Society, ,\n\ngreen energy,\n\n**H**\n\nHakluyt, Richard, , ,\n\nHalfway Covenant, \u2013,\n\nHancock, John, ,\n\nHannity, Sean,\n\nHarding, Warren G.,\n\nHarvard College\/University, \u2013, ,   \n\u2013\n\nhealth-care dilemma, \u2013. _See also_  \nnationalized health care\n\nhealth insurance, \u2013\n\nHenry, Patrick, , ,\n\nHeritage Foundation, , ,\n\nhistorical revisionists, n1\n\nHitchens, Christopher, ,\n\nHolland, \u2013\n\nHollander, Paul,\n\n\"hope and change,\" xiv, , , ,   \n, , , \u2013,\n\nhopelessness, ,\n\nhouse-church movement,\n\nHouse of Burgesses, \u2013, ,\n\nHumphrey, Hubert,\n\nHunt, Robert, \u2013, , n2, n3\n\nHusband, Herman,\n\nHutson, James, , \u2013\n\n**I**\n\nillegal aliens,\n\nillegitimacy, ,\n\nimperialism, , , n1\n\nindentured servants, , , , , n2\n\nIndia,\n\n_In Search of Self-Government_  \n(Rasmussen),\n\nInternal Revenue Service. _See_ IRS\n\ninternational aid societies,\n\nInternet, xiii, , , , , ,\n\nInvasion of Normandy. See D-Day   \nInvasion of Europe\n\n_Inventing the Great Awakening_  \n(Lambert), \u2013\n\ninventions, \u2013\n\n_Investor's Business Daily_ ,\n\niPad,\n\niPhone, ,\n\nIran,\n\nIraq,\n\nIRS, , ,\n\nIslamic extremism,\n\nIslamization,\n\nItaly,\n\nitinerant preachers ( _aka_ circuit riders),   \n,\n\n**J**\n\nJacobinism,\n\nJacobins, ,\n\nJames I of England (king), \u2013, , ,   \n,\n\nJames II, n24\n\nJamestown, , , \u2013, , \u2013,   \n, , , n2\n\nJapan, , , ,\n\nJay, John,\n\nJefferson, Thomas, \u2013, , , ,   \n\u2013, ,\n\n_Jesus in Beijing_ (Aikman),\n\njoblessness, ,\n\nJohnson, Lyndon, ,\n\nJones, Absalom,\n\nJudeo-Christian: ethic, \u2013;   \nheritage\/tradition, , , ,\n\nJustice Department. See U.S.  \nDepartment of Justice\n\n**K**\n\nKidd, Thomas S., ,\n\nKing James Bible, ,\n\nKirk, Russell, \u2013, ,\n\n**L**\n\nLambert, Frank, , \u2013\n\nLane, Ralph, \u2013\n\nLaud, William (archbishop), \u2013\n\nLee, Richard Henry, , \u2013, ,\n\nLeft, the, , , ,\n\nLenin, Vladimir, , \u2013,\n\nLet Freedom Ring,\n\nLevin, Mark, , \u2013\n\nLexington and Concord. _See_ Battles of   \nLexington and Concord\n\nliberal ideology, \u2013. _See also_ liberalism;   \nmodern liberalism\n\nliberalism, \u2013. _See also_ liberal ideology;   \nmodern liberalism\n\nliberals, , \u2013, , , , .  \n _See also_ secular liberals\n\n_Liberty and Tyranny_ (Levin),\n\nlife expectancy,\n\nLillback, Peter,\n\nLimbaugh, Rush,\n\nLincoln, Abraham, ,\n\nLind, Michael,\n\nLivingston, Robert,\n\nLivingston, William,\n\nLocke, John, , ,\n\nLondon Company, , , , , ,   \nn2\n\nLuther, Martin, \u2013\n\nLutherans, , \u2013, ,\n\n**M**\n\nMadison, James, , , ,\n\nmanifest destiny, , \u2013,\n\nmarriage, , , : and family issues,   \n\u2013\n\nmarried versus unmarried adults,\n\nMarshall Plan,\n\nMartin, Malachi, \u2013\n\nMary II of England, , n24\n\nMarx, Karl, , ,\n\nMarxism,\n\nMarxist: communism, ; ideology,   \n, \u2013\n\nMarxist-Leninism, , n12\n\nMassachusetts Bay Colony, \u2013,   \n\u2013, \u2013,\n\nMassachusetts Body of Liberties, \u2013\n\nmath, , , , ,\n\nMather, Cotton, ,\n\nMather, Increase,\n\nMather, Richard, ,\n\n_Mayflower_ (ship), \u2013, , , ,\n\nMayflower Compact, \u2013, ,\n\nMayhew, Jonathan, \u2013\n\nMcLoughlin, William, \u2013, \u2013,   \n\u2013\n\nMedicare and Medicaid, , ,\n\nmedical insurance, \u2013\n\nmedicine,\n\nMedved, Michael,\n\n_Menace in Europe_ (Berlinski),\n\nMennonites, ,\n\nMethodism, ,\n\nMexico, ,\n\nMiddle East, , , . _See also  \nindividual Middle Eastern countries   \nby name_\n\nmodern liberalism, \u2013: defined,\n\nMolasses Act,\n\nMoravians, ,\n\nMorison, Samuel Eliot,\n\nMorse, Jennifer Roback, \u2013\n\nMoynihan, Daniel Patrick, \u2013,\n\nMuhlenberg, Peter, \u2013\n\nmulticulturalism, \u2013,\n\nMuslim Brotherhood,\n\n**N**\n\nNational Assessment of Educational   \nProgress (NAEP), \u2013\n\nnational debt, ,\n\nnationalized health care, ,\n\nNative Americans, ,\n\nNavigation Acts,\n\nNew Deal, ,\n\nNew England colonies, , ; _see also  \nchaps_. \u2013: eighteenth-century population   \nin (chart), .\n\nNewport, Christopher, , n2\n\nNew World Order,\n\nNicholas II of Russia (czar),\n\nNietzsche, Friedrich,\n\n\/, , \u2013, ,\n\n\"no-fault divorce,\"\n\nNorthwest Ordinance (1787),\n\nNovak, Michael, , , \u2013\n\n**O**\n\nObama, Barack, \u2013, , , , ,   \n, , , \u2013,\n\nObama administration, xvi, , ,   \n, \u2013, ,\n\n_Of Plymouth Plantation_ (Bradford),\n\nOglethorpe, James, , ,\n\noriginal sin (doctrine), ,\n\nOtis, James,\n\nout-of-wedlock births, .\n\nOxford University, xiv, , , , ,\n\n**P**\n\nPaine, Thomas, \u2013\n\nParkman, Francis, ,\n\nParliament, , \u2013, , , \u2013,   \n, , \u2013, ,\n\npatriotism, , , , \u2013,\n\nPenn, William, , ,\n\nPennsylvania Colony, \u2013, \u2013,\n\nPeople for the American Way,\n\nPerkins, William, \u2013\n\npersonal accountability to God, \u2013\n\nPhillips, Michael,\n\nPilgrims, , , \u2013, , , , , ,   \n, ,\n\nPipes, Sally, ,\n\nPlanned Parenthood,\n\nPledge of Allegiance,\n\nPlymouth Colony, , , , , ,   \n,\n\nPlymouth Rock (MA), , , , ,\n\npolitical action, xv, xvi\n\npopulation, eighteenth-century, in   \nthousands, \u2013 (chart); world, and   \nreduction of humanity, n24\n\npoverty, link between crime\/illegitimacy   \nand, ; number one predictor of   \nchildhood,\n\nPowhatan nation, , \u2013\n\nPresbyterians, \u2013, , ,\n\npresidential approval rating, \u2013\n\nPrinceton University, \u2013,\n\npro-choice movement,\n\nProgressive Era,\n\nprogressives, , \u2013, ,\n\nProtestant Reformation, , ,\n\nProtestant work ethic, ,\n\npublic school history textbooks,\n\nPuritans, \u2013 , \u2013, , , , ,   \n, ,\n\nPutin, Vladimir,\n\n**Q**\n\nQuakers, ,\n\nquality of life,\n\nQuebec Act,\n\n**R**\n\nRadzinsky, Edvard,\n\nRaleigh, Walter, , \u2013,\n\nRasmussen, Scott,\n\nRasmussen Reports poll, , \u2013\n\nrationalism,\n\nReagan, Ronald, , \u2013, \u2013\n\nRealClearPolitics.com,\n\nredemptioners, , n2\n\n\"Reign of Terror,\" ,\n\nrelief organizations,\n\nreligious liberty, , , , , , ,   \n, \u2013\n\nRepublican majority (Congress), xii, ,   \n,\n\nRepublicans versus Democrats (percentage   \nof self-identified), \u2013\n\nRestoring Honor rally (2010), xi, xiii\u2013   \nxiv, ,\n\nRevolutionary War. See American   \nRevolution\n\nright to a fair hearing,\n\nRoanoke colony, , \u2013,\n\nRobinson, John, ,\n\n_Roe v. Wade_ ,\n\nRolfe, John,\n\nRoosevelt, Franklin, \u2013\n\nRush, Benjamin,\n\nRussia, , \u2013, , \u2013, ,   \n, , n12\n\n**S**\n\n_Sacred Fire_ (Lillback),\n\nSalem Church Covenant,\n\nSandoz, Ellis, ,\n\nSandys, Edwin, ,\n\nscience, , , \u2013, , ,\n\nScotch-Irish, : Presbyterians,   \n\u2013,\n\nScottish emigration (to America),   \n\u2013,\n\nScrooby Congregation, , , , ,   \nn2\n\nsecular liberals, , \u2013, \u2013,\n\nsenior citizens and health care,\n\nsensitivity training,\n\n\"separation of church and state,\" ,\n\nseparation of powers,\n\nseparatists, \u2013, \u2013, , n2\n\nSeptember , 2001. See \/\n\nsermons, \u2013, , , , , , ,   \n\u2013, , , \u2013, , ,   \n\u2013, \u2013\n\nsexual promiscuity,\n\nSharia law,\n\nsingle mothers,\n\n\"Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God\"  \n(Edwards), , , \u2013\n\nslaves, , , , , ,\n\nSmith, John, , , , n2\n\nsocialism, , , , , ,\n\nsocialized medicine. See nationalized   \nhealth care\n\nSocial Security, ,\n\nsocial welfare programs,\n\nsoft tyranny,\n\nSolzhenitsyn, Aleksandr, , n12\n\n_Some Thoughts Concerning the Present  \nRevival of Religion_ (Edwards),\n\nSoviet Union, xv, , , , \u2013,   \n. _See also_ Russia\n\nSowell, Thomas,\n\nSpalding, Matthew,\n\nspending (government), xii, , ,   \n, ,\n\nStalin, Joseph, ,\n\nStamp Act, , ,\n\nstate socialism, , . _See also_  \nsocialism\n\nstay-at-home mothers,\n\nSteinem, Gloria,\n\nsteps toward real constructive change,   \n\u2013: things you can do today,   \n\u2013\n\nStoddard, Solomon, \u2013\n\nStory, Joseph,\n\n_Study of History_ , A (Toynbee),\n\nsubprime mortgage lenders,\n\nSugar Act,\n\nSullenberger, Chesley \"Sully,\" \u2013\n\nSykes, Charles J.,\n\n**T**\n\ntalk radio, ,\n\ntaxation without representation, ,   \n,\n\nTea Act, ,\n\nTea Party, , , , \u2013,   \n\u2013, : Express, ; movement,   \nxv, , , , \u2013, \u2013;   \nPatriots,\n\ntechnology, , ,\n\nTen Commandments (in public places),\n\nTennent, Gilbert, , , , ,\n\nThere's Hope Ministries, , \u2013\n\n_Tipping Point, The_ (Gladwell), xiii\n\nTocqueville, Alexis de, \u2013,\n\ntotalitarianism, , n12\n\nToynbee, Arnold, \u2013\n\ntraditional monogamous family,   \n\u2013, \u2013\n\nTuchman, Barbara,\n\nTurkey: Obama's press conference in,   \n, ,\n\nTwitter feeds,\n\n**U**\n\nUlster Scots,\n\n\"unalienable rights,\" , , ,\n\nunemployment\/joblessness, , ,\n\n_Unfailing Promise, The_ (Lee),\n\nUnited States Constitution, , , , ,   \n, , \u2013, , \u2013, , ,   \n, , , , ,\n\nU.S. Census Bureau, ,\n\nU.S. Department of Justice (under   \nObama),\n\nU.S. House of Representatives, xii, ,   \n, , \u2013\n\n****\n\nVenezuela,\n\nviolent crime,\n\nVirginia Colony, , \u2013\n\nvolunteerism,\n\nvoters: concerned with the economy,   \nwith government ethics, ; numbers   \nwho were registered, voted, and   \ndidn't vote in 2010 election, ;   \npercentage who feel the country is   \nheaded in the right direction,\n\n**W\u2013X**\n\nWall Street, , ,\n\nWalpole, Robert,\n\nWar of Independence. _See_ American   \nRevolution\n\nWar on Terrorism,\n\nWarren, Joseph,\n\nWashington, George, , , , ,   \n, , ,\n\nwelfare state, ,\n\nWesley, Charles, ,\n\nWesley, John, \u2013, , ,\n\nWest, Thomas, , , n5\n\nWhitaker, Alexander,\n\nWhite, John (capt.),\n\nWhitefield, George, \u2013, , ,   \n\u2013, \u2013, \u2013, ,\n\nWilliam III of England (William of   \nOrange), , n24\n\nWilliams, Brian,\n\nWilliams, Elisha,\n\nWilliams, Roger, ,\n\nWinthrop, John, \u2013\n\nWoodmason, Charles, n26\n\n\"Worker's Paradise,\" \u2013,\n\nWorld Trade Center, . See also \/\n\nWorld War I, ,\n\nWorld War , , , ,\n\nWright, Orville and Wilbur,\n\n**Y**\n\nYakunin, Gleb,\n\nYale College (now Yale University),   \n\u2013, ,\n\n**Z**\n\n_Zorach v. Clauson_ , \nABOUT THE AUTHOR\n\nDR. RICHARD LEE is the founding pastor of First Redeemer Church in metropolitan Atlanta. He is also the speaker for the award-winning _There's Hope America_ television series and is widely recognized as a popular spokesman on the influence of America's religious history and its impact upon today's culture.\n\nDr. Lee is a frequent speaker at national conventions and on university campuses and media outlets across the country, including FOX News, Fox Business News, CBS News, BBC, and CNN. His articles have appeared in publications such as _USA Today_ , _London_ _Times_ , _L.A. Times_ , _Essence_ , and _Newsweek_.\n\nHe is the author of eighteen popular books; his more recent work, _The American Patriot's Bible_ , reached the number five spot on Amazon.com's bestseller list.\n\nDr. Lee was educated at Mercer University and Luther Rice Seminary with postdoctoral studies at Oxford University. He also serves as a member of the prestigious Oxford Round Table, Oxford, England.\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}}
+{"text":"\n## **Advance Praise for  \n _The Power of Servant-Leadership_**\n\n_\"The Power of Servant-Leadership_ is an extraordinary collection of Robert Greenleaf's finest and most mature essays on servant-leadership, spirit, and wholeness. Today there is a growing worldwide movement of people and organizations\u2014deeply committed to servant-leadership\u2014who have been inspired by Greenleaf's earlier writings. Beautifully enriched by Peter Vaill's Foreword, Jim Shannon's Afterword, and Larry Spears's Introduction, _The Power of Servant-Leadership_ is a wonderful and unexpected gift to the world. It is destined to become a classic.\"\n\n**_Max DePree_** , _author of_ Leading Without Power _and_ Leadership is an Art\n\n\"No one in the past 30 years has had a more profound impact on thinking about leadership than Robert Greenleaf. If we sought an objective measure of the quality of leadership available to society, there would be none better than the number of people reading and studying Robert Greenleaf's writings.\"\n\n**_Peter M. Senge_** , _author of_ The Fifth Discipline\n\n\"It is wonderful to have access to Greenleaf's visionary thought in _The Power of Servant-Leadership_. Every time I read him, I am both humbled and awed. Nearly thirty years ago he wrote clearly and forcefully about the issues that still challenge us today. It is time to act on his visions, and this volume is a great help for stepping into the future that Greenleaf describes so eloquently.\"\n\n**_Margaret J. Wheatley_** , _author of_ Leadership and the New Science, _co-author of_ A Simpler Way\n\n\"The most difficult steps, Greenleaf has written, that any developing servant-leader must take, is to begin the personal journey toward wholeness and self-discovery. This new collection of essays, written with exceptional depth and grace, offer Robert Greenleaf's most powerful insights about this journey. Anyone interested in the most subtle yet most important aspects of the emerging leadership paradigm must read this book.\"\n\n**_Joseph Jaworski_** , _author of_ Synchronicity\n\n\"In my area of work, I've found that the concept of servant-leadership is crucial to advance governing boards beyond their current primitive state. _The Power of Servant-Leadership_ assembles Greenleaf's groundbreaking observations in an accessible and concentrated form for today's busy readers.\"\n\n**_John Carver_** , _author of_ Boards That Make a Difference\n\n\"The writings of Robert Greenleaf grow as the reader matures in leadership and understanding of the cultural transformation taking place around us. The essays in _The Power of Servant-Leadership_ take on new meaning with each reading and are well worth continuing reflection. We first met Greenleaf in 1978. Each year since, we have grown to discover fresh dimensions within his writing and thought. Like special mentors, these penetrating essays will continue to guide you like the wise words alive in your memory when needed.\"\n\n**_Ann McGee-Cooper and Duane Trammell_** , _co-authors of_ You Don't Have To Go Home From Work Exhausted!\n\n\"Bob Greenleaf was the first author on leadership to emphasize that human institutions mean far more than results or success or profits. He believed that we exist in order to cooperate with others to achieve purposes beyond ourselves, for some greater collective good. These splendidly thoughtful essays elaborate on that theme. I've read each of them over the past 20 or so years, and it's about time they've been published in one place. A blessing for all of us.\"\n\n**_Warren Bennis_** , _Distinguished Professor, Marshall School of Business at the University of Southern California, author of_ Organizing Genius\n\n\"We are greatly encouraged to know that the servant-leadership movement will have access to these inspiring and important writings of Robert Greenleaf. These are reflective and burnished works. For many who have had their lives affected by Greenleaf, they will be a promise fulfilled. For those who will be introduced to servant-leadership through these essays, the experience will be a welcoming introduction.\"\n\n**_Dr. John C. Burkhardt_** , _Program Director, Leadership and Higher Education, W.K. Kellogg Foundation_\n\n\"Robert Greenleaf's unique voice speaks to what, in the end, matters most in the life of a leader\u2014how _others_ have grown and prospered. Though conceived and composed years ago, Greenleaf is profoundly modern, and with the mature wisdom of experience he guides us to the essence of our current search for meaning and purpose. _The Power of Servant-Leadership_ is an extraordinary collection of a master's work, and Greenleaf's voice will resonate in your soul long after you have read the last word.\"\n\n**_Jim Kouzes_** , _Chairman and CEO, TPG\/Learning Systems, co-author of_ The Leadership Challenge and Credibility\n\n\"I am honored to add my voice to those in praise of _The Power of Servant-Leadership_. Even though it has been many years since Robert Greenleaf first gave the world his compelling insights, there has never been a time when we needed servant-leadership more than we need it now. Who knows how long business will be suffering the destructive residue of a generation of gunslinger superstar CEOs who, in their excessively narrow definition of \"stockholder value,\" have created workplaces of fear and anxiety? The only salvation of the workplace as a source of personal meaning and purpose is to develop and reinforce manager-leaders who will embrace the values of Robert Greenleaf. I hope that this book will be a powerful tool in that effort.\"\n\n**_James A. Autry_** , _author,_ Love & Profit _and_ Confessions of an Accidental Businessman\n\n\"Management thought has always been captivated by innovation, always looking for a quick fix in five or seven lessons. The overconfidence such neophilia generates is already beginning to produce a reaction\u2014the friendly critics of capitalism from George Soros to Charles Handy signal growing dissatisfaction with superficial formulas. Robert Greenleaf is not about formulas; Greenleaf is about wisdom. Wisdom is a rare and precious thing, perhaps too precious for best-seller lists, too demanding for people in search of easy answers. For people willing to think about organizational life and culture, Greenleaf is indispensable.\"\n\n**_Robert L. Payton_** , _author_ , Philanthropy: Voluntary Action for the Public Good\n\n\"That Robert Greenleaf wrote the essays on leadership in this beautiful collection some years ago hardly vitiates their importance. Today they are more relevant\u2014and more accepted by thoughtful leaders\u2014than ever before. Using words ranging from E. B. White's commentary on the \"gift of language\" to the warning in Proverbs that \"where there is no vision, the people perish,\" the author articulates profound ideas that, in this rapid-fire age of global technology, are more critical to effective leadership than ever before. Yes, the leader is\u2014must also be\u2014the servant. Mr. Greenleaf, far before his time, got it just right.\"\n\n**_John Bogle_** , _Chairman, The Vanguard Group; author,_ Bogle on Mutual Funds\n\n\"With so many publications now directing leaders to look beyond enterprise gains to find meaning and wholeness, it is most timely to revisit Robert Greenleaf's servant-leadership ideas in _The Power of Servant-Leadership_. Progressive leaders are compelled to build sustainable value, social accountability, trust and integrity in the workplace, and purpose and character in the corporation. Greenleaf's writings are sure to focus such leaders' endeavors on the heart and soul of the organization: its own people.\n\n**_Kendrick B. Melrose_** , _Chairman and CEO, The Toro Company; author,_ Making the Grass Greener on Your Side\n\n\"At last, these timeless essays by Robert Greenleaf gathered in a single volume. Buy one for yourself, and one for each of your children and grandchildren. They will thank you even as we thank this great servant-leader.\"\n\n**_Frances Hesselbein_** , _President, The Drucker Foundation; co-editor,_ The Community of the Future, The Leader of the Future, The Organization of the Future\n**The Power of Servant-Leadership**\nAlso Edited by Larry C. Spears\n\n_Insights on Leadership: Service, Stewardship, Spirit and Servant-Leadership,_ 1998\n\n_On Becoming a Servant-Leader_ (with Don M. Frick), 1996\n\n_Seeker and Servant_ (with Anne T. Fraker), 1996\n\n_Reflections on Leadership: How Robert K. Greenleaf's Theory of Servant-Leadership Influenced Today's Top Management Thinkers,_ 1995\n\nAs Contributing Author\n\n_Stone Soup for the World_ , edited by Marianne Larned, 1998\n\n_Leadership in a New Era_ , edited by John Renesch, 1994\n\n# **The Power of Servant-Leadership**\n\nESSAYS BY ROBERT K. GREENLEAF\n\nEDITED BY LARRY C. SPEARS\n\n_Foreword by Peter B. Vaill_\n\n_Afterword by James P. Shannon_\n\n**The Power of Servant Leadership**\n\nCopyright \u00a9 1998 by The Greenleaf Center for Servant-Leadership\n\nAll rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other noncommercial uses permitted by copyright law. For permission requests, write to the publisher, addressed \"Attention: Permissions Coordinator,\" at the address below.\n\n---\n\n  | **Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc.**  \n235 Montgomery Street, Suite 650  \nSan Francisco, California 94104-2916  \nTel: (415) 288-0260, Fax: (415) 362-2512  \nwww.bkconnection.com\n\n**Ordering information for print editions**\n\n_Quantity sales._ Special discounts are available on quantity purchases by corporations, associations, and others. For details, contact the \"Special Sales Department\" at the Berrett-Koehler address above.\n\n_Individual sales_. Berrett-Koehler publications are available through most bookstores. They can also be ordered directly from Berrett-Koehler: Tel: (800) 929-2929; Fax: (802) 864-7626; www.bkconnection.com\n\n_Orders for college textbook\/course adoption use_. Please contact Berrett-Koehler: Tel: (800) 929-2929; Fax: (802) 864-7626.\n\n_Orders by U.S. trade bookstores and wholesalers_. Please contact Ingram Publisher Services, Tel: (800) 509-4887; Fax: (800) 838-1149; E-mail: customer.service@ingrampublisherservices.com; or visit www.ingrampublisherservices.com\/Ordering for details about electronic ordering.\n\nBerrett-Koehler and the BK logo are registered trademarks of Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc.\n\nFirst Edition\n\nPaperback print edition ISBN 978-1-57675-035-3  \nPDF e-book ISBN 978-1-60994-145-1  \nIDPF e-book ISBN 978-1-62656-392-6\n\n2014-1\n\nText design: Detta Penna. Cover design: Cassandra Chu.\n\n## **Table of Contents**\n\nAbout the Author\n\n_Foreword_ by Peter B. Vaill\n\nPreface\n\nAcknowledgements\n\n_Introduction_ by Larry C. Spears\n\n1. Servant: Retrospect and Prospect\n\n2. Education and Maturity\n\n3. The Leadership Crisis\n\n4. Have You a Dream Deferred?\n\n5. The Servant as Religious Leader\n\n6. Seminary as Servant\n\n7. My Debt to E. B. White\n\n8. Old Age: The Ultimate Test of Spirit\n\n_Afterword_ by James P. Shannon\n\nReferences and Permissions\n\nGreenleaf Bibliography\n\nIndex\n\nAbout the Editor and The Greenleaf Center\n\n## **About the Author**\n\nRobert K. Greenleaf spent most of his organizational life in the field of management research, development, and education at AT&T. Just before his retirement as director of management research there, he held a joint appointment as visiting lecturer of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's Sloan School of Management and at the Harvard Business School. In addition, he held teaching positions at both Dartmouth College and the University of Virginia.\n\nHis consultancies included Ohio University; MIT; the Ford Foundation; the R.K. Mellon Foundation; Lilly Endowment, Inc.; and the American Foundation for Management Research.\n\nAs a consultant to universities, businesses, foundations, and churches during the tumultuous 1960s and 1970s, his eclectic and wide-ranging curiosity, reading, and contemplation provided an unusual background for observing these institutions.\n\nAs a lifelong student of organization\u2014that is, how things get done\u2014he distilled these observations in a series of essays on the theme of \"the servant as leader,\" the objective of which is to stimulate thought and action for building a better, more caring society.\n\nRobert K. Greenleaf, who died in 1990, is the author of four other books in addition to _The Power of Servant-Leadership_. They are: _On Becoming a Servant-Leader_ (1996), _Seeker and Servant_ (1996), _Teacher as Servant_ (1979), and _Servant-Leadership_ (1977).\n\n## **Foreword**\n\nPETER B. VAILL, UNIVERSITY OF ST. THOMAS\n\nIn a favorite book of meditations, John Thom, a 19th-century clergyman, is quoted as follows:\n\nThe real corrupters of society may be, not the corrupt, but those who have held back the righteous leaven, the salt that has Lost its savor, the innocent who have not even the moral courage to show what they think of the effrontery of impurity, the serious, who yet timidly succeed before some loud-voiced scoffer\u2014the heart trembling all over with religious sensibilities that yet suffers itself through false shame to be beaten down into outward and practical acquiescence by some rude and worldly nature. (Tileston, 1934, p. 221)\n\nBob Greenleaf could have written this paragraph. He might have been a little more informal about the matter. He would have been careful not to sound holier than thou as he spoke of the lack of moral courage and \"hearts trembling with false shame.\" I do think, though, that these last essays of his reveal over and over, in dozens of ways, the courage the paragraph calls for. Greenleaf would have smiled at the realization that his work indeed can be seen as the \"righteous leaven\" for his favorite subject: organizations and how things get done in them.\n\nI feel privileged to be able to introduce this collection. I don't begin to think I understand these essays in their true depth and implications, but repeatedly as I have read through them and reflected on them, I find myself saying, \"Yes, he's right and what he's saying is terribly important.\" His deceptively casual writing style draws me into thinking along with him. I am sure other readers have the same experience with his thought that I do\u2014of finding him saying something that is just about in so many words what has occurred to one independently. Yet I never find him derivative or simply rehashing. Instead I, at least, find myself wondering why I haven't been more insistent about the point Greenleaf is making, why I haven't taken the idea and made it the righteous leaven of my work. His is both a familiar voice and an original one.\n\nGreenleaf has what we may call a \"big idea.\" It is the idea of the servant as leader, and many of these essays are his last explorations of the extraordinary implications of that notion. The big idea is that leadership, in the final analysis, must be about service. That is the only way it can both sustain itself as leadership and truly offer to its colleagues and \"followers\" the benefits of its insights and its energy. Greenleaf's idea resolves one of the oldest paradoxes of the leadership field: how can a leader be both concerned about the \"task\" and mindful of the \"social,\" \"concerned for production and concerned for people,\" \"effective\" in getting work done and \"efficient\" in not causing all kinds of human problems in the process? Every leadership theory tries in one way or another to deal with both of these \"dimensions.\" The big idea about service\u2014Greenleaf probably would not like this description\u2014is that it is both an attitudinal and behavioral concept. It combines a concern for getting things done with attention to the needs of those who are getting things done. There are not two functions; there is only one\u2014servanthood.\n\nGreenleaf's challenge is to make a worldly and pressured\u2014and somewhat distracted, exhausted, and frightened\u2014society of leaders and potential leaders believe it. These essays are the last we shall see of him speaking his truth as plainly and insistently as he can.\n\nIn the next few paragraphs, I want to say a few more things about the big idea. Then I will close with a few more reflections about Greenleaf the man.\n\nThere are five themes in Greenleaf's way of talking about \"the servant as leader\" that strike me as quite significant. They are as follows: (1) the grammar of the phrase itself; (2) Greenleaf's commitment to practice; (3) the importance of mission; (4) the nature and role of \"persuasion\"; and (5) his idea about a \"theology of institutions.\" These five themes appear repeatedly throughout his writings, yet, except for his discussion of mission, Greenleaf himself is frequently so offhand and low-keyed in the way he talks that the significance of the idea may be missed.\n\n**1. The grammar of \"the servant as leader.\"** As the reader is no doubt aware, Greenleaf's idea is frequently abbreviated to \"servant-leadership,\" or \"servant leadership.\" For purposes of economy and simplicity, it is probably necessary to abbreviate Greenleaf's phrase in this fashion. But the danger is that a key feature of his big idea will be thereby lost. In the phrase \"the servant as leader\" (which after all was Greenleaf's title for the original seminal essay), the subject is the servant or service; the predicate is the leader. His phrase is an application of the philosophy of service to the practice of leadership.\n\nAs is apparent in various writings in the present volume, service was the most important thing for Greenleaf. He frequently takes the time to ground the phrase in biblical references and connect it to the deepest yearnings of the human spirit. To be sure, Greenleaf is deeply concerned about leadership, but his concern is that it is being practiced (and theorized about) without reference to service. For Greenleaf, service is the moral dimension of prime importance, not just for leadership but for life. It is service he fears has been lost sight of, not leadership. To put it compactly, I think Greenleaf is saying that leadership is a special case of service; he is not saying that service is a special case of leadership.\n\nThis distinction is important because we live in a period when there is an almost frantic casting about by leaders and leadership thinkers for answers to the profound dilemmas of leadership in our turbulent and unpredictable world. Some will take up Greenleaf's notion and test it for the extent to which it \"solves their leadership problem.\" The \"servant as leader\" idea does not solve the leadership problem in the sense that leaders and scholars might hope. If anything, it will frustrate and annoy such seekers. Soon we will hear them saying, \"Servant-leadership? Oh yeah, right, we tried that.\" But this misunderstands Greenleaf's challenge. As I understand him, he is not asking, \"What service can you render as a leader?\" but rather \"What leadership can you exercise as a servant?\"\n\n**2. Greenleaf's commitment to practice**. Repeatedly in these essays, Greenleaf reminds us that he is writing about the servant as leader as a student of how things get done in organizations. He wants us to look concretely at the way the actions and attitudes of service can transform relations among concrete human beings. His short answer to the question, I think, would be, \"In the long run, things get done among human beings, including within organizations, by people serving one another.\" That is what his experience has taught him, and for which he thinks there is overwhelming confirmatory evidence throughout human history.\n\nGreenleaf's interest in practice has several dimensions that, taken together, give him quite a different outlook from most other contemporary writers on leadership. For one thing, he knows how complex any process of action is in an organization. His repeated references to his own business experience as well as to his many extensive contacts with other organizations make clear that he has no illusions about how unstable and dicey organizational action can be. His commitment to action is also seen in his consistent attention to the process by which his ideas can be implemented. Just about when I, as a reader, am thinking, \"Sounds good, but how are you going to do that?\" it turns out that Greenleaf has been asking himself the same question; and so he proceeds to offer a few thoughts about how what he is talking about can happen.\n\nAnother feature of his commitment to practice is his concern for the process by which more servant-leaders can be produced. Yes, he wants men and women in positions of influence to consider his ideas, but he is equally concerned with increasing the sheer number of younger men and women who will be helped to develop as servant-leaders.\n\nThis concern leads him to challenge educational institutions in exactly the way that they (as a professor, I should say \"we\") need to be challenged: we in higher education know that only by accident are we producing visionary young men and women who aspire to leadership, to the extent we are producing them at all. We don't like to admit it. Greenleaf has found us out.\n\nFinally, his concern for practice focuses him on the _way_ that any organization works. It is clear in this book that in the later years of his life, as well as at AT&T, he moved among the high and the mighty of society's major institutions: universities, businesses, foundations, and the like. As he quietly but firmly repeats his interest in how things get done, it is as if he were saying, \"I know all of you are terribly important people who feel that what your organizations do is terribly important in society. But my angle of vision has taught me something about the way your institutions work and don't work that perhaps you are unaware of.\" We live in an age of \"content experts\" who know all about moon landings and heart transplants and giga-sized databases and global markets and transformations of the biosphere\u2014and many of them are leading or aspire to lead institutions concerned with those things. Greenleaf is a process expert, and he has been thinking about phenomena that often get lost in the swirl of events that our organizational leaders are so good at triggering.\n\n**3. The importance of mission.** One can hardly read a page of these essays without encountering Greenleaf's deep beliefs about the importance of mission in organizations. He, of course, is not the only or the first writer on organizations to declare the importance of mission. But as we reflect along with him in his various discussions of missions, I encourage us to keep in mind a deep conundrum\u2014one that I think Greenleaf himself is quite aware of. The question is, Where does a sense of mission come from? The power and importance of mission, once articulated, is unquestionable. But how does it happen? What is the process by which a deep sense of an organization's reason to be gets into the collective psyche of its members? Greenleaf realizes what a tough question this is. He also realizes that a convenient answer is that some charismatic individual steps forward and articulates a mission full-blown\u2014and there are even places in these essays where Greenleaf seems to be personally attracted to this \"Great Man\" model of leadership.\n\nBut I think he knows better. Without denying that a single individual can occasionally say or do something that has the requisite galvanizing effect, Greenleaf knows that servanthood is not about stepping forward and taking charge. Rather, I think he understands that there has to be such a thing as service to the mission-formulation and articulation process itself. That is different from doing people's thinking and feeling for them. Greenleaf's servant-leader is a servant of the organization's learning process, I think. About that, the servant-leader is tough-minded and unflinching. Ways must be found whereby organization members can come together on a dream.\n\n**4. The nature and role of persuasion.** Greenleaf is particularly eloquent about the role of _persuasion_ in servant-leadership. He uses the term in its everyday sense, and I think he would not be impressed with what the academic world has done with the concept. Nor would he accept a cynical view of persuasion that equates it to manipulation or slick rhetoric.\n\nThere is healthy and honest persuasion. I think Greenleaf wants us to envision ordinary conversation between people where at least one, but hopefully many or most, are trying to say things to each other and do things for each other that are in service of a common dream or sense of mission that they share. \"Persuasion\" is the process of one person co-creating to another or others what he or she thinks pursuit of the mission entails, including statements about the meaning of the mission and\/or the need for new attention to its meaning. The service is in the thought, the creativity, the information, the experience, and the energetic vision the co-creator feels. I have seen these conversations many times. They occur all the time in excellent organizations\u2014what in a series of studies some years ago I called \"high performing systems.\" In these conversations committed people are doing everything they can to help each other. Greenleaf doesn't see why a more widespread philosophy of service to a mission or a dream can't occur almost anywhere. My own studies and experience convince me he is quite right: there is no type of organized human activity where mutual service to a common vision and the energetic reminding of each other of what is involved (i.e., persuasion) cannot happen.\n\n**5. A theology of institutions.** I find Greenleaf's speculations on the idea of a theology of institutions or organizations one of the most interesting and original notions in his writings. While quick to state that he is not a theologian, and therefore does not know what is required for a body of ideas to be a worked-out theology, he nonetheless seems very sure that such a theology is needed and should be possible. He does not see why, if there can be a theology of persons, there cannot be a theology of organizations.\n\nHe is not talking about theocracy, not about top-down governance and control by theocratic principles and doctrines. He is far too independent a thinker and a man for that. No, I think he wants us to reflect on what the fundamental nature of a human organization is; how we regard it. Is it a pure invention for secular purposes? Just a vehicle, at bottom an ad hoc arrangement with no claim to a deeper significance and justification for its existence? My guess is that Greenleaf perceives intuitively that the mission or vision or dream has a quality beyond its verbal, secular content. He would like to see us work out what this quality is, and his hunch is that when we do we will find ourselves reflecting on the relation of this dream to the spiritual worldviews that we are already familiar with for persons. My main point, though, is to invite the reader to reflect deeply on these comments of Greenleaf's about a theology of institutions. They may turn out to be among his most original and significant insights.\n\n### **A Final Word**\n\nMost of the essays in this volume have been previously published in pamphlet form by the Greenleaf Center for Servant-Leadership. At the back of most of these pamphlets is a brief biography of Greenleaf and a photograph of him taken apparently late in life. This photograph of Greenleaf may have a significance in his life or for those close to him that I am not aware of. Inquiries at the Center did not result in any particular stories about the photo or the reasons for its use.\n\nYet I consider it so extraordinary an image\u2014one that stimulates thoughts and feelings in me that are pertinent to the spirit of these essays and to this Foreword. The picture is almost a direct frontal of his head and shoulders, open-collared and informal. He is turned very slightly to his left from the camera and the effect is to place the left half of his face almost completely in shadow while the right side remains fully illuminated. His silky white hair lies smoothly on the right side of his head but is invisible on the left. The head is tilted just slightly upward and the mouth is set in a patient composed line\u2014not preparing to speak, but not relaxed either. Even though half-lit, the nose is strong and suggests that in profile he might have been distinctly \"hawklike.\" It is a striking picture, and made the more so by one final feature: it is dramatically off-center. Greenleaf's head and shoulders occupy the right half of the picture, but the left half is blank space. This left half is strongly illuminated at the bottom and shades to black at the top, but is completely empty. Most of us, on pulling such a snapshot out of the envelope in the supermarket parking lot, would immediately judge the picture to be not worth saving because it is so off-center. The longer I look at this picture the more I am stimulated to think about Greenleaf as a person. There is a darkness running through his writings. He is writing about terribly complex problems which contain the potential for some very bad outcomes\u2014and he knows it. Yet he is not wringing his hands, not paralyzed with alarm. The mouth is composed; the eyes are sharply engaged, but kindly (this judgment about the eyes being one that a friend of mine independently described the same way). The shadow down the middle of the face with the wispy white hair and the off-center placement make me feel as if I am sitting there talking to him, perhaps in the evening with late light coming horizontally through the window onto half of his face as he sits talking to me.\n\nThe slight uptilt to the head, the direct gaze, and the mouth that has said a lot and could say more but does not at the moment feel the need, combine in a sort of friendly but quizzical challenge. \"I am coming from both darkness and light,\" says the face, \"both out of problems and possibilities. I may even be a little off-center myself in my understanding of these things. But tell me: are you going to do anything about them?\" Am I\u2014are we\u2014indeed?\n\n#### _References_\n\nTileston, M. _Daily Strength for Daily Needs_. New York: Putnam, 1934. (Originally published in 1884)\n\n## **Preface**\n\n_The Power of Servant-Leadership_ is an extraordinary collection of Robert K. Greenleaf's mature and final writings on the concept of servant-leadership. Servant-leadership, itself, is an important part of the emerging leadership and management paradigm for the 21st century. Today, there is a growing movement of people and organizations that have been influenced by servant-leadership. _The Power of Servant-Leadership_ offers Robert Greenleaf's own insights on the interrelated subjects of serving and leading, wholeness and spirit.\n\nIn 1970, retired AT&T executive Robert K. Greenleaf coined the term _servant-leadership_ to describe a kind of leadership that he felt was largely missing from organizations. It was Greenleaf's belief that leadership ought to be based on serving the needs of others and on helping those who are served to become \"healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants.\" Over the next 20 years, Greenleaf wrote a series of highly influential books and essays, which have helped lead the way for the emerging model in leadership and management. _The Power of Servant-Leadership_ is intended to stimulate and inspire many people in their practice of a more caring, serving kind of leadership.\n\nFor those readers who may already be familiar with Greenleaf's classic book, _Servant Leadership_ (1977, Paulist Press), _The Power of Servant-Leadership_ represents, in many ways, a true sequel. For others, this book will serve as a good introduction to the concept and practice of servant-leadership and to the insightful ideas of Robert K. Greenleaf.\n\n_The Power of Servant-Leadership_ is a collection of eight essays by Robert Greenleaf, most of which were originally published as separate pamphlets by The Greenleaf Center. Because of their pamphlet format, these essays have not been previously available in bookstores or libraries, and they have had a far too limited readership. Many of the essays contained in this book were published during a ten-year period from 1977 to 1987. They include some of Greenleaf's most original, powerful, and final works. Many of them reflect Greenleaf's own continual refinement of the servant-as-leader concept; several others focus on the related issues of spirit, commitment to vision, and seeing things whole.\n\nAs an aid to the reader, the following is a brief, thumbnail description of each of the eight Greenleaf essays included in this volume.\n\n##### _\"Servant: Retrospect and Prospect\"_\n\nThis is a reflection on ten years of working with the ferment that the publication of \"The Servant as Leader\" generated. Mind-sets that enforce rigidity in our society and frustrate reformers are identified in universities, health professions, churches, institutions, and businesses. Greenleaf addresses the creation of liberating visions that are required to surmount these mind-sets.\n\n##### _\"Education and Maturity\"_\n\nThe meaning of maturity is explored as a lifelong journey of developing one's own unique potential into personal significance and character, while recognizing the relationship between using work as a means of fulfillment and conformity as an essential element of effective society.\n\n##### _\"The Leadership Crisis\"_\n\nThis thought-provoking essay suggests why the institutions of our day, and our society in general, are all suffering from a leadership crisis. Greenleaf suggests a solution to this dilemma by defining three kinds of power, their uses, and their limitations. He also describes the necessary role of a \"great dream,\" or vision, and the effective use of persuasive power in the life of an institution.\n\n##### _\"Have You a Dream Deferred?\"_\n\nBy redefining responsibility for growth and constructive influence, an opportunity to build a new ethic challenges those who seek to reach their potential in serving the public interest. Focus is placed on the qualities of a lifestyle of distinction.\n\n##### _\"The Servant as Religious Leader\"_\n\nFrom the perspective of organization (how things get done), rather than as a scholar or theologian, this essay addresses the phenomenon of \"spirit\" on which all leadership is so dependent that it may never be capsulized. The central theme is: Work! Do something! Work to increase the number of spiritual leaders (not just in churches, but everywhere) who are capable of holding their own against the forces of destruction and indifference.\n\n##### _\"Seminary as Servant\"_\n\nSeminaries of all denominations are identified, along with some foundations, as standing in a strategic position to generate a much-needed liberating and prophetic vision. They are seen as having the opportunity to choose a greater vision of service to society than that to which most aspire. _Seminary as Servant_ is addressed to those who would take the risks of leadership to move the seminary from where it is to the greater place it might be.\n\n##### _\"My Debt to E. B. White\"_\n\nThis lively essay traces the influence of author E. B. White on Greenleaf's thinking over a period of 55 years. He concludes that two of White's abilities\u2014\"seeing things whole\" and \"the gift of language to express what he saw\"\u2014were key to his power as a writer. The lifelong personal development these insights stimulated in the author sings through this essay in quotations and examples.\n\n##### _\"Old Age: The Ultimate Test of Spirit\"_\n\nHere a gathering of personal reflections from 83 years of living, working, thinking, and learning weaves a definition of _spirit_ as \"the driving force behind the motive to serve,\" and defines the test of old age as the time to assess one's active life and to achieve serenity from knowing that one has served. Greenleaf identifies those significant people, events, and things that helped him\u2014and that may help others\u2014learn to live wholly in the moment of \"now\" and to pay attention to the things that make life more rewarding. One of the very last pieces written by Robert Greenleaf, \"Old Age: The Ultimate Test of Spirit\" contains great wisdom. This essay of depth and grace ranks alongside the finest writings of such American essayists as Emerson and Thoreau.\n\nRobert Greenleaf's own writings are increasingly in demand as both he and the servant-leadership concept have become much better known since his death in September of 1990. Following the publication of his classic book, _Servant Leadership,_ in 1977, Greenleaf went on to write a series of separately published essays. Most of these essays, ranging between 12 and 70 pages each, were individually published over a ten-year period by The Greenleaf Center. In the collection of these essays in one book, readers now have an opportunity to delve into some of Robert Greenleaf's very best writings and to understand in greater detail the ideas and practices that make up servant-leadership.\n\nThe richness of this volume has been further deepened by Peter Vaill's Foreword and by Jim Shannon's Afterword. Peter Vaill is a noted consultant and professor of human systems and the author of _Managing as a Performing Art_ and _Learning as a Way of Being_. Jim Shannon's remarkable career has included time as a former priest, college president, lawyer, and head of the General Mills Foundation. He is currently a senior advisor to the Council on Foundations. Both Vaill and Shannon have read and reread Greenleaf's writings over many years, and through their contributions to this book, each has provided helpful insights into the significance of Greenleaf and servant-leadership.\n\nI view the growing trend toward servant-leadership as a reflection of the ongoing maturation of humankind. It is my sincere hope that this movement toward servant-leadership will find an even greater expression in the decades and centuries to come. Through his writings on the servant-as-leader idea, Robert Greenleaf has increasingly become known as an intellectual trailblazer in leadership and management, and as someone who is helping to lead many of us into a more caring and thoughtful 21st century.\n\n_Larry C. Spears  \nIndianapolis, Indiana  \nAugust, 1998_\n\n## **Acknowledgments**\n\nI am particularly indebted to my colleagues at The Greenleaf Center for Servant-Leadership\u2014Tamyra Freeman, Nancy Larner, Michele Lawrence, Isabel Lopez, Geneva Loudd, Jim Robinson, Richard Smith, and Kelly Tobe\u2014for their friendship, encouragement, and support. My own journey in servant-leadership has also been enriched through my partnership with the following past and present Greenleaf Center trustees: Bill Bottum; Linda Chezem; Diane Cory; Sister Joyce DeShano; Joe DiStefano; Harley Flack; Newcomb Greenleaf; Bill Guillory; Carole Hamm; Jack Lowe, Jr.; Jeff McCollum; Ann McGee-Cooper; Andy Morikawa; Jim Morris; Paul Olson; Bob Payton; Sister Joel Read; Sister Sharon Richardt; Judith Sturnick; and Jim Tatum.\n\nI am most grateful to two institutions\u2014the W. K. Kellogg Foundation (especially John Burkhardt, Stephanie Clohessey, and Larraine Matusak) and Lilly Endowment, Inc. (particularly Willis Bright and Craig Dykstra)\u2014for their ongoing support of servant-leadership and The Greenleaf Center.\n\nMy special thanks go to the wonderful staff at Berrett-Koehler Publishers, especially Valerie Barth and Steve Piersanti.\n\nI wish to thank my family and friends for their love and encouragement, especially my wife, Beth Lafferty; my sons, James and Matthew Spears; and my parents, Bertha and L C Spears. I would also like to thank the following people and institutions for their encouragement and support along the way: James Autry, Walter Brogan, Dick Broholm, Steve Brooks, Max Case, the Central Committee for Conscientious Objectors, the Childbirth Education Association of Greater Philadelphia, Donna Davis, Roberta and Robert DeHaan, Vinton Deming, DePauw University, Max DePree, Karen Farmer, Diann and Allison Feldman, Anne Fraker, _Friends Journal_ , Friends Select School, Joe and Laurie Goss, Cathy Gray, the Great Lakes Colleges Association's Philadelphia Center, the Greater Philadelphia Philosophy Consortium, Lisa Greenleaf, Robert K. Greenleaf, John and Mary Gummere, John Haynes, Todd and Ellen Daniels-Howell, Madeline Greenleaf Jaynes, Frank and Marian Killian, Michael Krausz, Eva and Richard Krebs, John and Aline Lafferty, Roger and Verona Lafferty, Jon Landau, Ralph Lewis, Diane Lisco, Isabel Lopez, Robert Lynn, Tjeb Maris, John Nason, National Association for Community Leadership, Hilbrand Nawijn, Marcia Newman, John Noble, Keith Opdahl, Lou Outlaw, M. Scott Peck, Mike and Nancy Revnes, Olcutt Sanders, Gert Schaart, Karen Schultz, Peter Senge, Alice Simpson, Elissa Sklaroff, Debra Spears, Lucian and Chassie Spears, Debra Thomas, Peter Vaill, Wendell Walls, and Signe Wilkinson.\n\nFinally, I wish to express my deep appreciation to the many servant-leaders working within countless organizations around the world. Your efforts at building spirit in the workplace truly inspire others to servant-leadership.\n\n## **Introduction**\n\n### LARRY SPEARS\n\n\"The servant-leader is servant first. It begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve. Then conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead. The best test is: do those served grow as persons; do they, while being served, become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants?\"\n\nRobert K. Greenleaf, _The Servant as Leader,_ 1970\n\nWith that initial definition of servant-leadership in 1970, Robert K. Greenleaf planted a seed of an idea that continues to grow in its influence on society with each passing year. In fact, during the 1990s, we have witnessed an unparalleled explosion of interest and practice of servant-leadership. In many ways, it can be said that the times are only now beginning to catch up with Robert Greenleaf's visionary call to servant-leadership.\n\nServant-leadership, now in its third decade as a specific leadership and management concept, continues to create a quiet revolution in workplaces around the world. This introduction is intended to provide a broad overview of the growing influence this unique concept of servant-leadership is having on people and their workplaces.\n\nAs we prepare to enter the 21st century, we are witnessing a shift in many businesses and nonprofit organizations\u2014away from traditional autocratic and heirarchical modes of leadership and toward a model based on teamwork and community; one that seeks to involve others in decision making; one that is strongly based in ethical and caring behavior; and one that is attempting to enhance the personal growth of workers while at the same time improving the caring and quality of our many institutions. This emerging approach to leadership and service is called \"servant-leadership.\"\n\nThe words _servant_ and _leader_ are usually thought of as being opposites. When two opposites are brought together in a creative and meaningful way, a paradox emerges. And so the words _servant_ and _leader_ have been brought together to create the paradoxical idea of servant-leadership.\n\nThe basic idea of servant-leadership is both intuitive and sensible. In light of the history of the industrial revolution, for a long time there has been a tendency to view people as objects; institutions have viewed people mostly as cogs within a machine. In the past few decades, we have witnessed a shift in that long-held view. Standard practices are rapidly shifting toward the ideas put forward by Robert Greenleaf, Margaret Wheatley, Stephen Covey, Peter Senge, Danah Zohar, Max DePree, and many others who suggest that there is a better way to manage our organizations in the 21st century.\n\nToday there is a much greater recognition of the need for a more team-oriented approach to leadership and management. Robert Greenleaf's writings on the subject of servant-leadership helped get this movement started, and his views have had a profound and growing effect on many.\n\n\"Despite all the buzz about modern leadership techniques, no one knows better than Greenleaf what really matters.\"\n\n_Working Woman_ magazine (March, 1992)\n\nThe term _servant-leadership_ was first coined in a 1970 essay by Robert K. Greenleaf (1904\u20131990) entitled \"The Servant as Leader.\" Greenleaf, who was born in Terre Haute, Indiana, spent most of his organizational life in the field of management research, development, and education at AT&T. Following a 40-year career at AT&T, Greenleaf enjoyed a second career that lasted another 25 years, during which time he served as an influential consultant to a number of major institutions, including: Ohio University, M.I.T., Ford Foundation, R. K. Mellon Foundation, the Mead Corporation, the American Foundation for Management Research, and Lilly Endowment, Inc. In 1964, Greenleaf also founded the Center for Applied Ethics, which was renamed the Robert K. Greenleaf Center in 1985 and is now headquartered in Indianapolis.\n\nAs a lifelong student of how things get done in organizations, Greenleaf distilled his observations in a series of essays and books on the theme of \"the servant as leader\"\u2014the objective of which was to stimulate thought and action for building a better, more caring society.\n\nThe idea of the servant-as-leader came partly out of Greenleaf's half-century of experience in working to shape large institutions. However, the event that crystallized Greenleaf's thinking came in the 1960s, when he read Herman Hesse's short novel, _Journey to the East_ \u2014an account of a mythical journey by a group of people on a spiritual quest. The central figure of the story is Leo, who accompanies the party as the servant and who sustains them with his caring spirit. All goes well with the journey until one day Leo disappears. The group quickly falls into disarray, and the journey is abandoned. They discover that they cannot make it without the servant, Leo. After many years of searching, the narrator of the story stumbles upon Leo and is taken into the religious order that had sponsored the original journey. There, he discovers that Leo, whom he had first known as a servant, was in fact the head of the order, its guiding spirit and leader.\n\nAfter reading this story, Greenleaf concluded that the central meaning of it was that the great leader is first experienced as a servant to others, and that this simple fact is central to his or her greatness. True leadership emerges from those whose primary motivation is a deep desire to help others.\n\nIn 1970, at the age of 66, Greenleaf published \"The Servant as Leader,\" the first of a dozen essays and books on servant-leadership. Since that time, over a half-million copies of his books and essays have been sold worldwide. Slowly but surely, Greenleaf's servant-leadership writings have made a deep, lasting impression on leaders, managers, educators, and many others who are concerned with issues of leadership, management, service, and spirit.\n\nIn all of these works, Greenleaf discusses the need for a new kind of leadership model: a model that puts serving others\u2014including employees, customers, and community\u2014as the number one priority. Servant-leadership emphasizes increased service to others; a holistic approach to work; the promotion of a sense of community; and a deepening understanding of spirit in the workplace.\n\nWho is a servant-leader? Greenleaf said that the servant-leader is one who is a servant first. In \"The Servant as Leader\" he wrote: \"It begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve first. Then conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead. The difference manifests itself in the care taken by the servant\u2014first to make sure that other people's highest priority needs are being served. The best test is: Do those served grow as persons; do they, while being served, become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants?\"\n\nIt is important to stress that servant-leadership is not a \"quick-fix\" approach. Nor is it something that can quickly be instilled within an institution. At its core, servant-leadership is a long-term, transformational approach to life and work\u2014in essence, a way of being\u2014that has the potential for creating positive change throughout our society.\n\n\"Servant leadership deals with the reality of power in everyday life\u2014its legitimacy, the ethical restraints upon it and the beneficial results that can be attained through the appropriate use of power.\"\n\n_New York Times_ (October 2, 1990)\n\nAfter some years of carefully considering Greenleaf's original writings, I have identified a set of ten characteristics of the servant-leader that I view as being of critical importance, central to the development of servant-leaders.\n\n1. _Listening_ : Leaders have traditionally been valued for their communication and decision-making skills. Although these are also important skills for the servant-leader, they need to be reinforced by a deep commitment to listening intently to others. The servant-leader seeks to identify the will of a group and helps clarify that will. He or she seeks to listen receptively to what is being said (and not said!). Listening also encompasses getting in touch with one's own inner voice, and seeking to understand what one's body, spirit, and mind are communicating. Listening, coupled with regular periods of reflection, are essential to the growth of the servant-leader.\n\n2. _Empathy_ : The servant-leader strives to understand and empathize with others. People need to be accepted and recognized for their special and unique spirits. One assumes the good intentions of co-workers and does not reject them as people, even when one is forced to refuse to accept their behavior or performance. The most successful servant-leaders are those who have become skilled empathetic listeners.\n\n3. _Healing_ : The healing of relationships is a powerful force for transformation and integration. One of the great strengths of servant-leadership is the potential for healing one's self and one's relationship to others. Many people have broken spirits and have suffered from a variety of emotional hurts. Although this is a part of being human, servant-leaders recognize that they have an opportunity to \"help make whole\" those with whom they come in contact. In \"The Servant as Leader,\" Greenleaf writes, \"There is something subtle communicated to one who is being served and led if, implicit in the compact between servant-leader and led, is the understanding that the search for wholeness is something they share.\"\n\n4. _Awareness_ : General awareness, and especially self-awareness, strengthens the servant-leader. Making a commitment to foster awareness can be scary\u2014you never know what you may discover! Awareness also aids one in understanding issues involving ethics and values. It lends itself to being able to view most situations from a more integrated, holistic position. As Greenleaf observed: \"Awareness is not a giver of solace\u2014it is just the opposite. It is a disturber and an awakener. Able leaders are usually sharply awake and reasonably disturbed. They are not seekers after solace. They have their own inner serenity.\"\n\n5. _Persuasion_ : Another characteristic of servant-leaders is a reliance on persuasion, rather than on one's positional authority, in making decisions within an organization. The servant-leader seeks to convince others, rather than coerce compliance. This particular element offers one of the clearest distinctions between the traditional authoritarian model and that of servant-leadership. The servant-leader is effective at building consensus within groups. This emphasis on persuasion over coercion probably has its roots within the beliefs of The Religious Society of Friends (Quakers)\u2014the denomination with which Robert Greenleaf himself was most closely allied.\n\n6. _Conceptualization_ : Servant-leaders seek to nurture their abilities to \"dream great dreams.\" The ability to look at a problem (or an organization) from a conceptualizing perspective means that one must think beyond day-to-day realities. For many managers, this is a characteristic that requires discipline and practice. The traditional manager is consumed by the need to achieve short-term operational goals. The manager who wishes to also be a servant-leader must stretch his or her thinking to encompass broader-based conceptual thinking. Within organizations, conceptualization is, by its very nature, the proper role of boards of trustees or directors. Unfortunately, boards can sometimes become involved in the day-today operations (something that should always be discouraged!) and fail to provide the visionary concept for an institution. Trustees need to be mostly conceptual in their orientation; staffs need to be mostly operational in their perspective; and, the most effective CEOs and managers probably need to develop both perspectives. Servant-leaders are called to seek a delicate balance between conceptual thinking and a day-to-day focused approach.\n\n7. _Foresight_ : Closely related to conceptualization, the ability to foresee the likely outcome of a situation is hard to define, but easy to identify. One knows it when one sees it. Foresight is a characteristic that enables the servant-leader to understand the lessons from the past, the realities of the present, and the likely consequence of a decision for the future. It is also deeply rooted within the intuitive mind. There hasn't been a great deal written on foresight. It remains a largely unexplored area in leadership studies, but one most deserving of careful attention.\n\n8. _Stewardship_ : Peter Block (author of _Stewardship_ , and _The Empowered Manager_ ) has defined stewardship as \"holding something in trust for another.\" Robert Greenleaf's view of all institutions was one in which CEOs, staffs, and trustees all played significant roles in holding their institutions in trust for the greater good of society. Servant-leadership, like stewardship, assumes first and foremost a commitment to serving the needs of others. It also emphasizes the use of openness and persuasion, rather than control.\n\n9. _Commitment to the growth of people_ : Servant-leaders believe that people have an intrinsic value beyond their tangible contributions as workers. As such, the servant-leader is deeply committed to the growth of each and every individual within his or her institution. The servant-leader recognizes the tremendous responsibility to do everything within his or her power to nurture the personal, professional, and spiritual growth of employees. In practice, this can include (but is not limited to) concrete actions such as: making funds available for personal and professional development; taking a personal interest in the ideas and suggestions from everyone; encouraging worker involvement in decision making; and actively assisting laid-off workers to find other employment.\n\n10. _Building community_ : The servant-leader senses that much has been lost in recent human history as a result of the shift from local communities to large institutions as the primary shaper of human lives. This awareness causes the servant-leader to seek to identify some means for building community among those who work within a given institution. Servant-leadership suggests that true community can be created among those who work in businesses and other institutions. Greenleaf said, \"All that is needed to rebuild community as a viable life form for large numbers of people is for enough servant-leaders to show the way, not by mass movements, but by each servant-leader demonstrating his [or her] own unlimited liability for a quite specific community-related group.\"\n\nThese ten characteristics of servant-leadership are by no means exhaustive. However, they serve to communicate the power and promise that this concept offers to those who are open to its invitation and challenge.\n\n\"Servant leadership is the essence of quantum thinking and quantum leadership.\"\n\nDanah Zohar, author, _Rewiring the Corporate Brain_\n\nThere are a half-dozen major areas in which the principles of servant-leadership are being applied in significant ways. The first area has to do with servant-leadership as an institutional philosophy and model. Servant-leadership crosses all boundaries and is being applied by a wide variety of people working with for-profit businesses, not-for-profit corporations, churches, universities, and foundations.\n\nIn recent years, a number of institutions have jettisoned their old heirarchical models and replaced them with a servant-leader approach. Servant-leadership advocates a group-oriented approach to analysis and decision making as a means of strengthening institutions and of improving society. It also emphasizes the power of persuasion and seeking consensus over the old \"top-down\" form of leadership. Some people have likened this to turning the heirarchical pyramid upside down. Servant-leadership holds that the primary purpose of a business should be to create a positive impact on its employees and community, rather than using profit as the sole motive.\n\nMany individuals within institutions have adopted servant-leadership as a guiding philosophy. An increasing number of companies have adopted servant-leadership as part of their corporate philosophy or as a foundation for their mission statement. Among these are the Sisters of St. Joseph's Health System (Ann Arbor, MI), The Toro Company (MN), Schneider Engineering Company (Indianapolis, IN), and TDIndustries (Dallas, TX).\n\nTDIndustries, one of the earliest practitioners of servant-leadership in the corporate setting, is a Dallas-based heating and plumbing contracting firm that was named \"one of the ten best companies to work for,\" in the January 12, 1998 issue of _Fortune_ magazine. TDIndustries was profiled in Robert Levering and Milton Moskowitz's book, _The 100 Best Companies to Work for in America_. In their profile of TDIndustries, the authors discuss the longtime influence that servant-leadership has had on the company. TDI's founder, Jack Lowe, Sr., stumbled upon \"The Servant as Leader\" essay in the early 1970s and began to distribute copies of it to his employees. They were invited to read through the essay, and then to gather in small groups to discuss its meaning. The belief that managers should serve their employees became an important value for TDIndustries.\n\nTwenty-five years later, Jack Lowe, Jr., continues to use servant-leadership as the guiding philosophy for TDI. Levering and Moskowitz note, \"Even today, any TDPartner who supervises at least one person must go through training in servant-leadership.\" In addition, all new employees continue to receive a copy of \"The Servant as Leader\" essay.\n\nServant-leadership has influenced many noted writers, thinkers, and leaders. Max DePree, former chairman of the Herman Miller Company and author of _Leadership Is an Art_ and _Leadership Jazz_ has said, \"The servanthood of leadership needs to be felt, understood, believed, and practiced.\" And Peter Senge, author of _The Fifth Discipline_ , has said that he tells people \"not to bother reading any other book about leadership until you first read Robert Greenleaf's book, _Servant Leadership_. I believe it is the most singular and useful statement on leadership I've come across.\" In recent years, a growing number of leaders and readers have \"rediscovered\" Robert Greenleaf's own writings through DePree's and Senge's books.\n\nA second major application of servant-leadership is its pivotal role as the theoretical and ethical basis for \"trustee education.\" Greenleaf wrote extensively on servant-leadership as it applies to the roles of boards of directors and trustees within institutions. His essays on these applications are widely distributed among directors of for-profit and nonprofit organizations. In his essay, \"Trustees as Servants,\" Greenleaf urged trustees to ask themselves two central questions: \"Whom do you serve?\" and \"For what purpose?\"\n\nServant-leadership suggests that boards of trustees need to undergo a radical shift in how they approach their roles. Trustees who seek to act as servant-leaders can help create institutions of great depth and quality. Over the past decade, two of America's largest grant-making foundations (Lilly Endowment, Inc. and the W. K. Kellogg Foundation) have sought to encourage the development of programs designed to educate and train not-for-profit boards of trustees to function as servant-leaders. The Greenleaf Center itself does a great deal of work with trustee boards.\n\nThe third application of servant-leadership concerns its deepening role in community leadership organizations across the country. A growing number of community leadership groups are using Greenleaf Center resources as part of their own education and training efforts. Some have been doing so for more than 15 years.\n\nThe National Association for Community Leadership has adopted servant-leadership as a special focus. Recently, NACL named Robert Greenleaf as the posthumous recipient of its National Community Leadership Award. This award is given annually to honor an individual whose work has made a significant impact on the development of community leadership worldwide.\n\nM. Scott Peck, who has written about the importance of building true community, says the following in _A World Waiting to Be Born_ : \"In his work on servant-leadership, Greenleaf posited that the world will be saved if it can develop just three truly well-managed, large institutions\u2014one in the private sector, one in the public sector, and one in the nonprofit sector. He believed\u2014and I know\u2014that such excellence in management will be achieved through an organizational culture of civility routinely utilizing the mode of community.\"\n\nThe fourth application involves servant-leadership and experiential education. During the past 20 years, experiential education programs of all sorts have sprung up in virtually every college and university\u2014and, increasingly, in secondary schools as well. Experiential education, or \"learning by doing,\" is now a part of most students' educational experience.\n\nAround 1980, a number of educators began to write about the linkage between the servant-leader concept and experiential learning under a new term called \"service-learning.\" It is service-learning that has become a major focus for experiential education programs in the past few years.\n\nThe National Society for Experiential Education (NSEE) has adopted service-learning as one of its major program areas. NSEE has published a massive three-volume work called _Combining Service and Learning_ , which brings together many articles and papers about service-learning\u2014several dozen of which discuss servant-leadership as the philosophical basis for experiential learning programs.\n\nThe fifth application of servant-leadership concerns its use in both formal and informal education and training programs. This is taking place through leadership and management courses in colleges and universities, as well as through corporate training programs. A number of undergraduate and graduate courses on management and leadership incorporate servant-leadership within their course curricula. Several colleges and universities now offer specific courses on servant-leadership. Also, a number of noted leadership authors, including Peter Block, Ken Blanchard, Max DePree, and Peter Senge, have all acclaimed the servant-leader concept as an overarching framework that is compatible with, and enhances, other leadership and management models such as Total Quality Management, Learning Organizations, and Community-Building.\n\nIn the area of corporate education and training programs, dozens of management and leadership consultants now utilize servant-leadership materials as part of their ongoing work with corporations. Some of these companies have included AT&T, the Mead Corporation, and Gulf Oil of Canada. A number of consultants and educators are now touting the benefits to be gained in building a Total Quality Management approach on a servant-leadership foundation. Through internal training and education, institutions are discovering that servant-leadership can truly improve the way in which business is developed and conducted, while still successfully turning a profit.\n\nThe sixth application of servant-leadership involves its use in programs relating to personal growth and transformation. Servant-leadership operates at both the institutional and personal levels. For individuals it offers a means to personal growth\u2014spiritually, professionally, emotionally, and intellectually. It has ties to the ideas of M. Scott Peck ( _The Road Less Traveled_ ), Parker Palmer ( _The Active Life_ ), Ann McGee-Cooper ( _You Don't Have to Go Home from Work Exhausted!_ ), and others who have written on expanding human potential. A particular strength of servant-leadership is that it encourages everyone to actively seek opportunities to both serve and lead others, thereby setting up the potential for raising the quality of life throughout society. A number of individuals are working to integrate the servant-leader concept into various programs involving both men's and women's self-awareness groups and 12-step programs like Alcoholics Anonymous. There is also a fledgling examination underway of the servant-leader as a previously unidentified Jungian archetype. This particular exploration is discussed in a book by Robert Moore and Douglas Gillette titled _The King Within_.\n\nFor some people, the word _servant_ prompts an immediate negative connotation, due to the oppression which many workers\u2014particularly women, and people of color\u2014have historically endured. For some, it may take a while to accept the positive usage of this word, _servant_. However, those who are willing to dig a little deeper come to understand the inherent spiritual nature of what is intended by the pairing of servant and leader. The startling paradox of the term _servant-leadership_ serves to prompt new insights.\n\nIn an article titled \"Pluralistic Reflections on Servant-Leadership,\" Juana Bordas has written: \"Many women, minorities and people of color have long traditions of servant-leadership in their cultures. Servant-leadership has very old roots in many of the indigenous cultures. Cultures that were holistic, cooperative, communal, intuitive and spiritual. These cultures centered on being guardians of the future and respecting the ancestors who walked before.\"\n\nWomen leaders and authors are now writing and speaking about servant-leadership as a 21st-century leadership philosophy that is most appropriate for both women and men to embrace. Patsy Sampson, who is former president of Stephens College in Columbia, Missouri, is one such person. In an essay on women and servant-leadership \"The Leader as Servant,\" she writes, \"So-called (service-oriented) feminine characteristics are exactly those which are consonant with the very best qualities of servant-leadership.\"\n\n\"Servant-leadership works like the consensus building that the Japanese are famous for. Yes, it takes a while on the front end; everyone's view is solicited, though everyone also understands that his [or her] view may not ultimately prevail. But once the consensus is forged, watch out: With everybody on board, your so-called implementation proceeds wham-bam.\"\n\n_Fortune_ magazine (May 4, 1992)\n\nInterest in the philosophy and practice of servant-leadership is now at an all-time high. Hundreds of articles on servant-leadership have appeared in various magazines, journals, and newspapers over the past few years. Many books on the general subject of leadership have been published that have referenced servant-leadership as an important model for both the present and the future.\n\nThe Greenleaf Center for Servant-Leadership is an international, not-for-profit, educational organization that seeks to encourage the understanding and practice of servant-leadership. The Center's mission is to fundamentally improve the caring and quality of all institutions through servant-leadership.\n\nIn recent years, the Greenleaf Center has experienced tremendous growth and expansion. Its growing programs include: the worldwide sales of over 120 books, essays, and videotapes on servant-leadership; a membership program; workshops, institutes, and seminars; a Reading-and-Dialogue Program; a Speakers Bureau; and an annual International Conference on Servant-Leadership. A number of notable Greenleaf Center members have spoken at our annual conferences, including: Peter Block (author of _Stewardship_ and _The Empowered Manager_ ), Max DePree (author of _Leadership Is an Art_ and _Leadership Jazz_ ), Stephen Covey (author of _The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People_ ), Meg Wheatley (author of _Leadership and the New Science_ ), M. Scott Peck (author of _The Road Less Traveled_ and _A World Waiting to Be Born_ ), and Peter Senge (author of _The Fifth Discipline_ ). These and other conference speakers have spoken of the tremendous impact the servant-leader concept has had on the development of his or her own understanding of what it means to be a leader.\n\nThe last few years have witnessed the expansion of interest in servant-leadership to all parts of the world. Greenleaf Center materials are available in English, Spanish, Dutch, Czech, and Arabic, and other translations are in the works. In addition, The Greenleaf Center now has satellite offices in Europe, Great Britain, and Australia.\n\nThe Greenleaf Center's logo is a variation on the geometrical figure called a \"mobius strip.\" A mobius strip, pictured below, is a one-sided surface constructed from a rectangle by holding one end fixed, rotating the opposite end through 180 degrees, and applying it to the first end\u2014thereby giving the appearance of a two-sided figure. It thus appears to have a front side that merges into a back side, and then back again into the front.\n\nThe mobius strip symbolizes, in visual terms, the servant-leader concept\u2014a merging of servanthood into leadership and back into servanthood again, in a fluid and continuous pattern. It also reflects the Greenleaf Center's own role as an institution seeking to both serve and lead others who are interested in leadership and service issues.\n\nLife is full of curious and meaningful paradoxes. Servant-leadership is one such paradox that has slowly-but-surely gained tens of thousands of adherents over the past quarter-century. The seeds that have been planted have begun to sprout in many institutions, as well as in the hearts of many who long to improve the human condition. Servant-leadership is providing a framework from which many thousands of known and unknown individuals are helping improve the way in which we treat those who do the work within our many institutions. Servant-leadership offers hope and guidance for a new era in human development and for the creation of better, more caring institutions.\n\n## 1\n\n## **Servant:\n\nRetrospect and Prospect**\n\n### INTRODUCTION\n\nI believe that caring for persons, the more able and the less able serving each other, is what makes a good society. Most caring was once person to person. Now much of it is mediated through institutions\u2014often large, powerful, impersonal; not always competent; sometimes corrupt. If a better society is to be built, one more just and more caring and providing opportunity for people to grow, the most effective and economical way while supportive of the social order, is to raise the performance as servant of as many institutions as possible by new voluntary regenerative forces initiated within them by committed individuals: _servants_.\n\nSuch servants may never predominate or even be numerous; but their influence may form a leaven that makes possible a reasonably civilized society.\n\nOut of the perspective that emerges from my long concern for institutions, I have come to believe that a serious lack of vision is a malady of almost epidemic proportions among the whole gamut of institutions that I know quite intimately\u2014churches, schools, businesses, philanthropies. And that needed vision is not likely to be supplied by the administrative leadership of those places. Administrators, important and necessary as they are, tend to be short-range in their thinking and deficient in a sense of history\u2014limitations that preclude their producing visions. If there is to be a constant infusion of vision that all viable institutions need, whatever their missions, the most likely source of those visions is their trustees who are involved enough to know, yet detached enough from managerial concern, that their imaginations are relatively unimpaired. Trustees are most effective when they are led by an able and farseeing chairperson\u2014by a quality of leadership that is rare in our society today. These extraordinary chairpersons are not necessarily \"big\" people. The most effective trustee chair I have ever seen in action (and I have seen quite a few) was a \"little\" person in the world of affairs.