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+{"text":"\n\nTable of Contents\n\nTitle Page\n\nForeword\n\nPreface\n\nChapter 1\n\nChapter 2\n\nHISTORY\n\nA CHANGING LANDSCAPE\n\nMEDICAL MARIJUANA, DOCTORS, AND YOU\n\nCONDITIONS MARIJUANA CAN HELP\n\nMARIJUANA VARIETIES\n\nMETHODS OF USING MARIJUANA\n\nHERBAL MEDICINE\n\nChapter 3\n\nSAFETY INSPECTING MARIJUANA\n\nMOLD AND MILDEW\n\nPESTICIDES AND FERTILIZERS\n\nDISEASES AND PATHOGENS\n\nBASIC COOKING SAFETY\n\nCLEANLINESS\n\nDEDICATED WORK AREA\n\nHYGIENE\n\nSAFETY EQUIPMENT\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSTORAGE\n\nKNOW FOR WHOM YOU COOK\u2014GET THE DOSAGE RIGHT\n\nTITRATION FOR OPTIMAL AFFECT\n\nSMOKING VS. EATING\n\nUSING CANNABIS RESPONSIBLY\n\nChapter 4\n\nCONTROLLING THE MEDICINAL POTENCY OF MARIJUANA FOODS\n\nADJUSTING FOR MARIJUANA QUALITY\n\nUSING BUDS, FLOWERS, LEAF TRIM, OR SHAKE TO CONTROL STRENGTH\n\nREDUCING THE PLANT MATERIAL FOR LOWER POTENCY\n\nADJUSTING THE STRENGTH OF CANNABUTTER, OIL, OR TINCTURE\n\nVARYING THE SERVING SIZE FOR OPTIMAL AFFECT\n\nAUNT SANDY'S FORMULAS FOR BUTTER, OIL, TINCTURE, AND FLOUR\n\nAunt Sandy's - 10x Cannabutter\n\nAunt Sandy's - Cannaflour\n\nAunt Sandy's - Cannabis Oil\n\nAunt Sandy's - Marijuana Tincture\n\nKNOW FOR WHOM YOU COOK\n\nChapter 5\n\nLOW CALORIE OPTIONS\n\nVEGETARIAN DIET\n\nVEGAN DIET\n\nSUGAR FREE, DIABETIC, AND HYPOGLYCEMIC DIETS\n\nGLUTEN FREE\n\nLOW SODIUM ALTERNATIVES\n\nChapter 6\n\nBananacanna Fofana - Nut Bars\n\nBerry Peachy - Cannabutter Cobbler\n\nBlue Sky - Lemon Bars\n\nChocolate Coconut - Pecan Pie\n\nCoconut Cannabis - Cookies\n\nLarry's - Munchie Bar\n\nKahlua - Cannabis Cake\n\nLemon - Poppy Seed Bars\n\nOatmeal - Raisin Cookies\n\nPeanut Butter - Bundt Cake\n\nPumpkin - Streusel Muffins\n\nCannabis Milk - & Bhang\n\nThree Cannabis - Frostings\n\nChapter 7\n\nRanch - Dressing\n\nBlue Cheese - Dressing\/Dip\n\nLemony - Hummus Dip\n\nMarshall's - Favorite Dip\n\nAunt Sandy's - 10x Hot Sauce\n\nChapter 8\n\nCannafire - Buffalo Wings\n\nCannaflour - Chicken Tenders\n\nCannabis - Gumbo\n\nCreamy - Zucchini Soup\n\nMinestrone\n\nPumpkin - Soup\n\nTomato - Bisque\n\nChapter 9\n\nAdobo - Pork Chops\n\nBraised Short Ribs & Egg Noodles\n\nCannamaca Roni & Cheese\n\nCannabis - Chicken Curry\n\nCioppino\n\nClassic - Cannabis Pesto\n\nDizzy Bird - Turkey with Stuffing\n\nStuffing - for Dizzy Bird\n\nGourmet Grilled Brie - Sandwiches with Apricot Jam\n\nJambalaya a la Cannabis\n\nChapter 10\n\nGreen - Rice\n\nScalloped - Potatoes\n\nRosie's - Risotto\n\nChapter 11\n\nPopcorn\n\nOlive - Medley\n\nSweet & Spicy - Roasted Nuts\n\nCheesy - Savory Nuts\n\nSpicy - Pepitas\n\nAppendix A - Equivalents and Conversions\n\nAcknowledgments\n\nIndex\n\nOAKSTERDAM UNIVERSITY\n\nCopyright Page\n\nForeword\n\nby Dennis Peron Medical Marijuana Pioneer\n\n**I** first met Aunt Sandy while teaching the History of Medical Marijuana at Oaksterdam University. Over the years we have fostered our friendship, and I am honored to be a part of Aunt Sandy's Medical Marijuana Cookbook.\n\nAunt Sandy has told me that she relies on my book all the time. She is referring to \"Brownie Mary's Marijuana Cookbook and Dennis Peron's Recipe for Social Change, co-authored with Mary Rathbun, in 1996. In the mid-70s, I met \"Brownie Mary\" Rathbun outside of a San Francisco caf\u00e9. A friend pointed her out to me and from then on we were very close friends.\n\nThe 1980s AIDS epidemic happened at the height of America's War on Drugs. We knew marijuana could relieve the pain and weight loss due to wasting syndrome in AIDS patients, but we were in the \"Belly of the Beast\". Brownie Mary made cannabis brownies in my kitchen and distributed them for free to street kids and AIDS patients in a blatant act of defiance to the arcane drug laws. The sweet taste of the brownies helped them consume the medicine, which in turn restored their appetites and improved their quality of life. She continued to help people in need, regardless of her life mission's conflict with our drug laws.\n\nBrownie Mary died in 2000, but her legacy lives on through Aunt Sandy's work. After suffering a stroke, I have been unable to smoke cannabis. Aunt Sandy brings me medicated foods every Tuesday. Her food is delicious, innovative, and nutritious, but more importantly Aunt Sandy's foods truly relieve pain in the body, mind and soul. Her warmth and compassion shines through in her recipes. I truly believe that the information in this book is invaluable and could potentially be life changing for you, your friends, or a loved one.\n\n**Preface**\n\n**by Richard Lee President, Oaksterdam University**\n\n**A** unt Sandy's edibles are a favorite around Blue Sky Coffeeshop, in Oakland, and in the Bay area. Since joining us, her recipes have also become popular with Oaksterdam University students, but more importantly Sandy herself has been part of the Oaksterdam family for years. Aunt Sandy is now taking cooking with cannabis to a higher level with this cookbook. We are proud to have Sandy enhance and contribute to our Methods of Ingestion curricululm. She is helping Oaksterdam University bring quality training to the cannabis and hospitality industry.\n\n_\"Keep the Faith!\"_\n\n**Chapter 1**\n\n**Welcome to Aunt Sandy's Kitchen**\n\n_Ever since I was a teenager I have loved cooking. My home-style cooking can best be described as \"comfort food.\" As I began to understand the therapeutic benefits of cooking with marijuana, I learned how these foods can also help to heal a person's mind as well as their body. I am delighted that_ Aunt Sandy's Medical Marijuana Cookbook\u2014Comfort Food for Mind and Body _can help you to learn the secrets of cooking with marijuana so that you too can provide relief and joy with foods from your kitchen._\n\n**O** ne of the greatest feelings in the world is to cook wonderful food that people love. When that food also has the power to help a person feel better both physically and emotionally, that feeling becomes even greater. Early on I realized the therapeutic value of the cannabis plant, long before the idea came back to the mainstream. I began cooking marijuana foods in 1974 to help my brother relieve his chronic pain. At the time, I was na\u00efve and just added a bag of marijuana\u2014sticks, seeds, stems\u2014and all to a cookie recipe and my poor brother had to eat it. Even though the cannabis did its job, the cookie was difficult to eat and had the bitter taste of chlorophyll from the plant material. Over the years I have perfected the process and have developed methods that enhance the taste of the food while lessening the harsh taste of marijuana.\n\nI've lived in California my whole life and have been a medical marijuana advocate for decades. In 1996 California passed the groundbreaking medical marijuana law Proposition 215, which allowed me to further explore the benefits of marijuana cooking in a safe and legal environment. I now have hundreds of patients that depend on my tasty, medicated foods to make their world a better place.\n\nCurrently I prepare my dishes for a select group of medical marijuana dispensing collectives in California. Being involved with these organizations has given me the opportunity to see first-hand how these foods have the power to change a person's life and bring them a level of comfort and healing that other medicines could not. When a patient comes up to me and tells me how one of my lemon bars helped her sleep through the night or manage his pain more regularly, it warms my heart. Those moments keep me working hard in the kitchen to provide the very best medicinal foods to the patients I serve. I now teach my craft to students at Oakland's revolutionary marijuana trade school, Oaksterdam University, so that others can learn to provide their own comfort foods for themselves or for the patients in their lives.\n\nI'm proud to be the mother of three successful daughters who support my vision to provide healing foods to patients. My daughters, a nurse, a chef, and a student, have experienced first-hand my passion for making home-cooked marijuana remedies. They have always been my buddies, and they totally understand the medical benefits of cannabis for patients in need. I thank them for their support, which has helped me to discover my calling\u2014creating flavorful and effective therapies for an increasingly wider patient base.\n\nMy kitchen is a place of compassion and healing. While there are still certain legal and societal hurdles to jump to provide medical marijuana, I do not worry because I know whole-heartedly that what I am doing is right. It is unacceptable for those who oppose marijuana to allow for patients to suffer because of lack of understanding or misinformation about this wonderful and healing plant. Patients deserve to have safe access to reliable and effective marijuana medicines, and I am honored to be able to do my part to help.\n\nBy creating _Aunt Sandy's Medical Marijuana Cookbook\u2014Comfort Food for Mind and Body_ , I can help others learn how to cook marijuana foods that help bring relief and wellness to their lives. Most of the recipes in this book are easy enough to make, no matter how experienced you are in the kitchen. By following the simple instructions you will be able to create delicious meals that can also treat and heal a plethora of illnesses and ailments. Always check with your physician to ensure that marijuana food, like any other medicine, is suitable for your condition and safe for you to take with or in lieu of other medications. Cannabis medicines are not for everyone, but many people report them being extremely beneficial.\n\nPlease take the time to read carefully the following chapters before you start cooking. They will inform and educate you about marijuana as a medicine, marijuana and cooking safety, and methods for cooking with marijuana. It is important to take the time to learn about marijuana and how to cook with it safely and responsibly. You will find your personal comfort zone as it relates to proper dosage and the different strengths and potency levels of marijuana medicines.\n\nThe recipes are divided into categories that make it easy to find a delicious dessert, starter, soup, main course, side dish or snack to suit your needs. I hope you enjoy making some of my favorite recipes. They are rich in flavor and created with a lot of love. After mastering my marijuana cooking methods and techniques you may also enjoy adding marijuana to your favorite recipe. Most importantly: Always be safe, always be happy, and always remember to make cooking fun. I do hope you find my book to be a reliable and trusted companion in your journey to preparing great foods with marijuana.\n\n_From my kitchen to yours\u2014Happy cooking!_   \n_\u2014Aunt Sandy_\n\n**Chapter 2**\n\n**Marijuana as Medicine**\n\n_Marijuana medicines have played a role in human culture for thousands of years. The active ingredients in the marijuana plant make it beneficial for many different medical conditions. It is a safe, effective, and most importantly, a natural remedy that has proven to be helpful in treating pain afflictions, combating nausea, assisting in digestion, limiting seizures, increasing appetites, and more._\n\n**T** HC is the most recognized in a group of cannabinoids and constituents found in marijuana. It has shown to be neuroprotective, reduce the aggressiveness of several cancers, and in its raw form is both antimicrobial and an antioxidant. Most of the other cannabinoids are found in smaller but varying quantities, and have virtually no effect upon the \"high\" or euphoric effect, other than perhaps CBD. Cannabidiol, or CBD, does mitigate the sometimes dysphoric (unwanted or uncomfortable) effects and can reduce the \"mind high\". CBD has shown to greatly improve the \"body effects\" by binding to CB2 receptors that are found predominately in body organs and muscle tissue, helping those patients that suffer from muscle spasms and disorders. CBD also has therapeutic value because of its anti-inflammatory activities, is neuroprotective, and reduces metastasis in breast cancer. THC and CBN bind to the CB1 receptors in the brain, which affect the uptake of serotonin. This is why marijuana can relieve many physical and environmental stresses, and provide a better quality of life.\n\nBecause the federal government has so drastically limited marijuana research, there are very few clinical trials on whole plant marijuana. What is known is that hundreds of thousands of patients have confirmed that this plant benefits their medical condition and many use it regularly to relieve symptoms.\n\n#  **HISTORY**\n\nThe medicinal qualities of this plant trace back through recorded history. Ancient civilizations, including China, Greece, India, and medieval cultures documented cannabis as being a beneficial therapy for humans and even animals. It was a very common treatment throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in America. Cannabis was the physicians' primary pain reliever until the discovery of aspirin. Cannabis was a prominent part of the US Pharmacopoeia until 1942, and several major pharmaceutical corporations distributed it and held patents for medicines containing cannabis. It was outlawed by the Marijuana Tax Act of 1937 and less commonly used thereafter.\n\nIn 1996 California voters passed Proposition 215, which was the first state law to allow patients a legal right to use medical marijuana. Since then many other states have passed similar legislation by voter initiative or the legislative process. In 2009 the US Congress lifted a ban, allowing Washington DC residents legal access to medical marijuana.\n\nIn the same year, the United States Department of Justice under the Obama Administration issued a directive for federal enforcement to cease prosecution of those operating in compliance with state law. This was a sea change in policy, after more than a decade of controversial federal enforcement.\n\n#  **A CHANGING LANDSCAPE**\n\nCurrently several countries, including the Netherlands, Canada, Spain, and Italy allow marijuana to be prescribed in its plant form. The American Medical Association (AMA) and the American College of Physicians  (ACP), the world's largest organizations of physicians, have called for the rescheduling of marijuana studies to explore its medical benefits. Medical organizations across the globe have endorsed the medical benefits of marijuana, and it is once again emerging as a legitimate therapy in medical circles.\n\nCalifornia and other states have marijuana dispensing collectives, or dispensaries, where patients can access their medicines in a clean and safe environment. Patients continue to gain safe access to these medicines while medical professionals, patient activists, and concerned citizens continue to break down the barriers of decades of misinformation, and allow the truth about the benefits of marijuana to come to light. Legal, political, and social changes continue to evolve within the medical marijuana landscape.\n\n#  **MEDICAL MARIJUANA, DOCTORS, AND YOU**\n\nHow does a patient know if medical marijuana is right for his condition? It is always best to consult with a doctor about taking any medication; cannabis is no different. Because of the limited research or negative bias, it may be difficult to find a doctor supportive of marijuana therapies. If your physician seems to have a knee-jerk negative response it may be worthwhile to get a second opinion. In states where medical marijuana is allowed there are doctors who specialize in this area of alternative medicine. Seeking out a doctor who is knowledgeable about the benefits of medical marijuana will help you clearly understand if this treatment may help with your condition.\n\nWhile marijuana is not beneficial for everyone, it has improved the quality of life for many patients. Marijuana is not a cure for any disease or illness. Like most medicines, it increases comfort levels and helps to regulate a condition so a patient can be more productive in daily life. Cannabis can benefit a number of afflictions because of its ability to decrease certain kinds of pain, stimulate appetite, decrease spasms and seizures, and normalize dietary regiments. Deciding whether to use marijuana medicines should be a decision based on whether the effect of the medicine helps you function more normally and helps you cope with the symptoms of the conditions.\n\n#  **CONDITIONS MARIJUANA CAN HELP**\n\n\u2022 **Cancer and Chemotherapy Treatment:** Cannabis is effective in curbing nausea and increasing the appetite of patients experiencing the harsh side effects of chemotherapy and radiation. It can also reduce the pain associated with the disease.\n\n\u2022 **HIV\/AIDS:** HIV\/AIDS patients often experience wasting syndrome from the disease and the multitudes of medicines used to combat it. Marijuana stimulates their appetite allowing them to eat more regularly, as well as helping them to ease the pains associated with the disease itself.\n\n\u2022 **Pain Afflictions:** Research shows that cannabis is a safe and effective treatment for a variety of pain related afflictions, including deep tissue pains, muscle and back pain, and neuropathy.\n\n\u2022 **Multiple Sclerosis:** Marijuana improves spasticity and improves tremors in MS patients. It helps control involuntary muscle contraction, improves balance, and assists with bladder control, speech, and eyesight. Cannabis helps with the immune system, which is thought to be the underlying pathogenic process in MS patients.\n\n\u2022 **Gastrointestinal Disorders:** Marijuana has value as an anti-emetic and analgesic medication. It helps combat the symptoms brought on by disorders such as Crohn's Disease, irritable bowel syndrome, and ulcerative colitis. Cannabis interacts with the endogenous cannabinoid receptors in the digestive tract, which can result in calming spasms, assuaging pain, and improving motility. Marijuana has also been shown to have anti-inflammatory properties and recent research has demonstrated that cannabinoids are immune system modulators, either enhancing or suppressing immune response.\n\n\u2022 **Movement Disorders:** Cannabis is effective in treating muscular spasticity, a common condition affecting millions of people. This condition afflicts individuals who have suffered strokes, as well as those with multiple sclerosis, cerebral palsy, paraplegia, quadriplegia, and spinal cord injuries. Conventional medical therapy offers little to address spasticity problems. Because cannabinoids have anti-spasticity, analgesic, anti-tremor, and anti-ataxia properties, they can be helpful.\n\n\u2022 **Aging:** Marijuana has been found to help many patients suffering from conditions that afflict older patients, including arthritis, chronic pain, cancer, Alzheimer's disease, diabetes, and spasticity associated with such diseases as Parkinson's.\n\n\u2022 **Arthritis:** There are two common types of arthritis, rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis, and each affects the joints, causing pain and swelling, and limiting  movement. The analgesic properties of marijuana make it useful in treating the pain associated with arthritis, both on its own and as an adjunct therapy that enhances the efficacy of opioid painkillers. Cannabis has also been shown to have powerful immune-modulation and anti-inflammatory properties suggesting that it could play a role in treating arthritis, and not just in symptom management.\n\n _Source: Americans for Safe Access_   \n_Toll-free 888-929-4367_   \n_www.americansforsafeaccess.org_   \n_info@safeaccessnow.org_\n\n#  **MARIJUANA VARIETIES**\n\nMarijuana is a medicinal plant with many different genetic varieties. Patients report that certain types of cannabis work better for specific afflictions than others. Medical marijuana is generally derived from three varieties: indica, sativa, and hybrids. An indica-dominant strain is commonly thought to have deeper body effects and helps with many physical afflictions. Sativa-dominant strains produce more of a cerebral, uplifting, and calming effect. A hybrid is a strain that has been developed by combining indica- and sativa-dominant plants to create marijuana medicine that has the traits and effects of both indica and sativa. Due to years of genetic modification and breeding, there are few pure strains of just sativa or indica; but the dominant genetics in most marijuana types generally lean one way or another. In each of these types of cannabis there are hundreds of different strains that have been bred to produce certain qualities. If possible, it may be necessary to try different varieties of marijuana to find which works best for you.\n\n#  **METHODS OF USING MARIJUANA**\n\nThe raw plant material of marijuana can be ingested or used in other ways, such as smoking or vaporization. Vaporization heats the plant material to a temperature that activates the cannabinoids but does not burn the plant, so that the vapors can be inhaled. Cannabis can also be infused into butters, oils, and tinctures. The recipes in this book include these infusions as ingredients to provide the medicinal value to the foods.\n\n#  **HERBAL MEDICINE**\n\nCannabis is one of the safest medicines on the planet. It is an herbal medicine that helps people find relief where traditional medicines have failed them. The World Health Organization estimates that 80% of the world population uses herbal remedies. This is not uncharted territory, as many who oppose marijuana may have you believe. Cannabis is not a magical plant that can heal any condition; but if used properly it can provide extended relief for many symptoms and drastically increase one's quality of life _if used safely_ , and that is the topic of the next chapter.\n\n**Chapter 3**\n\n**Cooking Safely with Marijuana**\n\n_Cooking with marijuana should always be done in a safe and responsible manner. Handling food in itself requires you to take precautions to ensure that you and other people do not become sick. Cooking with cannabis requires the same diligence in food preparation, while also considering the effects of the active ingredients on the user, and sometimes on the food handler. With proper plant inspection, strict safety standards, adequate education, keen awareness, and a conduct of responsibility, you can be sure to have a good experience and avoid problems. Unsafe usage of marijuana can result in unintended consequences, so it is important for you to be aware of basic safety standards for marijuana handling and cooking._\n\n#  **SAFETY INSPECTING MARIJUANA**\n\n**W** hen beginning to cook with marijuana it is important to inspect the medicine being used for signs of contamination. Marijuana can contain biological contaminants, chemical contaminants, and even diseases. Plant material with measurable levels of pesticides or fungicides should not be used under any circumstances. Powdery mildew, while not shown to have any pathogenic qualities in humans, should also be avoided. Taking time to examine the marijuana before cooking with it can help to detect and avoid unwanted contamination of your medical foods.\n\nIt is best if you know the source of the medication to have a better idea of the cultivation process. Knowing the conditions of cultivation and storage helps you to know the sanitary standards, pesticides used, and if the medicine was properly stored to preserve active ingredients. Many times you do not know where the marijuana was grown, and that is okay. You can inspect the marijuana for problems and take certain safety precautions before cooking to help ensure it is safe for patient use. Here are some common marijuana contaminants and how to recognize them.\n\n#  **MOLD AND MILDEW**\n\nFungal growths, such as molds and mildews, can be present on marijuana. In a perfect world all food and plants would be mold free, but when making medicinal foods it is extra important to be diligent. White powdery mildew is unfortunately very common. This manifests in a white powdery substance on the leaf and flower surfaces that feels chalky instead of sticky. You may be able to detect other fungal problems by smell; the plant material may smell musty. When the material is fresh, it can feel a little slimy, and that is better than dry and chalky. Dried plant material can contain mold spores. Dark discoloration can be a sign that your marijuana has been effected by mold contamination. Use a magnifying device or microscope to take a closer look if you suspect problems. Under a microscope molds will look like thin strands with distinct heads where you can see spore-like growth.\n\n_Healthy bud_\n\nThere are acceptable levels of molds in many herbal medications. However, patients with compromised immune systems should never take a chance. When in doubt, throw  it out. The American Nursing Association recommends boiling any mixture containing plant material at 325\u00b0 for at least 30 minutes. THC evaporates at 380\u00b0, so you can boil marijuana at lower temperatures without losing its active ingredient. While this will kill certain kinds of molds, it will not kill them all; so never risk your health if your condition is worsened by molds and mildews.\n\n_Mildew on leaf_\n\n#  **PESTICIDES AND FERTILIZERS**\n\nMarijuana cultivation has been under-regulated for a long time. As a result, people often use dangerous and harsh pesticides or chemical growth additives in their plants. Some of these chemicals are dangerous for patients and should be avoided. Identifying pesticides is more difficult, but sometimes you can smell or taste a small portion of leaf and sense if there is a detectable chemical residue. The plant material being damaged or discolored may be a sign of pesticide contamination, as well.\n\n_Mold on bud_\n\nIf pesticides are dangerous to your condition be sure to exercise caution if using marijuana from unknown sources. There are home testing kits that can identify common toxins on foods if you have serious concern. Plant material with measurable levels of pesticides or fungicides should not be used under any circumstances.\n\n#  **DISEASES AND PATHOGENS**\n\nMarijuana is a plant that is susceptible to the same biological and bacterial problems faced by other plants. If not properly cultivated and handled, plants can be exposed to a number of diseases that pose risk to humans, making them unfit for human consumption. Some pathogens can be identified by a discoloration or change in surface texture of the plant material. Also, the normally pungent odor of the plant may smell stale. Having a reputable source for the medicine is the first choice. Always discard any questionable medicine.\n\n#  **BASIC COOKING SAFETY**\n\nAfter you have inspected the marijuana for safety you can begin cooking. Safety in the kitchen is essential. Following protocol will help avoid contamination in the kitchen and ensure the foods you create are of the highest quality. When making medical marijuana foods, it is necessary to take extra care to ensure the food you prepare does no harm.\n\n#  **CLEANLINESS**\n\nThe first thing is to maintain a clean and sterile kitchen. Always clean before beginning a project, during preparation, and upon finishing that project. Use safe and non-toxic cleaning solutions and prepare foods on nonporous surfaces. All surfaces, sink areas, and materials should be cleaned and equipment should be in good repair. The number one source of food contamination is failure to properly clean. It is your duty to make sure your food preparation and cooking areas are literally clean enough to eat off of.\n\n#  **DEDICATED WORK AREA**\n\nWhile you are preparing medicinal foods, your food prep area should be dedicated only to making medicinal foods. People, pets, things, and food not related to the making of medical foods should be removed from the area. Making marijuana food requires focus, so it is important to remove any possible distractions prior to working with the medicine. While you want to have fun cooking, be sure to do that in a safe and responsible manner.\n\n#  **HYGIENE**\n\nAlways wash your hands thoroughly with warm water and soap before handling medicine or food. Be sure to follow sanitation standards if hand washing your equipment and utensils. This will ensure no bacteria or biological contaminants are transferred on to the foods.\n\n#  **SAFETY EQUIPMENT**\n\nWhen cooking for others outside the home, use safety equipment, like plastic or non-powdered latex food handling gloves and a head covering, to avoid contamination of the food. When cooking for others it is important to be cautious, as nobody wants to find a stray hair in their dish. A patient with severe allergies can become ill if precaution is not taken to avoid cross-contamination. Safety equipment can help avoid these problems by promoting sanitary conditions.\n\n#  **EDUCATION**\n\nAll states offer food safety courses. If you are cooking for others it is beneficial to take a course to be educated on temperature matters, hygiene standards, food borne disease and allergens, and cross-contamination.\n\n#  **STORAGE**\n\nAlways store marijuana in a cool, dry area. To avoid heat degradation, never store items in cupboards near the stove or over the refrigerator. You need to be sure that all cannabis extractions and foods containing cannabis are kept secured and away from unknowing or curious people. Clearly label the medicine, butters, oils, tinctures, and medicated foods to avoid confusion. Treat medicinal foods with the same care and diligence you would a bottle of pills and always keep them out of reach of kids. Check the recipe for proper storage conditions and be aware of the shelf life of the foods to ensure your products are always fresh.\n\n#  **KNOW FOR WHOM YOU COOK\u2014GET THE DOSAGE RIGHT**\n\nDosage is one of the most important aspects of marijuana cooking and the subject many people are most curious about. Dosage is relevant to both the potency of the medicine and the condition and size of the patient. There are three ways to control the medicinal potency and the affect of the finished cannabis-infused foods: 1) adjust the amount of plant material used in the butter, oil, or tincture according to the quality of the marijuana and depending on the part of the plant you are using, bud, flower, leaf trim, or shake; 2) adjust the strength of the cannabis butter, oil, tincture, or flour used in the recipe; and 3) adjust the serving size of the food.\n\nIn Chapter 4 Aunt Sandy's Marijuana Cooking Secrets, we discuss more about controlling the potency of the marijuana. Right now, let's focus on determining the condition of you or the patient you are cooking for and how that condition effects your choices during the marijuana preparation process.\n\nThere are many personal factors that can go into establishing the right dosage for you or your patient including weight (generally a heavier person will need more than a light person), metabolism (how your body metabolizes foods and the chemicals in cannabis can change how it effects you), and eating habits (eating cannabis on an empty  stomach will have increased effect). Properly managing your dosage can help you to have a better experience with your medicine. Every patient is different, so understanding your personal boundaries and needs helps to maintain a consistent dosage rate that provides adequate relief.\n\nEating too much marijuana can result in drowsiness, diminished focus, increased heart rate or blood pressure, and euphoric feelings. If you feel you may have ingested too much, remain calm. Marijuana is non-toxic, so it will not have any lasting or fatal effects. The symptoms will subside in a few hours. Be sure you drink plenty of water and eat non-medicated foods to help symptoms pass.\n\n#  **TITRATION FOR OPTIMAL AFFECT**\n\nIn medicine, titration is the process of gradually adjusting the dose of a medication until the desired affect is achieved. Titration allows the patient to determine which amount of certain medicinal foods adequately medicate, without overwhelming and overdosing. When an inexperienced patient is confronted with a new medicated food, she should begin by eating a small portion of the food and waiting an hour to examine the effects. At that point you can assess the need for more or less medicine. If necessary, eat another portion of the food and wait another thirty minutes to an hour. If you require more medicine for your condition, you can consume more food. Over time you will begin to accurately judge what portion size of particular foods work well for your medical needs. Use good judgment and caution when trying new medicated foods.\n\n#  **SMOKING VS. EATING**\n\nChances are you may have only experienced using marijuana through inhalation by smoking or vaporizing. Smoking has a rapid onset, and the effects can be felt almost immediately. Patients that inhale their medicine generally know right away if they need to take more or less to achieve their comfort level. Smoking can create a lighter more \"heady\" experience and often will not last as long as eating marijuana.\n\n_Digital vaporizer_\n\nEating cannabis is much like ingesting a pill. It takes a period of time for your digestive system to break down the medicine and get it into your blood stream. Ingesting cannabis in foods or drinks can often have longer lasting deep body effects. Eating cannabis causes the active ingredients to remain in your system longer, and some patients experience residual effects even after sleeping. It is difficult to inhale enough medicine through smoke to cause a hallucinogenic effect, but patients who have consumed too much cannabis have reported minor psychedelic hallucinations and extreme euphoria. Just because you may smoke larger quantities of marijuana does not mean you can eat more. It is a whole different experience and precaution should be taken.\n\n#  **USING CANNABIS RESPONSIBLY**\n\nYou should always use cannabis in a safe and responsible manner. Like any drug, marijuana can be abused. It should never be your intention to use marijuana at extreme levels to increase the effect to a point of losing control. While there is little evidence of physical addiction to marijuana, some medical professionals have observed people suffering from mental addictions. If you feel your marijuana use is making your life unmanageable, interfering with your productivity, or straining your relationships, it may be necessary to reevaluate and consult your physician.\n\nNever use cannabis when driving a car or motor vehicle, operating heavy machinery, or dangerous equipment. Always be aware of your surroundings and make sure you avoid hazards while medicated. Be prepared for the effects of your medicine and do not take it if you are unable to do so in a responsible and safe setting. Be aware of how cannabis interacts with other substances you may be taking, including alcohol and pharmaceuticals.\n\nMarijuana should contribute to your health and well-being, not detract from it. Understand your limitations and exercise discretion. Never allow social pressure to influence your cannabis use practices. Be aware of the situation and determine what amount of cannabis, if any, is appropriate. It is your duty to ensure that your marijuana does not get into the hands of others, including young people.\n\nBe discreet if you encounter law enforcement, especially if you live in a state with limited legal protections. It is never recommended to flaunt your marijuana use in public, no matter if it is legal in your area or not.\n\nFollowing these safety protocols will make your experience using medical marijuana more enjoyable. It is up to you to control the situation and make sure that cannabis is used safely. Now let's move on to the methods of cooking with marijuana.\n\n**Chapter 4**\n\n**Aunt Sandy's Marijuana Cooking Secrets**\n\n_Because marijuana can taste bitter and plant material can be hard to digest, simply adding marijuana plant material to your favorite recipe is not ideal. The taste becomes much more palatable when you draw out the cannabinoids, the active ingredients in marijuana, by infusing them into substances like butter, oil, alcohol, or milk fats. The cannabinoids bond to these substances and the plant material can then be removed so that the infusion can be added to various recipes. My recipes call for adding **Aunt Sandy's 10x Cannabutter, Aunt Sandy's Cannabis Oil, Aunt Sandy's Marijuana Tincture, Aunt Sandy's Cannaflour** , or a combination of these. Because I have developed these methods over the years for my clients, you can be sure that each recipe has a solid foundation of medicinal properties so that you can create both delicious and effective medical marijuana foods._\n\n#  **CONTROLLING THE MEDICINAL POTENCY OF MARIJUANA FOODS**\n\n**A** s we discussed earlier, there are three ways to control the medicinal potency and the affect of the finished marijuana foods:\n\n1. Adjust the amount of plant material used in the butter, oil, or tincture according to the quality of the marijuana and depending on the part of the plant you are using, bud, flower, leaf trim, or shake.