\n\nThe above paragraph offers a view of the crucial role of trustee leadership that is not widely shared today by the populace at large, or accepted as a personal goal by many current chairpersons, and welcomed by even fewer contemporary chief executives as a role independent of theirs. With so little acceptance of the idea, one may ask, why advocate it? The response to that question requires two \"ifs.\" If one accepts that our institution-bound society serves well enough and no basic change in how our institutions are led is called for, then there is no reason to advocate this radical idea. But if one sees too many of our institutions as seriously deficient in their service to society (as I do) and believes (as I do) that that deficiency could be corrected over time, then something rather fundamental has to change. And the most reasonable and manageable change is to begin, gradually, to raise the effectiveness of trustee leadership until trustees are influential enough and farseeing enough to infuse new visions of greatness, one institution at a time, into as many of our institutions as possible. That powerful new trustee influence is not likely to be achieved until strong visionary leaders emerge to chair their efforts.\n\nBeginning in 1970, I started to write on the theme of _servant_. These have been interesting years because responses have brought involvement in some depth with persons and institutions that share my concern. In this process, others have contributed much to my understanding of what may be required for our society to become more serving\u2014to make a substantial move toward a quality of the common life that is reasonable and possible with available resources, human and material.\n\nTo such as I who did not write for publication until age 65, this understanding has come rather late in life. In summing it up now, I would like to share some reflections. Then I will speculate on the prospects, as I see them, for the servant motive in the future. But, first, a note about where I have been.\n\n### ORGANIZATION\u2014HOW THINGS GET DONE\n\nThe major focus of my adult life may best be described as _a student of organization, how things get done_ \u2014particularly in large institutions. Fortuitous advice from a wise college professor helped shape this interest and led me, upon graduation, to find my way into the largest business organization in the world, American Telephone and Telegraph Company. Early on, I became a student of the history of what seemed to me to be an extraordinary institution. I managed to carve out a career in which I could be both involved and within watching distance of its top structure, and yet maintain sufficient detachment so that I could be reflective about what was going on. My tenure embraced the expansion of the 1920s, the Depression, World War II, and the growth years of the 1950s and 1960s. I never carried heavy executive responsibility and was spared the debilitating effects of such a role which seem almost inevitable, given conventional organizational structures.\n\nIn the latter part of my career, I held the position of Director of Management Research. With the help of a professional staff, and within a broad charter, I could both study and advise regarding the management and leadership of this huge institution\u2014over 1 million employees\u2014immersed as it is in sophisticated technology, elaborate human organization, and regulated public service. I was concerned with its values, with its history and myth, and, intimately, with its top leadership. I learned the hard way about the profound influence that history, and the myths of institutions that have a considerable history, have on values, goals, and leadership. And I was painfully aware of the cost in these terms of any insensitivity to history and myth\u2014especially among the top officers. In any institutional setting, one really cannot understand one's involvement in it _now_ without a clear sense of the course of events that form that institution's past, out of which grows the mythology that surrounds the record of those events. History and myth, in my view, need each other in order to illuminate the present.\n\nThis experience at AT&T gave me a good perspective and the impetus, in my retirement years that began in 1964, to venture into close working relationships with a wide range of institutions: universities (especially in the turbulent 1960s), foundations (as trustee, consultant, and staff member), churches (local, regional, and national), and related church institutions, professional associations, healthcare, and businesses\u2014in the United States, in Europe, and in the third world.\n\nThis post-retirement experience, following 38 years with AT&T, has been enriching and stimulating; but one facet of it, in particular, prompted me to begin to write and to pull together a thread of thinking that has emerged around the _servant_ theme.\n\nThe servant theme evolved out of close association with several colleges and universities during their disturbed period in the 1960s. This was a searing experience, to be intimately involved with students, faculty, administrators, and trustees at a time when some of these venerable institutions literally crumbled\u2014when the hoops came off the barrel.\n\nMy first servant essay, \"The Servant as Leader,\" was prompted by my concern for student attitudes which then\u2014and now, although the manifestations are different\u2014seemed low in hope. One cannot be hopeful, it seems to me, unless one accepts and believes that one can live productively in the world as it is\u2014striving, violent, unjust, as well as beautiful, caring, and supportive. I hold that hope, thus defined, is absolutely essential to both sanity and wholeness of life.\n\nPartly in search for a structural basis for hope, partly out of awareness that our vast complex of institutions\u2014particularly colleges and universities in the late sixties\u2014seemed so fragile and inadequate, two further essays were written: \"The Institution as Servant\" and \"Trustees as Servants.\" The three essays were then collected in a book with some related writings and published in 1977 under the title _Servant Leadership_. Another projected essay, \"The Servant as a Person,\" turned out to be a book and was published in 1979 with the title _Teacher as Servant: A Parable_ [published by The Greenleaf Center].\n\nOut of the struggle to write these things, while contending with the modest ferment they stirred, came the belief that, as a world society, we have not yet come to grips with the _institutional revolution_ that came hard on the heels of the industrial revolution, and that we confront a worldwide crisis of institutional leadership. How can we ordinary mortals lead governments, businesses, churches, hospitals, schools, philanthropies, communities\u2014yes, even families\u2014to become more serving in this turbulent world? And what does it mean to serve? I prefer not to define _serve_ explicitly at this time. Rather, I would let the meaning it has for me evolve as one reads through this essay.\n\nHow can an institution become more serving? I see no other way than that the people who inhabit it serve better and work together toward synergy\u2014the whole becoming greater than the sum of its parts.\n\nI believe that the transforming movement that raises the serving quality of any institution, large or small, begins with the initiative of one individual person\u2014no matter how large the institution or how substantial the movement. If one accepts, as I do, the principle of synergy, one has difficulty with the idea that _only_ small is beautiful. The potential for beauty (largely unrealized to be sure) is much greater in large institutions\u2014because of the phenomenon of synergy. Because we are now dominated by large institutions, how to make _big_ also _beautiful_ is a major challenge for us.\n\nHow to achieve _community_ under the shelter of bigness may be the essence of this challenge because so much of caring depends upon knowing and interacting with persons in the intimacy of propinquity. The stimulus and support that some individuals need to be open to inspiration and imaginative insight often come from the nurture of groups. There may not be a \"group mind\" (inspiration and imaginative insight may be gifts only to individuals), but there is clearly a climate favorable to creativity by individuals that the group, as community, can provide. Achieving many small-scale communities, under the shelter that is best given by bigness, may be the secret of synergy in large institutions.\n\n### THE IDEA OF SERVANT\n\nThe idea of \"servant\" is deep in our Judeo-Christian heritage. The concordance to the Standard Revised Version of the Bible lists over 1300 references to _servant_ (including serve and service). Yet, after all of these millennia, there is ample evidence that ours is a low-caring society when judged by what is reasonable and possible with the resources at hand. There are many notable servants among us, but they sometimes seem to be losing ground to the neutral or nonserving people. It is argued that the outlook for our civilization at this moment is not promising, probably because not enough of us care enough for our fellow humans.\n\nI am personally hopeful for the future because knowledge is available to do two things that we are not now doing, things that are well within our means to do and that would give caring people great joy to do, things that would infuse more of the servant quality into our society. (1) We know how to mature the servant motive as a durable thing in many who arrive in their teens with servanthood latent in them\u2014and this, I believe, is quite a large number. This is what my book _Teacher as Servant_ is about. (2) We know how to transform institutions so that they will be substantially more serving to all who are touched by them. A chapter in _Teacher as Servant_ deals with such a transformation. But formidable obstacles stand in the way of using this knowledge, obstacles that I will call \"mind-sets.\"\n\n### THE PROBLEM OF MIND-SETS\n\nMind-sets that seem to restrain otherwise good, able people from using the two bits of knowledge mentioned above are often tough and unyielding. Whether obstacles like these can be sufficiently reduced before the deterioration of this civilization has become irreversible is open to question. For the older ones among us who are \"in charge,\" nothing short of a \"peak\" experience, like religious conversion or psychoanalysis or an overpowering new vision, seems to have much chance of converting a confirmed nonservant into an affirmative servant. But for some, those few older ones who have a glimmer of the servant disposition _now_ , it is worth their making the effort to try to stem the tide of deterioration. Life can be more whole for those who try, regardless of the outcome.\n\nCivilizations have risen and fallen before. If ours does not make it, perhaps when the archeologists of some future civilization dig around among the remains of this one they may find traces of the effort to build a more caring society, bits of experience that may give useful cues to future people. It is a reasonable prospect that, in the civilization that succeeds ours\u2014whether it evolves from ours in a constructive way or whether it is reconstructed from the ruins after long dark ages\u2014those future people will be faced with the same two problems that confront us now: (1) _how to produce as many servants as they can from those who, at maturity, have the potential for it_ ; and (2) _how to elicit optimal service from such group endeavors (institutions) as emerge_. And, unless some unforeseeable transmutations in human nature occur along the way, those future people may be impeded by the same unwillingness to use what they know that marks our times. Knowledge may be power, but not without the willingness, and the release from inhibiting mind-sets, to use that knowledge.\n\nOver a century ago, when the then-stagnant Danish culture was reconstructed as a result of the work of the Folk High School, the motto of that effort was _The Spirit is Power_. A chapter in the essay \"The Servant as Leader\" tells the story of a remarkable social transformation that followed when the spirit of the Danish young people was aroused so that they sought to find a way out of their dilemma, a stagnant culture, by building a new social order.\n\nWorth noting about this 19th-century Danish experience is that Bishop Grundtvig, the prophetic visionary who gave leadership to the Folk High School movement, did not offer a model for others to follow, nor did he himself found or direct such a school. He gave the vision, the dream, and he passionately and persuasively advocated that dream for over 50 years of his long life. The indigenous leaders among the peasants of Denmark responded to that vision and built the schools\u2014with no model to guide them. _They knew how to do it!_ Grundtvig gave the prophetic vision that inspired them to act on what they knew.\n\n### VISION FOR OUR TIMES: WHERE IS IT?\n\n\"Where there is no vision, the people perish.\" This language (Proverbs 29:18) from the King James Version of the Bible stays with me even though modern translators make something else of that passage.\n\nWhat Grundtvig gave to the indigenous leaders of the common people of Denmark in the 19th century was a compelling vision that they should do something that they knew how to do: _they could raise the spirit of young people so that they would build a new society\u2014and they did_. Without that vision, 19th-century Denmark was on the way to perishing.\n\nOur restless young people in the 1960s wanted to build a new society too. But their elders who could have helped prepare them for that task just \"spun their wheels.\" As a consequence of this neglect, a few of those young people simply settled for tearing up the place. And, in the absence of new visionary leadership to inspire effort to prepare our young people to build constructively, some of them may tear up the place again! Do not be surprised if they do just that. The provocation is ample. We simply are not giving the maturing help to young people that is well within our means to do. Instead, we are acting on the principle that knowledge, not the spirit, is power. Knowledge is but a tool. The spirit is of the essence.\n\nPerhaps the older people who could help them do not do what they know how to do because, as in the 1960s, they are not inspired by a vision that lifts their sights to act on what they know. No such vision is being given in our times. And the paralysis of action that restrains us in preparing young people to live productively in the 21st century is still with us. We may be courting disaster by our neglect.\n\nThis is an interesting thesis (as said earlier): (1) We know how to increase the proportion of young people who, at maturity, are disposed to be servants; and (2) we know how to transform contemporary institutions so that they will be substantially more serving to all who are touched by them. What is needed, this thesis holds, is a vision that will lift the sights of those who know and release their will to act constructively. This vision might be prompted by conscience and self-generated out of a conscious search, or it may be without known cause, or it might be forcefully communicated by a strong leader-type person (as Grundtvig did in 19th-century Denmark).\n\nThis leader might present a vision that has a benign result, as Grundtvig did; or he or she might be a leader like Adolph Hitler, who brought a major disaster; or the vision might be given by an Elvis Presley who can release the inhibiting constraints and incite a frenzy of action that has no seeming value-laden consequence, good or bad.\n\nThe late Rabbi Abraham Joshua Heschel had given a lecture on the Old Testament Prophets to an undergraduate audience. In the question period a student asked, \"Rabbi Heschel, you spoke of false prophets and true prophets. How does one tell the difference?\"\n\nThe good rabbi drew himself into the stern stance of the prophet of old and answered in measured tones, \"There\u2014is\u2014no\u2014way!\" and looked intently at his questioner for an embarrassing moment. Then his face broke into a gentle smile, and he said, \"My friend, if there were a 'way,' if we had a gauge that we could slip over the head of the prophet and say with certainty that he is or is not a true prophet, there would be no human dilemma and life would have no meaning.\" Then, returning to his stern Old Testament stance he said emphatically, \"But it is terribly important that we know the difference.\"\n\nThus, one who is inspired by a vision must know the difference between an action that points toward a benign result, or simply aimless activity. I believe it is possible to prepare most of the emerging adults to know the difference. This is the first step in increasing the proportion of young people who are disposed to be servants. My book, _Teacher as Servant_ , describes how a teacher on his own and without the support of either colleagues or university, can prepare young people to know the difference. I will comment later on one other opportunity within colleges and universities. Neither approach costs any money!\n\n### WHAT DO WE KNOW\u2014OR DON'T WANT TO KNOW?\n\nI have said that (1) we know how to increase the proportion of young people who, at maturity, are disposed to be servants, and (2) we know how to transform institutions so that they will be substantially more serving to all who are touched by them. But it is not knowledge that is codified and systematized and bearing the appropriate establishment imprimatur. It is knowledge like that which the leaders among the Danish peasants had when they were inspired to build schools which would kindle the spirit of their young people. They had always known how to do that, but until Bishop Grundtvig gave them the vision, they were unable, or lacked the will, to act on what they knew.\n\nThere is nothing mystical about the available knowledge to do the two things (as suggested above) that need to be done in our times to raise the servant quality of our society. To my knowledge, clear and complete models do not exist, but there are fragments of experience here and there that can readily be assembled to give a workable basis for moving to solidify that experience\u2014 _to know!_ Let me give examples from four widely differing contemporary institutions in which, it seems to me, able, honest people lack the vision to act on what they know\u2014or could easily know\u2014 _and seem not to want to know!_ They seem to have mind-sets that block them.\n\n#### _Business_\n\nA certain important industrial field is occupied by half a dozen large companies and many small and medium sized ones. It is a field that is subject to quite wide cyclical economic fluctuations and in which disruptions by labor disputes are common. One of the larger companies (not the largest) stands in conspicuous contrast to the other large ones on three counts: no matter what happens to the economic fortunes of the others, this firm, up to now, has always made money; they have never had a strike or work stoppage; their product is generally recognized as superior. (What makes their product superior will be commented on later.)\n\nLet us call this company X. A close observer of this industry recently asked the head of one of the other large companies in this field this simple question: \"What do you folks learn from company X?\" The response was a hand gesture of dismissal and the brusque comment, \"I don't want to talk about it!\"\n\nOne can speculate about why, in a highly competitive field, the head of one large company would brush off a suggestion that he might learn something from a more successful competitor. But what distinguishes company X from its competitors is not in the dimensions that usually separate companies, such as superior technology, more astute marketing strategy, better financial base, etc. Company X is not too different from its competitors in dimensions like these. What separates company X from the rest is unconventional thinking about its \"dream\"\u2014what this business wants to be, how its priorities are set, and how it organizes to serve. It has a radically different philosophy and self-image. According to the conventional business wisdom, company X ought not to succeed at all. Conspicuously less successful competitors seem to say, \"The ideas that company X holds _ought_ not to work, therefore we will learn nothing from them.\" They \"don't want to talk about it.\"\n\n#### _University_\n\nIn the field of higher education, there is another consequence of a lack of vision that cannot be as clearly identified as in the above business example. For many years, I have tried to stir an interest in universities in making a more determined effort to develop the servant-leadership potential that exists among their students. When new money is produced to support such an effort, a pass will be made at doing it. But when the money stops, the effort stops. It does not take root. Here and there the occasional professor, on his own, without the support of his university, and sometimes with the opposition of his colleagues, has taken an interest in this aspect of student growth\u2014with conspicuous success.\n\nIn contrast, a student with athletic potential will find elaborate coaching resources available to develop this talent\u2014even in the poorest and feeblest of institutions. But the young potential servant-leader will find that the position of the best and strongest university is that the development of leadership potential is something that just happens, and nothing explicit is to be done about it in the crucial undergraduate years. I wrote an article about this in an educational journal stating that the only way I see for work in the undergraduate years to help alleviate the leadership crisis we seem now to be in is to find and encourage the rare professor who will take it on\u2014unrecognized and uncompensated, and perhaps denigrated by his colleagues. A university president responded to my article with this concurring comment:\n\nI am coming more and more to agree with your opinion that it is almost impossible to mount anything like an organized program in developing leadership in our university students. Reluctantly, I am reaching your conclusion that the best and only hope of success will be an effort on the part of a few dedicated individuals who will take that cross upon themselves. If this is truly the case, then we need to try to discover who and where they are and give them all the assistance we can.\n\nWhen John W. Gardner wrote his sharp criticism of universities for administering what he called the _antileadership vaccine_ (his parting message when he left the presidency of Carnegie Corporation for a career in politics in 1964), the response from academe seemed to be, \"We don't want to talk about it!\"\n\n#### _Health Profession_\n\nIn the medical profession, there is a widely held position against accepting nutrition as an important factor in health. The average doctor knows that the human body is a chemical-psychic organism. But in treating illness or in advice regarding health building, there is not much concern for nutrition.\n\nThe Hill Foundation in St. Paul, Minnesota, which has a long record of generous giving to medical education, recently made a grant to establish a program in nutrition in a _new_ medical school. The foundation's annual report for 1973 commented on this grant as follows:\n\nIt is a true paradox: Americans are often overweight and undernourished. We are wasteful of our food assets and unwise in our dietary patterns; meanwhile, much of the rest of the world struggles to assure its people an adequate food supply. There is an immediate need for more basic research in nutrition; more communication on ways to plan and control food production, processing, presentation and preparation; and for more public education on sound nutritional practices. But the fact is that there are too few well-trained people to perform this task....\n\nAn important aspect of the nutrition problem is related to the medical school curriculum. Few medical schools have major departments devoted to the field of nutrition research and education. Generally the young doctor gets a briefing on aspects of nutrition as they relate to specific diseases such as diabetes, allergies or coronary problems. Most of the emphasis, however, is on the remedial care of patients, with little attention devoted to the maintenance of health or the prevention of illness.... The same weaknesses exist in the training of such paramedical personnel as nurses and dietitians.... The Foundation believes Mayo Medical School ideally suited to develop and implement a broad nutrition education program _because it is a new institution_ (italics ours), and hence is still flexible in its approach to medical training.\n\nWhat this says to me is that the mind-set among doctors on nutrition is such that only a new medical school will offer a chance to use fully the available nutritional knowledge as an important factor in health building. The medical establishment would seem to say, as the head of the business said when asked what he learned from his more successful but unconventional competitor, \"We don't want to talk about it!\"\n\n#### _Church Leader_\n\nMy interpretation of a bit of 19th-century history is that when Karl Marx sat in the British Museum composing the doctrines that would shape so much of the 20th-century world, he was filling a void that was left by the failure of the churches of his day to deal adequately with the consequences of the industrial revolution. If the 19th-century churches (or church leaders) had taken the trouble to suggest a design for the new society that the industrial revolution made imperative, and if they had advocated it persuasively as a new vision, Marx might still have written his tracts; but they would not have found the field relatively unoccupied.\n\nRecently, I met with a group of church leaders, professionals, who were convened for three days on the subject of \"The Churchman as Leader.\" I listened for a day as they discussed their leadership opportunities and problems as they saw them. Then, in commenting on what I had heard, I noted three words that are sometimes used interchangeably but have quite different connotations: _manage_ (from _manus_ \u2014hand) suggesting control; _administer_ (from _administrare_ \u2014to serve) suggesting to care for; and _lead_ , of uncertain origin, but commonly used to mean \"going out ahead to show the way.\" Manage and administer, along with the ceremonial aspects of office, are the _maintenance_ functions\u2014they help keep the institution running smoothly\u2014 _as it is_. Important as maintenance is in the current performance of any institution, it does not assure adaptation to serve a changing society. That assurance can come only from _leading_ \u2014venturing creatively. Having made this distinction in the meaning of terms as they are commonly used, I commented that, as I observed their discussion, these churchmen were talking mostly about _maintenance_ , not _leading_.\n\nIn most institutions, churches included, managing and administering, the maintenance functions, are delegated and resources are allocated in order that those to whom these functions are assigned can carry on. Those who manage and administer (maintain) may also _lead_ \u2014 _go out ahead to show the way_. But leadership is not delegated; it is assumed. If there are sanctions to compel or induce compliance, the process would not qualify as leadership. The only test of leadership is that somebody follows\u2014 _voluntarily_.\n\nAt this point, I was asked by the church leaders, \"If you do not see us as _leading_ , in your terms, what could persons in positions like ours do in order to lead?\"\n\nI repeated my credo, as stated in the beginning of this essay, which concludes with \"... If a better society is to be built, one more just and caring and providing opportunity for people to grow, the most open course, the most effective and economical way, while supportive of the social order, is to raise the performance as servant of as many institutions as possible by new voluntary regenerative forces initiated within them by committed individuals\u2014 _servants_.\" Then I said:\n\n\"What church leaders can do to really _lead_ in our times is to use their influence to bring into being a contemporary _theology of institutions_ that will underwrite the commitment of church members within our many institutions and support them as they become new regenerative forces: to the end that their particular institution, in which they have some power of influence, will become more serving\u2014and continue to grow in its capacity to serve.\n\n\"The leadership of the 19th-century churches did not accept the challenge to suggest a new design for postindustrial revolution society, and they left a void to be filled by a concerned and articulate atheist. The leaders of late-20th-century churches are not accepting the challenge of an institution-bound society (which Marx did not provide for in his doctrines, and, as a consequence, Marxist societies today have the same problem in getting their institutions to serve as we have). The opportunity that church leaders have today is to take the initiative to see that an adequate theology of institutions evolves so the churches have a firm basis for preparing their members to become regenerative servants in the institutions with which they are involved. _Leadership is initiating\u2014going out ahead to show the way_.\"\n\nThere was not much response to this suggestion in the meeting of church leaders. When we concluded, I noted this paucity of response and said that I would write to them about it when I got home. I later sent to those present a memorandum entitled \"The Need for a Theology of Institutions,\" in which I suggested a detailed procedure that a church leader might follow in producing this new theology. Only 2 of the 16 present at the conference acknowledged the receipt of the memo, and they were noncommittal. A supplementary memorandum six months later got the same response.\n\nI would conclude that these church leaders\u2014all responsible, able, good people\u2014took the same position as the head of the business did when asked what he learned from his much more successful (if unconventional) competitor: \"We don't want to talk about it!\"\n\nWhen 19th-century church leaders were confronted with the radical impact of the industrial revolution, if some audacious consultant had suggested that a new theology was needed to deal with this problem, the response of church leaders of that day might have been the same\u2014\"we don't want to talk about it.\"\n\nMy reflection on these last ten years leads me to conclude that _vision_ , without which we perish, is required to open us to willingness to use what we know and to work to extract hard reality from a dream. In the absence of a powerful liberating vision, church leaders, like others in responsible roles, \"don't want to talk about it.\" Why, over such a long span of history, has the production of vision been so difficult to do? Why are these liberating visions so rare?\n\n### WHY ARE LIBERATING VISIONS SO RARE?\n\nIt seems to me important to accept that the mind-sets that are so frustrating to all reformers, those who are urging others to use what they know, actually serve a useful purpose. What if every person and every institution was \"open\" in the sense of being free of all inhibiting mind-sets that block action on what we know? Every question and every situation would be faced as if nothing like it had happened before. This would be a reformer's dream; but the world would be in chaos. Few of us can survive without a good deal of dogma that prompts reflexive actions. We would not be able to act quickly in emergencies, and moral choices that require prompt action would paralyze us. Most of us get along as well as we do by a good deal of \"what if?\" anticipatory thinking that pre-sets responses to common situations. If we were all completely \"open,\" much of our traditional wisdom might be lost, as might \"manners\" that enable us to interact spontaneously in appropriate ways with fellow humans.\n\nLiberating visions are rare because ours is partly a traditional society\u2014but only partly. It is also an evolving society about which Cardinal Newman is quoted as saying, \"To live is to change; to live well is to have changed often.\" The mixture of _traditional_ and _changing_ is an important aspect of the human dilemma.\n\nTherefore, in answer to the question, \"Why are liberating visions so rare?\" one must say that they are rare because a stable society requires that _a powerful liberating vision must be difficult to deliver_ , and that the test for the benign character of such a vision shall be rigorous. Yet to have none, or not enough such visions, is to seal our fate. We cannot run back to be a wholly traditional society, comforting as it may be to contemplate it. There must be change\u2014sometimes great change.\n\nMoods and spirit of people vary. There are moments when people are more open to charismatic vision than others. Some times seem \"plastic\"; others seem \"hard.\" We but dimly understand the forces that open and close people to liberating visions.\n\nThe word _prudence_ comes to mind. We should try to change with a minimum of threat of damage to stability\u2014as embodied in the four kinds of mind-sets I have described. If stability is significantly lowered or lost, no matter how noble the end sought, the cost in human suffering may be inordinate. When an imprudent effort toward change, one in which the liberating vision is not sufficiently compelling and benign in intent, may make it more difficult for a later prudent effort to succeed, reformers take note: in the end, most people choose _order_ \u2014even if it is delivered to them by brutal nonservants. The ultimate choice of order is one of the most predictable mind-sets because it is a first condition of a civilized society.\n\nIf the writer in Proverbs 29:18 is correctly quoted in saying \"Where there is no vision, the people perish,\" there is remarkable consistency between the common dilemmas in ancient times and in ours. The four examples of firm mind-sets in the fields of business, education, health, and church suggest that there has been failure to give sufficiently powerful liberating visions. This kind of deprivation has been the common lot of humankind from the earliest times. And because of that, the threat of perishing is always with us.\n\n### SUMMONING AND ARTICULATING A VISION\n\nSo far I have given only half an answer to the question, Why are liberating visions so rare?\u2014because it is so difficult to give them. The other half is: because so few of those who have the gift for summoning a vision, and the power to articulate it persuasively, have either the urge or the courage or the will to try! And it takes all three. We in America may be in a transition period between an era of \"growth\" and one of \"restraint\" and liberating visions may have a hollow sound. This is discouraging to visionaries!\n\nOne of the requirements of a caring, serving society, in both favorable and discouraging times, is that it provides in its structures a place for visionaries and surrounds those in that place with the expectation that they will produce those liberating visions of which they are capable. A new view of a structure of the institutions that serve us may be in order\u2014a view that embraces both internal structure as well as the relationship between institutions and how they influence one another.\n\nWhen \"The Servant as Leader\" was published in 1970, I had this to say about prophetic vision:\n\nI now embrace the theory of prophecy which holds that prophetic voices of great clarity, and with a quality of insight equal to that of any age, are speaking cogently all of the time. Men and women of a stature equal to the greatest of the past are with us now addressing the problems of the day and pointing to a better way and to a personeity better able to live fully and serenely in these times.\n\nThe variable that marks some periods as barren and some as rich in prophetic vision may be in the interest, the level of seeking, and the responsiveness of the _hearers_. The variable may not be in the presence or absence or the relative quality and force of prophetic voices. The prophet grows in stature as people respond to his message. If his or her early attempts are ignored or spurned, the talent may wither away.\n\nIt is _seekers_ , then, who make the prophet; and the initiative of any of us in searching for and responding to the voice of a contemporary prophet may mark the turning point in her or his growth and service.\n\nI came by this point of view from reading the history of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers), and I concluded that George Fox, the powerful 17th-century voice in England that gave this Society its remarkable vision, probably would not have been heard had there not been in existence in England for 100 years prior a group known as _seekers_. This was a small band of people whose common bond was that they were _listening_ for prophetic vision. They were held together by a religious concern, but they knew that it lacked articulation in a contemporary formulation that would make of them a vital social and religious force in their day. And as they heard and responded to George Fox, they became for a short time a great movement that had a remarkable impact on English institutions, notably a new business ethic and a pervasive social concern that influenced the western world and carried forward to 18th-century America, where it made of the Quakers the first religious group to formally condemn slavery and forbid slaveholding among its members\u2014100 years before the Civil War.\n\nBut this movement very quickly crystallized into a church, as too many of its members ceased to be seekers. Instead of _seeing_ , being open to new prophecy, they \" _had it_ ,\" tested and tried\u2014what churches have always done. What they had was, and remains, good. But the Quakers were no longer on the growing edge.\n\nThe servant-leader may be not so much the prophetic visionary (that is a rare gift) as the convener, sustainer, discerning guide for seekers who wish to remain open to prophetic visions. The _maintenance_ functions within all sorts of institutions may not require leaders of any sort, but, _seekers_ , of which every institution should have some, _must_ have servant-leaders. But from where, in our vast complex of institutions, will liberating visions come? I have a suggestion.\n\n### A STRUCTURE OF INSTITUTIONS THAT ENCOURAGES LIBERATING VISIONS\n\nIn search for a structure that encourages liberating visions, the institutions that make up our society might be arranged in a three-level hierarchy.\n\nIn the base level are what may be called \"operating\" institutions: governments, businesses, hospitals, schools, labor unions, professional associations, social agencies, philanthropies, families, communities.\n\nIn the second level are churches and universities, because of their concern for values and for continuity of the culture, and because of their capacity for nurturing the serving quality in both individuals and institutions.\n\nAt the third level are seminaries (theological and nontheological) that are sustaining resources for churches, and foundations that could perform a similar service for colleges and universities. Both foundations and seminaries are suggested because they have sufficient detachment and freedom from daily pressures to maintain a reflective overview of the whole society, and because they have greater latitude than most institutions to be what they want to be and to do what they think they should. They have the unusual opportunity to harbor and encourage prophetic voices that give vision and hope. _Unfortunately, in our times, little prophetic vision seems to come from either seminaries or foundations_.\n\nFurther, foundations and seminaries have the opportunity to become the source of nurturing that is mediated through churches and universities to individuals and operating institutions. Thus a major preoccupation of seminaries and foundations might become _the nurture of institutions_ \u2014institutions that in turn serve people. And it is hoped that, in time, _all_ institutions will come to acknowledge their insufficiency and their need for constant nurture from a source that has the necessary detachment and freedom from daily pressures. I suggest that this source could be foundations and seminaries.\n\nThe utility in such an idea of a hierarchy of institutions is that when there is faltering in any institutions, as there is likely to be in the best of them from time to time, a fair question to ask is, wherein has there been a lack of caring concern for this institution for the level next above?\n\nThis assumption leaves the question, To whom do seminaries and foundations turn when they need caring concern? Since these two stand at the top of the hierarchy, there are no resource institutions that serve them. Therefore, seminaries and foundations need a quality and depth of trustee care that would not be possible for all institutions. These two kinds of institutions need the most dedicated and discerning trustees of all. And these trustees have the greatest of all opportunities for constructive service to the society of the future. The opportunities are great, but the challenge to astuteness of trustee leadership is also great\u2014because most seminaries and foundations, as they now stand, have well-set patterns that do not favor their occupying the role I have described as possible, and natural, for them as level-three institutions\u2014at the top of the hierarchy.\n\n### SEMINARIES\n\nAs seminaries have evolved, they have tended to take on the values and mind-sets of universities. A few of them are schools within university structures. But most are independent institutions with their own trustees, even where they are affiliated with religious denominations.\n\nIf seminaries take on the full scope I will suggest, they will not be at all like universities. To be sure, they have a curriculum of courses and they grant degrees. But this is incidental to their major function: to harbor and nurture prophetic voices that give vision and hope, and to serve as a sustaining support for churches. These are not primary functions of a university, and the university tradition may not be useful as a model for seminaries.\n\nI have a gnawing suspicion that the strongest role, a viable structural model for a seminary, has not yet evolved. It is the opportunity for seminary trustees, under the leadership of their chairperson, to help the seminary get into its strongest role. It is not the trustee mission to design the seminary, authoritatively. Rather, trustees have the opportunity to _lead_ a process out of which the design for the seminary of the 21st century may evolve. All of the several constituencies of each seminary should be full participants in the evolution of that design. And it should be _evolution_ \u2014over time, and never ending. The seminary should rest firm, at all times, in its contemporary mission, while the process of transcending that mission is carried forward simultaneously.\n\nAs trustees undertake to lead their seminary toward its full stature as a serving (level-three) institution, one of their concerns should be for the seminary to make, out of its own experience, a contribution to an evolving theology of institutions\u2014a theology that gives a critical, contemporary view of the purpose and program of both seminary and church. This concern, consistently manifest, will help clarify the goals of the seminary. It will also help prepare the seminary to support the churches in their ministry, both to individuals and to the full range of \"operating\" institutions that churches have the opportunity to influence, to the end that these institutions will be more serving of all persons whose lives they touch.\n\nSeminaries differ widely in their doctrinal positions; but most share the desire to bring about conditions of life that will favor all persons reaching their full stature as religious beings (in the root meaning of the word _religion_ ). It is regarding this common goal that new vision is needed.\n\n### FOUNDATIONS\n\nFoundations, as institutions with funds to dispense for legally approved purposes, are a relatively recent addition to our extensive gallery of institutions. There is considerable disagreement as to what the function of foundations should be, and there are persistent public pressures to restrict their autonomy. There is some sentiment that foundations should not exist at all, or only for a limited term of years.\n\nFoundations are unique in that they are free of \"market\" pressures. All other institutions have constituencies that must be satisfied if they are to continue to exist. Foundations have only to obey the law\u2014which is stricter than it once was, and may get more so.\n\nWhile foundations still have some latitude to choose what they will do, it is suggested that some of them elect to become, in part at least, support institutions for universities and colleges\u2014not just to give them money, although they may continue to do some of that. Could not some foundations become for universities and colleges what seminaries now are (or could be) for churches? This will not come about quickly or easily, but foundation trustees might assume the kind of leadership suggested above for seminary trustees: leadership to a process out of which the design for a foundation role for the 21st century will evolve.\n\nLarge, sophisticated businesses sometimes set aside staffs whose role is to think about the firm as an institution and give intellectual guidance to its development. Universities tend to rely on committees of faculty to render this kind of service to the university itself; and it is not enough. American railroads are the classic example of large businesses that did not set people aside to think about the business they were in. Everybody was busy running the railroad day to day. And few railroads survived this neglect as viable businesses. There is some question that universities will survive, unharmed, from their own self-neglect; and they have been badly scarred in recent years.\n\nIt probably will be more difficult for a foundation to become effective in this support role for universities than for seminaries to do it for churches. This is partly because of the great size and complexity of some universities as well as the scarcity of persons who could (or would) staff a foundation that undertakes this difficult task. As with seminaries, the prime concern is _trustees_. Trustees of a foundation that uses its resources for this important purpose will need to be unusually caring and dedicated and persevere over a long period. They will accept the fact that their foundation must _earn_ the kind of role suggested here.\n\nSome universities and colleges face a drop in enrollment and are experiencing financial stringencies. They have difficulty thinking of any problem they now have as other than something that more money would solve. As a somewhat detached observer, I suspect that universities and colleges are suffering\u2014even today\u2014more for want of ideas, and for vision to liberate them to use ideas, than for want of money. If their governing ideas were better suited to their needs and opportunities in these times, the want of money might not be such a problem. But, the university tradition being what it is, it is unlikely that they have the power to be sufficiently self-regenerating. They, like the churches, need the sustained caring support that only a most able foundation staff is likely to give.\n\nIt is humbling for any institution to accept that it is not self-regenerating and that it should welcome conceptual leadership from another institution like a foundation\u2014one that has the resources, human and material, to give that help, and that has managed to assemble a few unusually able trustees whose exceptionality give the foundation self-regenerating power. Most universities, like most people and institutions, could use a good measure of humility. Humility is one of the distinguishing traits of the true servant\u2014as willing humbly to accept service as to give it.\n\n### SELF-REGENERATING INSTITUTIONS\n\nContinuous regeneration is essential for viability of persons and institutions and society as a whole. A prudent use of human resources is to concentrate the ablest trustees, who will always be few in number, in those institutions that are best positioned to be self-regenerating and thereby to gain the strength to give clear and compelling regenerating vision to others.\n\nIf seminaries and foundations can be accepted as being appropriately placed in the hierarchy of institutions to assume this guiding role (as I believe they are), then a concerted effort should be made to provide these two kinds of institutions with trustees who will persevere with determination to assure sustained self-regeneration in themselves in order to give strong support to churches (by seminaries) and colleges and universities (by foundations) with the hope that, between the influence of churches and universities, \"operating\" institutions will be helped to a sustained high level of caring and serving.\n\n### INSTITUTES OF CHAIRING\n\nOne of the practical steps that foundations and seminaries might take, collectively or separately, is the conduct of institutes for those who chair trustees. They could do this, first, for themselves to prepare their own chairpersons to give the leadership that will help assure the quality of trustee oversight that self-regenerating institutions require. The institutes could then extend the availability of this chairing preparation to universities and colleges and to churches and church-related institutions so that, between them, they could provide this service for those who chair the trustees of all operating institutions that have trustees or directors. Such Institutes of Chairing would be a permanent thing: to give initial and continuing preparation for the chair leadership; to serve as a medium of exchange between those who undertake this role; and to provide a consulting resource for chairpersons who want help on specific problems.\n\nThis is a large order. But if the voluntary character of our complex society is to be preserved and enhanced, a major investment in strengthening and maintaining the trustee role of all institutions that have governing boards seems imperative. This is one of those invaluable social supports that we know how to provide and that we can afford to supply. What is needed, first, is a liberating vision that will make it a feasible thing to do. Where better might we look for that liberating vision than among seminaries and foundations? If just _one_ in each category will take it on and advocate that vision persuasively and with spirit, they may infect the rest. Visions, both good and bad, can be contagious. An _Institute of Chairing_ could be one of the good ones.\n\nI suggest that a prime concern of all seminaries and foundations could be to become self-regenerating institutions\u2014with their own able and caring trustees. They could stand as models for the others.\n\n### SERVANT LEADERSHIP\u2014BY PERSUASION\n\nIn my personal credo stated earlier I said, \"If a better society is to be built, one more just and more caring and providing opportunity for people to grow, the most effective and economical way, while supportive of the social order, is to raise the performance as servant of as many institutions as possible by new voluntary regenerative forces initiated within them by committed individuals\u2014 _servants_.\"\n\nSo far I have not found it helpful to define _servant_ and _serving_ in other terms than the consequences of the serving on the one being served or on others who may be affected by the action. In _Teacher as Servant,_ I describe a semifictional servant in some detail.\n\nIn \"The Servant as Leader,\" the definition was: \"Do those being served grow as persons: do they, while being served, become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants? _And_ what is the effect on the least privileged in society; will she or he benefit, or, at least, not be further deprived?\" I would now add one further stipulation: \"No one will knowingly be hurt by the action, _directly or indirectly_.\"\n\nThus the servant would reject the \"utilitarian\" position, which would accept a very large gain in, say, justice at the cost of a small but real hurt to some. The servant would reject the nonviolent tactic for societal change, however noble the intent, if, as a consequence, some who are disposed to violence are likely to resort to it, or some may be threatened or coerced. (I would fault Mohandas Gandhi on these grounds. Great leader and tremendous person that he was, I do not find his tactic an appropriate model for the servant. John Woolman, as described in \"The Servant as Leader\" is, for me, such a model.)\n\nThe servant would reject the rapid accomplishment of any desirable social goal by coercion in favor of the slower process of persuasion\u2014even if no identifiable person was hurt by the coercion.\n\nTo some determined reformers, such a set of beliefs would lead to paralysis of action. The servant (in my view) is generally a \"gradualist.\" And, while granting that, in an imperfect world, because we have not yet learned how to do better, coercion by governments and some other institutions will be needed to restrain some destructive actions and to provide some services best rendered authoritatively, the servant will stand as the advocate of persuasion in human affairs to the largest extent possible.\n\nThis view is supported by a belief about the nature of humankind, a belief that leads to a view of persuasion as the critical skill of servant leadership. Such a leader is one who ventures and takes the risks of going out ahead to show the way and whom others follow, _voluntarily, because they are persuaded that the leader's path is the right one\u2014for them_ , probably better than they could devise for themselves.\n\nOne is persuaded, I believe, on arrival at a feeling of rightness about a belief or action through one's own intuitive sense\u2014checked, perhaps, by others' intuitive judgment, but, in the end, one relies on one's own intuitive sense. One takes that intuitive step, from the closest approximation to certainty one can reach by conscious logic (sometimes not very close), to that state in which one may say with conviction, \"This is where I stand!\" The act of persuasion will help order the logic and favor the intuitive step. And this takes time! The one being persuaded must take that intuitive step alone, untrammeled by coercion or manipulative stratagems. Both leader and follower respect the integrity and allow the autonomy of the other; and each encourages the other to find her or his own intuitive confirmation of the rightness of the belief or action.\n\nTo the servant (as I view that person), _persuasion_ , thus defined, stands in sharp contrast to _coercion_ (the use, or threat of use, of covert or overt sanctions or penalties, the exploitation of weaknesses or sentiments, or any application of pressure). Persuasion also stands in sharp contrast to _manipulation_ (guiding people into beliefs or actions that they do not fully understand).\n\nIf one accepts such definitions, has the servant become limited to a passive role and yielded the carrying of the tougher burdens to those with fewer scruples? No, I do not believe so; not if the preparation of servants can begin when they are young. There are some old and valuable burden carriers around who are much too coercive and manipulative; and they might lose their usefulness if they attempted too radical change. It may be better to tolerate their ways as long as they are useful so long as they do not hurt others.\n\nI realize that in adding to the definition of servant the admonition, \"no one will knowingly be hurt,\" some people who might otherwise think of themselves as servants (as I have defined it) will reject that identification. The problem is that some do not believe they can carry the leadership roles they now have without causing some hurt, or that necessary social changes can be made without some being hurt.\n\nIn an imperfect world, some will continue to be hurt, as they always have been. I know that, in the course of my life, I have caused some hurt. But, as my concern for servanthood has evolved, the scars from these incidents are more prominent in my memory and self-questioning is sharper: Could I have been more aware, more patient. more gentle, more forgiving, more skillful? The intent of the servant, as I see that person now, is that, as a result of any action she or he initiates, _no one will knowingly be hurt_. And if someone _is_ hurt, there is a scar that henceforth will endure to be reckoned with. Hurting people, only a few, is not accepted as a legitimate cost of doing business.\n\nI find eleemosynary institutions most at fault on this issue\u2014particularly with their employed staffs. There seems to be the assumption that since the cause being served is noble, what happens to the people who render the service is not a particular concern.\n\nI once sat with the governing board of a large church as they discussed the many ramifications of their affairs. In listening to their discussions I was appalled at some of the attitudes they held and the cavalier actions they took regarding their employed staff. When it was appropriate for me to comment, I noted my observation on their attitudes and actions and I said: \"I have spent my life in a business and had responsibility, directly or indirectly, for the careers of many people. If I had held attitudes like those you have revealed and had your record of hiring and firing people, at some point I would have been taken aside and told, 'Greenleaf, you may be good for something, but we will not let you manage people. We can't afford this!' With the predominantly economic motive, most businesses I know about take greater care with their people than you do. This may have been part of what Emerson had in mind when he said (in _Works and Days_ ), 'The greatest meliorative force in the world is selfish huckstering trade!' \"\n\nIt all reminds me of that powerful line with which Shakespeare opens his 94th sonnet:\n\nThey that have power to hurt and will do none.\n\n(Not very little, but none.) This is the sonnet that concludes with those caustic lines:\n\nFor sweetest things turn sourest by their deeds;\n\nLilies that fester smell far worse than weeds.\n\nThe intervening eleven lines will bear close scrutiny.\n\nThe firm aim of the servant is that _no one_ will be hurt.\n\nPreparation of a servant, particularly for the exacting role of servant-leader, should start not later than secondary school (before if possible) because, I believe, the servant needs to learn to stand against the culture on two critical issues: _power_ and _competition_.\n\n### POWER\n\nI have no definite view of power to offer: only some fragmentary thoughts. I grant that, in an imperfect world, some raw use of power will always be with us. But as ours has become a huge, complex, institution-bound society, power seems more of an issue than it was in simpler times when it was easier to identify where coercive pressures came from. Also, within the past 200 years, the damage to power wielders has been clearly signaled\u2014beginning with William Pitt's statement in the House of Commons in 1770, \"Unlimited power is apt to corrupt the minds of those who possess it\"; and then, in the late 19th century, Lord Acton's more quoted line, \"Power tends to corrupt and absolute power corrupts absolutely.\" It is interesting to note that Lord Acton, a Catholic layman, made this statement in heated opposition to the assumption of Papal infallibility in 1870. And what is the corruption that both Pitt and Acton might have had in mind? I believe it is _arrogance_ , and all of the disabilities that follow in the wake of arrogance.\n\nIn \"The Servant as Leader,\" I tell of John Woolman, the 18th-century American Quaker who persuaded slaveholding Quakers, one by one, to free their slaves. Half his persuasive argument was concern for the slave, the other half was concern for the damage done to the slaveholder and his family. John Woolman also used the word _corruption_ in referring to the legacy of the slaveholder to his heirs.\n\nAlong the way, in a conversation I had with the chief executive of a large business concerning the incentives that make his job attractive, he listed as first \"The opportunity to wield power!\" This came before monetary reward, prestige, service, and creative accomplishment\u2014all of which, together, he said, would not compensate for carrying such a heavy burden.\n\nA few years ago, a friend called to tell me that he had just been made head of a philanthropic foundation\u2014his first work of this kind. My immediate response, drawing on my own considerable experience with foundations, was, \"The first thing that will happen to you is that you will no longer know who your friends are.\" This is a serious disability.\n\nI will never forget my first venture as a foundation representative when I made a tour of a dozen universities on a new grant program. My wife met me at the airport when I returned and asked how it went.\n\n\"I have no idea,\" was my reply.\n\n\"I have never experienced anything like this before. In most of my work life, I have had to do battle for my ideas every inch of the way, and nothing I have tried to do has been a pushover. But here, in these conversations with high-ranking officers of prestigious universities, every word I uttered was received as a pearl of wisdom.\" _This was a corrupting experience_.\n\nI am aware that some foundation representatives seem to rise above this corrupting influence; but I hold that the power of the almoner is near the absolute; and it is corrupting, as I am sure all power is. If it were not so clear in my own experience, I would not be so sure of it.\n\nSomehow, the young potential servant should be helped to an awareness of power and its consequences on both the wielder and the object. In my essay _Trustees as Servants,_ I contend that \"No one, _absolutely no one_ , is to be entrusted with the operational use of power without the close oversight of fully functioning trustees.\" I would now generalize further and say that young potential servant-leaders should be advised to shun any power-wielding role which is not shared with able colleagues who are equals. (See _The Institution as Servant_ for an elaboration of this thesis.) If a young potential servant-leader can accept that the first protection against the corruption of power is never to undertake a power-wielding role alone; if this can be established when one is young, a lifestyle may be built on this principle that will be easy and natural. It is not easy and natural for one who is deeply entrenched as a lone wielder of power to contemplate carrying a major responsible role without a firm grip on power\u2014in one's own hands, _alone_. One who is firmly established as a chief executive officer (a lone power wielder) will almost universally say, \"It won't work, one person _must_ hold the ultimate power.\" But if enough of today's able youngsters catch the vision of servant-leadership and incorporate it into their lifestyles early, the day may come, when these people are in their prime years, that they will label, categorically, the current commonly accepted power striving of some successful people as _pathological_ \u2014because it makes for a sick society. Those who embrace the spirit of servant-leadership early in their lives are likely to take a similar view of competition\u2014and come to see it as an aberration, not a normal human trait. And when enough able people take that view, it will make a different world. But that will take some time.\n\n### COMPETITION\n\nIt is difficult to know whether humankind's seemingly \"normal\" competitive urges are innate\u2014the nature of the human animal\u2014or whether they are acquired. It is difficult to know because the culture is so thoroughly competitive, and imposes its shaping imprint from infancy onward, that one cannot sort out what _homo sapiens_ would be like if raised in a noncompetitive culture.\n\nRecently I was on a panel in a conference in a medical school that was discussing the subject of \"the ethics of the drug industry.\" In preparation for the conference, someone had made a video recording of drug ads on TV over a period of weeks; and we sat for 20 minutes watching these, one after another.\n\nIt is bad enough to have to look at these zany ads when they appear once in a while as the price of watching commercial TV. But to sit through 20 minutes of nothing else\u2014well, it was nauseating, an affront to taste, intellect, and integrity; and the conference erupted in indignation\u2014\"Something ought to be done about this!\" After listening for a minute or two of this heated reaction I interjected with, \"You shouldn't be so upset by these ads. As a nation, we have made a clear social policy, backed by tough laws with criminal sanctions, that an industry like this will be _forced_ to serve by requiring dog-eat-dog competition as a rule of doing business. When you decide to _force_ service this way (and you really don't influence much but price), then you should not be surprised if you get a result like we have just witnessed.\"\n\nThe conference erupted again, \"What would _you_ do, repeal the antitrust laws?\" And I answered, \"I don't know what I would do. I have only one point: if you decree (and you have so decreed) that dog-eat-dog competition is to be the regulator, then do not be surprised if you get this kind of result. Anyway, what is so sacred about the antitrust laws? They were not brought down off the mountain chiseled in stone. They are crude man-made devices to deal with a clear social problem: how to elicit the best service we can get from a business. But there are several unhealthy by-products, one of which you have just seen.\" This promoted considerable discussion, without conclusion. And there is not likely to be a better answer to the question: How can we elicit optimal service from people and institutions, as long as competition is uncritically accepted as _good_ and is deeply imbedded in the culture? In the preparation of young potential servants to be servant-leaders, the issue of competition must be critically examined and alternatives sought.\n\nThis is a curious bit of history of usage of the word _compete_. Modern usage puts it as \"To strive or contend with another,\" while the Latin origin of the word is _competere_ \u2014to seek or strive together. The clear implications of the origin of this word is that competition is a cooperative rather than a contending relationship.\n\nThis reference may not help us to resolve our own personal dilemmas as we find ourselves in a struggle to beat out somebody else, in a society that supports that struggle with both moral and legal sanctions. (Recently I attended a conference on the subject of \"The Judeo-Christian Ethic and the Modern Business Corporation.\" There were about 25 theologians of the major faiths present. In the papers and the discussions there was frequent reference to \"unfair\" competition, but I do not recall a single question by a theologian about competition per se.)\n\nMy position is: if we are to move toward a more caring, serving society than we now have, competition must be muted, if not eliminated. If theologians will not lead in this move (and I sense no initiative from that quarter), practicing servants will, and theologians will rationalize the result after the fact. The servant will be noncompetitive; but what can be the servant's affirmative position?\n\nI believe that serving and competing are antithetical; the stronger the urge to serve, the less the interest in competing. (Read Petr Kropotkin's classic _Mutual Aid_ for perspective on this issue.) The servant is importantly concerned with the consequences of his or her actions: those being served, _while being served_ become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants. _And_ , what is the effect on the least privileged in society; will they benefit, or, at least, not be further deprived? _And_ , no one will knowingly be hurt by the action?\u2014the servant is strong _without_ competing. But, unfortunately, we have decreed that ours shall be a competitive society. How does a servant function in such a society?\n\n### SERVANT-LEADER: STRONG OR WEAK?\n\nThe power-hungry person, who relishes competition and is good at it (meaning: usually wins) will probably judge the servant-leader, as I have described that person, to be weak or naive or both. But let us look past the individual to the institution in which he or she serves: what (or who) makes that institution strong?\n\nThe strongest, most productive institution over a long period of time is one in which, other things being equal, there is the largest amount of voluntary action in support of the goals of the institution. The people who staff the institution do the \"right\" things at the right time\u2014things that optimize total effectiveness\u2014because the goals are clear and comprehensive and they understand what ought to be done. They believe they are the right things to do, and they take the necessary actions without being instructed. No institution ever achieves this perfectly. But I submit that, other things being equal, the institution that achieves the most of this kind of voluntary action will be judged _strong_ , stronger than comparable institutions that have fewer of these voluntary actions.\n\nEarlier, in the discussion of mind-sets, I gave the example of the more successful business in a highly competitive field that stands above its competitors in profitability, in the quality of the product it delivers, and in the absence of labor conflict that plagues all of the others. The principal difference is that this unusual company has more voluntary effort; its people do more, voluntarily, than other companies' people do for them. And it is not accidental. The man who built this business, dead for some years, put the people who worked for him _first_. As a consequence, his employees delivered all that people can deliver\u2014and the business came to lead its field. It is a \"people\" business. There are other companies in other fields that have taken this view and, when other things are equal, they are all strong when compared with competitors who do not take this view of people.\n\nFrom my own experience with businesses, I would say that even when \"people first\" is not the policy of the top executives, \" _strong_ \" subordinate executives may take the \"people first\" position and add strength to the business. In AT&T, when we occasionally conducted attitude surveys, we noted what we called the \"umbrella\" effect. A strong subordinate manager would produce positive attitudes among his or her subordinates when the stance of higher level managers caused the prevailing attitudes in other parts of the company to be more negative. I believe that able subordinate managers who are servants can build strength in the people they lead even when the policy that is projected on them from above works to destroy it. But such subordinate managers must be really strong in terms of toughness, conviction, and tenacity.\n\nFurther, when there is a sticky organizational problem in a business, an astute power-wielding executive sometimes tries to find a person who is accepted as servant who will get into the situation and correct it\u2014with persuasion. _And for purely practical reasons_ : it comes out better than if somebody swings on it in a coercive or manipulative way!\n\nBoth the words _servant_ and _persuasion_ are \"soft\" words to some people. They do not connote the tough attitudes that are thought to be needed to hold this world together and get its work done.\n\nIn 1970, when I chose to advocate, in writing, the servant-leader concept, both words _serve_ and _lead_ were in a shadow. _Lead_ seems to have recovered some stature, but _serve_ is still questioned by many thoughtful people. I chose to stay with _serve_ , _lead_ and _persuade_ because I see, through the meaning they have for me, a path to restoring much of the dignity that has been lost through the de-personalization that industrialization has brought to us. And dignity adds strength both to individuals and to the institutions of which they are a part\u2014strength to serve.\n\n### PROSPECTS FOR THE SERVANT IDEA\u2014SOME SPECULATIONS\n\nIn much of what I have written on the servant theme, including most of this essay, I have dealt with issues of leadership and institution building. After ten years of circulation of these writings and considerable interaction about them with people who have their hands on the levers of power and influence, I am not persuaded that much movement toward our society becoming more caring is likely to be initiated by those who are now established as leaders. Mind-sets like the four discussed earlier are much too prevalent and entrenched, and we seem not to have the resources to generate, or the openness to receive, liberating visions. Whatever older people can do to make ours a more serving, caring society should be encouraged; but I do not expect much from my contemporaries.\n\nWe (some of us) do know how to prepare and inspire young people to press the limits of the reasonable and possible, with some of them becoming skilled builders of more serving institutions. The over-arching vision that will inspire and energize mentors of the young is my prime concern. These mentors are strong, able people who believe that well-prepared young people, in whom servant-leadership is an integral part of their lifestyles, are likely to bring to reality some of what we oldsters can only dream about.\n\nMy hope for the future, and I do have hope, is that some (perhaps many) young people whose lifestyles may yet be shaped by conscious choices may be helped to more serving roles than most of their elders occupy today. What I have written is not likely to give this help directly to young people. But it may be useful to those who have the gifts and the will and the courage to be mentors of the young. And I believe that the psychic rewards to these mentors can be very great. What could bring more satisfaction to oldsters than helping some of the young to become servant-leaders?\n\nIn _Teacher as Servant,_ I described in detail how a university teacher could, without the support of university or colleagues, encourage, in a decisive way, the growth as servant of a large number of students. I hazarded a guess that, if there were a way to alert them to the opportunity, perhaps as many as one in a thousand of the 500,000 or so university and college faculty in the United States might take the initiative to give this precious help to students. And I reasoned that the 500, if they worked at it over a career, could favor the time of the next generation becoming a golden age of leadership in our country. It can be done without adding to college and university budgets. It would require no changes in the curriculum, no administrative or faculty actions, no trustee initiatives. All that is needed is a handful, really, of determined and perceptive faculty members who, deep down inside, are true servants and who, without extra compensation and recognition\u2014perhaps in the face of some opposition\u2014will _lead_ in this most fundamental way. They will go out ahead to show, by their example, how one may be a servant in what appears to be a cold, low-caring, highly competitive, violence-prone society. These servant teachers may be a saving remnant, in the biblical sense. And saving remnants are usually not empowered, approved, or well-financed.\n\nI would now amend the language of this assertion in just one particular way. In place of \"alert them (the one in a thousand teachers) to the opportunity\" I would substitute \"inspire them with a vision of the opportunity.\"\n\nOne who might respond to this suggestion is the president, especially in a small college; but it also might be a large university. The president might personally offer to lead a noncredit seminar for elected student leaders. The agenda of the seminar might be discussions with invited resource people and sharing between the president and these student leaders on matters of mutual concern in their current leadership roles. In my conversations with student leaders, I have found them concerned with some of the same issues that are on the minds of presidents\u2014matters of the spirit. Presidents might find in these seminars a helpful close contact with students, and students would have the opportunity to learn about leadership from each other and from the president\u2014experientially. The president may learn something about leadership, too\u2014a new perspective on that job.\n\nThe prospect for the servant idea rests almost entirely, I believe, on some among _us investing the energy and taking the risks to inspire with a vision_. In our large and complex society, a single compelling prophetic voice may not, as Grundtvig did in 19th-century Denmark, move those few who will educate and inspire enough young people to rebuild the entire culture. In our times, the orchestration of many prophetic visionaries may be required. But I believe that the ultimate effect will be the same: _teachers_ (individuals, not institutions) will be inspired to raise the society-building consciousness of the young. And _teachers_ may be anybody who can reach young people who have the potential to be servants and prepare them to be servant leaders. These teachers may be members of school faculties, presidents of colleges and universities, those working with young people in churches. Some may be parents, others may be either professionals or volunteers working with youth groups. But whoever and wherever they are, these teachers will catch the vision and _do what they know how to do_. First, they will reinforce or build hope. Young people will be helped to accept the world, and to believe that they can learn to live productively in it _as it is_ \u2014striving, violent, unjust, as well as beautiful, caring, and supportive. They will be helped to believe that they can cope, and that, if they work at it over a lifetime, they may leave a little corner of the world a bit better than they found it. Then these teachers will nourish the embryo spark of servant in as many as possible and help prepare those who are able\u2014 _to lead!_\n\nThus I do not see the prospect for the servant idea being carried by a great mass movement\u2014not soon.\n\nI have premised this discussion on building hope in the young and preparing some of them to serve and lead. As an oldster, I have hope that is supported by the belief that some seminaries and foundations will have (or find) trustees of the stature who will help them (seminaries and foundations) to be self-regenerating institutions. These then will become sources of prophetic visions for, and supports of organizational strength in, schools and churches which will minister to individuals and to the vast structure of operating institutions that make up our complex society. Central to this ministry will be the encouragement of teachers of servants\u2014some of whom will become leaders who make their careers as regenerating influences within institutions of all sorts, including seminaries and foundations\u2014thus closing the loop. But the prime movers in this process are trustees of foundations and seminaries. It is for these exceptionally able and dedicated trustees to initiate and to sustain the process. I believe that a few will. This is the basis of my hope.\n\nBeyond my hope, I have a speculative prospect to share: that some of these servant-leaders will bring together communities of seekers who find\u2014and _continue to seek_ , thus adding a new building force that works toward an evolving caring society.\n\nI envision that these communities (of seeking servants who find\u2014and continue to seek) will bring a new kind of institution that is radically different from anything we now have. It may be a business, a church, a school, a unit of government. Or it may be an institution that embraces aspects of several of these. But it will be _new_ , and its emergence will be a hopeful augury for everybody, especially for young people.\n\nIn this way a prophetic vision for the 21st century may be delivered to us\u2014not in words, but by a few humble servants saying simply, \"Here it is; come and see.\"\n\nThe reader is invited to speculate on what this new institution might be like and what its presence might mean to the quality of our common life. These speculations might help this new institution to come, by creating receptivity for a new vision.\n\n### NOTE ON LIBERATING VISIONS\n\nA final note on receiving, communicating, and responding to _liberating visions_. This is an illusive term. What could it mean? Let me give an example out of my experience.\n\nWhen I was working closely with several colleges and universities in the late 1960s I became aware that one of the student preoccupations of that period was reading the novels of Herman Hesse. College book stores had stacks and stacks of them\u2014and some still do. Because I was deeply concerned with what was going on in students' minds at that time, I made a project of reading all that Hesse wrote, in the order that he wrote these stories. Along with them I read a biography that told me what was going on in Hesse's life as he wrote each book.\n\nHesse, in the early part of his life, was a tormented man, in and out of mental illness that is reflected in what he was writing at the time. His book _Journey to the East_ marks the turning point toward the serenity that he achieved in his later years when he wrote his greatest novel, _Magister Ludi_ , which earned a Nobel Prize for literature. I found _Journey to the East_ a hopeful book because it is the story of Leo, the central figure who accompanies a band of men on their mythical journey (probably Hesse's own journey) as the _servant_ who does their menial chores, but who also sustains them with his spirit and song. He is a person of extraordinary presence. All goes well with the journey until Leo disappears. Then the group falls into disarray and the journey is abandoned. They cannot make it without the servant Leo. The narrator, one of the party, after some years of wandering, finds Leo and is taken into the Order that has sponsored the journey. There he discovers that Leo, whom he had first known as _servant,_ was in fact the titular head of the Order, its guiding spirit, a great and noble leader. The story of Leo gave me the idea of \"The Servant as Leader.\"\n\nLater a Catholic Sister came to talk about what I had written in \"The Servant as Leader.\" In the course of the discussion she asked me where I found the earliest reference to the idea of servant. I replied, in the Bible, of course, beginning early in the Old Testament. Her rather sharp question was, \"Then why do you attribute it to reading Hesse?\" I responded, \"Because that was where I got the idea to write on the Servant as Leader theme. If I had not read the story of Leo, I might have never written anything on this subject. There was something in Hesse's story that moved me in a way that I had not been moved before.\"\n\nIn the terms that I have been discussing the subject of liberating visions, I was prepared to receive one by my deep immersion in the student turmoil of the sixties and by reading Hesse as part of my search for understanding of what was going on in student minds. The liberating vision that took me into one of the most interesting and productive chapters of my life was delivered by Hermann Hesse.\n\nThis essay, \"Servant: Retrospect and Prospect,\" has had much to do with receiving, communicating, and responding to _liberating visions_. What I learned from the experience noted above is that liberating visions can come from anywhere at any time and that they may or may not bear any particular theological label. Important to me are:\n\n\u2022 Immerse oneself in the experiences this world offers.\n\n\u2022 Be accepting of the people involved in these experiences, and seek to understand what moves them.\n\n\u2022 Acknowledge\u2014and stand in awe before\u2014the ineffable mystery that shrouds the source of all understanding of human motives that leads to visions.\n\n\u2022 _Be open to receive, and act upon, what inspiration offers_.\n\nAlong the way, I had a dream that may have had something to do with the course of my experience these last ten years.\n\nIt is a beautiful summer day, and I am in a lovely, extensive woods in which there is a labyrinth of paths. I am riding a bicycle through these paths, holding in my hand a map of them to guide my journey. It is a buoyant, joyful experience and there is a delightful certainty about it. Suddenly a gust of wind blows the map out of my hand. I stop and look back to see it flutter to the ground, to be picked up by an old man who stands there holding it for me. I walk back to retrieve my map; but when I arrive at the old man, he hands me\u2014not my map\u2014but a small round tray of earth in which fresh grass seedlings are growing.\n\nWhere there is no vision, the people perish.\n\n_Proverbs 29:18 (King James Version)_\n\nWhat is now proved was once only imagin'd.\n\n_William Blake (The Marriage of Heaven and Hell)_\n\n### POSTSCRIPT\n\nAs I was writing this an invitation came to visit a small church-related college where they wanted to talk about a new goal for the college: to make preparation for servant-leadership a central concern, in the work of the college. I visited with faculty, as a whole and in groups, and with student leaders. It was an encouraging experience, to find that a college wanted to consider such a move. My parting advice was not to try to \"legislate\" such a change but to give leadership and encourage wide discussion, and let new directions come as individuals find ways to work toward such a goal with the hope that, ultimately, a consensus will emerge. This is what servant-leadership is about: helping consensus, voluntary and durable consensus, to evolve.\n\n## 2\n\n## **Education and Maturity**\n\n_A talk before the faculty and students of Barnard College, at their fifth biennial vocational conference, November 30, 1960_\n\nMaturity has many meanings, especially when applied to people. But in my own association, there is a strong link between the word _maturity_ and the word _becoming_. Education, in particular a liberal education, can be a powerful maturing force. Depth of meaning about process emerges only out of experience. This, briefly, is the framework within which I shall try to deal with the subject of education and maturity.\n\nA friend of mine in Madison, Wisconsin, tells a story about Frank Lloyd Wright many years ago when his studio, Taliesen, was at nearby Spring Green. Mr. Wright had been invited by a women's club in Madison to come and talk on the subject \"What is Art?\" He accepted and appeared at the appointed hour and was introduced to speak on this subject.\n\nIn his prime, he was a large impressive man, with good stage presence and a fine voice. He acknowledged the introduction and produced from his pocket a little book. He then proceeded to read one of Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tales, the one about the little mermaid. He read it beautifully, and it took about 15 minutes. When he finished he closed the book, looked intently at his audience and said, \"That, my friends, is art,\" and sat down.\n\nAs I thought about this talk today, I wished that I knew how to do this with the subject of maturity. Maturity is like art and virtue; it is best demonstrated, and I feel presumptuous to be talking about it at all.\n\nI do not have a how-to-do-it formula for achieving maturity to hand you. My sole aim is to encourage you to be thoughtful about your problem of finding the meaning of maturity in your own lives and the times you live in. Because we are all different, the problem will be different for each of us. The common ground I shall try to find is a way of thinking about the meaning of maturity.\n\nThe most important lesson I have learned about maturity is that the emergence, the full development, of what is uniquely _me_ should be an important concern throughout my entire life. There are many other important concerns, but this particular one must never be submerged, never be out of sight.\n\nThis I learned the hard way. There was a long \"wilderness\" period in which I sought resources outside of myself. I looked for an \"answer\" to the normal frustrations of life ( _frustration_ used in the sense of the blocking of motives to which one cannot make a constructive response). Good years went by. No answers came. It took a long time for me to discover that the only _real_ answer to frustration is to concern myself with the drawing forth of what is uniquely me. Only as what is uniquely me emerges do I experience moments of true creativity; moments which, when deeply felt, temper the pain of long periods of frustration that are the common lot of most of us and give me the impulse and the courage to act constructively in the outside world.\n\nEvery life, including the most normal of the normal, is a blend of experiences that build ego strength and those that tear it down. As one's responsibilities widen, these forces become more powerful. As good a definition as I know is that maturity is the capacity to withstand the ego-destroying experiences and not lose one's perspective in the ego-building experiences: \"If you can meet with triumph or disaster\u2014,\" to borrow a phrase from Mr. Kipling.\n\nOne of my special interests is the field of management development. I have made a point of looking into a few organizations in which, in a certain period, there was an unusual flowering of managerial talent. Usually there was one person, an able manager who had the gift of guiding his understudy so as to help bring latent talent to fruition, to the mature ability to carry heavy responsibility successfully. The most outstanding developer I know about had at the center of his philosophy the idea that the really important lessons in the managerial art are learned only as the result of error, suffering the consequences of error and learning from the total experience. This is an important test of maturity: to seek to avoid error, to accept the consequences of error when it comes (as it surely will), and learn from it and to wipe the slate clean and start afresh, free from feelings of guilt.\n\nBut this takes a special view of the self. The sustaining feeling of personal significance is important. It comes from the inside. I am _not_ a piece of dust on the way to becoming another piece of dust. I am an instrument of creation, unlike any that has ever been or ever will be. So is each of you. No matter how badly you may be shaken, no matter how serious the failure or how ignominious the fall from grace, by accepting and learning you can be restored with greater strength. Don't lose this basic view of who you are.\n\nA friend of mine once said of his 4-year-old son, \"His world is a six-foot sphere. He's in the center of it and moves it around with him wherever he goes.\"\n\nThe conventional view is that this is youthful egocentricity and that one grows out of it as he matures, as he becomes social and accepts responsibility. I would rather say that there is a transmutation as one matures. One is _still_ at the center of his world. (How could one be unique and be otherwise?) But with maturity one's world becomes the limitless sphere of people, ideas, and events which each of us influences by each thought, word, and deed; and each of us, in turn, is open to receive influence. The individual capacity of each of us to influence and be influenced and to absorb the shocks\u2014this capacity is in proportion to the emergence of the sentient person, the drawing forth of what is uniquely _us_. This is an important idea to keep as your own private lamp when somebody undertakes to grind you down\u2014as they surely will sometime, if you have not been aware of it already.\n\nThis is the central idea of maturity: to keep your private lamp lighted as you venture forth on your own to meet with triumph or disaster or _just plain routine_. And this is what a liberal education is about; because this is what life is about. If, in your college years, you learn nothing other than who you are, that you have a private lamp, your stay here will have been amply justified.\n\nThe notion of uniqueness will bear some exploration. I will leave to the theologians the speculation as to whether part of what is uniquely a person is inherently evil. I prefer to say: whatever it is, draw it forth and face it; then make something creative and good out of it. Oscar Wilde has left for us the observation, \"Every saint has a past, every sinner has a future.\"\n\nWe are all conditioned by the culture in which we have lived, more than we can ever know. So many of the conflicts of the world today may have had their origins in the sudden impact of modern travel and communication, which bring these cultural differences face to face in sharp encounter. This makes it imperative that each of us understands the biases of his own culture which he brings to the confrontation.\n\nYet, acknowledging all of this, I believe that something of unconditioned uniqueness is prepared to show through in every person. It is the process of drawing it forth with which each of us needs to be concerned. It is a process which, at best, will be only dimly perceived; yet we must conjure with it. The remainder of this talk will deal with some ideas about the process which seem particularly important to me at this time.\n\nI see four major issues that need to be faced and dealt with if this drawing forth is to proceed as an important life involvement. The relevance to your concern in this vocational conference is this: in choosing a vocation, you should have as your primary aim (there are other necessary aims, but this one should be primary) that of _finding in the work in which you are engaged that which is uniquely you_. If you miss on this, you will likely wind up as one of T. S. Eliot's hollow men\u2014\n\nBetween the potency\n\nAnd the existence\n\nBetween the essence\n\nAnd the descent\n\nFalls the Shadow\n\nNo other achievement, no other end sought, will be worth the effort if through the work that occupies your best days and years you do not find a way to fan your own creative spark to a white heat\u2014at least once in a while. So I want to talk about four of many issues, four that have emerged rather sharply out of my own experience, in the hope that something will resonate in your own experience, while you still have many choices before you.\n\nFirst, _the consequences of stress and responsibility!_ All work\u2014whether in business, profession, government, home\u2014both develops and limits. It stretches one out in some ways and narrows one in others; it both fans the flame and seeks to quench it. This has no doubt happened to some extent in the educational and other choices you have already made. It will happen more in work.\n\nI see no exceptions: no completely whole persons, nor any chance of it. You must not look forward to any idealized achievement, no perfect or enduring adjustment to your life work. Whenever I think I have really achieved something, up come those powerful lines from Walt Whitman's \"Song of the Open Road\":\n\nNow, understand me well\u2014It is provided in the essence of things, that from any fruition of success, no matter what, shall come forth something to make a greater struggle necessary.\n\nThe greater struggle that will be necessary as you learn to bear more stress and carry responsibility comes because long exposure to these conditions tends to narrow the intellect unless a valiant effort is made to achieve an ever-expanding outlook. It is not enough just to try to keep up, to maintain the level of intellectual curiosity you have achieved in college. The intellectual life must expand. The great risk which the bearers of responsibility assume is that intellectual curiosity, the search for understanding, will atrophy and that only a calculating rationality will remain.\n\nThe test is in the heat of action. If one has a problem on which it is appropriate to act, and if one doesn't know what to do (which is the constant dilemma of all bearers of responsibility), one _should_ turn to the search for greater depth of understanding about the problem.\n\nIf you are only going to remember one thing from this talk, I hope you will remember this: the main reason you will ever be aware of a problem is that your understanding of yourself, of the other people involved, and of the area in which the problem lies is limited. Therefore, the search for understanding\u2014an intellectual pursuit\u2014is the most practical of ideas, even though the \"practical\" people often spurn it. But it is a difficult idea to hold onto when one bears the weight of responsibility for action, especially if the need is urgent. It is difficult to seek to understand when the heat is on. If one is to be well served by a liberal education, one needs to use this period of relative isolation from real life pressures to develop the firm habit of seeking to understand when the heat is _not_ on. This is the best rationale I know of for concentrating such an important educational influence in your present age range. Learn how to seek to understand now, when the heat is not on; make it a firm habit, and try to be aware that this will only serve you well if the habit is firmly enough fixed so that you can manage it when the going is rough, when the stakes are real, and when the consequences of failing to understand may be overwhelming.\n\nOne of the important testing grounds in decision making is the meeting of personal conflicts, when ideas or interests differ. Please give some thought to Dr. Carl Rogers' wonderful formula for meeting conflict. It is this: try to state to the _other person's_ satisfaction your _understanding_ of _his_ position; then identify and state as much of _his_ proposition as you can agree with; _then_ , and not until then, state your own point of view.\n\nThe risk in this procedure is that _you_ might change. Opening one's self to understanding always entails this risk. This is bad advice for the brittle, the fearful, the dogmatic, the \"allness\" people. But then, our subject _is_ maturity.\n\nIf change is too painful to contemplate, then one had best adjust his blinders to shut out all peripheral understanding. But if one does this and winds up hating the world, then one shouldn't blame the world for it.\n\nThere is a poignant line from _The King and I_ when Anna is getting to the King with some new ideas and, in desperation, he pounds the table and shouts, \"If you're going to be King, you've got to be King!\" He seemed to me to be saying, \"Don't mix me up with ideas when, at this point, the only thing I know how to do is to act!\" This portrays dramatically the awful consequences of a life of action in which the intellectual lamp was not kept bright, in which the search for understanding was not a constant quest. And in this play, the end, for the King, is tragic.\n\nThe second issue is _the tension between the requirement to conform and the essential person_.\n\n_Conformity_ has become a nasty word. It has almost become the battle cry of those of our generation who see their role as the modern version of the muckrakers of 50 years ago.\n\nThe attacks on conformity confuse the issue because in any organized society there must be a lot of conformity. Whenever two people undertake to work and live together, there must be some conformity.\n\nAll organized effort, any concerted influence, requires to some extent that those who participate must think and act alike. Nothing important can be accomplished without a good deal of conformity. Only a hermit in his cave can completely eschew conformity and carry out his role. As our society becomes more complex, more highly integrated, it demands more conformity than was called for in simpler times.\n\nThe problem is to know conformity for what it is: a completely external adjustment to the group norm of behavior in the interest of group cohesiveness and effectiveness. Then, knowing conformity for what it is, always keep it in rational focus as a conscious adjustment in the interest of an effective society. Keep it external, never let it become a part of _you_. Hold it firmly on the outside. The great danger is that one will lose one's identity in the act of conformity, not knowing which is the essential person and which is the conforming act, and thereby forfeit his right to be respected as an individual (by himself or by anybody else).\n\nWhen I was a boy, one of the weapons of discipline held over little boys who used profane language was that their mothers would wash their mouths with soap. My mother never did it to me, although there was ample provocation; but it was one of the things I heard about. I recall a story about a determined little character who did receive this punishment, and he is alleged to have sputtered out through the soap suds, \"You can soap my talk, but you can't soap my think!\" Don't ever let anybody soap your think.\n\nThe third issue that needs to be dealt with, if the drawing forth of what is uniquely each one of us is to proceed, is _the struggle for significance\u2014the complications of status, property, achievement_.\n\nOne of the hazards of prolonged schooling is that one becomes accustomed to living in a system in which the ends of the system are to nurture significance for the individual. This is what a school is for.\n\nOnce in the world of work, the institution one is in\u2014whether it is home, school, business, social service\u2014uses people for other ends. All such institutions have other obligations, and they commit people who do the work to these obligations. Most modern institutions are also concerned that the people who do the work find personal significance in their work. But this is a qualified obligation and one must not expect that any work will automatically provide the feeling of significance. A requirement of maturity is that one _learns to find his own significance_ , even under circumstances in which powerful forces may seem to operate to deny it.\n\nBut what is it that one is expected to find? I see it as something latent in the individual to be fulfilled. It is the seed of what is uniquely each person. Providing the conditions for its germination, emergence, and growth is the _search_.\n\nA healthy adulthood requires that one find it, and find it among the available choices. History and literature are surfeited with examples of barren lives in which the search was thwarted because the searcher could not accept the choices available to him. If only some out-of-reach circumstances were present, the search might go on.\n\nOne fictional account that has meant a great deal to me is Nathaniel Hawthorne's _Great Stone Face_. This is a simple story that can be read in 15 minutes, and I commend it to you.\n\nIn this story, we are in a small New England town nestled in the mountains with a view of a nearby mountain whose profile resembles a majestic face. The people in this town are living out a myth. Someday a noble man will come to them whose own profile resembles the great stone face. His presence will bring into their lives the qualities of majesty which the great stone face symbolizes.\n\nIn the course of the story, there comes a procession of people from the outside world, people of wealth and external status. The coming of each is heralded with great expectation; but always there is disappointment. The resemblance is not true.\n\nYears go by. We see a generation live from youth to old age carrying this hope that the image of the great stone face will come and that their lives will be enriched by the presence of the man who bears this likeness. Finally they recognize the resemblance to this image among them\u2014one of their own people. He has been there all the time, a living demonstration of those qualities which in his old age gave him the resemblance to the profile on the mountain.\n\nViewed symbolically, this community is a person seeking from external sources the qualities which are latent to emerge\u2014if only they will be permitted to emerge. They did not realize that the external marks of character are the product of the way a life is lived. If they were truly seekers, they would not have been so preoccupied with the external marks. Rather they would have attended more to the process, to what was going on in the lives they were examining. Had they been examining lives in process, lives around them to be seen, they would have seen right before their eyes the demonstration of how to live nobly. And they would have seen it when they were young enough for it to make a difference in the way their lives were lived.\n\nWe see in this story the collective life of the community denied fulfillment because it is looking for a stereotype. Significance is more likely to come from holding an attitude of unqualified expectancy, of openness and wonder.\n\nSo often, too, significance is blocked by compulsive drives for goals that do not provide fulfillment, something we pursue that we really don't want. When we achieve what we pursue, whether it is a tangible external thing or an internal state of mind, there is an emptiness. If we can name it and describe it precisely, the chances are we are seeking the wrong thing. I have seen so much of this among my contemporaries. If only they could lay aside the pursuit of over-specific and (therefore) meaningless goals and let their own uniqueness flower. The warning here is that our society holds up values which confuse the search\u2014status, property, power, tangible achievement, even peace of mind\u2014which subvert the emergence of true uniqueness, the only real significance. These are necessary elements of the society we live in at its current stage of development. We must make our peace with them and accept them as important, but we should not view them as basic or primary. Personal significance _is_ primary.\n\nNeither institutions nor aggregates of people have significance, except as it is given to them by living individuals who comprise them. Even traditions, powerful as they sometimes appear to be, are not viable unless contemporary people understand and believe in them and, by their thoughts, words, and deeds, give them current significance.\n\nOne of my favorite stories is about a now-prominent New York minister who was starting his career in the depression of the 1930s in a very poor church. He had no car and he needed one for his parish work. But since neither he nor the church had any money, this was a problem. Finally he bought an old battered jalopy for $25. It wasn't much of a car, but it ran and served his needs. However, he was soon confronted by an objection from his parishioners. Poor as they all were, they didn't like the idea of their minister riding around in that kind of car, especially parking it in front of the church. Finally it came out at a meeting of the governing board when one of the members said that their minister should have a car that \"added to his dignity.\" At this point the young minister rose and spoke one short sentence that disposed of the question about his car. \"Gentlemen,\" he said, \"no automobile adds dignity to a man; man adds dignity to the automobile.\"\n\nThis is a point ever to keep sharply in mind. Dignity, significance, character are wholly the attributes of individual people. They have nothing to do with anything external to the person.\n\nThe fourth major issue I see is _facing the requirements for growth; accepting some process for drawing forth one's uniqueness_.\n\nI would like to see a word that has fallen into disuse restored to common usage. That word is _entheos,_ from the same roots as _enthusiasm,_ which means \"possessed of the spirit.\" These two words, _entheos_ and _enthusiasm,_ have had an interesting history in the English language, coming down side by side through separate channels of meaning from the 16th century. _Entheos_ has always been the basic spiritual essence; enthusiasm, until recently, its perverter and imitator. _Entheos_ is now defined as _the power actuating one who is inspired,_ while _enthusiasm_ is seen as its less profound, more surface aspect.\n\nI want to use _entheos_ as it is now defined, the power actuating one who is inspired; and, at the risk of laboring it, I want to build a concept of growth around this one word. For those who are concerned with maturity _seen as becoming_ , it is important to see _entheos_ as the lamp and to keep one's own private lamp lighted as one ventures forth into a confused, pressure-ridden world, but nevertheless a hopeful world for those who can maintain their contact with the power that actuates inspiration. From the little I know of history, I cannot imagine a more interesting time to be alive _provided one can make it with entheos_.\n\nI see _entheos_ as the essence that makes a constructive life possible; it is the sustaining force that holds one together under stress; it is the support for venturesome risk-taking action; it is the means whereby whatever religious beliefs one has are kept in contact with one's attitudes and actions in the world of practical affairs; it lifts people above the prosaic and gives them a sense of timelessness; it is the prod of conscience that keeps one open to knowledge, so that one can be both aware and sensitive, when the urge to be comfortable would keep the door closed. I like that line from William Blake:\n\nIf the doors to perception were cleansed, everything will appear to man as it is, infinite.\n\n_Entheos_ does not come in response to external incentives. In fact, it may persist when incentives operate to destroy it. The individual cannot will it, it comes when it will and sometimes it goes when most needed. _But it does grow_.\n\nAll that can be willed is the search. There is no one pattern I know of. Each must find his own pattern. One of the great challenges of maturity: find your own growth pattern in the search for _entheos_.\n\nI can suggest some tests. If one has a few tests in mind, these might help to plot the individual search. We are reaching for _entheos_ , the power actuating one who is inspired. First some misleading indicators\u2014some achievements that might throw one off.\n\n_Status of material success_. One's external achievement may be impressive and praiseworthy and yet, in the process of achieving, one may be destroying much that is really important to him.\n\n_Social success_. The nongrowth people are sometimes more comfortable to be with.\n\n_Doing all that is expected of one_. Who is doing the expecting, and what do they know about what I should be expecting of myself?\n\n_Family success_ can be a misleading indicator. Fine and desirable as it is, it can be an egocentric, narrowing development. Internally, the family may appear in good balance; but it may be taking more out of the wider community than it is contributing.\n\n_Relative peace and quiet_. This may simply mean that the doors of perception are closed.\n\nFinally, _busyness\u2014compulsive busyness_. Beneath the surface of much action, there is the drive to avoid the implications of growth. \"This is for monks in a monastery; I'm too busy,\" they seem to say (Read the Mary-Martha story and ask, What does it have to say on this point?)\n\nThese are six indicators of achievement that can be misleading as evidences of growth. These can all be positive and worthwhile; but they don't necessarily add up to growth of _entheos_.\n\nNow, what I believe to be some valid tests, some indicators that there may be real growth of _entheos_.\n\nFirst, two paradoxes, _a concurrent satisfaction and dissatisfaction with the status quo_. One is not so unhappy with his current level of achievement that he can't live with himself. Neither is he so pleased with it that he has no incentive to break out of it. Then there is a concurrent feeling of broadening responsibilities and centering down. One is constantly reaching out for wider horizons, new levels of experience and at the same time the idea of \"This one thing will I do\" is in the ascendancy.\n\nThere is a growing _sense of purpose_ in whatever one does. The idea of purpose becomes important. Without being obsessive about it, the most penetrating and disturbing of all questions, \"What am I trying to do?\" becomes a constant query. One never loses sight of this question.\n\nThere are _changing patterns and depths of one's interests_. Old interests to which one was once attached drop away and newer and deeper ones take their place. Choices must be made.\n\nSomewhere ages and ages hence:\n\nTwo roads diverged in a wood, and I\u2014\n\nI took the one less traveled by\n\nAnd that has made all the difference.\n\n_Robert Frost_\n\nAs _entheos_ becomes a more constant companion, one moves toward the minimum of difference between the outside and inside images of the self; _one becomes more willing to be seen as he is_. Living as we do in an unreal world, to some extent we all wear masks. Convenient as it is to let the mask do what only serenity can _really_ do, I submit that _all_ masks chafe; I never saw a well-fitting mask. It is a great relief to take them off. The power of _entheos_ makes this possible; and the urge to remove the mask is one of the surest signs of its potency.\n\nThen _one becomes conscious of the good use of time and unhappy with the waste of time_. As awareness opens, one of the measures it takes of our contemporary society is the number of elaborate and seductive devices lurking about that serve no other purpose than to waste time.\n\nA further test is the growing _sense of achieving one's basic personal goals through one's work,_ whatever it is\u2014however menial, however poorly recognized. One of the popular illusions in our kind of culture is that one must reach a high status position in order to achieve one's goals. In my observation, there is really nothing in status but status, and the proportion of frustrated people is just as great in high places as in low places. I know it is an old truism, but the only place to achieve one's personal goals is where one is. Looking for a greener pasture for this purpose is almost certain to seal off the opportunity for achievement.\n\nGoing with some of these tests is the _emergence of a sense of unity,_ a pulling together of all aspects of life. Job, family, recreation, church, community all merge into one total pattern. While there remain obvious allocations of time to specific pursuits, the sense of leaving one and going to another diminishes. Peripheral time-consuming activities that cannot be brought within this view are laid aside. None of us needs to accept all of the obligations that others would impose upon us, and one way of making the separation is to test their compatibility with the core of _unified_ activities. As _entheos_ grows, one becomes more decisive and emphatic in saying _no!_\n\nFinally, there is a developing _view of people. All_ people are seen more as beings to be trusted, believed in, and loved and less as objects to be used, competed with, or judged. It is a shifting of the balance from use to esteem in _all_ personal relationships. In an imperfect world, one never achieves it fully; but there can be measurable progress. This is a critically important test. Unless this view of people becomes dominant, it is difficult for the inward view of one's own significant uniqueness to emerge. Love of oneself in the context of a pervasive love for one's fellow man is a healthy attribute and necessary for the fulfillment of a life. Out of this context, love of oneself is narrowing, introverting, and destructive.\n\nThe ultimate test of _entheos,_ however, is an _intuitive feeling of oneness, of wholeness, of rightness;_ but not necessarily comfort or ease.\n\nThese seem to me to be some valid tests that give assurance that _entheos_ is growing. If this kind of thinking doesn't strike a responsive chord with you today, please make a note of it, tuck it away in the back of your diary, and look at it 10 years, 20 years from now.\n\nIn closing, I want to return for a moment to work, vocation, and its relevance to growth, to the drawing out of the unique significance of the person.\n\nDon't just look for a job; even for an interesting and remunerative job.\n\nThink of yourself as a person with unique potentialities, and see the purpose of life as bringing these into mature bloom.\n\nDon't think of your career in terms of finding a nice fit for your skills and abilities. You will find some work more rewarding than other work; but the perfect job doesn't exist. Anyhow, neither the person nor the job stays put.\n\nSince there are no perfect jobs, no ideal fields, take one that challenges you as a piece of work to be done. Make other requirements subsidiary to this one, because nothing else really matters if the job is not rewarding in this sense.\n\nWhatever your work is, make something out of it that enriches _you_. Work itself cannot be truly significant except as it is seen as the means whereby the people who do the work find themselves in it. Do your work well; keep your sense of obligation high; cultivate excellence in everything you do; but above all _use_ your work, use it as a means for your own fulfillment as a person\u2014your own becoming.\n\nIf you have goals, be sure to state them in terms of external achievement, not in terms of what you will become. You don't know what you _can_ become, and no one can tell you.\n\nThis can be one of the great excitements of life\u2014the surprise when you discover what you _have_ become and realize that more is yet to come.\n\n## 3\n\n## **The Leadership Crisis\n\nA Message for College and University Faculty**\n\n### INTRODUCTION\n\nIn the eight years since I wrote the following essay on \"The Leadership Crisis,\" I have moved into a more meditative life with greater concern for the forces and influences that either nurture or depress the human spirit. And I have come to see the conditions that raise or lower the quality of life in colleges and universities as not materially different from those that operate in other institutions: governments, hospitals, churches, schools, businesses, philanthropies. Therefore, what I first addressed to colleges and universities and published in an academic journal, now seems to me to be much more widely relevant. And what is being said today in the flood of literature about how to lead in business seems equally applicable in the academic world.\n\nMost important, as I noted in the earlier essay, \"an indispensable condition for the persuasive power (of leaders) to be effective is that the institution is living out a great dream.... Institutions function better when the idea, the dream, is to the fore, and the person, the leader is seen as servant of the idea. It is not 'I,' the ultimate leader, that is moving this institution to greatness; it is the dream, the great idea. 'I' am subordinate to the idea. 'I' am servant of the idea along with everyone else who is involved in the effort.... It is the idea that unites people in the common effort, not the charisma of the leader.... Far too many of our contemporary institutions do not have an adequate dream, an imaginative concept that will raise people's sights close to where they have the potential to be.... that has the energy to lift people out of their moribund ways to a level of being and relating from which the future can be faced with more hope than most of us can summon today.\" That was the way I saw the crisis of leadership eight years ago: the need to produce in more of our institutions the overarching dream that will have this energy.\n\nI am indebted to Peter Senge for the idea of a \"shared vision,\" for the importance of the individual, regardless of status, to claim the dream as one's own. A condition for such a shared dream to prevail may be wide participation in the evolution of the vision, especially if it is an old institution that has lost a great dream it once had and wants to get a new one.\n\nWhat goes on in the participative process? Let me speculate: those who are the best dreamers and most adept at articulating dreams will periodically \"test the waters.\" Those who have the gift of leading will periodically say, \"Let's get together and talk about this.\" Those who have the gift of statesmanship will listen carefully to all of this and search for the ideas and the language that will be the basis for consensus.\n\nWhat evolves from this process, in which the key leader may take a hand, may not emerge as a written statement one can hang on the wall. It may best exist as an oral tradition that is continually reexamined, modified, or given new emphasis. In a well-led institution, there will always be a consensual tradition that most will summon in answer to the question, \"What are we about?\"\n\nWhat I identified as a crisis of leadership in colleges and universities eight years ago, after considerable involvement with academic institutions, I now see as a symptom of the failure of faculties to accept that the price of freedom everywhere\u2014in their case academic freedom\u2014is responsibility, the obligation to be constantly alert to opportunities to make one's share in forming the dream one lives by a real and meaningful thing, an obligation that persists as long as one has the wits to participate.\n\nTop leaders in all institutions have the opportunity to reduce the sense of crisis in our times by helping everyone involved to understand the responsibility that freedom entails, and to create an atmosphere in which consensual dreams can emerge that have the power to guide purpose and decision in way that makes for greatness.\n\nA critical aspect of leadership, whether in a university in which a substantial piece of the power to govern has been ceded to faculties, or in business in which, structurally at least, all the ultimate power usually resides with the chief executive, or something in between, is this: _Can the key leader accept that optimal performance rests, among other things, on the existence of a powerful shared vision that evolves through wide participation to which the key leader contributes, but which the use of authority cannot shape? And can that key leader be persuasive enough that responsibility for generating and maintaining that vision is widely accepted as a serious obligation?_\n\nThe ambiguity in this process may be that the effective key leader may never talk explicitly about vision or its generation. The process may be much too subtle for that. The generation of a shared vision may be one of those wonderful things that just happens when genuine respect for persons, for all persons, is consistently manifested. Within the climate of that pervasive attitude, and in the normal course of decision making, the first response of both the key leader and all subordinate leaders may be the simple question, \"What are we trying to do?\"\u2014 _Robert K. Greenleaf, 1986_\n\nThe leadership crisis of our times is without precedent.\n\nPeople have been poorly served by their leaders before; but in the past 100 years, we have moved from a society comprised largely of artisans and farmers with a few merchants and professionals, and with small government, to widespread involvement with a vast array of institutions\u2014often large, complex, powerful, impersonal, not always competent, sometimes corrupt. Nothing like it before has happened in our history. This recent experience with institutions may have brought a new awareness of serious deficiencies in the quality of our common life that are clearly traceable to leadership failures. Some of these lacks have become so painful to bear that _leadership crisis_ is an apt term to describe an important aspect of our present condition. Why are we in this dilemma, and what can we do about it? From the perspective of my experience, in these few pages I will suggest some tentative answers to these questions. And I will continue to search.\n\n### NEGLECT OF PREPARATION FOR LEADERSHIP\n\nColleges and universities assumed a unique place in American culture early in this century when, with the growing percentage of college-age young people enrolled, public service was added to the traditional roles of teaching, learning, and scholarship. Now that nearly 50 percent of college-age young people are on campus, the presence of a pervasive crisis of leadership raises the question about the impact of higher education. The traditional civilization-building role of the universities is as important as it ever was. But is it being sustained adequately in these times? The tradition seems not to have been adapted to carry all of the obligations that contemporary universities, with their massive influence, may be expected to assume\u2014including explicit preparation for leadership. (Please note that I have not said \"training\" for leadership. \"Preparation\" is a much more subtle process.)\n\nIn the turbulent 1960s, the charge was made that universities were effectively administering an \"anti-leadership\" vaccine to their students. Now, with declining enrollment and new financial urgencies, I sense that, from within universities, the fragility that they demonstrated in themselves in the 1960s is seen as an attribute of society at large. Appreciated, but perhaps not clearly understood, is weakness of leadership as an underlying cause. And there is concern about this condition. There are evidences of hunger for leadership that is denied by a seeming unwillingness of faculties to respond to such leadership as they have. If these are correct surmises, why then is there not a vigorous stirring in the universities to bring their great civilizing tradition to bear on this problem? It may be that the crisis of leadership in society at large is also the universities' own crisis. It is a baffling enigma to those who make the effort to interest universities in preparation for leadership. Yet I believe there is a reasonable basis for it. Let me speculate on what I think it is.\n\n### THE NEW AWARENESS OF POWER\n\nSince World War II, there has evolved a new sensitivity to the issue of power, particularly coercive power\u2014its abuses and legitimate uses. Along with this new concern about power, perhaps because of it, has come a fresh critical judgment of our many institutions, all of which wield power, whether they are governmental or voluntary, for profit or not for profit.\n\nI am a nonacademic who has made a few soundings within universities. My estimate of the perception of the typical faculty member, as she or he looks out from academe on the world of institutions, is as follows: Valuable and necessary as these institutions are\u2014businesses, churches, schools, governments, hospitals, social agencies (they are all we have)\u2014the whole gamut of them is seen as not serving well. Slavish adherence in these institutions to rigid hierarchical structures is viewed as an anachronism and a destroyer of values in the leaders that emerge. Some of these institutions are seen as mechanisms for manipulation and exploitation. Many who work for them are regarded as diminished and used up. And there is the suspicion that the root cause is low-grade top leadership: inept, not knowing, not caring, and, above all, the abuse and misuse of power. What makes it a crisis is that the fault is seen in an abstraction called the \"system.\" Leader and follower are both victims of the use of power in the \"system.\" There is no evident handle on the problem.\n\nIf, from within the university, one looks out on a scene as just described, including the university itself in that scene; if, accurate or not, that is the perception, would not a sensitive academic person be likely to hesitate to venture into leadership preparation for such a society? There is little in the background of a scholar that would give the average teacher a reasoned basis for reacting to that perception; nor is it likely that, in the prevailing structure of university leadership, there would be respected advice that would be persuasive in changing either that perception or the reaction to it.\n\nIf, as I believe, a concern about power, including the ramifications of power within the university itself, is the barrier that blocks universities from accepting an explicit obligation for preparing leaders, is it possible to reach an understanding of power that will help universities see their way around the barriers that now restrain them? Let me suggest an approach to that question.\n\n### THREE KINDS OF POWER\n\nAs a basis for sorting out what people do when they undertake to lead, let us consider three dimensions of power. These are not sharply delineated from one another by external markings. The distinctions exist more in the attitudes and values of wielders of power.\n\n#### _Coercive Power_\n\n_Coercive power_ exists because certain people are granted (or assume) sanctions to impose their wills on others. These sanctions may be overt, as when one may be penalized or punished if one does not comply; or the sanctions may be covert and subtle, if one's weaknesses and sentiments are exploited and thus pressure is applied. The power to coerce has a long history of use. But now, with constantly expanding government, the domination of the social structure by institutions\u2014especially large ones\u2014the expansion of techniques of surveillance, the proliferation of weapons of destruction, the growth in sophistication of methods of crime and oppression, and the bewildering complexity of life in which it is more and more difficult for people to gauge where their interests lie; with all of these we seem more vulnerable to coercion than we once were.\n\nAnother complication is that some coercion is masked behind ideal aims and is employed by people who are highly civilized and are motivated for noble ends.\n\nUniversities are involved in the use of coercive power in their role of \"credentialing\" (Thomas Jefferson, founder of the University of Virginia, would not allow degrees to be granted as long as he was Rector\u2014on the ground that degrees are pretentious.) When universities were small and were concerned largely with esoteric scholarship, degrees were a relatively harmless honorific. But now that universities are huge and degrees are so often, by law or custom, the ticket of admission to a \"good\" job\u2014the means for upgrading oneself in society\u2014the university holds, and uses, great coercive power. Even when it is sensitively and benignly used, it is still coercive power; and having that power has the same liabilities to corrupting influences as would any other kind of coercive power.\n\nOne of the problems of the use of coercive power by the more civilized people, even though for noble ends, is that, when conditions are right, the use of that power may cause destructive violence to be unleashed in the less civilized, sometimes on a disastrous scale. It may be plausibly argued that, although the Vietnam war and the civil rights crisis were seen as the proximate causes of the student disorders in the late 1960s, one of the ultimate causes may have been the universities' own long-standing use of coercive power.\n\nIs there a moral principle here: when coercive power is used in any form and for any purpose, does not the user of that power bear some responsibility for what may be inevitable harmful effects, including the unleashing of violence? If coercive power is used (and I do not foresee a utopian society in which it will not be used), do not the users of that power have the obligation to be aware of the potential danger and prepare a meliorative strategy that minimizes the damage to the social fabric?\n\nCoercive power is more pervasive than most are aware of, and its consequences are traceable to evils that we ordinarily do not connect with it.\n\n#### _Manipulative Power_\n\nI see manipulation as distinct from coercion because it rests more on plausible rationalizations than on the threat of sanctions or on pressure. People are manipulated, I believe, when they are guided by plausible rationalizations into beliefs or actions that they do not fully understand. By this definition, some manipulation by leaders is unavoidable because some who follow are not capable of understanding or will not make the effort to understand. But not all manipulation by leaders can be justified on these grounds. The heart of the problem, I believe, is that effective leaders, those who are better than most in charting the path ahead, who willingly take the risks and expend the energy that leadership requires\u2014those people are apt to be _highly intuitive_. Thus leaders themselves, in their conscious rationalizations, may not fully understand why they chose a given path. Yet our culture requires that leaders produce plausible explanations for the directions they choose to take. These rationalizations are useful because they permit\u2014after the fact\u2014the test of conscious logic that \"makes sense\" to leader and follower. But the understanding required by the follower, if she or he is not to be manipulated, is not necessarily contained in this rationalization that makes sense. Because we live in a world that pretends a higher validity to conscious rational thinking in human affairs than is warranted by the facts of our existence, and because many sensitive people \"know\" this, _manipulation_ hangs as a cloud over the relationship between leader and led almost everywhere, and is the subject of much pejorative comment.\n\nCan this cloud be dispelled? Not easily. But something can be done about it if both leaders and followers are constantly aware of the presence of this murkiness, and if they accept that dispelling it requires a determined effort by both of them. Within this framework of awareness, what would the effort be, what would they try to do? The essence of leadership, I believe, is that the leader makes the effort first. The leader takes the first step in the belief that, if it provides a clear demonstration of the intent to build a more honest relationship, followers will respond.\n\nI suggest that the leader try persuasion!\n\n#### _Persuasion as Power_\n\nUnfortunately there is ambiguity in the word _persuasion_. One of the dictionaries I consulted, in a series of definitions, gives three that do not imply coercion. A fourth implies coercion. And the fifth states flatly, \"to bring a desired action or condition by force.\" I prefer to use the word _persuasion_ for a process that does not allow either coercion or manipulation in any form. One is persuaded, I believe, upon arrival at a feeling of rightness about a belief or action _through one's own intuitive sense_. One takes an intuitive step, from the closest approximation to the certainty to be reached by conscious logic (sometimes not very close), to that state in which one may say with conviction, \"This is where I stand.\" The act of persuasion, as I limit the definition, would help order the logic and favor the intuitive step. _And this takes time_! The one being persuaded must take that intuitive step alone, untrammeled by coercion or stratagems. Both leader and follower respect the autonomy and integrity of the other and each allows and encourages the other to find his or her own intuitive confirmation of the rightness of the belief or action. If this relationship prevails whenever it is possible, then, when a quick action is required, one supported by the skimpiest of rationalizations, it will be accepted with the assurance that at some future time there will be the opportunity for intuitive mutuality to be reestablished. A leader who practices persuasion whenever possible sets a model that, in time, will encourage followers to deal with the leader by persuasion. Power is generated in this relationship because it admits of mutual criticism, spirited arguments can occur, and it does not depend on artful stratagems.\n\nThis poses a problem for conventional organization structures in which those \"at the top\" hold coercive power and, because of their superior informational sources, are in a good position to manipulate. Such persons should take note that those who are seen as holding coercive power, even though they use it sparingly, are somewhat disqualified to persuade. \"Where is the hidden agenda?\" is often the unasked question. Since in our imperfect society it is difficult to conceive of a functioning organization in which there is not an ultimate locus of coercive power, two suggestions are made so that unqualified persuasive power can make its contribution.\n\nThe first is that every institution should harbor able persuaders who know their way around, who are dedicated servants of the institution, whose judgment and integrity are respected, who do not manipulate, who hold no coercive power, and who, without the formal assurances that faculty members usually have, feel free and secure. Those who hold the ultimate power will accept that these nonpowerful persuaders can accomplish things for the good of the institution that the powerful cannot command. Therefore, the powerful will permit radical criticism to be made. Every institution that wants the benefits that only persuasion can accomplish needs to support such persons on its staff, because the value of coercive power is inverse to its use.\n\nMy second suggestion is that an indispensable condition for persuasive power to be effective is that _the institution is living out a great dream_. I speak with some conviction on this because, near the end of my career, I was party to an unsuccessful effort to persuade the top command where I worked that a new goal was needed. The great dream on which the institution was built had lost its force and, as seems the plight of so many contemporary institutions, ours was in the mood of struggling to survive.\n\nThose in command where I worked were honest, able, dedicated, and caring\u2014like so many who head other institutions with which I am familiar. But they were not guided by a great dream, not a dream that was shared by those who followed them. The idea that inspires and unifies was muted. Leaders were seen, too much, as self-symbols; they did not come through as servants of the dream. Consequently, there was not enough trust in the institution by any of its constituencies.\n\nGreat institutions are a fusion of great ideas and great people. Neither will suffice without the other.\n\n### NEW DREAMS ARE NEEDED\n\nWhere would the leader of an institution get the idea that a dream is needed? How would he or she learn what it would serve? Where, in all of our vast communication, educational, and religious resources is the suggestion being made?\n\nRegardless of the stress of circumstance, institutions function better when the idea, the dream, is to the fore, and the person, the leader, is seen as servant of the idea. It is not \"I,\" the ultimate leader, that is moving this institution to greatness; it is the dream, the great idea. \"I\" am subordinate to the idea; \"I\" am servant of the idea along with everyone else who is involved in the effort. As the ancient Taoist proclaimed, \"When the leader leads well, the people will say, 'We did it ourselves.'\" The leader leads well when leadership is, and is seen as, serving the dream and searching for a better one. Dreams should be articulated by whomever is the ablest dreamer, and leaders should always be open to persuasion by dreamers. It is the idea that unites people in the common effort, not the charisma of the leader. It is the communicated faith of the leader in the dream that enlists dedicated support needed to move people toward accomplishment of the dream. Far too many of our contemporary institutions do not have an adequate dream, an imaginative concept that will raise people's sights close to what they have the potential to be.\n\nIf the dream has the quality of greatness, it not only provides the overarching vision for the undertaking; it also penetrates deeply into the psyches of all who are drawn to it and savor its beauty, its rightness, and its wisdom. The test of greatness in a dream is that it has the energy to lift people out of their moribund ways to a level of being and relating from which the future can be faced with more hope than most of us can summon today. Persuasion, as an art of leadership, is tenable because of the persuasive power in the dream itself.\n\n### A GREAT DREAM FOR A UNIVERSITY\n\nJust from reading the newspapers, one would question whether universities have an adequate dream for these times, one in which the roles of teaching and learning, scholarship, and public service are inseparable. And the great dream that might be theirs seems remote indeed. In the context of the subject \"the crisis of leadership,\" what evidence supports this assertion?\n\nIt is specious, I believe, to argue as some do, that general education nurtures leadership and prepares people for discriminating followership. Quite the reverse may be true. How else, in view of the massive level of higher education, would one explain either the leadership crisis in which we are now enmeshed or the gross misjudgments in selecting whose leadership to follow that has characterized recent years?\n\nThen, if, as I have suggested, the university degree has become the ticket of admission to better jobs, these tickets are being issued to at least twice as many as there are jobs that warrant preparation.\n\nPerhaps more serious, academic higher education is not suited to everybody. Informed guesses on how many will profit by such education run as low as 15 percent. If this, or anything close to it, is a fair judgment, with nearly 50 percent of the college age population enrolled, what is the effect on the leadership potential of the other 35 percent\u2014those who should receive some other kind of education?\n\nA determined effort to educate minority peoples has been made. One effect on the black community has been to give favored job treatment to those who make it through a university\u2014to the disadvantage of the large numbers of less educated whose dependence on welfare has increased and who may have been deprived of their indigenous leadership.\n\nThese evidences of an inadequate dream in universities are cited not to censure them\u2014they are doing as well in their obligations as are other institutions that serve us. But, as I see it, they hold the key to recovering us from the leadership crisis. Therefore, universities merit priority in concern about this problem.\n\nI submit that universities are in urgent need of a great new dream. No small dream will suffice. How will they find that dream and unite to bring it to reality? Who will lead them to it?\n\n### A BASIS FOR HOPE\n\nOne would hope that university administrators would give that leadership; the signals are clear enough that they should. But faculties have held too much power too long, and administrators are too much caught up in the common mores of our institutional life. They need an infusion of leadership vision as much as others do. Then, pressed as most of them are by financial urgencies and by the intractable nature (as they see it) of faculties, it is not likely that the initiative to redirect universities to a new role of nurturing leadership will come from administrators, even though they might thereby establish their own leadership in a healthy way and make financing easier.\n\nNeither private nor public funding sources for university programs appear eager to initiate new concerns for the preparation of leaders. Like the universities, they, too, seem caught up in the crisis of leadership. Ours may be said to be _the age of the anti-leader_.\n\nWhere, then, will the initiative come from? Is there no hope that a resource equal to the need will emerge? Yes, there is hope. Hope lies in the great strength of the academic tradition (which some see as its most troublesome aspect): academic freedom and tenure.\n\nThe transforming movement will arise, I believe, from the source it usually comes from in a crisis: from a _saving remnant_. At first, from a few faculty members who act alone, within the scope of autonomy they now have, finding their own way to be effective, using some of their own free time, and, in some cases, putting in a little money. A few such far-seeing faculty members may start the transforming movement without the support of their culture, possibly incurring some opposition from it. This is characteristic of saving remnants. They are not usually empowered, approved, or well financed.\n\nThe teachers who make up this saving remnant will come to one understanding in common: they will have a clear sense of how institutions change, prudently. They will accept that change takes place slowly as a result of diligent work to acquire competence to lead. Revolutionary ideas do not change institutions. _People_ change them by taking the risks to serve and lead, and by the sustained painstaking care that institution building requires.\n\nI know of a few teachers who have taken such initiative to prepare their students to lead and to deal with the realities of institutional life. I had the good fortune to have had one of those teachers in college over 50 years ago. Advice from him set the direction of my career to find my own way as a building and meliorating influence within institutional structures. The most open course I can see for meeting the leadership crisis in the next generation (too late for this one; we will have to muddle along as best we can) is to encourage a few faculty members to move on their own, without the support of their institutions, and to start now on the preparation of the next generation of leaders.\n\nIf one in one thousand among the half-million or so faculty members in our country will move on this now (not an unrealistic expectation if there were a way to alert them to the opportunity) _the 500, on their own and without anybody's help_ , could produce a flowering of talent in the next generation that would make a golden age of leadership. I am absolutely certain of it. I am so certain that I have written a guide to encourage their venturing as lone unsupported individuals, and, perhaps, to point a way. It is called _Teacher as Servant, a Parable_. [Available through the Greenleaf Center.]\n\n_If_ the one in one thousand will respond to this encouragement,\n\n_If_ they will articulate persuasively what they are doing,\n\n_If_ , having established that students will respond, they take further steps to educate university trustees and persuade them to accept a more affirmative institution-building role for themselves,\n\n_If_ trustees will then install and guide administrators who are prepared to be, and disposed to be, effective leaders-by-persuasion, and\n\n_If_ those administrators will gather the help of all constituencies of the university to establish means for explicit preparation for both leading and following, by persuasion,\n\nthen, someday, someplace, a design for a new contemporary university may emerge, _wholly as a result of persuasion_. In the course of this evolution, that university's goals, program, leadership, and governance may be reexamined, not so much in the light of tradition of what universities have been, but, rather, in recognition of the obligation that has been assumed because of access to several formative years of half the population.\n\nThe leadership crisis in society at large will begin to be meliorated when _one_ university, in its new awareness of its obligations and opportunities, moves into, and then resolves, its own crisis of leadership, and emerges with a great new dream.\n\nWhen, in the persuasive atmosphere of that dream, the trustees and administrators lead by persuasion, and faculties, students, and staff respond with persuasion, that university will regenerate, in the late 20th century, the civilizing influence that universities once had and move to the center of our institutional life as a bastion of strength in what may prove to be a gathering storm.\n\n## 4\n\n## **Have You a Dream\n\nDeferred?**\n\nWhat happens to a dream deferred?\n\nDoes it dry up\n\nlike a raisin in the Sun?\n\nOr\u2014?\n\n_Langston Hughes_\n\nDo you have a dream deferred, now that you are nearing the end of your freshman year? And what about the charge of idealism and the high expectations you brought here last September; what shape are they in? How does your university adventure look to you at this point?\n\nWe are here today because you have applied to be appointed Ohio Fellows. The objective of the Ohio Fellows program, as I understand it, is to help you realize your potential for service in the public interest. It is not concerned with what vocation you choose for your life work. But it assumes that, in your work or outside it, you want to make a social contribution through becoming a self-actualizing person.\n\nBecause you want to be admitted to this group, I assume that you are still searching, within the resources of the university, for something you have not yet found\u2014perhaps to renew your faith in your dream. If my assumption is correct, what is the nature of your search? What is your personal strategy for the optimal use of the opportunity which the next three years offers?\n\nAs I recall it, no one raised these questions near the end of my freshman year in college. No one suggested that it was my responsibility to manage my own life at that point. I am not sure that much is made of it today. Yet, at age 18 or 19, are you not mature enough to manage your own growth? All that my generation can do is to help clarify the problem; and, out of our greater experience, point to alternatives that you may not yet have discovered. You cannot compress or extract experience by listening to us. Every person has to live every minute of his own existence and make his own meaning out of it. _But you can widen your awareness so as to make your experience more intense and more meaningful_. Thus I urge you to open up to influences and seek opportunities that will expand your awareness. These may come in unexpected ways.\n\nIn my own case, a remark by a professor in the course of a rambling lecture shaped my career. He was neither a great scholar nor an exciting teacher; but he was wise in the ways of men and institutions. What he said and what I did as a result of receiving this signal are not important here; but I have often wondered whether, on that fateful day, something exceptional was said or whether I just had my doors of perception open a wee bit so that a significant signal could come through.\n\nAfter much reflection on my own education and a sustained interest in what colleges do, I have concluded that there is no one right way to provide education. One of the disadvantages of the level of academic effort required today may be that the signal that shapes your life is even harder to hear than mine was when educational endeavor was considerably more relaxed.\n\nI once heard Robert Frost asked the meaning of one of his poems. \"Read it and read it and read it,\" he said, \"and it means what it says to you.\" What he was saying, I think, was that meaning, that subtle signal that may shape one's future, is an elusive thing; it does not emerge, necessarily, as the logical end-product of a conscious analytical process. In fact, it may defy such an approach. It is more likely to come as a gift, as an insight, peripheral to the analytical process rather than the target of it. It requires an attitude, and openness, belief in the vastness of knowledge just beyond our conscious rational searching. \"If the doors of perception were cleansed,\" wrote William Blake, \"everything will appear to man as it is, infinite.\" I think of this as the attitude of wonder.\n\nReading and reading and reading the poem would, in effect, be an act of submission to the poem, a willingness to let one's guard down and be taught, to let a significant signal come through. This is why I want to talk to you about the next three years; to encourage you to seek and respond to your own signal, received or generated out of your own experience. And it will not be quite like anyone else's signal because you are uniquely you and your signal will be what _you hear_.\n\nBe aware! Be open to insight from your own experience and from what you see and hear around you. This is the best advice I can give you for the next three years: keep those dreams alive; persist in the attitude of wonder. What follows are a few ideas that bear on these concerns.\n\n### A LIFE STYLE OF GREATNESS\n\nI hope you will manage your lives these next three years so that you leave the university with a well-set lifestyle of greatness, with attitudes and values and ways of initiating and responding that will assure service in the public interest with distinction. Distinction is not synonymous with fame. Whether your life is long or short or your opportunities large or small, _distinction_ or _greatness_ is a combination of the moral and the excellent. It is doing the very best you can with the talents you have and the opportunities you can find.\n\nYour vocation can be any legitimate calling your talents justify, be you poet, scientist, or businessman. A lifestyle of greatness will augur for a total impact that will leave some segment of society a little better than if you had not tried. It is important that some of you make this choice now because plenty of people, by design or by accident, will leave it worse. It takes a lot of hard work by responsible individuals for a society just to stay even. (I use the word _responsible_ advisedly. I am not using it in the sense that so many of my generation use it when what they mean is that they want you to behave so that their comfort, their sense of propriety, are not disturbed. Responsible people build; they do not destroy. They are moved by the heart. The prime test of rightness of an act is: How will it affect people, are lives moved toward nobility?)\n\nIt is so easy to assume that simply by meeting the requirements of the university the preparation one needs for life will follow as a matter of course. You will do well to conform to the requirements for a degree and make the most of the courses you elect to take. But do not assume that automatically out of this will emerge a well set lifestyle that favors a distinguished public service role. If you want that, you have the opportunity to take charge of your own growth now, with your own strategies. You cannot leave this to the university or to anyone else.\n\nHow do you do this? You can wait until you graduate and use this opportunity to prepare and prepare and prepare; or you can begin living now, accept this university as \"real,\" and find your own best way to influence this community so that it becomes a better institution to serve those who come after you. Make as your goal that three years from now you will leave here with a well-set, clearly demonstrated lifestyle of greatness, a way of dealing with your environment that is both moral and excellent. And let it not be a tentative abstract idea. Rather, let it be a concrete achievement, tested and refined in the arena of real experience, a firmly set and durable lifestyle.\n\nA word of caution, however. Do not set out to remake your personality. Few people I know are wholly satisfied with the way they are, and much that is _you_ , you will best learn to live with. Read E. B. White's perceptive essay, \"The Second Tree from the Corner,\" particularly the closing paragraphs. It is about a troubled man who decided not to make himself over. Much that is you is pretty firmly established at this point; and you cannot choose another set of parents or relive the past 18 years. Accept what you are; make note that no one is perfect and resolve that you will build on what you now are, within a consciously chosen self-image of a responsible person. Make the very best you can out of it these next three years. You will never have a better chance.\n\nA few years ago Edwin H. Land spent some days visiting with undergraduates at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Then he talked to them on \"Generation of Greatness, the Idea of a University in an Age of Science.\" In this talk, he said, \"Everywhere I could sense a deep feeling in the undergraduates I met\u2014that if a way could be found of nurturing the timid dream of his own potential greatness which he brought from his family and school, if somehow he could tie on to the greatness in the faculty and the administration, then his dream might be coming out differently.\"\n\n\"What do I mean by greatness?\" he asked. \"I mean\u2014an opportunity for greatness for the many\u2014as distinguished from genius.\u2014Within his own field he will make things grow and flourish; he will grow happy helping other people in his field, and to that field he will add things that would not have been added, had he not come along.\"\n\n### CULTIVATE YOUR CREATIVENESS\n\nWhen I came of age 40 years ago, it seemed not so important to be creative because ours was a pretty settled world (or so we saw it), and I could begin to be constructive by learning to do well those things that were in the established patterns of society. For you it is different; you must start out creative or you will never really be in the ball game. Otherwise, you may be useful and prestigious, and you may even make a lot of money. But, you are not likely to be a constructive influence, an important contributor to the public interest, if you are not creative, because the important initiatives and responses will require new inventions\u2014 _prudent, feasible inventions that unlock the social impasses and raise people's sights and aspirations above the ordinary_. If you are to do this, at any stage of your life, your creative power must flower while you are young, and it must be sustained as long as you expect to function productively.\n\nYour major contribution may come at any age. Theodore N. Vail, who built the business in which I spent 38 good years, made his impressive contribution to institution building between the ages of 62 and 75. Pope John XXIII achieved his prime influence between 80 and 84. In both, creativity flowered early and was nurtured carefully throughout their long lives. One never knows when his big creative opportunity will come. And it makes a more interesting life to keep one's creativity alive even though a \"big\" opportunity never comes.\n\nSome large social contributions have been made by persons with small but well-nurtured creative endowments. If one is to make his way as a mathematician, scientist, artist, or composer, his creative powers had best mature early and be exceptional. However, in the area of social contribution, a more modest creative resource, coupled with values, skills, knowledge, attitudes, and experience, may be the greater asset.\n\nI counsel you then to be aware of your priceless gift of creativity. No matter how small and flickering a light it may seem to be at the time, cultivate it as a pearl beyond price. Whatever your competence in your chosen field turns out to be, and regardless of the size of the opportunities that may come your way in the foreseeable world, your imaginative capacity will measure the productive use of your strengths and opportunities.\n\nThe skill of _foresight_ is crucial. The \"lead\" that a leader has is his ability to foresee an event that must be dealt with before others see it so that he can act on it his way, the right way, while the initiative is his. If he waits until everybody sees it, he has waited too long; he cannot be a leader\u2014at best, he is a mediator. Therefore, cultivate the greatest of the creative skills, foresight. Practice on every significant event you observe; ask yourself, where did it come from, where is it going? Note your projections and check them in the future. Practice living partly in the future\u2014all of the time.\n\nCreativity, however, is only part of the picture. Adolph Hitler was creative, diabolically so. One must have a dependable value system and a reasonably sane outlook to make a constructive social contribution. Then some creative people miss because they are ignorant or unskillful. Others are hampered by a restrictive set of attitudes, like perfectionism or an over-inflated ego. Still others are unaware and miss the necessary cues. And then there is the overarching matter of balancing one's trust between intuition and reason. If you have a dream deferred, bring it to life by beginning to live it\u2014no matter how discouraging the circumstances may be. Learn to relax, so that the elements of your life fall, of themselves, into context and proportion. You may have more going for you than you are aware of. If you end up in middle age an uncreative, crusty reactionary\u2014the kind of person your generation complains about so vociferously, it will probably be because you _chose_ not to allow the idealism that is so characteristic of your present age to operate and elected, instead, a less courageous path, not \"the path less traveled by\" which, Robert Frost said, \"makes all the difference.\"\n\n### BUILD A NEW MORALITY\n\nYours may be the first generation since the time of Moses to face, as an explicit task, the problem of building your own morality. Most of the time, from the Mosaic law down to now, there has always been a law, a code. To be sure, it was honored in the breach by many people, but it was always there. Those who violated it, for the most part acknowledged the law and thought of themselves as deviants. Now, since you have been alive, the law has all but disappeared. Many will assert that there still is a moral law, a code of ethics, and that they know what it is. I think of myself somewhat in this category. But the _level of consensus necessary for traditional morals to be accepted as law no longer holds_. Therefore, your generation may well be the first to face the condition of producing your own. Many will advise you, such as Professor Joseph Fletcher and his principle of \"what love requires in the situation.\" But you cannot be rescued from the confusion you may find in a lawless world as handily as Moses did it for his followers, by bringing it down from that mysterious encounter on the mountain chiseled in stone and bearing God's imprimatur. For better or for worse, you will have to achieve it on your own, with your own resources, and without much help from my generation, which has not faced the problem. I am not saying that the present state of affairs is good or bad; that is simply the way it is.\n\nIf this is a valid assumption, then building your own morality map may well be one of your major concerns these next three years. And a good deal of what you seek may come to you intuitively if you will be open to understand what goes on around you that most people condemn.\n\nWhile I have stressed that the level of consensus on what constitutes morality has dropped, within your lifetime, to a point where it is difficult to affirm, \"this is the moral law,\" the shift is only one of degree. Every person has always been, and must always be, his own theologian, his own moralist, his own value finder. It is just more confusing for your generation to try to find your way amid the babble of conflicting opinion from mine. Every strong moral person has always had to choose the ground upon which he or she would stand.\n\nOne of the qualities of a lifestyle of greatness is the ability to know with some certainty the solid ground one stands on at any one time. It gives one a toughness of mind with which one looks out upon a seething, troubled world with a quiet eye and asks the meaning of it all\u2014not so much to judge it as to enlarge the perspective from which to build even more solid ground for one's own two feet to stand on. In the end, each man builds his own solid ground to stand on\u2014and stands alone. In Robert Frost's one poem clearly addressed to the \"inner circle,\" the one called \"Directive,\" he says: \"And if you're lost enough to find yourself\/By now, pull in your ladder road behind you\/And put a sign up _closed_ to all but me.\/Then make yourself at home.\"\n\nI must confess ambivalent feelings about the college-age group today: its outlook and its behavior. I am enough the creature of my generation to be shaken at times and wishing to be insulated from yours. But then, I really envy you who may face the greatest creative opportunity, as individuals and as a society, which any young people may ever have faced: as a matter of conscious choice, the chance to resolve the prevailing confusion with a new level of ethical insight.\n\nAs you think of your opportunity to build a new ethic, do not set out to reinvent the wheel. There are thousands of years of moral history to build upon, even though the behavior of us older people may look pretty wobbly to you. None of us, no existing institution, owns the tradition. Our moral tradition is there for you to use as a fresh resource. I wish for you the strength and the insight to use it well and to pass it on to your children as a nobler ethic _because of your efforts_.\n\n### GROW IN WISDOM\n\nI see the next three years as open space for you to rise to this opportunity to build a new ethic. Use your participation in the university program to this end, but beware of accepting that it will chart the course for you to follow to this end. It will provide a clear path to intellectual growth, but the path to wisdom, indispensable for ethical choices, is not so clear. Walt Whitman had something to say about wisdom in his \"Song of the Open Road.\" \"Here is the test of wisdom,\/Wisdom is not finally tested in schools,\/Wisdom cannot be passed from one having it to another not having it,\/\u2014is not susceptible of proof, is its own proof,\u2014\" Clearly it is a different sort of thing from intellectual growth, which is the major concern of a university. You can easily be deceived that you are wise because you are academically proficient, articulate, can reason well, and understand another's wisdom. Wisdom is not the antithesis of intellect. But intellectual growth can interfere with wisdom if not kept in perspective. Since in three years you are likely to emerge well started on your education, do not assume that you will therefore be wise. If you want to see a spectacular dramatization of this, read the novel _Herzog_.\n\nIn the laudable pursuit of intellectual development, it is well to remember that the great hazards of personal choice, such as alcoholism, drug addiction, broken marriage, reactionism, the \"educated\" are just as vulnerable as the \"uneducated.\" Only wise people have some protection against these hazards. And even with wisdom, it takes a bit of luck.\n\nWisdom, common sense (a better term would be _uncommon sense_ ), _judgment_ are all terms that refer to something that is of the essence; it is not codifiable or teachable, except perhaps by a mentor who goes with his understudy into the real-life situation, asks him what he sees and hears (thereby training his awareness), asks for his tentative judgment, lets him commit an error and discusses the consequences (some of our best wisdom comes from error and suffering the consequences of error), and thereby helps him in acquiring a disciplined, thoughtful approach to real-life problems. Thomas Jefferson had such a mentor in George Wythe, the Williamsburg lawyer under whom Jefferson apprenticed. Without the influence of a George Wythe, there might not have been a Jefferson to write The Declaration of Independence or to draft the statutes in Virginia that shaped the Constitution. He might have settled for the role of the eccentric Virginia scholar.