\n\n2. Adjust the strength of the cannabis butter, oil, tincture, or flour used in the recipe.\n\n3. Adjust the serving size of the food.\n\n#  **ADJUSTING FOR MARIJUANA QUALITY**\n\nThe quality of the marijuana you use to create the butter, oil, tincture, or flour effects the potency of the finished food. An ounce of high quality marijuana will have more active ingredients than an ounce of low-grade marijuana. I consistently use high-grade medical cannabis, but depending on the marijuana you have access to, the amount of cannabis can be increased or decreased accordingly.\n\nYou can use sensory methods to help better understand whether to use more or less marijuana when preparing cooking extracts. If the medicine looks mediocre, lacks smell, is not resinous to the touch, tastes stale, has limited effects, or lacks freshness, it is likely that using more marijuana will be more beneficial. If the marijuana meets all of the requirements and can be considered high-grade, then a normal or lower amount may be used to achieve optimal therapeutic results. Here are some easy ways to use your senses to distinguish between high- and low-grade marijuana.\n\n_Weighing marijuana_\n\n**Sight:** Are there visible trichomes (resinous crystal-like formations)? Does it look discolored or old? You can use a magnifying device to examine the material more closely for signs of quality.\n\n**Smell:** Is the plant material pungent and ripe, or does it lack aroma or smell somewhat stale? Is there a musty smell? Fresh high quality marijuana has a strong distinct odor.\n\n**Touch:** Does the material have a sticky resin when rubbed between your fingers? Is it a chalky feeling (powdery mildew), or does it have a coarse texture?\n\n**Taste:** When smoked or vaporized does the marijuana have a chemical or perfume taste? Does it taste fresh or stale? Is the taste powerful or weak?\n\n**Effect:** When smoked or vaporized does the medicine have a strong and immediate effect, or does it take more than normal to be adequately medicated?\n\n**Freshness:** Aged medicine or improperly stored medicine may experience a breakdown of cannabinoids. Crumbling, over-dried, or discolored marijuana could be a sign of lack of freshness.\n\n#  **USING BUDS, FLOWERS, LEAF TRIM, OR SHAKE TO CONTROL STRENGTH**\n\nUnderstanding the ratio of marijuana buds to marijuana leaf trim or shake is essential to developing cooking extracts that produce desired effects consistently. While it is not an exact science because every cannabis plant is different, the folks at Steep Hill Labs in California who test medicine for patient collectives in the state verify that on average the leaves or trimmings from a cannabis plant are about 25% as strong as buds or flowering clusters from the same plant. This means that in general a 1:4 ratio of bud\/flower to leaf trim or shake will produce similar medicinal effects.\n\nIf you are using the buds\/flowers of the plant you should only use from \u00bc ounce buds\/ flowers to an ounce of leaf trim or shake; or on a larger scale of weaker marijuana, use one ounce of bud\/flowers to a quarter pound of leaf trim or shake. This 1:4 general ratio should provide a relatively consistent result. The \"1:4 Ratio Chart for Determining Potency\" on the next page provides guidelines for amounts to use when preparing butter, oils, and tinctures.\n\n_Marijuana shake_\n\n**1:4 RATIO CHART FOR INCREASING OR DECREASING POTENCY**\n\nSTRENGTH| BUDS\/FLOWERS| LEAF TRIM\/SHAKE  \n---|---|---  \nAunt Sandy's 10x Maximum Strength Formula|  _1 Ounce_ | _4 Ounces_  \nHigh Strength Formula|  _\u00be Ounce_ | _3 Ounces_  \nElevated Strength Formula|  _\u00bd Ounce_ | _2 Ounces_  \nLow Strength Formula|  _\u00bc Ounce_ | _1 Ounce_\n\n#  **REDUCING THE PLANT MATERIAL FOR LOWER POTENCY**\n\nIf you want lower potency, another option is to add less plant material than is called for in the extraction formula to create a less potent potion to cook with. This is a good method if you do not have access to large quantities of marijuana but still want to enjoy Aunt Sandy's marijuana cooking recipes. Making butter, oil, or tincture with lower quantities of marijuana may also be desirable if you want to create entire meals for a group of patients or enjoy larger portions or any combination of snacks, soups, starters, sides, entrees, or desserts.\n\nAdjusting the potency of the marijuana butter, oils, and tinctures, will help you to have a better experience, and in turn will help foster wellness. Always err on the side of caution. (Refer to Appendix A for measurement equivalents.)\n\n#  **ADJUSTING THE STRENGTH OF CANNABUTTER, OIL, OR TINCTURE**\n\nMany of my recipes, especially the desserts, use my famous Aunt Sandy's 10x Cannabutter to provide the greatest value and maximum effect to the patients I work with. When made with high-quality buds and flowers, this is an extremely potent formula. **If you are unsure of your tolerance to marijuana as a medicine, do not ingest it at full strength. Also, if you are not sure of the strength of the marijuana you are using, be cautious. You may want to dilute the recipe with non-medicated butter starting at a 25% Aunt Sandy's 10x Cannabutter to 75% regular butter.** Dilute the butters by melting them together in a pot and gently stirring. After ingesting foods at this ratio and following the titration methods to determine the proper portion size (see page 16), you can decide whether to increase or decrease the ratio accordingly.\n\nThe same is true for oils; you can dilute any Aunt Sandy's Cannabis Oil by adding more of the oil you used for the infusion. The same ratio works: 25% Aunt Sandy's Cannabis Oil to 75% regular oil. You can manipulate the ratio from there on up to 10x strength.\n\nThis will help you to have a better experience, and in turn will help foster wellness.  Always err on the side of caution. It is always easier to eat more if needed, but it is difficult to reduce the amount once you may have ingested too much.\n\n#  **VARYING THE SERVING SIZE FOR OPTIMAL AFFECT**\n\nOnce the tasty Aunt Sandy's recipe is made, your last chance to control the potency of the medicine is by adjusting the size of the portion of food. This is where the titration method comes in: if you are unsure of how much medication you need, even though you have controlled the recipe by the amount of plant material added and the amount of Cannabutter or cannabis oil used, you can choose how much of the food to eat.\n\nWhen trying a new recipe, start with a small serving to be on the conservative side. This is very useful when you have prepared a dessert like my Blue Sky Lemon Bars at its highest possible potency. Try a small piece of one bar. Wait an hour to feel the results. You can always eat more if you need it. Once you have experienced your body's response to the medicated food, you will know how much of that particular food makes you feel better. You will feel the relief from this wonderful medicine at its optimal strength for you. And that is the point of my whole story. Bon app\u00e9tit!\n\n#  **AUNT SANDY'S FORMULAS FOR BUTTER, OIL, TINCTURE, AND FLOUR**\n\nOn the following pages is the famous Aunt Sandy's 10x Cannabutter formula. Remember that I use my most potent butter for patients in need of high doses of medication, and at full strength it is a powerful medicine. Please adjust your recipe as needed by either diluting the butter or using less plant material if you do not feel as if you need a maximum strength dosage or if you plan on cooking a dish or meal with larger portions. While Aunt Sandy's recipe provides great value, at it highest strength it can be overwhelming if you have a lower threshold, reduced medical need, or low tolerance for the active ingredients of marijuana.\n\n#  **Aunt Sandy's**\n\n##  **10x Cannabutter**\n\nYield:\n\n_Approximately 2 cups_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_scale, 5-quart stock pot (no lid), strainer or colander, catch pot (large pot), potato masher or stiff spoon, cheesecloth, kitchen gloves (plastic or non-powdered latex), ice cream scoop or big spoon, food storage bags or containers_\n\nIngredients:\n\n1\u20134 _ounces of cannabis leaf trim or shake. 4 ounces results in maximum strength 10x Cannabutter. See the 1:4 Ratio Chart on page 22 for lower strengths._\n\n1 _pound of unsalted butter (salted or sweet cream butter if preferred)_\n\n2 _quarts of water_\n\nButter is a great way to add marijuana to any recipe that calls for butter or oil. Try it in your own recipes and learn to make your favorite foods into delicious medicines. It is important to note THC evaporates at 380\u00b0 so keep recipes at a safe 350\u00b0. Boiling point is 212\u00b0, so it's okay to cook at a rapid boil or a strong saut\u00e9.\n\nINSTRUCTIONS:\n\n\u2022 Weigh desired amount of plant material on scale.\n\n\u2022 Combine these ingredients in a 5-quart stock pot.\n\n\u2022 Bring the ingredients to a slow boil where they will begin to conjoin in love and happiness.\n\n\u2022 Reduce heat and let the mixture simmer with no lid for 3\u20134 hours. The marijuana mixture will cook down to a concentrated level and most of the water will dissipate. If water evaporates before 3 hours, add one cup more. The idea is too cook off as much liquid as possible without burning the plant material.\n\n\u2022 Turn off the stove.\n\n\u2022 In a second pot or catch pot you will strain the plant material from the butter and liquid mixture using a common kitchen strainer or colander.\n\n_1) Measuring marijuana using scale_\n\n_2) Pouring measured marijuana into cooking pot_\n\n_3) Putting butter into cooking pot_\n\n\u2022 Place the strainer over the pot and allow the liquids to drain into it.\n\n\u2022 Using a blunt, firm object such as a potato masher or stiff spoon apply pressure to the remaining plant material to extract the remaining cannabis butter.\n\n\u2022 Allow mixture to cool to where it can be handled.\n\n\u2022 Using cheesecloth to strain the remaining butter from the plant material is suggested. Wrap a piece of the cheesecloth around the remaining plant material until there are no areas that leaf or shake can escape. Squeeze the material to separate the remaining butter into the pot. Use gloves to avoid absorption into skin, which at concentrated levels can produce psychoactive effects.\n\n\u2022 If there is any noticeable plant material remaining in the butter-liquid mixture it may be necessary to restrain the mix.\n\n\u2022 Place the liquid butter mixture into the refrigerator to cool (normally overnight). The butter will congeal and separate from the remaining water mix.\n\n\u2022 Remove the solidified butter from the water with an ice cream scoop or big spoon. Be sure to remove all loose pieces from the water.\n\n _4) Marijuana mixed with butter and water in cooking pot_\n\n_5) Stirring mixture until it boils, then simmering_\n\n_6) Pouring cooked mixture into strainer and catch pot_\n\n\u2022 The beautiful amber-colored water can be saved for use in other recipes.\n\n\u2022 Let the butter dry or pat with a paper towel to remove leftover moisture.\n\n\u2022 Store the butter in appropriate food storage containers and\/or food storage bags. Butter can be melted briefly if needed to accommodate storage. You can measure it into one-cup containers for convenience.\n\n_The shelf life of Aunt Sandy's 10x Cannabutter is roughly three months refrigerated, six months in the freezer._\n\n_7) Mashing mixture to strain cannabis butter into catch pot_\n\n_8) Squeezing remaining liquid through cheesecloth into catch pot_\n\n_9) Removing (refrigerated) solidified butter from the water_\n\n#  **Aunt Sandy's**\n\n##  **Cannaflour**\n\nYield:\n\n_1\/3 of a cup_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_Blender or food processor, airtight jar or canister_\n\nIngredients\n\n1 _ounce of dry cannabis leaf trim or shake_\n\nThis cannabis flour is a great accent to normal flour for recipes that require breading, such as fried chicken. Or it can be a great garnish, as well. It has milder effects but can be a tasty and effective additive to a number of recipes.\n\nINSTRUCTIONS\n\n\u2022 Place cannabis in blender.\n\n\u2022 Blend on high until plant material is a fine powder.\n\n\u2022 Store in an airtight jar or canister. Store in a dark and cool cabinet or drawer.\n\n_Shelf life of powdered cannabis leaves is about a year if stored properly. Like other dried herbs, it will not spoil but will lose its strength, smell, and taste over time._\n\n1. _Pouring marijuana into blender_\n\n2. _Blending marijuana into a fine powder-like flour_\n\n3. _Storing powdered leaves in an air tight container_\n\n#  **Aunt Sandy's**\n\n##  **Cannabis Oil**\n\nYield:\n\n_2 cups_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_scale, saucepan or small stockpot, strainer, small catch pot, potato masher or stiff spoon, cheesecloth, kitchen gloves (plastic or non-powdered latex), funnel, airtight jar or bottle with lid_\n\nIngredients\n\n\u00bc _ounce to 1 ounce of ground marijuana buds; 1 ounce results in maximum strength marijuana oil. See the 1:4 Ratio Chart on page 22 for lower strengths. Maximum strength may not be possible if using leaf trim\/shake due to saturation volume. Only use as much leaf trim\/shake as can be saturated by the oil_\n\n2 _cups of cooking oil (olive, canola, peanut, vegetable, etc.)_\n\nTry using a combination of 1 cup of butter and 1 cup of oil in this saut\u00e9 method to give it a rich and hearty flavor. Try using it when saut\u00e9-ing shrimp and enjoy the caramelized cannabis flavor. It is so-oooo scrumptious.\n\nINSTRUCTIONS\n\n\u2022 Weigh desired amount of plant material on scale.\n\n\u2022 If using buds, break the buds up into small chunks.\n\n\u2022 Combine oil and plant material in a saucepan or small stockpot.\n\n\u2022 Saut\u00e9 over medium heat for 20 minutes.\n\n\u2022 Strain the oil from the plant material into a separate container using a medium to fine strainer or appropriate colander.\n\n\u2022 To maximize yield you may want to strain the remaining plant material again.\n\n\u2022 Be sure to allow the material to cool before handling. Use gloves to avoid possible psychoactive effects.\n\n\u2022 Wrap it in cheesecloth and squeeze the remaining oil from it.\n\n_1) Pouring oil into saut\u00e9 pan with buds_\n\n_2) Stirring bud and oil mixture_\n\n\u2022 Discard the leaf material.\n\n\u2022 The finished oil is a beautiful color green.\n\n\u2022 Using a funnel, pour the oil into a clean, airtight container.\n\n\u2022 Be sure the storage container is completely dry to avoid the growth of molds.\n\n\u2022 Store the oil in a container like a bottle, jar, or food storage container with a lid.\n\n_The shelf life of marijuana infused oils is 4\u20136 months in a dark and cool pantry away from heat and up to a year if refrigerated._\n\n_If your cannabis oil grows mold, there is either too much water content in the herb or moisture in the jar. Use dry buds or wilt and dry the leaf before using._\n\n_Always ensure oil is stored in an airtight container._\n\n_3) Pouring oil and bud mixture through strainer_\n\n_4) Pouring strained cannabis oil into bottle_\n\n#  **Aunt Sandy's**\n\n##  **Marijuana Tincture**\n\nYield:\n\n_Approximately 3 cups_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_scale, scissors (optional), fine strainer, funnel, 1 quart glass jar with an airtight lid_\n\nIngredients\n\n\u00bd _ounce of broken up marijuana flowers or buds. See the 1:4 Ratio Chart on page 22 if you are using leaf trim or shake._\n\n_A Fifth (750ml) of 100 proof or higher spirits (Vodka, Rum, Brandy, etc.) For an alcohol free tincture try using vegetable glycerin or apple cider in place of spirits._\n\nMarijuana tincture is a great additive to enhance your favorite beverage. Adding a dropper to a cup of tea can make for a relaxing and holistic experience.\n\nINSTRUCTIONS\n\n\u2022 Weigh the appropriate amount of plant material.\n\n\u2022 Break down the marijuana. If it is dry enough you may do it by hand. Otherwise use scissors. Break it down to pieces at least as small as your pinky nail to expose more of the active ingredients. If using shake or leaf trim, it is generally not necessary to break down further.\n\n\u2022 After breaking down the marijuana, place it in a large quart (32 oz.) glass jar (Mason jar or the like).\n\n\u2022 Add the spirits to the plant material, filling the jar approximately 3\/4 of the way or 3 inches over the plant material.\n\n\u2022 Place the lid tightly on the jar.\n\n\u2022 Shake well.\n\n\u2022 Store in a cool and dark cabinet for 4 weeks.\n\n1. _Selecting cannabis buds_\n\n2. _Shaking cannabis buds and alcohol prior to storing_\n\n3. _Straining (stored) material and pouring through funnel_ Aunt Sandy's Medical Marijuana\n\n\u2022 Shake the jar every day during the maceration process. This helps to simulate the transformation process.\n\n\u2022 After four weeks (one moon cycle) has passed remove the jar from the cabinet and take the lid off.\n\n\u2022 Remove the plant material from the jar using a strainer and reserve the liquid, which is now your potent tincture liquid.\n\n\u2022 Using a funnel, pour the strained liquid into a clean dark, medicine bottle.\n\n\u2022 Be sure the medicine bottle, or tincture container is dry.\n\n\u2022 Store your tincture in a cool dark area to slow down degradation.\n\n _The shelf life for an alcohol-based tincture is extremely long, at least two years._\n\n#  **KNOW FOR WHOM YOU COOK**\n\nUnderstanding who you are cooking for is imperative for the marijuana chef. Knowing if the persons who will be consuming the foods you make with marijuana are \"seasoned veterans\" with a lot of experience eating marijuana foods, or if they are \"lightweights,\" or beginners, will help you to adjust and regulate dosage accordingly and avoid issues. While marijuana is a very safe substance in terms of toxicity, it can be a very powerful psychoactive substance, especially when ingested in foods. Consuming too much cannabis can lead you to experience feelings of panic, tension, confusion, and lethargy. This should never be the goal of marijuana ingestion. Be sure to be clear with those eating your marijuana delicacies about their potency levels.\n\nWhen a patient tries a new marijuana food, he should begin by eating a small serving and waiting an hour to examine the effects. At that point you can assess the need for more or less medicine. If necessary, eat another portion of the food and wait another thirty minutes to an hour. Shortly, you will know what size of particular foods work well for your medical needs.\n\n**If you are unsure of the potency level of the foods or the tolerance of the person eating it, always err on the side of caution. Less is more when you are considering the effects on others. Other things to consider when cooking for yourself or others are dietary preferences or needs. The following chapter will let you know how to best handle those issues.**\n\n**Chapter 5**\n\n**Dietary Considerations**\n\n_Many people have special dietary needs. This book is filled with home-cooked favorites that may not adhere to your particular diet. Don't worry. In most recipes you can substitute ingredients to make them conform. The good news is that marijuana is a vegetarian, gluten free, low calorie, low-sodium plant on its own. It is the ingredients in the recipes that you will need to alter to meet your needs. The following are some specialized diets and ideas on how to best use_ Aunt Sandy's Medical Marijuana Cookbook _under those conditions._\n\n#  **LOW CALORIE OPTIONS**\n\n**Y** ou use margarine when making the marijuana extract if you want to try a low calorie option with butter-like qualities and flavoring. Use Aunt Sandy's Cannabis Oil formula (see page 28), melting the margarine first. Most recipes where the butter or oils are baked in or cooked thoroughly it is hard to tell that margarine was used instead of butter. The taste is still great and your waistline will not be affected.\n\n#  **VEGETARIAN DIET**\n\nBeing vegetarian is fairly common these days. You may be a strict vegetarian that eats only plant-based foods including fruits, nuts, and grains. Some vegetarians do eat dairy products and eggs; others do not. Some may occasionally have a small piece of fish for protein and are often referred to as pescatar-ians. Whatever your vegetarian diet includes, it is a snap to adapt these recipes to meet your needs.\n\nIf you are a vegetarian that enjoys dairy then you may be able to use Aunt Sandy's 10x Cannabutter recipe, as is. If you do not eat dairy, you can always use a vegetable oil in place of butter. There are many different types of vegetable oils and choosing the right one to use depends on your taste preferences and price and availability of the oils. Olive oil is very common, but it can be expensive and often not have the taste you may want for a dessert dish. A plain canola or vegetable blend oil can often be better for baking and have a smoother taste for sweets. Some folks even add a dash of salt to emulate the taste of butter. Any vegetable-based oil will work fine, but deciding what effect the taste of the oil will have on your recipe is an important consideration. Of course, you may just want to use what you have available, and that is fine, too. Cannabis can be infused into any great vegetable oil to provide excellent medicinal effects.\n\nIn recipes that call for meat, you can often substitute for non-meat options. For example, you can still make a \"Dizzy Bird\" with a tofu turkey if you would like. In a dish like pot roast or pork chops, you may have a favorite meat substitute product that you can use. This book contains many great recipes that can be altered to accommodate any vegetarian diet. Also, veggies saut\u00e9ed in cannabis butter or oil are always a delicious and healthy way to eat your medicine.\n\n#  **VEGAN DIET**\n\nWhile many of the same concepts from the vegetarian section above apply to vegans as well, there are some further considerations that can enhance the vegan diet. Being vegan means one adheres to a strict plant  diet, eating nothing derived from a living being, including honey, gelatin, and whey. This means you will most likely be infusing recipes with a vegetable-based oil and substituting vegan products where needed. There may be some recipes that will not be able to be prepared vegan; but substituting alternatives, like soymilk, soy cheese, and egg substitute where applicable can make most of my recipes just fine. These types of products normally explain on the package how to integrate them into standard recipes. Also, making marijuana oil for use in other vegan recipes is a great way to make marijuana foods that meet your dietary norms. Nothing is more delicious than cannabis sesame oil drizzled over cold, crisp cucumbers on a warm summer day or a rich cannabis olive oil over sun-ripened tomatoes and fresh basil. Many oils go great with cannabis, including sesame oil and coconut oil. With a little ingenuity and common sense, you can very easily adapt most recipes to meet vegan standards and still enjoy the benefits of marijuana cooking.\n\n#  **SUGAR FREE, DIABETIC, AND HYPOGLYCEMIC DIETS**\n\nMany people are unable to use sugar in their normal diets for any number of reasons. Some have medical conditions, like diabetes, while others may opt for lower calorie and low-carb alternatives. The good news is that using a sugar substitute called xylitol can make every recipe in this book that uses sugar. The ratio of xylitol to sugar is one to one, so there is no need to adjust the measurements. Simply use the xylitol in place of the sugar for delicious sweets that are safe for diabetic and hypoglycemic patients. Xylitol has about two-thirds the calories of standard sugar and a very low glycemic index. It is a better substitute than some on the market because it is naturally derived from fruits and vegetables and has virtually no aftertaste. So instead of skipping past the dessert chapter, use this great alternative and enjoy some sweet, delicious cannabis treats.\n\n#  **GLUTEN FREE**\n\nThe gluten free diet is becoming more common with many modern eateries offering regular gluten alternatives. You may be  allergic to gluten or simply find that your body does not process it well. Whatever the reason for avoiding gluten, there are many ways to enjoy my recipes substituting simple gluten-free alternatives. There are ample gluten-free flour mixes on the market, or you can make your own mix to accommodate the recipe. For breading, a single-grain, gluten-free flour may work, but for baking you will want to use a combination of these flours. Some gluten-free options that can be substituted are rice flour, potato and potato starch flour, quinoa flour, millet flour, tapioca flour, teff flour, soy flour, cornstarch, corn flour, and many more. Finding the right blend can make gluten-free baking very enjoyable.\n\nGluten is what makes dough sticky when baking. When using substitutes for normal flour, it is important to compensate for some of the properties that gluten provides. Bread will not hold its shape without gluten. Using pans with sidewalls, like Bundt pans or loaf pans, helps the bread retain its shape. Use muffin pans for rolls. You can add gums, such as guar or xanthan gums in small amounts (1\/8 to \u00bc teaspoon per cup of flour) to simulate the sticky consistency of gluten. Gluten is a protein, so you can try replacing a half a cup of water in a recipe with egg whites to retain the value of the protein lost. All of these methods can help to make your favorite recipes while maintaining your gluten free diet.\n\n#  **LOW SODIUM ALTERNATIVES**\n\nIf you need to control your sodium content, you can look for ingredients that have low sodium options. Definitely use unsalted butter for your extract. You can also lower or eliminate salts in recipes where it is not an essential ingredient. There are salt substitutes on the market that can be used, normally made from potassium and lysine. These substitutes are usually used at the same rates as regular salt; follow the manufacturer's recommendations.\n\nNow that you have considered all of the dietary ins and outs, you are ready to make some delicious foods from the library of great recipes in the following chapters. Because it is the best part of the meal and everyone's favorite, we will begin with the desserts first. Happy cooking!\n\n**Chapter 6**\n\n**Desserts**\n\n_Dessert is the best part of the meal, so why save it for last? These delicious sweets are sure to make you smile. Cakes, pie, cookies, bars, cobblers, and muffins provide a range of tasty sweets you can make with medical marijuana. Many patients enjoy medicating with desserts because they are easy to portion into manageable sizes, and of course, because they are scrumptious. You, too, might find that a spoonful of sugar makes the medicine go down._\n\n_These are so yummy you will want more than one so cut the cannabutter dosage and enjoy more._\n\nYield:\n\n_24 pieces; serving size should be determined by titration to achieve desired affect_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_13 by 9-inch glass baking pan, small bowl, large bowl_\n\nIngredients:\n\n1 _cup **Aunt Sandy's 10x**_   \n_**Cannabutter** (see page 24)_   \n1 _tablespoon regular butter for_   \n_greasing pan_   \n1\u00bd _cups all-purpose flour_   \n2 _teaspoons baking powder_   \n\u00bc _teaspoon baking soda_   \n\u00bc _teaspoon salt_   \n1 _teaspoon ground cinnamon_   \n1\/8 _teaspoon ground nutmeg_   \n2\/3 _cup chopped walnuts_   \n\u00be _cup packed brown sugar_   \n1 _large egg_   \n1\u00bd _cup mashed bananas (2 to 3)_   \n1 _teaspoon vanilla_\n\n#  **Bananacanna Fofana**\n\n##  **Nut Bars**\n\nThis recipe is a hit! A favorite taste from childhood is now a medicinal treat.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 Preheat oven to 350\u00b0.\n\n\u2022 Grease baking pan with regular butter.\n\n\u2022 In a small bowl, combine flour, baking powder, baking soda, salt, cinnamon, nutmeg and walnuts and gently mix together.\n\n\u2022 In a large mixing bowl combine cannabutter with sugar and blend until it is a creamy consistency.\n\n\u2022 Add the egg to the cannabutter and sugar mix and blend the mixture again.\n\n\u2022 After the eggs are blended completely in, add the mashed bananas and vanilla. Blend the mix again until smooth.\n\n\u2022 Gradually add the small bowl with the flour, nuts, and baking ingredients to the creamy mixture while continuing to blend until they are well mixed.\n\n\u2022 Evenly spread the batter into the greased pan.\n\n\u2022 Bake 30 minutes or until a toothpick inserted comes out clean.\n\n\u2022 After cooling, remove from pan.\n\n\u2022 Cut into 24 pieces (4 by 6 pattern).\n\n\u2022 Store bars in airtight food storage containers or appropriate food storage bags.\n\n_The shelf life of these bars is 5\u20137 days at room temperature, 7\u201310 days refrigerated, three plus months frozen._\n\nYield:\n\n_12 pieces_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_saucepan, oven-safe 12-inch skillet, bowl, stiff spoon or whisk, spatula_\n\nIngredients:\n\n1 _cup **Aunt Sandy's 10x**_   \n_**Cannabutter**_   \n3 _cups sliced peaches_   \n1 _cup raspberries_   \n1 _cup sugar_   \n1 _cup flour_   \n2 _teaspoons baking powder_   \n_Pinch of salt_   \n1 _cup milk_   \n1 _teaspoon vanilla_\n\nOptional:\n\n_whipped cream or ice cream for topping._\n\n#  Berry Peachy\n\n##  Cannabutter Cobbler\n\nA California spin on one of Willie Nelson's favorite desserts, country-fresh peach cobbler.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 Preheat oven to 350\u00b0.\n\n\u2022 Use one tablespoon of cannabutter to grease the skillet.\n\n\u2022 Melt the remaining butter in the saucepan over low heat.\n\n\u2022 Remove the greased skillet from the stove and set it aside.\n\n\u2022 Combine the peaches and raspberries in a bowl and sprinkle a tablespoon of sugar over them. Gently stir and set to the side.\n\n\u2022 In a separate bowl, add the flour, baking powder and salt. Mix them together.\n\n\u2022 Add the remaining sugar, milk and vanilla extract to the bowl. Mix with a stiff spoon or whisk until all of the ingredients are evenly blended (If using a mixer set speed to medium).\n\n\u2022 Pour the melted butter into the batter and continue to stir rapidly.\n\n\u2022 Put the skillet on medium heat and let it warm.\n\n\u2022 Pour the batter into the skillet evenly.\n\n\u2022 Add the fruit mixture with its natural juices on top of the batter, spooning it evenly. Press it into the batter lightly with a spatula.\n\n\u2022 Bake the cobbler until the top is golden brown, about an hour.\n\n\u2022 Serve warm with ice cream or whipped cream.\n\nYield:\n\n_18 bars_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_mixing bowls, bowl, 13 by 9-inch baking pan, pastry cutter or fork_\n\nCrust Ingredients:\n\n\u00be _cup **Aunt Sandy's 10x**_   \n_**Cannabutter**_   \n1\u00bd _cups unsifted all-purpose flour_   \n3 _cups sugar_   \n_Pinch of salt_\n\nFilling Ingredients:\n\n6 _large eggs_   \n3 _cups sugar_   \n_Grated zest of 1 lemon_   \n1 _cup fresh lemon juice_   \n\u00bd _cup sifted all-purpose flour_   \n\u00bc _cup powdered sugar_\n\n#  Blue Sky\n\n##  **Lemon** Bars\n\nLarry at Blue Sky Cafe challenged me to make something unique and different, my Blue Sky Lemon Bars are now the #1 selling edible there.\n\nINSTRUCTIONS:\n\n\u2022 Preheat oven to 350\u00b0.\n\n\u2022 In a mixing bowl, mix the 1\u00bd cups of flour and 3 cups sugar and salt.\n\n\u2022 Add the cannabutter to the mixing bowl with the dry ingredients.\n\n\u2022 Using a pastry cutter (or a fork pressed against the side of the bowl), cut the dough mixture into pea-sized pieces.\n\n\u2022 Press the dough into the bottom and up the sides of the 13 by 9-inch baking pan, ungreased.\n\n\u2022 Bake about 25 minutes or until golden brown.\n\n\u2022 Remove from oven and let cool.\n\n\u2022 Reduce the oven temperature to 300\u00b0.\n\n\u2022 In a bowl, whisk eggs and 3 cups of sugar together until smooth.\n\n\u2022 Stir in lemon zest and juice.\n\n\u2022 Add the sifted flour to the egg mixture and mix thoroughly.\n\n\u2022 Pour the lemony egg batter over the baked crust.\n\n\u2022 Bake another 35 minutes, until the topping is set.\n\n\u2022 Remove from oven and let cool.\n\n\u2022 Finish by sprinkling powdered sugar on top.\n\nYield:\n\n_8 to12 pieces_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_mixing bowl, kitchen spoon_\n\nIngredients:\n\n\u00bc _cup melted **Aunt Sandy's 10x**_   \n_**Cannabutter**_   \n\u00be _cup sugar_   \n2\u00bc _teaspoons vanilla extract_   \n3 _eggs slightly beaten_   \n3 _tablespoons all-purpose flour_   \n6 _ounces sweetened dark_   \n_chocolate bar, finely chopped_   \n\u00bd _cup chopped pecans_   \n\u00bd _cup shredded unsweetened_   \n_coconut_   \n_9-inch prepared piecrust_\n\nOptional:\n\n_whipped cream topping_\n\n#  Chocolate Coconut\n\n##  Pecan Pie\n\nThis tasty pie's flavors combine to perfection and remind me of my favorite candy bar. Can you guess which one?\n\nINSTRUCTIONS:\n\n\u2022 Heat oven to 350\u00b0.\n\n\u2022 In a mixing bowl combine melted cannabutter, sugar, and vanilla extract. Stir well.\n\n\u2022 Add the eggs and the flour. Mix well.\n\n\u2022 Stir the chocolate, pecans and coconut into the mixture.\n\n\u2022 Pour the mixture into piecrust and bake for 30 minutes. Pie will rise during baking.\n\n\u2022 Let the pie cool. It may contract a bit.\n\n\u2022 Delicious topped with whipped cream.\n\nYield:\n\n_6 dozen cookies_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_baking sheet, mixing bowl, bowl, whisk or kitchen spoon_\n\nIngredients:\n\n1 _cup **Aunt Sandy's 10x**_   \n_**Cannabutter**_   \n1 _tablespoon regular butter for_   \n_greasing pan_   \n1 _cup sugar_   \n1 _cup packed brown sugar_   \n2 _eggs_   \n1 _teaspoon vanilla extract_   \n2 _cups all-purpose flour, sifted_   \n2 _cups old fashioned oats_   \n1 _teaspoon baking powder_   \n1 _teaspoon baking soda_   \n\u00bd _teaspoon salt_   \n2 _cups flaked coconut_   \n1 _cup chopped walnuts_\n\n#  **Coconut Cannabis**\n\n##  **Cookies**\n\nTurn your afternoon tea into an adventurous experiment with these light and tasty morsels.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 Preheat oven to 325\u00b0 and grease the baking sheet.\n\n\u2022 In a mixing bowl, cream the cannabutter and add the sugars.\n\n\u2022 Beat until the mixture is fluffy.\n\n\u2022 Add the eggs one at a time beating well after each one. Beat in the vanilla until the mixture is smooth.\n\n\u2022 In a smaller bowl, combine flour, oats, baking powder, baking soda and salt.\n\n\u2022 Gradually add to the egg mixture and blend well.\n\n\u2022 Stir in the coconut and walnuts and continue to blend until the batter is well mixed.\n\n\u2022 Drop by rounded teaspoonfuls 3\" apart onto the greased baking sheet. Flatten slightly.\n\n\u2022 Bake for 8\u201310 minutes until the cookies are golden brown.\n\n\u2022 Cool for 2 minutes before removing to wire racks.\n\n\u2022 Store in airtight container.\n\n_Shelf life is 5\u20137 days at room temperate, 7\u201310 days in the refrigerator, or 3 plus months in the freezer._\n\n1. _Scooping measured cookie dough on to baking sheet_\n\n2. _Placing baking sheet in oven_\n\n3. _Removing cooled batch of cookies from baking sheet_ Aunt Sandy's Medical Marijuana\n\nYield:\n\n_12\u20133 x 3-inch pieces_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_mixing bowl, small bowls, pastry cutter or fork, 13 by 9-inch baking pan_\n\nIngredients:\n\n\u00be _cup **Aunt Sandy's 10x**_   \n_**Cannabutter**_   \n1\u00bd _cups all-purpose flour_   \n\u00bc _cup powdered sugar_   \n_Pinch of salt_   \n3 _cups chocolate chips_   \n1 _cup butterscotch chips_   \n1 _cup flaked coconut_   \n1 _cup crunched walnuts or_   \n_pecans_\n\n#  **Larry's**\n\n##  Munchie Bar\n\nLarry Richards from Blue Sky Cafe in Oakland inspired me to follow my dreams. This recipe is made in honor of his dedication and love to the cause.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 In a mixing bowl, mix together the flour, sugar and pinch of salt.\n\n\u2022 Add the cannabutter to the bowl with the flour, sugar, and salt. Mix well.\n\n\u2022 Using a pastry cutter or a fork pressed against the side of the bowl, cut the dough into small pea-size pieces.\n\n\u2022 Press the dough into the bottom and sides of a 13 by 9-inch baking pan.\n\n\u2022 In bowl, combine the chips, coconut and nuts to make the munchie mixture.\n\n\u2022 Add munchie mixture to top of the dough in baking pan.\n\n\u2022 Bake for 25 minutes until golden brown.\n\nYield:\n\n_18 pieces_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_two 9-inch round cake tins, saucepan, bowls, mixing bowl_\n\nIngredients:\n\n1 _cup **Aunt Sandy's 10x**_   \n_**Cannabutter** (creamed or_   \n_melted or room temp)_   \n1 _tablespoon regular butter for_   \n_greasing pan_   \n1 _tablespoon instant coffee_   \n_powder_   \n\u00be _cup, boiling water_   \n\u00bd _cup Kahlua or coffee liqueur_   \n2\u00bd _cup all-purpose flour_   \n2 _teaspoons baking soda_   \n\u00be _teaspoon salt_   \n\u00bc _teaspoon cinnamon_   \n\u00bd _cup applesauce_   \n1 _teaspoon vanilla extract_   \n2 _teaspoons maple flavoring_   \n3 _eggs separated_   \n1\u00bd _cup sugar_\n\n#  Kahlua\n\n##  **Cannabis Cake**\n\nSomewhat of a Tiramisu spinoff, this light and fluffy cake soaked in coffee liqueur makes a wonderful after dinner delight.