\n\nFind such a mentor if you can. There may be one for you here on this campus. At the very least, be aware that intellectual prowess is not wisdom, and approach real life situations humbly. Only through testing your judgment, risk of decision in real-life situations\u2014with an openness to learn what only experience teaches\u2014will you grow in wisdom. Read Abraham J. Heschel's wonderful essay, \" To Grow in Wisdom.\"\n\nOne of the ways you may grow in wisdom, here on this campus, is to learn to challenge\u2014by challenging, experimentally. In so doing, you may be wrong part of the time. Thus you must learn to accept challenge: from faculty administration, the community, fellow students. In doing this you will become, in part, a politician. Because politics is the art of the possible, you must learn to compromise.\n\nThe university is a total learning situation\u2014for everybody: students, faculty, administrators, trustees\u2014even for old consultants like me. And if you are to be well served by it, it needs to be a society in which the art of the possible is practiced by enough people so that those who aspire to grow in their ability to serve society will, in fact, learn.\n\nIn theory, at least, the university exists solely to nurture your growth and development. Later your involvement will be largely with institutions that exist to _use_ you. But the university is a _real_ place. It will use you too; and the people and their dilemmas are real. And you will never have a better chance to grow in wisdom than by entering into the life of the university with openness and humility, the necessary conditions for your experience here to favor the growth of wisdom.\n\nWords cannot describe what it will mean to the ultimate fullness of your life if you can learn a measure of wisdom while you're here these next three years.\n\n### TRUST\u2014AN ASPECT OF GREATNESS\n\nOne of the resources offered here at the university is the chance to study the problem of trusteeship, both the specific role with a capital \"T,\" and the more general one of how people acquit themselves of the obligations assumed in the various constituencies\u2014student, faculty governing bodies\u2014which make up the university. I once asked the president of a great university this question: \"Who in the university is responsible to the student for the obligation which the university assumes when it accepts him as a student?\" His answer was, \"Not I.\" That was 20 years ago, and I have never really recovered from it.\n\nWhen the institution of American democracy ultimately declines, as it may one day, a major cause will be a failure of trusteeship\u2014both the capital \"T\" and the small \"t\" varieties. And it will not decline so much because of the ineptness of the less favored as by the failure of those endowed with intelligence, values, training, judgment and experience which bring men to positions of trust\u2014their failure to accept with sufficient commitment the obligations of trusteeship which they assume, and to perform with distinction in the public interest. Far too many good, competent, honest people settle for mediocre performance in these trustee positions. They meet the prevailing standards of adequate performance. But since it does not rise to the level of distinction, it must be judged mediocre. Only distinguished performance in positions of trust can support a long life for the institution of American democracy. In any endeavor, one must strive for distinction just to come out reasonably good.\n\nOurs is an institution-bound society. While there remain large opportunities for individuals to act on their own, most influences that make a difference have the effect of changing what goes on in institutions. And institutions are necessarily instruments of trust. For many of you, your individual contributions will largely be measured by how you perform in institutional roles of trust, whether it be the management of a home or the presiding office in world government.\n\nSo much will be determined by the quality of the interpersonal relations among your colleagues. Do they work, figuratively, with knives out and backs to the wall (an expression I hear all too often in off-the-record descriptions of the inner workings of institutions\u2014the whole range from businesses to churches), or is there an esprit that buoys the institution and makes possible a performance at the level of distinction?\n\nAs I have found it, the institutional elements that have most to do with _esprit_ are _goals_ \u2014what are you trying to do in material or behavioral terms. And _strategy_ , how do you intend to get there? What are you trying to do? is the easiest of questions to ask and the hardest to answer. There is nothing that builds organizational strength quite like a high order of consensus about goals and strategy. Unfortunately, there is a tendency, in institutions where the aims are more idealistic, like universities and churches, for this consensus on goals and strategy not to be firm.\n\nI give you these views of institutions in general and educational institutions in particular because of my belief that one of the best preparations you can make for a high level of trusteeship, in roles you may assume later, is to be concerned about the institution you will be a part of these next three years. You will never have a better opportunity to learn the ways of institutions, what makes for mediocrity and what makes for greatness, than you have right here at your university.\n\nThe university provides a good laboratory for the study of responsibility. Remember the response that President Kennedy made when a reporter asked him why he had not taken an action which, during the campaign, he had criticized President Eisenhower for not taking? President Kennedy's reply was, \"When you are responsible, things look different.\" When you observe an action here in the university, practice being responsible by putting yourselves in the shoes of those who are responsible.\n\nAs you study the university look for models of men and women who account for trust at the level of personal greatness. Think of yourselves as being like them, someday.\n\n### REALISM\u2014TRY TO SEE IT STRAIGHT AND PLAY IT STRAIGHT\n\nOne of the gifts of those whose mature lives measure up to their estimated potential as young people is that their early assumptions about the nature of the society they will live and work in are realistic. One can make too optimistic assumptions and suffer endless frustration or too pessimistic ones and curb one's aspirations. Yet one must err on the side of optimism and accept the frustration.\n\n\"The real trouble with this world of ours is not that it is an unreasonable world, nor even that it is a reasonable one. The commonest kind of trouble is that it is nearly reasonable, but not quite. Life is not an illogicality; yet it is a trap for logicians. It looks just a little more mathematical and regular than it is; its exactitude is obvious, but its inexactitude is hidden; its wildness lies in wait.\" This was written by G. K. Chesterton in 1924, when the world looked much more settled and predictable than it does today.\n\nMy concern for the many crises in the world today suggests a view of the human dilemma: problems, but no solutions; nevertheless challenges that must be worked on creatively\u2014a more realistic view. Who would want to live in a world in which the \"problems\" were one-by-one laid eternally to rest to mark steady progress back to the Garden of Eden? I don't want to live there; do you? I would rather accept that every seeming solution brings a new problem, like progress in lengthening life expectancy breeds overpopulation. It is not the accomplishment, but the search, the struggle, that should excite our interest. And we should, without becoming depressed, be able to face Wordsworth's judgment: \"And much it grieved my heart to think\/What man has made of man.\"\n\nWhat we call civilization has made a little progress toward Emerson's goal of amelioration. But when Emerson asked himself what was the greatest meliorative force operating in the world (he was an optimist and believed there was one), he did not name the usual virtuous activities such as religion, science, education, art. \"Selfish huckstering trade!\" was his answer. It is something to think about. Why do you suppose a perceptive idealist like Emerson would make a judgment like that?\n\n### ANXIETY\u2014LEARN TO LIVE WITH IT\n\nOne of the anomalies of the age we live in is that we are acutely conscious of the destructive effects of anxiety (as it is generally defined, not as a medical term); and we work to alleviate it. Yet my worm's-eye view of things tells me that anxiety is deeply rooted in every facet of the design of our society and that it is exploited at every turn by the best people with the best of intentions.\n\nAnxiety is a part of the human condition. If I were handed a magic wand and given the power to banish anxiety, I would not choose to do it because this is one of the things that gives life its challenge. I see no point in rejecting our society because of its disposition to produce anxiety (or for any other reason). This is the way it is. Just make note of it the way it is and devise your strategy for dealing with it. And it can be dealt with by most people with their own resources; one can learn to live productively with anxiety.\n\nSuch a strategy, as I have tried to live it, sees two somewhat separate _me's_ : the outward me with a deep involvement in the world of affairs, and the inward me\u2014the essential person as viewed from the inside, who is at one with all creation. In that quiet communion when my ladder road is pulled up (and I really pull it up sometimes) and my sign is posted _closed_ to all but me, I am truly at home with a level of serenity that transcends the outer world of stress and conflict and tension which beset all institutions at their best, as well as most human relationships, at least part of the time.\n\nI do not believe there ever has been in this world, certainly there is not now, a promise of outward peace. There is more external stress and confusion and pain in some places than others; but the only true serenity is inward. Serenity is the window through which one looks out on the world of affairs. It is how one feels inside as he engages, with spirit, in the turmoil and strife of the world of affairs.\n\nI prefer to view the inward world as real, and the external world as contrived and transient. When Emerson said that \"a foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds,\" he was probably saying that our mastery of the external world is not such that we can ever really make it fit together. We work with intelligence, courage, and honesty to make the world as tolerable as we can; but we also maintain a detachment from it that puts external achievement, however laudable, in a lower priority than attention to growth in our capacity for wonder.\n\nWhat has wonder to do with anxiety? \"Wonder is the seed of knowledge.\" Wonder is an attitude, it is the filter through which one perceives the world, a filter that tends to substitute moral concern for criticism. It prompts one to ask, \"What is going on here?\" before one acts; and, though the provocation may be extreme, it leads to a response of thoughtfulness\u2014even amusement, rather than of fear, anger, or dismay. It lifts one above the tumult and gives one perspective. And to wonder is humbling, it opens one to learn:\n\n\"I am waiting,\" writes Lawrence Ferlinghetti, \"I am waiting\/for a rebirth of wonder.\"\n\n### A LARGE BUT NOT IMPOSSIBLE TASK\n\nI have urged you to attend to the use of these next three years. You have much to do. It is a large but not impossible task.\n\nIt will never be easy to live your life optimally. There will be obstacles, always. And they will be just as real here on this campus these next three years as they will be later on. What will some of these obstacles be?\n\nFirst, the pressure of time\u2014you will have too much to do. If you are who I have assumed you are, you will always have too much to do. And the kind of concerns I have laid before you will not make it any easier. You will have to choose\u2014life's most difficult task.\n\nThen there will be distractions, plenty of distractions. You will want a normal social life; nobody wants to be a grind. But time wasting and unproductive distractions are as abundant here on this campus as anywhere.\n\nFinally, the environment here these next three years will not be encouraging. The university has many purposes and it cannot attend to anything as individual and personal as your own growth strategy. You will have to make it on your own.\n\nAt this point you may be asking, \"This is a pretty big load you have piled on me, a college freshman. How do I do all of this?\"\n\nI do not have a how-to-do-it formula to give you. I have tried to illuminate the problem from the perspective of my own reflection and experience in the hope that it would help you to design your own strategy for the optimal use of these next three years, a strategy that is congruent with your own unique potentiality. Beyond this, my best suggestion to you is to clarify, for yourself, what you believe about yourself; because, if you seek to go very far in realizing your potential for service, you will be venturing into the dangerous and the unknown and the ever-present anxiety may defeat you if you do not have some kind of faith. Leo Tolstoy, writing his answer to the question, What is faith?\u2014after emerging into relative peace from a rampant early life, posited it for me in one simple sentence. \"I believe,\" he said, \"that the sole meaning of my life lies in living by that light which is within me.\"\n\nIf you can learn, in the stress of circumstance, to pull in your ladder road behind you and put a sign up _closed_ to all but me; and, then, if you can believe that the light within you will guide your path, you are on your way!\n\n### THIS UNIVERSITY\u2014YOUR LABORATORY\n\nYou are attending a good university. Someday it may become a great one. But the paths to institutional greatness are many. Any person in the close constituencies of the university, any one person with his own efforts can help move it toward greatness\u2014if he is persuasive and can lead. And the initiative can come from wherever the strong, able people are\u2014among faculty, administration, trustees, _or_ students. Greatness is best assured when the initiative comes from all four.\n\nThe great university of the future may earn this status by different standards than at present. Whereas, up to now, the great university has been the center of esoteric scholarship and the seat of prestigious graduate schools, a generation from now these resources may be more widely spread. Then, the distinguished university, the one that stands out above the others, may be the one which, in addition to scholarly competence, influences explicitly, directly, and substantially the shape of contemporary society through the preparation of its students for exceptional performance in building and serving and leading the whole range of institutions upon which our complex society depends.\n\nYour university might, in these terms, become one of the great universities of the future. If it becomes so, it will be the result of conscious calculated influence from among its present constituencies. It will not just happen.\n\nWhy don't you freshmen take it on? Take on, for these next three years, the task of being a responsible, effective influence within this university. The test of whether you are responsibly effective is that you leave the institution, three years from now, in better shape to educate, with distinction, the student generations following you\u2014educate them in a manner congruent with the standards of a distinguished institution as it will be judged then, standards which neither you nor I comprehend now.\n\nI leave it with you, as an opportunity for the next three years. You will have the time of your lives if you take it on. And you will emerge from the experience with well-set individual lifestyles of greatness that will carry you for the rest of your days; and you may realize your dream.\n\n#### _Notes_\n\n. \"The Second Tree From the Corner,\" by E. B. White, Harper & Row, 1954.\n\n. _Situation Ethics,_ by Joseph Fletcher, Westminster Press, 1966.\n\n. _Herzog,_ by Saul Bellow, Crest Books, 1964.\n\n. _The Insecurity of Freedom,_ by Abraham J. Heschel, Jewish Publication Society, 1966.\n\n. _Orthodoxy,_ by G. K. Chesterton, Image Books, 1924.\n\n## 5\n\n## **The Servant as\n\nReligious Leader**\n\n### INTRODUCTION\n\nMuch of the literature on leadership deals with those who head great institutions or who leave a mark on history. Such persons can carry their large roles only because many lead effectively in smaller ways that support them. This essay is as much concerned with those who lead small molecular forces\u2014whether as part of a large movement or as lone individuals\u2014as with those whose names go down in history.\n\nThis is written, not as the ultimate treatise on religious leading (I doubt that that will ever be written), but rather to stimulate and contribute to dialogue about the critical issue of religious leading in our times. My perspective is that of a student of organization, not of a scholar or theologian. What I have to share about religious leading is largely what I have gleaned from experience, both my own and others', from reading literature and history, and from thinking. Not much of it has come from formal study of either leadership or religion.\n\nI am a creature of the Judeo-Christian tradition in which I grew up, as modified by the Quaker portion of that tradition that I acquired after maturity. I cannot judge how I would have addressed the subject of religious leading if I had been raised in another culture, or if my life experience had been other than what it was; but I am quite sure that I would have a different view of it. What is written here is offered in the hope that no persons will exclude themselves from consideration of the issues raised because of their religious beliefs or their biases about leadership.\n\nI am deeply grateful to John C. Fletcher and Robert W. Lynn without whose help and encouragement this piece would not have been written.\n\nPart of my excitement in living comes from the belief that leadership is so dependent on spirit that the essence of it will never be capsuled or codified. I was less than a year out of college when I was tapped for what proved to be the most formative experience of my adult life. I had just joined American Telephone and Telegraph Company, and that company's first venture into formal management training in the 1920s was a two-week program called a \"Foremen's Conference.\" This was in the construction and maintenance department of the company, at that time all men. I attended a short intensive program to prepare me to lead foremen's conferences. Then, for the next year, every other Monday morning I received a group of twelve foremen. With no reading and no published agenda (I had one), for two weeks we sat around a big table and just talked about the multifaceted job of being a foreman, the lowest level of management. The pedagogical theory was that these men would learn from each other\u2014not from me. But I was the chief learner. There was not then, and there seems not to be now, much hard knowledge about what proved to be the major focus of my work: how things get done in organized efforts. This is a fact of life with which I have learned to be comfortable.\n\nMy conferees ranged in age from 30 to nearly 70. I was 23. These fellows were where the buck stopped. The elaborate management hierarchy above them could think their great thoughts about what they wanted done; but what _was_ done was what those foremen who sat around my conference table were willing and able to do. I learned much from these wise and seasoned men.\n\nThis was my graduate education; it set the course of my life. During the 55 years since this intense formative experience, I have been deeply involved with people who were trying to lead or manage something. In the last few years before retirement from AT&T, I held the position of Director of Management Research, a post that brought me in close contact with top management and gave me wide latitude, with the help of a professional staff, to examine how this giant company did its work, including the values that guided it. There was ample opportunity to communicate our findings when we learned something that might be useful. The tradition of the company disposed it to listen carefully to research findings in all relevant fields.\n\nIn the nearly 20 years since \"retirement,\" my work has expanded to include a range of businesses, large and small, foundations, universities, and churches and church-related institutions including seminaries\u2014in the United States, in Europe, and in the Third World. Some of my best years have been in retirement.\n\nI cannot give a precise logical explanation for how I have come, near the end of my active career, to center my attention on _religious leading_ , but I believe the reader may discover enough of it from what I have chosen to discuss here. I have said that leading is so dependent on _spirit_ that the essence of it will never be capsuled or codified. Part of that essence lies beyond the barrier that separates mystery from what we call reality.\n\n_Spirit_ , as the animating force in living beings, is value-free. Hitler had it; he was a great, if demonic, leader. Putting value into it, in my judgment, makes it religious. And what is value? Again, I will leave it to the reader to judge what I value. In my intense formative experience with these rough-hewn, sometimes crude, foremen, I realized that what enabled them on occasion to lead (not just to use their authority, but _lead)_ under difficult and sometimes dangerous conditions was that they were able to communicate to other rough-hewn men what they, the foremen, valued. Some of what I learned about leadership in that experience was how to create the conditions in which they would talk freely to each other about what they valued.\n\nThe premise here is that _to lead is to go out ahead and show the way when the way may be unclear, difficult, or dangerous_ \u2014it is not just walking at the head of the parade\u2014and that one who leads effectively is likely to be stronger, more self-assured, and more resourceful than most because leading so often involves venturing and risking. Occasionally something important happens when there is no discernible leader who prompted it, but usually there are persons who take the initiative to say, \"Let's go here, or do this,\" or some may lead with a subtle inconspicuous gesture. Either way, what makes them leaders is that a significant force of people responds.\n\nFew, if any, who have these qualities of strength, assurance, and resourcefulness are equally effective as leaders in all situations. Therefore, even the ablest leaders will do well to be aware that there are times and places in which they should follow. And one who seems deficient in one or more of these qualities may, on some occasion, rise to save the day. But, in general, those who lead well in affairs both large and small, and who sustain their leadership in good times and bad, are exceptional people, an elite. They may not be \"high status\" people by the usual criteria. The best trustee I have seen in action (and I have seen quite a few) was not a high status person, but he was truly exceptional as a trustee, and remarkable in the chair.\n\nIt is further premised that what distinguishes a leader as _religious_ (in its root meaning of _religio_ \u2014to bind or rebind) is the quality of the consequences of her or his leadership. Does it have a healing or civilizing influence? Does it nurture the servant motive in people, favor their growth as persons, and help them distinguish those who serve from those who destroy?\n\nCountless persons who lead by these criteria, in large ways and small, are judged religious. At times in the past the combined influence of all such persons was not sufficient to check destructive tendencies that are always at work. It was not sufficient in Germany in the 1930s. A religious leader simply makes his or her best effort to build and sustain a good society. The result will be whatever it is. It is not within the power of any of us mortals to determine the outcome (fortunately). A \"good\" society is seen as one in which there is widespread _faith as trust_ (to be discussed later) that encourages and sustains ordinary, good people as constructive influences in the world as it is\u2014violent, striving, unjust as well as beautiful, caring, and supportive.\n\nAmong many facets of a \"good\" society that might be achieved with finite resources are: the opportunity for as many as possible to engage in useful and remunerative work\u2014with the feeling of belonging and being a part of a constructive effort where they are; children get good preparation for a life of service; strong young people are encouraged and prepared for religious leadership; health is encouraged and the environment is protected; the needy, the aged, and the disabled are cared for. There are enough able people to give this care and prepare the young for service and leadership, and their lives would be more rewarding for doing it\u2014 _if_ these able people could be brought together as an effective force. This is the essence of religious leading as that term is used here: to bring people together and sustain them as an effective force for the building of faith as trust under conditions in which powerful forces may be operating to destroy that faith.\n\nReligious leading is a vast subject. I have ventured here to deal only with that portion that nurtures and supports the religious motive in those who, as they do the work of the world, will labor to build a good society in terms like those given above.\n\nThe central idea of this essay is: _work to increase the number of religious leaders who are capable of holding their own against the forces of destruction, chaos, and indifference that are always with us!_ Those who are in the vanguard of this effort will find ways to _strengthen the hands of the strong_ by helping them, while they are young, to acquire a vision of themselves as effective servants of society, plus an awareness of both the opportunities and the pitfalls for those who would be such servants, and a clear perception of what it takes to lead\u2014in religious terms. This is written as a sharing with those who aspire to be in the vanguard of that work.\n\n### ORIGINS\n\nMuch of the thinking that culminates in this essay emerged during the stressful years of student unrest in the 1960s when I was deeply immersed in the traumatic experiences of several universities in which the fragility of those prestigious institutions was exposed. Against the background of my knowledge of universities of that period, all of the student attitudes, destructive as they sometimes were, did not seem irrational. I wondered whether, in view of the flaws revealed in universities, ours is a sufficiently caring, serving society to endure. My conclusion was that if it is to endure, something has to change! And the most significant change of all might take place in churches because, unless churches become more effective, it is unlikely that people and institutions will do much better than at present. And that is not good enough. As I see it now, churches are not likely to become more effective unless seminaries develop a capacity to lead them that they do not seem to have. The big change of the future, if it comes, may be initiated by seminaries.\n\nReflections on these issues led me, in 1970, to begin to write on the _servant_ theme. Three essays that suggested some things that might change issued from that effort: \"The Servant as Leader,\" \"The Institution as Servant,\" and \"Trustees as Servants.\" These essays, and some related writings, were later gathered in a book, _Servant_ _Leadership_ (Paulist Press), followed by _Teacher as Servant, a Parable_ (The Greenleaf Center). In 1980 another essay, \"Servant, Retrospect and Prospect,\" summarized my experience in working with these ideas over a ten-year period. In 1981 _Seminary as Servant, Essays on Trusteeship_ was published. This reflected where my thinking had come regarding the strategic role available to seminaries. I understand the misgivings that many informed people (including some in seminaries) have about seminaries. But I am convinced that seminaries occupy a spot from which a profound influence for the good of society could be wielded\u2014and it is not forthcoming. Too many who are in a position to help seminaries have written them off. I contend that the service needed from seminaries must be forthcoming from existing seminaries because we do not have the time or the resources to replace them with adequately serving institutions. It is imperative that a way be found to raise existing seminaries to the full stature that their position requires. This is a prime challenge for religious leaders of our time. I will return to this issue later.\n\nThese writings had some circulation among religious institutions, and I have had several close relationships with pastors, church administrators, lay leaders, governing boards, and congregations. In these experiences, I found considerable concern for the present state of leading in churches and for a consequent diminished influence of churches on their members and on society at large. Paralleling these reported findings from within churches, I made my own observations during this period from involvements with businesses, foundations, and universities. All of these soundings, plus what is available in the news, suggest a deteriorating society with little evidence of effective restorative forces at work.\n\nOne could simply view this with alarm and join the chorus of lament that one hears from some who have made similar observations. I prefer to turn my energies to the support of efforts that might set restorative forces in motion. All that any individual can do is to make one's best effort, alone or in concert with others\u2014now!\n\nI begin with the assumption that the enormous resources of religious institutions in the United States could, within a generation, help turn this faltering society around and start us on a long-term constructive course _if_ a substantial number of them, each from its own unique set of beliefs, could work toward a common goal of a \"good\" society.\n\nIs it not possible that many religious institutions, as they now stand, have within them the human resources from which effective leaders might evolve who would move institutions in which they have some influence to become more constructive elements of a good society? Could a new, persuasively articulated, prophetic vision generate the faith required for those who have the potential to lead to take the risks, develop the strength, and make a new determined effort to lead? If seminaries design programs that will attract the strongest and ablest young people, could they not become the chief source of wisdom about religious leaders, not only for churches but for all segments of society? This essay is written with the hope of contributing to a dialogue out of which a solid conceptual base for such an effort may emerge.\n\nThe phrase, \"Generate the faith required\" seems to me to be the key. A suggested view of the nature and role of _faith_ in religious leaders will be discussed later.\n\n\"But is this not the age of the anti-leader!\" some protest. \"People simply do not respond to leadership in these times.\"\n\nSo it seems to be, in the conventional terms in which much leadership is now offered. Could it be that what is called for now is new language, new concepts, new skills\u2014all of which may be needed if we are to have a quality of leading that will be effective in our times? Can those who are moved to make common cause pool their resources in a creative effort to produce new forms of religious leadership which will be accepted by contemporary people as realistic and useful? In the hope that others will respond and contribute, I offer what my experience suggests\u2014all from my perspective of a student of organization.\n\nWho is the religious leader?\n\n### THE RELIGIOUS LEADER AS A PERSON\n\nOurs is a stressful world, and both people and institutions are fragile. Anyone who was involved as I was with universities in the 1960s is sharply aware that both people and institutions are fragile. They break easily.\n\nAll but the crude and insensitive live under the constant threat of coming unbound, alienated. _Alienated_ , in these pages, designates those who have little caring for their fellow humans, who are not motivated to serve people as individuals or as institutions, and who, though able, do not carry some constructive, society-supportive role, or who miss realizing their potential by much too wide a margin. Any influence or action that rebinds\u2014that recovers and sustains such alienated persons as caring, serving, constructive people, and guides them as they build and maintain serving institutions, or that protects normal people from the hazards of alienation and gives purpose and meaning to their lives, is religious. And any group or institution that nurtures these qualities effectively is a church, synagogue, mosque, or temple. Both of the words _religion_ and _church_ may have additional or differing meanings for individuals and groups. What is suggested here is offered as a common basis for viewing religious leadership among people of many differing beliefs in separate churches.\n\nTogether, as _religious leadership_ , these two words are used here to describe actions taken to heal, or build immunity from, two serious contemporary maladies: (1) widespread alienation in all sectors of the population, and (2) the inability or unwillingness to serve on the part of far too many of the institutions, large and small, that make up our complex society. Each of these maladies is seen, in part, as a cause of the other, and neither is likely to be healed without coming to terms with the other. The test of the efficacy of religious leadership is: does it cause things to happen among people, directly or indirectly, that heal and immunize from maladies like these two?\n\nOne test of any kind of leadership is: Do leaders enjoy a mutual relationship with followers? Are these followers numerous enough and constant enough to make an effective force of their effort? The leader, if in fact a leader, is always attached to an effective force of people. Among those who are normally followers are those who, from time to time, sometimes in major ways, will also lead. The titular leader gives continuity and coherence to an endeavor in which many may lead.\n\nAn additional test for religious leaders may be: are they seekers?\n\nWe seem today to have few prophetic voices among us. It is possible (I think quite likely) that they are here and speaking as eloquently to the problems of today as the greatest in any age. The lack in our times may be a paucity of seekers who have the critical judgment required to test the authenticity of a prophet. _Is anybody listening_? Are able and discriminating persons listening, people who are willing to work hard to get the skills, to put forth the effort, and take the risks to lead? If a prophet speaks and is not heard, the prophet's vision may wither away.\n\nAn important aspect of religious leadership is the nurture of seekers. The religious leader may not have the persuasive ability to put power behind a particular prophet's vision, but she or he may be able to sustain the spirit of seekers and encourage them to listen so that they will respond to prophets who are speaking in contemporary, realistic, and perhaps hard-to-take terms.\n\nProphet, seeker, and leader are inextricably linked. The _prophet_ brings vision and penetrating insight. The _seeker_ brings openness, aggressive searching, and good critical judgment\u2014all within the context of the deeply felt attitude, \"I have not yet found it.\" The _leader_ adds the art of persuasion backed by persistence, determination, and the courage to venture and risk. The occasional person embodies all three. Both prophet and leader are seekers first. But in religious leadership, as the term is used here, persuasion is only as effective as the quality of the prophetic vision that inspires it and infuses it with spirit. In the end, the quality of prophetic vision shapes the quality of society. The religious leader who is not a prophet is but the instrument of whatever vision is available. The effective religious leader, like other leaders, is apt to be highly intuitive in making judgments about what to do and what not to do. Such a leader also draws heavily on inspiration to sustain spirit. But intuitive insight and inspiration are not apt to be dependable guides in an ignorant, uncritical, or unreflective person. Careful analytical thought, along with knowledge and reflection, provides a check and a guide to intuition and inspiration, gives a solid basis for communicating with informed and prudent people, and offers a framework of assurance to those who would follow.\n\nThis discussion of religious leadership presumes that the effective leader will have firm beliefs, whether explicit or implicit, but no particular beliefs are postulated as a condition of being accepted as a religious leader. _Any_ set of beliefs that undergirds a leader who causes things to happen among people, directly or indirectly, that heal or immunize from the two pervasive maladies named above, is accepted as having validity that warrants respect. Such acceptance permits people of good will, but with widely differing beliefs, to work in concert as religious leaders on matters that make for a good society.\n\n### LEADERSHIP TOWARD FAITH AS TRUST\n\nIt may not be possible to find a basis for all people of widely varying beliefs to work together toward a \"good\" society, but it is hoped that enough of them can find common ground to give the culture more solidity and resiliency than it now seems to have. What is required is that enough people who hold differing beliefs can accept a common definition for religion as is suggested here: any influence or action that rebinds or recovers alienated persons as they build and maintain serving institutions, or that protects normal people from the hazards of alienation and gives purpose and meaning to their lives, is religious.\n\nIn this context, theology is seen as the rational inquiry into religious questions supported by critical reflection on communal concerns. Such an inquiry into the influences and actions that do rebind, with results like those named in the paragraph above, may yield the basis for beliefs that make religious leadership possible. And what would we like to see them rebound into? An integrated, loving, caring community? For this to happen on a large scale (and the needs of contemporary society in this regard are large scale), what theologians think about will need to evolve in a way that provides seminaries with both the ideas and language with which to lead.\n\nTo the extent that traditional beliefs now attract and hold followers when persuasively advocated, they provide this unity of faith as trust. The disturbing lack of solidity and resiliency in contemporary society may be due to the failure of traditional beliefs to provide the basis for faith as trust in enough people, even in some who \"belong\" to churches and profess their creeds. Some of the latter, deep down inside, may be just as alienated.\n\nThe challenge to contemporary religious leaders, both those professionally or otherwise engaged in churches and those who lead in other settings, is to establish, in contemporary terms, through rational inquiry and prophetic vision, beliefs that sustain those actions and influences that do in fact rebind, heal alienation in persons, and render institutions more serving. Prudence suggests that the central thrust of this effort may be to evolve these beliefs within existing institutions, since an urgent need of our times is for beliefs that unify rather than further fragment society. The first concern of religious leaders may be to learn to rebuild existing institutions as serving rather than to abandon old ones and create new ones. Such leaders may prefer evolution to revolution, persuasion to coercion and manipulation, and gradual to precipitous change. But some change is imperative. Far too many institutions (including some churches) are failing to serve adequately.\n\n_Faith_ is a many faceted concept, a subtle and complex notion. It is discussed here only in relation to leadership. What can it mean in a leader who is successful in bringing and holding together an effective force of people? It may be that it is communicated confidence that a mutually agreed-upon goal can be reached and is worth achieving. This confidence sustains the will to persevere and contend with the inevitable vicissitudes. Such a definition would, of course, fit the successful leader of a gang of thieves. One large step away from this broad definition would insert some clear dimension of justice or mercy as the goal. But would such a qualification, by itself, merit the label religious? I think not. How can we define religious leading without specifying a particular theology or set of beliefs? It may require an operational definition such as I suggested earlier for _religious_.\n\nThis definition involves the word _serve_. In my first essay, \"The Servant as Leader,\" I suggested that the servant-leader is servant first. It begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve _first_. Then conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead. Such a person is sharply different from one who is a _leader_ first, perhaps because of a need to assuage an unusual power drive or to acquire material possessions. The difference manifests itself in the care taken by the servant, first to make sure that other people's highest priority needs are being served. The test I like best, though difficult to administer, is: Do those served grow as persons; do they, _while being served_ , become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants? And, what is the effect on the least privileged person in society; will she or he benefit, or at least, not be further deprived? No one will knowingly be hurt, directly or indirectly.\n\nFaith, to one who aspires to be in the vanguard of the effort to increase the number of effective religious leaders in our time, requires willingness to deal with the issue of _strengthening the hands of the strong_.\n\n### STRENGTHEN THE HANDS OF THE STRONG\n\nEarlier I suggested that those who are in the vanguard of the effort to increase the number of religious leaders will find ways to _strengthen the hand of the strong_ by helping them, while they are young, to acquire a vision of themselves as effective servants of society.\n\nStrengthen the hands of the strong! Who is strong and how does one strengthen that person's hands? I can only speculate.\n\nIn addition to the more ponderable qualities of competence, stability, resiliency, and values, there are the elusive ones of a sense of the unknowable, contingency thinking, and foresight. All of these are best strengthened by experience. A mentor leads a potential leader into a high risk situation and asks, What do you sense or see? What might happen that would threaten you, but rarely does? What is likely to happen next, or down the road? The person who, in the heat of action, can accurately and promptly sense what is going on, is prepared for what might happen but rarely does, and foresees what is likely to happen next, is _strong_.\n\n### A SENSE OF THE UNKNOWABLE\u2014BEYOND CONSCIOUS RATIONALITY\n\nThe requirements of leadership impose some intellectual demands that are not usually measured by academic intelligence ratings. They are not mutually exclusive, but they are different things. The leader needs three intellectual abilities that may not be assessed in an academic way: one needs to have a sense for the unknowable, to be prepared for the unexpected, and to be able to foresee the unforeseeable. The leader knows some things and foresees some things which those one is presuming to lead do not know or foresee as clearly. This is partly what gives the leader his \"lead,\" that puts him out ahead and qualifies him or her to show the way.\n\nAs a practical matter, on most important decisions there is an information gap. There usually is an information gap between the solid information in hand and what is needed. The art of leadership rests, in part, on the ability to bridge that gap by intuition, that is by a judgment from the unconscious process. The person who is better at this than most is likely to emerge the leader because he contributes something of great value. Others will depend on him to go out ahead and show the way because his judgment will be better than most. Leaders, therefore, must be more creative than most; and creativity is largely discovery, a push into the uncharted and the unknown. Every once in a while a leader finds himself needing to think like a scientist, an artist, or a poet. And his thought processes may be just as fanciful as theirs\u2014and as fallible.\n\nIntuition is a feel for patterns, the ability to generalize based on what has happened previously. The wise leader knows when to bet on these intuitive leads, but he always knows that he is betting on percentages\u2014his hunches are not seen as eternal truths.\n\nTwo separate \"anxiety\" processes may be involved in a leader's intuitive decision, an important aspect of which is timing, the decision to decide. One is the anxiety of holding the decision until as much information as possible is in. The other is the anxiety of making the decision when there really isn't enough information\u2014which, on critical decisions, is usually the case. All of this is complicated by the pressures building up from those who \"want an answer.\" Again, trust is at the root of it. Has the leader a really good information base (both hard data and sensitivity to feelings and needs of people) and a reputation for consistently good decisions that people respect? Can he defuse the anxiety of other people who want more certainty than exists in the situation?\n\nIntuition in a leader is more valued, and therefore more trusted, at the conceptual level. An intuitive answer to an immediate situation, in the absence of a sound governing policy, can be conceptually defective. Overarching conceptual insight that gives a dependable framework for decisions (so important, for instance, in foreign policy) is the greater gift.\n\n### CONTINGENCY THINKING\n\n\"It is the unexpected that most breaks a man's spirit.\"\n\n_Pericles_\n\n_Foresight_ is anticipating what is likely to happen and taking precautionary steps. _Contingency thinking_ relates to things that might happen but rarely do. Sometimes the latter appear as emergencies to which there is a preset response. Part of the confidence of followers in a leader rests on the belief that the leader will not be surprised by the unusual and will act promptly in response to it. Let me give two examples out of my experience that are vivid in my memory, although they happened long ago.\n\nAbout 50 years ago, my wife and I were attending a concert in Carnegie Hall in New York in which the Boston Symphony Orchestra was playing under the direction of Serge Koussevitsky, the Russian-born conductor. The orchestra was well into their program when a great billow of smoke rolled out under the proscenium, someone shouted FIRE, and a full blown panic was almost instantly under way with shouting, running, and pushing\u2014in the orchestra floor and boxes. We were sitting in the front row on the side of the top balcony, high up with a good view of the whole auditorium. Nobody got excited up where we were.\n\nIn a matter of seconds Koussevitsky stopped the orchestra, spun around and in a loud voice that could be heard above the tumult he ordered sternly, \"sit down, everything will be all right.\" He stood there motionless with his arms upraised as he looked reprovingly at the unruly audience. The shouting stopped but some people continued to go out in an orderly way. The orchestra members sat motionless, the violinists with their instruments poised on their knees as if a soloist were playing a cadenza. If one of them had broken and run, there might have been a serious panic.\n\nSoon a man appeared from the wings and announced that there had been a small fire in a paper bailer under the stage which was quickly extinguished. The smoke had stopped. But the wail of the sirens on the arriving fire fighting equipment suggested that the fire had been taken seriously.\n\nThe point in relating this incident is that the speed, forcefulness, and rightness of Koussevitsky's response suggest that he had anticipated this emergency and that his response was firmly preset. A few seconds delay to think it over and the panic might have been out of hand.\n\nSuch occasions are so rare that an orchestra conductor may go through a whole career and not once confront a situation of the gravity that I witnessed. Yet if it suddenly comes, and if one is to deal with it prudently as Koussevitsky did, one must have firmly preset one's response.\n\nThe concert resumed for those who remained, which was everybody up in the second balcony where we were\u2014we were all too fascinated by the spectacle of the uproar down below among those rich people in their fancy evening clothes, about half of whom left and did not return. It concluded with a great ovation for the conductor and the orchestra. They were interrupted in that melodious and much-played second movement of Tchaikovsky's Fifth symphony. Every time I hear that music, the memory of that dramatic incident is refreshed.\n\nThe news report next day gave Koussevitsky's answer to a reporter's question of how he managed to keep his tempo after a shakeup like that. \"Tempi are tempi,\" he said, \"and tranquility is tranquility.\" He was not thrown by the unexpected.\n\nThe second incident, about 35 years ago, was when I had occasion to pull the emergency cord on a New York subway train to save a man's life. It was the only time in 40 years of riding those subways that I saw the cord pulled.\n\nI was seated in the center of a well-filled car in which quite a few were standing, at about the middle of a ten-car train. As the train took off from a station, accelerating as they do at a good clip, a commotion broke out at the door in the forward end of the car where a man had tried to enter as the doors closed and, from the outside, one arm was firmly hooked in the door because of a cuff on a heavy overcoat. The guards who are supposed to look over the train when it takes off had missed it and he was being dragged along to his almost certain death if the train was not stopped before he reached the end of the platform.\n\nThe crowd inside was tugging at the door and shouting, \"pull the emergency cord!\" A cord hung right over their heads, but nobody pulled it. I could not see because of people standing, and it was several seconds before I realized that it was up to me to pull the cord in the other end of the car. I ran as fast as I could, bowling over a couple of people as I went, and got to the cord just in the nick of time. When the train stopped the man was about 25 feet from the end of the platform.\n\nThis incident was the cause of considerable reflection. There were about 60 people in that car who were closer to one of those two cords than I was, and some of them were closer to the incident and were alerted sooner than I was. I was not aware that any of them made a move to pull the cord. Why was it up to me to do it? I concluded that I was probably the only one in that car who knew beforehand where those cords were and had preset the response that someday it might be up to me to pull one. Those cords are deliberately not made too conspicuous. If one does not know beforehand where they are, in the heat of the emergency it is not likely that one would discover them by looking around\u2014not in time. So I performed an experiment.\n\nAs I met New Yorkers over the next few months, persons who used the subways frequently, I would describe the incident. Then I would say, \"There are three different subway systems in New York, and the cords are in a different location in each. This is the Independent System. You have six seconds, Where is the cord? One-two-three-four-five-six; you're too late; the man is gone.\" Usually there was a protest, \"Your counting put me under pressure and I couldn't think.\" To which I would respond, \"In the actual event, I was under pressure too. But take your time, where is the cord?\" I tried this on about 25 people without finding one who could say where the cord was, given indefinite time. I concluded that contingency thinkers are a bit rare, but they need not be if the formative years of young people included some preparation for it.\n\nI learned to be a contingency thinker from my father, who was good at it and to whom I was very close. He was a contemporary of G. K. Chesterton, but I doubt that he read him. He would, however, have agreed with what Chesterton had to say in the following paragraph.\n\nThe real trouble with this world is not that it is an unreasonable world, nor even that it is a reasonable one. The commonest kind of trouble is that it is nearly reasonable, but not quite. Life is not an illogicality; yet it is a trap for logicians. It looks just a little more mathematical and regular than it is; its exactitude is obvious, but its inexactitude is hidden; its wildness lies in wait. ( _Orthodoxy_ , 1908)\n\n### FORESIGHT\u2014THE CENTRAL ETHIC OF LEADERSHIP\n\nMachiavelli, writing 300 years ago about how to be a prince, put it this way: \"Thus it happens in matters of state; for knowing afar off (which it is only given a prudent man to do) the evils that are brewing, they are easily cured. But when, for want of such knowledge, they are allowed to grow so that everyone can recognize them, there is no longer any remedy to be found.\"\n\nThe shape of some future events can be calculated from trend data. But, as with a practical decision mentioned earlier, there is usually an information gap that has to be bridged, and one must cultivate the conditions that favor intuition. This is what Machiavelli meant when he said that \"knowing afar off\u2014which is only given a prudent man to do.\" The prudent man is he who constantly thinks of \"now\" as the concept in which past, present moment, and future are one organic unity. And this requires living by a sort of rhythm that encourages a high level of intuitive insight about the whole gamut of events from the indefinite past, through the present moment, to the indefinite future. One is at once, in every moment of time, historian, contemporary analyst, and prophet\u2014not three separate roles. This is what the practicing leader is, every day of his life.\n\nLiving this way is partly a matter of _faith_. Stress is a condition of most of modern life, and if one is a servant-leader and carrying the burdens of other people, going out ahead to show the way, one takes the rough and tumble (and it really is rough and tumble in some leader roles). One takes this in the belief that, if one enters a situation prepared with the necessary experience and knowledge at the conscious level, _in the situation,_ the intuitive insight necessary for one's optimal performance will be forthcoming. Is there any other way, in the turbulent world of affairs (including the typical home), for one to maintain serenity in the face of uncertainty? One follows the steps of the creative process which require that one stay with conscious analysis as far as it will carry one, and then withdraws, releases the analytical pressure, if only for a moment, in full confidence that a resolving insight will come. The concern with the past and future is gradually attenuated as this span of concern goes forward or backward from the instant moment. The ability to do this is the essential structural dynamic of leadership.\n\nThe failure (or refusal) of a leader to foresee may be viewed as an _ethical_ failure, because a serious ethical compromise today (when the usual judgment on ethical inadequacy is made) is sometimes the result of a failure to make the effort at an earlier date to foresee today's events and take the right actions when there was freedom for initiative to act. The action which society labels \"unethical\" in the present moment is often really one of no choice. By this standard, a lot of guilty people are walking around with an air of innocence that they would not have if society were able always to pin the label \"unethical\" on the failure to foresee and the consequent failure to act constructively when there was freedom to act.\n\nForesight is the \"lead\" that the leader has. Once he loses this lead and events start to force his hand, he is leader in name only. He is not leading. He is reacting to immediate events and he probably will not long be a leader. There are abundant examples of loss of leadership which stemmed from a failure to foresee what reasonably could have been foreseen, and from failure to act on that knowledge while the leader had the freedom to act.\n\nPericles, in the speech quoted earlier, said to the Athenians who had chosen him to lead, \"You took me to be what I think I am, superior to most in foresight...\".\n\nHow to achieve foresight if one is not born with it? One begins, I suppose, by recognizing the importance of it. And, if one does not have it, then stay close to someone who does have it. Maybe some of it will rub off. I doubt that the gift of foresight can be taught in a course.\n\nRequired, I believe, is that one live a sort of schizoid life. One is always at two levels of consciousness: one is in the real world of the present\u2014concerned, responsible, effective, value-oriented. One is also detached, riding above it, seeing today's events, and seeing oneself deeply involved in today's events, in the perspective of a long sweep of history and projected into the indefinite future. Such a split enables one better to foresee the unforeseeable. Also, from one level of consciousness, each of us acts resolutely from moment to moment on a set of assumptions that then govern one's life. Simultaneously, from another level, the adequacy of these assumptions is examined, in action, with the aim of future revision and improvement. Such a view gives one the perspective that makes it possible to live and act in the real world with a clearer conscience.\n\n### WHAT GIVES STRENGTH TO THE STRONG?\n\nWhat gives the strong their strength? The three preceding sections, \"A Sense of the Unknowable,\" \"Contingency Thinking,\" and \"Foresight,\" suggest dimensions of the inner resources of a leader that support self-confidence and that build confidence in followers. Why would anyone follow the leadership of another unless one has confidence that the other knows better where to go? And how would one know better where to go unless one has a wider than usual awareness of the terrain and the alternatives, unless one is well armored for the unexpected, and unless one's view of the future is more sharply defined than that of most? Also, one's confidence in a leader rests, in part, on the assurance that stability and poise and resilience under stress give adequate strength for the rigors of leadership. All of the above stand on a base of intensity and dedication to service that supports faith as trust.\n\nEarlier it was suggested that faith might be viewed as communicated confidence that a mutually agreed-upon goal can be reached and is worth achieving, and that builds the sustaining will to persevere and contend with the inevitable vicissitudes. These may be subliminal things. And they may breed a feeling of trust by followers in the dependability of the inner resources of the leader as suggested in the preceding sections. Is not, then, _faith as trust_ in a religious leader rooted in a firm sense of the dependability of the inner resources of one who influences or takes actions that rebind?\n\nCould we say, then, that part of the religious leader's own faith is trust in his or her own inner resources? If one is to take the risks of leadership (and all significant leadership entails venturing and risking), one needs to trust one's inner resources, _in the situation_ , to give the guidance one needs to justify the trust of followers. One cannot know _before_ one ventures to assume leadership what the markers on the course will be or that the course one will take is safe. To know beforehand would make the venture risk-free. One has confidence that, _after_ one is launched in the venture, the way will be illuminated. The price of some illumination may be the willingness to take the risk of faith. Followers, knowing that the venture is risky, have faith as trust in this communicated confidence of the leader.\n\nSome may speculate on what lies beyond the inner resources of the leader, but leader and follower may or may not share these speculations. For faith as trust to be real, even in a religious leader, it suffices that the inner resources of the leader are known by both leader and follower to be dependable. The test: _a leader feels strong and is accepted by followers as stronger than most_.\n\nI have listened in recent years to many in responsible positions in religious institutions as they have discussed what they called their leadership problems. The following are some of my impressions:\n\n\u2022 change a few words, and they sounded no different from the harried executives in other institutions that I have been listening to all my life.\n\n\u2022 most of what they called _lead_ I would label _manage_ , _administer_ , or _manipulate_. I was not aware of much leading\u2014as defined here.\n\n\u2022 the main problem revealed was a lack of faith\u2014as it would relate to leading. What they called faith seemed to me to be mostly belief in certain doctrinal positions. There was little evidence of deep inner resources\u2014that they trusted and that others would trust\u2014which would be the basis for confidence in their ability to attract and hold followers in a high risk venture. They were mostly \"safe\" people.\n\nIn short, too many of these good people seemed to lack enough faith to lead. As I once put it bluntly in an off-the-record session with such persons, \"You seem not to believe your own stuff.\"\n\n### RELIGIOUS LEADERS IN ACTION\n\nIf we accept definitions like those given above, what can be said about the person who might be giving effective religious leadership today?\n\nAnything said in answer to that question is indeed a speculation. Religious leaders in the future, like all sorts of leaders in the past, will probably be many different types of people. And they may evolve in ways that we cannot now foresee. They are more likely to emerge if there is an expectancy, and an awareness and acceptance of the probability that they may not resemble any type that we can now imagine. Let me select from the past, descriptions of two quite dissimilar examples of persons whose work has impressed me as I have reflected on the question above.\n\n#### _John Woolman_\n\nLeaders work in wondrous ways. Some assume great institutional burdens, others quietly deal with one person at a time. Such a man was John Woolman, an American Quaker who lived through the middle years of the 18th century. He is known to the world of scholarship for his journal, a literary classic. But in the area of our interest, leadership, he is the man whose great contribution was to help rid the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) of slaves.\n\nIt is difficult now to imagine the Quakers as slaveholders, as indeed it is difficult now to imagine anyone being a slaveholder. One wonders how the society of 200 years hence will view \"what man had made of man\" in our generation. It is a disturbing thought.\n\nBut many of the 18th-century American Quakers were affluent, conservative slaveholders, and John Woolman, as a young man, set his goal to do what he could to rid his beloved Society of this terrible practice. Thirty of his adult years (he lived to age 52) were largely devoted to this. By 1770, nearly 100 years before the Civil War, no Quakers held slaves. His method was unique. He didn't raise a big storm about it or start a protest movement. His method was one of gentle but clear and persistent persuasion\u2014largely one person at a time.\n\nAlthough John Woolman was not a strong man physically, he accomplished his mission by journeys up and down the East Coast by foot or horseback visiting slaveholders, over a period of many years. The approach was not to censure the slaveholders in a way that drew their animosity. Rather the burden of his approach was to raise questions: What does the owning of slaves do to you as a moral person? What kind of an institution are you binding over to your children? Man by man, inch by inch, by persistently returning and revisiting and pressing his gentle argument over a period of 30 years, he helped to remove slavery from this Society, the first religious group in America formally to denounce and forbid slavery among its members. One wonders what would have been the result if there had been 50 John Woolmans, or even 5, traveling the length and breadth of the Colonies in the 18th century, persuading people one by one with gentle, nonjudgmental argument that a wrong should be righted by individual voluntary action. Perhaps we would not have had the war with its 600,000 casualties and the improverishment of the South, and with the resultant vexing social problem that is with us a century later with no end in sight. Some historians hold now that just a slight alleviation of the tension in the 1850s might have avoided the war. A few John Woolmans, just a _few_ , might have made the difference. Leadership by persuasion has the virtue of change by convincement rather than coercion. Its advantages are obvious.\n\nJohn Woolman exerted his leadership in an age that must have looked as dark to him as ours does to us today. We may easily write off his effort as a suggestion for today on the assumption that the Quakers were ethically conditioned for this approach. The Quakers of Woolman's day were not pushovers on this issue. All persons are so conditioned, to some extent\u2014enough to gamble on.\n\n#### _Nikolai Grundtvig_\n\nNikolai Frederik Severin Grundtvig, whose adult life was the first three-quarters of the 19th century, is known as the father of the Danish Folk High Schools. To understand the significance of the Folk High School, one needs to know a little of the unique history of Denmark. Since it is a tiny country, not many outside it know this history, and consequently Grundtvig and his seminal contributions are little known. A great church dedicated to his memory in Copenhagen attests the modern Danish awareness of what he did for them\u2014but he was not widely applauded in his time.\n\nAt the beginning of the 19th century, Denmark was a feudal and absolute monarchy. It was predominantly agricultural, with a large peasant population of serfs who were attached to manors. Early in the century, reforms began which gave the land to the peasants as individual holdings. Later the first steps toward representative government were taken.\n\nA chronicler of those times reports, \"The Danish peasantry at the beginning of the nineteenth century was an underclass. In sullen resignation it spent its life in dependence on estate owners and government officials. It was without culture and technical skill, and it was seldom able to rise above the level of bare existence. The agricultural reforms of that time were carried through without the support of the peasants, who did not even understand the meaning of them.... All the reforms were made for the sake of the peasant, but not by him. In the course of the century this underclass has been changed into a well-to-do middle class which, politically and socially, now takes the lead among the Danish people.\" (From The _Folk High Schools of Denmark_ , by Begtrup, Lund, and Manniche, Oxford University Press, 1926.)\n\nFreedom\u2014to own land and to vote\u2014was not enough to bring about these changes. A new form of education was envisioned by Grundtvig explicitly to achieve this transformation. Grundtvig was a theologian, poet, and student of history. Although he himself was a scholar, he believed in the active practical life, and he conceptualized a school, the Folk High School, as a short intensive residence course for young adults dealing with the history, mythology, and poetry of the Danish people. He addressed himself to the masses rather than to the cultured. The \"cultured\" at the time thought him to be a confused visionary and contemptuously turned their backs on him. But the peasants heard him, and their natural leaders responded to his call to start the Folk High Schools\u2014with their own resources.\n\n\"The spirit (not knowledge) is power.\" \"The living word in the mother tongue.\" \"Real life is the final test,\" as contrasted with the German and Danish tendency to theorize. These were some of the maxims that guided the new schools of the people. For 50 years of his long life, Grundtvig vigorously and passionately advocated these new schools as the means whereby the peasants could raise themselves into the Danish national culture. And, stimulated by the Folk High School experience, the peasant youth began to attend agricultural schools and to build cooperatives on the model borrowed from England.\n\nTwo events provided the challenge that matured the new peasant movement and brought it into political and social dominance by the end of the century. There was a disastrous war with Prussia in 1864, which resulted in a substantial loss of territory and a crushing blow to national aspiration. And then, a little later, there was the loss of world markets for corn, their major exportable crop, as a result of the agricultural abundance of the New World. Peasant initiative, growing out of the spiritual dynamic generated by the Folk High Schools, did much to recover the nation from both of these shocks by transforming their exportable surplus from corn to \"butter and bacon,\" by helping to rebuild the national spirit, and by nourishing the Danish tradition in the territory lost to Germany during the long years until it was returned after World War I.\n\nAll of this, a truly remarkable social, political, and economic transformation, stemmed largely from one man's conceptual leadership. Grundtvig himself did not found or operate a Folk High School, although he lectured widely in them. What he gave was his love for the peasants, his clear vision of what they must do for themselves, his long articulate dedication\u2014some of it through very barren years, and his passionately communicated faith in the worth of these people and their strength to raise themselves\u2014if only their spirit could be aroused. It is a great story of the supremacy of the spirit.\n\nIt may be that power, no matter what its source\u2014whether physical strength, intellect, wealth, prestige, cunning\u2014is only effective in building a better society as it liberates the spirit of the powerless and gives them a vision of greatness so that their native wisdom can function. Grundtvig's power of prophetic vision and persuasiveness seems to confirm this thesis.\n\n#### _And Now!_\n\nThese two examples from previous centuries illustrate very different types of leadership for the common good. They are not suggested as general models for today, although some useful hints may be found in them. What these examples may tell us is that the leadership of trail blazers like Woolman and Grundtvig is so \"situational\" that it rarely draws on known models. Rather it seems to be a fresh creative response to here-and-now opportunities. Too much concern with how others did it may be inhibitive. One wonders, in these kaleidoscopic times, what kind of contemporary leadership effort will be seen as seminal 100 years from now, as we can now see the two I have described.\n\nOne thing is certain about these two men: they were both strong, assured, and resourceful. Both clearly knew who they were and had their guiding stars in focus.\n\n### WHAT CAN BE TAUGHT ABOUT RELIGIOUS LEADERSHIP?\n\nIt may be that leaders are \"born and not made,\" but some things might be taught to those who are \"born\" to the role. The most effective formal teaching of leadership I have seen was with mid-career executives who, in somebody's estimation, had demonstrated the potential for becoming significant leaders. The course was taught by a wise and perceptive person\u2014Professor John Finch, Chairman of the Department of English at Dartmouth College. His course had the alliterative title \"The Language and Literature of Leadership.\" After some consideration of the structure of language, Professor Finch moved on to the principal subject matter of the course, the four Shakespeare \"history\" plays\u2014 _Richard II, Henry IV_ (parts I & II), and _Henry V_. These were employed as case studies of the use of language by kings, with the language artistry of Shakespeare as the central focus. Most effective leaders of all sorts have a somewhat unique language artistry. (Not necessarily bizarre like Casey Stengel or history-making like Churchill and Roosevelt, but effective in terms of one's opportunities.)\n\nAfter watching this unusual teaching of language usage to mid-career executives, I have wondered whether it might be possible to employ this approach with college-age people and whether such teaching might have the effect of bringing some young people to an awareness of their potential to lead and establish early their sensitivity to language as an art form for effective leaders.\n\nPart of a religious leader's role as consensus finder is inventiveness with language and avoidance of a stereotyped style. One leads partly by the constant search for the language and the concepts that will enlarge the number who find common ground. The leader thus strives to bring people together, and hold them together, as an effective force. An experimental approach to language is a part of this skill.\n\nPart of success in leadership toward consensus is faith, confidence that the language exists that will provide the needed common ground if one will persevere and communicate this confidence to all involved. I don't believe that faith can be taught in a didactic way; but it can be communicated.\n\nBeyond language, what can be taught about leadership? I suspect not much in a formal way. But there is much to be learned by one who is inexperienced yet has the potential to lead. A better question might be, How can that learning be accelerated? Can useful formative circumstances for potential leaders be created?\n\nAt AT&T, I once made a study of the careers of the 12 executives who made up the top command of that huge institution at that time. They seemed to me to be able people, but not exceptional. What had happened in their careers that pushed them to the very top? All 12 reported that there was one early boss who greatly accelerated their growth as managers (managing and leading are not identical, but they are related).\n\nThe most significant finding was that 4 of the 12 had had their early formative experience under one mid-level manager. This person was one of 900 at his level and, as far as anybody knew, he had no more access to talented young people than other managers at his level. Yet a generation later he accounted for one-third of the top command. More than that, all over the business there were middle and upper managers who had their early formative experience under him. He was dead when I learned this, but clearly he was a fantastic grower of people. Further, he was something of an oddball who did not himself rise to the top; he stayed many years at the middle level where he had access to young people. But, as one of 900, he was probably the most influential manager of his generation. There is no way to make the judgment, but he may have made a greater contribution to the future of the business than the chief executives of his time. Among those who had their formative experience under him, there was no question about how he wielded his great growth influence.\n\nHe managed a good department\u2014but the controls on the business required that. His uniqueness was that he had a passionate interest in the growth of young people\u2014no less vivid term would describe it\u2014and the controls of that time did not require that (nor do they now require it). Further, he sustained this passionate interest in the depth of the Depression; his able young people were running hard when others were dying on the vine all over the place. When the curtain of the Depression lifted and the business started to recover and had urgent need for able young people to advance, this man had people who were ready to move when few others had them. What was he like? Those who worked under him were agreed on the following:\n\nHe was a good intuitive judge of potential. He did not waste his limited opportunities on people who were not likely to profit from them. He watched closely the growth of his promising young people, and he saw to it that they were always challenged and busy. Sometimes this required some ingenious \"made\" work. He did not have unlimited latitude to do this, but he stretched the charter of his job to the limit in order to favor the growth of high potential young people.\n\nHe was friendly and freely available for consultation. But he was reserved, not folksy or chatty. The growth of his promising people was an evident serious concern that he communicated.\n\nBut, most unusual, he had a firm belief in the importance of error in the formative experience of young people. If one of his youngsters was getting along a little too smoothly, he would contrive an error so that he would fall on his face. And he would figuratively pick him up and dust him off and say, kindly, \"Well, Bud, that hurt; but what did you learn?\" And they would talk about what was learned. Error was never greeted with censure\u2014unless it was repeated and then this boss would come down hard. All of this was carried on in an atmosphere in which able people were encouraged to grow.\n\nDoes the example of this extraordinary man have anything to say to the question of what can be taught about religious leadership? I think it has much to say. Anybody can learn, but crucial formative experience comes when one is young. It best takes place in a serving institution. And there should be influential people in that institution who have a passion for growing people\u2014growth in the strength to lead.\n\n### SEMINARIES HAVE THE PRIME OPPORTUNITY\n\nWhere can growth in strength as religious leaders best take place? _In seminaries!_ And what might a seminary be like when significant formation of this kind takes place there?\n\n\u2022 Its priorities will be reversed. Whereas seminaries are now mostly academic and only incidentally formative, formation of religious leaders will be primary and academic teaching will be secondary.\n\n\u2022 The staff of the seminaries will contain a strong element of those who have a passion for growing religious leaders\u2014and are good at it. They may or may not be scholars in the usual sense.\n\n\u2022 A major mission of the seminary will be to evolve, and maintain, a theology of institutions that deals realistically with the problem of how to recover moribund institutions as vital, effective, caring, and serving. This will not be a theoretical endeavor because it will be forged on the seminary's own experience as it builds itself into\u2014and maintains itself as\u2014the pivotal institution it is determined to become. Seminary students will be deeply involved in this continuous effort to build and maintain this theology. They will not just read and hear lectures about it.\n\n\u2022 The primary mission of the seminary will be leading and serving churches and supporting them as strong influential institutions. Most of the learning of seminary students will result from involvement in this effort.\n\n\u2022 There will be creative thinkers among its faculty who are developing and articulating a contemporary theology of what makes religious leaders, and the institutions they serve, _strong_. Students in the seminary will be deeply involved in responding to this with their own thinking.\n\n\u2022 Such seminaries will become known as effective nurturers of able religious leaders, and they will attract a wide spectrum of strong young people in search of such formative development. Some of these students might find their career opportunities in churches, but the seminary will become a prime source of religious leaders for all segments of society. It will acknowledge that any institution where religious leaders predominate may effectively become a church.\n\nIf only one seminary achieves this status, it will, in time, have a significant influence on the quality of the whole society. I hope there will be more than one.\n\nI can hear the anguished cry, \"Where will we ever find the money and the people to do this!\"\n\nIt begins with a vision that is translated into ideas and language. Then someone deeply believes in it, advocates, and perseveres despite obstacles. Finally the really tough test: someone has the leadership strength and skill to bring together and hold a following that will see it through.\n\nSome of what might be learned about religious leadership\u2014in a seminary\u2014is discussed in the next section.\n\n### PITFALLS AND OPPORTUNITIES\n\nEarlier, in discussing _strengthening the hands of the strong,_ it was noted that one way to do this is to help such persons acquire an awareness of the pitfalls and the opportunities for those who would be servants of society.\n\nAs ours has become a society that is dominated by institutions large and small, to an extent quite different from the times of Woolman and Grundtvig, some new problems have been presented. How does one sustain these institutions as effective servants? The answers to this question define some of the opportunities.\n\nSome of the pitfalls lie in the temptation, when there is institutional pain, to reach for an aspirin, a quick fix, or to seek the help of an \"expert\" who will provide a reassuring \"bedside manner\" along with a remedy\u2014perhaps an aspirin.\n\nThese problems present some unusual challenges to churches\u2014as well as other institutions. These are discussed in the next five sections.\n\n### THE PROBLEM OF ORGANIZATIONAL \"GIMMICKS\"\n\nThe opprobrious label \"gimmick\" is applied to any organizational procedure that is introduced with the hope of accomplishing what only better leadership can do, or that will not be effective, long term, because it is not in harmony with the prevailing quality of leadership. Such nostrums that claim to reduce institutional pain (which most institutions have some of) or boost organizational effectiveness are abundantly available. Too often the result is an \"aspirin\" effect\u2014not the path to long-term health for either person or institution. Well-led institutions are not good customers for gimmick salesmen. These exceptional institutions either evolve their own procedures, or they learn from other well-led situations. They are not in the market for aspirin.\n\nI hear the protest: \"What does one do when the organizational pain is intense?