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 Preheat oven to 350\u00b0.\n\n\u2022 Grease baking pans with butter.\n\n\u2022 In a bowl, dissolve coffee powder in boiling water. Stir Kahlua into the coffee powder mix and allow to cool.\n\n\u2022 In a separate bowl, combine flour, baking soda, salt and cinnamon. Mix gently and set aside.\n\n\u2022 In another bowl, combine the cannabutter, applesauce, vanilla extract, maple flavoring and egg yolks. Mix well. Stir in the cooled Kahlua mixture.\n\n\u2022 In a large mixing bowl, beat egg whites with a mixer until soft peaks form.\n\n\u2022 Gradually add sugar to the egg whites and beat until peaks are stiff but not dry.\n\n\u2022 Using a spatula gradually fold in the about half of the dry ingredients to the egg whites. Add about half of the Kahlua mixture and mix. Repeat with the remaining dry ingredients and Kahlua mixture and stir until the batter is a smooth consistency.\n\n\u2022 Pour the batter into the buttered baking dish.\n\n\u2022 Bake at 350\u00b0 for 30 minutes until a toothpick inserted comes out clean.\n\n\u2022 Remove from oven and let cool.\n\nOption:\n\n_Ice the bottom layer and then put top layer on and ice the whole cake with **Chocolate Frosting** (see page 57). Then place leaf or desired pattern on top and dust desired pattern for decoration. Then gently remove your \"pattern\"._\n\n\u2022 Decorate by placing \"leaf\" pattern (or pattern of your own choice) on top of cake and sprinkling powdered sugar or cannaflour over the entire top of the cake. Then remove the pattern.\n\n1. _Sifting cannaflour over marijuana leaf pattern on frosted cake_\n\n2. _Removing leaf pattern from frosted cake_\n\nYield:\n\n_24 bars_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_mixing bowl, bowl, 13 by 9-inch baking pan, stiff spoon or whisk_\n\nIngredients:\n\n1 _cup **Aunt Sandy's 10x**_   \n_**Cannabutter**_   \n2 _cups all-purpose flour_   \n1 _tablespoon baking powder_   \n\u00bd _teaspoon salt_   \n1\u00bd _teaspoon poppy seeds_   \n2 _large eggs_   \n1 _cup milk_   \n2\/3 _cup packed brown sugar_   \n\u00bd _cup lemon curd (prepared and_   \n_sold in glass jars)_\n\nOption:\n\n_Drizzle lemon flavored **White Frosting** (see page 56) on each bar._\n\n#  Lemon\n\n##  Poppy Seed Bars\n\nThe best part about this recipe is it's simplicity. It is a zesty flavored dessert that can be whipped up in no time.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 Preheat oven to 350\u00b0.\n\n\u2022 Grease 13 by 9-inch baking pan.\n\n\u2022 In a bowl, mix together flour, baking powder, salt and poppy seeds.\n\n\u2022 In a mixing bowl, beat the cannabutter and sugars until they are creamy.\n\n\u2022 Add the eggs one at a time beating well after each.\n\n\u2022 Gradually stir the dry ingredients into the egg mixture and mix well.\n\n\u2022 Add the lemon curd to the batter and mix well.\n\n\u2022 Spread evenly in the greased baking pan.\n\n\u2022 Bake for 30 minutes or until a toothpick inserted comes out clean.\n\n\u2022 Remove from oven and let it cool on a baking rack.\n\n\u2022 Cut into 24 pieces in a 4 by 6 pattern.\n\n\u2022 Store in airtight food storage container or food storage bags.\n\n_Shelf life is 5\u20137 days at room temperature, 7\u201310 days in the refrigerator, or three plus months in the freezer._\n\nYield:\n\n_4 dozen cookies_\n\nEquipment: :\n\n_mixing bowl, bowl, cookie sheet pan, stiff spoon or spatula_\n\nIngredients: **Ingredients:**\n\n1 _cup softened **Aunt Sandy's**_   \n_**10x Cannabutter**_   \n1 _cup sugar_   \n1 _cup packed brown sugar_   \n2 _eggs_   \n1 _teaspoon vanilla extract_   \n3 _cups old fashioned oats_   \n1\u00bd _cups all-purpose flour_   \n1 _tablespoon baking soda_   \n1 _teaspoon salt_   \n\u00bd _cup chopped walnuts_   \n\u00bd _cup golden raisins_\n\n#  Oatmeal\n\n##  Raisin Cookies\n\nWho doesn't love Oatmeal Raisin Cookies? A classic recipe that has withstood the test of time.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 Preheat oven to 350\u00b0.\n\n\u2022 In a mixing bowl, cream the softened cannabutter.\n\n\u2022 Add both sugars and beat the mixture until it is light and fluffy.\n\n\u2022 Mix in the eggs one at a time beating well after each one.\n\n\u2022 Beat in the vanilla.\n\n\u2022 In a separate bowl, combine the oats, flour, baking soda, and salt and blend together.\n\n\u2022 Gradually add the dry ingredients to the egg and butter mixture. Mix well.\n\n\u2022 Stir in the walnuts and raisins.\n\n\u2022 On a baking sheet (ungreased), drop tablespoon sized globs of batter two inches apart.\n\n\u2022 Bake for 10-12 minutes, or until golden brown.\n\n\u2022 Cool for two minutes before removing to wire racks.\n\n\u2022 Store in airtight container or food storage bags.\n\n_Shelf life is 5\u20137 days at room temperature, 7\u201310 days in the refrigerator, or three plus months in the freezer._\n\nYield:\n\n_1 Bundt cake or 12 pieces_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_Bundt cake pan, 2 mixing bowls, stiff spoon or spatula_\n\nIngredients:\n\n1 _cup melted **Aunt Sandy's 10x**_   \n_**Cannabutter**_   \n1 _tablespoon regular butter for_   \n_greasing pan_   \n1\u00bd _cups all-purpose flour_   \n\u00bd _teaspoon baking soda_   \n\u00bd _cup sugar_   \n\u00bd _cup brown sugar_   \n1 _large egg_   \n1 _cup peanut butter_   \n\u00bd _teaspoon vanilla_\n\n#  Peanut Butter\n\n##  Bundt Cake\n\nNotice the blending of the cannabis butter and peanut butter flavors. This is a marijuana food connoisseur's favorite.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 Preheat oven to 350\u00b0.\n\n\u2022 Grease Bundt cake pan with regular butter.\n\n\u2022 In a mixing bowl, mix flour and baking soda and blend together.\n\n\u2022 In a separate mixing bowl, blend cannabutter, sugar, egg, peanut butter and vanilla. Mix well.\n\n\u2022 Add the flour and baking soda to the egg mixture and mix thoroughly.\n\n\u2022 Pour the batter into the Bundt cake pan.\n\n\u2022 Bake 30 minutes or until a toothpick inserted comes out clean.\n\n\u2022 Let cool and remove from pan.\n\n\u2022 Store in an airtight cake dish or wrapped tightly.\n\n_Shelf life is 5 days at room temperature or a week in the refrigerator. Frozen it will keep for 3 months._\n\nYield:\n\n_12 muffins_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_muffin tin, muffin paper or nonstick spray, bowls, mixing bowl, stiff spoon or spatula_\n\nPumpkin Muffins Ingredients:\n\n\u00bc _cup **Aunt Sandy's 10x**_   \n_**Cannabutter**_   \n1 _egg_   \n1 _tablespoon water_   \n\u00be _cup canned pumpkin puree_   \n1 _teaspoon vanilla extract_   \n1\u00be _cup all-purpose flour_   \n\u00bd _cup sugar_   \n\u00bd _teaspoon salt_   \n\u00bd _teaspoon nutmeg_   \n2\u00bd _teaspoons baking powder_   \n1 _teaspoon baking soda_   \n1 _teaspoon cinnamon_\n\nStreusel Topping Ingredients:\n\n\u00bc _cup sugar_   \n\u00bd _teaspoon cinnamon_   \n1 _tablespoon creamed butter_   \n\u00bc _cup finely chopped pecans_   \n3 _tablespoons quick cooking_   \n_oats, uncooked_\n\n#  Pumpkin\n\n##  **Streusel** Muffins\n\nA harvest season favorite of mine. The smell of it baking is invigorating.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 Preheat oven to 350\u00b0.\n\n\u2022 Coat the inside of muffin tin with non-stick spray or line with muffin paper.\n\n\u2022 In a bowl, combine the egg, cannabutter, water, pumpkin and vanilla extract.\n\n\u2022 In a mixing bowl, stir together the flour, sugar, salt, nutmeg, baking powder, baking soda, and cinnamon.\n\n\u2022 Add pumpkin and egg mixture to the dry ingredients and stir until mixed well.\n\n\u2022 Spoon the mixture into the muffin tin.\n\n\u2022 In a separate bowl, combine the streusel topping ingredients and mix well.\n\n\u2022 Sprinkle the topping evenly over each muffin.\n\n\u2022 Bake the muffins for 18\u201320 minutes or until lightly browned on top.\n\n\u2022 Store in airtight containers.\n\n_Shelf life for muffins is 2\u20135 days at room temp, a week in the refrigerator, and up to 3 months frozen if packaged correctly._\n\nYield:\n\n_2 cups_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_saucepan, strainer, funnel_\n\nCannabis Milk Ingredients:\n\n1\/8 _ounce **cannabis bud** s_   \n2 _cups milk, cream or soymilk_\n\nYield:\n\n_1 cup_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_saucepan, strainer, funnel_\n\nBhang Ingredients:\n\n2 _teaspoons **Cannabis Milk**_   \n_(see page 55)_   \n1 _teaspoon sugar_   \n1 _cup of your favorite tea_\n\n#  Cannabis Milk\n\n##  & Bhang\n\nCannabis Milk is as versatile as milk itself. It can be used in a variety of ways, as easy as pouring it on your cereal.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 Over low heat, mix together buds and milk.\n\n\u2022 Bring to a rolling boil.\n\n\u2022 Reduce heat and simmer for 30 minutes.\n\n\u2022 Cool and strain the plant material from the milk.\n\n_Store in the refrigerator in a container with a lid._\n\n##  Bhang\n\nSome say this is the second most popular way to medicate in the world.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 In a small pot, heat all ingredients to a desirable temperature.\n\n#  Three Cannabis\n\n##  Frostings\n\nWhat would a cake be without frosting? These creamy finishing touches of vanilla, chocolate, mocha, lemon, orange, rum, cream cheese, bourbon, or cinnamon are sure to make any cake great.\n\nYield:\n\n_4 cups_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_mixing bowl (mixer optional), stiff spoon or whisk_\n\nIngredients:\n\n\u00bd _cup **Aunt Sandy's 10x**_   \n_**Cannabutter** , softened_   \n4 _cups powdered sugar_\n\n4 _to 6 tablespoons milk_   \n2 _teaspoons vanilla extract_   \n\u00bc _teaspoon salt_\n\nOptions:\n\n_Flavored frosting: Substitute the milk with dry sherry, rum, coffee or bourbon._\n\n_Lemon frosting: Add grated zest of 1 lemon and 2 tablespoons fresh lemon juice. Mix with the milk._\n\n_Orange frosting: Add grated zest of 1 small orange and 4 to 6 tablespoons fresh orange juice as a substitute for milk._\n\n_Mocha frosting: Add 2 tablespoons cocoa powder and 1 teaspoon instant coffee._\n\n##  White **Frosting**\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 In a mixing bowl, combine all of the ingredients.\n\n\u2022 Mix the ingredients until smooth. If using a mixer set to medium speed.\n\nYield:\n\n_4 cups_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_saucepan, mixing bowl (mixer optional), stiff spoon or spatula_\n\nIngredients:\n\n6 _tablespoons **Aunt Sandy's**_   \n_**10x Cannabutter**_   \n6 _ounces chocolate chips_   \n\u00bd _cup milk_   \n2 _teaspoons vanilla_   \n4 _cups powdered sugar_\n\nYield:\n\n_4 cups_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_mixing bowl, stiff spoon or spatula_\n\nIngredients:\n\n6 _tablespoons softened **Aunt**_   \n_**Sandy's 10x Cannabutter**_   \n8 _ounces cream cheese_   \n2 _tablespoons vanilla_   \n3 _cups powdered sugar_\n\nOptions:\n\n_For additional variety of flavors, add grated lemon or orange zest, cinnamon, bourbon or rum._\n\n##  **Chocolate Frosting**\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 In a saucepan, melt chips and cannabutter.\n\n\u2022 In a mixing bowl, combine the cannabutter, milk, and vanilla. Mix thoroughly.\n\n\u2022 Gradually add sugar and beat until smooth (If using a mixer set to medium speed).\n\n##  Cream **Cheese Frosting**\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 In a mixing bowl, combine all of the ingredients except sugar and mix together.\n\n\u2022 Gradually add sugar and beat until smooth. (If using a mixer, set to medium speed).\n\n**Chapter 7**\n\n**Sauces, Dressings, and Dips**\n\n_A good sauce, dressing, or dip can make or break a meal. Enjoy these super duper cannabis versions of some condiment classics. I love a good dip in the afternoon, with some crisp and cool veggies. Let these recipes bring your meal to life. From spicy, to savory, to delicious\u2014this chapter is full of great ideas._\n\n_Remember to be careful with your dosage for these sauces, dressings, and dips._\n\nYield:\n\n_\u00be cup_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_saucepan, mixing bowl, whisk_\n\nIngredients:\n\n3 _tablespoons melted **Aunt**_   \n_**Sandy's 10x Cannabutter**_   \n1 _garlic clove_   \n3 _pinches of salt_   \n\u00be _cup buttermilk_   \n3 _tablespoons fresh lime juice_   \n1 _tablespoon minced parsley_   \n1 _tablespoon chives, snipped_   \n_Salt and pepper to taste_\n\n#  Ranch\n\n##  Dressing\n\nRanch dressing is America's favorite dip. It tastes great on so many things. Try it as a healthier alternative to mayonnaise.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 After melting cannabutter in a saucepan, add all of the ingredients, except for the salt and pepper, to a mixing bowl.\n\n\u2022 Whisk well until all ingredients are thoroughly blended.\n\n\u2022 Add salt and pepper to taste.\n\n_Refrigerate in an airtight jar or bottle._\n\n_Shake well if using after sitting for a period of time._\n\nYield:\n\n_2\u00bd cups_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_saucepan, mixing bowl, whisk_\n\nIngredients:\n\n\u00bd _cup melted **Aunt Sandy's 10x**_   \n_**Cannabutter**_   \n\u00be _cups ranch dressing_   \n1 _tablespoon hot pepper sauce_   \n\u00bc _teaspoon cayenne_   \n\u00be _cup blue cheese, crumbled_   \n\u00bd _cup sour cream_   \n3 _tablespoons milk_\n\n#  Blue Cheese\n\n##  Dressing\/Dip\n\nOne person's dressing is another person's dip. I love Blue Cheese on fresh veggies, hot wings, or just a fresh garden salad.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 Combine all ingredients in a mixing bowl.\n\n\u2022 Whisk thoroughly until well blended and sour cream is a smooth consistency.\n\n_Refrigerate in an airtight jar or bottle._\n\n_Shake well if using after sitting for a period of time._\n\nYield:\n\n_5 cups_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_small saucepan, blender_\n\nIngredients:\n\n1 _cup **Aunt Sandy's Cannabis**_   \n_**Oil** (see page 28, olive oil_   \n_works best)_   \n4 _large cloves of garlic, thinly_   \n_sliced_   \n1 _teaspoon ground cumin_   \n2 _cans (15\u00bd ounce) chickpeas,_   \n_drained and rinsed_   \n3 _tablespoons tahini_   \n3 _tablespoons fresh lemon juice_   \n1 _tablespoon soy sauce_   \n\u00bd _teaspoon salt_   \n\u00bc _cup cold water_\n\n#  Lemony\n\n##  Hummus Dip\n\nAlso try this one with warm pita bread. It is a delicious and healthy choice for any afternoon.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 In a small saucepan, mix \u2153 cup of the cannabis oil with the garlic and cumin.\n\n\u2022 Simmer on low heat until the garlic softens. It takes about 3 minutes after you see it sizzling. Don't let the garlic brown.\n\n\u2022 Let the garlic and oil cool completely.\n\n\u2022 Put the chickpeas, tahini, lemon juice, soy sauce and salt in a blender. Add the cooled, softened garlic and blend well.\n\n\u2022 Slowly pour (infuse) the remaining oils into the mixture and continue to blend.\n\n\u2022 Add the water and blend again, until the mixture is creamy.\n\n\u2022 Add more salt and lemon juice to taste.\n\n\u2022 Let it stand for at least an hour so the flavors can congeal.\n\n\u2022 Serve at room temperature with a variety of raw vegetables: fennel, celery, carrots, green onions, cucumbers, peppers, cauliflower, broccoli, etc.\n\n_Store in an airtight container in the refrigerator._\n\nYield:\n\n_12 cups_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_13 by 9-inch glass or ceramic baking dish_\n\nIngredients:\n\n1 _cup **Ranch Dressing** with_   \n_cannabis (see page 60)_   \n4 _cans (14-ounce cans) of_   \n_artichoke hearts, cut into_   \n_small pieces_   \n3 _small cans (4-ounce cans) of_   \n_jalapeno peppers, diced_   \n4 _cups mozzarella cheese,_   \n_shredded_\n\n#  Marshall's\n\n##  Favorite Dip\n\nMy nephew Marshall loves this dip. He begs me to make it. This medicated version is a delight at any celebration or gathering.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 Preheat oven 350\u00b0.\n\n\u2022 Use about 25% of the artichokes making a thin layer in a 13 by 9-inch baking dish.\n\n\u2022 Do the same with 25% of the jalapenos.\n\n\u2022 Spread \u00bc cup of the cannabis Ranch Dressing over the artichokes\/jalapenos.\n\n\u2022 Top with 1 cup of the mozzarella cheese.\n\n\u2022 Repeat in the same order, making four identical layers.\n\n\u2022 Finish with a layer of cheese.\n\n\u2022 Bake for 45 minutes. Remove when the edges are slightly brown.\n\n\u2022 Serve warm with tortilla chips.\n\n_If storing, let it cool and place in an airtight container in the refrigerator._\n\nYield:\n\n_1 cup_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_medium saucepan, strainer, bowl, bottle with air tight lid_\n\nIngredients:\n\n\u00bd _cup melted **Aunt Sandy's 10x**_   \n_**Cannabutter**_   \n\u00be _cup canned chopped tomatoes,_   \n_drained_   \n6 _tablespoons chili sauce_   \n6 _tablespoons cider vinegar_   \n3 _tablespoons prepared_   \n_horseradish_   \n2 _teaspoons minced onion_   \n\u00be _teaspoon curry powder_   \n\u00be _teaspoon sugar_   \n\u00bc _black pepper_   \n_Pinch of ground red pepper_   \n1 _garlic clove, sliced_\n\n#  **Aunt Sandy's**\n\n##  10x Hot Sauce\n\nThis is a hot sauce that can turn any Super Sunday into a truly super experience. Hot wings and sports of any kind always go well together.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 In medium saucepan, combine all ingredients except cannabutter.\n\n\u2022 Simmer on low heat until mixture thickens, about 40 minutes.\n\n\u2022 Strain thickened mixture into bowl.\n\n\u2022 Add melted cannabutter to the bowl and mix well.\n\n\u2022 Serve as a condiment or as part of a meal (Great for wings).\n\n_Store in an airtight bottle._\n\n1. _Pouring tomatoes into cooking pot_\n\n2. _Adding spices into cooking pot_ Aunt Sandy's Medical Marijuana Cook\n\n**Chapter 8**\n\n**Soups and Starters**\n\n_Get your meal off to a fabulous start with any of these great soups and starters. Delicious finger foods are a hit for any party or to start a meal. A warm delicious soup can make the best of a gloomy day and when paired with a sandwich can make a sensible meal. Enjoy these great beginnings to a wonderful cannabis experience._\n\n_Adjust your dosage as needed._\n\nYield:\n\n_24 pieces_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_baking sheet pan with sidewalls, sauce pan, kitchen scissors or knife, mixing bowl_\n\nIngredients:\n\n\u00bd _cup melted **Aunt Sandy's 10x**_   \n_**Cannabutter**_   \n\u00bd _teaspoon **Aunt Sandy's 10x**_   \n_**Hot Sauce** (see page 64)_   \n12 _whole chicken wings or 24_   \n_halves_   \n2 _tablespoons of water_   \n1 _small clove garlic, minced_   \n_Pinch of salt_\n\n#  **Cannafire**\n\n##  **Buffalo Wings**\n\nA tailgater's dream, these wings are sure to make any event special\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 Preheat oven to 350\u00b0.\n\n\u2022 If using whole wings, remove the tips of the wings and discard. Clip wings at the joint, making 24 halves.\n\n\u2022 Place the water in the bottom of the sheet pan.\n\n\u2022 Spread wings evenly over the sheet pan and bake for 30 minutes, partially cooking the wings.\n\n\u2022 Remove the wings from the baking sheet and pat dry. Let them cool 1 hour in the refrigerator.\n\n\u2022 Melt the cannabutter in a saucepan. Pour the warm sauce into a mixing bowl.\n\n\u2022 Remove the wings from the refrigerator and toss them in the mixing bowl with the warm sauce. Pour a drop (no more than \u00bd teaspoon) over the wings and mix well.\n\n\u2022 Place the wings coated in sauce on a baking sheet and bake for another 30 minutes or until golden brown.\n\n\u2022 Serve warm.\n\n1. _Cutting chicken wings_\n\n2. _Pouring hot sauce over baked wings_\n\nYield:\n\n_6 servings_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_shallow dish or bowl, skillet, baking pan, tongs_\n\nIngredients:\n\n2\u00bd _cups **Aunt Sandy's**_   \n_**Cannaflour** (see page 27)_   \n1 _tablespoon regular butter for_   \n_greasing the pan_   \n2\u00bd _cups bread crumbs (Try_   \n_Panko, a Japanese bread_   \n_crumb)_   \n_Salt and pepper to taste_   \n1\u00bd _pounds chicken tenders or 3_   \n_boneless chicken breasts, cut_   \n_into 1\u00bd inch strips_   \n\u00bd _cup canola oil_\n\n#  Cannaflour\n\n##  **Chicken** Tenders\n\nMixing the breading with Aunt Sandy's Cannaflour gives the chicken a wonderful hint of marijuana in a crisp golden breading. Delicious!\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 Preheat oven to 350\u00b0.\n\n\u2022 In a shallow dish or bowl combine the cannaflour, bread crumbs, salt and pepper, mixing them together.\n\n\u2022 Add the chicken tenders to the bread crumb mixture and coat each piece completely.\n\n\u2022 Add the canola oil to a skillet over medium heat.\n\n\u2022 After the oil has warmed, add the breaded chicken tenders and saut\u00e9 for 10 minutes.\n\n\u2022 Remove tenders from skillet and place on a paper towel to drain.\n\n\u2022 Grease baking pan.\n\n\u2022 Place on tenders on the greased baking pan and brown in the oven until golden brown, about 20 minutes.\n\n\u2022 Serve on a platter with Blue Cheese Dipping Sauce (see page 61).\n\nYield:\n\n_20 servings_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_bowl, mixing bowl, baking pan, 6-quart pot, mixing bowl, spoon_\n\nIngredients:\n\n1 _cup **Aunt Sandy's 10x**_   \n_**Cannabutter**_   \n1 _cup all-purpose flour_   \n1 _teaspoon paprika_   \n1 _teaspoon ground thyme_   \n1 _teaspoon Old Bay seasonings_   \n1 _teaspoon salt_   \n\u00bd _teaspoon cayenne pepper_   \n2 _quarts chicken stock_   \n\u00bd _pound smoked sausage, sliced_   \n1 _cup onions, chopped_   \n\u00bd _cup bell pepper, chopped_   \n1 _cup celery, chopped_   \n1 _pound boneless, skinless_   \n_chicken breasts, cubed_   \n1 _pound shrimp, peeled and_   \n_deveined_   \n1 _\u2013_ 2 _cups water_\n\n#  Cannabis\n\n##  Gumbo\n\nMy sister-in-law Leslie recommends my gumbo because it reminds her of my parents and all their stories of \"Na'Orleans.\"\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 In a bowl, mix the flour, paprika, thyme, Old Bay seasonings, salt and pepper.\n\n\u2022 Place in a baking pan and bake about 30 minutes, stirring often, until it turns a brown color. Set to the side.\n\n\u2022 Add the chicken stock to a 6-quart pot with the smoked sausage, onions, bell peppers and celery. Bring to a boil. Reduce heat and simmer for 15 minutes.\n\n\u2022 Take the baked spice mixture and put it in a mixing bowl. Stir in a cup or more of water until it has the consistency of a smooth paste.\n\n\u2022 Slowly add the paste to the pot with chicken stock, stirring occasionally over low heat.\n\n\u2022 Add the chicken, shrimp and cannabutter.\n\n\u2022 Cook on a medium low heat for 2 hours. The sauce will thicken over time.\n\n\u2022 Serve over regular rice or try it with Green Rice (see page 94).\n\n1. _Chopping sausage_\n\n2. _Adding peppers_\n\n3. _Making the paste_\n\n4. _Adding liquid_\n\nYield:\n\n_6 servings_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_large saucepan, blender, fine mesh, large strainer, masher, large bowl_\n\nIngredients:\n\n\u00bc _cup loosely packed **cannabis**_   \n_**leaves** (about 20 leaves),_   \n_washed and stemmed, plus 6_   \n_more for a garnish_   \n1 _teaspoon olive oil_   \n1 _large yellow onion, chopped_   \n2 _pounds zucchini, sliced \u00bc'_   \n_thick_   \n4 _cups chicken broth_   \n2 _tablespoons cr\u00e8me fraiche or_   \n_sour cream, plus more for a_   \n_garnish_   \n\u00bc _teaspoon chili powder_   \n_Pinch of salt_\n\n#  Creamy\n\n##  Zucchini Soup\n\nThe beautiful green hue of this soup gives it an eye-catching appeal. Garnish it with a dollop of sour cream and put a fresh cannabis leaf on top.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 Heat the olive oil in a large saucepan over medium heat.\n\n\u2022 Add the onion and cook until it looks translucent, about 5 minutes.\n\n\u2022 Add the zucchini and cook another 2 minutes.\n\n\u2022 Then add chicken broth and fresh cannabis leaves.\n\n\u2022 Reduce heat and simmer for 20 minutes with the lid on.\n\n\u2022 Pour the soup into blender and puree on high.\n\n\u2022 Pour soup through a strainer into a bowl, using a masher or hard spoon to push any lumps through.\n\n\u2022 Add the cr\u00e8me fraiche and chili powder and stir.\n\n\u2022 Add salt to taste.\n\n\u2022 Divide soup into bowls and garnish with a dollop of cr\u00e8me fraiche, a sprinkle of chili powder and a cannabis leaf.\n\n\u2022 Serve warm.\n\n_Store in an airtight container. Freezing is fine._\n\nYield:\n\n_12 servings_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_large soup pot with lid, colander or strainer, large stiff spoon_\n\nIngredients:\n\n\u00bd _cup **Aunt Sandy's 10x**_   \n_**Cannabutter**_   \n1\u00bd _quarts chicken stock_   \n1 _medium white onion, chopped_   \n3 _cloves garlic, minced_   \n1 _leek, well rinsed and sliced_   \n2 _tablespoons minced parsley_   \n3 _tablespoons tomato paste_   \n3 _stalks celery, chopped_   \n2 _large carrots, peeled and sliced_   \n2 _cups cabbage, shredded_   \n2 _medium zucchini, sliced_   \n1 _can (28 ounces) chopped_   \n_tomatoes with juice_   \n\u00bc _teaspoon thyme_   \n\u00bc _teaspoon basil_   \n\u00bc _teaspoon sage_   \n\u00bc _teaspoon rosemary_   \n\u00bc _teaspoon marjoram_   \n\u00bc _teaspoon black pepper_   \n1 _can (28 ounces) red kidney_   \n_beans, drained_   \n\u2153 _cup uncooked noodles_\n\n#  Minestrone\n\nI love the farmer's market. I hand pick the best freshest vegetables for this soup and turn them into a hearty pot of warm and comforting goodness.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 Put all the ingredients, except for the cannabutter, beans, and noodles, in a large soup pot and bring it to a boil.\n\n\u2022 Reduce the heat and cover. Simmer for 1 hour.\n\n\u2022 Rinse and drain the beans to remove canning solution. Stir them into the pot.\n\n\u2022 Add the noodles to the pot.\n\n\u2022 Then add the cannabutter and stir well.\n\n\u2022 Put lid on and cook on a very low heat for at least 2 hours and up to 7 hours for better results.\n\n\u2022 Serve warm.\n\n_Store in an airtight container. Freezing is fine._\n\nYield:\n\n_6 servings_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_baking sheet pan, scoop or large spoon, blender, large soup pot with lid_\n\nIngredients:\n\n\u00bc _cup **Aunt Sandy's 10x**_   \n_**Cannabutter**_   \n2 _pounds pumpkin puree, fresh_   \n_or canned_   \n_Olive oil, if needed_   \n1 _yellow onion, finely chopped_   \n2 _tablespoons flour_   \n5 _cups chicken or vegetable stock_   \n\u00bc _cup vermouth or dry sherry_   \n_(optional)_   \n\u00be _teaspoon ginger_   \n\u00bd _teaspoon nutmeg_   \n\u00bd _teaspoon pepper_   \n2 _egg yolks_   \n1 _cup heavy cream_\n\n#  **Pumpkin**\n\n##  Soup\n\nTry this recipe with warm corn bread. In the harvest season there is nothing better. You can substitute acorn or butternut squash for the pumpkin.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 If using fresh pumpkin, rinse the shell well and scoop and slice it in half crosswise. Scoop out seeds and strings. Place the two halves flesh side down on a baking sheet and bake for one hour or until pumpkin is fork tender. Scoop out flesh and puree in a blender. You may need to add a little olive oil to help blend.\n\n\u2022 In a large soup pot, saut\u00e9 the onions in a tablespoon of the cannabutter over medium heat for three minutes.\n\n\u2022 Stir in the flour, mixing thoroughly.\n\n\u2022 Add the pumpkin puree and the vegetable stock. (Add optional vermouth or sherry at this time).\n\n\u2022 Cover the pot and reduce heat. Let simmer for 15 minutes. Cook a little longer if using canned puree.\n\n\u2022 Add ginger, nutmeg, and pepper and stir in.\n\n\u2022 Combine the egg yolks and the cream. Spoon a little hot soup into the egg-cream mixture to prevent curdling. Add this mixture to the soup and stir.\n\n\u2022 Continue heating the soup on low heat. Be sure to not let it boil.\n\n\u2022 Serve warm.\n\n_Store in an airtight container. Freezing is fine._\n\nYield:\n\n_6 servings_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_large saucepan with lid, blender, strainer, stiff spoon_\n\nIngredients:\n\n\u00bc _cup **Aunt Sandy's 10x**_   \n_**Cannabutter**_   \n2 _medium onions, chopped_   \n2 _cloves garlic, minced_   \n2 _cups chicken stock_   \n1 _can (28 ounces) whole_   \n_tomatoes, drained_   \n\u00bc _cup brown rice, uncooked_   \n1 _pinch of basil and thyme_   \n2 _cups light cream_   \n_Dash of cayenne pepper_   \n2 _tablespoons chopped parsley_\n\n#  Tomato\n\n##  Bisque\n\nServe this savory and creamy soup with a warm grilled cheese sandwich. It is a taste sensation. Just ask Oprah....\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 In a large saucepan saut\u00e9 the onions and garlic in a teaspoon of the cannabutter over medium heat until they are soft, but not brown.\n\n\u2022 Add the chicken stock, tomatoes, rice, basil, and thyme. Stir and cover.\n\n\u2022 Bring the ingredients to a boil. Reduce heat and let simmer for 45 minutes.\n\n\u2022 Puree the soup in a blender.\n\n\u2022 Pour the blended soup through a kitchen strainer and discard the solids.\n\n\u2022 Return the soup to the pot and add the cream. Blend and heat the soup\u2014do not boil.\n\n\u2022 Garnish with a sprinkle of chopped parsley.\n\n\u2022 Serve warm.\n\n_Store in an airtight container. Freezing is fine._\n\n**Chapter 9**\n\n**Main Dishes**\n\n_Why not just call it the main event? These recipes are not for the faint of heart. They are fabulous enough to wow your dinner guests or simple enough to prepare and freeze in portions for later use. This is a very comforting set of recipes that please your palate and leave your mind and body at ease. An entree is a commitment, so be sure to manage your dosage accordingly. As a guide, I have suggested small portions. I like to think of these recipes as a \"best of\" version of my life cooking._\n\n_Enjoy them, as I have over the years, but as main courses, the portions may be larger so you may want to reduce the dosage._\n\nYield:\n\n_6 chops_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_bowl, large plastic food storage bag, grill_\n\nIngredients:\n\n\u00bc _cup **Aunt Sandy's 10x**_   \n_**Cannabutter**_   \n1 _teaspoon **cannabis herb** ,_   \n_dried and crushed_   \n2 _tablespoons packed brown_   \n_sugar_   \n2 _tablespoons orange juice_   \n2 _tablespoons fresh cilantro_   \n1 _tablespoon red wine vinegar_   \n2 _teaspoons chili powder_   \n1 _teaspoon ground cumin_   \n\u00bc _teaspoon cayenne pepper_   \n\u00bc _teaspoon cinnamon_   \n3 _cloves garlic, minced_   \n\u00bd _teaspoon salt_   \n6 _boneless pork top loin chops_   \n_cut \u00be\" thick_\n\n#  Adobo\n\n##  Pork Chops\n\nI have fond memories of this recipe cooking at my grandparents and filling the house with its savory aroma before our traditional Sunday dinners.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 Combine all ingredients, except the pork chops, in a bowl. Stir thoroughly to create the marinade.\n\n\u2022 Put the pork chops in the plastic food storage bag and let it rest inside a shallow dish or pan.\n\n\u2022 Pour the marinade over the chops and seal the bag. Mix and turn to coat chops completely.\n\n\u2022 Marinate in refrigerator 2 to 24 hours.\n\n\u2022 Remove the chops and discard the marinade.\n\n\u2022 Grill on rack directly over medium heat for 12 to 15 minutes. Turn once. Chops are done when firm to the touch.\n\nYield:\n\n_4 ribs or 8 servings_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_shallow dish, large skillet, aluminum foil, plate, stock pot_\n\nIngredients:\n\n\u00bd _cup **Aunt Sandy's 10x**_   \n_**Cannabutter**_   \n1\u00bd _pounds trimmed short ribs (4_   \n_ribs)_   \n3\u00be _teaspoons salt, divided_   \n\u00bd _teaspoon black pepper_   \n\u00bd _cup all-purpose flour_   \n2 _tablespoons olive oil, divided_   \n\u00be _cup chopped carrot (1 large_   \n_carrot)_   \n\u00bd _cup chopped onion (1 small_   \n_onion)_   \n8 _ounces sliced Cremini_   \n_mushrooms_   \n3 _garlic cloves, minced_   \n1 _tablespoon tomato paste_   \n3 _quarts and 2\u00bd cups water_   \n8 _ounces medium egg noodles_\n\n#  Braised **Short Ribs** & Egg Noodles\n\nThis classic warms the body and the soul on a cold winter night. It is a tender, hearty meal.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 Sprinkle beef evenly with \u00bc teaspoon of salt and pepper.\n\n\u2022 Coat the ribs with flour, rolling them in a shallow dish.\n\n\u2022 Place a large skillet over medium high heat.\n\n\u2022 Add 1 tablespoon of the olive oil to the pan and swirl to coat the skillet.\n\n\u2022 Place the beef ribs in the skillet and cook 4 minutes or until browned, turning occasionally.\n\n\u2022 Add 2\u00bd cups water and scrape the pan to loosen browned bits and bring it to a boil.\n\n\u2022 Cover, reduce heat, and let simmer for 1 hour and 45 minutes. Beef should be fork tender.\n\n\u2022 Remove beef from the pan to a plate and cover with foil to keep warm.\n\n\u2022 Remove cooking liquid, and save it for later.\n\n\u2022 Now heat the skillet over medium heat. Add the remaining tablespoon of olive oil and swirl to coat.\n\n\u2022 Add the carrots and onion and cook 4 minutes, stirring occasionally.\n\n\u2022 Add the mushrooms and \u00bd teaspoon salt and the cannabutter.\n\n\u2022 Saut\u00e9 for 5 minutes, stirring occasionally.\n\n\u2022 Add the garlic and cook for 30 seconds, stirring rapidly.\n\n\u2022 Then add the tomato paste and cook for another 30 seconds continuing to stir.\n\n\u2022 Stir in the reserved cooking liquid and bring to a boil.\n\n\u2022 Reduce heat and simmer for 6 more minutes or until slightly thickened.\n\n\u2022 Bring 3 quarts of water to a boil in a stockpot, add 1 tablespoon of salt.\n\n\u2022 Add the egg noodles and cook 5 minutes or until al dente.\n\n\u2022 Drain the noodles.\n\n\u2022 Serve the ribs and sauce over the egg noodles.\n\nYield:\n\n_8 to 12 servings_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_13 by 9-inch baking pan or large casserole dish, kitchen spoon_\n\nIngredients:\n\n1 _tablespoon of **Aunt Sandy's**_   \n_**10x Cannabutter** to grease_   \n_the pan_   \n1 _pound elbow cooked macaroni_   \n_(use package instructions)_   \n3\u00bc _cups half and half or whole_   \n_milk_   \n18 _\u2013_ 20 _slices of American or_   \n_Cheddar cheese_   \n4 _tablespoons butter_   \n12 _buttery crackers_   \n_Salt, pepper, and paprika to_   \n_taste_\n\nOption:\n\n_For more kick, use residual cannabutter water to cook macaroni. If you don't use the residual cannabutter water, add cannabutter to the macaroni cooking water._\n\n#  Cannamaca Roni & Cheese\n\nThis is a cheesy classic that just screams comfort food. For more kick, use the residue liquid from Aunt Sandy's Cannabutter formula.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 Preheat oven to 350\u00b0.\n\n\u2022 Grease a 13 by 9-inch baking pan or a large casserole dish with cannabutter.\n\n\u2022 Spoon about a third of the cooked macaroni into the pan.\n\n\u2022 Pour in 1 cup of the half and half or milk.\n\n\u2022 Cover the macaroni with 4 to 6 slices of cheese.\n\n\u2022 Add two more layers of pasta, milk, and cheese.\n\n\u2022 Add small pieces of butter across the top.\n\n\u2022 Place the crackers in a sealable plastic bag and crush them with a rolling pin for crumb topping.\n\n\u2022 Mix in the salt, pepper and paprika with the crumbs.\n\n\u2022 Sprinkle the crumbs on top of the pasta and cheese.\n\n\u2022 Bake for 45 minutes, until bubbly and browning on top.\n\n\u2022 Let stand 5 minutes before serving.\n\nYield:\n\n_6 servings_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_large non-stick frying pan, whisk_\n\nIngredients:\n\n\u00bd _cup melted **Aunt Sandy's 10x**_   \n_**Cannabutter**_   \n1 _tablespoon canola oil_   \n12 _ounces skinless boneless_   \n_chicken breast, cut into 1-inch_   \n_pieces_   \n\u00bd _teaspoon salt_   \n2 _cups green bell pepper, cut into_   \n_strips_   \n2 _tablespoons fresh lime juice_   \n2 _tablespoons red curry paste_   \n1 _teaspoon sugar_   \n1 _can (14-ounce) light coconut_   \n_milk_   \n3 _cups cooked long grain rice_   \n_Lime wedges_\n\nOption:\n\n_If you want some more flavors, add golden raisins, frozen peas, shredded coconut, nuts, and\/or dried cranberries._\n\n#  **Cannabis**\n\n##  Chicken Curry\n\nI love a good Thai dish. The condiment combinations allow for customizing the dish to one's preference and make for a culinary adventure.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 Heat a large nonstick frying pan over medium-high heat. Add oil to pan and swirl to coat.\n\n\u2022 Season the chicken evenly with salt.\n\n\u2022 Add chicken to pan and cook 6 minutes or until browned, turning once.