\" My response is, \"Attend to the quality of leading, unless you want to spend the rest of your organizational life living on aspirin!\"\n\nIn my work with American Telephone and Telegraph Company, I had the opportunity, almost from the beginning, to follow closely the \"Hawthorne\" researches that culminated in a landmark book in 1933, _Management and the Worker_ , and, in 1966, _Counseling in an Organization, A sequel to the Hawthorne Researches_.\n\nThis research, and the employee counseling program that grew out of it, were done in the Hawthorne plant of Western Electric Company in Chicago. This was a huge factory with 25,000 workers that had a long record as a very productive place with fine human relationships. It had had the benefit of unusually able management for several years before the research started. The research revealed, among other things, that employee preoccupation with personal problems was a significant element in satisfaction and productivity with work. There ensued from this finding a substantial program of employee counseling, probably the most ambitious effort to serve an industry and its people in this way that has ever been undertaken. The report in _Counseling in an Organization_ notes that there were 5 employee counselors on the staff in 1936. This number rose to 55 in 1948 and by 1955 it was down to 8\u2014the last count. Why did this work rise and then decline? And why did the effort fail when employee counseling was introduced in several other Western Electric plants and operating telephone companies? The conclusion of close observers, including myself, was that it declined at the Hawthorne plant when the last of the succession of great managers retired in 1952 and new managers who had different ideas began to question the cost of it. The justification during the peak years was philosophical rather than statistical. It was simply one of the appropriate things to do in a factory that had had the exceptional leadership that the Hawthorne plant had long enjoyed. It \"paid off\" because it was part of the right way to run a factory (which is probably why the researches were done in the Hawthorne plant in the first place). It was not introduced as a gimmick. Rather it evolved in a natural way as an appropriate thing to do. When the counseling program was introduced at other locations with great care, sometimes using staff from the Hawthorne plant to head it, it was done with the intent of fostering the benign and productive circumstances at Hawthorne. It was a gimmick, and it was promptly rejected as an inappropriate skin graft in five other locations. It did not belong there.\n\nLater, after I retired from AT&T and acquired a much wider view of institutions, I noted that the occasional exceptional institution was usually free of gimmicks. Exceptional institutions, I concluded, are astutely administered and wisely led. They learn from other experience, but their procedures (and every institution needs them) evolve out of their own experience, and they are congenial to the local culture.\n\nPhysical technology is readily transferable; but organizational technology is culture-bound, and any institution imports it at its peril. My advice: any effort to improve organizational performance should begin with attending to the quality of leadership; then evolve organizational procedures that are congenial to the way that leadership operates. In organizational performance it is the quality of leadership that governs. Procedures are important, but they are subordinate to the way the institution is led. Avoid organizational aspirin!\n\nWhen I wrote the first essay on \"Servant as Leader,\" I discovered that I had given that piece a catchy title. I am grateful that the title gave the piece some circulation, but I am also aware of the danger: servant-leadership could become a gimmick. The top person of some ailing institution might try to insert servant-leadership as a procedure, as a general management idea, as a means whereby the institution might do better. Such a move might have a short-lived aspirin effect, but when that effect wears off, it might leave the institution more ailing than it was before, and another gimmick would need to be sought. The surer way for the idea to have a long-term good effect is _for the top person to become a servant-leader_. What that person _is_ and _does_ then speaks louder than what is said. It might be better if nothing is said, just _be_ it. This, in time, might transform the institution.\n\nIn a discussion of this subject with the staff of a large religious institution, the head of the staff asked rather plaintively, as if he had had some sad experiences with gimmicks, \"How do you tell a gimmick when you see one?\"\n\nMy answer was, there is no _way_ I know of, no gauge that you can slip over an idea and say with certainty that it is or is not a gimmick. The problem is that what is clearly a gimmick in one situation may not be judged that way in another. The counseling program at its peak in the Hawthorne plant was not a gimmick; everywhere else it was tried it was an aspirin\u2014or worse! There are some organizational ideas abroad that seem to me to have no merit anywhere; but that reflects a personal bias. And there are some institutions that are so poorly led that aspirin may be better than nothing. But one is not likely to achieve institutional health, ever, by aspirin\u2014just temporary relief from pain, leading to use of another aspirin.\n\nReligious leaders, being human and fallible, will occasionally sense institutional pain in what they are leading. If the first response to that signal is to ask \"wherein is my leadership at fault, what can I do to improve it?\" it is unlikely that they will be tempted to reach for a pill, a gimmick, and gimmick salespeople who infest our society will not find them good prospects.\n\nOne of my sad experiences has been to watch at close range as an important institution bought one gimmick after another. I have become fatalistic about it. Just as there are people who are addicted to aspirin, there are institutions that seem addicted to gimmicks. Neither seems healthy.\n\n### LEADING VERSUS STRUCTURING\n\nOne of the common responses to institutional pain is to tinker with the structure. Everything that is organized has some kind of structure, even if it is only an informal understanding of who will do what. The most common explicit structure is hierarchical (as first described in Exodus 18). This arrangement is coming to be seen as seriously flawed, but the authoritarian bias that supports it is so entrenched that it is difficult even to discuss alternatives.\n\nStanding alongside most formal structures are informal ones whose function is to patch up the inadequacies of the formal ones. Even in the most rigid of institutions, there are usually acceptable deviations from and exceptions to the prescribed structures. They couldn't function without them.\n\nThe assumption here is that if an institution is well led, the nature of the formal structure is much less important than if it is poorly led. If leadership is exceptionally good, an institution sometimes operates without much reference to formal structure, even though it may have a well-defined one.\n\nIn a well-led institution, the need for structure may be minimal, but it is well to have some structure because even exceptional leaders sometimes falter and an understood structure serves as a \"safety net.\" Also, able leaders may be succeeded by mediocre or poor ones, and that contingency needs to be provided for.\n\nThe ideal organization structure would probably be one that is redesigned each time there is change in the conditions the institution confronts\u2014which may be every few days. Therefore, the need for stability suggests that the best that can be hoped for is a \"best fit\" for a range of conditions. This is not likely to be optimal for any one of them. The dilemma of all leaders of institutions is to accept that structure, no matter how well designed, will be awkward and inhibitive.\n\nThe above view suggests one of the inevitable ambiguities of life in all institutions, large or small, and defines one of the challenges to leaders who want to lead effectively so as to sustain what they lead at the level of exceptional. And it suggests to those who act as trustees that they should focus their energies, first, on themselves providing the best leadership they are capable of; second, on finding and supporting able leaders who will also administer; and, third, then designing a structure that is least inhibiting to good leadership.\n\nIn the context of religious leadership, tinkering with structure is not a first choice of means for building or sustaining quality in an institution. _Leadership is the prime concern!_ And when leadership is effective, structure is not a significant concern. Just watch to see that it does not get in the way.\n\nBeware! Preoccupation with structure could be a gimmick!\n\n### THE GROWING-EDGE CHURCH\n\nYears ago I wrote an essay on \"The Institution as Servant\" in which I made a comment on The Growing-Edge Church. Such a church, I suggested then, is \"one that accepts the opportunity all churches have to become a significant nurturing force, conceptualizer of a serving mission, value shaper, and moral sustainer of leaders everywhere.\" Since then I have not made a systematic study, but I have kept a close watch and I have not found a church that I think qualifies as a growing-edge church in these terms. I have wondered, why? Are the criteria suggested unrealistic, do any really want to be growing-edge churches, or is something standing in the way? I have concluded that it is the latter. If so, what is standing in the way?\n\nAs I get about among churches and church-related institutions, I am impressed by the extent to which they, rather casually it seems to me, employ commercial consultants to advise them and rely on procedures on which I would place the opprobrious label \"gimmick.\" Both, it seems to me, are evidences of inadequate religious leadership. Well-led institutions are not good customers for either consultants or gimmick salesmen. If these are valid judgments, might they not account, in part at least, for the inability of churches to achieve the healing influence they might have on the two pervasive problems; alienation of persons and failure of institutions to serve? Why would one look to any church for moral and spiritual guidance if that church is seen, even to a small extent, as simply a broker between those in need and facilities that might serve that need which are abundantly available elsewhere? And, further, how can a church in this posture infuse religious leadership, a critically needed quality, into the fabric of society as a whole? If churches, in these chaotic times, are to _lead_ , they must _originate_ and not be seen as sponges for the fads of the day, and they should work from their greatest asset\u2014inspiration.\n\nA church might choose another mission than to become growing-edge by the criteria I have given. But if it aspires to that distinction, then I submit that recourse to consultants, as they are commonly used, and gimmicks will stand in the way.\n\nLet me speculate on why some churches, because they are not clear about their missions, or have not thought through their implications, may have turned to consultants and gimmicks. Could it be that this diversion to do the \"in\" things and to look for \"answers\" from experts is an unconscious escape from the much tougher and more demanding course of nurturing seekers? Seeking is an opening to prophetic vision which could have disturbing consequences\u2014and not many are likely to undertake it unless they are given exceptional leadership. And seekers are a resource that cannot be bought with money.\n\nI have followed one thread of this diversionary influence in churches for 35 years. In the summer of 1947, I attended the very first group development conference at Bethel, Maine. This was to be the launching of a major research effort by Kurt Lewin, who came to this country as a refugee scholar in the 1930s. But Lewin died suddenly on the eve of this first session, and it was carried on by his students.\n\nLewin was a rigorous experimental psychologist, and I registered for this session on the urging of a close friend, an equally rigorous experimental psychologist, Carl Hovland, who was then chairman of the Department of Psychology at Yale, because Carl felt that this work might be a breakthrough of a great practical consequence\u2014my prime interest.\n\nAlas, in my judgment, Lewin's students who carried on his work were not of his careful scientific temperament and skill, a view confirmed by the abrupt termination of the tenure of Lewin's Research Center for Group Dynamics at Massachusetts Institute of Technology after his death. I have since often wondered where we would be today if Lewin had lived a normal life span (he died at age 47). I am quite certain that the cultish movement that took off from that session I attended in 1947 would not have materialized. I promptly dissociated myself from it. But some churches bought in on it in a big way. Sensitivity training has been one of the \"in\" things to do. Some of what is called the \"human potential movement\"\u2014centering on self\u2014had its origins in this work. There are other examples in recent years of church investments in diversionary activities, some of which have the flavor of gimmicks; but this is the one I have been closest to.\n\nThese are called \"diversionary\" activities because they divert churches from what I believe should be their central concern, _inspiration_ , and divert them to techniques and procedures. Differing contexts of belief illuminated by a range of theological reflections suggest many meanings for the word _inspiration_. I doubt that any of those meanings would embrace techniques and procedures that have the flavor of gimmicks or the advice that most commercial consultants would give.\n\nThis is not intended as a diatribe against consultants\u2014in my more active days I have been one myself, and later I will comment on an acceptable limited use of them. But, once I evolved the views I have expressed about consultants to churches\u2014and their wares\u2014I no longer accepted money for consulting service to a church. I gained some perspective on this from Alcoholics Anonymous.\n\nAA received its unusual view of money from a wise and deeply concerned philanthropist in the 1930s. This very wealthy man had watched the slow evolution of this unusual group and, when they reached sufficient size and certainty in their approach, he convened them in his office to help them organize and clarify their principles. In the course of the discussion, he made a statement like this: \"I believe I know from my experience something about what can be done with money and what cannot be done with money; and you have one of the things that cannot be done with money.\" The firm resolve that the essential work of AA, one recovered or partly recovered alcoholic helping to recover another, would not be done for money, was made at that meeting. The phenomenal success of AA rests in part, I believe, on strict adherence to this principle.\n\nAA is a religious movement, an ad hoc church. All churches may do well to keep sharply in mind the question, \"Are we trying to do something with money that cannot be done with money?\" If it aspires to be a growing-edge church, as conceived here, it will harbor and encourage _seekers_. They are more likely than most to hear and evaluate the prophetic vision that is with us all of the time.\n\nA church in which inspiration is the prime source of its guidance may safely pay a lawyer, accountant, or architect, or others rendering ancillary service. But if a church is uncertain about the inspiration that guides it, then it had best turn to seekers. What the world of institutions needs from churches is not preachment about leadership, but clear and convincing models, because every institution, within the scope of its mission and opportunity to serve, needs its own equivalent of seekers to keep it on a true course as servant and to assure its survival. And it is just as difficult to sustain such persons in a business or unit of government or university as it is in a church. Are other institutions likely to learn to evolve, support, and encourage these people unless churches hold up the model of them\u2014in its purest form? Any church that offers a clear and convincing model as a harborer of seekers will, in my judgment, distinguish itself as a growing-edge church. Its effective religious leadership will be confirmed thereby.\n\nThe pastor of a church who is usually, but not always, a full-time professional may be paid. But the pastor's strongest role may not be as a seeker. Rather he or she will be the leader and nurturer of seekers who will not be paid.\n\nThe absence of evidence that churches are nurturing seekers, or aspiring to strengthen leaders, is one of the reasons I have not identified a growing-edge church. I come by my conviction on this point by reading the history of the Quakers. If George Fox, the great prophetic visionary who founded the sect in 17th-century England, had not been preceded by a lay movement known as \"seekers,\" Fox might not have been heard. I firmly believe that for a prophet to be heard there must be seekers. When the Quakers, after the first powerful generation, ceased to harbor seekers, they \"had it.\" What they \"had\" was, and continues to be, good; but they were no longer on the growing edge.\n\nAn interesting aspect of leadership is that, whereas administrative responsibility in institutions can be assigned, authority given, and resources allocated, _anybody can lead!_ Anybody can lead who can bring together and hold followers as an effective force. While the logical place for leadership of churches may be in seminaries (as I have argued in essays published under the title of \"Seminary as Servant\"), in fact, such leadership may come from anywhere. _If one strong growing-edge church emerges, it may lead the seminaries of all denominations into the role of servant of the churches\u2014from which position seminaries might evolve into significant leaders of churches (which they seem not to be now)_.\n\n### THE CHURCH AS AN INSTITUTION\n\nEarlier I opined that \"any influence or action that rebinds\u2014that recovers and sustains alienated persons as caring, serving, constructive people\u2014is religious. And any group or institution that nurtures these qualities effectively is a church.\" Thus, institutions that have other explicit functions may also be churches, and those that are called churches usually have several roles. The concern here is only with a church's influence as defined above.\n\nChurches, along with other institutions, have taken their lumps in recent years. They share the consequences of a general disaffection with all institutions. This comes about, I believe, not so much because of a feeling that the quality of their performance has declined, as because expectations have risen. More people, especially young people, believe that the institutions that serve them, including churches, could and should do better, much better.\n\nIn the early 1950s, an important book, _The Organization Man_ , was published. It was a well-written and sharp criticism of those who lead or manage our institutions. It was an immediate spectacular success. For years it was required reading in college courses, and perhaps still is. College bookstores had stacks and stacks of them. I had a curious experience as a result of the popularity of this book with students.\n\nOne day the editor who had managed the publication of this book came to see me. He told me he had felt that this book would be a commercial success; but he did not anticipate that it would have such a great influence on young people; it probably was one of several factors in the student unrest of the 1960s, and he was deeply disturbed by this. He felt the book had done some damage to young people.\n\nHe was enough of a realist to know that no critical book like this one, however successful, would change our institutions or the people who manage them\u2014only make them angry. The editor also knew that these young people, if they were to make their way in this world, would have to come to terms with the world as it is; and, if they were strong and worked at it over a lifetime, they might change it a bit. The editor also believed that, with the state of mind these students were then in, caught up, as so many were, in a zeal for instant perfection\u2014partly as a result of reading this book\u2014they were going to be set back, and some might be permanently harmed. Then he made a proposition. \"You have made a good life out of being an organization man in a huge business,\" he said. \"If you will write a hopeful book about how life can be made fruitful in institutions as they are, we will publish it and put all of our promotional resources behind it. Our aim would be to lay it down beside _The Organization Man_ in every college bookstore in the country.\" He had a contract in his pocket. This was quite an offer from a big prestigious publisher, especially to one like me who had never had a book published and had no public reputation to exploit.\n\nI turned it down, for reasons that I believe can be deduced from reading this piece. But a lifelong friendship with the editor, now dead, ensued. I have made this digression from the subject, the institutional church, because I feel that it helps illuminate the problem of churches as institutions that want to serve young people.\n\nAnother anecdote further illuminates it. In an off-the-record discussion, a high-level church executive, a sensitive and thoughtful person, made this observation in all seriousness, \"I have come to believe, after long experience in my job, that an important passage of scripture should be rewritten as\u2014When two or three are gathered in my name, there is bound to be a fight about something.\"\n\nAs I reflected on this observation, it occurred to me that many of the conflicts that plague our society and make \"conflict resolution\" such an active endeavor in churches, is the simple matter that \"manners\" have declined. The houses of Congress would not be able to conduct their businesses without strict codes of manners.\n\nMy estimate of the chief institutional problem of some churches is that they have put too high a priority on _preaching_ and too low a priority on _being_. The churches of today will have more influence on the quality of society as a whole (which means, to some extent, the quality of the institutions that comprise it) if they think of their prime influence as _being_ , through what they model as institutions. It may be that what a church _is_ as an institution will have more impact on its own members than what it _says_ to them. This is not to denigrate what is said, that is terribly important\u2014just not _as_ important as what it _is_.\n\nAs I reflect on my business experience in which I did much meeting attending and some speechmaking, it stands out in my memory that the few exceptional companies that I came to know after I retired from AT&T were rarely represented as speakers or attenders at meetings. They were too busy doing the things that make them exceptional. And they probably knew (what I now know) that too many of the people making speeches were either just spinning words or talking about what I have now come to label as gimmicks. What would an astute observer say of the church world in this regard?\n\nAs I reflect on my experiences with the radical students in the 1960s I despair when I think of the sea of words they were engulfed in. Where were the models they might have learned from? Faculties had taken advantage of the teacher shortage, in the years of expansion of higher education after World War II, to bargain down their obligations to teaching. By the time the sixties' generations of students came along, they realized that, too much, they were supporting faculty who used their positions as pads from which to do their own things. There were other causes for the unrest, but this one helped direct the venom of the disturbed students to the universities and colleges\u2014 _as institutions_. Students of that period simply did not sense a sufficient dedication of teachers to their calling. The result was disaster in some places.\n\nThe ultimate model of servant is one whose service is rendered in one's own personal time for which one is not paid. Students saw too little of this model in the 1960s. They still don't see much of it, I am told. This is what my book _Teacher as Servant_ is about. I tried to describe what a dedicated university professor who accepts this premise would be like.\n\nChurches, then, have the opportunity to be institutional models for the universities. Many of those who teach in and administer universities as well as those who shape policies in business, government, hospitals, etc. attend churches. Do they just hear words, or do they see a model\u2014a model of strength and effective religious leadership? And what would the model of a serving institution be like\u2014 _any_ institution?\n\nI realize there is a problem with the word _institution_. It has an ugly sound to some. I have looked into the etymology of that word and it does have a rather checkered history; but tucked away among the many historical meanings is: \"something that enlarges and liberates.\" Is there any other single word that has that connotation? Let me suggest a definition for our purposes:\n\n\"An institution is a gathering of persons who have accepted a common purpose and a common discipline to guide the pursuit of that purpose, to the end that each involved person reaches higher fulfillment as a person, through serving and being served by the common venture, than would be achieved alone or in a less committed relationship.\"\n\nNot all who \"belong\" to churches may want, or be capable of, firm commitment to a purpose like that described at the opening of this section. Unless a church serves only a selected constituency, it may need to maintain separate programs for homogeneous groups. I suggest that if a church is to be influential in shaping the culture, now and in the future, it must shelter within its active members a group of strong, assured, resourceful people so that each of them \"reaches higher fulfillment as a person, through serving and being served by the common venture, than they would achieve alone or in a less committed relationship.\"\n\nSuch a church will be seen as strong.\n\n### GETTING HELP AND USING MONEY IN A CHURCH THAT ASPIRES TO BE ON THE GROWING EDGE\n\nIn my essay \"The Institution as Servant,\" I defined the growing-edge church as \"one that accepts the opportunity all churches have to become a significant nurturing force, conceptualizer of a serving mission, value shaper, and moral sustainer of leaders everywhere.\" I now suggest an amendment which holds that such a church will get its strength from harboring and nurturing an active group of seekers who are open to inspiration. A church that aspires to be on the growing edge in these terms, in the absence of leadership and support from seminaries, may need some help that it will pay for.\n\nIf one conceives of a church as I do, as an institution whose primary opportunity is to sustain contact with inspiration and infuse a healing, building influence into the world, finding a helper for the process of building a growing-edge church may be difficult. A church that does not aspire to wield an influence in the growing-edge role may find the usual services of commercial consultants congenial and helpful. But continued reliance on that source of help may build dependency rather than strength. Churches that aspire to be on the growing edge need to be strong, and they should seek help that builds strength.\n\nWhile I was writing this, I received a phone call from a man who introduced himself as the administrator of a large Catholic hospital. He had read something I had written on the servant theme and asked whether I had written anything on how to conduct a Christian disciplinary interview with an employee. He was in need of help. I told him that I had not written on such detailed procedural matters, and, after a few pleasantries, the conversation terminated. He is a ripe prospect for a gimmick salesman.\n\nLater I reflected, since the advice sought was in Christian terms, I might have suggested that if Jesus were among us today and were asked that question, there is a good chance that he might respond, \"Become the full stature of the caring, serving person you have the potential to become and all will come clear to you on such matters.\"\n\nThen I reflected, \"Where is this man's church?\" Good question. Where is his church? Is it on the growing edge? Does it aspire to be? Is it striving to be of practical help to those it reaches as they do the work of the world\u2014including managing church-related institutions?\n\nAnd where are the seminaries\u2014200 in the United States, 60 of them Catholic? Consultants and gimmick salesmen, mostly good, conscientious people, seem to be trying to fill the gap created by the failure of seminaries to lead. But it may be that seminaries will not have the incentive to lead as long as consultants and gimmick salesmen seem to be filling the gap and are eagerly sought by churches because there are no other resources. Something needs to change. A church that gets the vision of becoming a growing-edge church may initiate the change, and may need some help. They will do well to find a helper who is wise and judicious and who has the vision and the patience to help that church to evolve a powerful formative character that will favor the growth of strong, caring, serving persons. The following experience comes to mind.\n\nBack in the days when Richard King Mellon and Mayor Lawrence were bringing off their renaissance of Pittsburgh, I asked an old and wise friend who was well placed in a city of comparable site and not too far from Pittsburgh, why could not his city achieve this? His prompt response was that the reason was simple: his city did not have a Richard King Mellon. They could produce a Mayor Lawrence if they had a Mr. Mellon. Then he said, \"We don't have anybody as rich as he is, but we have a few who are rich enough. The difference is that Mr. Mellon cares intensely about his city. Our rich people do not have his kind of caring. It is as simple as that.\"\n\nReflecting further on my own experience: the few institutions that I know intimately which, under close scrutiny, impress me as being exceptional seem to be led by people who have come much closer to their potentials as caring, serving people than most of us. They, like Mr. Mellon, do not need a consultant to tell them how to _act_ as if they were human. They _are_ human\u2014and they just act naturally. They may need help to do some things they do not know how to do, but not with how to be human and caring. Formative experience is required for that. Such people who are human and caring live with an awareness of good work that is in harmony with the ultimate values they embrace. Their incentive to be human comes out of their faith. The crying need of our times is for greater formative resources for the growth of such people, a work for seminaries to initiate.\n\nWhile I accept, grudgingly, that, in the absence of leadership and support by seminaries, churches that aspire to be on the growing edge and provide this formative experience may need, with caution, to pay for some help, I long for the day when churches generally will hold inspiration as their highest value and will acknowledge seekers who are not paid as their most precious resource.\n\n### RELIGIOUS LEADERS: A NEW FRONTIER\n\nI think of religious leading as a new frontier because, as an explicit goal, it seems not to have been prominent in the concerns of religious thinkers. What then is the new opportunity? Is it not to make of existing religious institutions\u2014churches, synagogues, temples, mosques, seminaries\u2014laboratories for preparing leaders for a more caring society? Will not the first step be to prepare strong leaders for the work these religious institutions have to do, and then to share their mature experience with institutions generally? How will we do that, the incredulous may ask? Let them begin with William Blake's dictum: \"What is now proved was once only imagin'd.\" And what will nurture their imagination? Let me suggest three subjects for reflection that have been prominent in this essay.\n\n#### _Persuasion_\n\nThe move from the \"control\" model, that comes down almost unchanged from Moses, in the hierarchic principle, toward the \"servant\" model about which much remains to be learned, might begin with cultivating the attitudes that will permit the shift from coercion and manipulation to persuasion as the predominant modus operandi in institutions generally\u2014including churches. Elsewhere I have written that one is persuaded on arrival at a feeling of rightness about a belief or action through one's own intuitive sense\u2014checked, perhaps, by others' intuitive judgment, but in the end one relies on one's own intuitive guide. One takes that intuitive step from the closest approximation to certainty one can reach by conscious logic (sometimes not very close) to that state in which one may say with conviction, \"This is where I stand.\" And this takes time! The one being persuaded must take that step alone, untrammeled by coercion or manipulative strategems. Both leader and follower respect the integrity and allow the autonomy of the other; and each encourages the other to find an intuitive confirmation of the rightness of the belief or action. Persuasion, thus defined, stands in sharp contrast to _coercion_ \u2014the use, or threat of use, of covert or overt sanctions or penalties, the exploitation of weaknesses or sentiments, or any application of pressure. Persuasion also stands in sharp contrast to manipulation, guiding people into beliefs or actions that they do not fully understand.\n\nThe religious leader will be persuasive and, insofar as humanly possible, will avoid any taint of manipulation or coercion. This is suggested as an indispensable condition of trust by followers or colleagues. Unilateral actions by leaders in emergencies, with later explanations, are more likely to be accepted as appropriate if the relationship is predominantly persuasive. But, in an imperfect world, there will be exceptions, and, no matter how it seems to the leader, some may see manipulation or coercion when the leader thinks they are not there. Perhaps discussion of the realities, in which lapses are acknowledged as failures, may be the most open course. Persuasion, when exercised by a leader, is not passive. It is dynamic, sustained, and challenging; and it may repel some who might be followers of a less insistent leader. The leader will be prepared for rebuff and failure and will need a sustaining spirit. John Woolman had such a sustaining spirit. Read his journal!\n\n#### _Seekers_\n\nEarlier it was suggested that prophet, seeker, and leader are inextricably linked. Sometimes two or three are merged in one person. But prophet and leader are seen as seekers first, who later evolve into other roles.\n\nThe seeker contributes ever-alert awareness and constant contact with available resources: spiritual, psychological, and material. Also, the seeker helps guard the religious leader against becoming trapped in one of those closed verbal worlds in which one's influence is limited to those who share one's exclusive vocabulary.\n\nSeeking is also waiting and expecting and working with a sustained listening group that is ready to receive a prophetic vision. The group will have prepared itself to make discerning critical judgments about what they hear. Seekers are religious in that they share a discipline which sustains them as persons who are always prepared to respond to a new (but carefully examined) rebinding influence. An important part of the role of religious leaders is to provide the expectancy that sustains seekers.\n\n#### _Prophecy_\n\nThe prophet, in William Blake's term, is one who imagines what will later be proved. Seekers will be listening and hear and test the validity of the idea, and religious leaders will carry the new idea into the work of the world.\n\nIt should be noted that in the 19th century Danish experience, Bishop Grundtvig did not offer a model of the Folk High School, nor did he himself found or direct such a school. He gave the vision, the dream, and he passionately and persuasively advocated that dream for over 50 years of his long life. He also gave the leadership. The indigenous leaders among the peasants of Denmark were listening and responded to that vision and built the schools\u2014with no model to guide them. _They knew how to do it!_ They were, in effect, the seekers of their time and place. Grundtvig gave them the prophetic vision that inspired them and communicated his confidence in their ability to act on what they knew.\n\nOur restless young people in the 1960s wanted to build a new society too\u2014and some still do; but their elders who could have helped prepare them for the task just \"spun their wheels.\" They did not listen and gave little leadership. As a consequence of this neglect, a few of those young people simply settled for tearing up the place. And, in the absence of a new prophetic vision to inspire the effort to prepare our young people to build constructively, and leadership to help them do it, some of them may tear up the place again! Do not be surprised if they do just that. The provocation is ample. Among those in the older generation are some who could prepare today's young people to live productively in the 21st century. They know how to do that as well as 19th century Danish peasants did.\n\nWe live amidst a frightening shortage of ideas in all of our institutions, partly, I believe, because of the almost universal obsession about money. The nonprofits are so desperate for money that they can't produce the ideas that would make getting money easier. And businesses, financed as they are by the gigantic craps game that our society prescribes and in which our \"best people\" participate, are so eager for a quick buck that they can't produce the ideas that would give them a sound long-range future.\n\nThe serious deficiencies of our times may be in prophets who are not sufficiently realistic and inspired; in seekers who are not sufficiently humble, open, and dedicated listeners; and in enough religious leaders who are strong. As a consequence, ours is a poorly served society.\n\n### WHAT AND WHO SPEAKS TO YOUNG POTENTIAL LEADERS?\n\nSome effective religious leaders in every generation should be able to speak persuasively to potential leaders among the young\u2014as Grundtvig and those who worked with him were able to do in 19th-century Denmark.\n\nMy principal experience with such young potential leaders, in my later active days, was with the radical students of the 1960s. Colleges and universities of that period, when measured against the opportunities they had to help these able students mature into strong religious leaders, seemed not to have served those students well. I gather that their influence today in this regard is pathetically meager. Not much seems to have been learned from those trying times in the sixties\u2014probably because of a paucity of seekers among faculty, administrators, or trustees.\n\nWhat (or who) speaks to young potential religious leaders? I believe it is those who do what they can with what they have from where they are to build a better society. This communicates hope. Far too many of our able, well-meaning, well-placed contemporaries just spin their wheels. This communicates despair.\n\nSmall wonder that alienation is so widespread. Too much despair and not enough hope is being communicated!\n\n### LEADING VERSUS GOVERNING\n\nWe live in an age in which there is much talk about leading. Institutions in which there is little urge to do other than what they have done before, usually do not need leaders; able governance will suffice. But if, either out of necessity for survival or because they wish to serve better or more creatively, they want to do something that neither they nor others have done before, then leaders who are capable of venturing and risking\u2014prudently\u2014must emerge.\n\nIf followers are to respond voluntarily and with spirit, these leaders will do better if they have the dedication to persuasion and the language skills that will elicit this response from followers. People respond voluntarily and with spirit when something from the deep inner resources of the leader comes through to them. Competent and inwardly strong leaders who are by nature servants, and who are inspired by _religio_ , can be the most influential of all when they have the gift of appropriate language _if_ , in these times, they will address forcefully the interlocking problems of alienation and the failure of institutions to serve.\n\nThe need for many such religious leaders is urgent.\n\nThis is written as a sharing with those who aspire to be part of the vanguard of the effort to grow more religious leaders.\n\n### POSTSCRIPT\n\nMy perspective on the subject of religious leaders, as I said at the outset, is that of a student of organization, not of a theologian or scholar. From this perspective, I was prompted to state the central idea of this essay as _work! Do something! Work to increase the number of religious leaders who are capable of holding their own against the forces of destruction, chaos, and indifference_. Those who are in the vanguard of this effort will find ways to strengthen the hands of the strong who will become religious leaders. Such strong religious leaders will be an elite, one of the many kinds of elites. One of the blights on American life is our inability to face the fact that elites can serve. We have allowed _elite_ to become a pejorative term. We need to be liberated from such constricting ideas. We must strengthen the hands of the strong who will be servants because only they can cope with the strong who are destructive and exploitative and who, unfortunately, are quite numerous. Increasing the number of religious leaders is not the only thing that needs to be done to make ours a better, nobler society; but unless we do that, other society-building efforts may not avail us much.\n\nWe do not need a new revelation to accomplish this. The machinery to move toward increasing the number of religious leaders (and I mean _large_ numbers) is already in place: seminaries, to churches, to individuals, to \"operating\" institutions\u2014governments, businesses, schools, social agencies. But this machinery is not working, not nearly well enough. Why is the machinery not working? I believe it is because seminaries that occupy the originating spot are not supplying the ideas and the language\u2014the leadership\u2014that they are best placed in the scheme of things to provide; and, without that leadership, churches are not likely to move forward in influence from where they now are. Furthermore, as long as seminaries occupy that spot and do not produce the ideas, and the language, and the leadership, it will be difficult for any other agency to do it _because_ if the churches are to move, the effort must be supported by an appropriate theology.\n\nIt is a truism regarding any complex sequential process, social or mechanical, that if a vital link fails, the whole process fails. This is especially true if the originating point does not function. To get a steam engine to move, someone has to turn on the steam. If an institution, or a complex of institutions, is to move, someone has to lead.\n\nWhy do not the seminaries lead in a way that will help churches nurture religious leaders? Seminaries are staffed by able, thoughtful, conscientious people; why do they not give the needed leadership? I believe it is mainly because they do not see it as their role and, when pressed, they tend to say it is someone else's role\u2014such as denominational bodies. And they have not prepared themselves to do it.\n\nFrom my bias, the answer is simple: they do not have among their trustees, faculty, or administrators enough people who think in terms of how things get done in complex institutional arrangements. These people are a little rare, and I doubt if just one person\u2014faculty, administrator, or trustee in a seminary\u2014would survive if he or she tried to wield this influence alone. And it probably would not help just to give seminaries the idea, such as handing them this document. They need help, but probably a rare and special kind of help _from the outside_. They need help that is both persuasive and enduring because of the magnitude of the expected change. It is not that seminaries will need to abandon anything they now do; I am not judging that. But what they will need to add will make them radically different places because they will become primarily formative in their influence.\n\nThey need the kind of help that only a modern John Woolman is likely to give, because seminaries are tender, fragile institutions (all institutions, being collections of humans, are tender and fragile, but seminaries are a rare and special kind), and they need help in the spirit of great loving care. They not only need it, as everybody does, but help will not be effective without it.\n\nJohn Woolman was passionately opposed to slavery, but this was shared with others who were so vehement in their opposition that, in the judgment of some historians, they helped make the Civil War inevitable. What made Woolman's persuasion effective, with no harmful side effects, and helped free the Religious Society of Friends of slavery 100 years before the Civil War, was that he loved the slaveholder with equal passion. He understood his dilemma, he was the slaveholder's friend, and he was willing to spend 30 years of all the time he could spare from earning his livelihood (he supported a small family) in visiting slaveholders over and over as he pressed his gentle but firm argument. In my judgment, this method will be effective with most reasonable people, including trustees, administrators, and faculties of seminaries who might be persuaded that they should enlarge their missions to include leading the churches as they wield their influence on people and institutions through the diffusion of religious leadership.\n\nIf the above is a reasonable assumption about the need and how to serve it, where are the Woolmans of this day, men and women who will understand and love and serve seminaries and the people who are in them? There are 200 seminaries in the United States, and I estimate that it will take 50 such able committed volunteer persons many years to give this service\u2014each working with four seminaries. The 50 would be one in several million of the adult population. I think it a reasonable assumption that these 50 men and women exist and that they would rise to the opportunity to enrich their lives by giving this service\u2014gratis. _And_ I have confidence that some seminaries would, in time, respond to their service. The big question is how to find and prepare these 50 people\u2014and finance it.\n\nI went to sleep with this question on my mind and, as so often happens when I do this, I dreamed about it. (I am not a lawyer, but many years ago at AT&T, I was a member of a task force that was preparing an important law case for litigation. We had worked for six weeks and had not found a satisfactory basis to present our case\u2014and trial time was nearing. We were under pressure. Then one night I had a dream in which we were in court. _I_ was the lawyer pleading our case and I was arguing the very structure we needed. The case went to trial exactly as I dreamed it; but I never admitted to my colleagues how I got the idea.) I am now at the age when I am not as circumspect as I used to be, so I will share this one.\n\nIn my waking reverie the next morning, I was given a quite complete answer to the question of how can we find and prepare these 50 people\u2014and finance it. After breakfast I went to my desk and wrote a fable [ _Editor's note: published as \"Fable,\" in_ Seeker and Servant, _Robert Greenleaf, published in 1996 by Jossey Bass_.] in which I looked back from the year 2000, at which time a large number of churches in the United States had become strong influential institutions, alienation had declined, and the number of extraordinary serving institutions in the United States had increased. It is not a very good fable, but it does outline the steps that were taken to locate and prepare the 50 choice people whose persuasion caused enough seminaries to enlarge their programs to bring this about. I will send this fable to any who ask for it _if_ I am assured that the asker aspires to be in the vanguard to which this paper is addressed.\n\nWhat is now proved was once only imagin'd.\n\n_William Blake_\n\n## 6\n\n## **Seminary as Servant**\n\n### INTRODUCTION\n\nThe essays that follow were written in recognition of two pervasive social problems: (1) widespread alienation in all strata of the population, and (2) the inability or unwillingness to serve on the part of far too many of the institutions that make up our complex society. Each of these problems may be a contributing cause to the other, and neither is likely to be healed without coming to terms with the other.\n\nI believe that new religious insight is needed to deal with the dilemma that this reciprocal dependency presents ( _religious_ in the root meaning of _rebind_ ). Such insight may come as a gift to any earnest seeker, but its availability to the many whose lives may be enriched by it will be greatly enhanced if seminaries embrace it, put it in a context so that churches may mediate it, and give sustaining support to churches as they do their work. Any seminary that performs well in this role will be truly a servant in our times. But, as I argue later, this achievement is unlikely to come unless the stated missions of seminaries require it\u2014mission statements that have clarity and power and the ring of contemporaneity. Such mission statements are not likely to emerge until seminary trustees give a character of leadership that is not yet generally accepted.\n\nThe three essays were written to encourage a few seminary trustees to use their influence to bring _one_ seminary to the position of greatness as servant, both as a seminary and as a model of institutional quality that will be a powerful leaven in the culture. If one seminary will achieve this, the less venturesome may take courage and try.\n\nThe three essays were written in 1980, 1981, and 1983 at the suggestion of Dr. Robert W. Lynn, (then) vice president for Religion of Lilly Endowment, with whom I share a concern for enlarging the contribution of seminaries of all faiths to the enrichment of American society and to whom I am deeply indebted for helpful criticism of early drafts of these pieces. I am grateful for the incentive to write these because this work caused me to probe deeper than I might otherwise have done into facets of my long-held interest in institutions, large and small, and the place of trustees and directors, particularly their chairpersons, in assuring the optimal performance of these institutions.\n\nOut of my probings, the idea of a _hierarchy of institutions_ evolved. In this hierarchy I see, at the top, seminaries and foundations. Foundations are in that oversight position because they have the resources and the opportunity to gain perspective that enables them to provide conceptual leadership to colleges and universities, some of which seem in want of new directions which they are unable to find for themselves.\n\nSeminaries are in a strategic position to give similar support to churches, whose needs are also urgent. In turn, both churches and universities are well placed to give nurture and guidance to individuals and to the whole range of \"operating\" institutions: governments, businesses, schools, hospitals, communities, families. Any effort to aid our ailing society might well start with a consideration of how the leadership of foundations and seminaries, each from its respective strategic position, might be made more effective.\n\nIn writing these essays, the role of trustees of seminaries and foundations received fresh scrutiny. I had written earlier on this subject (\"Trustees as Servants\"\u2014Chapter III of _Servant Leadership_ , Paulist Press, 1977), but in reflecting on the nature of this role in seminaries and foundations some new insights came. These two institutions, standing as they do at the top of the hierarchy of institutions, are in a precarious position (in their roles of servants of society) because they have little sheltering support available to them from other institutions. Since not many people are able as trustees to provide the constant regenerating influence that all institutions need if they are to serve and prosper over a long period of time, the durability of society rests on a few institutions (such as seminaries and foundations) acquiring self-regenerating capacity. These three essays are premised on the assumption that foundation and seminary executives and staffs, on their own, are not likely to provide this self-regenerating influence. It is for exceptional trustees to provide. \"Exceptional\" trustees are not necessarily high-status persons by other standards. The ablest trustee chairperson I have seen, in considerable involvement with trustees in a range of institutions, is a low-status person by other standards\u2014but truly great as a trustee and in the chair.\n\nSince exceptional trustees, by definition, are not common, if some of this small number can be drawn into the care of foundations and seminaries, these two can then spread the influence of their exceptional trustees to all institutions. I see no better way for a needy society (as ours is) to be well served by its ablest citizens. But seminaries and foundations will need to rise to this view of their opportunities and bring such exceptional trustees to their service, or inspire with new vision those they now have. Addressed here are the opportunities for seminaries. Elsewhere (chapter VI of _Servant Leadership_ ) I have discussed the opportunities available to foundations.\n\nIn the three essays that follow, I note that the perspective from which I approach the subject of seminaries and their missions is that of a student of organization, how things get done, not as a theologian or scholar. Included in my perspective is a longtime immersion in the writings of Machiavelli. It is my view that, while manifestations differ, joustings among contemporary power seekers (of whom there are plenty) are little different in their essentials from what they were in 16th-century Florence. Since I am now retired and no longer in the fray, I turn to Machiavelli periodically as a means for keeping myself refreshed about the nature of the society in which all live and do our work. I find no other commentator, ancient or contemporary, who is as clear, realistic, or insightful on the use of power in society as Machiavelli. Also, I find in his writing much wisdom that is useful to a person or institution that would be a servant in our time.\n\nAgainst the dismal view of human nature that one gets from reading Machiavelli, I place the religion of hope ( _religion_ again used in its root meaning of _rebind_ ). I could not read this coldly realistic Florentine, and keep my sanity in this chaotic world, unless I had hope. Not hope that some miraculous intervention will banish evil so that good will prevail; I am not sure that I would be happy in such an aseptic place. My expectations are really modest: that a few able people who think of themselves as \"good\" will become more dedicated servants of society and will work a little harder and more astutely at it than some who think of themselves as \"good\" are now accustomed.\n\nMy short-run hope is that some of these able, good people will become trustees of seminaries and do what only inspired trustees are likely to do: work to give their seminary a vision of greatness that will lift it clearly out of the bureaucratic mold that engulfs so many institutions and set it on a course that will assure that it becomes the influential force that its top-of-the-hierarchy position makes possible.\n\nMy long-run hope\u2014as expressed in the essay on \"Mission\"\u2014is that, as the result of seminaries establishing their claim to this position, institutions whose primary motive is caring for persons and are governed by persuasion will rise to dominance in the culture over those that seem now to dominate: institutions that are governed by coercion and whose primary motive is private gain and survival in the competitive struggle.\n\nIt may be said that the quality of contemporary society is determined by the quality, as separate entities, of the legions of institutions that comprise it. The seminary will be an effective force in this composite as it wields its influence, through the churches, on both individuals and the institutions which they both govern and are governed by.\n\nThese three essays, addressed to seminary trustees, are made available for wider distribution because I feel they may be of some interest to those who share my concern for the quality of institutions generally. Further, one who is trustee of a quite different institution from a seminary may be stimulated to produce insights of immediate relevance to one's primary trustee obligation. Then, from my perspective, all institutions are drawing closer together when judged by the challenges they present to their trustees and directors. In the interest of furthering discussion of areas of common ground, these three essays on seminaries and their trustees and chairpersons are offered to all trustees and directors of institutions of all kinds.\n\nThe three essays, while having different emphases, are not three distinct chapters. They are three discussions of the same subject written a year or two apart. The second and third reflect growth in thinking after the first. They are offered now, not as a definitive treatise on either seminaries or trusteeship, but rather as a sharing of introspection on what I believe is a common interest with the reader: Where can one best put one's effort to build a better society? I see a \"good\" society as one in which there is widespread _faith as trust_ , a quality that encourages people to become constructive influences in the world as it is\u2014violent, striving, unjust as well as beautiful, caring, and supportive.\n\nCaring for persons, the more able and the less able serving each other, is what makes a good society. Of all the institutions I know about, I would put the most stringent test of caring on seminaries because I believe that they hold, potentially, through the churches, the greatest leverage to influence the caring, serving quality of the whole society.\n\nThese essays are offered in the hope that they will encourage trustees of just one seminary to give leadership to theologians who will generate similar ideas about how our low-caring society might do better, who see things whole; and who have the gift of language so they can tell ordinary mortals what they think and see\u2014folk who, by what they do or refrain from doing, make or break the society.\n\n### THE SEMINARY AS AN INSTITUTION\n\nI venture to discuss the seminary as an institution, not as a theologian, but as a student of organization. I hope that what I have to say from this perspective will be of interest to all constituencies of seminaries, but my primary concern is to speak to trustees, particularly the chairpersons of trustees, who may not have been trained in a seminary. It may be helpful if I share how I came by my interest in organization and what leads me to a special concern for seminaries.\n\nUp to 20 years ago, most of my concern about organization was directed toward one large business where I had my major career: American Telephone and Telegraph Company. In my later years there, I held the position of Director of Management Research. With the help of a professional staff, and within a broad charter, I was both involved and detached so that I could study and advise regarding the management of this huge institution (over 1 million employees) immersed as it is in sophisticated technology, elaborate human organization, and regulated public service. I was concerned, among other things, with its values, its history and myth, and, intimately, with its top leadership. I learned the hard way about the profound influence that history, and the myths of institutions that have considerable history, have on values, goals, and leadership. And I was painfully aware of the cost in those terms of any insensitivity to history and myth\u2014especially among the top officers.\n\nThis experience at AT&T gave me a good perspective and the impetus to venture, in my retirement years, into a close working relationship with a wide range of institutions: universities (especially in the turbulent sixties); foundations (both as trustee, consultant, and staff member); churches (both local, regional, and national) and church-related institutions; professional associations, and businesses\u2014in the United States, in Europe, and in the Third World. This brought me, in time, to a realization of the crucial role of trustees in the performance of any institution, anywhere, and the strategic leadership opportunity in the position of chairperson. This led to writing a monograph on \"Trustees as Servants\" [available from The Greenleaf Center].\n\nIn my later years, as I have had more time for reflecting and writing, and as I have become more aware of the fragile nature of our whole society, I have asked myself the question, where, in the vast range of institutions that serve us, is there the greatest unrealized potential\u2014potential for constructive influence on the whole society? My answer is, of course, a subjective judgment, but I have concluded: _seminaries_ , seminaries of all faiths, particularly in our country. Simply in terms of the prudent use of resources, I believe that more can be done to raise the quality of our total society than in any other one way, _if_ seminaries of all faiths could move closer to their full potential as servants. (The word _servant_ has special significance to me; but rather than attempt to define it explicitly at this point, I would prefer that the meaning that word has for me be permitted to evolve as one reads further.)\n\nI have had a fairly long contact with seminaries because, in my AT&T role of concern for values of that institution, I sought a relationship with professors of ethics in Protestant, Catholic, and Jewish seminaries. Some of these developed into lasting friendships which endure to this day. I invited some of these professors to meet with my AT&T colleagues, and I arranged for them to lecture in programs for executives. My relationship with them was close enough to permit me to have an insider's view in several seminaries. Then, later, I served six years on the Visiting Committee at Harvard Divinity School. More recently, I have read some of the history of seminaries and have talked with historians about the implications of this history.\n\nEven without this involvement with seminaries, out of work with churches and church institutions and my later introspection about the structure of society, I believe that I would have come to my present view regarding the crucial role available to seminaries. I hold this view because of the strategic space seminaries seem to me to occupy, or could occupy, in the hierarchy of institutions in which seminaries have the opportunity to give sustaining support to churches, and churches, in turn, can give religious nurture and moral guidance to individuals directly and support (as conservers of traditions and advocates of values) the whole gamut of \"operating\" institutions: governments, schools, businesses, hospitals, social agencies, philanthropies, families, communities. The strength and durability of our democratic institutions rest on the wide acceptance and practice of a common moral code. And I see the seminaries as having the potential to hold the prime position of supporting the churches as they work to foster religious concern and to strengthen the moral basis of society.\n\nWhen I say that seminaries have the opportunity to give sustaining support to churches I mean much more than training their pastors, important as that service is. I see the opportunity for the seminary to stand as a constant source of intellectual rigor and prophetic vision, of spiritual energy and as the support and inspiration for strong leadership and society-shaping influence in the churches. One of the simple truths that survives from my business experience is that it is possible for able conceptual leadership in a central staff to sustain exceptional performance in an almost unlimited number of local operating units which, on their own, would be quite ordinary. Further, in my experience, this exceptional performance is best achieved by persuasive conceptual leadership, without coercion or authority. At the core of this unusual business is an assembly in basic science that has been called the closest thing to a university outside the university, and that has produced, in its time, seven Nobel Laureates. This, I believe, is the source of the strong conceptual leadership that I experienced. If a business can make this principle viable, a seminary also has the opportunity to do it\u2014and better. _Please note that I have only said that the seminary has the opportunity, because of its place in the hierarchy of institutions, to give this leadership. If it is to exploit this opportunity, it must generate sufficient leadership power\u2014with its own resources_. (Foundations have a similar opportunity, largely unexploited, to serve colleges and universities.)\n\nAs I see churches today\u2014churches of all faiths\u2014they are struggling to shore up a deteriorating society without much sustaining support\u2014from seminaries, or, with few exceptions, from anywhere else. This brings me to the observation that seminaries (from the perspective of a student of organization), in general, and as they now stand, are marginal institutions. They are judged marginal because, in our highly institutionalized society, they do not carry the weight of influence and leadership that their place in the scheme of things makes possible. I sense that they are marginal in their own self-image, in the eyes of their principal constituency, the churches, and in the public view. While seminaries perform an acknowledged necessary function, the training of pastors, they do not generally provide the sustaining support and prophetic leadership for churches, for which they are correctly positioned and of which I believe they are potentially capable. The gap between seminaries and churches is not likely to be healed by a reach from the churches. The initiative rests with seminaries.\n\nIn saying these things, I am not suggesting for seminaries an unrealistic utopian achievement. What is reasonable and possible with available resources, human and material, is the standard I would apply. I would like to see all seminaries, seminaries of all faiths, reach from where they now are to attain much more of the reasonable and possible\u2014each seminary with its own resources and within its own vision of what it ought to do and to be. I am confident that any seminary that makes this reach, and thereby moves from the marginal stance toward a central and crucial role, will find a much more rewarding institutional existence than what many now enjoy. And I believe that the typical seminary can make this movement, over time, by a series of prudent steps\u2014prudent, but not necessarily comfortable. Prudent, because each seminary will build from its own resources, human and material, with understanding and respect for, and within the vision defined by, its own history and myth. It will not be simple or easy, and it will be a major creative challenge. The first step for a seminary may be to accept that, next to survival, building leadership strength\u2014to lead the churches\u2014may be its first priority in these times.\n\n#### _Premise_\n\nOccasionally institutions of all categories (including seminaries) rise to the exceptional under the long-term direction of an unusually able administrator. But, usually, when that administrator leaves, the institution lapses, in time, back to the ordinary. There are not enough of these exceptional administrators around to fill all top administrative posts of all institutions with such persons. Even if, potentially, such gifted administrators were abundant, the common wisdom does not yet provide a way to bring them all into top positions. Able top administrators, with occasional exceptions, have always been, and probably always will be, just ordinary, good people. The challenge is how to bring an institution to exceptional performance with ordinary good people to administer and staff it. The premise here is that ordinary good people as trustees, and with such a person chairing the work, can do it\u2014 _if_ they are sustained by a concept of greatness as their goal; greatness as servants of society\u2014in the case of a seminary, greatness in service to churches and through churches to society. What kind of belief builds confidence in this premise?\n\nFor one who grew up in the Christian tradition as I did, the roots, of course, are biblical\u2014\"whoever would be great among you must be your servant, and whoever would be first among you must be your slave\"\u2014(Matthew 20: 26 and 27). The choice of the word _slave_ for the one who would be first suggests that the trustee chairperson will have an unusual dedication and caring concern. My own personal credo is stated thus:\n\n_I believe that caring for persons, the more able and the less able serving each other, is what makes a good society. Most caring was once person to person. Now much of it is mediated through institutions\u2014often large, powerful, impersonal, not always competent, sometimes corrupt. If a better society is to be built, one more just and more loving and providing opportunity for people to grow, the most open way (and the most effective and economical course, while supportive of the social order) is to raise the performance as servant of as many institutions as possible by voluntary regenerative actions initiated within them by committed individuals: servants_.\n\nPart of the human dilemma in our times is that there is little in our biblical tradition, or anywhere else, that suggests what makes a servant\u2014or a serving institution\u2014in our highly institutionalized society. There is evidence that ours is a low-caring (poorly served) society, and concern for this condition has resulted in large-scale actions by government (1) to provide money to alleviate suffering and correct injustice, and (2) to give rewards and penalties to compel both individuals and institutions to behave in more socially constructive ways. In an imperfect world, some of these actions will always be needed. But compulsion is of limited use except to restrain destructive behavior and encourage conforming acts, and money does little other than cushion suffering and injustice. Neither compulsion nor money has much utility in causing institutions to be reconstructed as more caring and more serving. Only the voluntary actions of people inside an institution can accomplish this.\n\nThere is a stirring within some institutions today to improve their serving qualities. But this seems to be mostly exhortation or tinkering with procedures, \"gimmicks.\" Much of it is a sort of \"aspirin\" treatment that produces a short-lived easing of the pain, but little fundamental change may result from it. However, these efforts have produced a burgeoning literature. The occasional institution that achieves high servant stature under the direction of a gifted administrator who has such a goal is usually conspicuous by the absence of the common \"gimmicks\" (such as those that are promoted under such labels as \"Management by Objectives,\" \"Planned Program Budgeting,\" etc.). A strong, healthy institution, as with a person, is not built by the aspirin treatment.\n\nI cite these conditions not to pronounce a jeremiad on our society (although such may be warranted). Rather, I simply contend that there is little to date in our collective experience with institutions that trustees of a seminary may draw on as they seek to raise their seminary to greater servant stature. If the assumption of the hierarchical arrangement (seminaries to churches, and from churches to individuals and to operating institutions) is a valid one, it may be that other institutions will follow, rather than set models for, seminaries. How to produce an exceptional serving institution with ordinary good people to staff and lead it is the goal. If a few seminaries can demonstrate how, other institutions may be encouraged to try.\n\n#### _How to Do It_\n\nIf, as has been suggested, seminaries have the opportunity to provide strong leadership to churches, and churches, in turn, can provide it to both individuals and to the many operating institutions, then, in concept and vision, a seminary needs to be wholly self-regenerating. No other institution stands as an available resource for seminaries. This means that a seminary, of all institutions, needs the caring support of able and dedicated trustees who are led by an unusually strong chairperson. And these trustees will need to find their way to a constructive role in helping to move the particular seminary from marginal status toward its optimum as a servant of the churches\u2014and society. The question is, how to do it?\n\nThe answer to this question will need to be discovered for each seminary, for itself. Most seminaries have considerable history. There are doctrinal differences between schools and within faculties. Their faculties and administrators are unique individuals, they vary in age and adaptability, and most have quite firm, and probably differing positions regarding what a seminary ought to be. Financial resources differ. There are widely varying patterns of relationship to constituencies. All of these aspects combine to give the particular seminary its individual character, and the critical aspects need to be taken into account by trustees who wish to give the seminary new leadership. If trustees are to give new leadership, one generalization is risked: New seminary leadership from trustees is not likely to be asked for by faculty or administrators; nor is the overt offering of such leadership apt to be welcomed. But, then, rarely is leadership asked for or welcomed in any situation short of a condition of overwhelming confusion or imminent disaster. _Leadership_ is one of the most talked about and least understood ideas in contemporary discussions. At its best, leadership is a subtle process. As the ancient Taoist proclaimed: \"When the leader leads well, the people will say 'we did it ourselves!'\" Leadership needs to be offered, and, if effective, it is voluntarily accepted.\n\nTrustees of a seminary who choose to assert constructive leadership are confronted with an anomaly: they are charged by law with _managing_ the institution, and they stand in the position of ultimate responsibility. They possess coercive power, and all who hold coercive power find their ability to lead is clouded by that fact, because leadership rests mostly on persuasion and the responses to it are voluntary, not coerced. And when any person who holds coercive power attempts to lead, there is apt to be the unasked question, \"Where is the hidden agenda?\" Further, while trustees hold legal power, faculties, by long tradition, have evolved a de facto power that is probably more potent. Evidence of the effectiveness of new constructive leadership by trustees may be the emergence of new transforming leadership among faculty and administrators, and _this_ is the leadership that will move the seminary from a marginal to a central or crucial role.\n\nWhat can be said at this point, in advance of experience to confirm the above assertions, about the distinguishing characteristics of constructive trustee leadership in a seminary?\n\n#### _Constructive Trustee Leadership_\n\nConstructive trustee leadership begins with continuing to do well what trustees generally do now, such as: serve as legal cover and public image builder for the institution; raise money; authorize and audit the use of money; render gratis consulting services; take those actions required by the charter and bylaws; appoint or dismiss administrative officers; and stand as the court of last resort if internal administration and staff reach an impasse. These are all useful services that help keep the institution viable, but they are maintenance functions; they do not constitute _leadership_ , in the commonly accepted meaning of _lead_ , to go out ahead to show the way.\n\nParallel with these usual activities, and perhaps independently, trustees will start the search for the most constructive leadership role for themselves, for this seminary, and in these times. What is sought, it is hoped, is a prudent evolutionary movement that is congruent with the seminary's development up to now. What might be the direction of this movement?\n\nThe idea of trusteeship goes back to the person who was entrusted to manage the affairs of another. The concept of a governing board of trustees of an institution is relatively new because the vast structure of institutions that serve us now is rather recent\u2014in the last 200 years, with much of it in this century. Two hundred years ago there were governments, armies, churches, and a few universities. But the common lot was life in families and simple communities with most people partly or wholly self-sustaining with the support of modest commerce. To the extent that lives were guided by a theology, it was a theology of persons.\n\nThe American constitution makes no mention of the common form of institution, the corporation, because they scarcely existed when our constitution was written. Corporations get their legal status because of the willingness of the courts to construe them as persons. Likewise, our available theology usually turns out to be a theology of persons, and there is little to turn to in our theological resources for guidance as to how institutions shall be brought under the shelter of theology\u2014and thereby be made more humane and more serving. If one views _all_ institutions, large or small, as I do: as intricate webs of fallible humans groping for meaning, order, and light\u2014then, at the core, the problem of all institutions is, has always been, theological. Seminary trustees who seek a more constructive leadership role may find that the best basis for eliciting a new transforming leadership from faculty and administrators will be to start the deliberations leading to a new theology of institutions which the seminary, with the involvement of all of its constituencies, will labor to bring forth, and with the seminary's own institutional development as the laboratory.\n\nThe terms _theology of persons_ and _theology of institutions_ are not in common parlance. They are used here to suggest that, to a nontheologian like myself, who is concerned about the crucial role that seminaries could carry, there is a question about the adequacy of the theological resources of seminaries to support churches so that churches can be of greater help to legions of people who are immersed in the mass of institutions that make up contemporary society. Trustees may want to raise the question, \"Are the theological resources of the seminary\u2014whatever they are\u2014adequate for this particular support?\" Whatever the answer is, there is an opening for dialogue between trustees and faculty and administrators on what may prove to be one of the more important issues of the late 20th century\u2014important for seminaries, for churches, for all of us.\n\nIf a seminary trustee is, as I am, a nontheologian, she or he will venture with caution in raising a question about the adequacy of theology. Yet, as a trustee, the issue must be faced\u2014just as a layman who is trustee of a hospital must be prepared to question the practice of medicine, or the lay trustee of a university must be prepared to question the process of education.\n\nThe adequacy of any theology is tested, ultimately, by examining what it produces in the lives of people who have its implications interpreted for them through the mediation of churches. The issue of the adequacy of the available theology of institutions is an appropriate concern for seminary trustees who are searching for their most constructive role because _this_ theology addresses both institutions in general and _this_ seminary as an institution, in particular.\n\nIt is an interesting question. Anyone can make a contribution to theology; but established theologians are best positioned to originate and advocate a new theology of institutions\u2014 _and be heard_. However, nontheologians who are keeping a close watch on our institutions will make the ultimate judgment on the adequacy of that theology. One test they will apply is: What comes through to trustees and directors of institutions of all sorts, for profit or not for profit, that induces them to take and sustain initiatives that result in the institutions they hold in trust becoming substantially more serving than most now are to all the persons they touch? Other nontheologians will make other tests of the adequacy of other theologies\u2014in terms of their ultimate consequences in the lives of people.\n\nConstructive trustees of any institution will listen carefully to those who make the ultimate tests of adequacy of that institution's service. What makes seminary trusteeship especially interesting and challenging is that the seminary has the potential for influencing such a wide gamut of human affairs.\n\n#### _Preparation for Trusteeship_\n\nHow can seminary trustees initiate the move toward a more constructive role for themselves, and give the new leadership that helps bring the seminary to optimal strength as a servant of society?\n\nThey might first seek to clarify for themselves, and for all constituencies, what the history and myth of their particular seminary is, and they may find much of it is not written and that no single person knows it all. ( _Myth_ is used in the sense of a story that relates historical events and that serves to explain some practice or belief.)\n\nThen they might gather and study the literature on seminaries in general, which is considerable, and of varying quality, and encourage other constituencies to do the same. There have been studies, some recent, by individuals and groups that raised the issues about seminary purpose and the content and method of theological education.\n\nTrustees, particularly their chairperson, will need to take the time to meet and discuss with faculty, administrators, students, alumni, church representatives, and denominational officers\u2014if it is a denominational seminary. Trustees might attend faculty meetings, student assemblies, and occasional classes in rotation\u2014all if invited. Also they could meet with students in small groups where issues in the seminary are being discussed. While this work may be shared, seminary trustees will do well to accept at the outset that their role with this unique kind of institution will make a large claim on their time.\n\nOut of these discussions, the trustees will discover that seminaries, in the course of their history, took on the values of universities and that their faculties tended to assume the characteristic university position, \"the faculty is the university.\" This position in both university and seminary may have come about by default. No one else, trustees for instance, concerned themselves with defining the institution, so faculties, with their large career stake, defined it as themselves. The first concern of seminary trustees in search of a new leadership role may be to search for the idea, the unifying vision, that will define the seminary.\n\nConceptual leadership by trustees may best be manifested by questions. The trustee is the asker, not the answerer of questions. _Whom and what purpose should this seminary serve_? This may be the prime question to be asked of all constituencies of the seminary. The faculty contribution to answering that question will be very important, but not the only source. Gradually, faculties may be led to accept the _servant_ role: that their best part is to serve whatever purpose evolves from the deliberate search conducted by trustees, a search in which they have had a majority but not exclusive role.\n\nI suggest that the key to greatness, in a seminary or in any other institution, is the quality of the dream, the vision, and the primacy of that dream as the ultimate government. Every person, every constituency, stands subordinate to the dream. Helping the dream to evolve and nurturing it is the first consideration in trusteeship.\n\nTrustees, in giving leadership, should be ever-mindful of the sensitivity of faculty members to the faculty role in governance and of their apprehension about the trustees' use of their power. Faculty will be concerned that trustees have a sufficient understanding, in depth, of the faculty's perception of the nature of a seminary.\n\nSeminary trustees might also be aware, as they pursue the search for the answer to the question of purpose, that they will never answer it, definitively or for all time. Yet, at any one time, the seminary should be proceeding with assurance to serve a clearly identified constituency with a firm purpose in mind. Part of the art of trusteeship is to maintain a balance between _order_ and _stability_ and _search_. Search, for any institution or any person, should never end. Balance between the two is important, because, in any institution, there is an optimum tension between order and search. Either too little or too much tension is destructive. Further, except for the rare seminary that has funds at its disposal to engage new staff for new programs, trustees will acknowledge that their seminary can undertake only what they, the trustees, can persuade the existing faculty to accept.\n\nOnce a workable answer, for the present, has been achieved for the question, _Whom and what purpose shall this seminary serve_? the next question for trustee concern might be: _What shall be the content of the teaching and how shall it be taught_? Here, again, the trustee is the asker, not the answerer of the question. The aim is to find the best possible curriculum and method to implement the goal established in answer to the first question. Again, faculty opinion will be important, but not necessarily governing. And, again, unless there is money for new staff, the seminary can undertake only what the trustees can persuade the existing faculty to accept and _learn to do_. Two further questions may be asked by trustees: _How can the seminarybest support churches? How can the seminary be a constant source of prophetic vision?_\n\nWhen Karl Marx sat alone in the British Museum evolving the theories that would shape so much of the 20th-century world, was he not filling a void that resulted from failure of the churches of his day to come forth with a new prophetic vision that the conditions of the industrial revolution made imperative? But Marx apparently did not foresee the institution-bound society that was evolving as he wrote. And Marxist nations, today, are plagued with the same problem we are: how to make their complex institutions more serving. Thus there is now another void, worldwide\u2014a crisis of institutional leadership. Who will produce a new vision to fill _this_ void?\n\nThoughtful people today are complaining about ours being a \"media-dominated\" culture, to our detriment. Could it be that, in the absence of an adequate theology of institutions, the media are simply filling the void?\n\nThis question helps define the opportunity for new trustee leadership in seminaries.\n\n#### _Persuasion\u2014Prime Art of Trustee Leadership_\n\nTrustees, if they are to lead constructively, will understand the meaning of, and be gifted in, the art of _persuasion_.\n\nOne is persuaded, I believe, on arrival at a feeling of rightness about a belief or action through one's own intuitive sense\u2014perhaps checked by another's intuitive sense but, in the end, one's own intuitive feeling will govern. One takes an intuitive step from the closest approximation to certainty to be reached by conscious logic (sometimes not very close) to that state in which one may say with conviction, \"This is where I stand.\" The act of persuasion will help order the logic and favor the intuitive step. And this takes time! But the one being persuaded must take that intuitive step alone, untrammeled by coercion or manipulative stratagems. Both leader and follower respect the integrity and allow the autonomy of the other; and each allows and encourages the other to find his or her own intuitive confirmation of the rightness of the belief or action.\n\nIf persuasion is ever to rise over coercion and manipulation as the prevailing modus operandi in our violence-prone society, then the clear model of an institution that is led by persuasion alone needs to emerge in the most influential spot possible. I believe that some seminaries have the potential to occupy that spot\u2014to be influential models for other institutions, to _be the civilizing models!_\n\nIn summary, trustees have the opportunity, by astute and persistent questioning and persuasive leadership, to encourage the seminary to: (1) _Evolve an adequate theology of institutions for these times_. (2) _Define in contemporary terms whom and what purpose this seminary can best serve_. (3) _Find the best curriculum and method to serve those people and that purpose_. (4) _Give effective support to churches in the full scope of their missions_. (5) _Become significant sources of prophetic vision, places that are looked to for guidance and light_. A seminary that can achieve these through its existing staff and with its present resources will become a model for the regeneration of all kinds of institutions.\n\nGlittering innovations can always be produced by new people and new money. How can we do better with the people and the money we now have? This is the urgent plea of so many who would become constructive trustees or directors of the all-too-many low-serving institutions of our times.\n\nWhat guidelines might be useful to the seminary chairperson who would like to make the first move\u2014to do better, much better, with the money and the people the seminary now has?\n\n#### _The Chairperson_\n\nAll leadership positions are to some extent lonely posts. The chairperson of seminary trustees is no exception. Even if, among fellow trustees, there are close friends, some detachment is required. One's leadership strategy, whatever it is, should involve one with all trustees on the same terms. While there will be occasional conversations with individual trustees, there should be no grounds for suspicion that some trustee responses are prearranged. I know this contradicts the perception of some experienced trustees; but I am postulating here some conditions for a level of trustee performance that most have not experienced. The chairperson's role _should_ be a lonely one. The trustee is what the title implies, the bearer of trust. And the chairperson, if well chosen, stands tall among colleagues in this dimension.\n\nIf the above is a reasonable assumption, and if the chairperson of a seminary wants to give leadership to trustees who will have a chance of being the constructive influence described earlier, then a confidant or coach for the chairperson should be sought. This should be someone who is completely uninvolved in the seminary. Every person who carries a difficult or sensitive role needs a confidant or coach. The administrators of the seminary may need such help. But the need of the chairperson is perhaps the most difficult to serve.\n\nIn choosing to relate to a confidant or coach, the chairperson is acknowledging that if the seminary is to move toward its higher potential as a servant of society the one who occupies the chair must be the first to become a learner. But since there is no clear body of knowledge about how to chair effectively, the one who occupies that spot must evolve the strategy for giving new leadership out of one's own experience through interaction with a coach.\n\nAll trustees should, as individuals or through committee participation, have some firsthand relations with all constituencies\u2014especially faculty and students. There should be sufficient interaction so that, in their official deliberations, trustees have an experiential basis for good intuitive judgment on matters of trustee concern. The chairperson should have, in addition, a close relationship to administrators so that there is encouragement for dynamic leadership by all administrators. Also, the chairperson will want to help other trustees gain perspective for their evaluative judgment about administrative performance. This is a subtle process: to be close enough to administrative action to be helpful and encouraging, and to be critical and evaluative, but still to be detached enough so that administrators have sufficient scope for initiative and creativity to carry their roles with spirit. The chairperson should instruct the coach and confidant to be particularly watchful over this relationship between the chairperson and administrators.\n\nAll trustees should participate in evaluating administrators. But the chairperson should be prepared to provide more extensive data about administrators than any other trustee is likely to have.\n\nThe chairperson also has the obligation to build respect for trustee judgments among all constituencies. Trustees, by law, have the power to govern. But like all such power, its value is inverse to the extent of its use. It is important that the power be there, but _influence_ , growing out of respect for trustee judgments, is the critical trustee asset. The chairperson, in consultation with the coach-confidant, should develop a clear strategy for building and sustaining trustee influence. This influence will depend on the evident trustworthiness of trustees as demonstrated by: _(1) The quality of greatness of the dream that evolves for the seminary and what it might become as a servant of society. (2) The dedication of trustees in terms of their investment of time and their caring for people\u2014all of the people in the seminary. (3) The adequacy of their information about the seminary. (4) Their ability and disposition to persuade. (5) Adherence to collegiality and careful group process in reaching their judgments\u2014a process that is understood by all constituencies_.\n\nTrustworthiness, in the above terms, augurs for confidence in trustee judgments by all who are asked to accept them. The chairperson will be aware of elements like these that build trust, and will be watchful and diligent to encourage their optimum manifestation among seminary trustees. This, it seems to me, is the essence of leadership from the chair.\n\nNot all persons who have a talent for leadership are effective in all situations at all times. If the seminary chairperson finds, after a reasonable time, that his or her leadership is not adequate for this institution at this time, then they should quietly step aside so that someone else can try. Every seminary, every institution, deserves an effective leader in their chairperson\u2014all of the time.\n\n#### _Summary Comment_\n\nThree words are commonly used in reference to the oversight of an institution: _manage_ , _administer_ , and _lead_. Manage (from _manus_ , hand) connotes control. _Administer_ (from _administrare_ , to serve) has the sense of \"care for.\" These two, manage and administer, may be seen as the maintenance functions, terribly important but concerned mostly with conservation and perpetuation.\n\n_Lead_ is a word of less certain origin. Whereas management and administration usually derive from delegated authority from trustees, _leading_ in the commonly accepted meaning of going out ahead to show the way, can be undertaken by anybody. The only test of leadership is that somebody follows. Following, as distinguished from compliance, is voluntary. Thus _strong_ leadership can bring unity and clarity of purpose and uncertain leadership can bring disorder and chaos. The latter was conspicuous in the university world, including some seminaries, in the late 1960s.\n\nThose who manage or administer in a seminary can also lead\u2014and most do some leading. But consider the five basic questions cited above. _Are the theological resources of the seminary adequate? Whom and what purpose does the seminary serve? What should be the content and teaching method of the seminary? How best to serve the churches? How can the seminary be a constant source of prophetic vision?_ These are questions that are best dealt with if there is at least supporting leadership from trustees. Trustees, in their more detached position, can afford to be persistent questioners and visionaries. Administrators, to whom have been delegated the essential maintenance functions, may find that if they undertake this type of leadership alone, it interferes with administrative obligations. Faculty may more readily respond, with transforming leadership of their own, to a trustee initiative than to some administrative initiatives. If trustees will take the risk of leadership toward a larger dream for the seminary, they may do it in a non-confrontational, persuasive way that elicits supportive leadership from other constituencies. Administrators may best give supporting leadership on some matters, if trustees will lead by questioning and persuading.\n\nIf a seminary is to move toward its full potential as harborer and nurturer of prophetic voices that give vision and hope, what is needed first is leadership that wants to take the risk of such a larger dream. And it is a risk. All leadership is nurturing and risking. Trustees and their chairperson are more expendable than able administrators. And some of the risks of leadership of a seminary, or any other institution, are best taken by trustees\u2014partly because they can better tolerate the risk, partly because they are better positioned to assume some aspects of leadership.\n\nLeadership does not \"belong\" to anybody, nor can it be bestowed on anybody. If trustees want to lead, they will need to build a role for themselves, including earning the trust that makes it possible. One of the contributions seminary trustees can make to our evolving society is to build the trustee role so as to make of the seminary a distinctive institution, a model for others.\n\nSome respond to the thrust of this essay with these reservations: the hope expressed here for the role of seminaries is too idealistic; trustees are not available who will invest the time required; the money-raising role of the trustees has not been mentioned\u2014most seminaries are poor; and the usual chairperson does not have the leadership skills that the role, as described in this essay, calls for.\n\n**_Too Idealistic_**. What, in the end, will be judged too idealistic is that which is not achieved when the limits of the reasonable and possible with available resources, human and material, are reached. Most institutions I know about, including some seminaries, are so far from pressing the limits of the reasonable and the possible that the charge \"too idealistic\" has little force. The goals suggested here may be flawed on other grounds, but not on that one.\n\n**_Not Enough Time_.** Most able people find the time to do the things that give them joy. In my experience with trustees, whether as participant or observer, I have found some of the proceedings so dull and unrewarding that only a strong sense of duty, a feeling of guilt, or a desire for the prestige of the office would hold a person to it. But the joy of creative achievement will elicit the investment of time\u2014and care\u2014that the full measure of trusteeship requires.\n\n**_Who Will Raise The Money?_** How can trustees be expected to raise money when, in the usual seminary, they have only a maintenance role? Give them the kind of role described here, and they will want to raise money; not out of a sense of guilt or duty, which are not very good motives, but because they understand and believe in what the seminary is about. It is a matter of vital concern to them because they have given decisive leadership in bringing the seminary for the 21st century into being.\n\n**_Inadequate Leadership Skills_**. Granted; the usual chairperson may not have developed the skills of leadership that the trusteeship function described here requires. Even though the incumbent may be potentially capable of acquiring those skills, they are not likely to emerge at a high level of accomplishment because they are not expected. The almost universally accepted casual performance of trustees in all sorts of institutions assures that the full maturing of these skills will be rare. Since leadership is a prime concern in the churches, should it not be a central issue in seminaries, both its theological implications and its sensitive practice? Let me restate my personal credo:\n\n_I believe that caring for persons, the more able and the less able serving each other, is what makes a good society. Most caring was once person to person. Now much of it is mediated through institutions\u2014often large, powerful, impersonal, not always competent, sometimes corrupt. If a better society is to be built, one more just and more loving and providing opportunity for people to grow, the most open way (and the most effective and economical course, while supportive of the social order) is to raise the performance as servant of as many institutions as possible by voluntary regenerative actions initiated within them by committed individuals: servants_.\n\nToo much of the effort to care and serve is directed to easing the hurt of the \"system\" that is grinding people down faster than the most valiant rescue effort can help them; and too little caring effort is going into rebuilding the \"system\" (institutions) that will give greater assurance that those being served grow as persons; _while being served_ , they become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants.\n\nIf the _performance as servant_ of as many as possible of our institutions is to be raised (a necessary condition if ours is to become a more caring society), then somewhere there must be an initiative that starts the movement toward this end. If my premise regarding the hierarchy of institutions\u2014seminaries to churches to individuals and operating institutions\u2014is a valid one, then seminaries are best positioned to take this initiative.\n\nWhoever takes this initiative (and I hope it will be seminaries) will accept the challenge to bring into being a new teachable art of chairing\u2014beginning with the chairperson of the seminary itself.\n\nThen, drawing on its own experience, the seminary may find that it is in possession of the stuff for a prophetic vision for these times. This is my hope for the seminary as an institution.\n\n\"What is now proved was once only imagin'd.\"\n\n_William Blake_\n\n### MISSION IN A SEMINARY\n\nOne of the easiest to ask and hardest to answer of all questions is, _What are you trying to do?_\n\nIt is hard enough for an individual to answer that question. But it is much more difficult for an institution to answer, and most difficult of all for an eleemosynary institution that has both the momentum of tradition and the support of sentiment to sustain it. There is always the possibility (and the temptation to hope) that enough sentimental support can be stirred so that the tough question can be avoided: _What are you trying to do?_\n\nThis essay explores the problem of dealing with this question of \"What are you trying to do?\" by trustees of a seminary, with particular reference to the strategic position that seminaries occupy in the culture and the great, but largely unrealized, potential influence in that position.\n\n#### _Who Dominates the Culture?_\n\nFrom my perspective, ours is a business-dominated culture. The business influence is there, not so much because of the magnitude of the business presence, nor because businesses are more committed than others to serve society, but because the missions of businesses are usually better defined than in other institutions. And they get that way partly because business executives usually have more coercive power to govern than do executives in eleemosynaries, partly because the pursuit of private gain and the need to survive in the competitive struggle require that missions be clear and forceful.\n\nI am writing this essay because I believe that dominance of the culture by elements like coercive power, private gain, and survival in the competitive struggle do not make for the quality of society that is reasonable and possible with the resources we have. Criticism of business and restraining its influence by government will not, in my judgment, produce the quality of society that is realistically possible. What will build a better society I believe, and what is well within our resources to do, is to bring to prominence in the culture those institutions whose primary motive is caring for persons and that are governed by persuasion. My hope is that, in time, such predominance will wield a meliorating influence on the harshness of both business and government. A necessary first step is a statement of mission for all eleemosynary institutions that is clear and powerful and that puts a high priority on the contribution of each institution to the quality of society because of what it is, what it does, and how it is governed. In my view, the best placed institutions to initiate a definition of their missions in these terms are seminaries and foundations. This essay will be concerned with seminaries.\n\nThe test that I would put on the adequacy of a seminary statement of mission is: What does it promise to contribute, through leadership of and service to churches, to building and sustaining a good society? A good society is one in which there is widespread _faith as trust_ , a quality that can encourage large numbers to become constructive influences in the world as it is\u2014violent, striving, unjust as well as beautiful, caring, and supportive. Others might postulate other tests, but this one suggests the premise on which this essay is based.\n\nStatements of mission in a seminary in addition to giving clear guidance to informed constituencies, also need to be persuasive to people unversed in the technical language of theology, particularly to those who fund seminaries. If contemporary seminaries were all adequately funded, if churches were receiving the sustaining leadership they should have from seminaries, and if seminaries attracted the students they should have in order to provide churches with able professional leadership, I could not make a case for the need for new statements of mission for seminaries. But the need is urgent on all three counts.\n\nIn addressing the subject of \"mission in a seminary,\" I have a concern for two pervasive social problems: widespread alienation in all strata of the population and the inability or unwillingness to serve of far too many of the institutions that make up our complex society. Each of these problems may be a contributing cause to the other, and neither is likely to be healed without coming to terms with the other.\n\n#### _Whom and What Purpose Shall This Seminary Serve?_\n\nIn the earlier essay, \"The Seminary as an Institution,\" I suggested that the first question from trustees who want to be effective in their roles is: Whom and what purpose shall this seminary serve? This could be the first question that the trustees of any institution might ask because the answer to it defines the mission. If this question is asked of all constituencies of the seminary, and if trustees work patiently and sensitively for consensus, a mission may be defined that not only helps finance the place and brings the students the seminary should have, but it becomes a vital element of the ultimate government of the seminary\u2014by guiding and assuring those who govern\u2014thereby adding greatly to its strength as an institution.\n\nEvery person in whatever relationship, whether administrator, faculty, student, or staff, is the _servant of the mission_. All have appropriate and clearly defined roles as servants of the mission. Every significant policy or decision, every act of teaching, the formation of every influence from or to any constituency, is made with reference to that mission. There will be problems, of course, but clarity and power in the statement of mission will help resolve them. While primary power in the seminary is lodged in the commonly acknowledged mission, people in the seminary\u2014administrators, faculty, and students\u2014also have power, but that power is subordinate to the governing idea. When the mission is clear and compelling, people in the seminary do not ask (as I heard them in one instance) \"who has the power?\" The seminary in which the power of the mission is primary stands among other institutions as a model in which issues are met in creative fashion with reference to \"what does the mission require of us?\"\n\nIn any institution (including seminaries) that is comprised of fallible humans, it is important that the legal power to govern be clearly assigned. But the quality of the institution will be inverse to the use of that legal power.\n\n#### _What Is Worthy of Survival?_\n\nOne of my sharply etched memories from the now distant past is a view from my office window, high above the east bank of the Hudson River in lower New York with a commanding view of the harbor. Much of the busy river traffic was made up of tugboats with groups of barges in tow. This scene was most interesting, sometimes frightening, when the tide was running out, perhaps with some wind behind it, and a tug was taking its group of barges downstream. The problem for the tug, under these conditions, was to sustain enough pull on the cables to the barges to keep them in orderly movement toward their destination. Under these adverse conditions, any slackening of that tension could result in chaos.\n\nThe memory of those scenes on the river came vividly to mind in the 1960s when I watched at close range as several venerable universities lapsed into chaos and seriously damaged themselves. When destructive forces were unleashed (and such are always latent in any institution) the power of the sense of mission in the university, like the pull of the tug on its barges, was not enough to keep a guiding tension on the several constituencies of the university. The answer to the question, \"What in the institution is worthy of survival?\" was not clear. There was not enough power in the governing ideas.\n\nIf either is faced with potential chaos, there is a parallel between the position of the skipper of the tug and the executive of any institution. The power to prevent chaos does not reside with either. That power is in the _engine_ of the tug and in the _mission_ of the institution. An able skipper or executive will better manage the chaos than inept ones, and thus render it less damaging. But given sufficient adverse conditions and not enough power in engines or mission, neither executive nor skipper holds the power to prevent chaos! All they can do is try to manage the chaos as best they can; but it is still chaos.\n\nTo the owner of the tug, I would say, \"Don't dispatch that tug downstream when the tide is running out unless there is enough power in the engine to handle potential problems.\" To the trustees of any institution I would say, \"Use what influence you have to get accepted a powerful governing idea (mission). If, after a reasonable effort, you conclude that you can't make it, find yourself something better to do. _It is a breach of trust to hold the position of trustee of any institution and to acquiesce in an inadequate statement of mission_.\"\n\nA great contemporary idea of what a university should be doing would make a better university at any time\u2014before, during or after the 1960s. Some university missions may have been inadequate for a long time, but in that critical period of testing, some were found to be inadequate\u2014by the simple test that their missions at that time did not have the power to hold against the forces of chaos. There is much to be learned from those traumatic experiences. Has it been learned?\n\nWhat is worthy of survival? _An institution with a great mission!_ \u2014particularly a seminary with a great mission.\n\n#### _Why Is Mission Important in a Seminary?_\n\nIt is important to avoid chaos because it wastes resources and hurts people. But that is but one of the benefits to be derived from a strong sense of mission in the seminary\u2014or in any institution. Clear and powerful mission is important because it provides the substance of common purpose that all constituencies might be persuaded to accept. Once accepted, common purpose helps to heal, for all involved within the seminary the pervasive alienation of our times; it helps keep priorities in order; it builds organizational esprit; it clearly signals who should and should not be in the seminary\u2014as students, faculty, or staff as well as the qualities needed in the administration; it provides the basis for resolving, on a reasoned objective basis, the many issues that arise in the course of any institution's life with a minimum of reference to assigned power; and it provides the stimulus and direction for the optimal performance of the seminary as the servant of all who are touched by its program.\n\nThese are qualities that are of great value to all institutions that have the potential to be influential\u2014like seminaries\u2014in order to assure a reasonably civilized society.\n\nThere are several ingredients of a healthy viable institution that mission alone will not provide: among these are, astute leadership and consistently able management. Machiavelli observed: \"It is an infallible rule that a prince who is not wise himself cannot be well advised....\"\n\n#### _Mission and Trustee Strategy_\n\nMost trustees that I know have some awareness of what is stated above. But they believe that a clear and compelling mission, a great governing idea, is best achieved by installing and supporting an able executive. Able executives are always important, and they should be supported, but I suggest that the executive, with rare exceptions, can only manage what is there. If the executive tries, alone, even with the assurance of support of trustees, to lead the seminary to the influential role that it might occupy, his or her tenure as the executive may be short. The rare executive may make it, but it is a gamble against unreasonable odds for a trustee to assume that the executive will make it alone. And there is damage to the institution when the executive tries to give this leadership _alone_ and fails.\n\nOne of the distressing incidents of the recent past was the appointment a few years ago of an able 28-year-old person as president of a college with the explicit charge from the trustees to give the place new leadership (which apparently was needed). However, the trustees took no action on a statement of mission that would require that leadership, nor did they seek acceptance of the need for it from the several constituencies. The result: early resignation of the new president with damage to both the person and the college.\n\nA prudent seminary trustee, one who would like to see a clear and compelling mission for the seminary, will accept that _it is the trustee's role to make the first move toward a clear definition of mission and secure wide acceptance of it, and then to support prudent efforts by the executive who endeavors to lead the seminary to achieve that mission_.\n\nWhat would such trustee leadership comprise, and where does the executive fit into it? In _The Seminary as Institution,_ I suggested that trustees are most effective as askers of questions, and that the first question might be, Whom and what purpose shall this seminary serve? But this is an \"umbrella\" question, and other more penetrating questions will need to be asked\u2014questions that imply criteria that trustees may have in mind for evaluating answers from various constituencies.\n\nThe first requirement is a trustee chairperson who has an understanding of, and skill at achieving, consensus. If a seminary does not have someone in the chair who has that skill and is willing to work long and patiently at using it, or if some other trustee will not endeavor to perform that function (in which case _that_ trustee may effectively be the chairperson without benefit of title), that seminary will do well to make the best of its present role until it can find such a person to chair its trustees. Adequate mission, a widely accepted great governing idea, is not only unlikely to be achieved without that skill in the chair, but (as said above) the seminary may be damaged by trying to achieve it. I see the ability to find consensus as the prime skill in the art of chairing, both in defining mission and in presiding over the ongoing governance of the seminar): as it works to fulfill that mission.\n\nTrustees whose chairperson has this skill are in a position to pursue the question, whom and what purpose shall this seminary serve? I see six subsidiary questions that might be asked in such a way as to suggest the criteria by which trustees will judge the adequacy of the answers. These questions do not define wholly separate and discrete areas and, to some extent, they overlap. But they may suggest to trustees a basis for initiating a dialogue with the several constituencies of the seminary out of which a clear and powerful statement of mission may emerge.\n\n**_1. Does the Seminary See Itself as a Model for Other Institutions?_**\n\nDoes the seminary accept its place at the top of the hierarchy of institutions in which the seminary is the resource institution for churches, which, in turn, serve as support resources for individuals and for the whole range of \"operating\" institutions: governments, businesses, schools, hospitals, social agencies, families, communities? In asking this question, the trustees will be suggesting that the seminary should have a concern for the missions of churches and help churches to clarify their own separate missions, thus preparing themselves for a much greater society-shaping role than most churches now enjoy\u2014society shaping by leading, not by manipulation or coercion.\n\nThis will be a most difficult concept for some seminaries to accept: that they will be models of institutional achievement and influence society, through the churches, more by the example of the quality of life within the seminary than by preachment. If the seminary can reach even a modest achievement as a model of \"power in the mission\" and can clearly demonstrate the effectiveness and strength in an institution that moves on this principle, it could, in time, influence the quality of the whole society.\n\n**_2. Is Critical Thought a High Priority in the Seminary?_**\n\n_Critical thought_ is not necessarily identical with scholarship and the writing of books and papers that establish a scholar's reputation with peers. Scholarship is a necessary condition for critical reflection, but it does not automatically produce it. Critical thought is a fulfillment of the root meaning of seminary: _seminalis_ , seed. It is the reflective thought that produces seminal ideas\u2014ideas that become new visions in both ministers as persons and churches as institutions; ideas that support ministers and churches as they nurture _servants_ who may shape the institutions that dominate the lives of all of us.\n\nThe adequacy of critical thought in seminaries is tested ultimately by ordinary folk who have its significance in their lives made real through their participation in churches. The incremental actions that build the serving quality of society, or maintain such as it has, are taken by legions of people who get inspiration and guidance from somewhere, mostly from churches\u2014directly or indirectly.\n\nWe lack a theology of institutions for these times. I do not fault seminary theologians for this; their trustees are failing to do what only trustees can do: ask the penetrating and persistent questions that ensure the adequacy of critical thought in the seminary.\n\n**_3. Does the Image Created by the Statement of Mission for the Seminary Suggest a Strong Contemporary Institution?_**\n\nThe nature of any seminary closely identifies it with its own history and tradition. It is precisely that tradition that frees the seminary to be always effective in contemporary society.\n\nIt is important that the mission suggest that the seminary, through the churches, is serving this contemporary society and is moving with that society into the uncertain future. Particularly, it should be clear that the seminary is supporting the churches\u2014with the stuff to be strong\u2014as they serve both individuals in their private and family lives and as they prepare, support, and inspire those who mold and shape modern institutions. Seminaries should be seen by informed people as critically important, strong, and useful contemporary institutions. The implication of the word _strong_ is that seminaries are an influential society-shaping force because of the leadership they give to churches. But it is important that both the language and concepts of the statement of mission create the image of contemporaniety\u2014it is the quality of _this_ society that is the seminary's prime concern.\n\nOne of the important learnings from the university debacle of the 1960s may be that more attention to their history might have saved some universities from harm in that difficult period. Clearly, a mission concept that was adequate for 1900 did not suffice in the 1960s. A sense of history keeps one constantly aware that a mission statement that was adequate yesterday may not serve well today.\n\n**_4. Does the Seminary Attract Students Who Have the Potential to Become Influential Leaders of Churches and Church Institutions, and Does It Attract Faculty Who Are Capable of Training Such Students?_**\n\nThose who are attracted as students and faculty are influenced by the image discussed above. They are also attracted by what they know, from informed people, is really there. Is the seminary really strong? Does it prepare people for effective leadership of influential churches and church institutions? Strong people as leaders make strong institutions\u2014because those people have the intellect, stability, integrity, _and spirit_ required to generate _trust_ in those who might respond to their leadership. _Leader_ is used in the common meaning of \"go out ahead to show the way.\" The connotations of _lead_ are quite distinct from those of _manage_ (control) or _administer_ (care for). Leading is venturing and risk taking. \"The way is not clear. I will go out ahead to show the way. Follow me!\"\n\nLeadership is not a professional calling. In any church, anybody can lead who can generate trust in followers. One task of the seminary is to provide as many professionally prepared women and men as it can, persons who have the ability to generate that trust in churches and church institutions so as to give them great influence.\n\nThere may be a place for a seminary that prepares pastors to serve weak or nominal churches. But if, as assumed here, a preferred role of the seminary is to prepare pastors as leaders who will build _strong_ churches and church institutions, then the seminary must strive to admit those students who are most likely to qualify for that service. It is important that the mission attract those who want that kind of demanding life and discourage those who do not want it. One feature of any admissions process is self-selection by potential students and faculty\u2014they tend to select themselves \"in\" or \"out.\"\n\n**_5. Does the Seminary Experience Develop Spirit?_**\n\nThe seminary, like other educational institutions, shapes and forms in ways that we but dimly understand. It is a community that has an ethos that is, in part, a consequence of its mission and how that mission is understood. There is a deeper issue of informing the life of the seminary community which suggests that the literary quality of the mission statement is important. Does it sing, does it carry spirit and inspire qualities of leadership and reaching that are spirit building? Part of the power in a statement of mission is the poetry of its expression that sets the seminary clearly apart from bureaucratic institutions.\n\n_Spirit_ is commonly defined as the animating force within living beings. In a seminary, I would want to add a value dimension to this definition: Is the person who is possessed of spirit disposed to be servant? Do those being served, _while being served_ , become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants? And, what is the effect on the least privileged in society; will they benefit, or, at least, not be further deprived? No one will be hurt.\n\nWhether the seminary develops spirit, thus defined, seems to me to depend more on the quality of the seminary as an institution than on the precise design of its program. Has the seminary itself evolved as servant; deep down inside, is this what the seminary really is? One does not teach about spirit. One really is spirit.\n\n_Mission_ is a statement of how a seminary sees itself\u2014at its very core. Is it, in its essence, spiritual? Does the statement of mission reflect this?\n\n**_6. Does the Governing Idea (Mission) Have Power?_**\n\nThere is only one test: if the mission does not have power, it will not guide those who govern and people will be without purpose. The advantages of a powerful mission, enumerated earlier, will be only partly realized\u2014if at all.\n\nEarlier I suggested that ours is a business-dominated culture because the missions of businesses are usually better defined than in most other institutions. They get that way partly because business executives usually have more coercive power than do executives of others, partly because the pursuit of private gain and survival in the competitive struggle require it.\n\nMy hope for the future is that our culture will, in time, become less dominated by institutions that are ruled by coercive power, and motivated by private gain and competitive striving, and move toward a quality of society in which voluntary consensus and search for the good are a greater force than they are today. Could seminaries emerge as leaders of this movement by becoming institutions that are distinguished because of the power of persuasion and caring that comes in response to inspired trustee leadership whose primary tactic is penetrating questions?\n\nThese six questions are only suggestions for trustees of a seminary. Each trustee board will devise its own questions. If trustees ask such questions, and thereby give leadership toward defining a clear and powerful mission, what then is the role of the executive? It seems to me that the mission defines that role: it is to take those subtle steps of encouragement and discouragement that keep the seminary clearly centered on growth in achievement of its mission\u2014with as close to consensus as possible.\n\n#### _Leadership\u2014Going Out Ahead to Show the Way_\n\nBoth the person and the institution are damaged if a seminary chews up its executives because they failed when they tried to give leadership in formulating a new and powerful mission. If the trustee chairperson tries to give this leadership to trustees\u2014and fails, that chairperson can quietly withdraw with little damage to the person or the institution. In short, _chairpersons are expendable, executives are not_. Part of the reason for this difference is that the executive is a colleague of the faculty; the chairperson is not (or should not be). The executive has a career stake in the position; the chairperson does not (or should not have).\n\nThe head of the board who is not a seminary theologian (and should not be) can, by leading trustees to ask questions like those above, become a _public theologian_. The executive, who is a seminary theologian, cannot, on her or his own, ask questions like these. The executive's role is to lead the process of finding answers and to serve as interlocutor between trustees and various constituencies whose acceptance of the mission is necessary. This is a sensitive role.\n\nWith help from the chair, trustees may come to accept that the gap between potential and performance in their seminary is wide, but they can hold firm in their belief in the possibility for a great, powerful new mission for the seminary that will, in time, cause a dramatic reduction in that gap and move the seminary into the influential position that it should occupy. As matters now stand, seminary theologians, whether faculty members or executives, would have difficulty holding this view and carrying on with their present work. The seminary must be maintained as it is while its greater future is being worked out.\n\nThe best trustees, especially the one in the chair, will believe that a new clear and powerful mission can indeed result from dialogue that questions like the above will induce. Further, trustees will believe that mission will evolve in such a way that faculty and executives grow in the process. It is the kind of faith that people who move institutions of any kind have to have. There are such people available for seminary trustees, and every seminary trustee board should have at least one. That one, with the power of his or her faith, will lead the rest. And, if they fail, they will quietly retire so that someone else can try.\n\nA seminary that is a viable contemporary institution will have at all times a person in the chair who holds this unqualified faith that movement toward potential greatness in the seminary is a realistically achievable goal. Such is faith in the power of a great idea. And it is contagious!\n\n#### _Reflections on the Relevance of Faith to Mission_\n\nWhat I have been writing the past ten years has brought me into close contact with churches: from local parishes to denominational bodies; and church institutions\u2014hospitals, schools, and seminaries. Most of these involvements have centered on the servant-leader theme about which I have been writing. A major insight (to me) emerged out of this church experience two years ago when I met with an ecumenical group of high-level church executives who were convened for three days in a retreat house to consider the subject, \"the churchman as leader.\" There were just 16 churchmen and I.\n\nThe first two days were taken by a candid discussion among the churchmen of their leadership problems, as they saw them\u2014which were numerous. Change a few words and their problems seemed to me to be no different from those of the harried executives I have been listening to all my life. On the third day, I entered the discussion and made some comments based on what I had heard. As I prepared for that third day, a disturbing thought came to mind. Their main leadership problem seemed to be that they did not believe their own stuff\u2014not as it applies to the institutional affairs of their churches. They are able, conscientious persons, but they lack the kind of faith that anyone who would lead anything in a significant way must have.\n\nI did not share this observation with the church executives the next day, although I touched the edge of it\u2014partly because I was not sure it would be helpful, partly because this was an insight that needed to be digested. If I were meeting with them today, I might share it because, as I have reflected further on my many experiences with churches, it seems to me that the inability (or unwillingness) to be guided by their religious beliefs in dealing with the human affairs of their churches may be the problem of the whole church establishment, and it may account for the failure of churches to give the leadership to this troubled society that they are in the best position to give. The one exception to this generalization that I would note is the Catholic Women's Religious Orders; but they seem troubled by their isolation and bewildered by the prospect that it may be up to them to lead. I wish they could generate more power to lead because they seem to have faith that people and institutions in this chaotic world can change for the better\u2014and that inspired leadership by us ordinary mortals can bring it about. I would say that such faith is _faith as trust_. I once overheard one of the Sisters say, \"There is no worse cynic than a religious cynic!\"\n\nWhat is the relevance of these reflections to the subject of this essay, \"Mission in a Seminary\u2014A Prime Concern of Trustees\"? Is it simply this: to most people in seminaries, or who know intimately about them, the notion that any contemporary seminary could move from where it now is to the kind of institution described in this essay is one of those unbelievable things\u2014a pipe dream. Only a person of truly great faith could accept it as a possibility to be seriously considered. That is why I said earlier that a seminary is not likely to move toward this vision unless it has trustees, particularly in a person in the chair, who are firm in that faith and who have the competence, tenacity, and fortitude that sustained and effective leadership to this end will require.\n\nOne would not have to be a cynic to say \"I do not see any people on the horizon who might be such trustees for my seminary, especially one to chair it, people who have the faith, plus the necessary competence, tenacity, and fortitude to give the leadership that the achievement of this vision requires.\" I agree; I do not see them either. But I believe that they are not visible because they are not expected to be there\u2014in fact, _they are not wanted by some_. A letter from a seminary executive, commenting on my essay on \"The Seminary as an Institution,\" says, regarding the role outlined there for the chairperson, \"The idea seems to suggest that a chairperson serves for a long time. In fact, at least among all... seminaries, and perhaps some others, the chairperson serves no more than two years and is, for all practical purposes, the presiding officer only. As I understand what you are saying, I reject it outright.\" This is a candid expression of what might be a quite general attitude. But such trustees seem to me to be little more than a legal front for faculty and administrators and for the denomination that has de facto control. For a trustee to accept such a limited role is clearly a breach of trust. Directors of a publicly held business corporation who accept this kind of role might be held personally liable in case of some default.\n\nIn our times, the heart of the matter of faith in the improvability of human performance\u2014in institutions\u2014may be _trust_. We have the misfortune to live in an era of low trust. I suspect we are in that state because, in relatively short time, we have moved from a society of individuals relating to individuals to a society in which most of us are involved in complex relationships with institutions. And a widely held basis for trusting people in institutions has not yet evolved. The visible basis for trust, fully functioning trustees, is conspicuously absent in too many institutions\u2014including some seminaries. The first step to recover trust is to install trustees who are trustworthy.\n\nPart of the opportunity to rebuild trust in our times is for trustees to become valid symbols of trust in their institution, and for the one who occupies the chair to stand tall among colleagues in building that symbol. But if there are no visible persons available for trustees, especially chairpersons as so conceived, this opportunity ranks with the unbelievable to many who are involved with seminaries.\n\n_I_ believe the opportunity is real and achievable because of my long experience with people who have demonstrated their ability to carry heavy burdens. Latent in many of these able men and women is trustee potential of the quality that seminaries need. I have had enough experience as an agent in the human transformation process to believe that this latent trusteeship ability can be brought to maturity as seminary trustees, even in some who are old.\n\nFaith is required to do the unbelievable and to demonstrate that something can be done\u2014for the first time. After it has been proven feasible; it will require great courage, strength, and competence to do it again\u2014but it may not require faith. Where is the transforming agent with faith who will wield the formative influence that will produce trustees of this stature for seminaries? _Seminaries will do it for themselves_. Why should someone else produce these trustees for seminaries? Seminaries will produce their own trustees, and they will also render this service for churches and church-related institutions\u2014a massive opportunity. A seminary that rises to this opportunity will grow conspicuously in stature.\n\n\"And how will we do that?\" the incredulous seminary executive or trustee may ask. There is no easy answer to that question because that is what creative leadership is about. A seminary as it now stands, will find in its present resources the initiative to take the first step. A first order of business for any seminary that would operate with a great sense of mission may be to conceptualize the trustee role so as to make that role attractive to the people who would be the trustees that would give the leadership that would produce a great mission. Such trustees will then give the seminary the sustaining strength to operate with distinction within that mission.\n\nThe first question such a potential trustee might ask is \"to whom will I be responsible?\" The trustee is, of course, responsible to the closely related constituencies of the seminary, its students, faculty, staff, and administrators, and to the churches and other institutions that give it money, that employ its graduates, and that look to the seminary for both leadership and prophetic vision. Each of these constituencies has power\u2014in one way or another and in varying degrees and sometimes in conflict with other constituencies\u2014power to enforce its will on the seminary and on the character of its mission. The wise potential trustee, one who has the capacity to lead the seminary to a great mission, will know that as a trustee, these close constituencies will not be his or her primary responsibility. That primary responsibility will be to the society as a whole and to its needs. And he or she will want to know, \"Can these close constituencies be brought to accept that this seminary exists primarily to serve the critical needs of society?\" (I suggested two of these current critical problems at the outset: widespread alienation in all strata of the population and the inability or unwillingness to serve of far too many of the institutions that make up our complex society.) In order to bring this exceptional trustee to its service, any seminary as it now stands will need to give evidence that it is amenable to being led to acceptance of a great mission that is built around some definition of the public good, a mission that is accomplished through the churches that the seminary inspires, leads, and supports.\n\nA great new seminary mission need not disturb present programs. A significant added dimension, concern for religious leadership, may be all that is required. If that new work is sustained by trustee support, in time, existing programs will accommodate to it. Serious concern in the seminary for religious leadership may stir a profound new area for theological reflection. What is hoped for is that religious leadership that originates in seminaries will find its way through the churches, to nurture values and inspire venturesome spirit in those who will: (a) build truly serving institutions and (b) generate in young people hope that they can become servants.\n\nIf one would lead _as servant_ , one will first be open to being led by servants. Openness to leading by servants is a manifestation of _faith as trust_.\n\n### CRITICAL THOUGHT IN THE SEMINARY AND THE TRUSTEE CHAIRPERSON'S ROLE\n\nWhat kind of challenge does chairing the trustees of a seminary present?\n\nA chairperson's answer would depend on how one sees the opportunities and obligations in that position, what one believes about the place of seminaries in society and their unrealized potential for service, and what one's personal feelings are concerning the assumption of leadership. One decides where one stands on issues like these. Then one chooses a role from a range of possibilities beginning, at the low end of the scale, with the seminary executive's view quoted earlier in which \"... the chairperson serves no more than two years and is, for all practical purposes, the presiding officer only.\" Near the other end of the spectrum is one who believes that the seminary can be led by prudent steps toward the achievement of a much greater vision of service to society than most now aspire to, and who is disposed to take the risks of leadership to move it there.\n\nWhat can be said to one who accepts the latter version of a chairing role and chooses to give leadership that will help move a seminary toward realizing a new vision of service to society by greatly strengthened churches? How can such a leader be helped?\n\nThere are ample resources for help on how best to carry out the important fiduciary aspects of all trusteeships. This essay will discuss the opportunity for unusual leadership from the chair when the effort is made to move the seminary, a unique kind of institution, from the marginal role that many now seem to occupy, to the pivotal position that is envisioned in the first two chapters.\n\nThe one who undertakes to give this leadership will need to be prepared to contend with the negative mind-set that disposes too many concerned and thoughtful people to write off seminaries as having little force in contemporary society. As matters now stand in some seminaries, this may be a valid judgment. But one who chooses to give new creative leadership to seminary trustees needs to believe firmly that we cannot afford to dismiss them since there are neither the time nor the resources to replace existing seminaries with more serving institutions that will give needed support to churches. Unless one wants to abandon the idea of building a better society through greatly strengthened churches, there is no feasible alternative to rebuilding seminaries that will give powerful new support to churches. The word _rebuilding_ is used advisedly. No mere revision of the curriculum will do it. The acceptance of such a premise will be part of the armor of one who would lead the trustees of a seminary as, collectively, they lead the seminary toward a future of greatness as servant.\n\nThe discussion of critical thought in the seminary includes the following:\n\n_Critical thought_ is not necessarily identical with scholarship and the writing of books and papers that establish a scholar's reputation with peers. Scholarship is a necessary condition for critical reflection, but it does not automatically produce it. Critical thought is a fulfillment of the root meaning of _seminary; seminalis_ \u2014seed. It is the reflective thought that produces seminal ideas\u2014ideas that become new visions in both ministers as persons and churches as institutions, ideas that support both ministers and churches as they nurture servants who shape the institutions that dominate the lives of all of us.\n\nThe adequacy of critical thought in seminaries is tested, ultimately, by ordinary folk who have its significance in their lives made real by participation in churches. The incremental actions that build the serving quality of society or maintain such as it has, are taken by legions of people who get inspiration and guidance from somewhere, mostly from churches\u2014directly or indirectly.\n\nI believe that the critical thought now emerging from seminaries generally is far from adequate for the urgent needs of these times. Too many churches are languishing for want of intellectual stimulus from seminaries. And seminaries are therefore not giving the vital leadership to churches that support them as they undertake to wield their constructive influence on society\u2014leadership of ideas that give hope expressed in language that lifts the spirit. The premise here is that the need for more influential critical thought from seminaries is great.\n\nBefore discussing the implications of this belief, let us make a brief scan of history of seminaries in the mainline protestant denominations in the United States.\n\n#### _Seminary Leadership, a Historical View_\n\nThere have been two approaches to critical thinking in and regarding seminaries: (1) about the seminary as an institution and (2) about the substance of theology itself. Such consideration of seminaries as institutions is more effective when it shapes the thinking of those who give the ultimate leadership to seminaries, their trustees. Theological ideas are more likely to be useful in building a better society if seminary theologians clothe them in persuasive reasoning and express them in language that gives them the power of prophetic vision. This vision will inspire and guide churches as they work to heal and prevent alienation and give strength and direction to those who will then build serving institutions of all sorts. I am not a close student of the history of seminaries but I have done enough reading to have some views about how to stimulate critical thinking about both the seminary as an institution and its theology.\n\nThe first protestant seminaries in the United States were Andover (1808\u2013Congregational) and Princeton (1812\u2013Presbyterian). In 1815, a remarkable new institution emerged that was called American Education Society (AES). This was a group of strong and able people who effectively became trustees for protestant theological seminaries in the early 19th century. The AES's primary concern was not only for seminaries and churches but for the durability of the young republic, which was not assured at that time; and they believed that strong churches that were served by pastors who were both pious and learned were needed to give the society of their day the sinews of strength. Their strategy was to encourage the growth of seminaries on the Andover model of four years of undergraduate education followed by three years of seminary. They set out to accomplish this objective by raising funds for scholarships to subsidize the seminary education of students of any evangelical denomination that provided this solid scholarly three-year postgraduate program.\n\nUntil early in the 19th century, many pastors in protestant churches in the United States were trained as most other professionals were: by apprenticeship to an established practitioner. \"Reading theology\" was the common term. It could refer to an apprenticeship or to the final year in college. Meanwhile, others acquired the \"gift\" of ministry in less formal ways \u2014 by just starting to preach. The \"circuit riding\" pastors of frontier days needed only a few sermons, and this way sufficed for them. Both ways had the effect of producing pastors who were sometimes \"pious but not learned.\"\n\nWith this AES support, the expansion of seminary resources on the Andover model was rapid. The AES continued for some decades as a powerful force, not only in increasing the number of seminaries but in sustaining the model of a three-year postgraduate curriculum whose chief components (relying on a prior study of classical languages), according to some observers, were \"biblical studies, based on the original languages, sacred history, and didactic theology.\" There was vigorous opposition to this approach, but the founders of AES were strong enough to hold to their course. However, scholarly seminary preparation of clergy did not become the prevailing mode in the United States until well into the 20th century.\n\nThis spectacular development of theological education that AES sponsored was launched well before the radical social changes of the industrial revolution. The steam engine was there in 1800, but the first practical steam boat and railway locomotive did not emerge in the United States until near the middle of the century. The pastor who was trained in the older theological traditions could understand the total life of his parishioners because the conditions of life were not too different from biblical times, in which the theology of that day was firmly rooted. There was in that period little reason to question the adequacy of biblical theology as the quite complete preparation of a pastor.\n\nBut the character of American society was soon to change radically! By 1900, a powerful new voice had risen in William Rainey Harper, an eminent theologian and founding president of the University of Chicago. In 1899, he wrote a spirited article in _The American Journal of Theology_ entitled, \"Shall the Theological Curriculum Be Modified, and How?\" It is a searching and provocative examination of curriculum design, and it contained a recognition of new conditions of society that needed to be addressed in the preparation of pastors. Some passages from Harper's article follow.\n\nSome adjustment must be found by which the curriculum will meet the demands that are made by the present peculiar social conditions. Reference has already been made to the inability of the ordinary preacher to make an impression on the lower classes. The evidence is quite conclusive that he is equally unable to influence the higher classes. The country is full of men who have become wealthy.... What is the attitude of the church toward this growing class of influential men?... Nothing has yet been proposed to provide a training which will enable the ministry to do successful work among the higher classes.\n\nIf the student is to do his work in a democratic atmosphere, he must be filled with the democratic spirit and must learn to employ democratic methods. This is not the spirit, and these are not the methods, of the ordinary theological seminary.\n\nThe condition of the churches, both rural and urban is not upon the whole encouraging. Ministers of the better classes are not satisfied to accept rural churches; and yet these same ministers are not strong enough, or sufficiently prepared, to meet the demands of many of the city churches.\n\nThey (theological students) have little or no sympathy with scientific work. They utterly lack that point of view which will enable them to bring themselves into relationship with that greatest factor in modern civilization.\n\nThe great majority of American seminaries are located in out-of-the-way places and are not in touch with modern life.\n\nThe present scope of the theological curriculum includes practical preparation for only one kind of Christian work; namely, preaching.\n\nThe usual practice in theological seminaries of providing free tuition and rooms... cultivates in the very beginning of life a principle which in too many cases is applied throughout life.\n\nThe study of the Hebrew language should be made elective.\n\nMuch of the technique of a theological education could be put aside to advantage, if this time thus gained could be occupied by work in English Literature.\n\nThese quotes are just a sampling of Harper's essay. There was much more.\n\nWhat Harper did not note in his essay in 1899 (and which seems even more apparent to me as a student of organization today) is that biblical theology was inadequate for the problem he described. And it is even more inadequate in our times, when the majority of us are enmeshed in vast bureaucracies\u2014business, government, education, church\u2014all of which have the same problems, and when the family farm that was dominant in Harper's day is largely gone. The fallacy (as I see it) that continues from Harper's day to this is that theologians assume that the needs of a radically changed (and changing) society can be met in seminaries just by revising the curriculum, and that this is all that is needed to make seminaries (and the churches that depend on them for intellectual and prophetic leadership) fully serving contemporary institutions. My cursory reading of history tells me that this may have been a valid assumption in the early days of AES. But by 1850, the conditions of the emerging society called for new critical thinking leading to a new theology\u2014not repudiating the old, but adding what the new conditions required\u2014and it was not forthcoming.\n\nHow can I justify these assertions? I have had more than 50 years of listening to and watching those who carry the leading and managing roles in institutions of all sorts, large and small. In all of this, I rarely hear reference to influence being wielded on these people's institutional roles by churches. And discussions of administrative problems by church leaders that I have listened to (and I have done quite a lot of such listening) sound no different from those of businesspeople. Yet the effect on the quality and character of contemporary society by the combined decisions these people make, people who are leading and administering American institutions, is the overpowering influence of our times.\n\nA dedicated religious businessperson wrote:\n\nA speaker recently said in an address on the future of the church and evangelicalism, \"Christian programs are not working at all in the business and professional world; the church is answering questions nobody is asking. 91.8% of 750 people in a survey said they would prefer talking with a fellow layman about spiritual matters.\n\nI wholly concur. Paid clergy are viewed by the business community as largely irrelevant. There is little to no business metaphor in church teachings or sermons unless as an object of criticism or derision.... The net result of this neutral or negative posture by the church is to overlook the condition of 100 million working men and women....\n\nI have no sense of how widely this harsh judgment may be held among thoughtful laypeople; but I suspect there is a disturbing amount of it.\n\nThe challenge today is the same in its essentials as that faced, and accepted, by the American Education Society in 1815: to produce able pastors who will lead influential churches that will add strength and quality to contemporary society. The difference is that in 1815 the available concept of the seminary, the Andover model, and the content of biblical theology were both judged adequate. Today neither seems adequate. New critical thought is urgently needed about both the concept of the institution and the content of its theology.\n\nThose who founded the American Education Society in 1815 and gave such powerful impetus to early 19th-century theological education were motivated by an intense concern for the survival of the young democracy. The motivation that might move seminary trustees in the late 20th century may be similar\u2014to heal and strengthen an ailing society. The means available for both seem to be the same: stronger, better-led churches. But the strategy for implementing those means may be radically different today from what it was when the protestant seminary movement started.\n\nI have said that the strong group that made up the American Education Society were, in effect, the trustees of an important segment of protestant theological seminaries of that period. As I see it, the trustees of seminaries today, particularly their chairpersons, are best positioned to give the leadership that will produce the much needed critical thought about the seminary as an institution and the theology that both guides it and which it advocates as prophetic vision for churches.\n\nIf the chairperson accepts the risks of leadership that will be required to bring the seminary to become what it has the opportunity to become, and to produce needed ideas, a strategy for such effective leadership will be needed. Where is the relevant experience that the seminary trustee chairperson might turn to in devising this strategy?\n\n#### _Where Is the Relevant Experience?_\n\nIf the trustee chairperson of a seminary resolves to give leadership that will help the seminary become a greater force in strengthening churches in our times, how does one proceed? What experience is there to draw upon to help one devise a strategy of leadership that will bring the seminary to become a great new source of critical thought\u2014both about itself and as an institution and about the theology that it provides for churches?\n\nSuch a move in many seminaries would call for a substantial regeneration of the seminary as an institution. It would be a major undertaking that would not likely take place without astute and sustained leadership from the trustees, especially the one who chairs the board.\n\nIn the world of institutions, all can be roughly grouped in two classes: those designed so that they fail easily and live under the constant threat of failure, and those that are designed so that failure is difficult and rare. Businesses are generally in the first category, and nonprofit agencies and governmental units are in the second. Because of this sharp disparity, most of the experience with the process of regenerating moribund or low-serving institutions is in business. And the seminary trustee chairperson who is searching for ideas on how to give leadership to the school so as to bring it to greatness as servant with an abundance of critical thought as one of its distinguishing characteristics will be well advised to look to business experience as one source of ideas. I do not suggest that either seminary faculty or administrators should be concerned with the experience of business regeneration, but that their trustee chairperson take a close look at that experience.\n\n#### _My AT &T Experience as an Example_\n\nI had the good fortune to spend my active career in American Telephone and Telegraph Company, which had experienced a major regeneration shortly before I arrived in 1926, and some of the people who brought it through this great change were still around. From these people, I learned much about how that transformation was accomplished that may never get into written history.\n\nThe telephone was invented in Boston in 1876. The company was started in 1878 by Bostonians who lacked both vision and an adventurous spirit, and it remained in their hands until 1907, when J. P. Morgan the elder wrested control from them; installed a great builder, Theodore N. Vail (who earlier had been the company's first general manager), as president; moved the headquarters to New York; and gave it a vision and started it on an adventurous course. Morgan, who earlier had been instrumental in launching both General Electric and U.S. Steel, gave a powerful push to move AT&T from an ordinary to an exceptional institution.\n\nIn 1907, the company was a going concern, but it was burdened by four serious problems: (1) There was an acute employee morale problem. (2) The public reputation of the company was very bad. (3) There was a question about its financial soundness. (4) The available technology was insufficient to permit the development of the scope and quality of telephone service that we know today and that Vail and Morgan were determined to bring about. By 1920, when Vail died in the harness, all four of these were corrected, some seminal ideas about the institution and its technology emerged, and the company was a \"blue chip.\"\n\nI entered the company in 1926 and I immediately became interested in its history. The top question on my mind for a number of years was, how did this remarkable transformation come about? The answer was slow in coming, partly because it was so difficult to judge what Morgan's role was. Morgan, as he was then, would not only be out of style today, but he would be legally restrained. In the context of his times, however, he was a great trustee. He had and used great power, sometimes ruthlessly; _but he cared intensely about the quality of the business he controlled,_ an extraordinary attribute for a person of great wealth early in this century. We cannot know how much of Vail's genius as an institution builder should be attributed to Morgan. A safe assumption is to view them as a joint personality.\n\nHow did the transformation of AT&T come about? Very simple in concept; but awfully difficult to do. There were three basic strategies that I believe are universally applicable to the regeneration of any kind of institution at any time.\n\n#### _Strategies for Change_\n\n1. _Mission_. In his early period as the first general manager, Vail stated the mission thus: \"We will build a telephone system so that any person, any place in the world, can talk to anybody else, any place else in the world, quickly, cheaply, satisfactorily.\" We aren't there yet, nearly 100 years after that goal was stated. But I believe we are much closer to it now than we would be if the man who piloted the company in those crucial years (1907\u201320) had not \"thought big.\" In that later period, the goal was stated more modestly as \"universal service\"\u2014perhaps because the company had lost a few tail feathers in its first brush with the antitrust enforcers in 1913. When I entered the business in 1926, there was still some of the feeling that we were \"building a cathedral, not just laying bricks.\" It would be difficult in any institution to sustain the sense of urgency noted later if the commonly accepted mission does not require it.\n\nThe first step toward defining mission for one who chairs seminary trustees is to get an answer to the question, \"Whom and what purpose does this seminary serve?\" The chair should ask this question and stay with it until all constituencies\u2014trustees, administrators, faculty, students, alumni\u2014are agreed on a concept that the chair is willing to lead. If the constituencies, after long and patient urging either cannot agree, or if what they can agree on seems unacceptable to the one in the chair, perhaps that person should quietly retire and find something better to do. When Vail, the first general manager of AT&T, was unable to move the conservative Bostonians to become builders, he left the company and resisted later importunings to return when the company was in trouble. He did not return for 20 years until the Bostonians were ousted by Morgan, who was himself a great builder.\n\nIf the agreed-upon mission statement for a seminary is one I could accept if I were to undertake to lead the board, these are the answers I would prefer to see to the questions, Whom and what purpose does this seminary serve? _Whom?_ Religious leaders, whether in churches or other institutions. _What purpose_? To provide churches with ideas and leadership to the end that churches become and are sustained as significant forces that heal and prevent alienation in people and nurture the leaders who will build serving institutions everywhere. The seminary might do some other things, but if I were to be the chairperson, this definition of mission\u2014or one close to it\u2014would be primary. Other chairpersons might view it differently. My advice to any such persons is: don't undertake to lead the board and the seminary in a direction you do not firmly believe in. Otherwise you will not be able to lead with spirit. Spirit will be needed.\n\n2. _Obstacles to greatness are clearly identified_ and the full ramifications of each is described. Then a capable staff person is assigned to each problem with the clear charge to find the means for turning it around and to persuade\u2014to move\u2014all of the people who need to act. As long as an obstacle to greatness remains as a problem, a capable staff person makes a high priority of finding a way to deal with it. If at any time it appears that the person assigned is either unable or unwilling to press for an answer, that person is replaced.\n\n3. _A sense of urgency is created_ and the move toward greatness is widely accepted as an imperative. It was my privilege to work at AT&T under the executive who, as a young man in 1907, was given the assignment of raising the morale and integrity of the women in the business\u2014a difficult and essential task. By 1926 when I entered, the person who brought about this transformation had made an elite corps out of the department (switchboard operation) where most women worked. One of the by-products was that this department (in 1926) was producing a greatly disproportionate share of the top officers in the company (then all men). The man who piloted this transformation (one of the most perfect gentlemen I ever met) accomplished it from a staff position entirely by persuasion. He was supported by the feeling of urgency that pervaded the business in that crucial period from 1907 to 1920.\n\nFrom the soundings available about seminaries, I deduce that the principal urgency in some of them is the need for money to survive. In a seminary in which this is a valid judgment, could it be that one of the reasons for the primacy of money in seminaries is that there is not sufficient urgency felt regarding critical thought, the production of seminal ideas that are sorely needed in a faltering society?\n\nWhen someone says to me, \"You can't cause seminal ideas to emerge where they don't exist,\" my response is, \"Oh, yes you can! (1) If you have a widely accepted mission for the institution that embodies a great dream of what it might become. (2) If you carefully identify all of the obstacles that stand in the way of realizing that dream and see to it that a competent person sets to work to remove or find a way around each obstacle. And (3) if you sustain a sense of urgency about the whole process of regenerating the institution.\"\n\nDo these three things, and do them well, and the chance that seminal ideas will emerge in the process is very good\u2014no matter how limited the institution may have been at the start. This is what the experiences of businesses in general, and the one I know best\u2014AT&T\u2014in particular, have to suggest to the chairperson of seminary trustees who would give leadership to a development that would favor the growth of critical thought\u2014as marked by the emergence of seminal ideas\u2014in the seminary. It may require more acumen from the one in the chair to sustain this urgency in a seminary than in the usual business. But there are only 200 seminaries in the United States, and the nature of the opportunity to serve is such that every seminary should have an exceptional leader to chair its trustees, or the equivalent of that person in seminaries that do not have their own trustees. That urgency will need to be felt at all times if the typical seminary is to move in influence from where it now is to the society-shaping role that it is correctly positioned to carry. Only the chairperson, using tactics that are appropriate for a seminary in these times, is likely to be successful in creating that urgency. If the executive tries to create it, his or her tenure may be short. As I have noted in Chapter I, trustees (including the chairperson) are expendable; administrators are not.\n\nThe chairperson need not be able to design the creative steps that will be taken within the seminary to produce the seminal ideas that will inspire and support pastors, nor need he or she be conversant with the curriculum designs that will prepare pastors as significant religious leaders. Both of these are appropriately the professional concern of administrators and faculty. Trustees will want to review and comment on these matters, but they will not be the prime movers in these areas.