\n\n\u2022 Then add the bell peppers and saut\u00e9 another 6 minutes, stirring occasionally.\n\n\u2022 Remove chicken and peppers from the pan.\n\n\u2022 Combine the cannabutter, juice, soy sauce, curry paste, and sugar in a small bowl, stirring with a whisk.\n\n\u2022 Add juice mixture and coconut milk to the pan and bring to a boil.\n\n\u2022 Simmer about 12 minutes to slightly thicken the sauce.\n\n\u2022 Return the chicken and peppers to the pan (add options here) and cook 2 minutes or until heated thoroughly.\n\n\u2022 Serve over warm rice or try it with Green Rice (see page 94).\n\n\u2022 Garnish with lime wedges.\n\nYield:\n\n_10 servings_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_large soup pot, steamer, soup tureen, ladle_\n\nIngredients:\n\n\u00bd _cup **Aunt Sandy's 10x**_   \n_**Cannabutter**_   \n\u2153 _cup olive oil_   \n3 _large onions, chopped finely_   \n4 _cloves garlic, minced_   \n2 _cups dry white wine_   \n\u00bd _cup chopped parsley_   \n1\u00bd _teaspoons dried basil_   \n1\u00bd _teaspoons oregano_   \n\u00bc _teaspoon cayenne pepper_   \n1 _can (12 ounces) tomato sauce_   \n1 _can (28 ounces) peeled_   \n_tomatoes, drained and_   \n_chopped_   \n1 _pound large raw shrimp,_   \n_shelled and de-veined_   \n3 _pounds fillet sea bass_   \n3 _pounds halibut or cod_   \n1 _pound scallops_   \n2 _dozen clams or mussels in_   \n_shell_   \n2 _pounds cracked crab in shell_\n\n#  Cioppino\n\nCioppino is a San Francisco classic. This hearty seafood stew goes great with garlic bread and is sure to thrill the seafood lover in you.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 Heat the oil in a large soup pot and saut\u00e9 the onions for ten minutes.\n\n\u2022 Add the garlic, wine, parsley, basil, oregano, cayenne pepper, and cannabutter and stir. Simmer for 10 minutes over low heat.\n\n\u2022 Add the tomatoes and the tomato sauce. Continue simmering over low heat for 30 minutes.\n\n\u2022 Cut all fish into bite size pieces.\n\n\u2022 Stir and add the fish pieces, shrimp, and scallops to the pot and continue to simmer for another 30 minutes. You may need to add additional wine or a bit of water if the sauce gets too thick.\n\n\u2022 In a steamer, let the clams and mussels steam for 5\u201310 minutes until shells open. Discard any that do not open. Add just before serving.\n\n\u2022 Stir soup well and ladle into warmed bowls, leaving the clams and mussels in their shells.\n\n1. _Breaking mushrooms apart_\n\n2. _Breaking crab legs apart_\n\n3. _Chopping fish into pieces_\n\n4. _Adding spices to Cioppino_\n\n5. _Ladling cooked Cioppino into bowls_\n\nYield:\n\n_1 cup pesto and serving bowl of pasta, serves 8_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_small saucepan, flat spoon, blender, 4\u2013quart pot_\n\nIngredients:\n\n\u00bc _cup melted **Aunt Sandy's 10x**_   \n_**Cannabutter**_   \n\u00bd _cup fresh **cannabis leaves**_   \n_(about 20 leaves)_   \n4 _large or 6 medium, finely_   \n_chopped garlic cloves_   \n\u2153 _cup shredded Romano cheese_   \n3 _tablespoons pine nuts_   \n2 _teaspoons minced parsley_   \n\u00bd _teaspoon salt_   \n1 _pound cooked pasta_\n\nOption:\n\n_Instead of fresh cannabis leaves, you can use the leaf mixture left over from making the **Aunt Sandy's 10x Cannabutter** to make the pesto. This mixture will still have a lot of residual active ingredients._\n\n#  Classic\n\n##  Cannabis Pesto\n\nThis is a rich and flavorful sensation. It can be made with residual plant material from my cannabutter formula. Nothing goes to waste.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 Pound the cannabis leaves until smooth.\n\n\u2022 In a small saucepan, melt the cannabutter.\n\n\u2022 Add the cannabis leaves to the butter.\n\n\u2022 Put them in a blender and add the remaining ingredients.\n\n\u2022 Blend until smooth.\n\n\u2022 Serve warm over pasta. (You may want to add more cheese.)\n\nYield:\n\n_1 turkey, 12 cups of stuffing_\n\nDizzy Bird Equipment:\n\n_Roasting pan with rack, basting brush, meat thermometer_\n\nIngredients:\n\n6 _tablespoons melted **Aunt**_   \n_**Sandy's 10x Cannabutter**_   \n12 _to 16 pound turkey_\n\n#  **Dizzy** Bird\n\n##  Turkey with Stuffing\n\nMy brother Al recomends this recipe to share with your friends and family as he did on his vacation at Burning Man.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 Preheat oven to 325\u00b0.\n\n\u2022 Remove the turkey giblets and neck from the chest and neck cavities.\n\n\u2022 Loosely pack the body and neck cavities with stuffing (below) and skewer or sew the opening closed.\n\n\u2022 Brush the skin all over with 6 tablespoons of melted cannabutter.\n\n\u2022 Baste the turkey every 30 minutes with pan drippings.\n\n\u2022 Bake for 20 minutes per pound.\n\n\u2022 The Dizzy Bird is done when a thermometer in the thigh area registers 170\u00b0.\n\n\u2022 Remove the turkey to a platter and let rest for 20 minutes before carving.\n\nStuffing Equipment:\n\n_large skillet, meat thermometer, large bowl_\n\nIngredients\n\n1 _cup **Aunt Sandy's 10x**_   \n_**Cannabutter**_   \n2 _cups finely chopped onion_   \n1 _cup finely chopped celery_   \n10 _cups, lightly packed small_   \n_bread cubes for stuffing_   \n\u00bd _cup fresh parsley, minced_   \n1 _tablespoon dried sage_   \n1 _tablespoon dried thyme_   \n\u00be _teaspoon salt_   \n\u00bd _teaspoon black pepper_   \n\u00bc _teaspoon nutmeg_   \n\u215b _teaspoon ground cloves_   \n1 _cup chicken stock_\n\n#  **S** tuffing\n\n##  for Dizzy Bird\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 In a large skillet, saut\u00e9 the cannabutter, onion and celery over a medium heat until the onion looks translucent, about 10 minutes.\n\n\u2022 Remove the skillet from heat and stir in the bread cubes, parsley, sage, thyme, salt, black pepper, nutmeg and cloves. Stir well.\n\n\u2022 Put the mixture in a large bowl.\n\n\u2022 Add 1 cup of chicken stock, a little at a time until the stuffing is moist but not too wet.\n\n\u2022 Spoon the stuffing into the turkey.\n\n\u2022 Stuffing is done when the turkey is done.\n\nYield:\n\n_8 servings (half sandwich each)_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_Frying pan with lid, spatula_\n\nIngredients:\n\n\u00bc _cup **Aunt Sandy's 10x**_   \n_**Cannabutter** at room_   \n_temperature_   \n8 _slices French bread_   \n3 _tablespoons apricot jam_   \n5 _ounces Brie (or Camembert)_\n\nOption:\n\n_You can also make it with the traditional combos of ham & cheese\u2014or creamy Velveeta cheese and prosciutto\u2014or Fontina and sun dried tomatoes\u2014or your favorite grilled cheese combo. Be creative and enjoy!_\n\n#  Gourmet Grilled Brie\n\n##  Sandwiches with Apricot Jam\n\nA cannabis twist on a delicious classic. There has never been such an easy and delicious way to take your medicine. Try it with a cup of tomato bisque soup.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 Butter all bread slices on one side with cannabutter, placing them butter side down.\n\n\u2022 Spread half of the slices with apricot jam.\n\n\u2022 Remove rind from the brie, cutting while cold.\n\n\u2022 Spread room temperature brie on the other 4 slices.\n\n\u2022 Combine one apricot jam side with one side with the brie, butter side out. Repeat 3 more times to make 4 sandwiches.\n\n\u2022 Place the sandwiches in a preheated skillet, over medium heat.\n\n\u2022 Cover frying pan with lid so cheese melts.\n\n\u2022 Remove lid and turn sandwiches. Cook until they are golden brown on both sides.\n\n\u2022 Serve immediately.\n\n1. _Spreading cannabutter on first bread side (apricot on second half)_\n\n2. _Spreading cannabutter on second sandwich side_\n\n3. _Flipping grilled cheese sandwich_\n\nYield:\n\n_8 servings_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_large frying pan or pot with lid_\n\nIngredients:\n\n\u00be _cup **Aunt Sandy's 10x**_   \n_**Cannabutter**_   \n1 _teaspoon **Sandy's 10x Hot**_   \n_**Sauce** (see page 64)_   \n2 _tablespoons olive oil_   \n2 _boneless, skinless chicken_   \n_breasts, cut into 1\" chunks_   \n\u00bd _pound Andouille sausage,_   \n_cooked, and thinly sliced_   \n1 _medium onion, chopped_   \n2 _large celery stalks, chopped_   \n1 _small bell pepper, seeded and_   \n_chopped_   \n2 _cloves garlic, peeled and_   \n_chopped_   \n\u00bc _teaspoon salt_   \n\u215b _teaspoon ground black pepper_   \n1 _teaspoon ground black pepper_   \n1 _cup canned, chopped tomatoes,_   \n_not drained_   \n2 _cups uncooked white rice_   \n6 _cups chicken broth_   \n2 _tablespoons Worcestershire_   \n_sauce_\n\n#  **Jambalaya** a la Cannabis\n\nAfter a family trip, I created this to remind me of the vibrant spirit that the people of New Orleans share with the world every Fat Tuesday.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 Combine the olive oil and 2 tablespoons of the cannabutter in a large frying pan or pot over medium to high heat.\n\n\u2022 Add the chicken and cook through, about 5 minutes.\n\n\u2022 Reduce the heat to medium and stir in the sausage, onion, celery, bell pepper and garlic.\n\n\u2022 Sprinkle in the salt and pepper and continue to stir.\n\n\u2022 Continue to cook the mixture for 5 minutes, stirring occasionally.\n\n\u2022 Then stir in the chopped tomatoes and the uncooked rice.\n\n\u2022 Add the chicken broth and the rest of the butter and bring the ingredients to a boil.\n\n\u2022 Reduce heat to low and cover the pan.\n\n\u2022 Simmer the jambalaya until the rice is tender, about 30 minutes.\n\n\u2022 Finish with the Worcestershire and Aunt Sandy's hot sauce, stirring them in.\n\n\u2022 Serve warm.\n\n**Chapter 10**\n\n**Sides**\n\n_A main dish always is better with a trusty sidekick. These easy and versatile sides will really tie the meal together. If cooking as a side to other cannabis dishes, be aware of the cumulative effect of the medicine. You can always make them without marijuana if need be. Either way, these sides are sure to make your meal into an event. These are some of my favorite leftovers, as well. Adding a cannabis side to any dinner makes it a fabulous and functional experience._\n\n_If you want larger portions or seconds, consider reducing the cannabutter dosage._\n\nYield:\n\n_2 cups_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_small pot_\n\nIngredients:\n\n2 _tablespoons **Aunt Sandy's**_   \n_**10x Cannabutter**_   \n1 _cup water_   \n1 _cup rice_   \n2 _cloves garlic, minced_   \n1 _teaspoon parsley_\n\n#  Green\n\n##  Rice\n\nA dish that resembles cannabis in color and flavor as the rice takes on all aspects of the cannabis that will compliment any entree.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 Cook the rice with all the ingredients for as long as the package suggests.\n\n\u2022 Serve as side dish.\n\nYield:\n\n_12 servings_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_13 by 9-inch glass baking dish, saucepan_\n\nIngredients:\n\n\u00bc _cup **Aunt Sandy's 10x**_   \n_**Cannabutter**_   \n1 _teaspoon oil_   \n5 _large potatoes, peeled and_   \n_sliced_   \n2 _medium onions, chopped_   \n_thinly_   \n\u00bd _cup flour_   \n2 _cups milk_\n\n#  **Scalloped**\n\n##  Potatoes\n\nThis is a buttery, creamy side dish that perfectly complements any meat dish, such as ham, roast beef, or chicken.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 Heat oven to 350\u00b0.\n\n\u2022 Spray 13 by 9-inch glass baking dish with oil to create crispy edges.\n\n\u2022 Layer one third of the potatoes in baking dish and sprinkle with one third of the chopped onions.\n\n\u2022 Keep layering until the dish is full.\n\n\u2022 To make the sauce (also called b\u00e9chamel) melt the cannabutter in a medium saucepan until it hot.\n\n\u2022 Add flour slowly stirring constantly until blended.\n\n\u2022 Continue to cook over medium to low heat, stirring constantly until flour and butter blend to form a brown color.\n\n\u2022 Add milk slowly, whisking the whole time until it is a smooth, slightly thickened texture.\n\n\u2022 Pour over the potato and onion mixture.\n\n\u2022 Cover with plastic wrap; then cover with tin foil.\n\n\u2022 Bake for 80 minutes until golden brown.\n\n\u2022 When knife easily cuts through the potatoes, they are done.\n\n\u2022 Serve immediately.\n\nYield:\n\n_12 servings_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_large pan, small pan_\n\nIngredients:\n\n\u215c _cup **Aunt Sandy's 10x**_   \n_**Cannabutter**_   \n2 _tablespoons olive oil_   \n1 _onion, chopped_   \n2 _cups uncooked, Arborio rice_   \n1 _cup Cremini mushrooms_   \n1 _cup white wine_   \n1 _cup chicken or vegetable broth_   \n\u00bd _teaspoon parsley_   \n\u00bd _teaspoon thyme_   \n1\u00bd _cup grated Parmesan or_   \n_Romano cheese_   \n_Salt and pepper to taste_\n\n#  **Rosie's**\n\n##  Risotto\n\nThis yummy creamy and cheesy dish is filling enough to stand on its own as a main course, or serve it as a great side to a chicken or fish entree.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 In a large pan, saut\u00e9 onions in olive oil until translucent, about 8 minutes.\n\n\u2022 Add rice and cook until rice turns plump, about 20 minutes.\n\n\u2022 In a separate pan, saut\u00e9 mushrooms in cannabutter and set aside.\n\n\u2022 In the large pan with the rice, very slowly add \u00bd cup chicken broth and 1 cup white wine, and stir constantly while maintaining a simmer.\n\n\u2022 Add saut\u00e9ed mushrooms.\n\n\u2022 Add the parsley and thyme.\n\n\u2022 The risotto is done when rice is tender, about 20 minutes.\n\n\u2022 Fold in grated Parmesan or Romano cheese and season to taste with salt and pepper.\n\n**Chapter 11**\n\n**Tasty Snacks**\n\n_Cannabis snacks make sense. Because of the individuality of popcorn, nuts, and seeds, you can regulate your dosage almost to a science. When you find a level that works for you, you can easily prepackage these snacks into adequate portions for home or on the go. Take three nuts and call me in the morning. Beware of the munchies. Prepare to have non-medicated alternative snacks for munching on if cannabis heavily stimulates your appetite._\n\n_These will sneak up on you, so watch your dosage!_\n\nYield:\n\n_12 cups_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_large saucepan or pot with lid_\n\nIngredients:\n\n\u00bc _cup melted **Aunt Sandy's**_   \n_**10x Cannabutter**_   \n\u00bd _cup of your favorite popcorn_   \n_kernels_   \n\u00bc _cup canola or vegetable oil_   \n_Salt to taste_\n\n#  Popcorn\n\nTake your own popcorn to the movies. There is nothing like a tasty therapeutic snack.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 Heat the oil in the large saucepan or pot on medium-high heat.\n\n\u2022 Place 2\u20133 kernels in the oil and cover the pot.\n\n\u2022 When these kernels pop, add the rest of the kernels in an even layer.\n\n\u2022 Cover the pot and let pop, shaking gently to ensure all kernels pop.\n\n\u2022 When popping slows to several seconds between kernels, remove the pan from heat.\n\n\u2022 Add melted cannabutter and mix well.\n\n\u2022 Remove from pan and serve warm.\n\nYield:\n\n_3 cups_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_quart-size jar with lid, saucepan_\n\nIngredients:\n\n\u00bc _cup of **Aunt Sandy's 10x**_   \n_**Cannabis Oil** (use olive oil,_   \n_see page 28)_   \n3 _small sprigs of **cannabis bud**_   \n3 _cups of mixed olives, rinsed_   \n_and drained well_   \n\u00be _cup regular olive oil_   \n3 _sprigs of fresh thyme_   \n4 _sprigs of fresh rosemary_   \n1\u00bd _teaspoons whole fennel seeds_   \n2 _strips orange zest_   \n\u00bc _teaspoon crushed red pepper_   \n_flakes_   \n2 _bay leaves_   \n1 _clove garlic, slivered_   \n\u00bc _cup fresh lemon juice_\n\n#  **Olive**\n\n##  Medley\n\nI love olives. Simply infuse them with cannabis olive oil. It creates a quick, easy, and delicious way to take your medicine.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 Place the olives in a quart jar.\n\n\u2022 In a small sauce pan, combine oil, thyme, rosemary, cannabis sprigs, fennel seeds, orange zest, red pepper flakes, bay leaf, and garlic and simmer for 10 minutes.\n\n\u2022 Pour the oil and seasonings over the olives in the jar.\n\n\u2022 Add the lemon juice and put the lid tightly on the jar.\n\n\u2022 Turn the jar a few times to evenly distribute the seasonings.\n\n\u2022 Reopen the jar and let cool.\n\n\u2022 Replace lid and store in the refrigerator.\n\nYield:\n\n_3\u00bd cups_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_baking sheet pan, aluminum foil, bowl, mixing bowl_\n\nIngredients:\n\n\u00bc _cup melted **Aunt Sandy's 10x**_   \n_**Cannabutter**_   \n1 _pound (3\u00bd cups) mixed_   \n_unsalted almonds, pecans and_   \n_cashews_   \n1\u00bd _tablespoons light brown sugar_   \n2 _teaspoons fresh thyme_   \n\u00bd _teaspoon chipotle powder_   \n1 _teaspoon salt_\n\n#  Sweet & Spicy\n\n##  Roasted Nuts\n\nThis makes for a great addition to a sundae or a salad on a warm summer night.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 Preheat oven to 375\u00b0.\n\n\u2022 Line the baking sheet pan with aluminum foil.\n\n\u2022 Spread the nuts evenly on the baking sheet.\n\n\u2022 Roast about 15 minutes, until the nuts are lightly brown.\n\n\u2022 Combine sugar, thyme, chipotle powder and salt in a bowl. Mix together.\n\n\u2022 Place the warm nuts in a mixing bowl and add the melted cannabutter. Toss well, coating all of the nuts.\n\n\u2022 Add the brown sugar and spices to the mixing bowl and toss again to coat evenly.\n\n\u2022 Serve warm or cold.\n\n\u2022 Store in an airtight container.\n\nYield:\n\n_2 cups_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_baking sheet pan, aluminum foil, bowl, mixing bowl_\n\nIngredients:\n\n2 _tablespoons melted **Aunt**_   \n_**Sandy's 10x Cannabutter**_   \n1 _tablespoon **Aunt Sandy's**_   \n_**Cannaflour** (see page 27)_   \n2 _tablespoons olive oil_   \n2 _teaspoons salt_   \n1 _teaspoon fennel seed_   \n\u00bc _teaspoon pepper_   \n2 _egg whites_   \n\u00bd _cup finely grated Parmesan-_   \n_Reggiano cheese_   \n\u00bd _pound (1\u00bd cups) almonds_   \n_with skin on_\n\n#  Cheesy\n\n##  Savory Nuts\n\nThese are simply delightful on their own.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 Preheat oven to 300\u00b0.\n\n\u2022 Line the baking sheet with foil and coat evenly with olive oil.\n\n\u2022 In a bowl, combine the cannaflour, salt, pepper and fennel, and mix together.\n\n\u2022 In a mixing bowl, whisk the egg whites until they are foamy.\n\n\u2022 Add melted cannabutter, spices and cheese and mix again.\n\n\u2022 Put the nuts in the mixing bowl, tossing to thoroughly coat.\n\n\u2022 Spread the nuts onto the baking sheet.\n\n\u2022 Bake for 45 minutes, turning the nuts every 15 minutes.\n\n\u2022 Remove the nuts to a clean foil sheet to cool.\n\n\u2022 Store in an airtight food storage container or jar. To preserve crispness, do not store in plastic bags.\n\nYield:\n\n_2\u00bd cups_\n\nEquipment:\n\n_baking sheet pan, aluminum foil_\n\nIngredients:\n\n4 _tablespoons melted **Aunt**_   \n_**Sandy's 10x Cannabutter**_   \n2 _cups pepitas (raw hulled_   \n_pumpkin seeds)_   \n\u00bd _teaspoon pepper_   \n\u00bd _teaspoon cayenne_   \n1 _teaspoon cumin_   \n1 _teaspoon chili powder_   \n1 _teaspoon salt_   \n1 _tablespoon lime juice_\n\n#  Spicy\n\n##  Pepitas\n\nFor a medicinal treat, these are good for someone on the go.\n\n**INSTRUCTIONS:**\n\n\u2022 Preheat oven to 350\u00b0.\n\n\u2022 Line a baking sheet with aluminum foil.\n\n\u2022 Toss all ingredients together in a bowl. Mix well.\n\n\u2022 Spread the mixture evenly on the baking sheet.\n\n\u2022 Bake for 10 minutes, until golden brown.\n\n\u2022 Remove from baking sheet.\n\n\u2022 Serve warm or cool.\n\n**Appendix A**\n\n**Equivalents and Conversions**\n\nMeasurement Abbreviations\n\nt| =| teaspoon  \n---|---|---  \ng| =| gram  \nT| =| Tablespoon  \nkg| =| kilogram  \nc| =| cup  \nmL| =| milliliter  \npt.| =| pint  \nL| =| liter  \nqt.| =| quart  \noz.| =| ounce  \nlb.| =| pound\n\nFluid Equivalents\n\n3 t| =| 1 T| =| 15 mL  \n---|---|---|---|---  \n4 T| =| 1\/4 c| =| 60 mL  \n1 c| =| 8 oz.| =| 240 mL  \n2 c| =| 1 pt.| =| 473 mL  \n2 pts.| =| 1 qt.| =| 0.94 L\n\nDry Equivalents\n\n1\/4 oz.| =| 7 g|   \n---|---|---|---  \n1\/2 oz.| =| 14 g|   \n1 oz.| =| 28.4 g|   \n8 oz.| =| 227 g|   \n16 oz.| =| 454 g =| 1 lb.  \n1000 g| =| 1 kg =| 2.2 lbs.  \n100 kg| =| a federal rap\n\n **U.S.** Food Measures\n\nButter: 1 lb.| =| 2 cups  \n---|---|---  \nFlour: 1 lb.| =| 4 cups  \nSugar: 1 lb.| =| 2 cups\n\nTemperature Conversions\n\n**\u00b0Fahrenheit** | | **\u00b0Celsius**  \n---|---|---  \n150| =| 66  \n212| =| 100  \n250| =| 120  \n275| =| 135  \n300| =| 149  \n325| =| 163  \n350| =| 177  \n375| =| 191  \n400| =| 204  \n425| =| 220  \n450| =| 230  \n475| =| 240  \n500| =| 260  \n550| =| 288  \n600| =| 316\n\nPowdered Marijuana **(Leaf** & Bud)\n\n1 t| =| 1.8 g| |   \n---|---|---|---|---  \n1 T| =| 5.5 g| =| ~1\/4 oz.  \n1\/4 c| =| 22.4 g| |   \n1.3 c| =| 28 g| =| 1 oz.  \n1\/2 c| =| 45 g| |   \n2\/3 c| =| 56 g| =| 2 oz.\n**Acknowledgments**\n\n**W** riting a cookbook requires the concerted effort and synergy of many talented people\u2014everyone working toward a common goal.\n\nIt is the people mentioned here that made this cookbook possible.\n\nI want to express thanks to my publisher, Ed Rosenthal, for his lifelong commitment to cannabis, and for wanting to publish this cookbook.\n\nThanks to his wife Jane Klein, for her design and marketing expertise.\n\nI want to offer my special thanks to Oaksterdam University Staff for the stellar job they do educating and especially to Richard Lee, the founder, for his continuing efforts to legitimize the cannabis industry.\n\nI am deeply grateful to Dennis Peron for his lifelong dedication to making this plant available to all who need it.\n\nI want to especially thank Jack Jennings, my editor who was instrumental in helping to shape this book into one of the most authoritative medical marijuana cookbooks. He also assembled the greatest team anyone could hope for: Joe Burull, a superb photographer, for the most mouth-watering, beautiful pictures ever; Mickey Martin for editing and writing from his depth of understanding and wealth of knowledge about marijuana as medicine; Alvaro Villanueva for his artistic cover design concept and layout; Leslie Kwartin for her focus and friendship in coordinating all aspects of this project; Cindy Jennings, the fastest, funniest, best copy editor; and to the many testers and tasters and the staff at Quick Trading Publishing, especially Angela Bacca.\n\nMy special thanks to friends and family: my brother and good friend Al for being a good friend and teaching me the ways of our world and his wife Leslie for all the fun we had when figuring out our personal dosage; my special daughter Ashley, who graduated from the California Culinary Academy, for sharing her cooking knowledge and enriching my life with her love; my wonderful daughter Erin for her eye of the lens and her artistic compassion in everything and her dedication and help while creating this cookbook; my daughter Marci, who generously opened her kitchen to all of us; Chef Mike for his professional advise; Marshall and Krisianne for their unconditional support and love; my good buddy Rose for all the hard work and fun in the kitchen perfecting these recipes; in remembering my doctor Dr. Tod Mikuriya as a sincere pioneer and his son Sean for carrying on....\n\nSo many people are involved when a new cookbook gets published. It isn't just about the author. In the world of cannabis, we are a family with one common goal.\n**Index**\n\n##  A\n\nacorn squash\n\nAdobo Pork Chops\n\naging\n\nalcohol-based tincture\n\nalcohol-free tincture\n\nallergies, food\n\nAlzheimer's disease\n\nAmerican College of Physicians (ACP)\n\nAmerican Medical Association (AMA)\n\nAmerican Nursing Association\n\nAmericans for Safe Access\n\nanalgesic, marijuana as\n\nanti-inflammatory, marijuana as\n\nappetite stimulation\n\napricot jam\n\narthritis\n\nartichoke hearts\n\naspirin\n\nAunt Sandy's 10x Cannabutter: adjusting potency of; as medicinal additive; recipe; residual leaf use; residual water use; shelf life; unsalted; for vegetarian diets\n\nAunt Sandy's 10x Hot Sauce\n\nAunt Sandy's Cannabis Oil\n\nAunt Sandy's Cannaflour\n\nAunt Sandy's Marijuana Tincture\n\n_Aunt Sandy's Medical Marijuana Cookbook\u2014Comfort Food for Mind and Body_\n\n##  B\n\nbaking, gluten-free\n\nBananacanna Fofana Nut Bars\n\nbananas\n\nbars: Bananacanna Fofana Nut Bars; Blue Sky Lemon Bars; Lemon Poppy Seed Bars\n\nb\u00e9chamel sauce\n\nbeef\n\nBerry Peachy Cannabutter Cobbler\n\nbeverages: Bhang; Cannabis Milk; tincture as additive to\n\nBhang\n\nBlue Cheese Dressing\/Dip\n\nBlue Sky Cafe\n\nBlue Sky Lemon Bars\n\nbourbon\n\nbrain chemistry\n\nBraised Short Ribs with Egg Noodles\n\nbreading, gluten free\n\nbrie cheese\n\nbud: vs. leaf trim; to control strength; making cannabis oil; using sprigs of\n\nbuffalo wings\n\nBundt cakes\n\nBurning Man\n\nbutter, cannabis; see also Aunt Sandy's 10x Cannabutter\n\nbuttternut squash\n\n##  C\n\ncakes: Kahlua Cannabis Cake; Peanut Butter Bundt Cake\n\nCalifornia legislation\n\ncancer\n\ncannabidiol (CBD)\n\ncannabinoids: evaporation point; extracting; therapeutic effects of; vaporization of\n\ncannabinol (CBN)\n\nCannabis Chicken Curry\n\nCannabis Gumbo\n\nCannabis Milk\n\ncannabis oil: Aunt Sandy's Cannabis Oil as ingestion method\n\nCannabutter, Aunt Sandy's 10x. see Aunt Sandy's 10x Cannabutter\n\nCannafire Buffalo Wings\n\nCannaflour Chicken Tenders\n\nCannamacca Roni & Cheese\n\ncanola oil\n\nCB1 receptors\n\ncheese: Blue Cheese Dressing\/ Dip; Cannamacca Roni & Cheese; Cheesy Savory Nuts; Gourmet Grilled Brie Sandwiches with Apricot Jam; mozzarella; in risotto; variants, for grilled cheese\n\nCheesy Savory Nuts\n\nchemotheraphy treatment\n\nchicken: Cannabis Chicken Curry; Cannabis Gumbo; Cannafire Buffalo Wings; Cannaflour Chicken Tenders; Jambalaya a la Cannabis\n\nchicken tenders\n\nchicken wings\n\nchickpeas\n\nchilies\n\nchlorophyll\n\nchocolate: Chocolate Coconut Pecan Pie; Chocolate Frosting; Larry's Munchie Bar\n\nChocolate Coconut Pecan Pie\n\nCioppino\n\nClassic Cannabis Pesto\n\ncleanliness\n\nclinical trials\n\ncobbler\n\ncoconut\n\nCoconut Cannabis cookies\n\ncoffee\n\ncoffee liqueur\n\ncomfort food, medicated\n\ncondiments\n\ncontaminants\n\ncookies: Coconut Cannabis cookies; Oatmeal Raisin Cookies\n\ncorn bread\n\ncrab legs, breaking\n\nCreamy Zucchini Soup\n\ncurried chicken\n\n##  D\n\ndairy products: alternatives to; on vegetarian diets\n\ndiabetes\n\ndiabetic diets\n\ndietary restrictions\n\ndigestive issues\n\ndips\n\ndisease, plant\n\ndispensaries, medical marijuana\n\nDizzy Bird Turkey\n\ndosages: of entree plus side dish; for entrees; factors affecting; get it right; marijuana quality as influencing; in sauces; in snacks; titration\n\ndressings: blue cheese; ranch\n\n##  E\n\neating, vs. smoking\n\neating habits\n\neffects, unintended\n\negg noodles\n\neggs\n\negg whites\n\nentrees\n\neuphoria\n\n##  F\n\nFat Tuesday\n\nfederal law enforcement\n\nfish\n\nflour, cannabis\n\nfood safety\n\nFrench bread\n\nfrosting: chocolate; lemon; mocha; cream cheese; white\n\nfungicides\n\nfungus\n\n##  G\n\ngastrointestinal disorders\n\ngenetic variants\n\ngluten\n\ngluten free diets\n\nGourmet Grilled Brie Sandwiches with Apricot Jam\n\nGreen Rice\n\ngrilled cheese sandwiches\n\ngumbo\n\n##  H\n\nhallugenogenic effects\n\nhand washing\n\nherb, cannabis, in pork chop\n\nherbal medicine\n\nhigh-grade marijuana\n\nhistory, of mairjuana medicine\n\nHIV\/AIDS\n\nhot sauce\n\nhummus\n\nhybrid strains\n\nhygiene\n\nhypoglycemic diets\n\n##  I\n\nimmune system: compromised; response of\n\nindicas\n\ninfusions, cannabis\n\ningestion methods\n\n##  J\n\njalape\u00f1os\n\njam, apricot\n\nJambalaya a la Cannabis\n\n##  K\n\nKahlua Cannabis Cake\n\n##  L\n\nlabeling\n\nLarry's Munchie Bar\n\nleaf trim\n\nleaves, fresh cannabis\n\nlegislation\n\nlemon bars\n\nlemon frosting\n\nLemon Poppy Seed Bars\n\nLemony Hummus Dip\n\nlow calorie options\n\nlow-grade marijuana\n\nlow sodium diets\n\n##  M\n\nmain courses\n\nmargarine\n\nMarijuana Tax Act (1937)\n\nMarshall's Favorite Dip\n\nmayonnaise\n\nmeat substitutes\n\nmedical system use\n\nmetabolism\n\nmethods of ingestion\n\nmildew, powdery\n\nmilk, cannabis\n\nMinestrone Soup\n\nmocha frosting\n\nmold\n\nmuffins\n\nmultiple sclerosis\n\nmunchies\n\nmushrooms\n\n##  N\n\nNelson, Willie\n\nNew Orleans\n\nnuts: Bananacanna Fofana Nut Bars; Cheesy Savory Nuts; as curry additive; Larry's Munchie Bar; Pumpkin Streusel Muffins; Spicy Pepitas; Sweet and Spicy Roasted Nuts\n\n##  O\n\nOakland\n\nOaksterdam University\n\nOatmeal Raisin Cookies\n\nObama Administration\n\noil: cannabis-infused; in vegan diets; vegetable oil choices\n\nolive oil\n\nolives\n\n1:4 Ratio Chart for Determining Potency\n\norange frosting\n\nover-dosage, symptoms of\n\n##  P\n\npain relief\n\nParkinsons\n\npasta: Braised Short Ribs with Egg Noodles; Cannamacca Roni & Cheese; Classic Cannabis Pesto\n\npathogens\n\npatients, medical marijuana: access to medicine; adjusting dosage for; author's cooking for; legal rights\n\npeaches\n\nPeanut Butter Bundt Cake\n\npecan pie\n\npesticides\n\nPesto, Classic Cannabis\n\nphysicians, contacting\n\npies\/cobblers: Berry Peachy Cannabutter Cobbler; Chocolate Coconut Pecan Pie\n\npita bread\n\npopcorn\n\npoppy seeds\n\npork chops\n\npotatoes, scalloped\n\npotency: adjusting ratios for; caution in testing; chart for determining; factors affecting; and patient capacity; and raw material quality; reasons for reducing; reducing plant material and; and serving size\n\npowdery mildew\n\nPropositioon 215\n\npsychoactivity\n\npumpkins\n\nPumpkin Streusel Muffins\n\n##  Q\n\nquality, plant\n\n##  R\n\nraisins\n\nRanch Dressing\n\nRatio Chart for Determining Potency\n\nresearch, limited\n\nresidual effects\n\nresponsibility: in cannabis use; in food preparation\n\nribs\n\nrice: Green Rice; in jambalaya; Rosie's Risotto\n\nRichards, Larry\n\nroasted turkey\n\nRosie's Risotto\n\nrum\n\n##  S\n\nsafety: dosage measurement. see dosages; equipment; food preparation; of herbal medicine; inspection, of marijuana; learning; marijuana as non-toxic\n\nSan Francisco\n\nsanitaiton\n\nsativas\n\nsauces\n\nsausage\n\nScalloped Potatoes\n\nseafood stew\n\nseizures\n\nserving size\n\nshake, marijuana\n\nsherry\n\nshrimp\n\nsmell\n\nsmoking\n\nsnacks\n\nsocial pressure\n\nsodium, controllling\n\nsoups: Cioppino; Creamy Zucchini Soup; Minestrone Soup; Pumpkin Soup; Tomato Bisque\n\nsource of medicine, knowing\n\nspasms\n\nspicey hot sauce\n\nSpicy Pepitas\n\nsquash\n\nstarters: Cannabis Gumbo; Cannafire Buffalo Wings; Cannaflour Chicken Tenders\n\nSteep Hill Labs\n\nsterilization\n\nstew\n\nstorage: cannabis oil; cannabis powder; Cannabutter; marijuana; tincture\n\nstreusel\n\nstuffing, turkey\n\nsuffering, allowing patient\n\nsugar free diets\n\nSunday dinner\n\nSweet and Spicy Roasted Nuts\n\nsymptoms served\n\n##  T\n\ntaste of marijuana\n\ntea: cookies for; tincture as additive to\n\nteaching marijuana cooking\n\ntesting, for contaminants\n\ntexture: and marijuana content; and raw material quality\n\nThai curry\n\nTHC\n\ntherapeutic effects: controlling; by genetic strain; ingestion method as varying; list of; pain relief; and raw material quality\n\ntincture, cannabis: as ingestion method; recipe for making\n\nTiramisu\n\ntitration\n\nTomato Bisque\n\ntrichomes\n\nturkey\n\n##  U\n\nUS Pharmacopoeia\n\n##  V\n\nvaporization\n\nvegan diets\n\nvegetables: for minestrone; sauces for; in turkey stuffing\n\nvegetarian diets\n\n##  W\n\nWashington DC legislation\n\nweight\n\nweight loss diets\n\nwhite frosting\n\nwings\n\nWorld Health Organizaion\n\n##  X\n\nxylitol\n**OAKSTERDAM UNIVERSITY**\n\n**QUALITY TRAINING**\n\n**13 week semester courses**   \n**Basic and Advanced weekend seminars**   \n**Horticulture semester programs**   \n**New 30,000 square foot campus**   \n**Featuring the very best instructors that the cannabis**   \n**industry has to offer**   \n**Learn to grow your own cannabis, train to work in a**   \n**collective, or open your own!**\n\nTo Enroll: **oaksterdam.com** (510) 251-1544   \n1600 Broadway, Oakland California 94612\nAUNT SANDY'S MEDICAL MARIJUANA COOKBOOK   \nComfort Food for Mind and Body\n\nCopyright c 2010 Sandy Moriarty\n\neISBN : 978-1-936-80709-3\n\nPublished by Quick American Publishing   \nA Division of Quick Trading Company   \nPiedmont, California\n\nPublisher's Cataloging-in-Publication   \n(Provided by Quality Books, Inc.)\n\nMoriarty, Sandy.\n\nAunt Sandy's medical marijuana cookbook : comfort food for body & mind \/ Sandy Moriarty.\n\np. cm.\n\nIncludes index.\n\n1. Marijuana\u2014Therapeutic use\u2014Recipes. 2. Diet therapy. 3. Cooking. 4. Cookbooks. I. Title. II. Title: Medical marijuana cookbook.\n\nRM666.C266M67 2010\n\n615'.7827 QBI10-600139\n\nThe material offered in this book is presented as information that should be available to the public. The Publisher does not advocate breaking the law. The Author and Publisher have tested the recipes included here, but no warranty is provided, nor results guaranteed for the use, or misuse of this information.\n\nAll rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner without written permission of the Publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles or reviews.\n\nTry your bookstore first but you may order this book from our website-www.Quicktrading.com or by mail from the Publisher.\n\nQuick Trading\/Quick American Publishing   \n9 Lake Ave   \nPiedmont, CA 94611\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}}
+{"text":"\n\nE-text prepared by Mark C. Orton, Anita Hammond, and the Online\nDistributed Proofreading Team (http:\/\/www.pgdp.net)\n\n\n\nTranscriber's note:\n\n      Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).\n\n      Text enclosed by plus signs is in bold face (+bold+).\n\n      Text enclosed by tilde characters is underlined (~underlined~).\n\n      Text enclosed by equal signs is double underlined\n      (=double underlined=).\n\n      The Key to Pronunciation, p. 37 (Spelling Lesson 3), contains\n      characters with diacritical marks not available in Latin-1\n      character encoding. Therefore, they have been transcribed as\n      follows:\n         [=x]  character 'x' with macron (bar) above the letter\n         [.x]  character 'x' with dot above the letter\n         [~x]  character 'x' with tilde (curved bar) above the letter\n\n\n\n\n\nPLAIN ENGLISH\n\nby\n\nMARIAN WHARTON\n\n_For the Education of the Workers\nby the Workers_\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nPublished by\nThe People's College\nFort Scott, Kansas\n1917\n\n\n\n\nHe who aspires to master the art of expression must first of all\nconsecrate himself completely to some great cause and the greatest cause\nof all is the cause of humanity. He must learn to feel deeply and think\nclearly, to express himself eloquently. He must be absolutely true to\nthe best there is in him, if he has to stand alone.\n\nSuch natural powers as he may have should be cultivated by the study\nof history, science and literature. He must not only keep close to the\npeople but remember that he is one of them, and not above the meanest.\nHe must feel the wrongs of others so keenly that he forgets his own, and\nresolve to combat these wrongs with all the power at his command.\n\nThe most thrilling, inspiring oratory, the most powerful and\nimpressive eloquence is the voice of the disinherited, the oppressed,\nthe suffering and submerged; it is the voice of poverty and misery, of\nrags and crusts, of wretchedness and despair; the voice of humanity\ncrying to the infinite; the voice that resounds throughout the earth and\nreaches Heaven; the voice that awakens the conscience of a race and\nproclaims the truths that fill the world with life and liberty and love.\n\n                                        --EUGENE V. DEBS.\n\n\n\n\n                    FOREWORD\n\n\nEvery generation has added a little to the store of truth of which the\nhuman race has possessed itself throughout the long sweep of the\ncenturies. Every truth expressed and preserved by those who lived in the\npast, is a contribution which enriches the lives of those who live in\nthe present. We, as members of the human race, are not separate atoms\nindependent of the universe, but we are atoms of it. We are the product\nof all time, and partake of the truth of all preceding generations, in\nwhich the power to express ideas and preserve them has existed.\n\nOne reason why the race has not profited more largely by the discoveries\nof previous generations, is the fact that we feel so profoundly the\ndiscovery of a truth of any nature, that we are prone to dogmatize it by\na rule or set of rules.\n\nThis usually results in shutting away from us the real principle of\nwhich the rule is but an evidence. A mechanic may learn every detail of\nevery rule for the construction of a steam engine, but if he lacks the\nunderstanding of the principles which give rise to the rules, they will\navail nothing and his work must fail. If, however, he understands the\nprinciples involved, his work will stand the test, though he has no\nknowledge of rules as such.\n\nIn teaching the English language, the rules have been stressed, while\nthe principles have been submerged, so that the teaching of rules has\nnot resulted in the improvement of the student.\n\nThe People's College, realizing this, has, through the author of this\nwork, revolutionized the teaching of the fundamental principles that\nunderlie the use of language. The stress is laid upon principles instead\nof rules, so that the student, whether he remember a rule or not, will\nnever forget the application of these principles to the use of the\nwritten and spoken word.\n\nThe assertion is ventured that no more practical and effective method\ncan be devised for the rapid and thorough teaching of these principles.\nMoreover, the importance of this new departure in method cannot be\nover-estimated, when we consider that only through the use of language\ncan information be disseminated concerning other branches of learning.\nThis science, then, lies at the very base of all real education, and a\nmastery of it puts the student in possession of the only weapon by means\nof which he may master all other sciences.\n\nThe author has, with peculiar aptitude, grasped the fundamental\ncharacter of the foregoing facts and has adapted the study of language\nto the real principles involved. All the dry rules that are the\nwitnesses of principles in the ordinary text are done away, while the\nprinciples evidenced by those rules come forth to the light in practical\napplication, with a beauty of expression and a real utility that render\nthe mastery of the subject an entertaining excursion into the realms of\nlearning, rather than a dry imprisonment of the faculties in an effort\nto memorize misunderstood rules without apparent reason or real use.\n\nIt is the principle behind the rule that has power in it. When this is\nunderstood, the method pursued by the author in this course will be\nuniversally applied to all branches of learning, and will end forever\nthe imprisonment of children for the useless worship of rules.\n\nThe author's grasp of this fact and the exemplification of it, contained\nin this work are even more far-reaching than the foregoing would\nindicate. It really means the application of a new viewpoint to life\nitself. It means the questioning of the utility of authority; the\nquestioning of the utility of institutions; the application, we might\nsay, of such a test as this: Does any rule, does any authority, does any\nprinciple, conserve the interests of humanity? If not, away with it.\nThis means rationalism, the use of common sense. It means that at last\nthe race is beginning to consciously direct its own destiny.\n\nIt is with a profound sense of the necessity of education as a part of\nthe evolutionary process now in the conscious grasp of the race, and\nwith a conviction of the fundamental importance of the new viewpoint so\nably presented by the author that we dedicate this work \"To the\nEducation of the Workers by the Workers.\"\n\n                              THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.\n\n\n\n\n                    TABLE OF CONTENTS\n\n\n                    PLAIN ENGLISH\n\n          I.        Language Study                    9\n          II.       Nouns and Verbs                  18\n          III.      Parts of Speech                  27\n          IV.       Nouns                            38\n          V.        Verbs                            50\n          VI.       Inflection of Verbs              58\n          VII.      Time Forms of Verbs              69\n          VIII.     Time Forms, Cont'd.              78\n          IX.       Participles and Infinitives      88\n          X.        Helping Verbs                    97\n          XI.       Verbs--Common Errors            106\n          XII.      Pronouns                        115\n          XIII.     Pronouns, Cont'd.               127\n          XIV.      Adjectives                      138\n          XV.       Adjectives, Cont'd.             148\n          XVI.      Adverbs                         160\n          XVII.     Adverbs, Cont'd.                169\n          XVIII.    Prepositions                    179\n          XIX.      Prepositions, Cont'd.           189\n          XX.       Conjunctions                    200\n          XXI.      Conjunctions, Cont'd.           212\n          XXII.     Adjective Clauses               222\n          XXIII.    Independent Constructions       232\n          XXIV.     Sentence Building               243\n          XXV.      Sentence Analysis               255\n          XXVI.     Sentence Building               267\n          XXVII.    Sentence Building               278\n          XXVIII.   The Use of Capitals             288\n          XXIX.     Punctuation                     299\n          XXX.      Punctuation, Cont'd.            310\n\n\n                    SPELLING\n\n          I.        Definition                       17\n          II.       Vowels and Consonants            26\n          III.      Diacritical Marks                36\n          IV.       Digraphs                         49\n          V.        Diphthongs                       57\n          VI.       Syllabification                  68\n          VII.      Syllabification, Cont'd.         77\n          VIII.     Accent                           87\n          IX.       Compound Words                   96\n          X.        Prefixes and Suffixes           105\n          XI.       Derivatives                     114\n          XII.      Derivatives, Cont'd.            126\n          XIII.     Silent E                        137\n          XIV.      Words Ending in Y               146\n          XV.       Words with ei or ie             159\n          XVI.      Homonyms                        168\n          XVII.     Derivative Nouns                178\n          XVIII.    Verbs with Prepositions         187\n          XIX.      Derivative Prepositions         199\n          XX.       Derivative Adverbs              211\n          XXI.      Derivative Adjectives           221\n          XXII.     Words in able and ible          231\n          XXIII.    Simplified Spelling             241\n          XXIV.     Verbs with Suffixes             254\n          XXV.      Cognate Sounds                  265\n          XXVI.     Words beginning with dis        277\n          XXVII.    The prefixes in, un and mis     287\n          XXVIII.   Synonyms                        297\n          XXIX.     Antonyms                        308\n          XXX.      Common Errors                   320\n\n\n\n\n                    PLAIN ENGLISH\n\n                    Lesson I\n\n\n                    Open Letter\n\nDear Comrade:\n\nYou are beginning a course of study in the use of Plain English. We do\nnot know what your previous study may have been, but the object of this\ncourse is to give the basic principles and practice of the use of the\nEnglish Language for the benefit of those who have not had the\nopportunity of a high school education and possibly have not finished in\nthe grade school.\n\nFor this reason we have avoided, as much as possible, the statement of\nrules and formulas to be learned by rote and have made the few rules\nwhich it is necessary to know, grow naturally out of the need for them\nin the development of expression in language.\n\nWe have taken for granted several things in the preparation of this\ncourse. First, we assume that you have never studied grammar, or if you\nhave, that you will be glad to review it in simplified form. This course\ndoes not follow the lines laid down by technical grammarians. It has\nbeen worked out on the basis of plain, common sense. Our purpose is not\nto make of you a grammarian, versed in the knowledge of rules and\nreasons, but to give you the power to express yourself more readily,\nfluently and correctly--in other words to speak and write _good_\nEnglish.\n\nSecond, we assume that you are interested and willing to work and eager\nto increase your store of knowledge. Your progress in this branch of\nknowledge will depend, to a large extent, upon your own efforts. We have\nendeavored to avoid unnecessary and uninteresting rules and make the\ncourse as simple, clear and plain as possible; but that does not mean\nyou will not have to work in order to master this study. We trust it\nwill be pleasant and interesting work, bringing you joy as it brings you\na growing sense of power.\n\nProbably no two people will use the same plan of work. Your work, to be\na pleasure, must express your own individuality. However, we want to\nmake a few suggestions which we know from experience you will find\nhelpful.\n\n+1st.+ +Be Systematic.+ Find some time each day which you can regularly\nspend in study. Do not be discouraged if it is only fifteen minutes each\nday. The student who will spend fifteen minutes every day regularly in\nintensive study can easily complete this course within the prescribed\ntime.\n\n+2d.+ +Concentrate.+ By this we mean that when you study, you should do\nit to the exclusion of everything else. Keep your mind upon the subject.\nYou may find this difficult at first. Your mind will wander; but you\nwill soon acquire the student habit if you persevere.\n\n+3d.+ +Have Faith in Yourself.+ Do not be easily discouraged. You have\nthe power to master this subject and _you will_. You will find it of\nimmeasurable value to you to be able to speak and write fluently and\ncorrectly. Those whom you admire for their ready use of good English\nwere not born with the \"gift of gab.\" They learned how to speak by\nstudying the rules of grammar, the meaning of words, just as you are\nstudying them. What they have done, _you will do_.\n\n+4th.+ +Go Slowly and Surely.+ Do not skim through these lessons. Be\nsure you understand thoroughly as you go along. Read carefully and\n_think_ for yourself. If there is anything you do not understand at any\ntime, write us and ask about it. These lessons have been carefully\nprepared and are for your benefit. Make them yours and call upon us\nfreely for help. This is your College and its only ideal is service.\n\n+5th.+ +Get a Note-Book.+ Make your note-book your work-shop. Write in\nit an outline of each lesson. Fill it with notes, examples, anything\nwhich is of interest on the subject. Note down your own frequent\nmistakes in the use of English. Watch the conversation of your friends;\nlisten to good speakers. Write down the mistakes you notice. Whenever\nyou hear a word which seems particularly good, or when you see one in\nyour reading, write it in your note-book and make it part of your\nvocabulary. You will find your interest continually growing and also\nyour ability to express the thoughts you yearn to express.\n\nIf we can bring to you an increasing joy in life because of a growing\npower of expression; if we can enlarge your ability to serve the world;\nif we can, through the study of this wonderful language of ours, open\nwider the door of opportunity for you,--our comrade,--The People's\nCollege will have served its purpose and realized its ideal.\n\n                    Yours for Education,\n\n                              THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.\n\n\n                    GOOD ENGLISH--WHAT IS IT?\n\n+1.+ People seem to differ in their idea as to what constitutes \"Good\nEnglish.\" Have you never seen a man suddenly called upon to make a\nformal speech or introduced into the company of distinguished men and\nwomen? Quite often, he will drop his simple every-day mode of speech and\nspeak in stilted, unnatural language, using all the \"big\" words he can\npossibly remember. He no doubt fondly imagines he is making an\nimpression and using \"good\" English.\n\nThe purpose of language is to make one's self understood, and, of\ncourse, this can be done in very simple and crude English. The man who\nbreaks every rule of grammar, intersperses his remarks with every\nvariety of slang phrase, may make himself understood, but he is not\nusing _good_ English.\n\n+2.+ +Good English is that which is good for its purpose and conforms to\nthe standards of usage.+\n\nWe have one purpose when we write a business letter and quite another\nwhen we are writing or speaking of the great issues of life. There is a\nplace for the simple, direct, plain, unadorned language of every-day\nbusiness life--the life of the work-a-day world--and there is a place\nalso for the beauty and charm of the language of poetry. If we are\ntalking with the man who works beside us of the work of the day, we will\nnaturally use plain, simple, forceful words. But, if we are speaking to\nour comrades, striving to arouse them out of their lethargy, to stir\nthem to action as men and women, we will just as naturally use the fine\nand noble words which touch the depths of human emotion--the heights of\nhuman endeavor.\n\n+3.+ There are certain rules for the use of English which have grown up\nthrough the years, to which we must conform. These are not arbitrary.\nThey have not been made by any man or any set of men. In fact, they are\nconstantly changing, as the common usage of the people forces the\nchanges. For these rules are only the expression of the common usage,\nand as usage changes, the rules change.\n\nBut these changes come slowly, so we can set down in a book the rules\nwhich express the established usage of today. The ability to use good\nEnglish does not mean the ability to use long, high-sounding words. To\nbe a master of good English means to be able to use the word that meets\nyour need and use it correctly.\n\nDo not strive for _effect_, strive for _effective expression_.\n\n\n                    USE YOUR DICTIONARY\n\n+4.+ Do you know that the average individual <DW36>s through life with\na vocabulary of a few hundred words when he might easily have at his\ncommand as many thousands?\n\nWe are misers with our words. Here hid away in this book we call the\ndictionary is a wealth of words, a rich mine of expression, and yet in\nour every-day conversation we halt and stammer, using meaningless words\nand phrases largely made up of current slang.\n\nNever let a word pass by that you do not understand thoroughly. Look it\nup at once in your dictionary and master it then and there. Dollars may\nbe difficult to earn and more difficult to keep, but here is a wealth\neasily gained and the more you use it the more you possess it.\n\nYou will find your dictionary an exceedingly interesting book when you\nget acquainted with it.\n\nUse it constantly; make it your familiar companion.\n\n\n                    OUR LANGUAGE\n\n+5.+ Did you ever stop to think what the world would be if we had no way\nof communicating, one with another? Think of Helen Keller, shut up in\nher prison-house of silence. Her only mode of communication with her\nfellows is through the sense of touch.\n\nEvery form of life that has consciousness has some way of expressing its\nfeelings. Every animal, by the movements of its body or the tones of its\nvoice, expresses its emotions of pain, pleasure, rage, hate, joy, hunger\nand the many passions that sway its life. The child knows without being\ntaught how to express its wants. We understand its cry of hunger, its\nscream of pain, its laugh of delight. This is the natural language, the\nlanguage of feeling. It is the universal language that needs no rules\nand no interpreter. Life on every plane knows and understands it.\n\n\n                    WHEN WE BEGIN TO THINK\n\n+6.+ Our feelings and desires are not the only things we wish to\ncommunicate. The natural language satisfies a child for a time, but as\nthe child grows he begins to _think_, then he feels the need of a more\neffective means of expressing himself. You can express your feelings to\na certain extent by the natural language. You can make one know that you\nare glad by the expression of the face, the attitude of the body or the\ntone of the voice. But could you make anyone understand _why_ you are\nglad, by these signs and gestures?\n\n+7.+ To express thoughts and ideas, man had to devise another sort of\nlanguage. So the language of _words_ grew up out of the need to\ncommunicate ideas to other people. As man's ability to think grew, so\nhis language grew. At first, this language was only a spoken language.\nThe ideas of one generation were handed down to the next by the spoken\nword. Gradually a crude form of writing was invented from which our\nwritten language has developed. This has made it possible to put the\nwisdom of the ages into books for the benefit of the world.\n\n+8.+ +Hence, language is the means of expressing thought and feeling.+\nIt has grown out of our need for expression.\n\n+A word is a symbol of an idea.+ It is a sound or combination of sounds\nwhich we use to represent an idea. The use of words makes it possible\nfor us to readily convey our thoughts to other people.\n\nThrough the medium of words we are able to communicate to others our\nthoughts, not only of the external world about us, but also of the\nmental world in which we live. We can tell of our loves, our hates, our\ndreams and our ideals. Animals find the natural language of looks and\ntones and gestures sufficient because they live almost wholly upon the\nphysical plane. But man lives in a mental world as well as in a physical\none, and must have a spoken and written language by which to express his\nthoughts.\n\n\n                    Exercise 1\n\nSelect from the following sentences those which it is possible to\nexpress by a look or tone or gesture, and those which can not be\nexpressed without words:\n\n   1. I am glad.\n   2. I am glad because men are struggling for freedom.\n   3. I am hungry.\n   4. I am hungry for the chance for an education.\n   5. Come.\n   6. Come, let us reason together.\n   7. I am afraid.\n   8. I am afraid that we must wait long for peace.\n   9. Go.\n  10. Go, search the world over for the truth.\n  11. I am disgusted.\n  12. I am disgusted with those who will not think for themselves.\n  13. I am tired.\n  14. I am tired of these petty squabbles among comrades.\n\n\n                    OUR EXPRESSION\n\n+9.+ Our knowledge of language opens up a new world to us. We\ncan communicate with those about us; we can open the storehouse of\nthe knowledge of the past as recorded in books, or as two of our writers\nhave expressed it:\n\n  Have you ever rightly considered what the mere ability to read\n  means--that it is the key which admits to the world of thought and\n  fancy and imagination--to the company of saint and sage, of the\n  wisest and wittiest at their wisest and wittiest moments--that it\n  enables us to see with the keenest eyes, hear with the finest ears\n  and listen to the sweetest voices of all time?--_Lowell_.\n\n  Strip man of his books and his papers, and he becomes a mere slave,\n  ignorant of his own resources, ignorant of his rights and\n  opportunities. The difference between the free citizen of today and\n  the savage of yesterday is almost entirely a thing of books. The man\n  who dislikes books can never be entirely happy, and he who loves a\n  good book can never be wholly miserable.--_Hillis_.\n\nHave you never felt that struggle within and the sense of defeat when\nyou have tried to make some one feel as you feel, understand as you\nunderstand, see some great truth as you see it, and could not find the\nwords with which to express your ideas?\n\n+10.+ The mastery of words gives; first, _the ability to understand the\nspoken or written thoughts of others_; second, _the ability to\nadequately express our own thoughts_; and third, _the ability to think\nclearly and to grow in our intellectual life_.\n\nA connected chain of reasoning is impossible without the knowledge of\nthe words that express the development of the ideas and the varying\nshades of meaning. To gain this mastery, you must know the words of our\nlanguage and their use. Words are the symbols of ideas and perform\ncertain functions in expressing our thoughts. This, simply stated, is\nall that the study of English Grammar comprises--_the study of English\nwords and their use in the expression of thought and feeling_.\n\n\n                    THE THOUGHT AND THE WORD\n\n+11.+ We have found that the invention of words grew out of the ability\nto _think_ and the need for expression. But we first _thought_! So, in\norder to express yourself clearly you must first _think_ clearly. Any\nthought can be simply and clearly expressed. When you read something\ndifficult of understanding, where the thought is buried under an\navalanche of words, you can be assured the writer was not thinking\nclearly. He did not have the perfect mastery of his thought. On the\nother hand, one may have a valuable thought in mind and not be able to\nexpress it because he does not have the words at his command. In the one\ncase, we have words and no idea; in the other, the idea and no words.\n\nThis study is intended to enable you to master words, the tools of\nexpression. In whatever work you are engaged, it was first necessary to\nlearn to use the tools with which you work. So, you must master the use\nof English words, the tools of your expression. You can in that way\nlearn to express your thoughts clearly and exactly. You will not need to\nresort to slang, or to the tiresome repetition of a few words.\n\nThe best of everything is none too good for you. It is your right, your\nheritage, and the best in the English language will bring you into the\ncompany and comradeship of the men and women who have striven and toiled\nfor humanity, who will talk to you of dreams and deeds worth while, who\nwill place in your hands the key to a new world.\n\n\n                    A COMPLETE THOUGHT\n\n+12.+ When we want to express a thought we use more than one word. Words\nare the symbols of ideas, but a thought is the expression of the\nrelation between ideas. For example, I say _man_, and you get an idea or\nan image in your mind of a man, but I have not said anything about any\nman. But if I say, _Man works_, then I have expressed a thought. I have\nrelated the idea of a man and the idea of work and have expressed a\ncomplete thought.\n\nSo we express our thoughts by _groups of words_. The very smallest group\nof words which will express a complete thought must, therefore, contain\ntwo words. If I say _men_, _fire_, _flowers_, and stop, you wonder what\nI mean, for I have not expressed a thought. Or, I might say, _work_,\n_burns_, _bloom_, and you would still be in the dark as to my meaning;\nbut, when I say, _Men work_, _Fire burns_, _Flowers bloom_, you\nunderstand, for I have told you my complete thought. I have put two\nwords together in a way to make sense; I have formed a sentence.\n\n+13.+ If we say, _Go_ or _Wait_, in the form of a command or entreaty,\nthe single word seems to make complete sense and to form a sentence in\nitself. But this is only because _you_, who are to do the going or the\nwaiting, is clearly implied. The words _go_ or _wait_, by themselves, do\nnot make sense or form a sentence unless they are uttered in the\ncommanding or beseeching tone of voice which makes you understand that\n_You go_ or _You wait_ is the intended meaning. With the exception of\nwords used in this way as a command or entreaty, it is always necessary\nto use at least two words to express a complete thought.\n\nBut will any two words make a sentence--express a complete thought?\n\n+14.+ Which of these combinations of words are sentences and which are\nnot?\n\n  Busy men.\n  Men travel.\n  Snow flies.\n  Blue sky.\n  Red flag.\n  Rustling trees.\n  Workers strike.\n  Bees sting.\n  Grass grows.\n  Cold winds.\n  Green fields.\n  Happy children.\n\n_Busy men_ does not express a complete thought. We are wondering _busy\nmen do what?_ But, _men travel_ is a complete thought. It makes sense\nand forms a sentence, and tells us what men _do_. In the words, _busy\nmen_, we have spoken the name of something but have made no assertion\nconcerning it. In the two words, _men travel_, we have spoken the name\n_men_ and we have told what they _do_.\n\nIf we were walking down the street together we might say:\n\n  The street is crowded to-day.\n  Does the open road attract you?\n  See the jostling crowds.\n\nOr if we were discussing the class struggle, we might say:\n\n  Two classes have always existed.\n  To which class do you belong?\n  Join your class in the struggle.\n\nIn every one of these six groups of words we have a complete thought\nexpressed. Each of these groups of words we call a sentence.\n\n+15.+ +A sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought.+\n\n\n                    Exercise 2\n\nWrite in each blank space the word necessary to express a complete\nthought.\n\n  Men......        ......fade.\n\n  Leaves......     ......bloom.\n\n  Water......      ......run.\n\n  Fire......       ......write.\n\n  Women......      ......grow.\n\n  Children......   ......speak.\n\n\n                    SUBJECT AND PREDICATE\n\n+16.+ We have found that every sentence must have at least two words,\none word to name that about which something is said and another word\nwhich does the saying or makes the assertion. In the sentence, _Men\nwork_, we have these two parts; _men_ which is the part about which\nsomething is said, and _work_ which tells what men do.\n\n+The part about which something is said is called the subject.+\n\nIn this sentence, _Men work_, _men_, therefore, is the subject, for it\nnames that about which something is said.\n\n+17.+ +The part that asserts or says something about the subject is\ncalled the predicate.+\n\nTherefore in this sentence, _Men work_, _work_ is the predicate. In the\nfollowing sentences draw a single line under the subject and a double\nline under the predicate, thus, _~Birds~ =fly=_.\n\n  Ships sail.\n  Soldiers fight.\n  Flowers fade.\n  Horses neigh.\n  Flags wave.\n  Snow comes.\n  War rages.\n  Winds blow.\n  Fish swim.\n\n+18.+ We may add other words to the subject or the predicate and so\nenlarge their meaning, as for instance we may say:\n\n  The stately ships sail proudly away.\n  The war in Europe rages furiously.\n  The soldiers in the army fight like men gone mad.\n\nYet in every one of these sentences you will find the subject and the\npredicate,--_Ships sail_, _War rages_, _Soldiers fight_.\n\nEvery sentence must have a subject and a predicate, and it is a very\nimportant part of the study of sentences to be able to distinguish\nquickly and readily the subject and the predicate. Find that about which\nsomething is said, and that will always be the subject. Find that which\nis said about the subject, and that will be the predicate.\n\n+Every sentence must contain a subject and a predicate.+\n\n+The subject of a sentence names that about which something is said.+\n\n+The predicate tells that which is said about the subject.+\n\n\n                    Exercise 3\n\nIn the following sentences add other words to the subject and to the\npredicate to enlarge their meaning, then draw a single line under the\nsubject and a double line under the predicate:\n\n  Ships sail.\n  Tides flow.\n  Stars shine.\n  Rain falls.\n  Children play.\n  Nature sleeps.\n  Waves break.\n  War rages.\n  Birds sing.\n\n\n                    Exercise 4\n\nIn the following sentences the subject and the predicate have other\nwords added to enlarge their meaning. Find the subject and predicate and\ndraw a single line under the subject and a double line under the\npredicate, as in the sentence,\n\n  _The ~workers~ of the world =build= palaces for other people._\n\n  1. Our success lies in solidarity.\n  2. New occasions teach new duties.\n  3. Two classes exist in the world.\n  4. Labor creates all wealth.\n  5. The workers fight all battles.\n  6. Our time calls for earnest deeds.\n  7. Knowledge unlocks the door of life.\n  8. Ignorance bars the path to progress.\n  9. Few people think for themselves.\n  10. Hope stirs us to action.\n\n\n\n\n                    SPELLING\n\n                    LESSON 1\n\n\n+Spelling is the process of naming or writing in proper order the\nletters of a word.+ There is nothing that marks us so quickly as lacking\nin the qualities that go to make up a good education as our inability to\nspell the words most commonly used.\n\nSpelling in English is rather difficult. If each letter represented but\none sound, spelling would be an easy matter. Every word would be spelled\njust as it sounds. This is the goal of those who advocate phonetic\nspelling. Phonetic spelling simply means spelling according to sound.\nBut our alphabet does not have a letter for every sound.\n\nThere are some forty-two different sounds used in English words and we\nhave only twenty-six letters in the alphabet. Therefore some letters\nmust do duty for several sounds. Then we have words which contain\nletters which are not sounded at all when the word is pronounced, so,\nall in all, spelling is a matter of memorizing.\n\nThe best way to become an accurate speller is to read much, to observe\nclosely the forms of words and to write frequently. Always spell any\nword of which you are uncertain aloud several times and write it out\nseveral times. In this way you have aided the memory both through the\neye and through the ear. If you are not sure of the spelling of a word\ndo not use it until you have looked it up in the dictionary and made\nsure.\n\nThe words in this lesson are taken out of Lesson 1, Plain English\nCourse. There are thirty in all, five for each day of the week. (1) Look\nup the meaning in the dictionary. (2) Learn the correct spelling. (3)\nLearn the correct pronunciation. (4) Use the word in a sentence of your\nown construction. (5) Use it during the day in your conversation; strive\nto make it a part of your working vocabulary.\n\n  +Monday+\n\n    Mode\n    English\n    Grammar\n    Expression\n    Complete\n\n  +Tuesday+\n\n    Language\n    Emotion\n    Group\n    Mastery\n    Dictionary\n\n  +Wednesday+\n\n    Thought\n    Symbol\n    Ability\n    Idea\n    Knowledge\n\n  +Thursday+\n\n    Subject\n    Predicate\n    Vocabulary\n    Practice\n    History\n\n  +Friday+\n\n    Memory\n    Sentence\n    Write\n    Right\n    Purpose\n\n  +Saturday+\n\n    Propose\n    Growth\n    Learn\n    Teach\n    Pronounce\n\n\n\n\n                    PLAIN ENGLISH\n\n                    LESSON 2\n\n\nDear Comrade:\n\nReview Lesson 1 before taking up this lesson. Do not try\nto learn by rote the contents of these lessons. Our endeavor is to make\nyou see the reason for every rule and definition before they are given.\nWe want you to see unfolding before you the development of language and\nthrough this evolution you can catch a glimpse of the developing life of\nman. Language like customs, religion, government, has grown with the\neconomic advancement of man. As man has evolved on the economic plane,\nthe material plane, as he has improved his means of providing for\nhimself food and clothes and shelter, he has developed a language suited\nto his needs.\n\nSo we can trace the growth of the race as we study the development of\nlanguage from the sign language of the primitive savage to the language\nof the philosopher of today by which he makes known to us the story of\nthe stars, and the innermost secrets of our hearts and minds.\nCivilization began with the invention of the phonetic alphabet and the\nuse of writing. So the study of language becomes not a dull and stupid\nconning of useless rules and formulas, but an absorbing study of a\nliving, growing, changing thing that mirrors forth the very life of man.\n\nThink while you study. As you look for the definition of words in your\ndictionary and realize how many shades of meaning we can express in\nwords, remember that this power is a heritage that comes to us from a\nlong past of incessant struggle.\n\nWe of to-day are also writing history in words. By our efforts we are\nadding new words to the language and giving old words a richer meaning.\n_Brotherhood_, _justice_, for example! The world is coming to understand\nthese glorious words more fully and giving them a new interpretation.\n\nYou will see a new beauty and glory in words after you have finished\nthis course and you will have a mastery of this wonderful language of\nours.\n\nWatch carefully the use of words in your reading. Especially this week\ndistinguish the nouns and verbs. Use your dictionary constantly and add\na few words to your vocabulary every day.\n\nWhenever there is a word used in these lessons which you do not\nthoroughly understand, look it up at once in your dictionary and master\nit then and there. Make a list in your note book of the words you look\nup and at the end of the week go over them again and see if you have\nthem clearly in mind. Watch also the pronunciation of the words. Do not\ntry to do everything all at once, nor should you be discouraged if your\nprogress seems slow. We approach the goal one step at a time and each\nstep takes us nearer and nearer. Just keep steadily at it, Comrade.\n\n                    Yours for Education,\n\n                              THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.\n\n\n                    KINDS OF SENTENCES\n\n+19.+ We have found that we use sentences to express our thoughts. But\nwe also find that we use these sentences in different ways for different\npurposes. Can you notice any difference in the following sentences?\n\n  Two classes have always existed.\n  To which class do you belong?\n  Join your class in the struggle.\n\nWhen I say, _Two classes have always existed_, I am making a simple\nassertion, stating what I know or believe to be true.\n\nWhen I say, _To which class do you belong?_ I am asking a question.\n\nWhen I say, _Join your class in the struggle_, I am giving a command or\nmaking a request.\n\n+20.+ +These three kinds of sentences are called assertive,\ninterrogative and imperative.+\n\n+An assertive sentence states a fact or an opinion.+\n\n+An interrogative sentence asks a question.+\n\n+An imperative sentence gives a command, makes a request or\nexpresses a wish.+\n\n+21.+ Any of these three kinds of sentences may be exclamatory; that is,\nit may express surprise, excitement, impatience, or some other emotion.\nFor example:\n\n  Hurrah! Freedom is coming!\n\nThis is an assertion expressed as an exclamation.\n\n  Oh! Why should war continue?\n\nHere we have a question in the form of an exclamation.\n\n  Come! Keep your courage up.\n\nIn this, we have a command, an imperative sentence, expressed in the\nform of an exclamation.\n\n+An exclamatory sentence expresses surprise, excitement or some other\nemotion.+\n\nIn these three forms of sentences, the assertive, the interrogative and\nthe imperative, together with the exclamatory, we are able to express\nevery thought and feeling which demands expression, either for practical\nor artistic purposes.\n\nThe sentence is the basis of spoken and written language and as we trace\nits development we trace the history of the evolution of man and the\ngrowth of his power of expression, as he has developed his powers of\nmind.\n\n+22.+ +Every sentence must begin with a capital letter.+\n\n+Every assertive and imperative sentence should end with a period.+\n\n+Every interrogative sentence should end with a question mark.+\n\nThe word in an exclamatory sentence which expresses strong emotion is\nfollowed by an exclamation point. The sentence itself if in\ninterrogative form should be followed by a question mark; if in the\nassertive or the imperative form it may be followed either by an\nexclamation point or a period.\n\n\n                    Exercise 1\n\nMark the assertive sentences among the following with an _a_ in the\nblank space. Mark the interrogative sentences with a _q_ for question;\nthe imperative sentences with a _c_ for command; and the exclamatory\nwith an _e_ for exclamation.\n\n   1. ...... Books are the true levelers.\n   2. ...... Put not your trust in princes.\n   3. ...... To err is human; to forgive divine.\n   4. ...... What are the rights of a child?\n   5. ...... Seize common occasions and make them great.\n   6. ...... Not until all are free, is any free.\n   7. ...... Freemen! Shall not we demand our own?\n   8. ...... Is a world of happiness but a Utopian dream?\n   9. ...... He who will not work, shall not eat.\n  10. ...... Strike at the polls for freedom!\n  11. ...... Do the majority want social justice?\n  12. ...... A friend is the hope of the heart.\n  13. ...... How beautiful is the vision of peace!\n  14. ...... Acquire the thinking habit.\n  15. ...... Is it glorious to die for our country?\n  16. ...... Lo! Women are waking and claiming their own!\n  17. ...... Claim your right to the best.\n  18. ...... What is the highest good?\n  19. ...... Workers of the world, unite!\n  20. ...... To remain ignorant is to remain a slave.\n\n\n                    WORDS--THEIR USES\n\n+23.+ We have learned from our study that we use sentences to express\nour thoughts. These sentences are made up of words; therefore we call\nwords _parts of speech_. Words are only fractions or parts of speech,\nand it is by combining them into sentences that we are able to express\nour thoughts.