\n\nTrustees, especially the one in the chair, will need to be clear about the ultimate result of the seminary's work: more religious leaders everywhere and strong, influential, ably led churches; and be able to judge whether, in the carrying out of that mission, the ultimate influence on and support of churches is adequate. Trustees should be aware of and interested in, but stand somewhat aloof from, the effort of administrators and faculty to move the program of the seminary from mission to accomplishment. It is more appropriate for a layperson, than for a credentialed professional, to maintain this detached position. The seminary clearly needs professional strength, although what constitutes optimum, professional strength in a seminary may bear fresh examination\u2014an examination that needs what only wise, lay judgment is likely to bring.\n\n#### _Advantage in the Lay Status of the Chairperson_\n\nThe issue of strength in lay judgments is a debatable one, but the case for the importance of trustees, particularly the chairperson, in any institution rests upon acceptance of the possibility of that strength being realized. The best example I have of this is drawn from my AT&T experience\u2014an example of the strength in lay judgments in a situation in which _that_ was where wisdom resided.\n\nThe original National Labor Relations Act (Wagner Act) was enacted in 1935. Shortly thereafter, 50 great corporate lawyers met and agreed that this law would be held unconstitutional and that they could all advise their client companies to disregard it. When this conclusion was brought back and advocated by our AT&T lawyer who was present at that meeting, he was promptly and forcefully challenged by my boss, an able and persuasive older man with but a fifth-grade education. He was not in the upper levels of management, but he was in a position in which he could be heard. Although his grammar was not impeccable, he was a powerful debater, a strong, honest, intelligent man, but with no legal training or experience. The gist of his argument was that this was 1935, not 1905. This was the second time in as many years that the principle in the Wagner Act had been legislated (the first was a section of the earlier National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933 that was declared unconstitutional). It clearly represented a firm social policy that would prevail. If this present law was not upheld, new laws would keep coming until one was sustained. Therefore, we should start immediately to bring ourselves into conformity with it (a state, with largely \"company\" unions, that we missed by quite a margin). There was a great verbal battle, but this boss of mine (20 years my senior) was a tough, formidable man. After much grumbling, he prevailed and the company started (with too deliberate speed) toward compliance. If his position had not prevailed, and if AT&T had held to the intransigent position that all of these lawyers advocated (that the automobile companies and others did accept and brought on the terrible imbroglio of 1939), AT&T might have been dismembered then. And if this man's kind of thinking could have been more influential in top management councils in the years that followed, the breakup might not have occurred.\n\nPart of the strength of this untutored layman's position was that he was not a lawyer. He was a very conservative man (in the best sense), and he was able to look at the crisis that confronted the company as a social policy question, not a legal issue. And he believed, with the comic character of the time\u2014Mr. Dooley\u2014that even the Supreme Court, given a little time, reads the election returns. The Wagner Act was affirmed by the top court in 1937.\n\nThe strength of my old boss in this encounter was not just that he was not a lawyer, although that freed him from the \"mind-set\" that seems inherent in all credentialed professionals, or that he lacked formal education. Most important, I believe, was that he possessed the priceless gift of seeing things whole and, because of this, his advice was frequently sought by \"better educated\" people who lacked that gift. Is this not the quality, above all others, that should be sought in the trustee chairperson of a seminary? It is not a common ability, yet it does exist. The 200 seminaries in the United States could find such a person to chair their trustees if they were clear that that is what they need and want. And such are more likely to be found among uncredentialed laypersons.\n\nSuch a person in the chair, if otherwise qualified by motives, temperament, and skills, would likely be accepted by fellow trustees and other constituencies of the seminary and could supply the essential ingredient of wisdom regarding the adequacy of the critical thinking that is the heart of the seminary's work. This would be accomplished by watchfulness over the three steps suggested earlier as essential for any institution that achieves greatness as servant.\n\n#### _The Idea of the Seminary_\n\nIf the seminary answers the question, \"Whom and what purpose should this seminary serve\" in terms like those suggested earlier in these chapters, the one who chairs the trustees (assuming that that person has the gift of seeing things whole) may ask, \"Is this seminary as it now stands\u2014both people, structure, and assumptions\u2014best designed to accomplish that mission? If not, what kind of institution ought it be, and how do we move it prudently from here to there?\" Such a question may lead the constituencies of the seminary to search for a creative design for the seminary of the future that, in addition to the present scholarly structure, may accommodate some whose principal qualifications are that they have the gifts of (1) seeing things whole and (2) prophetic communication. They may or may not be scholars.\n\n#### _The Problem of Language_\n\nPart of my thinking about language in the field of religion comes from the opportunity I had as a young man in New York to attend services at Riverside Church when Harry Emerson Fosdick preached. These sermons were remarkable for their clarity and simplicity\u2014all in the vocabulary of the ordinary person. I received some insight into his gift many years later when I was privileged to be in the company of a mutual friend to visit Dr. Fosdick in his old age for an afternoon of conversation. In the course of this visit, he told us that as a young man he had had a mental disturbance and had to have help to get himself reoriented. As a consequence he said that, in the years of his ministry, he had reason to believe that he was a good preacher and writer, but that the most rewarding satisfactions in his career were in one-to-one consultations with disturbed people. He felt that he was at his greatest effectiveness here because he could say to his counselee, \"I know exactly how you feel because I have been there.\" The clarity and simplicity of his preaching must have been profoundly influenced by the centrality of personal counseling in his ministry.\n\nHowever gifted they may be, pastors trained in seminaries need to communicate ideas that give hope and in language that is powerful and beautiful, words that lift the spirit. The chairperson of seminary trustees needs to be concerned that his school wields an influence on its students that favors this result.\n\n#### _The Seminary Chairperson as a Personal Role Model_\n\nBy giving oversight to the pivotal part of the seminary's mission, critical thought, one has the opportunity to be a role model for those who carry equally important leadership in a local church, the lay leaders of its congregation.\n\nIt was argued earlier that seminary trustees and their chairpersons are expendable, but executives and administrators are not. So, in time, lay leaders in churches will come to accept that they are expendable but pastors are not. Expendable persons will take the higher risks of leading.\n\n#### _What Does \"Serving the Churches\" Mean?_\n\nHow does a seminary know when it is serving the churches?\n\nA consultant who has worked with several seminaries recently on restudying their missions reports, \"One of the observations that comes out of this experience is the propensity of seminaries to give continuity to the safe kinds of ministry they perceive the churches which pay the bills as willing to subsidize.\" This states the common problem of _all_ serving institutions: businesses, schools, churches, governments. What will the constituency, customer, citizen want and be willing to pay for _in the future?_ Making this judgment is probably most critical in business.\n\nA few years ago, I found myself seated at a luncheon meeting in New York between the editors of two important magazines that were part of the same group. Plying my trade as I usually do, I engaged them on the question, \"How do you make the decision, out of all the stories, articles, and pictures you have available, which ones you will print in your next issue?\" Their prompt answer was most illuminating. I will reconstruct it as best I can.\n\n\"Most popular magazines make regular reader surveys in which they try to find out what readers liked best in the last issue, what they disliked or were not interested in, and what they would like to see more of in the future. In making the decision on the question you ask, _you do not follow literally what readers tell you_. That is what killed the _Saturday Evening Post_ \u2014literally following what readers said they wanted more of. The problem is that readers cannot say what they will want more of in the future. What they will respond to in the next issues when they arrive depends somewhat on what happens in their lives, what public events have caught their attention, in the meantime. What makes magazine editing interesting and challenging is that _planning every issue requires a leap of imagination_. Part of what nourishes that leap is close attention to reader surveys, but only part. The rest of it is vast experience with journalism knowledge about how people evolve and change, and watching closely what is going on in the world. We try to plant in every issue a seed that will grow into a need that we can serve in the future. That is how we editors, with our opportunities, can lead.\"\n\nA seminary's relationship with churches is not like that of a magazine with its readers, but there is something to be learned from this example. Churches cannot tell seminaries what they will want in the future\u2014and will be willing to pay for. If, as the consultant's observation quoted above suggests, some seminaries assume that churches will continue to want and be willing to pay for what they now receive\u2014a \"safe\" ministry\u2014providing that may make for a comfortable relationship in the present. But what about the future? What about the future when the present, in terms of church influence and membership, is not good?\n\nThis is a question for a seminary chairperson who is disposed to try to influence his or her trustees to _lead_ , to go out ahead and show the way and persuade seminary administrators and staff to act now, in the interest of the future soundness of churches. The seminary's prime concern is always for the future of churches. The future of churches will be determined importantly by the ideas, critical thought, that seminaries produce _now_ , and persuade churches to consider\u2014 _now!_\n\nAll true leadership\u2014because it deals with the future\u2014entails risk, and the chairperson who sees things whole will be the first to accept that risk and make the necessary leap of imagination. What supports the seminary chairperson in that risk (as distinguished from the editor of the magazine) is an inspired vision of what the seminary and the churches that depend on it for intellectual and prophetic leadership, might become\u2014greater servants of society.\n\n### POSTSCRIPT\n\nThe positions taken here regarding the urgency of the need to raise seminaries from the present marginal state of some of them to fully serving institutions rest on beliefs about current America as a low-serving society. Every category of institution I know about, including seminaries and churches, has far too many low-serving elements, when judged by the criterion of what is reasonable and possible with available resources, human and material. Why should anybody in government, business, or education try to do better when seminaries that should be models are not conspicuous for their service to society? If the quality of our total society is to be lifted, seminaries and then churches, one at a time, need to be lifted substantially into a position of preeminent service.\n\nAs noted earlier, both the initiative and the sustaining push to achieve this movement will come from trustees who are laypersons and who have a strong determined leader who chairs their effort. If the current chairperson does not feel up to giving this leadership, that person might quietly step aside and help find someone who can and will give that leadership\u2014someone who has the temperament and the staying power for the long, hard struggle that may be required. It could be the supreme achievement of that person's life to learn to lead a seminary effectively and with spirit.\n\nAlongside my convictions about lay influence of trustees in seminaries, I am equally firm about the importance of intellectual power in the seminary\u2014a power that will enable its faculty and other staff to support churches and church institutions at a level of excellence in their performance that, on their own and without the support of the intellectual power of seminaries, might be quite ordinary.\n\nIntellectual power could be said to have two main elements: scholarship and wisdom. What may be needed, first, is a new vision from within seminaries as they now stand, possibly one of those seminaries now labeled as marginal. It is the kind of vision that the King James version of Proverbs suggests is one without which the people perish. Such a vision may simply announce a yearning to be served by being led by a trustee chairperson who has the gift of seeing things whole\u2014a person who is wise and who will give leadership to the end that the seminary comes to be accepted as both scholarly and wise.\n\nAnd what would a seminary be like (as contrasted with what most are today) when it comes to be known as both scholarly and wise? In my essay \"The Servant as Religious Leader\" I speculate on what might be the characteristics of a seminary when significant formation of religious leaders takes place there.\n\n\u2022 Its priorities will be reversed. Whereas seminaries are now mostly academic and only incidentally formative, formation of religious leaders will be primary and academic teaching will be secondary.\n\n\u2022 The staff of the seminaries will contain a strong element of those who have a passion for growing religious leaders\u2014and are good at it. They may or may not be scholars in the usual sense.\n\n\u2022 A major mission of the seminary will be to evolve, and maintain, a theology of institutions that deals realistically with the problem of how to recover moribund institutions as vital, effective, caring, and serving. This will not be a theoretical endeavor because it will be forged on the seminary's own experience as it builds itself into\u2014and maintains itself as\u2014the pivotal institution it is determined to become. Seminary students will be deeply involved in this continuous effort to build and maintain this theology. They will not just read and hear lectures about it.\n\n\u2022 The primary mission of the seminary will be leading and serving churches and supporting them as strong influential institutions. Most of the learning of seminary students will result from involvement in this effort.\n\n\u2022 There will be creative thinkers among its faculty who are developing and articulating a contemporary theology of what makes religious leaders, and the institutions they serve, strong. Students in the seminary will be deeply involved in responding to this with their own thinking.\n\n\u2022 Such seminaries will become known as effective nurturers of able religious leaders and they will attract a wide spectrum of strong young people in search of such formative development. Some of these students might find their career opportunities in churches, but the seminary will become a prime source of religious leaders for all segments of society. It will acknowledge that any institution where religious leaders predominate may effectively become a church.\n\nI submit these as achievable goals for a seminary whose constituencies (particularly the faculty that holds the predominant power) accept that new critical thought about both the seminary as an institution and its theology is essential. Further, they accept the leadership of the lay person who chairs their trustees and who is persuasive in helping them to reach those goals.\n\n## 7\n\n## **My Debt to E. B. White**\n\nIn 1929, when I moved to New York, I was immediately attracted to _The New Yorker_ magazine, that was then in its fifth year, and to E. B. White, who had helped make it a remarkable magazine, and who had been on the staff for three years. My debt to Mr. White, after 55 years of living with his writings, stems from two gifts that are rarely possessed by one person: the ability to see things whole, or more whole than most, and the language to tell us ordinary mortals what he sees.\n\nI am not a literary person, but I know that White's writing style is greatly admired among some literary folk. His revision of Strunk's _The Elements of Style_ is a widely used text. He is sometimes identified as a humorist, and I find good laughs in his work. He is a fellow who, when the spirit moves him, just naturally breaks into song\u2014so there is quite a bit of poetry. In his later years, there have been stories for children. As a so-called adult, I find them delightful. But his writing style, his humor, his poetry, and his children's stories are not the central focus of what I want to acknowledge here, though, obviously, they are the context within which it is housed.\n\nI have not received from reading E. B. White the solutions to any of life's dilemmas, but for these 55 years, I have had constant assurance that if I will see clearly where I am (and where I and others in similar dilemmas have been), and if my direction is right (uncluttered with zany ideas), I will always better know what to do now. This has been a valuable learning, and I am exceedingly grateful that I received it early. I am not aware that, in the course of my formal education, I heard anything about this. But then, it probably takes an artist to put this over, and for the most part, my teachers were not artists. E. B. White is such an artist.\n\nJames Thurber, White's good friend and collaborator from their early days on _The New Yorker_ , freely acknowledges White as his mentor on writing. And he seems to have understood White's unique gifts better than White himself understood them. Thurber, writing in 1938 from France, chides White for publishing a piece in _The Saturday Evening Post_ (which may have paid better at that time than _The New Yorker_ ). Thurber, after lamenting the confusion in the world and the crazy things people are doing, says, \"It remains for a few people to stand aside and watch them and report what it looks like and sounds like. Among such persons, there isn't anybody better qualified for the job than you\u2014if _you will quit sending pieces to The Saturday Evening Post_.\" Thurber goes on to express his concern that White does not understand or appreciate his gift and reminds him that his writing is not simply a response to the writer's _urge_ but is a matter of \"moral necessity.\" It is the kind of letter that only a cherished friend would write. In short, Thurber tells White (in my language) to get with it and make the contribution to our times that only he can make. Thurber seems to be saying to White, \"You see things whole, and that is what you should write about\u2014in the only place that is likely to let you do it\u2014 _The New Yorker_. Maybe _Harpers_ , but not _The Saturday Evening Post_.\"\n\nThurber and White as young men shared a small office at _The New Yorker_. In that period, they collaborated on a spoof of psychoanalysis to which they gave the provocative title, \"Is Sex Necessary?\" It was a best-seller. After Thurber died, White wrote a new introduction for a new edition. In it he said, \"You would think that a couple of young fellows trying to get along in the world could have found something better to do.\"\n\nElwyn Brooks White was born in the close-in suburb of Mt. Vernon, New York in 1899, the sixth child in a family whose father was a successful piano manufacturer in New York. As a child, he developed a fondness of animals and had pets and kept chickens and pigeons, a disposition that emerged later when he retired to his farm in Maine. About his childhood, White says in the introduction to his collected letters:\n\nIf an unhappy childhood is indispensable for a writer, I am ill-equipped: I missed out on all that and was neither deprived nor unloved. It would be inaccurate, however, to say that my childhood was untroubled. The normal fears and worries of every child were in me developed to a high degree; every day was an awesome prospect. I was uneasy about practically everything: the uncertainty of the future, the dark of the attic, the panoply and discipline of school, the transitoriness of life, the mystery of the church and God, the frailty of the body, the sadness of afternoon, the shadow of sex, the distant challenge of love and marriage, the far-off problem of a livelihood. I brooded about them all, lived with them day by day. Being the youngest in a large family, I was usually in a crowd but often felt lonely and removed. I took to writing early, to assuage my uneasiness and collect my thoughts, and I was a busy writer long before I went into long pants.\n\n\"In school,\" he continues, \"I contracted a fear of platforms that has dogged me all of my life and caused me to decline every invitation to speak in public.\" When White turned 70 in 1969, a _New York Times_ reporter went up to Maine, where he then lived, to interview him. In the course of the interview White said, \"I was born scared, and at 70 I am still scared.\" I will come back to this comment later. In that interview, White had some things to say about growing old.\n\n\"How should one adjust to age!\" Mr. White was asked, and replied: \"In principle, one shouldn't adjust. In fact, one does. (Or I do.) When my head starts knocking because of my attempt to write, I quit writing instead of carrying on as I used to do when I was young.\n\n\"These are adjustments. But I gaze into the faces of our senior citizens in our Southern cities, and they wear a sad look that disturbs me. I am sorry for all those who have agreed to grow old. I haven't agreed yet. Old age is a special problem for me because I've never been able to shed the mental image I have of myself\u2014a lad of about 19.\n\n\"A writer certainly has a special problem with aging. The generative process is slowed down, yet the pain and frustration of not writing is as acute as ever. I feel frustrated and in pain a good deal of the time now; but I try to bear in mind the advice of Hubert Humphrey's father. 'Never get sick, Hubert, there isn't time.'\"\n\nWhite attended Cornell University, whose founding president was one Andrew White. By tradition, every male student to enroll whose name was White was nicknamed \"Andy,\" and to his close friends, Elwyn Brooks White has always been _Andy_. At Cornell, he quickly joined the staff of the campus newspaper and, in his senior year, he was editor. White was not a scholar at Cornell, but he was active in a fraternity, and in his senior year, he was its president.\n\nOn graduation, he spent a year in New York trying to get a job in journalism, and the best he could do was The American Legion News Service. When a footloose Cornell classmate showed up in New York, they decided to drive to the West Coast in a model T roadster, named Hotspur. They set off early in 1922 and arrived in Louisville, Kentucky, at derby time. White wrote a sonnet on a winning horse which he showed to the editor of the _Louisville Herald_ , who asked, \"Do you do this for glory or for money?\" \"For money,\" White replied. The editor paid him $5 and ran the sonnet on the front page next day.\n\nThe trip across the country in Hotspur was eventful. Arriving in Seattle, White got a reporter's job on a Seattle daily which he held for a year, when he was fired. The reason was that when he covered an event, he was so much a perfectionist and took too long to write his story. Frequently, in later life, he acknowledged that he was a failure as a reporter.\n\nThen there was a boat trip to Alaska. Returning to New York after 1\u00bd years in the west, he got a job with an advertising agency where he hated to work\u2014but which was a living, and it gave him an opportunity to write. He says:\n\nThe arrival on the scene of Harold Ross's _New Yorker_ on February 21, 1925, was a turning point in my life, although I did not know it at the time. I bought a copy of the first issue at the newsstand in Grand Central, examined Eustace Tilly and his butterfly on the cover (every Washington's birthday issue has that cover) and was attracted to the newborn magazine, not because it had any great merit but because the items were short, relaxed and sometimes funny. I was a \"short\" writer, and I lost no time in submitting squibs and poems. In return, I received a few small cheques and the satisfaction of seeing myself in print as a pro.\n\nHarold Ross encouraged White to submit more to _The New Yorker_ and asked him to drop in. When he did drop in, the editor who greeted him was Katharine Angell. White said, \"I noted that she had a lot of black hair and the knack of making a young contributor feel at ease. I sat there peacefully gazing at the classic features of my future wife without, as usual, knowing what I was doing.\" Forty years later, in an interview, White said of his wife:\n\nI have never seen an adequate account of Katharine's role with _The New Yorker_. She was one of the first editors to be hired, and I can't imagine what would have happened to the magazine if she hadn't turned up. Ross, though something of a genius, had serious gaps. In Katharine he found someone who filled them. No two people were more different than Harold and Katharine. What he lacked, she had; what she lacked, he had. She was a product of Miss Windsor's and Bryn Mawr; Ross was a high school dropout. She had a natural refinement of manner and speech; Ross mumbled and bellowed and swore. She was patient and quiet; he was impatient and noisy. On one thing they usually agreed\u2014what was funny. Katharine was soon heading the Fiction Department, sharing the personal woes and dilemmas of innumerable contributors and staff people who were in trouble or despair, and, in short, accepting the whole unruly business of a tottering magazine with the warmth and dedication of a broody hen.\n\nI had a bird's eye view of all of this, because in the midst of it, I became her husband. During the day, I saw her in operation at the office. At the end of the day, I watched her bring the whole mess home with her in a cheap, bulging portfolio. The light burned late, and our bed was lumpy with page proofs, and our home was alive with laughter and the pervasive spirit of her dedication and her industry. I suspect that one of Ross's luckiest days was the day a young woman named Katharine Angell stepped off the elevator, all ready to go to work.\n\nI have said that my debt to E. B. White is that he is the person who alerted me to the gift of seeing things whole, and my attachment to his writing, beginning when I was 25, encouraged me to cultivate that gift in myself. My career as an organization man and a bureaucrat in a huge institution, where I was very much at home, was radically different from White's, who never was an administrator and who had great difficulty keeping regular office hours. Yet, across that great gulf of temperament and experience, he was able to communicate to me his great gift of seeing things whole, and it has proved to be an asset all my life.\n\nWhat was the man like who was able to do this for me? I have never met E. B. White, and in over 50 years I have exchanged only two or three letters with him. Yet, I feel that I know him very well. His collected letters are interspersed with biographical notes that give quite a complete account of his life. He was a great letter writer and, his letters being literary gems, people saved them. But most of the insight I have about White comes from reading what he has said about other people. There is an old saying, \"What Peter says about Paul tells us more about Peter than it does about Paul.\" This observation seems to be particularly true of White. Let me quote what he has written about three people to whom he was very close: the first, Henry Thoreau, whom White knew only from his writing, and two with whom he worked closely, James Thurber and Harold Ross, whose obituaries he wrote for _The New Yorker_.\n\nOn the 100th anniversary of the publication of Thoreau's _Walden_ in 1854, White wrote a long piece for _The Yale Review_ entitled, \"A Slight Sound at Evening.\" I will note a few excerpts from his essay on Thoreau's _Walden_.\n\nI think it is of some advantage to encounter the book at a period in one's life when the normal anxieties and enthusiasms and rebellions of youth closely resemble those of Thoreau in that spring of 1845 when he borrowed an ax, went out to the woods, and began to whack down some trees for timber. Received at such a juncture, the book is like an invitation to life's dance, assuring the troubled recipient that no matter what befalls him in the way of success or failure he will always be welcome at the party\u2014that the music is played for him too, if he will but listen and move his feet.... It still seems to me the best youth's companion yet written by an American, for it carries a solemn warning against the loss of one's valuables, it advances a good argument for travelling light and trying new adventures, it rings with the power of positive adoration, it contains religious feeling without religious images, and it steadfastly refuses to record bad news....\n\nWhen he went to the pond, Thoreau struck an attitude and did so deliberately, but his posturing was not to draw the attention of others to him but rather to draw his own attention more closely to himself. \"I learned this at least from my experiment: that if one advances confidently in the direction of his dreams, and endeavors to live the life which he has imagined, he will meet with a success unexpected in common hours.\" The sentence has the power to resuscitate the youth drowning in his sea of doubt. I recall my exhilaration upon reading it, many years ago, in a time of hesitation and despair. It restored me to health. And now in 1954 when I salute Henry Thoreau on the 100th birthday of his book, I am merely paying off an old score\u2014or an installment on it.\n\nThere has been much guessing as to why he went to the pond. To set it down to escapism is, of course, to misconstrue what happened. Henry went forth to battle when he took to the woods, and _Walden_ is the report of a man torn by two powerful and opposing drives\u2014the desire to enjoy the world, and the urge to set the world straight. One cannot join these two successfully, but sometimes, in rare cases, something good or even great results from the attempt of the tormented spirit to reconcile them. Henry went forth to battle, and if he set the stage himself, if he fought on his own terms and with his own weapons, it was because it was his nature to do things differently from most men, and to act in a cocky fashion. If the pond and the woods seemed a more plausible site for a house than an in-town location, it was because a cowbell made for him a sweeter sound than a churchbell. _Walden_ , the book, makes the sound of a cowbell, more than a churchbell, and proves the point, although both sounds are in it, and both remarkably clear and sweet. He simply preferred his churchbells at a little distance. _[I suspect that White also preferred his churchbells at a little distance]_\n\nI confess that I have not been a Thoreau fan. The first thing I ever read of Thoreau's was his essay on \"Civil Disobedience\" which he wrote in a fit of pique after spending a night in jail for refusing to pay his Poll Tax. I wrote him off as a wooly anarchist and never read him again. But after rereading White's essay recently, I decided that I had better have a look at _Walden_. So, I read it. And I discovered, to my surprise, that there is more of Thoreau in me than I had been aware of. Such is the fate of one who falls under the spell of one who sees things whole (a trait that White may have acquired from Thoreau since he read Thoreau when he, White, was young and was greatly influenced by him).\n\nHarold Ross, the great founding editor of _The New Yorker_ , died December 6, 1951. Writing of him in the December 15th issue, White wrote:\n\nRoss died in Boston, unexpectedly, on the night of December 6th, and we are writing this in New York (unexpectedly) on the morning of December 7th. This is known, in these offices that Ross was so fond of, as a jam. Ross always knew when we were in a jam, and usually went on the phone to offer advice and comfort and support. When our phone rang just now, and in that split second before the mind focuses, we thought, \"Good! Here it comes!\" But this old connection is broken beyond fixing. The phone has not in its power to explode at the right moment and in the right way.\n\nActually, things are not going as badly as they might; the sheet of copy paper in the machine is not as hard to face as we feared. Sometimes a love letter writes itself and we loved Ross so, and bear him respect, that these quick notes, which purport to record the sorrow that runs through here and dissolves so many people, cannot possibly seem overstated or silly. Ross, even on this terrible day, is a hard man to keep quiet; he obtrudes\u2014his face, his voice, his manner, even his amused interest in the critical proceedings. If he were accorded the questionable privilege of stopping by here for a few minutes, he would gorge himself on the minor technical problems that a magazine faces when we must do something in a hurry and against all sorts of odds\u2014in this case, emotional ones of almost overpowering weight. He would be far more interested in the grinding of the machinery than in what was being said about him.\n\nAll morning, people have wandered in and out of our cell, some tearfully, some guardedly, some boisterously, most of them long-time friends in various stages of repair. We have amused our-self thinking of Ross's reaction to this flow. \"Never bother a writer\" was one of his strongest principles. He used to love to drop in himself, and sit around, but was uneasy the whole time because of the carking feeling that if only he would get up and go away, we might settle down to work and produce something. To him, a writer at work, whether in the office or anywhere in the outside world, was an extraordinarily interesting, valuable, but fragile object, and he half expected it to fall into a thousand pieces at any moment.\n\nThe report of Ross's death came over the telephone in a three-word sentence that somehow managed to embody all the faults that Ross devoted his life to correcting. A grief-stricken friend in Boston, charged with the task of spreading the news but too dazed to talk sensibly, said, \"It's all over.\" He meant that Ross was dead, but the listener took it to mean that the operation was over. Here, in three easy words, were the ambiguity, the euphemistic softness, the verbal infirmity that Harold W. Ross spent his life thrusting at. Ross regarded every sentence as the enemy, and believed that if a man watched closely enough, he would discover the vulnerable spot, the essential weakness. He devoted his life to making the weak strong\u2014a rather specialized form of blood transfusion, to be sure, but one that he believed in with such a consuming passion that his spirit infected others and inspired them, and lifted them. Whatever it was, this contagion, this vapor in these marshes, it spread. None escaped it. Nor is it likely to be dissipated in a hurry.\n\nHis ambition was to publish one good magazine, not a string of successful ones, and he thought of _The New Yorker_ as a sort of movement. He came equipped with not much knowledge and only two books\u2014Webster's Dictionary and Fowler's _Modern English Usage_. These books were his history, his geography, his literature, his art, his music, his everything. Some people found Ross's scholastic deficiencies quite appalling, and were not sure they had met the right man. But he was the right man, and the only question was whether the other fellow was capable of being tuned to Ross's vibrations. Ross had a thing that is at least as good as, and sometimes better than, knowledge: he had a sort of natural drive in the right direction, plus a complete respect for the work and ideas and opinions of others. It took a little while to get on to the fact that Ross, more violently than almost anybody, was proceeding in a good direction, and carrying others along with him, under torrential conditions. He was like a boat being driven at the mercy of some internal squall, a disturbance he himself only half understood, and of which he was at times suspicious.\n\nIn a way, he was a lucky man. For a monument he has the magazine to date\u2014one thousand three hundred and ninety-nine issues, born in the toil and pain that can be appreciated only by those who helped in the delivery room. These are his. They stand, unchangeable and open for inspection. We are, of course, not in a position to estimate the monument, even if we were in the mood to. But we are able to state one thing unequivocally: Ross set up a great target and pounded himself to pieces trying to hit it square in the middle. His dream was a simple dream; it was pure and had no frills: he wanted the magazine to be good, to be funny, and to be fair.\n\nWe say he was lucky. Some people cordially disliked him. Some were amused but not impressed. And then, last, there are the ones we have been seeing today, the ones who loved him and had him for a friend\u2014people he looked after, and who looked after him. These last are the ones who worked close enough to him, and long enough with him, to cross over the barrier reef of noisy shallows that ringed him, into the lagoon that was Ross himself\u2014a rewarding, and even enchanting, and relatively quiet place, utterly trustworthy as an anchorage. Maybe these people had all the luck. The entrance wasn't always easy to find.\n\nHe left a note on our desk one day apropos of something that had pleased him in the magazine. The note simply said, \"I am encouraged to go on.\" That is about the way we feel today, because of his contribution. We are encouraged to go on.\n\nWhen you took leave of Ross after a calm or stormy meeting, he always ended with the phrase that has become as much a part of the office as the paint on the walls. He would wave his limp hand, gesturing you away. \"All right,\" he would say. \"God bless you.\" Considering Ross's temperament and habits, this was a rather odd expression. He usually took God's name in vain if he took it at all. But when he sent you away with his benediction, which he uttered briskly and affectionately, and in which he and God seemed all scrambled together, it carried a warmth and sincerity that never failed to carry over. The words are so familiar to his helpers and friends here that they provide the only possible way to conclude this hasty notice and to take our leave. We cannot convey his manner. But with much love in our heart, we say, for everybody, \"All right Ross, God bless you.\"\n\nWhen James Thurber, one of White's closest friends, died on November 2, 1961, White wrote of him in the November 11th _New Yorker_.\n\nI am one of the lucky ones; I knew him before blindness hit him, before fame hit him, and I tend always to think of him as a young artist in a small office in a big city, with all the world still ahead. It was a fine thing to be young and at work in New York for a new magazine when Thurber was young and at work, and I will always be glad that this happened to me.\n\nIt was fortunate that we got on well; the office we shared was the size of a hall bedroom. There was just room enough for two men, two typewriters, and a stack of copy paper. The copy paper disappeared at a scandalous rate\u2014not because our production was high (although it was) but because Thurber used copy paper as the natural receptacle for discarded sorrows, immediate joys, stale dreams, golden prophecies, and messages of good cheer to the outside world and to fellow-workers. His mind was never at rest, and his pencil was connected to his mind by the best conductive tissue I have ever seen in action. The whole world knows what a funny man he was, but you had to sit next to him day after day to understand the extravagance of his clowning, the wildness and subtlety of his thinking, and the intensity of his interest in others and his sympathy for their dilemmas\u2014dilemmas that he instantly enlarged, put in focus, and made immortal, just as he enlarged and made immortal the strange goings on in the Ohio home of his boyhood. His waking dreams and his sleeping dreams commingled shamelessly and uproariously. Ohio was never far from his thoughts, and when he received a medal from his home state in 1953, he wrote, \"The clocks that strike in my dreams are often the clocks of Columbus.\" It is a beautiful sentence and a revealing one.\n\nHe was both a practitioner of humor and a defender of it. The day he died, I came on a letter from him, dictated to a secretary and signed in pencil with his sightless and enormous \"Jim.\" \"Every time is a time for humor,\" he wrote. \"I write humor the way a surgeon operates, because it is a livelihood, because I have a great urge to do it, because many interesting challenges are set up, and because I have the hope it may do some good.\" Once, I remember, he heard someone say that humor is a shield, not a sword, and it made him mad. He wasn't going to have anyone beating his sword into a shield. That \"surgeon,\" incidentally, is pure Mitty. During his happiest years, Thurber did not write the way a surgeon operates, he wrote the way a child skips rope, the way a mouse waltzes.\n\nAlthough he is best known for _Walter Mitty_ and _The Male Animal,_ the book of his I like best is _The Last Flower_. In it you will find his faith in the renewal of life, his feeling for the beauty and fragility of life on earth. Like all good writers, he fashioned his own best obituary notice. Nobody else can add to the record, much as he might like to. And of all the flowers, real and figurative, that will find their way to Thurber's last resting place, the one that will remain fresh and wiltproof is the little flower he himself drew, on the last page of that lovely book.\n\nEtched in my memory when my wife Esther and I were living as young people in New York in the 1930s and following the contemporary art scene is the incident of the Rivera mural in the new Rockefeller Center. Nelson Rockefeller, then a young man, was interested in contemporary art and was in charge of building the Center. He had commissioned Diego Rivera, the radical Mexican artist, to paint a mural in the entrance hall of the main building just above the skating rink. The work was done in fresco in which a plasterer lays up the surface just ahead of the painter who uses water-soluble pigments that penetrate the wet plaster\u2014so when the plaster dries, it is really on there. When Rivera arrived at the lower-right corner when he would normally sign, he introduced a large head of Lenin and the hammer and sickle, signed his name and was through. There was a great uproar and the mural was ultimately destroyed\u2014chipped off the wall. White wrote a poem about it in _The New Yorker_.\n\n**I Paint What I See**\n\n(A Ballad of Artistic Integrity, on the Occasion of the Removal of Some Rather Expensive Murals from the RCA Building in the Year 1933)\n\n\"What do you paint, when you paint on a wall?\"\n\nSaid John D.'s grandson Nelson.\n\n\"Do you paint just anything there at all?\n\n\"Will there be any doves, or a tree in fall?\n\n\"Or a hunting scene, like an English hall?\"\n\n\"I paint what I see,\" said Rivera.\n\n\"What are the colors you use when you paint?\"\n\nSaid John D.'s grandson Nelson.\n\n\"Do you use any red in the beard of a saint?\n\n\"If you do, is it terribly red, or faint?\n\n\"Do you use any blue! Is it Prussian?\"\n\n\"I paint what I paint,\" said Rivera.\n\n\"Whose is that head that I see on my wall?\"\n\nSaid John D.'s grandson Nelson.\n\n\"Is it anyone's head whom we know, at all?\n\n\"A Rensselaer, or a Saltonstall?\n\n\"Is it Franklin D.? Is it Mordaunt Hall?\n\n\"Or is it the head of a Russian?\"\n\n\"I paint what I think,\" said Rivera.\n\n\"I paint what I paint, I paint what I see,\n\n\"I paint what I think,\" said Rivera,\n\n\"And the thing that is dearest in life to me\n\n\"In a bourgeois hall is Integrity;\n\n\"However...\n\n\"I'll take out a couple of people drinkin'\n\n\"And put in a picture of Abraham Lincoln;\n\n\"I could even give you McCormick's reaper\n\n\"And still not make my art much cheaper.\n\n\"But the head of Lenin has got to stay\n\n\"Or my friends will give me the bird today,\n\n\"The bird, the bird, forever.\"\n\n\"It's not good taste in a man like me,\"\n\nSaid John D.'s grandson Nelson,\n\n\"To question an artist's integrity\n\n\"Or mention a practical thing like a fee,\n\n\"But I know what I like to a large degree,\n\n\"Though art I hate to hamper;\n\n\"For twenty-one thousand conservative bucks\n\n\"You painted a radical. I say shucks,\n\n\"I never could rent the offices \u2014\n\n\"The capitalistic offices.\n\n\"For this, as you know, is a public hall\n\n\"And people want doves, or a tree in fall,\n\n\"And although your art I dislike to hamper,\n\n\"I owe a little to God and Gramper,\n\n\"And after all,\n\n\"it's my wall...\"\n\n\"We'll see if it is,\" said Rivera.\n\nRivera was born 50 years too soon, because I understand that New York now has a law that gives the artist some control over how his work is shown. They might have some trouble getting rid of that mural today. A replica of Rivera's Rockefeller Center mural is now on the wall of a museum in Mexico City. It pleases me to think that some day ours will become a mature enough society that that mural will return to New York, head of Lenin and all, and be given an appropriate spot so that people can judge its artistic merit. When and if that happens, it may be that this poem of E. B. White's, which is widely anthologized, will have helped keep alive the idea that there is some unfinished business from the 1930s.\n\nWhen White was about 40, he and his wife moved from New York to a farm on the coast of Maine. They both continued to work for _The New Yorker_ with occasional trips to New York. Katharine, who was the older, died in 1977. Mr. White died October 1, 1985.\n\nWhite, as we know from his comments on his childhood, confirmed in several letters, has lived all his life in a state of anxiety with several long illnesses. A friend commented on his leaving New York, \"Andy moved to Maine to save his life.\" Living in Maine in a small community and close to farm animals was a necessary condition for his existence, and much of his later writing has been about life on his farm and among small-town people in whom he found much-treasured wisdom.\n\nDespite his lifelong anxiety, White was a very social guy. He and his wife, Katharine, had many friends, spent much enjoyable time with them, and carried on a lively correspondence.\n\nMy most interesting, and perhaps my most significant experience with White's writing came in 1969. After retiring from AT&T in 1964, I spent some active years in consulting work. Two of my clients in that period were universities during the traumatic years of student unrest. Time has healed some of the scars, but I have vivid memories of that period, particularly talks with the radical students. It was a wild time, and I was right in the thick of it.\n\nIn September of 1969, my alma mater, Carleton College, did an interesting thing. As a smaller college of 1500 students, they were not as threatened by the unrest as were large universities, but they were disturbed enough to convene, for two weeks ahead of the opening of school that year, all of the student leaders. This included class officers, team captains, editors of paper and year book, etc., plus three or four faculty and the college chaplain who presided. Their purpose was to just have a leisurely talk about the problems of operating the college under these disturbing conditions. I was invited to meet with them for two days as a resource person (since I had been up to my ears in this confusion in other places).\n\nNear the end of my two days with them, I read them E. B. White's essay \"The Second Tree from the Corner.\" Before reading it, I told them a little about White and reminded them of White's statement to the reporter, \"I was born scared and at 70 I am still scared.\" I asked them to bear this in mind because I suspected that the essay was somewhat autobiographical. Some years later when White's letters came out, I confirmed that it was written after a session with his psychiatrist in New York.\n\nThe essay, \"The Second Tree from The Corner,\" concerns a man named Trexler in a routine session with his psychiatrist, and what Trexler thinks about as he walks down the street after the session. The interview deals with Trexler's fears and a question that the doctor repeatedly pressed, \"What do _you_ want!\" In the course of the session, Trexler turns the question on the doctor, \"What do _you_ want!\" And the doctor, caught short, stammers, \"I want a new wing on my house on Long Island.\"\n\nWhen I finished reading, I commented to the students that I thought that White, in this essay, had a literary strategy somewhat similar to that of Camus' when he wrote _The Stranger_ (which I knew they had all read in freshman English). Camus takes 100 or so pages to describe a situation, a murder, and the trial and conviction of the murderer to set the stage, it seems to me, for three or four pages at the end which tell of the conversation between a priest and the convicted man on the eve of the latter's execution. I believe that the content of this interview was what Camus really wanted to get across to us. White, more devoted to economy of language than Camus, takes five pages to describe this session with the psychiatrist to set the stage for two paragraphs at the end where, it seems to me, he tells us what he really wants us to get. And I reread those two paragraphs.\n\nIt was an evening of clearing weather, the Park showing green and desirable in the distance, the last daylight applying a high lacquer to the brick and brownstone walls and giving the street scene a luminous and intoxicating splendor. Trexler meditated, as he walked, on what he wanted. \"What do you want!\" he heard again. Trexler knew what he wanted, and what, in general, all men wanted; and he was glad, in a way, that it was both inexpressible and unattainable, and that it wasn't a wing. He was satisfied to remember that it was deep, formless, enduring, and impossible of fulfillment, and that it made men sick, and that when you sauntered along Third Avenue and looked through the doorways into the dim saloons, you could sometimes pick out from the unregenerate ranks the ones who had not forgotten, gazing steadily into the bottoms of the glasses on the long chance that they could get another little peek at it. Trexler found himself renewed by the remembrance that what he wanted was at once great and microscopic, and that although it borrowed from the nature of large deeds and of youthful love and of old songs and early intimations, it was not any one of these things, and that it had not been isolated or pinned down, and that a man who attempted to define it in the privacy of a doctor's office would fall flat on his face.\n\nTrexler felt invigorated. Suddenly his sickness seemed health, his dizziness stability. A small tree, rising between him and the light, stood there saturated with the evening, each gilt-edged leaf perfectly drunk with excellence and delicacy. Trexler's spine registered an ever so slight tremor as it picked up this natural disturbance in the lovely scene. \"I want the second tree from the corner, just as it stands,\" he said, answering to an imaginary question from an imaginary physician. And he felt a slow pride in realizing that what he wanted none could bestow, and that what he had none could take away. He felt content to be sick, unembarrassed at being afraid; and in the jungle of his fear he glimpsed (as he had so often glimpsed them before) the flashy tail feathers of the bird courage.\n\nThere were a few moments of silence after I finished, and the students took off and talked for two hours. I didn't say another word\u2014just listened. Condensing two hours of discussion into one sentence: they ultimately identified the problem of the students of their generation as a sort of mental illness, and, like White, they would only recover their poise when they accepted their illness as health\u2014and got on with their work. It was the most fascinating two hours of discussion I ever listened to.\n\nThe sequel to his session came several weeks later when Professor Maitland, the Chaplain, sent me a copy of the first issue of the college newspaper in which this two-week session was reported. The report concluded with the announcement that the group had agreed to continue to meet during the school year and that they had named their group _The Second Tree from the Corner_. That was over 15 years ago, and I still hear the occasional reverberation from that meeting. Such is the influence of thinking that sees things whole, and of language that tells us what one sees that is powerful and beautiful.\n\nOne of the things one discovers by reading White's letters is that, in the early days of _The New Yorker_ , he was the handyman. He did everything. He wrote essays, poems, newsbreaks, reported events, and wrote the opening \"Talk of the Town.\" He even drew one cover, _and_ he wrote captions for cartoons. My favorite quote from an early issue of _The New Yorker_ is the caption on a full-page cartoon. As I remember it, there is a rich kid of 8 or 9 seated alone at dinner in a big posh dining room, being served by maid and butler, and with his governess standing behind him saying, \"Oswald dear, please eat your nice _broccoli_.\" Says Oswald, \"I say it's spinach, and I say the hell with it.\" I have found that line appropriate on several occasions over the years. And I discovered in the letters that it is pure E. B. White.\n\nWhite was not a \"cause\" man\u2014with two exceptions. During the war, he became interested in world government and wrote extensively on that subject with one of the loveliest pieces on that theme entitled, \"The Wild Flag.\" But then, after the war, he covered the founding meeting of the United Nations for _The New Yorker_ and concluded that world government was not a realistic expectation in our times. In a letter to a niece explaining his position, he said, \"I think the most precious thing in the world is not the concept of world federation but the concept of justice\u2014that is, justice as it has developed in the Western world. The only sort of one-world I would settle for is a one-world firmly based on that type of justice.\"\n\nThe other cause, long standing and still much alive in White as an old man, is the cause of integrity in journalism. Over the years, there have been three major public manifestations of this concern. Some years ago, White discovered the practice of _Reader's Digest_ commissioning and paying for articles, giving them to other publications to print, and then condensing them in _Reader's Digest_. He strongly condemned this practice in the pages of _The New Yorker_ , others joined in, and there was quite a stir about it. It didn't deter the _Digest_. But it did result in a _New Yorker_ policy not to permit the _Digest_ to take any of their stuff.\n\nThen when a fellow _New Yorker_ writer, Alexander Woolcott, gave a testimonial for a beer ad, White took out after him\u2014in the pages of _The New Yorker_. Maybe okay for a movie actor, he said, but not for a journalist. This created something of a stir, but I doubt that it influenced Woolcott.\n\nIn 1974, when White was old, he learned of the arrangement wherein Harrison Salisbury, retired associate editor of the _New York Times,_ accepted a substantial fee from Xerox Corporation to write an article that would appear in _Esquire_ Magazine with a full-page Xerox ad before and after it. White took pen in hand and wrote a letter to the editor of the _The Ellsworth (Maine) American_ describing the details of the arrangement and taking sharp exception to it.\n\nIn due course, White received a letter from Xerox outlining their ground rules for sponsoring articles and asking, \"With these ground rules, do you still see something sinister in the sponsoring?\" White's reply of January 30, 1976, said unequivocally, \"Yes, I do,\" and he went on to support that judgment with careful reasoning. This is what he wrote:\n\nLetter to Mr. W. B. Jones\n\nDirector, Communications Operations\n\nXerox Corp.\n\nJanuary 30, 1976\n\nDear Mr. Jones,\n\nIn extending my remarks on sponsorship, published in _The Ellsworth American_ , I want to limit the discussion to the press\u2014that is, to newspapers and magazines. I'll not speculate about television, as television is outside my experience, and I have no ready opinion about sponsorship in that medium.\n\nIn your recent letter to me, you ask whether having studied your ground rules for proper conduct in sponsoring a magazine piece, I still see something sinister in the sponsorship. Yes, I do. _Sinister_ may not be the right word, but I see something ominous and unhealthy when a corporation underwrites an article in a magazine of general circulation. This is not, essentially, the old familiar question of an advertiser trying to influence editorial content: almost everyone is acquainted with that common phenomenon. Readers are aware that it is always present but usually in a rather subdued or nonthreatening form. Xerox's sponsoring of a specific writer on a specific occasion for a specific article is something quite different. No one, as far as I know, accuses Xerox of trying to influence editorial opinion. But many people are wondering why a large corporation placed so much money on a magazine piece, why the writer of the piece was willing to get paid in so unusual a fashion, and why _Esquire_ was ready and willing to have an outsider pick up the tab. These are reasonable questions.\n\nThe press in our free country is reliable and useful not because of its good character but because of its great diversity. As long as there are many owners, each pursuing his own brand of truth, we the people have the opportunity to arrive at the truth and to dwell in the light. The multiplicity of ownership is crucial. It's only when there are few owners, or as in a government-controlled press, one owner, that the truth becomes elusive and the light fails. For a citizen in our free society, it is an enormous privilege and a wonderful protection to have access to hundreds of periodicals, each peddling its own belief. There is safety in numbers: the papers expose each other's follies and peccadillos, correct each other's mistakes, and cancel out each other's biases. The reader is free to range around in the whole editorial bouillabaisse and explore it for the one clam that matters\u2014the truth.\n\nWhen a large corporation or a rich individual underwrites an article in a magazine, the picture changes: the ownership of that magazine has been diminished, the outline of the magazine has been blurred. In the case of the Salisbury piece, it was as though _Esquire_ had gone on relief, was accepting its first welfare payment, and was not its own man any more. The editor protests that he accepts full responsibility for the text and that Xerox had nothing to do with the whole business. But the fact remains that, despite his full acceptance of responsibility, he somehow did not get around to paying the bill. This is unsettling and I think unhealthy. Whenever money changes hands, something goes along with it\u2014an intangible something that varies with the circumstances. It would be hard to resist the suspicion that _Esquire_ feels indebted to Xerox, that Mr. Salisbury feels indebted to both, and that the ownership, or sovereignty, of _Esquire_ has been nibbled all around the edges.\n\nSponsorship in the press is an invitation to corruption and abuse. The temptations are great, and there is an opportunist behind every bush. A funded article is a tempting morsel for any publication\u2014particularly for one that is having a hard time making ends meet. A funded assignment is a tempting dish for a writer, who may pick up a much larger fee than he is accustomed to getting, and sponsorship is attractive to the sponsor himself, who, for one reason or another, feels an urge to penetrate the editorial columns after being so long pent up in the advertising pages. These temptations are real, and if the barriers were to be let down, I believe corruption and abuse would soon follow. Not all corporations would approach subsidy in the immaculate way Xerox did or in the same spirit of benefaction. There are a thousand reasons for someone's wishing to buy his way into print, many of them unpalatable, all of them to some degree self-serving. Buying and selling space in news columns could become a serious disease of the press. If it reached epidemic proportions, it could destroy the press. I don't want IBM or the National Rifle Association providing me with a funded spectacular when I open my paper. I want to read what the editor and the publisher have managed to dig up on their own\u2014and paid for out of the till.\n\nMy affection for the free press in a democracy goes back a long way. My love for it was my first and greatest love. If I felt a shock at the news of the Salisbury-Xerox- _Esquire_ arrangement, it was because the sponsorship principle seemed to challenge and threaten everything I believed in: that the press must not only be free, it must be fiercely independent\u2014to survive and to serve. Not all papers are fiercely independent, God knows, but there are always enough of them around to provide a core of integrity and an example that others feel obligated to steer by. The funded article is not in itself evil, but it is the beginning of evil, and it is an invitation to evil. I hope the invitation will not again be extended, and, if extended, I hope it will be declined.\n\nAbout a hundred and fifty years ago, de Tocqueville wrote: \"The journalists of the United States are generally in a very humble position, with a scanty education and a vulgar turn of mind.\" Today, we chuckle at this antique characterization. But about fifty years ago, when I was a young journalist, I had the good fortune to encounter an editor who fitted the description quite closely. Harold Ross, who founded _The New Yorker_ , was deficient in education and had\u2014at least to all outward appearances\u2014a vulgar turn of mind. What he did possess, though, was the ferocity of independence. He was having a tough time finding money to keep his floundering little sheet alive, yet he was determined that neither money nor influence would ever corrupt his dream or deflower his text.\n\nHis boiling point was so low as to be comical. The faintest suggestion of the shadow of advertising in his news and editorial columns would cause him to erupt. He would explode in anger, the building would reverberate with his wrath, and his terrible swift sword would go flashing up and down the corridors. For a young man, it was an impressive sight and a memorable one. Fifty years have not dimmed for me either the spectacle of Ross's ferocity or my own early convictions\u2014which were identical with his. He has come to my mind often while I've been composing this reply to your inquiry.\n\nI hope I've clarified by a little bit my feelings about the autonomy of the press and the dangers of sponsorship of articles. Thanks for giving me the chance to speak my piece.\n\nSincerely,\n\nE. B. White\n\nXerox thanked White for \"telling us what we didn't want to hear.\" A few months later, they wrote saying that Xerox had decided not to underwrite any more articles and that they were convinced that it was \"the right decision.\"\n\n_The Journalism Review_ of the Columbia University School of Journalism printed this entire exchange of letters under the title of, \"What E. B. White Told Xerox\u2014or How a Solitary Man of Letters Talked a Corporation Out of Funding Magazine Articles\u2014and Helped to Define a Free Press.\"\n\nI hazard the prophecy that in the long test of history, this one letter will establish E. B. White as one who sees things whole and who has the gift of language to tell us ordinary mortals what he sees.\n\nI want to close with a brief reference to the three children's stories.\n\nThe first, _Stuart Little_ , is about a mouse by that name. The book seems to lack an ending. It just stops. When I first read it, I thought a bunch of pages were missing from my copy. And White received letters complaining about this.\n\nTo one of them he replied, \"I think many readers find the end inconclusive, but I have always found life inconclusive, and I guess it shows up in my work.\"\n\nTo another he replied, \"Quite a number of children have written to ask me about Stuart. They want to know whether he got back home and whether he found Margalo (the bird he was hunting for). They are good questions, but I did not answer them because, in a way, Stuart's journey symbolizes the continuing journey that everybody undertakes\u2014in search for what is perfect and unattainable. This is perhaps too elusive an idea to put in a book for children, but I put it in anyway.\"\n\nAnd to a girl named Jill, he writes, \" _Stuart Little_ is the story of a quest or search. Much of life is questing and searching, and I was writing about that. If the book ends while the search is still going on, that's because I wanted it that way. As you grow older, you will realize that many of us in this world go through life looking for something that is beautiful and good\u2014often something we can't quite name. In Stuart's case, he was searching for the bird Margalo, who was his ideal of beauty and goodness. Whether he ever found her or not, or whether he got home or not, is less important than the adventure itself. If the book made you cry, that's because you are aware of the sadness and richness of life's involvement and the quest for beauty. Cheer up\u2014Stuart may yet find his bird. He may even get home again. Meantime, he is headed in the right direction, and I am sure you are.\"\n\n\"The right direction,\" which White also attributed to Harold Ross in his obituary, is central to White's concept of wholeness. One often does not know the precise goal, but one must always be certain of one's direction. The goal will reveal itself in due course.\n\nIt seems fitting, in view of White's closeness to animals, that in his later years he should turn to writing children's stories about animals. In this period, in a letter to a friend, he wrote that mice and spiders have been around for millions of years without damaging the environment. But, in the few thousand years that so-called civilized man has been around, he has nearly destroyed it.\n\nIn another letter he wrote, \"if it were not for spiders, the insects would take over the earth.\"\n\nLet me note the concluding paragraphs in _Charlotte's Web_ and _The Trumpet of the Swan_.\n\nCharlotte, the spider, has woven messages in her web that saved Wilbur, the pig, from being butchered and made him famous. The story concludes:\n\nMr. Zuckerman took fine care of Wilbur all the rest of his days, and the pig was often visited by friends and admirers, for nobody ever forgot the year of his triumph and the miracle of the web. Life in the barn was very good\u2014night and day, winter and summer, spring and fall, dull days and bright days. It was the best place to be, thought Wilbur, this warm delicious cellar, with the garrulous geese, the changing seasons, the heat of the sun, the passage of swallows, the nearness of rats, the sameness of sheep, the love of spiders, the smell of manure and the glory of everything.\n\nLouis the swan, from a genus of swans that make a trumpeting sound, was named after Louis Armstrong. Louis was born without a voice and acquired a trumpet that he learned to play. Sam, the boy who helped him learn to play it, says at the end:\n\nTonight I heard Louis' horn. My father heard it, too. The wind was right, and I could hear the notes of taps, just as darkness fell. There is nothing in all the world I like better than the trumpet of the swan....\n\nOn the pond where the swans were, Louis put his trumpet away. The cygnets crept under their mother's wing. Darkness settled on woods and fields and marsh. A loon called its wild night cry. As Louis relaxed and prepared for sleep, all his thoughts were on how lucky he was to inhabit such a beautiful earth, how lucky he had been to solve his problems with music, and how pleasant it was to look forward to another night of sleep and another day tomorrow, and the fresh morning, and the light that returns with the day.\n\nIn the preface to his recent collected book of poems, E. B. White wrote:\n\nTo me, poetry is what is memorable, and a poet is a fellow or a girl who lets drop a line that gets remembered in the morning. Poetry turns up in unexpected places, in unguarded moments. I have yet to encounter the line from the song in _Oklahoma_ , \"All the sounds of the earth are like music,\" without being brought to the edge of tears.\n\nThe interview with E. B. White on his 70th birthday ends with the question of what he cherished most in life. \"When my wife's Aunt Caroline was in her '90s,\" he replied, \"she lived with us and she once remarked, 'Remembrance is sufficient of the beauty we have seen.' I cherish the remembrance of the beauty I have seen. I cherish the grave compulsive world.\"\n\n## 8\n\n## **Old Age: The Ultimate Test of Spirit\n\nAn Essay on Preparation**\n\n_Spirit!_ What are we talking about? The unabridged dictionary I consulted begins a full page of definitions with \"The breath of life.\" But dictionaries can do little more than summarize common usage; and it seems clear to me, after reading the full page of definitions, that there is no well-accepted meaning for this much used and important word.\n\nI conclude, then, that I cannot give a concise definition for _spirit_ , for which old age seems to me to be the ultimate test. The meaning of that word, as I use it, lies beyond the barrier that separates mystery from what we call reality. Yet I have a sharp awareness of spirit when it is present, in myself and others, and I have a depressing feeling of loss when it is absent, in myself and others, at times when it is urgently needed.\n\nI have come to connect spirit, the kind I would like to see more of, to a concept of _serve_ as I see it in the consequences on those being served: do those being served grow as persons? Do they, while being served, become stronger, wiser, freer, more at peace with themselves, more likely themselves to become servants? And, what will be the effect on the least privileged in society? Will she or he benefit, or at least not be further deprived? The quality of a society will be judged by what the least privileged in it achieves. My hope for the future rests on the belief that among the legions of deprived and unsophisticated people are many true servants, and that most people can be helped to discriminate among those who presume to serve them, and identify, and respond only to those who are true servants.\n\nSpirit can be said to be the driving force behind the motive to serve. And the ultimate test for spirit in one's old age is, I believe, can one look back at one's active life and achieve serenity from the knowledge that one has, according to one's lights, served? And can one regard one's present state, no matter how limited by age and health, as one of continuing to serve? One of my deeply etched memories is the view of an old man of 95 sitting by the window of his fisherman's house on the far out coast of Maine quietly knitting nets for lobster traps which the active fisherman in the family would use. He was still serving with what he could do best at his age.\n\nMuch of my present perspective on old age comes from having watched my father grow old. I was very close to him. He was an intelligent and good man but with a fifth-grade education, and he lived a life of limited opportunity. But by a prudent use of his life, he managed to leave a little corner of the world a bit better than he found it. He stands tall in my memory as a model of the true servant. One of my treasured memories as a small boy is attending occasional evening meetings when he was a member of the city council. I would stay awake as long as I could because the meetings were sometimes exciting\u2014tumultuous is a better word\u2014and father was generally in the thick of the action. Then I would curl up in his overcoat behind his chair and go to sleep, to be carried home at the close of the meeting.\n\nFather lived to be 80 and achieved a remarkable serenity in his last years. A couple of years before he died, he told me that he realized that he was in his twilight years and that he had concluded that he should read some of the Bible since he had not read it at all. Then he added plaintively, \"I tried, but I quickly gave it up because it made no sense.\"\n\nWhen I was about 13, I recall listening to a conversation with a committee from our church that had come to try and persuade father to raise his quite nominal contribution. Father listened patiently and then said, \"No.\" He thought his contribution was about right. He was glad the church was there, but as an instrument for doing good in the world he rated it well below both his labor union and his political party. The committee left in a huff.\n\nIn his old age, father once commented to me, \"The tragedy of our town is that it once had a great people but it no longer has them.\" In his judgment the \"status\" people of our town\u2014bankers, industrialists, merchants, professional people\u2014were all mediocre. In the heat of one of father's political battles, the town's leading citizen, in money and prestige, tried to buy him off.\n\nThere is a much greater story to tell about my father but I will take another occasion for that. I have given enough of that story here to suggest that my early formative years when I was very close to him have shaped the way my life unfolded in important ways. I have given this much to suggest that watching my father grow old was a very special kind of experience, and it alerted me to watch my own aging so that I came into my old age with my eyes open\u2014and aware.\n\nI also feel it important to note that I did not grow up in a church-identified home. Consequently, I found it necessary to think my own way through a spiritual orientation for my life. There was much in the model of my father to guide me and it overshadowed what I got from the little exposure I had to churches. I am not recommending mine as the best way to grow up. I am simply noting what it was because it had a great deal to do with the adventure in preparation on which I have been embarked.\n\nAt 50, father suffered a health setback from which he recovered, but he dropped out of politics. In his old age, he told me that this was a wise move. \"All of my old political cronies my age are gone. If I had won my last contest for office, that would have put me into the big money and I probably would not be here today. I am lucky that I lost.\" What he did not say, but I would observe, is he would have missed the joy of the serenity of his old age.\n\nI have now gone past 80 and I have entered a new phase of life that I will comment on later, and I have frequent occasion to reflect on the quality of my father's old age, at a time when the Bible made no sense, and after an active life in which he rated churches in a quite inferior position. And I have concluded that, with all of this, he was a deeply religious man; and, he would be seen as religious in any peace-loving culture. I see his basic religious feeling as the root of his serenity, and I think of him now as one who was sustained by great human spirit all of his life.\n\nMy father and his father had lived their whole lives in the town where I was born and lived until I was 20, and father was deeply disappointed that I did not choose to make my home there. At age 22, I had made my career decision and I would go wherever it led me. Ultimately, it led to New York where I lived for 40 years. My roots, however, are in my father's tradition in Terre Haute, Indiana. These roots are still very much a part of me in my older years, even though the more than 60 years since I left Terre Haute have been in a very different world from the one my father lived in. Those 20 years with him in Terre Haute were the years of my formation, and they have stayed with me. I am sorry about people who reach old age without being aware of their roots.\n\nMalcolm Cowley's little book, _The View From Eighty_ , makes the point that rings true to my experience: that most of the literature about aging is written by younger people who have not been there, and that until one passes through that magic number that makes one old, one really cannot appreciate what old age is like. I could not have anticipated the view of life that I now have. And I may not be able to describe it in a way that is meaningful to younger people, perhaps not even to my own age group because I suspect that we oldsters are just as different, one from the other, as we have been at earlier stages in life. Each of us in our old age may be at the point of summing up our own unique experience and examining, and relating to, the very different roots from which we spring: roots that have shaped our whole existence.\n\nI have long pondered those lines with which Robert Browning opens his poem \"Rabbi Ben Ezra\":\n\n_Grow old along with me!_\n\n_The best is yet to be;_\n\n_The last of life for which the first was made_.\n\nA friend my age who is crippled with arthritis recently wrote quoting those lines and concluding with, \"Bah!\" I suppose that if I were wracked with pain my response might be the same. In the absence of that pain I keep wondering what is that \"best\" that Browning was talking about, or did he know what he was talking about?\n\nI have long been a meditator, and as I have grown older, meditation has become more central to my existence and takes much more of the typical day. I have taken training in both transcendental and Buddhist meditation, but my current meditation practices are pretty much my own. I have arrived at a point where I prefer my own private meditation to any formal religious service. As I have grown older, I have come to value solitude more and more. I doubt that I would ever want to be a hermit and live in complete isolation, but I definitely limit my contact with people and this tendency is growing. My wife and I, without talking about it, have evolved a relationship in which there is very little conversation. We enjoy being together and we appreciate our solitude together. Neither of us feels the need to be entertained, nor do we yearn to be young again.\n\nI read some, but much less than I once did\u2014although my vision is still good. Much of what I do read is rereading what I have read before, and I continue to find fresh meaning.\n\nAt age 75 I stopped making speeches, though I was still active. At 80 I stopped going to meetings, and I no longer travel at all. I use an automobile for local shopping only, and I will soon give that up.\n\nAt age 73, my wife and I entered a lifecare retirement community. I don't believe it is a good idea to segregate old people this way and thus limit their interaction with younger people. Both the old and the young lose by it. Someday, when we are a more civilized people and have come to live in and appreciate community, I suspect places like the one I now live in will be abandoned. We chose to come here because it was the best option available to us. If we were making the choice today, we would come to the same place we now live. The conscientious Quakers who run the place we live in do a good job of managing the services on which we depend. We are served by caring and sensitive people, and the trustees keep the place solvent, which is more than can be said for some places like this. I am deeply grateful to the dedicated trustees who maintain the integrity of the place where I will spend my last years.\n\nWe try to be friendly with fellow residents, and there are a few with whom we occasionally share meals. But my wife and I stay clear away from the frenetic activity, the game playing, and the traveling to exotic places that occupy so much of people's time. Most of my interaction with people is with younger people in active careers elsewhere. I share their joys and sorrows and I believe I give them something of value from my relative detachment and my more meditative life. And they give much to me. I know that at age 83 I am lucky to have these relationships with younger active people, and I appreciate them.\n\nOccasionally I am asked what it is like to be old; and there is some conversation about it. I am not sure I can put it down in black and white, but I will try.\n\nAs I see it now, my most interesting and productive years were from 60 to 75. This was not so much that I was a late bloomer, but because from 40 to 60 I made conscious preparation (more on that later) for a second career, and I had a really good one. Also, that new career that started at age 60 rested on 38 years as a disciplined organization man in a huge bureaucracy. A disciplined life can be lived in many ways, but the kind I had in my early work was absolutely essential for a good second career. People who have managed their lives without experiencing that kind of sustained discipline, both the bitter and the sweet, seem to me to have missed something important.\n\nI have never been a \"high energy\" person, and at 75 there were definite signals that I should slow down. I welcomed the change of pace. I stopped traveling altogether, something I had done a great deal of. In a way, this may be seen as the start of a third career, a very low-key one. Now, at age 83, I write some, reflect a lot, see a few people, and occasionally write a letter to someone in active life suggesting some line of thought or action. I do not miss the more active life I used to lead.\n\nThere may have been a special impact of the big round number 80 that I passed three years ago. Our children put on a big party for my wife and me so we could not overlook the fact that something important had happened. A different view of life gradually emerged. I always knew that I was not immortal but as I passed 80 I became aware that I was in a \"countdown\" era. It was not that the signs of death were imminent, but I slowly became more detached. This has been a new and different phase, an even more radical break than I made at age 60 when I retired from my main career and started a second career; or, at 75 when I stopped traveling, except that this time there was not a precise point of change. I had come to realize that I could no longer serve by carrying an active role in the world. I would only get in the way if I tried. Now, I came to accept, I can best serve by being. It was not a new career, like it could have been seen at age 75 when the major change I made was to stop traveling and making speeches. Now, no mountains to climb. I may continue to do some things, mostly writing; but it is no longer \"production.