\n\nThere are many thousands of words in the English language. It would be\nimpossible for us to study each word separately. But these words, like\npeople, are divided into classes, so we can study each class of words.\nThese thousands of words are divided into classes much as people are, or\nrather as people ought to be; for words are divided into classes\naccording to the work which they do. In the Industrial Commonwealth\nthere will be no upper or lower class, but men will be divided into\ngroups according to the work which they do. There will be various\nindustrial groups, groups of agricultural workers, groups of clerical\nworkers, etc. So words are divided into classes according to the work\nwhich they do in helping us to express our ideas.\n\n+24.+ +Words are divided into kinds or classes according to their use in\nsentences.+\n\n+There are eight of these classes of words, called parts of speech.+\n\n\n                    THE NAMES OF THINGS\n\n+25.+ What a word _does_ determines what part of speech it is. When\nprimitive man, long ago, first began to use words, in all probability\nthe first words which he invented were those used to name familiar\nobjects about him. He invented a word for _man_, _boy_, _tree_,\n_animal_, etc. Gradually, all the things he met in his daily life\nreceived a name. About one half of the words in our language are of this\nclass, the _names_ of things.\n\nEvery word which is used as a name of something is called a _noun_. This\nword _noun_ is derived from the Latin word which means _name_, so it is\nquite the same thing as saying _name_. Notice the following sentences:\n\n  Boys run.\n  Fish swim.\n  Horses neigh.\n  Soldiers march.\n  Flags wave.\n  Flowers fade.\n  Girls study.\n  Winds blow.\n  Men work.\n\nAll of the words used like _boys_, _girls_, _fish_, _horses_,\n_soldiers_, _flag_, _winds_, _flowers_ and _men_, are the names of\nobjects, therefore all of these words are _nouns_. The subject of a\nsentence is always a noun or a word used as a noun. However, we may use\nin a sentence many nouns besides the noun which is used as the subject,\nthe noun about which the statement is made. We will study the use of\nthese nouns later in our lessons.\n\n_The famous palace of the kings of the Moors, at Granada, in Spain, was\ncalled the Alhambra._ We have six nouns in this sentence, _palace_,\n_kings_, _Moors_, _Granada_, _Spain_ and _Alhambra_, but the noun\n_palace_ is the noun which is the subject--the noun which is the name of\nthat about which something is said. _Palace_ is the subject; and _was\ncalled_ is the predicate in this sentence.\n\n+26.+ +A noun is a word used as the name of something.+\n\nNow we want to learn to distinguish every word that is used as a name.\nPick out the nouns as you read your books and papers until you are able\nto tell every word which is used as a noun, the name of something.\n\nIn the following paragraph, the nouns are printed in italics. Carefully\nstudy these nouns:\n\nThe _fire_ in the _grate_, the _lamp_ by the _bedside_, the _water_ in\nthe _tumbler_, the _fly_ on the _ceiling_ above, the _flower_ in the\n_vase_ on the _table_, all _things_ have their _history_ and can reveal\nto us _nature's_ invisible _forces_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 2\n\nUnderscore every noun in the following quotation:\n\n  The whole history of the earth has been one of gradual development, of\n  progress, of slow and painful climbing through the ages. Not only have\n  the hills and the mountains, the rivers and the stars, the trees and\n  the cattle, the beasts and the birds, been developing; but man\n  himself--his mind and his body--has been developing. Men are marvelous\n  little creatures; they have weighed the sun in their balances,\n  measured the stars and analyzed the light and beauty of the rainbow;\n  they have sounded the depths of the ocean; they have learned how the\n  sun and the mountains were born and the rivers were laid in their\n  mighty beds; they have learned how the seas became salt, what the\n  stars are made of. They have learned so much, and yet when it comes to\n  matters of time and space, and law and motion, they still know so\n  little. The only man who is conscious of his ignorance is he who has\n  learned a great deal.--_McMillan_.\n\n\n                    WORDS THAT ASSERT\n\n+27.+ After the primitive man had invented names for the things about\nhim, probably his next step was to invent words of action. He very\nnaturally wanted to tell what all of these various things _did_. So the\nwords that tell what things do, the words of action, the words that\nassert, came into the language. A child follows much the same\ndevelopment. As you can readily observe, it first names the objects\nabout it, then learns the words that tell what these objects do.\n\nSo the words that tell what things _do_, become the second class of\nwords. These words we call _verbs_. The word _verb_, like the word\n_noun_, is taken into our language from the Latin. In Latin, the word\n_verbum_ means _the word_; and the verb is practically _the_ word in a\nsentence, for we cannot have a sentence without a verb. You may string a\nnumber of words together, but if you do not have an asserting word, you\nwill not have a sentence.\n\nNotice the following sentences:\n\n  Men work.\n  Flowers fade.\n  Snow flies.\n  Winds blow.\n\nIn these sentences, the words _work_, _fade_, _flies_ and _blow_, are\nthe words used to assert or say something of the subject, hence they are\nthe verbs in these sentences.\n\n+28.+ Sometimes it takes more than one word to express the action or\nmake the assertion. Notice the following sentences:\n\n  The men are working.\n  The boy has been studying.\n\nIn the first sentence it takes two words, _are working_, to make the\nassertion; in the second, three are required, _has been studying_. These\ngroups of words are called _verb phrases_.\n\n+29.+ +A verb is a word that asserts.+\n\n+A verb phrase is a group of words used as a single verb.+\n\nThe verb is perhaps the most difficult part of speech to master. It is\nnot hard to find the verb in short sentences, but in longer sentences it\nis sometimes difficult.\n\nFor example:\n\n  The sun shines.\n  The man walks.\n  The boys strike.\n\nWe very easily see that _shine_, _walk_ and _strike_ are the verbs in\nthese sentences. But let us add other words, as for example:\n\n  The sun shines brightly.\n  The man walks for his health.\n  The boys strike the dog.\n\nNow we are very apt to confuse the verb with the words which state _how_\nand _why_ the action is performed, or the _object_ towards which the\naction is directed. But in these sentences, _shine_ and _walks_ and\n_strike_ are still the verbs, just as in the first sentences. The verb\nasserts the action; the other words merely give additional information\nabout _how_ or _why_ or _upon what_ the action is performed.\n\n+30.+ Another thing which makes it difficult for us to distinguish verbs\nin English is that the same word may be used both as a noun and as a\nverb; but always remember that words are separated into classes\naccording to the work which they do. When a word is used as a _name_ it\nis a _noun_; when it is used as an _asserting_ word it is a _verb_. Note\nthe following sentences:\n\n  The _play_ made the child tired.\n  The children _play_ in the yard.\n\nIn the first sentence _play_ is a noun, the subject of the verb _made_.\nIn the second sentence _play_ is the verb, telling what the children\n_do_. Always classify words according to the work which they perform in\nthe sentence. This will help you very much in finding your verb.\n\n+31.+ Then we have some verbs which do not assert action but express\nrather a connection or relation between the subject and some other word\nor words. For example:\n\n  The dog belongs to the man.\n  The girl is happy.\n\nIn these sentences _belongs_ and _is_ are the verbs. _Belongs_ asserts\nor shows the relation between _the dog_ and _the man_. _Is_ shows the\nrelation between _the girl_ and _happy_. If we simply say _girl_ and\n_happy_, we do not show any connection between them or make any\nstatement relating the two, but when we say, _The girl is happy_, we are\nasserting something, and the word _is_ makes the assertion.\n\nOr when we say, _The girl was happy_, or _The girl will be_ or _may be\nhappy_, in each of these cases, it is the verb or verb phrase _was_ or\n_will be_ or _may be_, that asserts or shows the relation between the\nsubject _girl_ and the descriptive word _happy_. You will observe that\nthe verbs _will be_ and _may be_ are composed of more than one word and\nare _verb phrases_.\n\nWe will study the verb in succeeding lessons, but let us remember from\nthis lesson that the word or group of words that makes the assertion in\nthe sentence is the verb. Remember too that every sentence must contain\na verb.\n\nGet this basic principle firmly fixed in mind that what a word _does_\ndecides what it _is_--to what part of speech it belongs, and that every\nclass of words fulfills its own function in sentence building.\n\n+32.+ Remember:--\n\n+Every sentence must have a subject and a predicate.+\n\n+Every sentence must express a complete thought.+\n\n+Every sentence must contain a verb.+\n\n+A noun is the name of something.+\n\n+A verb is a word that asserts.+\n\n+What a word does determines what it is.+\n\nStudy carefully the following quotation. The verbs are printed in\n_italics_.\n\n  Slowly, painfully, _proceeds_ the struggle of man against the power of\n  Mammon. The past _is written_ in tears and blood. The future _is_ dim\n  and unknown, but the final outcome of this world-wide struggle _is_\n  not in doubt. Freedom _will conquer_ slavery, truth _will prevail_\n  over error, justice _will triumph_ over injustice, the light _will\n  vanquish_ the darkness; and humanity _will rise_ in the glory of\n  universal brotherhood.--_Warren_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 3\n\nUnderscore all verbs and verb phrases in the following quotation:\n\n+The Dream of Labor+: Ours is not the cause of one class, of one sex, of\none tribe, of one city, of one state, of one continent.\n\nIt is the wish for a better world where Man shall be Man; where the\nbeast shall become subdued; where everything shall lead to complete\ndevelopment; where the good of each shall be bound up in the good of\nall; where all shall feel the sorrows of each and shall run to his\nrescue.\n\nA glimpse of this ideal takes us into the Land of Promise, where peace\nand plenty shall reign supreme; where brothers shall no longer battle\namong themselves, but for one another; where the atmosphere shall be\nladen with love, the love that saves; where the hate that kills shall be\nunknown; where heart and brain shall work together and shall make life\nbetter and more complete; where the fullness of life shall be for all\nand where men and women shall be as happy at their work as little\nchildren at their play.\n\nThe mere glimpse into that land makes life worth living, makes work\nworth doing, makes dreams worth dreaming, gives us hope and faith--the\nfaith we need in the labor for our cause, the faith which shall help us\nwin.--_Oscar Leonard_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 4\n\nWe have found that there are a number of words in English which may be\nused either as nouns or verbs, depending upon the function they serve in\nthe sentence. In the following sentences underscore the nouns with a\nsingle line, the verbs with two lines:\n\n  1. They _man_ the boats.\n  2. The _man_ has a boat.\n  3. The women _pass_ this way.\n  4. They held the _pass_ for hours.\n  5. Little children _work_ in the mines.\n  6. The _work_ of the world is done by machinery today.\n  7. The armies will _cross_ the bridge.\n  8. He built a _cross_ of rude stones.\n  9. The leopard cannot _change_ its spots.\n  10. We will force a _change_ in the law.\n\n\n                    Exercise 5\n\nIn the following poem, mark every noun and every verb and verb phrase.\nYou will find the verb phrases in several places divided by the word\n_not_, as in _I do not obey_. _Do obey_ is the verb phrase. We will\nlearn to what part of speech _not_ belongs a little later.\n\n          I DO NOT OBEY, I THINK.\n\n    \"Captain, what do you think,\" I asked,\n      \"Of the part your soldiers play?\"\n    The Captain answered, \"I do not think--\n      I do not think, I obey.\"\n\n    \"Do you think your conscience was meant to die,\n      And your brains to rot away?\"\n    The Captain answered, \"I do not think--\n      I do not think, I obey.\"\n\n    \"Do you think you should shoot a patriot down,\n      And help a tyrant slay?\"\n    The Captain answered, \"I do not think--\n      I do not think, I obey.\"\n\n    \"Then if this is your soldier's code,\" I cried,\n      \"You're a mean, unmanly crew;\n    And with all your feathers and gilt and braid,\n      I am more of a man than you;\n\n    \"For whatever my lot on earth may be\n      And whether I swim or sink,\n    I can say with pride, 'I do not obey--\n      I do not obey, I think.'\"\n\n                    --_Ernest Crosby_.\n\n\n\n\n                    SPELLING\n\n                    LESSON 2\n\n\nThe twenty-six letters in the English alphabet are divided into vowels\nand consonants. A vowel is a letter which represents a sound of the\nhuman voice but slightly interrupted by the vocal organs. The vowels are\n_a_, _e_, _i_, _o_ and _u_. All of the remaining letters of the alphabet\nare consonants. A consonant is a letter which represents a sound of the\nhuman voice greatly obstructed by the vocal organs. Consonant is from\nthe Latin _con_, meaning _with_, and _sono_--_I sound_. So it means\nliterally _I sound with_.\n\nThe consonants are produced by union of the breath with the vocal\norgans. The consonant sounds are so called because they are always\n\"sounded with\" a vowel; they are used only in combination with vowels in\nforming words or syllables.\n\nIn English a consonant alone never forms a word or a syllable. Sound the\ndifferent consonants _b_, _c_, _d_, _f_, _g_, _h_, _j_, _k_, _l_, _m_,\n_n_, _p_, _q_, _r_, _s_, _t_, _v_, _x_ and _z_, by themselves and you\nwill see how the sound of the breath is obstructed or changed by the use\nof the vocal organs--the lips, the tongue, the teeth, etc.--in making\nthese various sounds.\n\n_W_ and _y_ are sometimes vowels and sometimes consonants. _W_ and _y_\nare vowels when they are used with another vowel representing a vowel\nsound as in _awe_, _new_, _joy_, _eye_, etc. _Y_ is sometimes used as a\nvowel by itself as in _by_, _cry_, etc. _W_ and _y_ are consonants when\nthey are used at the beginning of a syllable or before a vowel in the\nsame syllable as in _wine_, _twine_, _yield_ and _year_.\n\nLook up the meaning of the words in this week's lesson. Master the\nspelling and use them in sentences of your own construction.\n\n  +Monday+\n\n    Reason\n    Evolution\n    Justice\n    Thorough\n    Beauty\n\n  +Tuesday+\n\n    Assertive\n    Review\n    Surprise\n    Basis\n    Separate\n\n  +Wednesday+\n\n    Interrogative\n    Period\n    Capital\n    Capitol\n    Function\n\n  +Thursday+\n\n    Example\n    Contain\n    Imperative\n    Question\n    Speech\n\n  +Friday+\n\n    Method\n    Various\n    Familiar\n    Industry\n    Alphabet\n\n  +Saturday+\n\n    Travel\n    Sense\n    Cents\n    Sail\n    Sale\n\n\n\n\n                    PLAIN ENGLISH\n\n                    LESSON 3\n\n\nDear Comrade:\n\nIn this lesson we are taking up a short study of the different parts of\nspeech. In later lessons we will study each part of speech more\nthoroughly but this lesson covers the ground quickly and briefly. It is\nsufficient, however, to form a basis for our understanding of the\nevolution of language.\n\nYou will see, as you study this lesson, how each part of speech has been\nadded to meet a growing need. There are many, many thousand words in the\nEnglish language, but they can all be grouped under these eight parts of\nspeech, for they all answer in some way to one of these great needs.\n\nThe object in studying grammar, as in studying any other science, is not\nto fill one's mind with a great many unrelated facts--facts which may or\nmay not prove useful to one hereafter. The object of all study is to\ndevelop one's power of observation and one's ability to think. Added to\nthis must be the practical ability to make use of this knowledge. Here\nthe study of grammar has an advantage over the study of every other\nscience. It deals with words, something which we use every day.\n\nYou do not need any laboratory or expensive apparatus in order to study\ngrammar. All that you need lies ready to your hand. And in addition to\nthis the knowledge which you gain is something which is of practical use\nto every man and woman no matter what their work, no matter what their\nplace or position in life may be.\n\nRemember that dogmatism has no place in the study of grammar.\n\"Grammarians are the guardians, not the authors, of language.\" We do not\nsay, \"You should say this or that, or you violate a rule of grammar,\"\nbut we say \"The common usage among those who use good English is thus\nand so.\" If we do not believe that the common usage is the best usage,\nthen we follow the democratic method of seeking to change the common\nusage into that which we consider the more sensible way. Thus, those who\nadvocate simplified spelling have not sought to pass a law whereby every\none should be compelled to spell words exactly as they sound, but they\nhave striven to influence our writers and people in general to use this\nmore sensible way of spelling words.\n\nSo _think_ while you study. Do not try to learn rules and formulas. See\n_why_ the rules and formulas exist. Once having seen this you do not\nneed to learn them--you know them already. The study of any language is\nan intellectual discipline of the highest order.\n\nSo apply yourself diligently to this most interesting study and you will\nsee that the result of this application will affect your daily life in\nevery particular.\n\n                    Yours for Education,\n\n                              THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.\n\n\n                    WORDS ADDED TO NOUNS\n\n+33.+ When man began to invent words to express his ideas of the world\nin which he lived, we have found that probably the first need was that\nof names for the things about him. So we have nouns. The second need was\nof words to tell what these things _do_, and so we have verbs. But\nprimitive man soon felt the need of other classes of words.\n\nThe objects about us are not all alike. For example, we have a word for\nman, but when we say _man_ that is not sufficient to describe the many\ndifferent kinds of men. There are tall men, short men, white men, black\nmen, strong men, weak men, busy men, lazy men. There are all sorts of\nmen in the world, and we need words by which we can describe these\ndifferent types and also indicate which man we mean.\n\n+34.+ So we have a class of words which are called adjectives.\n_Adjective_ is a word derived from the Latin. It comes from the Latin\nword _ad_, meaning _to_, and the Latin word _jecto_, which means _to\nthrow_; hence an adjective is a word _thrown to_ or _added to_ a noun.\n\nIf you will stop to think for a moment, you will see that it is by their\nqualities that we know the things about us. Some men are strong, some\nare weak, some are tall, some are short. These qualities belong to\ndifferent men. And we separate or group them into classes as they\nresemble each other or differ from one another in these qualities.\nThings are alike which have the same qualities; things are unlike whose\nqualities are different. Apples and oranges are alike in the fact that\nboth are round, both are edible. They are unlike in the fact that one is\nred and one is yellow; one may be sour and the other sweet. So we\nseparate them in our minds because of their different qualities; and we\nhave a class of words, _adjectives_, which describe these various\nqualities.\n\n+35.+ We use adjectives for other purposes also. For example, when we\nsay _trees_, we are not speaking of any particular trees, but of trees\nin general. But we may add certain adjectives which point out particular\ntrees, as for example: _these_ trees, or _those_ trees, or _eight_ trees\nor _nine_ trees. These adjectives limit the trees of which we are\nspeaking to the particular trees pointed out. They do not express any\nparticular qualities of the trees like the adjectives _tall_ or\n_beautiful_ express, but they limit the use of the word _trees_ in its\napplication. So we have our definition of the adjective.\n\n+36.+ +An adjective is a word added to a noun to qualify or limit its\nmeaning.+\n\n\n                    Exercise 1\n\nUnderscore all of the adjectives in the following quotation. Notice also\nthe nouns and verbs in this quotation.\n\n  Yet fearsome and terrible are all the footsteps of men upon the earth,\n  for they either descend or climb.\n\n  They descend from little mounds and high peaks and lofty altitudes,\n  through wide roads and narrow paths, down noble marble stairs and\n  creaky stairs of wood--and some go down to the cellar, and some to the\n  grave, and some down to the pits of shame and infamy, and still some\n  to the glory of an unfathomable abyss where there is nothing but the\n  staring, white, stony eye-balls of Destiny.\n\n  They descend and they climb, the fearful footsteps of men, and some\n  limp, some drag, some speed, some trot, some run--they are quiet,\n  slow, noisy, brisk, quick, feverish, mad, and most awful in their\n  cadence to the ears of the one who stands still.\n\n  But of all the footsteps of men that either descend or climb, no\n  footsteps are so fearsome and terrible as those that go straight on\n  the dead level of a prison floor, from a yellow stone wall to a red\n  iron gate.--From _The Walker_. _Giovannitti_.\n\n\n                    WORDS ADDED TO VERBS\n\n+37.+ From our study, you see how our classes of words grew out of man's\nneed of them in expressing his thoughts. And notice also how the many\nthousands of words in our language can all be grouped under these few\nclasses. We _name_ the things about us; we invent words to tell what\nthese things _do_; we have another class of words which _describe_ the\nthings which we have named; and now we come to a fourth class of words\nfor which we also find great need.\n\nWhen we come to tell what things _do_, we find that we need words which\nwill tell us _how_ or _where_ or _when_ these things are done. Notice\nthe following sentences:\n\n  The men work busily.\n  The men work late.\n  The men work now.\n  The men work here.\n  The men work hard.\n  The men work well.\n  The men work inside.\n  The men work more.\n\nWe would have a complete sentence and express a complete thought if we\nsaid simply, _The men work_, but each of these words which we have\nadded, like _busily_, _hard_, _late_, etc., adds something to the\nmeaning of the verb. These words add something to the action which is\nasserted by the verb, for they show _how_ and _when_ and _where_ and\n_how much_ the men work.\n\n+38.+ We call this class of words _adverbs_, because they are added to\nverbs to make the meaning more definite, very much as adjectives are\nadded to nouns. Adverb means literally _to the verb_.\n\nAn adverb will always answer one of these questions: _how?_ _when?_ _how\nlong?_ _how often?_ _how much?_ _how far?_ or _how late?_ If you want to\nfind the adverbs in your sentences just ask one of these questions, and\nthe word that answers it will be the adverb.\n\n+39.+ An adverb may be used also with an adjective. Notice the following\nsentences:\n\n  The book is _very_ long.\n  _Too_ many people never think.\n\nNotice here that the adverbs _very_ and _too_ modify the adjectives\n_long_ and _many_.\n\n+40.+ Adverbs may also be used with other adverbs. Notice the following\nsentences:\n\n  He speaks _very_ distinctly.\n  He walks _too_ slowly.\n\nHere the adverbs _very_ and _too_ are used with the adverbs _distinctly_\nand _slowly_, and add to their meaning. We will study more fully in\nlater lessons concerning both the adjective and the adverb, but we can\nsee by this brief study why adverbs were added as a class of words, a\npart of speech, for they are absolutely necessary in order to describe\nthe action expressed by verbs, and also to add to the meaning of\nadjectives and other adverbs. Hence we have our definition of an adverb.\n\n+41.+ +An adverb is a word that modifies the meaning of a verb, an\nadjective, or another adverb.+\n\n\n                    Exercise 2\n\nUnderscore all adverbs in the following sentences:\n\n   1. He will not come today.\n   2. Here and now is the day of opportunity.\n   3. Very slowly, but even then entirely too rapidly, the fire crept\n      forward.\n   4. The room was very quiet and still.\n   5. He was too weary to go farther.\n   6. One must learn to feel deeply and think clearly in order to\n      express himself eloquently.\n   7. Ferrer stood there, so calmly and so bravely facing the firing\n      squad.\n   8. He was condemned to death because he stood uncompromisingly and\n      courageously for the education of the masses.\n   9. Ferrer understood thoroughly that the schools of today cleverly\n      and effectively adapt their teaching to maintain the present\n      system of society.\n  10. He said \"The school imprisons the children physically,\n      intellectually and morally.\"\n\n\n                    WORDS USED IN PLACE OF NOUNS\n\n+42.+ Now we come to study another class of words which are also very\nnecessary in order to express our ideas. Suppose you had just arrived in\na strange town and you wanted to find the way to a friend's house. You\ninquire of a stranger, \"Can you tell me who lives in the house on the\ncorner?\"\n\nNotice the words _you_ and _me_ and _who_. You could not call the\nstranger by name for you do not know his name, and hence you say _you_.\nAnd if you used your own name instead of _me_, he would not recognize\nit, and you would both be puzzled to find a substitute for that little\nword _who_.\n\nIf you knew the stranger and he knew your name, you might say, \"Can Mr.\nSmith tell Mr. Jones what person lives in the house on the corner.\" But\nthis would sound very stilted and unnatural and awkward. So we have\nthese little words like _you_ and _me_ and _who_, which we use _in place\nof nouns_. These words are called pronouns. This word is taken from the\nLatin also. In the Latin the word _pro_ means _in place of_. So the word\npronoun means literally in place of a noun.\n\n+43.+ +A pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun.+\n\nThese pronouns are very useful little words. They save us a great deal\nof tiresome repetition. Notice the awkwardness of the following:\n\n  The workers will succeed in gaining the workers' freedom if the\n  workers learn solidarity.\n\nAnd yet this would be the way we would have to express this idea\nif we did not have pronouns. Instead we say:\n\n  The workers will succeed in gaining their freedom if they learn\n  solidarity.\n\n+44.+ We will study the pronoun in detail in later lessons, but we can\nreadily recognize these words which are used in place of nouns. The most\ncommon pronouns are:\n\n  I\n  you\n  he\n  she\n  it\n  we\n  they\n  me\n  him\n  her\n  us\n  them\n  my\n  your\n  his\n  her\n  its\n  our\n  their\n  that\n  which\n  who\n  whose\n  whom\n  what\n\n\n                    Exercise 3\n\nUnderscore the pronouns in the following story:\n\n  A man in South Africa picked up a small piece of stone. It was dirty\n  and Rough.\n\n  \"Make me beautiful,\" said the stone.\n\n  \"I shall have to hurt you,\" said the man.\n\n  \"Well, if it hurts me, I will bear it,\" said the stone.\n\n  So the man took it to a clever craftsman, who put it into a tight\n  vise, and cut it with his sharp instrument.\n\n  \"Oh!\" cried the stone.\n\n  And he ground it till the dust fell all about it.\n\n  \"Oh!\" cried the stone.\n\n  And he polished it very hard.\n\n  \"Oh!\" cried the stone.\n\n  And then he set it in a crown and sent it to the Queen. On a sunny day\n  she wore her crown, and the stone--it was a diamond--sparkled in long\n  rays of crimson and green and yellow and silvery white. And all the\n  people greeted their queen. She showed them her crown and they praised\n  the beautiful stone.\n\n  The training was hard, but the improvement was glorious.\n\n\n                    PREPOSITIONS\n\n+45.+ Notice the following sentences:\n\n  I want the book _on_ the box.\n  I want the book _under_ the box.\n  I want the book _in_ the box.\n  I want the book _beside_ the box.\n  I want the book _behind_ the box.\n  I want the book _beyond_ the box.\n\nDo you notice any word in these sentences which does not belong to any\nof the classes of words which we have studied? _I_ is a pronoun, _want_\nis a verb, _the_ is an adjective, _book_ is a noun, _the_ is an\nadjective, _box_ is a noun; but the words, _on_, _under_, _in_,\n_beside_, _behind_ and _beyond_ are not nouns, verbs, adjectives,\nadverbs or pronouns.\n\nYet would it be possible to express the meaning in these sentences\nwithout these words? Read the sentences without them, and you will see\nthat no one could tell the relation which you wish to express between\nthe _book_ and the _box_. And you will notice too that each word\nexpresses a different relation, for it means one thing to say _on the\nbox_ and another thing to say _in the box_, and so through the list.\n\n+46.+ The words which are used to show this relation are called\n_prepositions_. The groups of words introduced by the preposition, like\n_on the box_ and _in the box_, and so on, are called prepositional\nphrases. The noun which follows a preposition as _box_ follows the\nprepositions _in_, _on_, _beside_, _beyond_, etc., is called the\n_object_ of the preposition.\n\n_Preposition_ is a word which comes into our language from the Latin. It\nis formed from the Latin _pre_, which means _before_, and the Latin verb\nwhich means _to place_, so preposition means literally _to place\nbefore_. It is given this name because it is placed before the noun or\npronoun which is its object. Therefore our definition of a preposition\nis as follows:\n\n+47.+ +A preposition is a word that shows the relation of its object to\nsome other word.+\n\n+48.+ Either a noun or a pronoun may be the object of a preposition.\nNotice the following sentences:\n\n  Bring the book to me.\n  Lay the book on the table.\n  He will speak to you.\n  I will speak to the man.\n\nIn these sentences the noun _table_ is the object of the preposition\n_on_; the pronoun _me_ is the object of the preposition _to_; and in the\nlast two sentences the pronoun _you_ and the noun _man_ are the objects\nof the preposition _to_.\n\n+49.+ There are not many prepositions in the language and they are\neasily learned and easily distinguished. Here is a list of the most\ncommon and the most important prepositions. Use each one in a sentence.\n\n  at\n  across\n  around\n  about\n  among\n  above\n  against\n  along\n  behind\n  beside\n  between\n  below\n  beyond\n  by\n  before\n  beneath\n  down\n  for\n  from\n  in\n  into\n  off\n  on\n  over\n  to\n  toward\n  under\n  up\n  upon\n  with\n  within\n  without\n\n\n                    Exercise 4\n\nUnderscore the prepositions in the following sentences:\n\n  He went to the door and looked out upon the field.\n  Over the river and through the woods, to Grandfather's house we go.\n  He saw them in the distance as they were coming toward him.\n  They went along the road, across the bridge, and hid among the trees\n  at the foot of the hill.\n  They came from Minneapolis down the river by boat.\n  The war between the classes is a struggle against exploitation.\n  The army was intrenched behind the barricades before dawn.\n  His claim was within the law but without justice.\n\n\n                    CONJUNCTIONS\n\n+50.+ We have found that the preposition is a very important connective\nword. It connects two words and shows what one of them has to do with\nthe other, but the preposition is not the only connective word which we\nuse in English. We have another part of speech which performs an\nimportant function as a connective word. Notice the following sentence:\n\n  Men and women struggle for their rights.\n\nCan you find a word in this sentence which is a connective word besides\nthe preposition _for_? Did you notice that little word _and_? The noun\n_men_ and the noun _women_ are both subjects of the verb _struggle_, and\nthey are joined by this little connective word _and_. If we did not have\nthis word we would have to use two sentences to express our thought,\nthus:\n\n  Men struggle for their rights.\n  Women struggle for their rights.\n\nBut with the use of this connective word _and_ we can combine these\ntwo sentences and express it all in one sentence:\n\n  Men _and_ women struggle for their rights.\n\nThis word is used in a different manner from the preposition. The\npreposition connects two words and makes one modify the other. When we\nsay, _Get the book on the table_, the phrase _on the table_ designates\nthe book just as much as if we had said, _Get the green book_. So the\nuse of the preposition enables us to show the relation between two words\nand to make one word describe or modify the other.\n\n+51.+ This little word _and_ in the sentence, _Men and women struggle\nfor their rights_, is a connective word also, but it connects two words\nthat are used in the same way, so it is a different sort of connective\nword from the preposition. Words used in this way are called\n_conjunctions_. Conjunction is a word which is taken from the Latin,\nbeing made up of the Latin word _con_, which means _together_, and the\nLatin verb _juncto_, which means _to join_. So conjunction means\nliterally _to join together_.\n\n+52.+ +A conjunction is a word that connects sentences or parts of\nsentences.+\n\nNotice the following sentence:\n\n  The class struggle is waged on the political field and on the\n  industrial field.\n\nHere we have the conjunction _and_ connecting the two phrases _on the_\n_political field_ and _on the industrial field_. Without the use of this\nconnective word, we would have to use two sentences to express these two\nthoughts:\n\n  The class struggle is waged on the political field.\n  The class struggle is waged on the industrial field.\n\n+53.+ So a conjunction may be used to connect phrases as well as words.\n\nNow notice the following sentences:\n\n  He will speak. I will listen.\n  He will speak, _and_ I will listen.\n  He will speak, _but_ I will listen.\n  He will speak, _if_ I will listen.\n  He will speak, _therefore_ I will listen.\n  He will speak, _because_ I will listen.\n  He will speak, _until_ I will listen.\n\n+54.+ These _sentences_ are joined by different conjunctions, and the\nconjunction used alters the meaning of the sentence.\n\nThe conjunction is a very useful part of speech. Without it we would\nhave many disconnected sentences requiring tiresome repetition of the\nsame words. Like prepositions, there are not many conjunctions in\nEnglish and they are readily recognized.\n\n+55.+ We will study about these conjunctions at length in later lessons.\nIf you consult the following list of those most commonly used, you can\neasily pick out the conjunctions in your reading:\n\n  and\n  as\n  as if\n  after\n  although\n  as soon as\n  because\n  besides\n  before\n  but\n  either\n  for\n  hence\n  in order that\n  lest\n  neither\n  nor\n  or\n  since\n  still\n  so\n  then\n  though\n  that\n  than\n  therefore\n  till\n  until\n  unless\n  while\n  whether\n  yet\n\nThe seven classes of words which we have studied make up all of our\nsentences. The hundreds of words which we use in forming our sentences\nand expressing our thoughts belong to these seven classes. They are\neither nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, prepositions or\nconjunctions.\n\n\n                    Exercise 5\n\nUnderscore the conjunctions in the following sentences. Notice whether\nthey connect words or phrases or sentences.\n\n  1. We cannot win unless we are organized.\n  2. Books and music are true friends.\n  3. Men, women and children work under conditions neither proper nor\n     just.\n  4. We must educate and organize.\n  5. The workers on the farms and in the factories must be united.\n  6. Winter has come and the birds are going South.\n  7. We have been ignorant, therefore we have been exploited.\n  8. We must learn before we can teach.\n  9. We do not understand the situation, because we do not know the\n     facts.\n  10. Do you know whether these statements are true or false?\n\n\n                    IT CAN BE DONE\n\n    Somebody said that it couldn't be done,\n      But he, with a chuckle, replied\n    That \"maybe it couldn't,\" but he would be one\n      Who wouldn't say so till he tried.\n    So he buckled right in, with a trace of a grin\n      On his face. If he worried he hid it.\n    He started to sing as he tackled the thing\n      That couldn't be done--and he did it.\n\n    Somebody scoffed, \"Oh, you'll never do that;\n      At least no one ever has done it.\"\n    But he took off his coat and he took off his hat,\n      And the first thing we knew he'd begun it;\n    With the lift of his chin, and a bit of a grin,\n      Without any doubting or quiddit,\n    He started to sing as he tackled the thing\n      That couldn't be done--and he did it.\n\n    There are thousands to tell you it can not be done;\n      There are thousands to prophesy failure;\n    There are thousands to point out to you, one by one,\n      The dangers that wait to assail you.\n    But buckle right in, with a lift of your chin,\n      Then take off your coat and go to it;\n    Just start in to sing as you tackle the thing\n      That \"can not be done,\"--and you'll do it.\n\n\n                    INTERJECTIONS\n\n+56.+ There is another class of words which we use _with_ sentences, but\nwhich are really not _parts_ of the sentences. They are emotional\nexpressions which seem to belong more to the natural language than to\nthe invented language. For example:\n\n  Oh! You hurt me!\n  Aha! Now I have you.\n\n_Oh_, used in this way, is very apt to sound like a groan, and _aha_\nlike a shout of triumph. These words do not really belong in the\nconstruction of the sentence. The sentence would be complete without\nthem, but they are thrown in to express the emotion which accompanies\nthe thought. We call expressions such as these _interjections_.\nInterjection is from the Latin and means literally _thrown into the\nmidst of_. It comes from the Latin word _inter_, which means _between_,\nand the Latin verb _jecto_, _to throw_, so it literally means _to throw\nbetween_.\n\nSome of these words imitate sounds, as for example:\n\n  Bang! There goes another shot.\n  Ding-dong! There goes the first bell.\n\nWe do not use interjections very frequently in writing on scientific\nsubjects that express deep thought, but you will find them often used in\npoetry, fiction, oratory or any emotional writing. Therefore we have our\ndefinition of an interjection:\n\n+57.+ +An interjection is an exclamatory word or phrase used to express\nfeeling or to imitate some sound.+\n\n+58.+ Following is a list of commonly used interjections. Use them in\nsentences of your own.\n\n  oh\n  hello\n  bravo\n  ahoy\n  aha\n  hurrah\n  bow wow\n  ssh\n  alas\n  hist\n  whirr\n  pshaw\n  fie\n  whoa\n  ding-dong\n  rub-a-dub\n\n\n                    Exercise 6\n\nMark the interjections in the following sentences. Notice those which\nexpress emotion and those which imitate sound.\n\n  1. Oh! Is it possible.\n  2. Hurrah! We have good news at last.\n  3. Whirr! Whirr! goes the giant machine.\n  4. Come! Keep up your courage.\n  5. What! I cannot believe it.\n  6. Courage! We shall yet win.\n  7. Bravo! Let those words ring down the centuries.\n  8. Ding-dong! the bells ring out the hour!\n\n\n\n\n                    SPELLING\n\n                    LESSON 3\n\nSince there are forty-two elementary sounds used in the formation of our\nwords and only twenty-six letters to represent these sounds, some of\nthese letters must necessarily represent more than one sound.\n\nOf the forty-two elementary sounds, eighteen are vowel sounds, but we\nhave only five vowels with which to represent these sounds, so each\nvowel has several different sounds.\n\nTherefore we must have a key to pronunciation to indicate the various\nsounds which are represented by these letters used in forming the words.\nWhen you look up words in your dictionary you will find the vowels\nmarked by certain signs to indicate the pronunciation. These signs are\ncalled diacritical marks.\n\nThe following table gives the diacritical marks for the vowels. Study\nthis table and learn to pronounce the words you look up. When you have\ndetermined the correct pronunciation of the word, repeat it over to\nyourself aloud a number of times until you have accustomed your ear to\nthe correct pronunciation.\n\nDifferent dictionaries use different keys to pronunciation. This table\nis taken from the dictionary which we are using in connection with this\ncourse--Winston's New Universal Self-Pronouncing Dictionary.\n\n  Key to Pronunciation\n\n  [=a]          as in _late_, _fade_.\n  a-umlaut      as in _mar_, _father_.\n  [.a]          as in _mask_, _dance_.\n  a             as in _cat_, _had_.\n  aw            as in _awl_, _fall_.\n  [=e]          as in _he_, _feet_.\n  [~e]          as in _her_, _verge_.\n  e             as in _let_, _men_.\n  [=i]          as in _line_, _time_.\n  i             as in _tin_, _little_.\n  [=o]          as in _vote_, _home_.\n  o-circumflex  as in _orb_, _form_.\n  o             as in _lot_, _odd_.\n  oi            as in _oil_, _join_.\n  [=oo]         as in _moon_, _school_.\n  oo            as in _cook_, _foot_.\n  ou            as in _out_, _house_.\n  [=u]          as in _mute_, _unit_.\n  u             as in _nut_, _drum_.\n\n\nThe spelling lesson for this week is composed of words containing the\ndifferent vowel sounds. Look up in your dictionary and mark all the\n_a's_ in Monday's lesson, all the _e's_ in Tuesday's lesson, all the\n_i's_ in Wednesday's lesson, all the _o's_ in Thursday's lesson, and all\nthe _u's_ in Friday's lesson. In Saturday's lesson note the use of _w_\nand _y_ as vowels.\n\n  +Monday+\n\n    Pause\n    Adjective\n    Lazy\n    Quality\n    Advance\n\n  +Tuesday+\n\n    Resemble\n    Descend\n    Adverb\n    Interjection\n    Complete\n\n  +Wednesday+\n\n    Limit\n    Define\n    Distinct\n    Imprison\n    Civilize\n\n  +Thursday+\n\n    Form\n    Footsteps\n    Proof\n    Report\n    Common\n\n  +Friday+\n\n    Union\n    Under\n    Unusual\n    Summer\n    Commune\n\n  +Saturday+\n\n    Comply\n    Employ\n    Vowel\n    News\n    Lawful\n\n\n\n\n                    PLAIN ENGLISH\n\n                    LESSON 4\n\n\nDear Comrade:\n\nWe are studying in this lesson a most interesting part of our language,\nthe words that are the names of things. If we could trace these names of\nthings and the order and time of their coming into the language of men\nwe would have a progressive history of mankind. Way back yonder in the\ndim dawn of history, men lived upon fruit and nuts. They had no\nknowledge of the use of fire and could not use foods that required\ncooking. They communicated with one another by signs. Then they\ndiscovered fire and invented the bow and arrow. They could now use fish\nand flesh for food and they commenced to use articulate speech. This\nstage has been called the Middle Stage of Savagery. With the invention\nof the bow and arrow, began the third stage of savagery which merged\ninto the first stage of barbarism with the invention of pottery.\n\nThere are three stages of barbarism before we come to the beginning of\nthe era of civilization which begins with the use of the phonetic\nalphabet and the production of literary records. All tribes that have\nnever attained the art of pottery are classed as savages and those who\npossess this art but have never attained a phonetic alphabet and the use\nof writing are classed as barbarians. Civilization began with the spoken\nand written language and it has been well said that all that separates\nus from savagery is a wall of books. It is upon the accumulated wisdom\nof the past that we build. Without this we would be helpless.\n\nSo these various names of things have come to us with developing\nevolving life. As the men of the past gained a knowledge of the use of\nfire, as they learned to bake the clay and make various utensils; to\nheat and forge the iron into weapons; to conquer nature in all her\nphases, to feed the race, to clothe the race, to shelter the race more\nadequately, our language has grown in volume, strength and beauty.\n\nThe study of words and their uses is of great importance to you. Master\nthe few rules necessary and watch your words daily. We are living in an\nage full of wondrous things and yet many of us have almost as limited a\nvocabulary as the men of those bygone days, who had never dreamed of the\nmarvels that are commonplace to us.\n\nAs you use your dictionary watch closely the meaning of the words and\nchoose the words that most aptly express your ideas. Listen to good\nEnglish spoken as often as you can. _Read_ good English. Mark the\ndifference between good and bad English and gradually you will find\nyourself using good English naturally and continually.\n\n                    Yours for Education,\n\n                              THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.\n\n\n                    CLASSES OF NOUNS\n\n+59.+ We have learned that the words in a sentence are classified\naccording to the work which each word does. The words which assert are\ncalled verbs; the words which are the names of things are called nouns.\nBut now we shall see that these words are again divided into classes\naccording to the _special_ work which they perform. Just as we may\ngather the people of the world into one great class, the working class,\nthen classify them according to the industry in which they work, thus\nsome are farmers, some teachers, some factory workers; then each class\nmay be subdivided according to the special work which they perform, as\ntruck farmers, high school teachers, machinists, etc.\n\nSo we find that nouns are divided into classes according to their\nmeaning in the sentence.\n\nIn the sentence, _Lincoln was a man of the people_, we have two nouns\nreferring to the same person, _Lincoln_ and _man_, but they are\ndifferent kinds of names. The word _man_ is a name that may apply to any\none of a million persons but the name _Lincoln_ applies to one person\nonly. Some nouns, then, represent a thing as being of a certain kind or\nclass, without showing which particular one is meant. Other nouns are\nnames given to designate a particular individual. These are called\n_common_ and _proper_ nouns.\n\n+60.+ +A proper noun is a special name meant for only one person, place\nor thing.+\n\nAll other nouns are common nouns.\n\n+A common noun is a name which belongs to all things of a\nclass of objects.+\n\n+Every proper noun should begin with a capital letter.+\n\nIndicate the proper nouns in the following list by drawing a line under\nthe letters that ought to be capitals:\n\n  king\n  month\n  city\n  france\n  dog\n  virginia\n  war\n  wilson\n  november\n  doctor\n  colonel\n  napoleon\n  chicago\n  governor\n  independence day\n  freedom\n  ocean\n  atlantic ocean\n  thanksgiving\n  thanksgiving day\n  uncle william\n  thursday\n  week\n  general sherman\n  karl marx\n  union\n  labor\n  united mine workers\n  newspaper\n  the daily call\n\nWrite the special or _proper_ names of several individuals in each of\nthe following classes:--as city,--Chicago, New York, etc.\n\nRiver, king, author, country, state, inventor, martyr, month, book,\ncollege.\n\n\n                    COLLECTIVE NOUNS\n\n+61.+ Some nouns are the names of groups or collections of things and\nare called collective nouns.\n\nMany soldiers taken together form collectively an _army_--a number of\nsheep form a _drove_. Many of these group or collective nouns will\nreadily occur to your mind.\n\n+A collective noun is one that in the singular form, denotes a number of\nseparate persons or things.+\n\n\n                    Exercise 1\n\nOpposite each of the following collective nouns, write the name of the\nindividuals represented by the collection; as an army of _soldiers_; a\nswarm of _bees_; a flock of _birds_.\n\n  A gang of......\n  A committee of......\n  A herd of......\n  A drove of......\n  A hive of......\n  A corps of......\n  A suite of......\n  A group of......\n  A class of......\n  A multitude of......\n\nFill the following blanks with appropriate collective nouns.\n\n  A......of horses.\n  A......of sailors.\n  A......of wolves.\n  A......of savages.\n  A......of singers.\n  A......of girls.\n  A......of ships.\n  A......of quail.\n  A......of birds.\n  A......of workers.\n\n\n                    ABSTRACT NOUNS\n\n+62.+ When primitive man began to name the objects about him, doubtless\nhe first named the things which he could see, hear, taste, smell and\ntouch,--the objects which he could perceive by the five senses. Then\ngradually he came to understand that these objects had certain qualities\nwhich he could consider apart from the object itself.\n\nHe hunted among the stones to find those which were suitable for making\nhis arrow-heads. For this purpose he needed the hardest stone which he\ncould find, so _hardness_ became something which he could think of as\nsomething apart from the object itself.\n\nHe saw the men about him and found a name for them. Then he knew that\nsome men were stronger than others, so _strength_ was a quality which he\ncould consider apart from the man himself.\n\nThese men performed certain actions; they ran, they climbed,--so\n_running_ and _climbing_ became actions which he could think of as\nsomething apart from any individual.\n\nHe noted too that men lived in certain conditions; for example, some men\nwere free, some were slaves, so he came to think of _slavery_ and\n_freedom_ as conditions which could be thought of as something apart\nfrom the individual.\n\nSo we draw away, or separate certain ideas; the _quality_ from the thing\nwhich has it and the _action_ from the thing which does it and the\n_condition_ from the thing which is in it. These nouns which are used to\ndescribe these qualities, actions or conditions are called _abstract_\nnouns. Abstract is a word derived from the Latin _abs_, _away from_, and\n_tractus_, _drawn_, so it literally means _drawn away from_.\n\nThe nouns which are names of things which we can see, hear, taste, smell\nand touch or perceive by any of the five senses are called _concrete_\nnouns.\n\n+63.+ +A concrete noun is the name of an object which may be perceived\nby one or more of the five senses.+\n\n+An abstract noun is the name of a quality, a condition or an action.+\n\n+64.+ You remember we found in the study of adjectives that we have a\nclass of adjectives which are used to describe the qualities of objects,\nas for example--_good_, _noble_, _honest_, _true_, _wise_, etc. Since\nabstract nouns are the names of qualities, many of our abstract nouns\nare formed from adjectives. Study carefully the following list of\nadjectives and nouns. Note that the word is an _adjective_ when it is\nused with a noun to _describe_ certain qualities. It is a _noun_ when it\nis used by itself to _name_ that quality.\n\n  +Adjectives+          +Abstract Nouns+\n\n  1. honest            honesty\n  2. pure              purity\n  3. true              truth\n  4. strong            strength\n  5. wise              wisdom\n  6. good              goodness\n  7. bold              boldness\n  8. just              justice\n  9. silent            silence\n  10. wide              width\n  11. patient           patience\n  12. stupid            stupidity\n\n+65.+ You will notice that another use of abstract nouns is to name\nactions. The verb is the part of speech which expresses action,\ntherefore many abstract nouns are formed from verbs. Notice the\nfollowing list:\n\n  +Verbs+               +Abstract Nouns+\n\n  1. learn             learning\n  2. invent            invention\n  3. choose            choice\n  4. defend            defense\n  5. try               trial\n  6. judge             judgment\n  7. read              reading\n  8. please            pleasure\n  9. elect             election\n  10. move              motion\n\n+66.+ An abstract noun is also the name of a condition. These nouns are\nderived from the concrete noun which is the name of the person or thing\nwhich is _in_ the condition.\n\n  +Concrete Nouns+      +Abstract Nouns+\n\n   1. slave             slavery\n   2. friend            friendship\n   3. thief             theft\n   4. man               manhood\n   5. child             childhood\n   6. leader            leadership\n   7. hero              heroism\n   8. martyr            martyrdom\n\n\n                    Exercise 2\n\nForm abstract nouns from the following adjectives, verbs and nouns.\n\n  long\n  simple\n  rapid\n  lovely\n  loyal\n  fresh\n  prove\n  sing\n  run\n  behave\n  believe\n  reflect\n  write\n  child\n  agent\n  infant\n  rascal\n  clerk\n  president\n  coward\n\n\n                    NUMBER FORM\n\n+67.+ So we find that we classify our nouns according to the special\nwork which they do. Now sometimes we find it necessary to change the\nform of the noun to make it express our thought. Thus we say, _book_,\n_man_, _boy_, _knife_, when we wish to express the idea of only one of\neach object mentioned. But when we wish to express the idea of more than\none of them, we say, _books_, _men_, _boys_, _knives_.\n\nWe say, _The boy calls_; _the boys call_. The form of the noun _boy_ is\nchanged by adding an _s_ to it. The meaning has also changed. _Boy_\ndenotes one lad; _boys_ denotes two or more lads. Any change in form and\nmeaning of words is called _inflection_. The change to denote more than\none object is called _number_. The word _boy_, denoting _one_ is in the\n_singular number_; the word _boys_, denoting _more than one_ is in the\n_plural number_.\n\n+68.+ +Inflection is a change in the form of a word to denote a\ndifferent application or use.+\n\n+Number is the form of a noun which shows whether it denotes one or more\nthan one.+\n\n+The singular number denotes one thing.+\n\n+The plural number denotes more than one thing.+\n\nThere are a few rules governing the formation of plurals which we must\nknow, and these rules are of great assistance in correct spelling.\n\n+69.+ Most nouns form their plural by adding _s_--thus:\n\n  boat\n  boats\n\n  day\n  days\n\n  book\n  books\n\n  boy\n  boys\n\nLong ago in early English all plurals were formed by adding _es_, and\nyou will read in the first translation of the Bible, for instance, such\nwords as _bird-es_, _cloud-es_. Later the _e_ was dropped and _s_ added\nto the singular without an increase of syllables. But when the singular\nends in an _s_ sound, the original syllable _es_ is retained, for two\nhissing sounds will not unite.\n\n+70.+ So nouns ending in _s_, _x_, _z_, _sh_ or soft _ch_, form the\nplural by adding _es_ to the singular. These words end with a sound so\nmuch like that of _s_ that we cannot pronounce the plural easily without\nmaking another syllable. Thus:\n\n  class\n  classes\n\n  tax\n  taxes\n\n  topaz\n  topazes\n\n  wish\n  wishes\n\n  ditch\n  ditches\n\n+71.+ In words ending with the _s_ sound but with a final _e_, only _s_\nis added to form the plural, but in pronouncing the word we then have\ntwo syllables, thus:\n\n  house\n  houses\n\n  place\n  places\n\n  size\n  sizes\n\n  cage\n  cages\n\n  niche\n  niches\n\n+72.+ Letters, figures, signs, etc., are made plural by adding an\napostrophe and the letter _s_ ('s), thus:\n\n  Cross your t's and dot your i's.\n  Do you know the table of 4's?\n\nWhile most of our nouns form their plural in this regular way by adding\n_s_ or _es_, there are some nouns that form their plural by some other\nchange in the form of the word.\n\n+73.+ Notice the following list of words and their plurals:\n\n  fly\n  flies\n  city\n  cities\n  key\n  keys\n  day\n  days\n  story\n  stories\n  enemy\n  enemies\n  tray\n  trays\n  boy\n  boys\n\nThese nouns all end in _y_, yet they form the plural differently. Some\nsimply add _s_ and the rest change the _y_ to _i_ and add _es_. Can you\ndiscover the reason?\n\nWherever the _y_ is preceded by a vowel, as _e_ in _key_, _a_ in _tray_,\n_o_ in _boy_, the plural is formed by adding _s_. But when the _y_ is\npreceded by a consonant, as _l_ in _fly_, _r_ in _story_, _t_ in _city_,\nand _m_ in _enemy_, the _y_ is changed to _i_ and _es_ added in forming\nthe plural.\n\n+If the singular ends in _y_ after a consonant, change _y_ to _i_\nand add _es_ in the plural.+\n\n+74.+ There are thirteen nouns ending in _f_ and three in _fe_ which\nform the plural in _ves_. They are:\n\n  beef      beeves\n  calf      calves\n  elf       elves\n  half      halves\n  leaf      leaves\n  loaf      loaves\n  self      selves\n  sheaf     sheaves\n  shelf     shelves\n  staff     staves\n  thief     thieves\n  wharf     wharves\n  wolf      wolves\n  knife     knives\n  life      lives\n  wife      wives\n\nAll other nouns in _f_ or _fe_ are regular; adding only _s_, to form the\nplural.\n\n+75.+ About forty nouns ending in _o_ after a consonant form the plural\nin _es_. The most common ones are:\n\n  buffalo\n  cargo\n  potato\n  tomato\n  <DW64>\n  veto\n  cargo\n  echo\n  calico\n  embargo\n  hero\n  mulatto\n  mosquito\n  motto\n  tornado\n  volcano\n  torpedo\n  flamingo\n\nMost nouns ending in _o_ form the plural regularly, adding only _s_, as\n_pianos_, _banjos_, _cameos_, etc.\n\n+76.+ A few words form their plurals by a change in the word and without\nadding _s_ or _es_.\n\nThe most common of these words are:\n\n  man      men\n  goose    geese\n  ox       oxen\n  woman    women\n  foot     feet\n  mouse    mice\n  brother  brethren\n  tooth    teeth\n  child    children\n  louse    lice\n\n+77.+ Proper nouns, when made plural, generally follow the same rule as\ncommon nouns. Thus we write:\n\n  All the Smiths, the Joneses, both the Miss Johnsons, one of the Dr.\n  Davidsons, and the Mrs. Wilsons, were present.\n\nBut to prevent the confusion and misunderstanding which might arise in\nchanging the form of a proper noun, we do not change its form in writing\nthe plurals; for example:\n\n  There were eight Henrys, kings of England.\n  The two Marys reigned in the kingdom.\n\nIt would be confusing to say _eight Henries_, the _two Maries_.\n\nThe title is made plural when several are referred to, thus:\n\n  Mr. Hayes        The Messrs. Hayes\n  Miss Smith       The Misses Smith\n\n+78.+ The title is made plural when used with several names, thus:\n\n  Messrs. Brown and White.\n  Generals Lee and Grant.\n  Drs. Long and Larson.\n\n+79.+ In the case of nouns formed of two or more words, when\nthe compound word is so familiar that the parts are not thought\nof separately the _s_ is added to the whole compound word, as\n_four-in-hands_; _forget-me-nots_; _court-yards_; _spoonfuls_;\n_green-houses_; etc. But when one of the parts is more important than\nthe others, the _s_ is added to the more important part, thus:\n\n  mothers-in-law\n  commanders-in-chief\n  hangers-on\n  men-of-war\n  by-standers\n  attorneys-at-law\n  passers-by\n  step-sons\n\n+80.+ We have many words in our language taken from other languages.\nThey do not form the plural in these languages as we do, and some of\nthese words retain their foreign plurals. Some of the most commonly used\nof these nouns are the following:\n\n  +Singular+       +Plural+\n\n  alumnus          alumni\n  analysis         analyses\n  axis             axes\n  datum            data\n  erratum          errata\n  ellipsis         ellipses\n  appendix         appendices\n  bacterium        bacteria\n  basis            bases\n  crisis           crises\n  parenthesis      parentheses\n  radius           radii\n  terminus         termini\n  hypothesis       hypotheses\n  larva            larvae\n  madame           mesdames\n  memorandum       memoranda\n  phenomenon       phenomena\n  stratum          strata\n  thesis           theses\n\n+81.+ The following nouns are treated as singular: _news_, _pains_\n(meaning care), _acoustics_, _mathematics_, _economics_, _ethics_,\n_molasses_, _physics_, _politics_, and other nouns ending in _ics_\nexcept _athletics_. With these always use the s-form of the verb. For\nexample:\n\n  The news _is_ distorted. Not, The news _are_ distorted.\n  Economics _is_ an important study. Not, Economics _are_, etc.\n\n+82.+ The following nouns are always plural:\n\n  alms\n  annals\n  amends\n  antipodes\n  bellows\n  billiards\n  clothes\n  dregs\n  eaves\n  fireworks\n  hysterics\n  measles\n  mumps\n  matins\n  nippers\n  nuptials\n  oats\n  premises\n  proceeds\n  pincers\n  riches\n  rickets\n  suds\n  scissors\n  thanks\n  tidings\n  tongs\n  trousers\n  vitals\n  victuals\n  vespers\n\nWith all these nouns always use the form of the verb which is used with\nthe plural subject. Thus:\n\n  Alms are given.\n  Riches are easily lost.\n\n+83.+ The following nouns have the same form for both plural and\nsingular, _corps_, _cannon_, _deer_, _grouse_, _heathen_, _hose_,\n_means_, _odds_, _series_, _sheep_, _species_, _swine_, _vermin_,\n_wages_. You can tell whether the singular or plural is meant by the\nmeaning of the sentence. For example:\n\n_The cannon is loaded._ Here we are speaking of _one_ cannon.\n\n_The cannon used in the war are of tremendous size._ Here we know are\nmeant all the big guns used in the war.\n\nWhen you say, _The sheep is lost_, we know you mean _one_ sheep, but\nwhen you say, _The sheep are in the pasture_, we know you mean the\nentire drove.\n\n+84.+ When preceded by a numeral, the following nouns have the same form\nfor both singular and plural. Without the numerals, the plural is formed\nby the adding of _s_; _brace_, _couple_, _dozen_, _hundred_, _pair_,\n_score_, _thousand_, _yoke_. For example:\n\n  Thousands enlisted.\n  Three thousand enlisted.\n  Dozens came at my call.\n  Two dozen came when I called.\n\n\n                    GENDER\n\n+85.+ All of the changes we have studied so far have been for the\npurpose of indicating number; but among the nouns that name living\nbeings, many change to show to which sex the object named belongs. These\nnouns change in form to distinguish between the masculine and the\nfeminine. This is called _gender_.\n\n  +Gender is the distinction in words that denotes sex.+\n\n  +The nouns that denote females are called feminine nouns.+\n\n  +The nouns that denote males are called masculine nouns.+\n\n+86.+ The feminine form is generally made by the addition of _ess_\nto the masculine form. Thus:\n\n  prince     princess\n  master     mistress\n  host       hostess\n  count      countess\n  tiger      tigress\n  lion       lioness\n  actor      actress\n  god        goddess\n\n+87.+ Names of things without sex are, of course, of neither gender, and\nare called _neuter nouns_. Neuter means literally _neither_. Such nouns\nas _mountain_, _iron_, _river_, _chair_, are neuter.\n\nSometimes the feminine is an entirely different word from the masculine.\nThus:\n\n  king      queen\n  lord      lady\n  man       woman\n  youth     maiden\n  sir       madam\n  stag      hind\n\n+88.+ Many nouns that denote living beings apply alike to male and\nfemale, and are said to be of _common gender_. As woman enters more and\nmore into the business world and pursues the same occupations as man,\nthe change in form to denote the feminine is used less frequently, and\nwhat we have called the masculine form is used for both sexes, thus:\n\n_Poet_, _waiter_, _doctor_, _editor_--these nouns are used for both men\nand women.\n\n\n                    POSSESSIVE FORM\n\n+89.+ There is just one more change made in the form of a noun, and that\nis when we wish to show who or what owns or possesses a thing. Thus we\nwrite:\n\n  John's book.\n  The boy's hat.\n\nAnd since this form of the noun denotes possession, it is called the\n_possessive form_. Some grammarians call this the possessive case.\n\nThe possessive form of nouns is made by adding an apostrophe and _s_,\n('s); thus, _day's_, _lady's_, _girl's_, _clerk's_.\n\nTo plural nouns ending in _s_ add only an apostrophe; thus, _days'_,\n_ladies'_, _girls'_, _clerks'_.\n\nWhen plural nouns do not end in _s_, their possessive forms are made by\nadding the apostrophe and _s_, the same as singular nouns, thus:\n\n  They make _men's_ and _women's_ shoes.\n\n+90.+ In words which end with a sound that resembles that of _s_, the\napostrophe with _s_ forms an additional syllable. Thus:\n\n  James's (pronounced James-ez.)\n  Mr. Lynch's (pronounced Lynch-ez.)\n\nThe only exception to the rule occurs when the addition of another _s_\nwould make too many hissing sounds, then we add the apostrophe alone.\nThus:\n\n  For goodness' sake.\n  In Jesus' name.\n\n+91.+ In forming the possessive of compound nouns, the possessive sign\nis always placed at the end, thus:\n\n  My son-in-law's sister.\n  The man-of-war's cannon.\n\n+92.+ When we wish to show that a thing belongs to two or more persons\nwho are joint owners of it, we add the possessive sign to the last word\nonly, thus:\n\n  Carson, Price and Scott's store.\n  Mason and Hamlin's pianos.\n\nIf it is a separate ownership that we wish to denote, we place the\npossessive sign after each name, thus:\n\n  Bring me John's and Mary's books.\n  Lee's and Grant's armies met in battle.\n\nRemember that the noun has just _three_ changes in form, one for the\nplural number, one to denote gender and one for the possessive form.\nWatch carefully your own language and that of your friends and note if\nthese changes are correctly made.\n\n\n                    Exercise 3\n\nWrite the plural form of each of the following:\n\n  ax\n  beef\n  chief\n  hero\n  knife\n  T\n  hoof\n  man-of-war\n  axis\n  basis\n  cherry\n  leaf\n  son-in-law\n  Mr. Smith\n  thief\n  Doctor Wood\n  alley\n  buffalo\n  chimney\n  staff\n  Frenchman\n  Miss Brown\n  ox\n  spoonful\n  alto\n  calf\n  cargo\n  two\n  3\n  tooth\n  foot\n  turkey\n\n\n                    Exercise 4\n\nUnderscore the nouns in the following:\n\nHow many abstract nouns?\n\nHow many concrete?\n\nHow many singular?\n\nHow many plural?\n\n\n              FIVE AND FIFTY\n\n         _Charlotte Perkins Gilman_\n\n    If fifty men did all the work\n      And gave the price to five;\n    And let those five make all the rules--\n    You'd say the fifty men were fools,\n      Unfit to be alive.\n\n    And if you heard complaining cries\n      From fifty brawny men,\n    Blaming the five for graft and greed,\n    Injustice, cruelty indeed--\n      What would you call them then?\n\n    Not by their own superior force\n      Do five on fifty live,\n    But by election and assent--\n    And privilege of government--\n      Powers that the fifty give.\n\n    If fifty men are really fools--\n      And five have all the brains--\n    The five must rule as now we find;\n    But if the fifty have the mind--\n      Why don't they take the reins?\n\n\n                    Exercise 5\n\nSelect all the nouns in the following. Write their singular, plural and\npossessive forms. Decide whether they are abstract or concrete, common\nor proper or collective, masculine, feminine or neuter.\n\n  Brother!\n\n  Whoever you are, wherever you are on all the earth, I greet you.\n\n  I extend to you my right hand.\n\n  I make you a pledge.\n\n  Here is my pledge to you:--\n\n  I refuse to kill your father. I refuse to slay your mother's son. I\n  refuse to plunge a bayonet into the breast of your sister's brother. I\n  refuse to slaughter your sweetheart's lover. I refuse to murder your\n  wife's husband. I refuse to butcher your little child's father. I\n  refuse to wet the earth with blood and blind kind eyes with tears. I\n  refuse to assassinate you and then hide my stained fists in the folds\n  of _any_ flag.\n\n  Will you thus pledge me and pledge all the members of our working\n  class?--_Kirkpatrick._\n\n\n\n\n                    SPELLING\n\n                    LESSON 4\n\n\nSome of our consonants also have more than one sound. We have also\ncertain combinations of consonants which represent one sound. This\ncombination of two letters to represent one sound is called a digraph,\nas _gh_, in _cough_, _ch_ in _church_. A digraph may either be a\ncombination of two consonants or of two vowels or of a vowel and a\nconsonant. The following table contains the consonants which have more\nthan one sound:\n\n  c--k as in _cat_\n  c--s as in _vice_\n  g--j as in _ginger_\n  g--_hard_ as in _go_\n  s--sh as in _sure_\n  s--zh as in _usual_\n  s--_soft_ as in _also_\n  s--z as in _does_\n  x--_soft_ as in _extra_\n  x--gz as in _exist_\n\nThe following table gives the digraphs most commonly used:\n\n  ng--as in _ring_, _tongue_\n  ch--as in _church_ and _much_\n  ch--k as in _chasm_\n  ch--sh as in _chagrin_\n  th--as in _then_, _those_\n  th--as in _thin_ and _worth_\n  ce--sh as in _ocean_\n  ci--sh as in _special_\n  dg--j as in _edge_\n  gh--f as in _rough_\n  ph--f as in _sylph_\n  qu--kw as in _quart_\n  qu--k as in _conquer_\n  sh--as in _shall_\n  si--sh as in _tension_\n  si--zh as in _vision_\n  ti--sh as in _motion_\n\n\nThe use of these digraphs gives us a number of additional sounds. Notice\nthe use of the consonants which have more than one sound and also the\ndigraphs in the spelling lesson for the week. Mark the consonants and\ndigraphs.\n\n  +Monday+\n\n    Commence\n    Certain\n    General\n    Gradual\n    Sugar\n\n  +Tuesday+\n\n    Soldier\n    Season\n    Pleasure\n    Exact\n    Exercise\n\n  +Wednesday+\n\n    Singular\n    Chemistry\n    Chapter\n    Machine\n    Changing\n\n  +Thursday+\n\n    Theory\n    Thither\n    Ocean\n    Racial\n    Budget\n\n  +Friday+\n\n    Philosophy\n    Enough\n    Quorum\n    Bouquet\n    Phonetic\n\n  +Saturday+\n\n    Permission\n    Asia\n    Attention\n    Marshall\n    Martial\n\n\n\n\n                    PLAIN ENGLISH\n\n                    LESSON 5\n\n\nDear Comrade:\n\nWe want to say just a word about the lesson assignment. This has been\narranged on a schedule of days merely to assist you in systematizing\nyour time and making the most of the leisure at your disposal. It is not\nintended that you should slavishly follow it. We thoroughly believe in\nindividuality and all that contributes toward its development. But we\nare also confident that many foolish things are done in the name of\nliberty. Whenever we set ourselves to the performance of any task we\nnecessarily limit our activities in some other direction. Power comes by\nconcentration of force. Whenever we combine with others for the\naccomplishment of any purpose, it becomes necessary to have some plan of\naction and we give and take for the end which we have in view. The\nmusician because he follows the law of harmony in music has not given up\nhis liberty. He has only found a new freedom which enables him to make\nglorious music where only discord reigned before. System in our work\ndoes not mean loss of liberty or of individuality but only finding a\nchannel through which individuality can flow into the great ocean of\nreal freedom.\n\nSo use this suggestive lesson assignment to meet your own need and find\nexpression for your real individuality in full freedom.\n\nThis is the first of several lessons concerning verbs. The verb is\nperhaps the most difficult part of speech to thoroughly master, so do\nnot be discouraged if there are some parts of this lesson you do not\nunderstand. Succeeding lessons will clear up these difficult points.\nKeep your eyes open as you read every day, and be careful of your\nspelling and pronunciation.\n\nSome of us mis-spell the common words which we see and use every day. In\na student's letter we recently noted that, with our letter before him in\nwhich the word was printed in large type and correctly spelled, he\nspelled College, _Colledge_.\n\nDo not be satisfied with half-way things or less than that which is\nworthy of you. Demand the best for yourself. Read aloud this little\nverse from the Good Grey Poet, Walt Whitman:\n\n  \"O, the joy of a manly self-hood;\n  To be servile to none, to defer to none, not to any tyrant known or\n      unknown,\n  To walk with erect carriage, a step springy and elastic,\n  To look with calm gaze or with a flashing eye,\n  To speak with a full and sonorous voice out of a broad chest,\n  To confront with your personality all the other personalities of the\n    earth.\"\n\n                    Yours for Education,\n\n                              THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.\n\n\n                    THE WORD THAT ASSERTS\n\n+93.+ You remember when we studied sentences we found that we could not\nhave a sentence without a verb or a word that asserts. The life of a\nsentence is the verb, for without the verb we cannot assert, question or\ncommand. It was on account of this importance that the Romans called the\nverb, _verbum_, which meant the word. Verbs, like nouns, are divided\ninto classes.\n\n+94.+ In some of our sentences the verb alone is enough to make a\ncomplete assertion, but in other sentences we use verbs that need to be\nfollowed by one or more words to complete the assertion. Notice the\nfollowing sentences:\n\n  The boy ran.\n  The boy found the ball.\n  The earth revolves.\n  The earth is round.\n\nDo you notice any difference in the verbs used in these sentences?\nNotice that the verbs _ran_ and _revolves_ make the complete assertion\nabout their subjects. Notice the verbs _found_ and _is_. These are not\ncomplete without the addition of the words _ball_ and _round_. If we say\n_The boy found_, _The earth is_, you at once ask, _The boy found WHAT?