\" Whether I get it done or not is no longer important, as it used to be.\n\nI scan the daily newspaper but I rarely listen to radio or TV news\u2014because they cannot be scanned. I prefer to meditate, and I have come to view my meditating as serving. Somehow the quiet and peace of anyone's meditation communicates and enriches the culture. I feel the fruits of other people's meditation.\n\nReviewing or summing up my life is not a preoccupation. Occasionally I call up something out of the past as a help in clearing my thought about where I now am\u2014and I hope to remain sharply aware of where I am. I do not brood on the past. There have been errors, failures, and hurts but they were in that other existence from which I am now quite separated, and I look back on it with detachment, as if it were the record of another's life.\n\nThe main difference between this present past-80 period and my earlier old age when I still felt myself to be in a career, of having a work, may be that up to recently there has always been a future that would ultimately be connected with the present as the past. Now there is no future and there is really no past. There is only a history that may as well be another's past. There is only now. Maybe this is the \"best\" that Robert Browning assured us of: finally to achieve living wholly in the present moment, unencumbered with the record of one's past and oblivious to the future, and accepting of the loss of energy and the passions of youth. I believe this is what my father achieved in his old age. He bound over to me a sense of rest and being at peace with himself and the world, and I recognized this state when I arrived at 80, 34 years after my father's death. I find this chapter of my life as rewarding as any previous one. And I feel a greater sense of continuity with my father's life than I ever felt before.\n\nLet me hasten to add to what I have just said: these recent changes have not put me in a state of euphoria, although I feel okay most of the time. I have withdrawn from active participation in society and live in a lifecare community. Consequently, the usual frustrations and irritations of life have been substantially reduced. But when these do occur, as on occasion they still do, my reaction is little different from what it has always been.\n\nI have noted that my father in his 80th and most serene year, could lament the tragedy of our town because of the paucity of great people in it. So I, in my 83rd year and with a much larger view of the world than my father had, now lament what seems the small number among those who see themselves as able, conscientious, and dedicated, and who are disposed to respond to a vision of the larger roles they might play and the much greater service to society that the institutions they influence might render. We have plenty of people with the ability and the stamina to build and lead a much more serving society and I believe they would lead fuller lives, if they would rise to their opportunities. What they seem to lack is spirit, and I wonder what they will be like when they grow old. Will they find it the \"best\" that is yet to be? I said at the outset that I cannot define spirit. But I have tried in what I have said to give human spirit a meaning that is beyond rational definition.\n\nEarlier I noted, as I look back now, my years from 60 to 75 were in some ways my most interesting and productive because, in part, from age 40 to 60 I made conscious preparation for my old age. When I was about 40, I had the good fortune to read an article by a radio commentator of that day, Elmer Davis. Davis had a coronary attack when he was past 60 that slowed him down and made him more reflective. Out of his reflection came an essay entitled, \"The Uses of Old People.\" In it he made the point that old people can be particularly useful, not just for the reason that they are more seasoned and experienced, but because there are important things to be done that are best done by old people, either because they do not fit well into a career or they are too risky for younger people to undertake. Furthermore, he advised that young people should look forward to, and prepare for old age as a time of potentially great usefulness rather than as a time when one is put out to pasture when one wears out. This message came through to me loud and clear, and I resolved that I would then begin to prepare for a second career at age 60 when I could elect my pension where I worked.\n\nI had been reasonably successful in my work and my volunteer activity up to age 40, but I realized that I was not a person of great talents or highly specialized abilities, and that I would not emerge at age 60 as a much sought after professional. Without a specific second career in mind, what would I prepare for?\n\nMaking plans for my life has never been a preoccupation. I left college with the aim of entering a big business and with the expectation that my career would evolve as opportunities presented themselves and as the spirit moved me. This strategy had served well up to age 40, and I saw no reason to change it. I simply had my eye on age 60 when I would start a second career (if I was still around), and in those intervening years I would continue to evolve, but with the aim that I was preparing for something that I could not then define. I had no idea what my old age would be like or what I would do with it. \"Take it as it comes\" was my motto as it had been up to that point. I do not recall that I thought in these terms, but I seemed to set out to favor and accelerate the kind of evolutionary development that had taken place up to age 40. I did not awake each morning with the question, \"What will I do today to prepare for my old age?\" In fact, once I embarked on this course, I rarely gave it a thought. It simply became a way of life, and there was a good deal of chance in it. What was different was that I became more venturesome and experimental in doing things that would widen my horizons and enlarge my self-understanding. All that I am now sure of is that I arrived at age 60 well prepared to be useful, and that interesting and challenging opportunities that I could not have anticipated at age 40 were numerous; more than I could take on.\n\nI am quite a \"private\" person and I shared this thinking only with my wife, who understood and approved. I am sure, however, that I was considered \"odd\" by my friends and associates because I did unconventional things. It is also clear that my superiors in my company were at times a bit puzzled about what to do with me. I know they regarded me as valuable because they paid me well. But valuable for what? They resolved their puzzlement when I was 50 by appointing me director of Management Research, providing me with sufficient budget to hire a professional staff, and giving me a broad charter to research and advise regarding the management of this huge company, especially how its top structure functioned (or failed to function). My last ten years with my company were excellent preparation for my old age, better than any other executive post I know about. I have often wondered how the choices I made in using my optional time, both inside and outside the company, contributed to how my final role there evolved. However, it was not a bed of roses. While I had the charter and the responsibility and the budget, the bureaucracy did not understand it, and I was in collision with the establishment all over the place. This too was good preparation for living with ambiguity and served me well in my second career. When I retired, the position disappeared. I could not train a successor. That person would have to prepare himself or herself as I did. And no one did.\n\nIn writing about my experience now, I hope to encourage others to resolve in their own ways to prepare for their old age, to prepare to face uncertainty. Such preparation, if wisely done, may not only favor a fruitful old age but it may, as with me, make the years of preparation more productive and enjoyable. I recall that once a colleague my age, one who was obviously not preparing, came into my office one morning, seated himself before my desk, puffed violently on his cigarette for several seconds, and then said, \"I am leading a life of quiet desperation!\" Later, when we had both retired, he called my wife one morning and asked her advice on how he could get into the kind of work I was doing. Shortly after I had announced my retirement, a close friend who was president of one of our subsidiaries, a very successful man as measured by income and prestige, lunched with me and asked how, when he retired in a couple of years, could he get into the kind of work I would be doing. I had to say, as gently as I could tell him, \"No way!\" If one will settle for a retirement of golf and fishing and simple civic chores, no preparation may be needed. But if one wants one's life to ascend creatively and in new ways, as long as one has one's wits, then my experience would suggest that one is well advised to prepare.\n\nIn my later years in my company, I did some lecturing in business schools. When I described my role in my company some of the students' eyes would brighten and someone would say, \"That is the kind of job I would like to have.\" To which I would reply, \"I should tell you that it took me 25 years to get into a position to do this work.\" And the response would likely be, \"Oh no! Maybe 6 months, but not 25 years\" (as much as most of them had already lived). And I would say, \"Maybe you could do it in less; but you would have to take the time to build the trust that this kind of unstructured role requires. I have the charter because the company has some needs and feels some pains that no one can define with precision. For those in charge, trust that I will search for and carry out actions that will do more good than harm. That trust needs to be high and one does not earn it quickly. Whatever your career, if you would like to evolve into a position of great trust, then you will need to use your opportunities in a way that constitutes preparation for being given that trust.\" Young people have a hard time grappling with that idea, but it is of the very essence.\n\nA detailed account of my 40 to 60 preparation would not be useful to another. Everyone should chart her or his own course. I will give a brief summary of mine just to suggest the range of opportunities that may be available if one opens one's imagination and is alert to opportunities, which the two colleagues noted above seemed unwilling, perhaps lacked the courage, to do.\n\nI made the decision to prepare for my old age near the end of WWII, when commercial air travel was just resuming. I made the firm resolve that I would not fly in connection with my work. I did not want to be speeded up. The trains were still good and I enjoyed train travel. But mostly I valued the meditative intervals that train travel afforded. I do not recall that I thought this through at the time but, in retrospect, meditative intervals have been very important to me\u2014both long ones and short ones. It has sometimes been crucial, in the heat of controversy, to withdraw into the silence for just a few seconds so that the creative processes can function. For a big idea to evolve, I have found that a big chunk of meditative time is required, and train riding was sometimes the best way for me to get those big chunks.\n\nI have seldom gotten an important learning from reading. I am slow and it is hard work. Most of my learning in this 40 to 60 period was in conversation with people. I got as much out of organizing my thoughts as I did from listening, and listening was important. I found my way to people interested in sharing (and I had much to share, especially in those last ten years) with people whose perspectives were different from mine and who made me stretch.\n\nTwo years were spent in weekly sessions with Jungian analysts (one year with a woman, one with a man) on the analysis of my dreams. These sessions greatly enlarged my awareness of my inner life, and I believe my creativity was quickened.\n\nI developed a really close relationship with several quite different institutions: The Menninger (psychiatric) Foundation, The U.S. Air Force, and the National Council of Churches, along with several large businesses. I accepted my first teaching position in a university-related school for managers with which I worked for parts of seven summers.\n\nMost important in all of this was my relationship with people. In the last part of my AT&T career, I became interested in the ethics of the company (to the discomfort of some well-placed people), which led me to establish a relationship with professors of ethics in Catholic, Jewish, and Protestant seminaries. Some close friendships developed, especially my friendship with Rabbi Abraham J. Heschel.\n\nI am not a scholar, and little of my work in this period was centered on reading, with two exceptions. I made quite an in-depth study of the history of AT&T. Because of being in the corporate office, I had access to the archives. I made a determined, but unsuccessful, effort to interest the executives of the company in that rich history, by knowledge of which officers and directors might have saved the company from dissolution in 1984. The other study in this period was to read extensively in the history of the Religious Society of Friends. This was useful in my retirement years when I wrote regularly for an outstanding Quaker magazine, _Friends Journal_. Both of these excursions into the history of institutions with which I was very familiar confirm what a noted historian once said, \"The main thing we learn from history is that we do not learn from history.\" Both of these depth interests in the history of institutions I was involved with were important parts of my years of preparation, and both were enjoyable activities while I engaged in them.\n\nI noted above two of my AT&T colleagues who were my age and who retired and found themselves rudderless. Both had the same opportunity to prepare for their old age that I had, and the preparation I experienced would have made a more enjoyable existence while they did it. Both were better scholars than I, one Phi Beta Kappa, but neither apparently heard the same signal that I did at age 40. Perhaps they were not listening for signals as I was, all of the time\u2014and still am. Neither of them lived long after retirement.\n\nIn giving some details of my own preparation I am not suggesting that what I did would be appropriate or possible for anyone else. But of this I am quite sure: anyone who thinks of his or her old age as an event to be prepared for is more likely to have a more fruitful old age than one who has not thought that way, regardless of what his or her preparation consists of. Whether one's gifts and opportunities are great or small, my advice would be\u2014prepare!\n\nThe temptation to be resisted by highly gifted people, I believe, is the hope (if they think about it at all) that they will be able to exploit their gifts to the end. Some may make it through life on that assumption (charitable friends may assure them they are making it when an objective appraisal might tell them that they are not). I have just finished a new biography of a leading theologian of a generation past, a man of exceptional gifts. He had a health setback as he approached old age, and he spent miserable years fretting that he could no longer exploit his gifts as he once did. He was unprepared.\n\nWhat would adequate preparation have meant to such a person? I can only speculate. It seems to me that one of the signs of emerging maturity is an acceptance of life's fragility and acceptance of new conditions, whatever they may be, plus recognition of G. K. Chesterton's admonition that (life's) \"wildness lies in wait.\" It is not an obsessive preoccupation that makes one sick or fearful. It is alertness, readiness to respond when it is appropriate to respond. As one attains maturity, one learns to live peacefully and sleep well with a submerged awareness of constant danger. The most important part of preparation for old age may be awareness, while one is young, that a time will come when one steps aside from one's main career and life will be different. If one looks forward to a second career in which appropriate old age involvements are at the center, then it seems important that one make that change\u2014if one has the option\u2014while one still has the energy to undertake it, and that one prepare for that change.\n\nOld age may be one of those conditions that everyone knows about but for which some do not prepare. The benefit of preparing may be that no matter what impairments one suffers, one can make a good life of it as long as one has one's wits. (When one's wits are gone, it doesn't matter.) It may be that what deters some people from preparing for such a contingency as old age is want of courage, what Paul Tillich called \"The Courage to Be\"\u2014the courage to be aware and to live comfortably with the constant threat of adversity, pain and anxiety. I suspect that what results from such want of courage is a false security that may betray one when one faces old age and finds that one lacks what Fosdick called \"The Power to See Life Through.\" Thus, serenity may not be what one achieves in old age; it may be one of the fruits of what one has learned by preparing while one is young.\n\nThere are many signals all of the time that will cue one to the ideas that will make life more rewarding, at all stages. But one is likely to hear those signals only if one is alert to signals, all of the time. The problem is that there is a baffling number of signals if one is alert to them, and one must choose which of them one will heed. At this point meditation will serve, at all stages of life. Not only do our rational reflective processes sometimes function better in meditation, but one may develop sensitivity to intimations from beyond the barrier that separates what we call reality from mystery. Jung might say that in meditation we may tap the collective unconscious. What appears in meditation is sometimes the same as what appears in dreams. Then, in one's conscious logic, one can always ask, \"Is the originator of this signal really acting in the spirit of my servant?\"\n\nWhen, at age 40, I heard the signal from Elmer Davis, \"prepare now for your old age,\" I judged him to be a true servant and heeded his advice. In the perspective of 43 years' experience, I find that earlier judgment confirmed. I am grateful to Elmer Davis, and to my father, and many other true servants for the gifts of spirit, by both advice and example, that have sustained me. Old age _is_ the ultimate test of spirit.\n\nSurviving from my Boy Scout experience 70 years ago is the motto: _Be prepared_. I am eternally grateful for it.\n\nAnd I am grateful to E. B. White for \"Sufficient is the remembrance of the beauty I have seen.\" That remembrance is always with me, and I do not have to see it again.\n\n## **Afterword**\n\n### JAMES P. SHANNON\n\nStudents of Robert K. Greenleaf should find the publication of this select collection of essays from his most productive years both timely and useful. Timely, because the number of his followers has grown geometrically in the last two decades; and useful, because this growing company of students is currently very much in need of a single source book that brings together the best of Greenleaf's separate essays, now available in print only in several discrete publications.\n\nAs a young man, Greenleaf was fascinated by his father's ability to \"get things done.\" Greenleaf's father was an engineer and a tinkerer in Terre Haute, Indiana. Through the rest of his life Robert would be searching for those persons who could emulate his father's ability to actualize their own potentialities by helping other persons learn how to \"get things done.\"\n\nArmed with his B.A. degree from Carleton College in 1926, and motivated by the counsel of his sociology professor, Oscar Helming, to seek employment in a company large enough to prepare its employees to become leaders in a society increasingly in need of leaders with vision, he sought and got his first job, with Ohio Bell Telephone, a subsidiary of the giant AT&T.\n\nHis first assignment at Ohio Bell was digging postholes for telephone poles. It is a tribute to his supervisors there that they soon made him a teacher to train other entry-level construction workers how to become foremen. In this role, between 1927 and 1929, he once said, he spent \"the most formative years\" of his life. It was here that he found his life's work: to identify people of talent and to help them obtain the skills they need to move into leadership positions. During the next three decades, Greenleaf and AT&T prospered jointly by his remarkable success in identifying and developing generations of promising employees who would come to be known in his vocabulary as \"servant-leaders.\"\n\nIn essence, Greenleaf was AT&T's in-house talent scout. The \"comers\" he spotted tended to be persons who were motivated primarily by a creative desire to be effective in doing whatever had to be done to make their organization work. They also tended to be persons who were generous with their time, their talent, and their training. They tended to be nonjudgmental and benevolently disposed toward their co-workers. They also tended to be good listeners who favored collegial decision making, who knew themselves well, respected themselves, and had those qualities Greenleaf considered essential: sound values, personal strength, intuition, and spirit.\n\nThroughout his life, Greenleaf would insist that his theses on leadership were based on empirical evidence in the workplace, not on deductive corollaries from some abstruse philosophical or theological premises. Even though he would spend his life as a teacher, he continued to have an innate suspicion of \"education with a capital E.\" The epitaph he chose for his tombstone reflects both his modesty and his commitment to grass-roots learning. It reads, \"Potentially a good plumber, ruined by a sophisticated education.\"\n\nReaders of this book should bear in mind that AT&T and Greenleaf were consciously motivated by their mutual desire to find, train, and empower young people who would be able one day to lead that enormous company to new heights of success and profitability. To achieve such results, all parties to this joint venture had to agree that wanting to become a leader and being a leader are good and wholesome, human objectives. They are not signs of hubris or self-seeking. John W. Gardner, in one of his earliest and best-known essays, warned that the egalitarian and democratic thrust of our educational system, left to itself, will inevitably inoculate our children with what he calls the \"anti-leadership vaccine.\" To counteract this predictable perversion of democracy, we must teach our children that it is good mental hygiene for them to want to become leaders and that our healthy society eventually depends on our continuing ability to raise up generations of visionary and energetic leaders in every sector of our national life.\n\nAn essential element in this educational process, according to Greenleaf, is our ability to teach our children that true leadership ultimately depends on the legitimacy of one's appointment, election, or promotion to a position of authority and on one's subsequent ability to validate or confirm this role by the quality of one's performance, called \"the authority of service.\"\n\nThe authority of service is that additional level of legitimacy or validation that is earned after one is elected mayor, appointed chief of police, or elevated to the rank of bishop. These two levels of authority can exist separately; but ideally they co-exist, with each level giving added legitimacy to the other. The authority of service is that added distinction that good parents, good teachers, and good pastors enjoy by reason of their dependable performance over time, and which beginners in any career envy and covet. This kind of authority is built slowly and depends on one's ability to do one's homework, to treat others fairly, to meet one's deadlines, to get the job done right, and to tell the truth habitually.\n\nLeaders who see their strength only in their alleged \"power\" are understandably reluctant to share that strength. Leaders who see their strength in the quality of their performance are eager to share it, and, in so doing, to multiply it.\n\nIn Herman Hesse's novel _Journey to the East_ , the servant Leo is the person who has the greatest legitimacy as a leader because he has earned the authority of service by his performance. Reading this novel helped Greenleaf crystallize his own thinking that true leadership is always a result of performance. In the Greenleaf economy, power shared is power multiplied, not lessened. This kind of generous participation in the workplace turns followers into peers and peers into new leaders and builds new levels of trust among persons mutually committed to the pursuit of desirable shared objectives.\n\nManagement consultants who diagnose corporate strengths and weaknesses typically focus their studies on customers, products, or shareholders. Robert Greenleaf opted to focus his analyses on employees, the persons he considered the neglected stakeholders, the persons whose goodwill, energy, and loyalty are too often taken for granted. In his view, if employees received the care, training, and attention they deserve, shareholder and customer satisfaction would inevitably follow.\n\nOne reason that Greenleaf's essays are in such demand today is that modern corporate restructuring has indeed tended to take the employees for granted. In Greenleaf's value system, if the human persons who do the work of the company are neglected, shareholders and customers will suffer; and conversely, employees who are carefully selected, well trained, and appreciated will give shareholder and customer satisfaction higher priority.\n\nEntirely apart from his appeal to business leaders today is Greenleaf's attractiveness as an advocate of humane values across the spectrum in all human relations. To the extent that we could practice his style of servant-leadership, we would not only be better employees; we would be better parents, better spouses, better friends, better human persons. We would be more civil, more courteous, more thoughtful, more gracious, more generous. One need not be a professional anthropologist to realize that these attractive human qualities are in short supply in our frenetic society. Nor need one be a psychologist or psychiatrist to see why so many thoughtful persons see Greenleaf as a welcome voice for our time.\n\nOne of Greenleaf's favorite aphorisms was, \"Organization kills spirit.\" If he were with us today, I would bet that he would be a fan of the \"Dilbert\" cartoon. When he took early retirement from AT&T to work as an independent consultant, he was intrigued by the irreverence of the college students of the sixties. He regularly prowled campus book stores to find out what the students were reading and singing. He saw himself as a dedicated change agent, and he saw the young people of that age as his likely allies in this pursuit.\n\nIn my decade as director of the General Mills Foundation, I became a practitioner and a true believer in the teachings of Robert Greenleaf. In that period, our company decided to restructure. The downside of that process for me was that my staff was cut from 6\u00bd persons to 4 persons. The upside was that our corporate profits rose dramatically and my grants budget doubled, from $4.5 million to $9 million. But in our office we had to cut back on \"site visits\" to the local turf of our grant applicants because we lacked the personnel to do it. There is one school of thought in the field of philanthropy which holds that site visits are the single best indicator of the quality of any grant-making program, and our ability to make site visits was slipping away.\n\nTaking a page from Greenleaf, I made quiet personal visits to about a dozen persons in our company, none of whom reported to me, to ask whether they had any interest or desire to volunteer some of their free time to help our staff make up for our loss of personnel. Wonder of wonders, they were eager to help us! Sometimes on holidays, sometimes on weekends, sometimes in the evening after work, these generous fellow employees pitched in to help us do our work. They were truly servant-leaders. Their only reward was the psychic satisfaction they got from helping our small staff maintain some of the community outreach we needed so desperately and that was slipping away from us.\n\nPlease bear in mind that I had no mandate from management to use Greenleaf's ideas or to recruit in-house volunteers. I neither sought nor asked permission from above. The point here is that Greenleaf's ideas are portable and can be productively used by anyone, anywhere\u2014in a family, in a school, in a church congregation, in a soccer team. All it takes is a decision by two or more persons to explore ways to help one another actualize more of their individual potential.\n\nThere is an expression among pilots who fly float planes off the lakes in my native Minnesota: When a plane is at rest in the water, the surface tension of the water \"holds\" the plane. Prior to take-off from water, the pilot must take enough time and generate enough speed so that the water loses its \"grip\" on the floats and the plane gets \"up on the step\"\u2014that is, out of the water but not yet in the air\u2014before the pilot can actually take the plane airborne.\n\nIn my view the organization that Robert K. Greenleaf founded in 1964\u2014now called The Greenleaf Center\u2014is \"up on the step.\" It is poised for take-off to new heights. This book itself is a graphic illustration that the center and its energetic director Larry Spears are responding to the growing need in our society for the ideas of Robert Greenleaf and to the growing number of students of Greenleaf who need and want a single source compendium like this welcome volume.\n\n## **References and Permissions**\n\n**The Foreword** is an original essay created for this collection by Peter Vaill. Copyright \u00a9 1998 Peter Vaill. Printed with permission of the author.\n\n**The Introduction** is adapted from previous writings by Larry C. Spears, especially the Introduction to _Insights on Leadership_ , published by John Wiley & Sons. Copyright \u00a9 1998 by Larry C. Spears.\n\nChapter 1: **Servant: Retrospect and Prospect** was originally published in 1980. Copyright \u00a9 1998 The Greenleaf Center.\n\nChapter 2: **Education and Maturity** was originally published in 1962. Copyright \u00a9 1998 The Greenleaf Center.\n\nCopyright permissions from _Complete Poems of Robert Frost_. Copyright 1916, 1921 by Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. Copyright renewed by Robert Frost. Reprinted by permission of Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.\n\nCopyright permissions from _The Hollow Men_ in \"Collected Poems\" 1909\u201335, by T. S. Eliot. Copyright by Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc. Reprinted by permission of Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc.\n\nChapter 3: **The Leadership Crisis** was originally published in Volume XIV, Number 3, November, 1978 of _HUMANITAS: Journal of the Institute of Man_ , Duquesne University. Copyright \u00a9 1998 The Greenleaf Center.\n\nChapter 4: **Have You a Dream Deferred?** was originally published in 1967. Copyright \u00a9 1998 The Greenleaf Center.\n\nChapter 5: **The Servant as Religious Leader** was originally published in 1982. Copyright \u00a9 1998 The Greenleaf Center.\n\nChapter 6: **Seminary as Servant** was originally published in 1981. Copyright \u00a9 1998 The Greenleaf Center.\n\nChapter 7: **My Debt to E. B. White** was originally published in 1987. Copyright \u00a9 1998 The Greenleaf Center.\n\nReprinted by permission of Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc.: From _Letters of E. B. White_ , copyright 1976 by E. B. White; from \"A Slight Sound at Evening\" in _Essays of E. B. White_ , copyright 1954 by E. B. White; \"I Paint What I See\" from _Poems & Sketches of E. B. White_, copyright 1933 by E. B. White; from \"The Second Tree from the Corner\" in _The Second Tree from the Corner_ by E. B. White; from _Charlotte's Web_ by E. B. White, copyright 1952, 1980 by E. B. White; from _The Trumpet of the Swan_ by E. B. White, copyright 1970; from \"Preface\" in _Poems & Sketches of E. B. White_, copyright 1981 by E. B. White.\n\nReprinted by permission of the _New York Times_ : From \"E. B. White: Notes and Comment by Author,\" by Israel Shenker, of July 11, 1969.\n\nReprinted by permission, copyright 1951, 1961, 1979, _The New Yorker Magazine_ , Inc.: From _Poems & Sketches of E. B. White_ (Harper & Row), copyright 1933, 1961 by E. B. White. Originally in _The New Yorker_ ; From _The Second Tree from the Corner_ (Harper & Bros.), copyright 1947, 1975 by E. B. White. Originally in _The New Yorker_.\n\nChapter 8: **Old Age: The Ultimate Test of Spirit** was originally published in 1987. Copyright \u00a9 1998 The Greenleaf Center.\n\n**The Afterword** is an original essay created for this collection by James P. Shannon. Copyright \u00a9 1998 James P. Shannon. Printed with permission of the author.\n\n## **Greenleaf Bibliography**\n\nGreenleaf, Robert K. \"Abraham Joshua Heschel: Build a Life Like a Work of Art,\" _Friends Journal,_ 1973, 19(15), 459-460.\n\n\u2014. _Advices to Servants_. Indianapolis: The Greenleaf Center, 1991.\n\n\u2014. \"The Art of Knowing.\" _Friends Journal_ , 1974, 20(17).\n\n\u2014. \"Business Ethics\u2014Everybody's Problem.\" _New Catholic World_ , 1980, 223, 275-278.\n\n\u2014. \"Choose the Nobler Belief.\" _AA Grapevine_ , 1966, 23(5), 27-31.\n\n\u2014. \"Choosing Greatness.\" _AA Grapevine_ , 1966, 23(4), 26-30.\n\n\u2014. \"Choosing to be Aware.\" _AA Grapevine_ , 1966, 23(1), 26-28.\n\n\u2014. \"Choosing to Grow.\" _AA Grapevine_ , 1966, 23(2), 11-13.\n\n\u2014. \"Community as Servant and Nurturer of the Human Spirit.\" _Resources for Community-Based Economic Development_ , 1986, 4, 9-11.\n\n\u2014. _Education and Maturity_. Indianapolis: The Greenleaf Center, 1988.\n\n\u2014. _Have You a Dream Deferred?_ Indianapolis: The Greenleaf Center, 1988.\n\n\u2014. _The Institution as Servant_. Indianapolis: The Greenleaf Center, 1976.\n\n\u2014. _The Leadership Crisis_. Indianapolis: The Greenleaf Center, 1978.\n\n\u2014. _Life's Choices and Markers_. Indianapolis: The Greenleaf Center, 1986.\n\n\u2014. _Mission in a Seminary: A Prime Trustee Concern_. Indianapolis: The Greenleaf Center, 1981.\n\n\u2014. _My Debt to E. B. White_. Indianapolis: The Greenleaf Center, 1987.\n\n\u2014. _Old Age: The Ultimate Test of Spirit_. Indianapolis: The Greenleaf Center, 1987.\n\n\u2014. _On Becoming a Servant Leader_. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1996.\n\n\u2014. \"Overcome Evil with Good.\" _Friends Journal_ , 1977, 23(10), 292-302.\n\n\u2014. _Robert Frost's \"Directive\" and the Spiritual Journey_. Boston: Nimrod Press, 1963.\n\n\u2014. _Seeker and Servant_. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1996.\n\n\u2014. _Seminary as Servant_. Indianapolis: The Greenleaf Center, 1988.\n\n\u2014. _Servant Leadership_. New York: Paulist Press, 1977.\n\n\u2014. _The Servant as Leader_. Indianapolis: The Greenleaf Center, 1991.\n\n\u2014. \"The Servant as Leader.\" _Journal of Religion and the Applied Behavioral Sciences_ , Winter 1982, 3, 7-10.\n\n\u2014. _The Servant as Religious Leader_. Indianapolis: The Greenleaf Center, 1983.\n\n\u2014. _Servant: Retrospect and Prospect_. Indianapolis: The Greenleaf Center, 1980.\n\n\u2014. _Spirituality as Leadership_. Indianapolis: The Greenleaf Center, 1988.\n\n\u2014. _Teacher as Servant: A Parable_. Indianapolis: The Greenleaf Center, 1987.\n\n\u2014. \"The Trustee and the Risks of Persuasive Leadership,\" _Hospital Progress_ , 1978, pp. 50-52, 88.\n\n\u2014. Trustee Traditions and Expectations.\" In _The Good Steward: A Guide to Theological School Trusteeship_. Washington, D.C.: Association of Governing Boards of Universities and Colleges, n.d.\n\n\u2014. _Trustees as Servants_. Indianapolis: The Greenleaf Center, 1990.\n\n\u2014. \"Two More Choices.\" _AA Grapevine_ , 1966, 23(3), 22-23.\n\n## Index\n\n\"A Slight Sound at Evening\" (White), _The Yale Review_ , \u2013243\n\n_A World Waiting to Be Born_ (Peck), ,\n\nabilities, intellectual leadership,\n\nacceptance, of self,\n\nachievement\n\nindicators,\n\nmission, \u2013212\n\npersonal goals, \u201375, \u201397\n\nactions\n\nintent vs. actual result,\n\nproductive vs. aimless,\n\nreflexive, \u201334\n\nrightness of, \u201386\n\nvoluntary, \u201353\n\nactivities\n\ndiversionary,\n\ntrusteeship,\n\nvolunteer, \u2013272\n\nActon, Lord, on power,\n\nadministration, trustee oversight,\n\nadministrators\n\nchairperson relationships, \u2013190\n\nservant of the mission,\n\ntrustees, \u2013192\n\nvision,\n\nadmissions, self-selection,\n\nage\n\nof the anti-leader,\n\ncreativity,\n\nagenda, hidden,\n\nAlcoholics Anonymous\n\nintegrating servant-leadership concept,\n\nmoney, \u2013151\n\nalienation\n\nchurches,\n\nproblem of widespread, ,\n\nrecovering from, ,\n\namelioration, Ralph Waldo Emerson,\n\nAmerican Education Society (AES), \u2013216,\n\nAmerican Telephone & Telegraph Company\n\nDirector of Management Research, , \u2013273\n\ninstitutional history, \u201320,\n\nservant-leadership training programs,\n\ntraining foremen, \u2013113\n\n\"umbrella\" effect,\n\nanalysis\n\nconscious, \u2013130\n\nsurvey responses, \u2013230\n\nAnderson, Hans Christian, Frank Lloyd Wright,\n\nAndover, Congregational seminary,\n\nAndover model, seminaries, ,\n\nAngell, Katharine, _The New Yorker_ , \u2013240\n\nanswers, frustration, \u201363\n\nanti-leader, age of,\n\nanti-leadership vaccine,\n\nantitrust laws, competition,\n\nanxiety\n\ndealing with, \u2013108\n\nreligious leadership,\n\narguments, persuasion process, , \u2013135\n\nart\n\nchairmanship,\n\nof the possible,\n\nof trusteeship,\n\naspirin effect, ,\n\nassumptions\n\ndecision governing,\n\nrealistic, \u2013106\n\nattitude\n\nreception of liberating visions, \u201359\n\nstudent,\n\nwonder,\n\nattributes, leadership potential,\n\nautonomy\n\nof a free press, \u2013259\n\nmaintaining, \u201345\n\nawareness\n\nencouraging,\n\nservant-leader characteristics,\n\nwidening your,\n\nBarnard College, _Education and Maturity_ , \u201376\n\nbarriers, leadership preparation,\n\nbeliefs\n\nfailure of traditional,\n\nreligious leadership,\n\nrightness of, \u201386\n\nBellow, Saul, _Herzog_ ,\n\nbias, cultural,\n\n_Bible_ (King James Version), vision,\n\nBlake, William\n\non imagination, , ,\n\nperception, , ,\n\n_The Marriage of Heaven and Hell_ ,\n\nBlanchard, Ken, servant-leadership concept,\n\nBlock, Peter\n\nservant-leadership concept,\n\n_Stewardship_ , ,\n\n_The Empowered Manager_ , ,\n\nboards of directors, roles,\n\nBoston Symphony Orchestra, Serge Koussevitsky,\n\nBostonians, telephone industry history, \u2013223\n\nBordas, Juana, _Pluralistic Reflections on Servant-Leadership_ ,\n\nBrowning, Robert, \"Rabbi Ben Ezra,\" ,\n\nbusiness\n\ncompetition, \u201328\n\npeople-first,\n\nprimary purpose,\n\ncareers\n\nchoice,\n\ngrowth, \u201375\n\nsatisfaction,\n\nsecond, \u2013278\n\nsignificance,\n\ncaring\n\ncommunity,\n\ngood society,\n\ninstitutions,\n\nJ.P. Morgan, \u2013222\n\nresults of,\n\nspirit,\n\ntest of, \u2013174\n\ntrustees,\n\nCarleton College\n\nOscar Helming,\n\nstudent unrest in the 60s,\n\nCarnegie Corporation, John W. Gardner,\n\ncartoons, \"Dilbert,\"\n\nchairpersons\n\nforesight,\n\nrole, , \u2013220, \u2013229\n\nskills, \u2013194\n\nstatus, \u2013227\n\ntraining, \u201343\n\ntrustees, , \u2013190\n\nchallenge\n\naccepting,\n\nanxiety,\n\ngrowth of managers,\n\nresponsibility,\n\nchange\n\nenvironment that encourages,\n\nevolution vs. revolution,\n\ninstitutions, \u201319, ,\n\nseminaries, \u2013117\n\nunderstanding,\n\nuniversities,\n\nchaos\n\ncombating,\n\nmanagement vs. prevention, \u2013199\n\ncharacter, external marks of,\n\ncharacteristics, servant-leader,\n\ncharge, taking, \u201397\n\ncharities, intent of actions vs. actual result,\n\n_Charlotte's Web_ (White), \u2013261\n\nChesterton, G.K.\n\nlife's possibilities,\n\n_Orthodoxy_ , \u2013129\n\nworldview, \u2013106\n\nchief executive officers, power, \u201349\n\nchoices\n\nmaking, ,\n\npersonal,\n\nunethical,\n\nChrist, Jesus, disciplinary interviews,\n\nChurch, The Growing Edge, \u2013152\n\nchurches\n\nfinancing new programs, \u2013167\n\ngrowing edge, \u2013158\n\nimproving effectiveness,\n\nas institutions, \u2013156\n\nseminaries, \u2013178\n\nservant role, \u2013170\n\ntheology,\n\nChurchill, Winston, language use,\n\ncircuit riding pastors,\n\n\"Civil Disobedience\" (Thoreau),\n\ncivil rights crisis,\n\nclarification, of self,\n\ncoach, chairperson,\n\ncodes\n\ncommon moral,\n\nmanners,\n\ncoercion\n\npersuasion vs., , \u201346, \u2013135, \u2013160,\n\npower, \u201384, \u2013206\n\ncolleges\n\ncrisis of leadership,\n\nfreshman year in,\n\ncommitment, taking a stand, \u201387\n\ncommon\n\ngood, \u2013138\n\nsense,\n\ncommunication\n\nconcern about growth,\n\ncultural differences,\n\ndreams, \u201388\n\nhope vs. despair,\n\nlanguage use,\n\nof values,\n\ncommunity\n\nbuilding,\n\ncaring,\n\nlifecare retirement, ,\n\nCommunity-Building,\n\ncompetition\n\nantitrust laws,\n\nlearning from the experience of others, \u201328\n\nnature of, \u201351\n\nunconventional,\n\ncompromise\n\nethical,\n\npoliticians,\n\nconcepts\n\nconsensus of mission definition, \u2013223\n\nfaith, \u2013123\n\njustice,\n\nrole of trustee, \u2013211\n\nconceptualization, servant-leader characteristics, \u20137\n\nconclusions, religious leadership,\n\nconfidant, chairperson,\n\nconfidence, building faith, \u2013133\n\nconflict\n\nformula for meeting,\n\nresolution,\n\nconformity, issue of, \u201368\n\nconfrontations, cultural biases,\n\nconsensus\n\nmission statement, \u2013223\n\nmorality,\n\norganizational strength,\n\nreaching, , \u2013139\n\nshared dreams, \u201379\n\ntrustee chairperson,\n\nconsequences, of religious leadership, \u2013115\n\nconstituencies\n\nserving definite,\n\ntrustee, \u2013190, \u2013213\n\nconsultants\n\nchurches, \u2013150\n\nseminaries,\n\nconversion, nonservant to servant, \u201324\n\ncord, pulling the emergency, \u2013128\n\nCornell University\n\nAndrew White,\n\nE.B. \"Andy\" White, \u2013239\n\ncorporations\n\nevolution of, \u2013183\n\nhealthy,\n\nlocalized programs, \u2013145\n\ncorruption\n\njournalism,\n\npower, \u201348\n\ncounseling, employee,\n\n_Counseling in an Organization, A Sequel to the Hawthorne Researches_ , \u2013144\n\ncourage\n\nessence of, \u2013253\n\nto live life,\n\nCovey, Stephen\n\norganizational management,\n\n_The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People_ ,\n\nCowley, Malcolm, _The View From Eighty_ , \u2013267\n\ncreativity\n\ncultivating, \u201399\n\nfrustration, \u201363\n\nreligious leadership, \u2013125\n\nspark,\n\ncredentialing, coercive power of universities,\n\ncredo, personal, ,\n\ncrisis\n\ncivil rights,\n\nleadership, , \u201391\n\ncritical thought\n\nadequacy,\n\nseminal ideas, \u2013225\n\nseminaries, , \u2013214, \u2013220, \u2013233\n\ncriticism, persuasion process,\n\ncues, awareness of,\n\ncultures\n\ncompetition, \u201351\n\ndifferences,\n\nguardians of the future and the past,\n\nmedia-domination,\n\npower, \u201349\n\nprograms designed to fit corporate, \u2013145\n\ncurriculum\n\nnutrition in medical schools, \u201330\n\ntheological education, \u2013218\n\ncynicism, mission achievement, \u2013209\n\nDanish Folk High Schools, Nikolai Grundtvig, \u201325, \u2013137,\n\nDartmouth College, Professor John Finch,\n\nDavis, Elmer\n\nold age,\n\n\"The Uses of Old People,\"\n\ndecisions\n\nintuitive,\n\nmaking,\n\ndegrees\n\nearning,\n\nuniversity, ,\n\ndemocracy, decline of,\n\ndependency, reciprocal, \u2013170\n\nDePree, Max\n\n_Leadership is an Art_ , ,\n\n_Leadership Jazz_ , ,\n\norganizational management,\n\nservant-leadership concept,\n\ndespair, vs. hope,\n\ndestruction, faith, \u2013116\n\ndevelopment, maturity and personal,\n\ndeviance, from the law,\n\ndignity\n\nattribute,\n\nstrength,\n\n\"Dilbert,\" organizational cartoon,\n\ndirection, wholeness and certainty of,\n\n\"Directive\" (Frost),\n\nDirector of Management Research, American Telephone & Telegraph Company, , \u2013273\n\ndiscipline, lifestyles,\n\ndistinction, serving with, \u201396\n\ndistractions, dealing with,\n\ndoctrine, seminaries,\n\n\"Don't want to talk about it,\" ,\n\ndreams\n\nanalysis,\n\ncommunicating, \u201388\n\nconceptualization, \u20137\n\ngreatness,\n\nliving your, \u2013110\n\ntrustees, \u2013192\n\nduties, trusteeship,\n\neconomy\n\nDanish at time of Nikolai Grundtvig, \u2013137\n\ntransformation of Danish,\n\neditors, magazine, \u2013230\n\neducation\n\nanti-leadership vaccine, ,\n\nchairperson,\n\nDanish Folk High Schools, \u2013137\n\nexperiential,\n\nleadership crisis, \u201381\n\nliberal, ,\n\nand maturity, \u201376\n\nmedical and nutrition, \u201330\n\ntheological, , \u2013219\n\ntrustee,\n\neffectiveness, leadership and church,\n\neffects\n\naspirin, ,\n\numbrella,\n\nego, over-inflated,\n\negocentricity, youthful, \u201364\n\nEisenhower, Dwight D., position changes your perspective,\n\neleemosynaries\n\ninstitutions,\n\nmission statements, \u2013212\n\nEliot, T.S.,\n\nelites, ability to serve, \u2013167\n\nemergencies, group behavior in response to, \u2013128\n\nEmerson, Ralph Waldo\n\ncomprehending the world,\n\ngoal of amelioration,\n\n_Works and Days_ ,\n\nempathy, servant-leader characteristics,\n\nemployees, corporate health,\n\nentheos, attribute, \u201376\n\nenthusiasm, entheos vs., \u201372\n\nenvironment\n\nleaving an impact on your, \u201397\n\nuniversity, \u2013109\n\nepitaph, Robert K. Greenleaf's,\n\nerrors\n\nlearning from, ,\n\nwisdom from,\n\nesprit, performance,\n\n_Esquire_ , Xerox Corporation and Harrison Salisbury,\n\nessays, servant theme, \u2013117\n\nethics\n\nforesight, \u2013131\n\nfree press, \u2013259\n\na sense of, \u2013101\n\nstudy,\n\nevolution, seminaries, \u201339\n\nexecutive, role in an institution, \u2013207,\n\nexpectations, churches,\n\nexperience\n\ncorrupting influences,\n\nlearning from,\n\nregeneration of an organization, \u2013225\n\nuniversities,\n\nusing the competition's, \u201328\n\nexperiential education, service-learning,\n\n\"Fable,\" _Seeker and Servant_ (Greenleaf), \u2013167\n\nfaculties\n\nattracting, \u2013204\n\nseminaries,\n\nservant of the mission,\n\nservant role, \u2013187\n\nteaching obligations, \u2013155\n\ntrustee chairperson relationships, \u2013190\n\nuniversity, \u201391\n\nfailure\n\nethical,\n\nleadership,\n\nvital links in a process,\n\nfaith\n\nachievement of mission goals, \u2013212\n\ncommunicating,\n\ngenerating,\n\nLeo Tolstoy's definition,\n\nreligious leadership, \u2013123,\n\nas trust, , , ,\n\nfather, Robert K. Greenleaf's, , \u2013265, , \u2013280\n\nfears, childhood, \u2013238\n\nFellows, Ohio, \u201394\n\nFerlinghetti, Lawrence, rebirth of wonder,\n\nFinch, John, Dartmouth College,\n\nfindings, listening and communicating,\n\nFletcher, John C., religious leadership,\n\nFletcher, Joseph, morals,\n\nfocus, maintaining,\n\nfollowers\n\ndiscriminating,\n\nleaders as,\n\nmanipulation of, \u201385\n\nvoluntary, \u201333,\n\nforces\n\nregenerative,\n\nrestorative, \u2013118\n\nsustaining,\n\nunifying, \u201388\n\nforeman, management training, \u2013113\n\nforesight\n\ndeveloping, , \u2013126\n\nethics, \u2013131\n\nservant-leadership characteristics,\n\nformula, meeting conflict,\n\n_Fortune_ , list of 10 best companies to work for,\n\nFosdick, Harry Emerson\n\nRiverside Church,\n\n\"The Power to See Life Through,\"\n\nfoundations\n\ncorrupting influences,\n\nfunction of, \u201341\n\nprophetic visions, \u201338\n\ntrustees, , \u201341\n\nFox, George\n\nReligious Society of Friends (Quakers), \u2013152\n\nslavery, \u201337\n\nfree press, ethical practices, \u2013259\n\nfreedom, responsibility,\n\nfriends, power, \u201348\n\n_Friends Journal_ ,\n\nfriendships, power, \u201348\n\nfrontiers, new, \u2013162\n\nFrost, Robert\n\n\"Directive,\"\n\nelusiveness of meaning,\n\nlife's choices,\n\nthe path less traveled,\n\nfrustration, answers, \u201363\n\nfunding\n\nretaining,\n\nseminaries, , \u2013167, ,\n\nfuture\n\npreparation for the,\n\nprojections,\n\nGandhi, Mohandas,\n\ngap\n\nbridging the information, ,\n\nbetween seminaries and churches,\n\nGardner, John W., anti-leadership vaccine, ,\n\nGeneral Electric, J.P. Morgan,\n\nGeneral Mills Foundation, James P. Shannon,\n\n\"Generation of Greatness, the Idea of a University in an Age of Science\" (Land),\n\ngenerations, relationships with other,\n\ngenius, vs. greatness,\n\ngestures, leading through subtle,\n\ngifts\n\ncreativity,\n\nE.B. White, \u2013237\n\nexploiting your,\n\nrealistic assessment of situation, \u2013106\n\nseeing things whole, , \u2013241,\n\nGillette, Douglas and Robert Moore, _The King Within_ ,\n\ngimmicks\n\nabsence, \u2013180\n\nproblem solutions, \u2013146\n\ngoals\n\namelioration,\n\nesprit and institutional, \u2013105\n\nexternal achievement,\n\nfuture seminaries, \u2013233\n\ngreatness as a, \u2013179\n\nidealistic,\n\nmission achievement, \u2013212\n\npersonal, \u201375, \u201397\n\npursuit of, \u201371\n\nvoluntary support, \u201353\n\ngovernment\n\nlow-caring society,\n\ntrusteeship,\n\n_Great Stone Face_ (Hawthorne), \u201370\n\ngreatness\n\nlifestyle, \u201397, \u2013101\n\nslave, \u2013179\n\ntrusteeship, \u2013105\n\nGreenleaf Center for Servant-Leadership, \u201315\n\nGreenleaf, Robert K.\n\nfather, , \u2013266, , \u2013280\n\npersonal credo, ,\n\nreligious background,\n\n_Seeker and Servant, \"Fable\"_ , \u2013167\n\n_Seminiary as Servant, Essays on Trusteeship_ ,\n\n_Servant Leadership, \"Trustees as Servants\"_ , \u2013117, ,\n\n\"Servant, Retrospect and Prospect,\"\n\n_Teacher as Servant, a Parable_ , ,\n\n\"The Institution as Servant,\"\n\n_The Seminary as Institution_ ,\n\n\"The Servant as Leader,\"\n\n\"Trustees as Servants,\"\n\nground, standing on solid, \u2013101\n\ngroups\n\nbehavior in emergencies, \u2013138\n\ncommunity leadership,\n\nseekers, \u2013161\n\ngrowth\n\naccelerated, \u2013140\n\nanxiety, \u2013108\n\nchurch, \u2013152\n\ncommitment to, \u20138\n\ncommunicating concern,\n\nentheos,\n\nintellectual,\n\npersonal, , \u201376\n\ntaking charge of, \u201397\n\nGrundtvig, Nikolai Frederik\n\nSeverin, Danish Folk High\n\nSchools, \u201325, \u2013137,\n\nguidance, light within,\n\nguide, intuitive,\n\nGulf Oil of Canada, servant-leadership training,\n\nharm\n\nactions that do no,\n\npotential of change to,\n\nHarper, William Rainey, \"Shall the Theological Curriculum Be Modified and How?,\" \u2013218\n\n_Harpers_ , James Thurber,\n\nHarvard Divinity School, Visiting Committee,\n\nHawthorne, Nathaniel, _Great Stone Face_ , \u201370\n\n\"Hawthorne\" studies, \u2013144\n\nhazards, of personal choice,\n\nhealing, servant-leader characteristics, \u20136\n\nhealth\n\ncorporate,\n\ninstitutional, \u2013146\n\nmaintenance,\n\nnutrition, \u201330\n\nHelming, Oscar, Carleton College,\n\n_Henry IV_ (parts I & II) (Shakespeare),\n\n_Henry V_ (Shakespeare),\n\nHerman Miller Company,\n\n_Herzog_ (Bellow),\n\nHeschel, Rabbi Abraham Joshua, ,\n\n_To Grow in Wisdom_ ,\n\nHesse, Herman\n\n_Journey to the East_ , \u20134, \u201358,\n\n_Magister Ludi_ ,\n\nhierarchy, institutions, , \u2013171, \u2013177,\n\nHill Foundation, nutrition programs, \u201330\n\nhistory\n\nAmerican Telephone & Telegraph Company, \u201320,\n\nchurch leadership, \u201333\n\ncritical thinking and seminary leadership, \u2013219\n\ninstitutions, , \u2013175\n\nmission statement,\n\nReligious Society of Friends (Quakers), \u2013276\n\nseminaries, , \u2013181, \u2013185\n\ntelephone industry, \u2013225\n\nHitler, Adolph, leadership, , , \u2013114\n\nhope\n\nbuilding, \u201356\n\ncommunicating,\n\nsaving remnants, \u201391\n\nshort-run vs. long-run, \u2013173\n\nstructural basis for,\n\nvs. despair,\n\nHovland, Carl, Yale Department of Psychology,\n\nHughes, Langston, on dreams deferred,\n\nhumor, E.B. White in _The New Yorker_ ,\n\n\"I Paint What I See\" (E.B. White), _The New Yorker_ , \u2013250\n\nideas\n\nchanging institutions,\n\nmeditation, \u2013275\n\nnew, \u2013162\n\nseminal,\n\nidentification, gimmicks, \u2013146\n\nidentity, personal and conformity,\n\nillness, prevention,\n\nillumination, price,\n\nimage, seminary, \u2013203\n\nimagination\n\ncreativity,\n\nfuture planning,\n\nnurturing, ,\n\nindependence, free press, \u2013258\n\nindifference, combating,\n\nindustrial revolution, Karl Marx, \u201331\n\ninfluence\n\nchurches,\n\ncompetent leadership,\n\nconstructive,\n\ninstitutional decisions and society, \u2013219\n\npotential for,\n\nseminaries,\n\ninitiative, source, \u2013110\n\ninsight\n\nethical,\n\nintuitive,\n\ntrusting your,\n\ninspiration\n\ncheck and guide to your,\n\nchurches, , ,\n\nfuture servant-leaders,\n\ngreat dreams,\n\nopenness to,\n\nInstitutes of Chairing, \u201343\n\ninstitutions\n\nchange,\n\nchurches, \u2013156\n\ndedication to service, ,\n\ndelegation of leadership, \u201333\n\ndreams, , \u201387\n\neleemosynary, , \u2013212\n\netymology,\n\nexceptional, \u2013145, \u2013178,\n\nhealthy,\n\nhierarchy of, , \u2013171, \u2013177,\n\nhistory, \u2013175, \u2013276\n\nlegal powers,\n\nmaintenance functions,\n\nmission statements, \u2013212\n\nmyths, \u2013175\n\nnurturing, \u201338\n\nprimary motive, \u2013173\n\nrebuilding,\n\nreconstruction, \u2013180\n\nas servant, ,\n\nstrength, \u201353\n\nstructure, , \u2013147\n\nsustaining as effective servants, \u2013143\n\n_The Organization Man_ , \u2013153\n\ntheology of, xiii\u2013xiv, , , \u2013184, \u2013233\n\ntrust in, \u2013210\n\ntrustee role,\n\nintegrity\n\njournalism, \u2013259\n\nmaintaining, \u201345\n\nRobert K. Greenleaf's father, \u2013266\n\nintellect, wisdom and,\n\nintent, of a servant,\n\ninterview, Christian disciplinary,\n\nintuition\n\ncheck and guide to your,\n\nfeeling of oneness,\n\nforesight,\n\nguide,\n\njudgment, \u201345\n\nleadership potential,\n\nmoral map,\n\npersuasion, \u2013188\n\nreligious leadership,\n\nvs. reason,\n\ninventions, new,\n\n_Is Sex Necessary?_ (Thurber and White),\n\nJefferson, Thomas\n\ninfluence of a mentor,\n\nUniversity of Virginia,\n\nJesus Christ, disciplinary interviews,\n\njournalism, integrity, \u2013259\n\njournalists, E.B. White quoting de Tocqueville on,\n\n_Journey to the East_ (Hesse), \u20134, \u201358,\n\njudgments\n\nintuition, \u201345\n\ntesting,\n\nwisdom of lay, \u2013227\n\njustice, concept of,\n\njustification, Hawthorne plant programs,\n\nKennedy, John F., changing perspectives,\n\n_King and I_ , impact of new ideas,\n\nKipling, Rudyard,\n\nknowledge\n\nacting on existing, \u201333\n\nwonder,\n\nKoussevitsky, Serge, Boston Symphony Orchestra,\n\nKropotkin, Petr, _Mutual Aid_ ,\n\nlaboratory, university as learning, \u2013110\n\nland, Danish Folk High Schools, \u2013137\n\nLand, Edwin H., \"Generation of Greatness, the Idea of a University in an Age of Science,\"\n\nlanguage\n\ncommunicating hope,\n\nunique usage of leaders,\n\nlaws\n\nantitrust,\n\nMosaic and morality, \u2013100\n\nNational Industrial Recovery Act of 1933,\n\nNational Labor Relations Act (Wagner Act),\n\nleaders\n\nas learners, \u2013113\n\npotential,\n\nreligious seekers,\n\nleadership\n\nacceptance,\n\nconceptual, \u2013177,\n\ncritical thought,\n\ndependability,\n\nintellectual,\n\nmanipulative, \u201385\n\npreparation, \u201381\n\nqualities,\n\nreligious, \u2013167\n\ntrustee, \u2013194\n\nvs. management vs. administration,\n\n_Leadership and the New Science_ (Wheatley),\n\n_Leadership is an Art_ (DePree), ,\n\n_Leadership Jazz_ (DePree), ,\n\nlearner, leader as, \u2013113\n\nlearning, accelerated,\n\nLearning Organizations,\n\nLenin, Diego Rivera's mural in Rockefeller Center, \u2013250\n\nLeo, story of, \u20134, \u201358\n\nlessons, errors,\n\nLevering, Robert and Milton Moskowitz, _The 100 Best Companies to Work for in America_ ,\n\nLewin, Kurt, sensitivity training, \u2013150\n\nlife\n\nmanaging your own, \u201395\n\nspirit,\n\nview from old age,\n\nlifecare communities, retirement, ,\n\nlifestyle\n\ngreatness, \u201397, \u2013101\n\nold age, \u2013270\n\nLilly Endowment, Inc.,\n\nlinks, between becoming and maturity,\n\nlistening\n\nleadership attributes,\n\nlearning by,\n\nlife's signals, \u201395, \u2013278\n\nprophets,\n\nresearch findings,\n\nservant-leader characteristics,\n\nlogo, Greenleaf Center,\n\nlove\n\nof oneself,\n\npersuasive efforts based on, \u2013166\n\nLowe, Jack, Jr., TDIndustries,\n\nLowe, Jack, Sr., TDIndustries,\n\nLynn, Robert W.\n\nVice President for Religion, Lilly Endowment,\n\nreligious leadership,\n\nMachiavelli, Niccolo\n\npower seekers,\n\n_The Prince_ ,\n\nwisdom and advice,\n\nmagazine editors, reader surveys, \u2013230\n\n_Magister Ludi_ (Hesse),\n\nmanagement\n\nchaos, \u2013199\n\ntraining foremen, \u2013113\n\ntrustee oversight of,\n\n_Management and the Worker_ , Hawthorne studies,\n\nmanagers, accelerated growth, \u2013140\n\nmanipulation\n\npersuasion vs., , \u2013160,\n\npower, \u201385\n\nmanners, conflict resolution,\n\nmap, moral,\n\nMarx, Karl\n\nindustrial revolution, \u201331\n\nvision,\n\nmasks, entheos,\n\nMassachusetts Institute of Technology\n\n\"Generation of Greatness, the Idea of a University in an Age of Science,\"\n\nResearch Center for Group Dynamics, \u2013150\n\nmaturity\n\nand education, \u201376\n\nsigns of, \u2013277\n\nMayo Medical School, nutrition program,\n\nMayor Lawrence, renaissance of Pittsburgh, \u2013158\n\nMcGee-Cooper, Ann, _You Don't Have to Go Home from Work Exhausted!_ ,\n\nMead Corporation, servant-leadership training,\n\nmeaning, the elusiveness of,\n\nmedia, domination of present day culture,\n\nmeditation\n\npractice of, ,\n\nsorting out signals, \u2013278\n\ntrain travel, \u2013275\n\nMellon, Richard King, renaissance of Pittsburgh, \u2013158\n\nMenninger Foundation,\n\nmentors\n\neffective, \u2013141\n\nfinding,\n\npreparing future servant-leaders, \u201354\n\nmind-sets\n\novercoming the obstacle of, \u201324,\n\nreformation, \u201335\n\nvolunteers, \u201353\n\nmission\n\nclarity of,\n\norganizations, xii\n\nstatements, , \u2013212, \u2013223,\n\ntrustee support,\n\nmobius strip, logo for RKGC,\n\nmodel\n\nAndover, ,\n\nchurch as institutional,\n\na new leadership,\n\nseminary structure,\n\nseminary vs. other institutions, \u2013202\n\nmoney\n\nAlcoholics Anonymous, \u2013151\n\nchurch programs,\n\nobsession, \u2013162\n\nraising, ,\n\nMoore, Robert and Douglas Gillette, _The King Within_ ,\n\nmorality, building, \u2013101\n\nmorals\n\ncommon code of,\n\ntraditional vs. contemporary,\n\nMorgan, J.P., telephone industry, \u2013223\n\nMosaic law, and morality, \u2013100\n\nMoses, Ten Commandments,\n\nMoskowitz, Milton and Robert Levering, _The 100 Best Companies to Work for in America_ ,\n\nmotive, maturing the latent servant,\n\nmovements\n\nDanish Folk High School,\n\nevolutionary,\n\nhuman potential,\n\nmurals, Rockefeller Center's Rivera, \u2013250\n\nmystery, separating from reality,\n\nmyths\n\ninstitutional, , \u2013175\n\nseminaries, \u2013185\n\nNational Association for Community Leadership (NACL), National Community Leadership Award, \u201311\n\nNational Community Leadership Award, National Association for Community Leadership (NACL), \u201311\n\nNational Council of Churches,\n\nNational Industrial Recovery Act of 1933,\n\nNational Labor Relations Act of 1935 (Wagner Act), \u2013227\n\nNational Society for Experiential Education (NSEE), _Combining Service and Learning_ ,\n\nNewman, Cardinal, change,\n\nnurturing institutions,\n\nleadership,\n\nnutrition, health, \u201330\n\nobituaries\n\nHarold Ross, \u2013246\n\nJames Thurber, \u2013248\n\nobjectification, workers,\n\nobstacles, clear identification of,\n\noffices, Greenleaf Center satellite,\n\nOhio Bell Telephone,\n\nOhio Fellows, \u201394\n\n_Oklahoma_ , E.B. White,\n\nold age\n\nE.B. White,\n\npreparing for, \u2013278\n\nOld Testament, false prophets,\n\nopportunities\n\nawareness,\n\ncreative,\n\noptimism, assumptions,\n\norder, civilized society,\n\norganizations\n\ncommunity leadership,\n\nstructure, \u2013147\n\n_Orthodoxy_ (Chesterton), \u2013129\n\noutlook, expanding,\n\noversight, operational use of power, \u201349\n\npain, organizational,\n\nPalmer, Parker, _The Active Life_ ,\n\nparticipation, lack of, , ,\n\npassion, driving force, \u2013166\n\npastors\n\nAmerican Education Society (AES),\n\ntraining, ,\n\npatterns, generalizing from previous,\n\npeace, promise of,\n\nPeck, M. Scott\n\n_A World Waiting to Be Born_ , ,\n\n_The Road Less Traveled_ , ,\n\npeople, view of other,\n\nperception\n\nreligious leadership,\n\nWilliam Blake on, ,\n\nperfectionism, creativity and,\n\nperformance\n\nexceptional, \u2013178\n\ninstitutional roles,\n\nleadership,\n\norganizational,\n\nservant's,\n\nPericles, contingency thinking, ,\n\nperseverance, confidence, \u2013123\n\npersonality\n\nmaintaining your,\n\ntraits of effective mentors, \u2013141\n\npersons, theology of,\n\nperspectives\n\nchanging,\n\nhistorical,\n\npersuasion\n\ndedication to,\n\nJohn Woolman's efforts to abolish slavery, \u2013135\n\nnature and role of, xii\u2013xiii\n\npower, \u201387\n\nproblem solving with, \u201353\n\nreligious leaders,\n\nservant-leader characteristics,\n\ntrustees, \u2013188\n\nvs. coercion, , \u201346, \u2013135,\n\nphilanthropy, site visits,\n\nphilosophy\n\nmodern institutional, \u20139\n\nservice to the practice of leadership, ix\u2013x\n\nphotograph, Robert K. Greenleaf, xiv\u2013xv\n\npicture, seeing the \"whole,\" , , \u2013241\n\npitfalls, awareness, \u2013143\n\nPitt, William, power,\n\nPittsburgh, renaissance, \u2013158\n\nplanes, float,\n\nplans, contingency, \u2013129\n\n_Pluralistic Reflections on Servant-Leadership_ (Bordas),\n\npoetry\n\nE.B. White,\n\ninterpreting,\n\nmission statement, \u2013205\n\npoliticians, compromise,\n\nPope John XXIII, contributions to society,\n\npossibilities, discovering new,\n\npotential\n\nactualization of your, \u2013280\n\njudging full,\n\nleadership attributes,\n\nrecognizing latent,\n\npower\n\ncoercive, \u201384, \u2013206\n\ncreative,\n\nfaculties,\n\nintellectual,\n\nmanipulative, \u201385\n\nmission statements, , \u2013206\n\nmisuse of, \u201382\n\npersuasion, \u201387\n\nsociety,\n\nspirit,\n\ntrustees,\n\nuse of, , \u201349\n\npractice, commitment to practice of leadership, x\u2013xii\n\npreparation\n\nfacing uncertainty, \u2013273\n\nleadership, \u201381\n\nproblem-solving strategies, \u201367\n\nreligious leaders, \u2013124\n\nrole of servant,\n\nsecond careers, \u2013278\n\nservant-leaders, \u201357\n\nPresley, Elvis,\n\npress, sponsorship of testimonials, \u2013259\n\nPrinceton, Presbyterian seminary,\n\nprinciple, moral, \u201384\n\npriorities, critical thought,\n\nproblems\n\nadvance preparation, \u201367\n\ncorrecting through persuasion, \u201353\n\ndepth of understanding,\n\nreal-life,\n\nrelevance of sermons to contemporary society, \u2013219\n\nreligious leadership, \u2013133\n\nsolutions, ,\n\nprocess\n\ncomplexity of the leadership, x\u2013xii\n\nfailure of vital links,\n\nproduction, mature servants,\n\nprograms\n\nexisting and new mission statements, \u2013212\n\ninformal education, \u201312\n\nquality assurance,\n\nprojections, future,\n\nprophecy\n\ncompelling vision, \u201327\n\ntheory, \u201336\n\nprophets\n\nauthenticity test,\n\nperception,\n\nseekers,\n\ntrue vs. false,\n\n_Proverbs 29:18_ (King James Version), , \u201335, , \u2013233\n\npurpose\n\nquestion of,\n\nseminaries, \u2013197\n\nsense of, \u201374\n\nQuakers, slavery, \u201337\n\nqualities, leadership, \u2013115,\n\nquest, spiritual in _Journey to the East_ , \u20134\n\nquestions\n\nanswers by Christian programs to modern society's, \u2013219\n\nformation of the mission statement, \u2013206\n\nrelevance of a mission statement, , \u2013228\n\ntrustees, \u2013187, \u2013194\n\n\"Rabbi Ben Ezra\" (Browning), ,\n\n_Reader's Digest_ , commissioning articles,\n\nrealism, assessing a situation, \u2013106\n\nreality, separating mystery from,\n\nreason, vs. intuition,\n\nreception, new visions,\n\nreforms, Danish agricultural, \u2013137\n\nregeneration\n\ninstitutional servants, \u201333\n\ninstitutions, \u201333, \u201343, \u2013225\n\nmission statement implementation, \u2013228\n\nseminaries,\n\nuniversities,\n\nregulation, competition,\n\nrelationships\n\nbuilding, \u2013275\n\nchurches and members, \u2013156\n\nhealing, \u20136\n\ninstitutions, , \u201338\n\ninterpersonal,\n\nleaders with followers, \u2013120\n\nold age,\n\nwith other generations,\n\nyounger people,\n\nrelevance, faith to mission, \u2013212\n\nreligion, leadership, \u2013167\n\nReligion Division of Lilly Endowment,\n\nReligious Society of Friends (Quakers)\n\nhistory, \u2013276\n\nseeker movement, \u2013152\n\nslavery, , \u2013135, \u2013166\n\nremembrance, E.B. White, ,\n\nremnants, saving, \u201391\n\nresearch, findings,\n\nResearch Center for Group\n\nDynamics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, \u2013150\n\nresolution, conflict,\n\nresources\n\ninner,\n\nseekers,\n\ntheological of seminaries,\n\nresponses, unwillingness to discuss, ,\n\nresponsibility\n\nchallenge,\n\nfreedom,\n\nperspectives,\n\nstress, \u201366\n\nresponsiveness, anticipating the unexpected, \u2013127\n\nrestoration, forces of, \u2013118\n\nretirement\n\nlifecare communities, ,\n\npreparing for a second career, \u2013278\n\nrevolution\n\nconditions inviting,\n\ninstitutional,\n\nrewards, mentoring,\n\n_Rewiring the Corporate Brain_ (Zohar),\n\n_Richard II_ (Shakespeare),\n\nrightness, testing an act for,\n\nrisks\n\ndecisions,\n\nexpendability,\n\nfuture planning,\n\ninstitutional change, \u201391\n\nleadership, ,\n\nreligious leadership,\n\nunderstanding change,\n\nRivera, Diego, mural in Rockefeller Center, \u2013250\n\nRiverside Church, Harry Emerson Fosdick,\n\nRockefeller Center, Rivera mural, \u2013250\n\nRogers, Carl, formula for meeting conflict,\n\nroles\n\nboards of directors,\n\nbuilding the trustee,\n\nchairpersons, \u2013190, \u2013220, \u2013229\n\nchurch pastors,\n\nexecutive, \u2013207,\n\nfaculties, \u2013187\n\nfoundations, \u201341\n\ninstitutional,\n\npublic service,\n\nreligious leaders,\n\nseminaries, \u2013165,\n\ntrustee, , \u2013206, \u2013211\n\nof universities,\n\nRoosevelt, Franklin D., language use,\n\nroots, formative years, \u2013267\n\nRoss, Harold\n\nobituary by E.B. White, \u2013246,\n\n_The New Yorker_ , ,\n\nSalisbury, Harrison, Xerox Corporation,\n\nSampson, Patsy, _The Leader as Servant_ ,\n\nsanity, hope,\n\n_Saturday Evening Post_ , response analysis, \u2013230\n\nSchneider Engineering company,\n\nsearch\n\nchairpersons, \u2013190\n\nentheos, \u201373\n\npersonal significance,\n\n_Stuart Little_ (White), \u2013260\n\n_Seeker and Servant_ (Greenleaf), \"Fable,\" \u2013167\n\nseekers\n\nchurches, ,\n\ncreating a caring society, \u201357\n\nnurturing,\n\npotential leaders,\n\npower,\n\nprophetic visions,\n\nresources for Church growth,\n\nsustaining, \u2013161\n\nself-actualization, seeking,\n\nself-regeneration\n\ncapacity,\n\npromoting, \u201343\n\nseminaries\n\nadmissions process,\n\nAndover model, ,\n\ncaring,\n\nchanges, \u2013117\n\nchaos, \u2013199\n\nchurches, \u2013178\n\nconsultants,\n\ncritical thought,\n\nevolution, \u201339\n\nfaculty,\n\nfinancial support, \u2013167\n\nfunding, , ,\n\nfuture, \u2013233\n\nhierarchy of institutions, \u2013171, \u2013177,\n\nhistory, , \u2013181, \u2013185\n\nimage,\n\nmission statements, , \u2013212\n\nmyths, \u2013185\n\npotential for influence,\n\nprimary mission, \u2013142\n\nprophetic visions, \u201338\n\npurpose, \u2013197\n\nregeneration,\n\nself-regeneration,\n\ntheological resources,\n\ntheology, \u2013123\n\ntrustees,\n\nunifying vision,\n\nseminars, for future servant-leaders,\n\n_Seminiary as Servant, Essays on Trusteeship_ (Greenleaf),\n\nSenge, Peter\n\norganizational management,\n\nservant-leadership concept,\n\nshared vision,\n\n_The Fifth Discipline_ , ,\n\nsense, common,\n\nserenity\n\nachieving,\n\nold age, \u2013267\n\nreaching,\n\nspirit, \u2013266\n\nsermons\n\nHarry Emerson Fosdick,\n\nrelevance to society today, \u2013219\n\nservant\n\nidea of, \u201323\n\ninstitutions as,\n\npreparation for the role of,\n\nstature,\n\nultimate model,\n\n_Servant Leadership_ (Greenleaf), \u2013117\n\n\"Trustees as Servants,\"\n\n\"Servant, Retrospect and Prospect\" (Greenleaf),\n\nservice\n\nAmerican society,\n\nattitude of, \u201396\n\nauthority of, \u2013282\n\ninstitutional dedication to, ,\n\noptimal institutional,\n\nreligious leadership,\n\nrole of public,\n\nspirit,\n\nservice-learning, experiential education,\n\nShakespeare, William\n\n94th sonnet,\n\n_Henry IV_ (parts I & II),\n\n_Henry V_ ,\n\n_Richard II_ ,\n\n\"Shall the Theological Curriculum Be Modified and How?\" (Rainey), _The American Journal of Theology_ , \u2013218\n\nsignals\n\nlife-shaping, \u201395\n\nlistening to life's, \u2013278\n\nsorting out, \u2013278\n\nsignificance\n\ncurrent,\n\npersonal, , \u201371\n\nSisters of St. Joseph's Health System,\n\nsite visits, philanthropy,\n\nskills\n\nchairperson, \u2013194\n\nforesight,\n\nlanguage,\n\npersuasion, \u201346\n\nslave, greatness, \u2013179\n\nslavery\n\nJohn Woolman, , \u2013135\n\nReligious Society of Friends (Quakers), \u201337, \u2013135, \u2013166\n\nsocial contributions\n\nconstructive,\n\ncreativity in making,\n\nsociety\n\nAmerica as a low-serving,\n\nanxiety, \u2013107\n\ncaring and a good,\n\ncontemporary,\n\ncontribution to quality of,\n\ncorruptors of, vii\n\nfacets of a good,\n\nimpact of great universities, \u2013110\n\nimpact of _The Organization Man_ , \u2013153\n\ninstitution-bound,\n\nmoral basis,\n\npower,\n\nrelevance of sermons to contemporary, \u2013219\n\nreligious leaders,\n\nsolutions\n\ngimmicks, \u2013146\n\npreconceived, \u201367\n\n_Song of the Open Road_ (Whitman), , \u2013102\n\nsources, liberating visions, \u201359\n\nSpears, Larry, The Greenleaf Center, , \u2013291\n\nsphere, maturity and size of personal, \u201364\n\nspirit\n\nleadership, \u2013114,\n\nleading with,\n\npower,\n\nsustaining,\n\nultimate test of, \u2013278\n\nvalues,\n\nspirituality, mission statement, \u2013205\n\nsponsorship, of testimonials, \u2013259\n\nstability, change,\n\nstaff, servant of the mission of an institutional,\n\nstand\n\ncertainty of where you, ,\n\ntaking a moral,\n\nstatements, mission, , \u2013212, \u2013223,\n\nstatus\n\nchairperson, \u2013227\n\nquo and personal growth, \u201376\n\ntrustees, ,\n\nStengel, Casey, language use,\n\nstereotypes, avoiding,\n\nstewardship, servant-leadership characteristics,\n\n_Stewardship_ (Block), ,\n\nstrategies\n\ngrowth, \u2013109\n\nliving with anxiety,\n\nnurturing critical thinking, \u2013220\n\nproblem-solving preparation, \u201367\n\nregeneration of an institution, \u2013225\n\nstrength\n\nbuilding, \u2013124\n\nego,\n\ninstitutions, \u201353\n\nleadership, \u2013133,\n\nstress\n\nreligious leadership, \u2013130\n\nresponsibility, \u201366\n\nstructure, formal vs. informal institutional, \u2013147\n\nstruggle, success,\n\n_Stuart Little_ (White), \u2013260\n\nstudents\n\nanger,\n\nfaculties,\n\nimpact of _The Organization Man_ , \u2013153\n\nleadership potential, \u201329\n\nrevolution in the 1960's,\n\nseminaries, \u2013142, \u2013204\n\nservant of the mission,\n\ntrustee chairperson relationships, \u2013190\n\nunrest and Carleton College,\n\nsuccess, struggle,\n\nsupport, financial for seminaries, , \u2013167, ,\n\nsurveys, response analysis, \u2013230\n\nsurvival, mission statement,\n\nsynergy, working toward, \u201322\n\ntalent, identifying and nurturing,\n\nTaliesen,\n\n\"Talk of the Town,\" _The New Yorker_ ,\n\nTDIndustries, _Fortune_ magazine's 10 best companies to work for list,\n\n_Teacher as Servant, a Parable_ (Greenleaf), , ,\n\nteachers\n\ndedication, \u2013155\n\nof servant-leadership, \u201357\n\ntelevision, commercial, \u201350\n\nTen Commandments, Moses,\n\nTerre Haute, Indiana, ,\n\ntest\n\nadequacy of theology, \u2013184\n\nauthenticity of a prophet,\n\nof caring, \u2013174\n\ncharacter of a vision,\n\ndecision-making,\n\nof entheos,\n\ngreatness of a dream,\n\nimpact of servant on society,\n\njudgment,\n\nleadership, ,\n\nmission statement, , \u2013206\n\npersonal growth, \u201376\n\nreligious leadership, \u2013120,\n\nresponsible effectiveness,\n\nrightness of an act,\n\nservant-leader, ,\n\nspirit, \u2013278\n\nspirit development,\n\ntestimonials, sponsorship, \u2013259\n\n_The 100 Best Companies to Work for in America_ (Levering and Moskowitz),\n\n_The Active Life_ (Parker),\n\n_The American Journal of Theology_ , \"Shall the Theological Curriculum Be Modified and How?\" (Rainey), \u2013218\n\nThe American Legion News Service (E. B. White),\n\n\"The Courage to Be\" (Tillich),\n\n_The Elements of Style_ (White), revision of Strunk's,\n\n_The Ellsworth (Maine) American_ , E.B. White's letter to, \u2013259\n\n_The Empowered Manager_ (Block), ,\n\n_The Fifth Discipline_ (Senge), ,\n\nThe Greenleaf Center, Larry Spears, , \u2013291\n\n\"The Growing Edge Church,\" characteristics, \u2013152\n\n\"The Institution as Servant\" (Greenleaf),\n\n_The King Within_ (Moore and Gillette),\n\n_The Last Flower_ (Thurber), \u2013248\n\n_The Leader as Servant_ (Sampson),\n\n_The Male Animal_ (Thurber),\n\n_The Marriage of Heaven and Hell_ (Blake),\n\n_The New York Times_ , use of power,\n\n_The New Yorker_\n\nE.B. White, \u2013236, \u2013240\n\nHarold Ross, \u2013246\n\nJames Thurber, \u2013237, \u2013248\n\n_The Organization Man_ , impact on society, \u2013153\n\n\"The Power to See Life Through\" (Fosdick),\n\n_The Prince_ (Machiavelli),\n\n_The Road Less Traveled_ (Peck), ,\n\n_The Saturday Evening Post_ (E. B. White),\n\n\"The Second Tree from the Corner\" (White), , \u2013253\n\n_The Seminary as Institution_ (Greenleaf),\n\n\"The Servant as Leader\" (Greenleaf),\n\n_The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People_ (Covey),\n\n\"The Spirit is Power,\" Danish Folk High School, \u201325\n\n_The Stranger_ (Camus),\n\nThe Toro Company,\n\n_The Trumpet of the Swan_ (White), \u2013261\n\n\"The Uses of Old People\" (Davis),\n\n_The View From Eighty_ (Cowley), \u2013267\n\n\"The Wild Flag\" (White),\n\n_The Yale Review_ , \"A Slight Sound at Evening\" (White), \u2013243\n\ntheme, evolution of the servant, \u201321\n\ntheologians, public vs. seminary, \u2013207\n\ntheology\n\nbiblical, \u2013216\n\nchurches,\n\ncritical thought, \u2013214, \u2013220\n\ninstitutional strength,\n\nof institutions, xiii\u2013xiv, , , \u2013184, \u2013233\n\npersons,\n\nreligious leadership, \u2013123\n\ntheory\n\nleadership, vii\u2013ix\n\nof prophecy, \u201336\n\nthinking\n\ncontingency, \u2013129\n\ncritical, , \u2013214, \u2013220, , , \u2013233\n\nunconventional,\n\nThom, John, corruption of society, vii\n\nThoreau, Henry David, _Walden_ , \u2013243\n\nThurber, James\n\nE.B. White, , \u2013248\n\nand E.B. White, _Is Sex Necessary?_ ,\n\n_The Last Flower_ , \u2013248\n\n_The Male Animal_ ,\n\n_Walter Mitty_ ,\n\nTillich, Paul, \"The Courage to Be,\"\n\nTilly, Eustace, _The New Yorker_ ,\n\ntime\n\ninvestment, \u2013193\n\npersonal use of,\n\npressure of,\n\n_To Grow in Wisdom_ (Heschel),\n\nTolstoy, Leo, definition of faith,\n\ntombstone, epitaph on Robert K. Greenleaf's,\n\nTotal Quality Management,\n\ntraditions\n\nconsensual, \u201379\n\nmission statement,\n\nmoral, \u2013101\n\ntraining\n\nchairpersons, \u201343\n\nmanagerial, \u2013140\n\npastors,\n\nreligious leaders in the 19th and 20th century, \u2013216\n\nsensitivity, \u2013150\n\ntransformation\n\npersonal,\n\ntowards serving institutions,\n\ntowards synergy, \u201322\n\ntravel\n\ncultural differences,\n\nmeditation during train, \u2013275\n\ntrends, anticipating the future from current, \u2013131\n\nTrexler, \"The Second Tree from the Corner\" (White), \u2013253\n\ntrust\n\nbreech of,\n\nof constituency,\n\nfaith as, , \u2013132, ,\n\nin institutions, \u2013210\n\npreparation for a position of,\n\ntrustees\n\nbreach of trust,\n\nchairpersons, , \u2013190\n\nconceptual leadership,\n\nconceptual orientation,\n\nestablishing hope,\n\nexceptional,\n\nfoundations, , \u201341\n\nInstitutes of Chairing, \u201343\n\nmission definition,\n\npowers,\n\nroles within institutions, , \u2013206, \u2013211\n\nvision,\n\n\"Trustees as Servants\" (Greenleaf),\n\ntrusteeship\n\nart of,\n\nconstructive leadership, \u2013184\n\ngreatness, \u2013105\n\ntrustworthiness, trustee chairpersons,\n\numbrella effect,\n\nuncertainty, preparation for facing, \u2013273\n\nunderstand, failure to, \u201367\n\nunexpected, anticipating the, \u2013127,\n\nU.S. Air Force,\n\nU.S. Steel, J.P. Morgan,\n\nunity, personal,\n\nuniversities\n\nas a learning laboratory, \u2013110\n\nchange,\n\ncredentialing,\n\ncrisis of leadership,\n\nenvironment, \u2013109\n\nfaculties, \u201391\n\ngaining experience,\n\ngreat dreams, \u201389\n\nimproving,\n\nlack of vision, \u201329\n\nregeneration,\n\nUniversity of Virginia, Thomas Jefferson,\n\nurgency, creating a sense of, \u2013225\n\nusefulness, old age,\n\nvaccine, anti-leadership, , ,\n\nVail, Theodore N.\n\ncontributions to society,\n\ntelephone industry, \u2013223\n\nvalues\n\ncoercive power,\n\ncommunicating,\n\nfinding your own,\n\nharmony,\n\nhumane, \u2013283\n\nleadership potential,\n\nspirit,\n\nVietnam war, coercive power,\n\nvisions\n\ncompelling, \u201326\n\nformation of new, \u2013233\n\ninstitutions,\n\nliberating, \u201335, \u201359\n\nprophetic, \u201337, , , ,\n\nregenerating, \u201342\n\nreligious, ,\n\nshared, \u201379\n\nunifying,\n\nusing existing knowledge, \u201327\n\nVisiting Committee, Harvard Divinity School,\n\nvocation, choice of,\n\nvoices, prophetic,\n\nvolunteers\n\nfollowers,\n\nmind-sets, \u201353\n\nvalue, \u2013284\n\nW.K. Kellogg Foundation,\n\nWagner Act of 1935, \u2013227\n\n_Walden_ (Thoreau), \u2013243\n\n_Walter Mitty_ (Thurber),\n\nWestern Electric Company, Hawthorne studies,\n\n\"what we know,\" compelling vision, \u201327\n\nWheatley, Margaret\n\n_Leadership and the New Science_ ,\n\norganizational management,\n\nWhite, Andrew, Cornell University,\n\nWhite, Elwyn Brooks\n\n_Charlotte's Web_ , \u2013261\n\nCornell University, \u2013239\n\n\"I Paint What I See\" (The New Yorker), \u2013250\n\nand James Thurber, _Is Sex Necessary?_ ,\n\nletter to _The Ellsworth (Maine) American_ , \u2013259\n\nobituary for Harold Ross, \u2013246\n\nobituary for James Thurber, \u2013248\n\nremembrance,\n\n_Stuart Little_ , \u2013260\n\n_The New Yorker_ magazine, \u2013262\n\n\"The Second Tree from the Corner,\" , \u2013253\n\n_The Trumpet of the Swan_ , \u2013261\n\nWhitman, Walt, _Song of the Open Road_ , , \u2013102\n\nwholeness\n\ncertainty of direction,\n\nfeelings of,\n\nsearch for,\n\nWilde, Oscar,\n\nwisdom\n\nlay judgments, \u2013227\n\nnurturing, \u2013103\n\nsmall town people,\n\nunconventional,\n\nwonder\n\nanxiety, \u2013108\n\nattitude of,\n\nWoolcott, Alexander, beer testimonials, \u2013255\n\nWoolman, John\n\npersuasive efforts,\n\nservant model,\n\nslavery, , \u2013135\n\nsustaining spirit,\n\nWordsworth, William, judgment of man,\n\nwork\n\ncreating new leaders, \u2013167\n\ngrowth, \u201375\n\nsatisfaction,\n\nsignificance,\n\n_Working Woman_ , modern leadership,\n\n_Works and Days_ (Emerson),\n\nworlds, inward vs. external,\n\nworldview\n\nG.K. Chesterton,\n\nperception, \u2013108\n\nWright, Frank Lloyd, on art, \u201362\n\nwriting, moral necessity, \u2013237\n\nWythe, George, mentoring,\n\nXerox Corporation\n\nE.B. White's reply regarding sponsorship of testimonials in the press, \u2013259\n\nHarrison Salisbury testimonial,\n\n_You Don't Have to Go Home from Work Exhausted!_ (McGee-Cooper),\n\nZohar, Danah\n\norganizational management,\n\n_Rewiring the Corporate Brain_ , \n\n## **About the Editor  \nand The Greenleaf Center  \nfor Servant-Leadership**\n\nLarry Spears is the editor of two acclaimed collections of essays on servant-leadership\u2014 _Insights on Leadership: Service, Stewardship, Spirit, and Servant-Leadership_ (1998) and _Reflections on Leadership: How Robert K. Greenleaf's Theory of Servant-Leadership Influenced Today's Top Management Thinkers_ (1995)\u2014both published by John Wiley & Sons. Spears has previously co-edited two books by Robert K. Greenleaf, _On Becoming a Servant Leader_ (1996) and _Seeker and Servant_ (1996)\u2014both published by Jossey-Bass Publishers. He is also a contributing author to _Stone Soup for the World_ (1998) and _Leadership in a New Era_ (1994). Since 1970, Spears has published many articles, essays, and book reviews. Among his more recent articles are \"Reflections on Robert K. Greenleaf and Servant-Leadership\" and \"Being a Servant-Leader.\"\n\nSpears was named CEO of the Robert K. Greenleaf Center for Servant-Leadership in 1990, shortly before Robert Greenleaf died. Under his leadership, The Greenleaf Center has experienced tremendous growth and influence. As a manager and leader, Spears has been noted for his successes in applying entrepreneurial methodologies to nonprofit organizations. He also speaks on the topic of servant-leadership. The titles of several of his addresses include \"Servant-Leadership and the Honoring of Excellence\" and \"Understanding Robert K. Greenleaf and Servant-Leadership.\"\n\nIn addition to his involvement with the Center, Spears is a member of the National Society of Fund Raising Executives, the World Futures Society, and the American Society of Association Executives. Like Robert Greenleaf, Larry Spears is a Quaker. In the 1980s, Spears worked on the staff of the Quaker magazine, _Friends Journal_. From 1988\u201398, Spears has served as a board trustee for _Friends Journal_ where he chairs its advancement committee. Prior to joining The Greenleaf Center, he served as Managing Director of The Greater Philadelphia Philosophy Consortium, and as a staff member with the Great Lakes Colleges Association's Philadelphia Center.\n\n**The Greenleaf Center for Servant-Leadership,** headquartered in Indianapolis, Indiana, is an international, nonprofit, educational organization that seeks to encourage the understanding and practice of servant-leadership. The center's mission is to improve the caring and quality of all institutions through a new approach to leadership, structure, and decision making.\n\nThe Greenleaf Center's programs include the worldwide sale of books, essays, and videotapes on servant-leadership and the preparation and presentation of workshops, seminars, institutes, retreats, an annual international conference, a partnership program, and consultation.\n\nThrough the dissemination of Robert Greenleaf's idea about servant-leadership, a number of institutions and individuals have been changed. Servant-leadership is now used as an institutional model, as the basis for educating and training board trustees and community leaders, as the foundation of college and university courses and corporate training programs, and as a vehicle for personal growth and transformation.\n\nFor further information about the resources for study and programming available from the Center, contact:\n\nThe Greenleaf Center for Servant-Leadership  \n921 East Eighty-Sixth Street, Suite 200  \nIndianapolis, IN 46240  \nPhone (317) 259-1241; Fax (317) 259-0560  \nE-mail: greenleaf@iquest.net  \nVisit us at <http:\/\/www.greenleaf.org>\n\n**Berrett-Koehler** is an independent publisher dedicated to an ambitious mission: _Creating a World That Works for All._\n\nWe believe that to truly create a better world, action is needed at all levels\u2014individual, organizational, and societal. 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