_\n_The earth is WHAT?_ The sense is incomplete without the addition of\nthese words _ball_ and _round_. A part of the thought is unexpressed;\nbut when we say _The boy found the ball_, _The earth is round_, the\nsense is complete.\n\nSo we have two classes of verbs, _COMPLETE AND INCOMPLETE VERBS_.\n\n+95.+ +An incomplete verb is one that requires the addition of one or\nmore words to complete its meaning.+\n\n+The word or words added to an incomplete verb to complete its meaning\nare called the complement.+\n\n+A complete verb is one that requires no complement to complete its\nmeaning.+\n\n+96.+ You can readily tell when a verb is complete and when it is\nincomplete by asking the question _What?_ If you put the question _what_\nafter the verb, and it makes a sensible question the verb is\n_incomplete_. For example:\n\n  Farmers raise--_what?_\n  The employer discharged--_what?_\n  We were--_what?_\n  The earth is--_what?_\n\nIf the question _what?_ does not make sense after the verb, then the\nverb is _complete_. For example:\n\n  The sun shines.\n  Water flows.\n  Men work.\n\nThe question _what_ after these verbs would not make sense, as:\n\n  The sun shines--_what?_\n  Men work--_what?_\n  Water flows--_what?_\n\nSo these verbs are _complete_ verbs.\n\n+97.+ The same verb, however, may be complete or incomplete, according\nto the way in which it is used. For example:\n\n  The corn grows.\n  The farmer grows corn.\n\nIn the sentence, _Corn grows_, _grows_ is a complete verb. You could not\nsay _The corn grows--what?_ for it does not grow anything. It merely\ngrows, and the verb _grows_ in this sense is a complete verb. But in the\nsentence, _The farmer grows corn_, you are using the verb _grows_ in a\nslightly different sense. It is an _incomplete verb_, for you do not\nmean, _The farmer grows_, but you mean that _the farmer grows CORN_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 1\n\nIn the following sentences, underscore the complete verbs with one line,\nthe incomplete with two lines. Ask the question _what?_ after each verb\nto determine whether it is complete or incomplete.\n\n  He returned today.\n  He returned the book.\n  The rose smells sweet.\n  He smelled the rose.\n  The trees shake in the wind.\n  The wind shakes the trees.\n  The ship plows through the waves.\n  The farmer plows the field.\n  The birds sing sweetly.\n  They sang the Marseillaise.\n  He worries over the matter.\n  The matters worry him.\n  The table feels rough.\n  He feels the rough surface.\n  It tastes bitter.\n  He tasted the bitter dregs.\n\n\n                    Exercise 2\n\nUse the following verbs in sentences as both complete and incomplete\nverbs, as for example, _The snow melts._ _The sun melts the snow._\n\n  melts\n  write\n  stopped\n  answer\n  rings\n  fall\n  see\n  strike\n\n\n                    INCOMPLETE VERBS\n\n+98.+ Do you notice any difference in the two verbs in the following\nsentences:\n\n  The boy found the ball.\n  The earth is round.\n\nIn the sentence, _The boy found the ball_, the word _ball_ tells _what_\nthe boy _found_. The verb _found_ expresses action; it tells what the\nboy _does_. _Boy_ is the subject of the action--the one who performs the\naction. The word _ball_ is the _object_ of the action. It shows the\nreceiver of the action. In the sentence, _The earth is round_, _is_ does\nnot express action. The earth is not doing anything, it simply _is_. The\nverb _is_ expresses a state or condition and is incomplete, for you do\nnot know what state or condition is expressed until we add the other\nword or words which describe the state or condition.\n\nNotice the following sentences:\n\n  The earth is round.\n  The earth is our home.\n  The earth is a sphere.\n  The earth is large.\n\nThe words _round_, _sphere_, _home_ and _large_, describe the earth\nwhich is the subject of the verb _is_.\n\n+99.+ So we have two classes of incomplete verbs, the verbs that express\naction and the verbs that express state or condition. The verbs which\nexpress action are called _transitive_ verbs. Transitive is a word\nderived from the Latin, and means literally _passing over_.\n\n+100.+ So a transitive verb describes an action which _passes over_\nfrom the subject to the object. As for example in the sentence, _The\nplayer struck the ball_, _struck_ is a transitive verb--a verb of\naction--describing the action of the subject, _player_, which passes\nover to the object, _ball_. Therefore we have our definition of a\ntransitive verb:\n\n+A transitive verb is one that has a complement showing who or what\nreceives the action expressed by the verb.+\n\n+The complement or word that denotes the receiver of the action\nexpressed by a transitive verb is called the object.+\n\nWhen you look up the meaning of verbs in your dictionary, you will find\nsome verbs marked _v.i._, and some verbs marked _v.t._ _V.t._ is the\nabbreviation for _verb transitive_. Whenever you find a verb marked\n_v.t._, you know that it is a transitive verb, a verb of action, one\nwhich requires an object to complete its meaning. _V.i._ is the\nabbreviation for _verb intransitive_. Some grammarians use the term\n_intransitive_ to include both _complete_ and _copulative_ verbs. We\nhave used the terms complete and incomplete because they are much\nsimpler and clearer in describing the two general classes of verbs, but\nyou will remember that when you find verbs marked _v.i._ in the\ndictionary that these include _complete_ and _copulative_ verbs.\n\n+101.+ Now notice these sentences:\n\n  The earth is round.\n  The earth is a sphere.\n\nIn these sentences the verb _is_ does not express action, but _connects_\nor _couples_ the complements _round_ and _sphere_ with the subject\n_earth_. Verbs used in this way are called _copulative_ verbs, from the\nword _copula_, which means to _complete_ or to _connect_. The words\n_round_ and _sphere_ are not the objects of the verb, for they do not\ndescribe the receiver of any action. They are the words which describe\nthe state or condition expressed in the verb _is_, and are called the\nattribute complement of the verb.\n\nYou note that this complement may be either an adjective or a noun. In\nthe sentence, _The earth is round_, the adjective, _round_, is used as\nthe complement; in the sentence, _The earth is a sphere_, the noun,\n_sphere_, is used as the complement. So we have our definition of\ncopulative verbs.\n\n+102.+ +Verbs that express state or condition are called copulative\nverbs.+\n\n+The word or words that complete the meaning of an incomplete verb\nexpressing state or condition, are called the complement, or attribute\ncomplement.+\n\nThere are only a few of these copulative verbs. All forms of the verb,\n_be_; like _am_, _is_, _are_, _was_ and _were_, and the verb phrases\nlike _must be_, _can be_, _will be_, _shall be_, _have been_, _had\nbeen_, etc.; and the verbs _seem_, _appear_, _become_, _look_, _feel_,\n_taste_, _sound_ and _smell_, are the principal copulative verbs.\n\n\n                    Exercise 3\n\nStudy carefully the following sentences. Note whether the complement of\nthe copulative verb is an adjective or a noun. Draw one line under each\n_adjective_ used as a complement and two lines under each _noun_ used as\na complement.\n\n  The day is beautiful.\n  I am weary and tired.\n  The men were soldiers.\n  The tasks seem endless.\n  All men must be free.\n  The workers have been slaves.\n  The burden becomes heavier every day.\n  The children feel happy and care-free.\n  Evolution is the development of life.\n  Grammar is the study of words and their use.\n  Knowledge is freedom.\n  The music sounds sweet on the midnight air.\n  He looks well today.\n  The dregs taste bitter.\n  The incense smells sweet.\n\n\n                    Exercise 4\n\nComplete the following sentences by adding an object or a complement.\n\n\n  1. Perseverance in your study will bring.......\n  2. The great need of the working class is.......\n  3. We shall never acknowledge.......\n  4. By the sweat of no other's brow shalt thou eat.......\n  5. The Revolutionary fathers founded.......\n  6. The workers demand.......\n  7. Labor's only road to freedom is.......\n  8. Life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness are.......\n  9. If you struggle, you will gain.......\n  10. An incomplete verb requires.......\n  11. The complement of a transitive verb is called.......\n  12. The complement of a copulative verb may be either......or.......\n\n\n+103. There are two classes of verbs, complete and incomplete.+\n\n+A complete verb is one that requires no complement.+\n\n+An incomplete verb is one that requires a complement to complete its\nmeaning.+\n\n+Incomplete verbs are of two kinds: 1. Those that express action; 2.\nThose that express state or condition.+\n\n+Incomplete verbs that express action are called transitive verbs.+\n\n+Incomplete verbs that express state or condition are called copulative\nverbs.+\n\n+The complement or the word that denotes the receiver of the action\nexpressed in a transitive verb is called the object.+\n\n+The word or words that complete the meaning of a copulative verb are\ncalled the complement, or attribute complement.+\n\n+The same verb may be complete or incomplete, according to the way in\nwhich it is used.+\n\n\n                    Exercise 5\n\nIn the following sentences draw a single line under the complete verbs\nand a double line under the incomplete verbs. Then determine whether the\nincomplete verbs are transitive or copulative verbs, and draw a line\nthrough the object or the complement.\n\n  1. Some plants are poisonous.\n  2. A rolling stone gathers no moss.\n  3. Perseverance brings success.\n  4. Delays are dangerous.\n  5. A man's actions show his character.\n  6. He looks well and feels stronger.\n  7. The snows come and the flowers fade.\n  8. Labor creates all wealth.\n  9. Labor must be free.\n  10. The boy writes well.\n  11. The man wrote a letter.\n  12. The skies are clear.\n  13. The hail destroyed the wheat.\n  14. No man is ever too old to learn.\n  15. Competition makes enemies.\n  16. Co-operation makes friends.\n  17. Competition breeds hatred.\n  18. Co-operation breeds good will.\n  19. Competition ensures war.\n  20. Co-operation ensures peace.\n\n\n                    Exercise 6\n\nIn the following quotation all of the verbs are printed in _italics_.\nDetermine whether they are complete or incomplete verbs. If incomplete,\ndetermine whether they are transitive or copulative verbs. Draw a line\nunder the object of every transitive verb and two lines under the\ncomplement of every copulative verb. Remember that sometimes we have\nseveral words combined into a verb phrase and used as a single verb.\nWatch for the verb phrases in the following, as for example: _must be_,\nin the sentence, _Labor must be free_.\n\n\n  The history of man _is_ simply the history of slavery. Slavery\n  _includes_ all other crimes. It _degrades_ labor and _corrupts_\n  leisure. With the idea that labor _is_ the basis of progress _goes_\n  the truth that labor _must be_ free. The laborer _must be_ a free man.\n\n  There _is_ something wrong in a government where honesty _wears_ a rag\n  and rascality _dons_ a robe; where the loving _eat_ a crust while the\n  infamous _sit_ at banquets.\n\n  _Talk_ about equal opportunity! Capitalism _ties_ a balloon to the\n  shoulders of the rich child; it _ties_ a ball and chain to the feet of\n  the poor child; and _tells_ them that they _have_ an equal\n  opportunity!\n\n  Once the master _hunted_ for the slaves, now the slave _hunts_ for a\n  master.\n\n\n                    Exercise 7\n\nMark the verbs in the following poem. Often in poetry words are omitted\nwhich in strict grammatical construction should be expressed. As for\nexample in the fourth line of this poem _which are_, is omitted before\nthe word _bought_. In prose this would read, _The pews which are bought\nby the profits_, etc. So the word _bought_ is a part of the verb phrase,\n_are bought_. In the last line of the third stanza there is another\nomission before the word _planning_. The meaning is, _while they are\nplanning slaughter_. _Planning_ is a part of the verb phrase _are\nplanning_. And in the last line _is_ is omitted before the word\n_beloved_. _Is beloved_ is the verb phrase. Determine whether the verbs\nin this poem are complete, transitive or copulative, and mark the\nobjects and the complements of the transitive and the copulative verbs.\n\n\n              WHO IS A CHRISTIAN?\n\n             _Ella Wheeler Wilcox_\n\n    \"Who is a Christian in this Christian land\n    Of many churches and of lofty spires?\n    Not he who sits in soft, upholstered pews\n    Bought by the profits of unholy greed,\n    And looks devotion while he thinks of gain.\n\n    Not he who sends petitions from the lips\n    That lie to-morrow in the street and mart.\n    Not he who fattens on another's toil,\n    And flings his unearned riches to the poor\n    Or aids the heathen with a lessened wage,\n    And builds cathedrals with an increased rent.\n\n    Christ, with Thy great, sweet, simple creed of love,\n    How must Thou weary of earth's \"Christian\" clans,\n    Who preach salvation through Thy saving blood\n    While planning slaughter of their fellow men.\n\n    Who is a Christian? It is one whose life\n    Is built on love, on kindness and on faith;\n    Who holds his brother as his other self;\n    Who toils for justice, equity and peace,\n    And hides no aim or purpose in his heart\n    That will not chord with universal good.\n    Though he be a pagan, heretic or Jew\n    That man is Christian and beloved of Christ.\"\n\n\n\n\n                    SPELLING\n\n                    LESSON 5\n\n\nWe often have two vowels used in the same syllable as a single sound, as\n_ou_ in _round_, _oi_ in _oil_, etc.\n\n+A diphthong is a union of two vowels to represent a single\nsound different from that of either alone.+\n\nSometimes we have two vowels used together in a combination which is\nreally not a diphthong for they do not unite in a different sound. Only\none of the vowels is used and the other is silent as _ai_ in _rain_,\n_oa_ in _soap_, etc.\n\nThe most common diphthongs are:\n\n  ou as in _sound_.\n  ow as in _owl_.\n  oi as in _oil_.\n  oy as in _boy_.\n\nIn the spelling lesson for this week mark the words in which the\ncombination of vowels forms a diphthong. In some of the words the\ncombination of vowels does not form a diphthong for only one of the\nvowels is sounded. Draw a line through the silent letter.\n\n  +Monday+\n\n    Straight\n    Aisle\n    Search\n    Breadth\n    Defeat\n\n  +Tuesday+\n\n    Exploit\n    Ceiling\n    Height\n    People\n    Feudal\n\n  +Wednesday+\n\n    Brought\n    Shoulder\n    Group\n    Compound\n    Trouble\n\n  +Thursday+\n\n    Royal\n    Coarse\n    Course\n    Broad\n    Flower\n\n  +Friday+\n\n    Laughter\n    Haunted\n    Plaid\n    Invoice\n    Chair\n\n  +Saturday+\n\n    Guide\n    Build\n    Grieve\n    Sieve\n    Renown\n\n\n\n\n                    PLAIN ENGLISH\n\n                    LESSON 6\n\n\nDear Comrade:\n\nWe have this week another lesson in verbs. Do not be discouraged if you\ndo not understand it all at once. Little by little, it will grow clearer\nand you will master this important word.\n\nThe verb may seem involved to you, but a little application will soon\nmake it clear. It is the most important word in the language to master.\nIt almost seems as though the verb were a living, thinking thing. It\nchanges outward form to accommodate itself to its subject in the number\nform and person form change. If it is entertaining a subject in the\nsingular it adopts one dress; if it is entertaining a plural subject,\nmore than one, the verb wears a different dress.\n\nSo also if the subject is the first person, the person speaking, or the\nsecond person, the person spoken to, or the third person, the person\nspoken of, the verb accommodates itself to the subject. The verb is the\nmost agreeable thing for it changes its form to agree with its subject!\nSo watch your verb and see that it agrees.\n\nRefer constantly to your list of irregular verbs given in this lesson\nfor we so often make mistakes in the use of these verb forms.\n\nThen, too, the verb kindly changes its form to accommodate itself to the\ntime of the action--action in the present, in the past, in the\nfuture--action completed before the present time--before some time\npast--or before some future time--and action progressing and not yet\ncompleted in the present, in the past or in the future. Then it can also\nchange to show whether its subject is acting or being acted upon. Isn't\nthe verb a wonderfully accommodating member of the co-operative\ncommonwealth of words?\n\nAnd can you not see hidden under all this, a marvelous development in\nthe intellectual needs of men from the day of the savage's signs and\ngrunts to the day when we can express such shades of meaning? This tool\nof expression, language, has had a wonderful evolution side by side with\nthe evolution of the other tools by which man expresses his creative\ngenius; from the forked stick with which man scratched the soil to the\ngreat machine-driven plow of today; from the simple threshing flail to\nthe monster threshing machine of modern times.\n\nThere is nothing so wonderful as man's ability to express himself. Add a\nlittle to your knowledge every day and the sum total will soon surprise\nyou.\n\n                    Yours for Education,\n\n                              THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.\n\n\n                    INFLECTION--CHANGES IN FORM\n\n+104.+ You remember that nouns have certain changes in form to indicate\nchanges in use. Verbs also have several changes in form to correspond\nwith changes in their use or meaning. Notice the following sentences:\n\n  I think.\n  I thought.\n  I work.\n  I worked.\n\nWhat is the difference in the meaning of _I think_ and _I thought_? of\n_I work_ and _I worked_? When we say, _I think_, or _I work_, we mean\nthat the action is now, to-day, in the present; but when we say, _I\nthought_, or _I worked_, we mean that _now_ is not the time of the\naction, but that the action was performed sometime in the past. So we\nhave a change in the verb form to denote _time_. The simple form of the\nverb, like _think_ or _work_, is used to denote _present time_. When we\nwish to express _past time_ we do it by changing the form of the verb.\nNow note the following:\n\n                    } call\n  I, We, You, They, } send\n                    } fall\n  The men           } bring\n                    } hide\n\n                    } calls\n  He, She, It,      } sends\n                    } falls\n  The man           } brings\n                    } hides\n\nNow let us write this in another way.\n\n                 +Present Time+\n\n             _Singular_             _Plural_\n\n  1st person--I call.               We call.\n  2nd person--You call.             You call.\n\n              He      }\n  3rd person  She     } calls.      They, or  } call.\n              It      }             The men   }\n              The man }\n\n+105.+ You notice in this table we use the expressions _first person_,\n_second person_, and _third person_. _I_ and _we_ indicate the person or\npersons speaking and are called the first person. _You_ indicates the\nperson or persons spoken to and is called the second person. _He_,\n_she_, _it_, _they_, and the person or persons or things spoken of, are\ncalled the third person.\n\nWe use the word _you_ when speaking to one or more than one now-a-days.\nIt used to be that when speaking to a single person, people said _thou_,\nand in speaking to two or more they said _you_. But we today have\ndropped the old form _thou_, and use _you_ for both singular and plural.\n\n+106.+ Now note, in the above table, that there is only one form change\nin the verb, and this is in the _third person singular_. We say _I\ncall_, _You call_, _We call_, _They_, or _The men call_, but we say\n_He_, or _the man calls_, in speaking of one person or thing. So we\nchange the form of the verb with any subject which denotes the third\nperson and the singular number. This form is made by adding _s_ to the\nsimple form of the verb, therefore we may call it the _s-form_ because\nit always ends in _s_.\n\nRemember that this _s-form_ is used to express present time with a third\nperson, singular subject. _BE CAREFUL NOT TO USE THIS FORM WITH ANY\nPLURAL SUBJECT._ There is no other change in the verb form in expressing\nthe present time in any verb, except in the verb _be_.\n\n+107.+ This little verb _be_ is one of the most troublesome verbs in our\nlanguage, and since it is used in forming verb phrases, it will be well\nto commit the following table to memory. Watch closely your use of this\nbothersome little word. Note that it has a change in form for the _first\nperson singular_, as well as for the third person singular. All other\nverbs have just the one change, the _s-form_ for the third person\nsingular. The verb _be_ has a form also to use with the first person\nsingular, the pronoun _I_.\n\n  +Present Time+        +Past Time+\n\n  _Singular_            _Singular_\n\n  1. I am.            1. I was.\n  2. You are.         2. You were.\n  3. He is.           3. He was.\n\n  _Plural_              _Plural_\n\n  1. We are.          1. We were.\n  2. You are.         2. You were.\n  3. They are.        3. They were.\n\n+108.+ +The present time form is the form which expresses present time.\nIt is expressed by the simple form of the verb with the exception of the\nthird person singular, which is expressed by the _s-form_.+\n\n\n                    PAST TIME\n\n+109.+ To express _past time_ we change the form of the verb. Notice the\nfollowing:\n\n  I         } called        We         } called\n  She       } sent          You        } sent\n  He        } fell          They       } fell\n  It        } brought       The men    } brought\n  The man   } hid                      } hid\n\nNotice that these various forms of the verb which express past time are\nall made by changes from the simple form, which expresses present time.\nYou will also notice that these five verbs used in the above table all\nform their past time form in different ways. For example, _call_ adds\n_ed_; _send_ changes the final letter from _d_ to _t_; _fall_ changes\nthe vowel in the middle of the word from _a_ to _e_; _bring_ changes\nboth the vowel and the final letter from _bring_ to _brought_; _hide_\ndrops the final letter _e_.\n\n+110.+ +Verbs whose past time forms are made by adding _d_ or _ed_\nto the simple form are called regular verbs.+\n\n+Verbs whose past time forms are made in some other way than by adding\n_d_ or _ed_ are called irregular verbs.+\n\n+111.+ There are about two hundred of these irregular verbs which form\ntheir past time in the following ways:\n\n1. By change in the vowel letter, as _fall_, _fell_; _write_, _wrote_;\n_see_, _saw_; _sing_, _sang_; _come_, _came_.\n\n2. By dropping the final vowel; as _hide_, _hid_; _slide_, _slid_;\n_bite_, _bit_.\n\n3. By dropping a vowel from the middle of the word; as _bleed_, _bled_;\n_feed_, _fed_; _lead_, _led_.\n\n4. By changing the final letter or letters; as _send_, _sent_; _lose_,\n_lost_; _spend_, _spent_.\n\n5. By changing the vowel and final letters; as _bring_, _brought_;\n_seek_, _sought_; _catch_, _caught_.\n\n6. By changing the vowel sound and adding _t_ or _d_; as _sleep_,\n_slept_; _feel_, _felt_; _flee_, _fled_.\n\nThere are some irregular forms which we must learn and be exceedingly\ncareful in their use. Study the list in this lesson.\n\n\n                     Exercise 1\n\nWrite the _present_ and _past_ time forms of the following verbs as the\nverb _think_ is written in the table given below.\n\n  think\n  ride\n  have\n  give\n  write\n  ask\n  make\n  try\n  speak\n  run\n  see\n  do\n\n  +Present Time+         +Past Time+\n\n  _Singular_             _Singular_\n\n  1. I think          1. I thought\n  2. You think        2. You thought\n  3. He thinks        3. He thought\n\n  _Plural_              _Plural_\n\n  1. We think         1. We thought\n  2. You think        2. You thought\n  3. They think       3. They thought\n\n+112.+ Be very careful not to use the _s-form_ except for the third\nperson singular. Be especially careful in the use of different forms of\nthe verb _be_. It is in the use of this verb that we so frequently make\nmistakes. Watch your own language and the conversation of your friends\nand note these mistakes and correct them in your own mind. These common\nblunders in the use of English mark us as careless or uneducated by\neveryone who hears us speak. We have fallen into bad habits oftentimes\nand make these mistakes when we know better, and only constant\nwatchfulness for a time can overcome the habit. After a time we learn to\nspeak correctly without effort, and then these mistakes made by others\noffend the ear like a false note in music.\n\n\n                    Exercise 2\n\nCross out the wrong form in the following:\n\n  They _was_--_were_ not here.\n  The clouds _has_--_have_ gathered.\n  People _is_--_are_ indifferent.\n  The train _was_--_were_ on time.\n  The men _was_--_were_ armed.\n  Our school building _is_--_are_ inadequate.\n  The workers _earn_--_earns_ their wages.\n  The voters _elect_--_elects_ the President.\n  They _do_--_does_ as they please.\n  We _was_--_were_ there on time.\n\n\n                    DOING DOUBLE WORK\n\n+113.+ We have found now three forms of the verb, the _simple form_, the\n_s-form_, and the _past time form_, and, in addition, the _I-form_, or\nthe first person form of the verb _be_. There are no other real verb\nforms, but there are two other changes made in the form of the verb when\nit ceases to be used as the predicate, the asserting word of the\nsentence, and becomes, in part, another part of speech.\n\nNotice in the following sentences:\n\n  Making shoes is his work.\n  He enjoys making shoes.\n\nIn each of these sentences the word _making_, from the verb _make_, is\nused as a noun. In the first, _Making shoes is his work_, _making_ is\nused as the subject of the sentence. In the second, _He enjoys making\nshoes_, _making_ is used as the object of the verb _enjoys_. But\n_making_ is not like the ordinary noun, for it has an object\n_making_--_what?_--_making shoes_. _Shoes_ is the object of the action\nexpressed in _making_. A noun never takes an object; so while the word\n_making_ is used as a noun, it is also partly a verb. It is a form of\nthe verb used as a noun, but keeping in part its verb nature, partaking\nof the nature of two parts of speech at the same time.\n\nHence these forms of the verb are called _participles_. Participle means\n_partaker_.\n\nThe participle may also be used as an adjective. Notice the following:\n\n  The _crying_ child came toward us.\n  The _rescuing_ party arrived.\n\nIn these sentences _crying_ and _rescuing_ are formed from the verbs\n_cry_ and _rescue_, and are used as adjectives to describe the noun\n_child_ and the noun _party_. So a participle is a mixed part of speech.\nIt is partially a verb, but is not a true verb. A true verb is always\nused as the predicate, the asserting word in the sentence and _always_\nhas a subject. The participle _never_ has a subject; it may have an\nobject, but not a subject.\n\n+114.+ There are two forms of the participle. The active form or the\npresent form as it is sometimes called, ends in _ing_, as, _waiting_,\n_walking_, _saying_. It expresses action, existence, or possession as\ngoing on at the time mentioned in the sentence.\n\n+115.+ The other form of the participle is the passive form or the past\nform of the participle. This ends in _ed_ in the regular verbs, and has\nvarious forms in the irregular verbs. It is formed in regular verbs by\nadding _d_ or _ed_ to the simple form, hence has the same form as the\npast time form, as for example, present time form, _call_--past time\nform, _called_--past participle, _called_. You will find the past\nparticiple forms of irregular verbs in the list of irregular verbs given\nin this lesson, as for example--present time form, _go_--past time form,\n_went_--past participle, _gone_.\n\n+116.+ You will find as we study the verb phrases in later lessons that\nthese participles are used in forming verb phrases. As for example:\n\n  He is coming.\n  They are trying.\n  He has gone.\n\n+A participle is a word derived from a verb, partaking of the nature of\na verb and also of an adjective or a noun.+\n\n\n                    LET US SUM UP\n\n+117.+ +Verbs have five form changes.+\n\n  Simple  S-Form  Past Time  Present Part.  Past Part.\n\n  call    calls    called      calling        called\n\n  go      goes     went        going          gone\n\n\n                    Exercise 3\n\nWrite in columns like the above the five forms of the following verbs:\n\n  do\n  try\n  give\n  hope\n  live\n  rob\n  have\n  think\n  sing\n  get\n  wave\n  lose\n  come\n  make\n\n\n                    Exercise 4\n\nStudy carefully the following quotation. You will find in it all five of\nthe form changes of the verb--_the present time form_, _the s-form_,\n_the past time form_, _the present participle_ and _the past\nparticiple_. In the verb phrases _had been filled_, _has survived_, _has\ngone_, _has proved_ and _be dismayed_, you will find the past participle\nused in forming the verb phrase. We will study these verb phrases in\nlater lessons.\n\nIn the verb phrases, _was stumbling_, _was groping_, _is conquering_,\n_are carrying_, the present participle is used in forming the verb\nphrases. _Could reconcile_ is also a verb phrase. We will study these\nverb phrases also in later lessons.\n\nThe present participles, _struggling_, _persevering_ and _regaining_ are\nused as adjectives. Study them carefully and find the words which they\ndescribe. The present participles _imagining_, _learning_ and\n_suffering_ are used as nouns. Note their use.\n\nThe past participles _rebuffed_, _self-reproached_, _discouraged_ and\n_promised_ are used as adjectives. Find the words which they modify.\nThere are several _present time forms_, several _past time forms_, and\nseveral _s-forms_. Find them and study carefully their usage.\n\n\n                    OUT OF THE DARK\n\n                    _By Helen Keller_\n\n  _America's famous blind girl, who has come to see more than most\n  people with normal eyes._\n\n  Step by step my investigation of blindness _led_ me into the\n  industrial world. And what a world it _is_. I _faced_ unflinchingly a\n  world of facts--a world of misery and degradation, of blindness,\n  crookedness, and sin, a world _struggling_ against the elements,\n  against the unknown, against itself. How _could_ I _reconcile_ this\n  world of fact with the bright world of my _imagining_? My darkness\n  _had been filled_ with the light of intelligence, and, _behold_, the\n  outer day-lit world _was stumbling_, _was groping_ in social\n  blindness. At first, I _was_ most unhappy, but deeper study _restored_\n  my confidence. By _learning_ the _suffering_ and burdens of men, I\n  _became_ aware as never before of the life-power which _has survived_\n  the forces of darkness--the power which, though never completely\n  victorious, _is_ continuously _conquering_. The very fact that we\n  _are_ still carrying on the contest against the hosts of annihilation\n  _proves_ that on the whole the battle _has gone_ for humanity. The\n  world's great heart _has proved_ equal to the prodigious undertaking\n  which God _set_ it. _Rebuffed_, but always _persevering_;\n  _self-reproached_, but ever _regaining_ faith; undaunted, tenacious,\n  the heart of man _labors_ towards immeasurably distant goals.\n  _Discouraged_ not by difficulties without, or the anguish of ages\n  within, the heart _listens_ to a secret voice that _whispers_: \"_Be_\n  not _dismayed_; in the future _lies_ the _Promised_ Land.\"\n\n\nList of Irregular Verbs\n\nHere is a list of the principal irregular verbs--the present and past\ntime forms and the past participle are called the principal parts of a\nverb.\n\n(Those marked with an _r_ have also the regular form.)\n\n  +Present T.+    +Past T.+         +Past Part.+\n\n  abide           abode              abode\n  arise           arose              arisen\n  awake           awoke, _r_         awaked\n  be or am        was                been\n  bear            bore               borne\n  beat            beat               beaten\n  begin           began              begun\n  bend            bent, _r_          bent, _r_\n  bereave         bereft, _r_        bereft, _r_\n  beseech         besought           besought\n  bet             bet                bet\n  bid             bid or bade        bid (den)\n  bind            bound              bound\n  bite            bit                bit (ten)\n  bleed           bled               bled\n  blow            blew               blown\n  break           broke              broken\n  breed           bred               bred\n  bring           brought            brought\n  build           built, _r_         built, _r_\n  burn            burnt, _r_         burnt, _r_\n  burst           burst              burst\n  buy             bought             bought\n  cast            cast               cast\n  catch           caught             caught\n  chide           chid               chid (den)\n  choose          chose              chosen\n  cling           clung              clung\n  clothe          clad, _r_          clad, _r_\n  come            came               come\n  cost            cost               cost\n  creep           crept              crept\n  cut             cut                cut\n  deal            dealt, _r_         dealt, _r_\n  dig             dug, _r_           dug, _r_\n  do              did                done\n  draw            drew               drawn\n  dream           dreamt, _r_        dreamt, _r_\n  drink           drank              drunk\n  drive           drove              driven\n  dwell           dwelt, _r_         dwelt, _r_\n  eat             ate                eaten\n  fall            fell               fallen\n  feed            fed                fed\n  feel            felt               felt\n  fight           fought             fought\n  find            found              found\n  flee            fled               fled\n  fling           flung              flung\n  fly             flew               flown\n  forget          forgot             forgotten\n  forgive         forgave            forgiven\n  forsake         forsook            forsaken\n  get             got                got (ten)\n  give            gave               given\n  go              went               gone\n  grind           ground             ground\n  grow            grew               grown\n  hang            hung, _r_          hung, _r_\n  have            had                had\n  hear            heard              heard\n  hew             hewed              hewn, _r_\n  hide            hid                hidden\n  hit             hit                hit\n  hold            held               held\n  hurt            hurt               hurt\n  keep            kept               kept\n  kneel           knelt, _r_         knelt, _r_\n  knit            knit, _r_          knit, _r_\n  know            knew               known\n  lay             laid               laid\n  lead            led                led\n  leave           left               left\n  lend            lent               lent\n  let             let                let\n  lie             lay                lain\n  light           lit, _r_           lit, _r_\n  lose            lost               lost\n  make            made               made\n  mean            meant              meant\n  meet            met                met\n  mistake         mistook            mistaken\n  mow             mowed              mown, _r_\n  pay             paid               paid\n  plead           pled, _r_          pled, _r_\n  put             put                put\n  quit            quit, _r_          quit, _r_\n  read            read               read\n  rend            rent               rent\n  rid             rid                rid\n  ride            rode               ridden\n  ring            rang               rung\n  rise            rose               risen\n  run             ran                run\n  saw             sawed              sawn, _r_\n  say             said               said\n  see             saw                seen\n  seek            sought             sought\n  sell            sold               sold\n  send            sent               sent\n  set             set                set\n  shake           shook              shaken\n  shape           shaped             shapen, _r_\n  shave           shaved             shaven, _r_\n  shear           sheared            shorn, _r_\n  shed            shed               shed\n  shine           shone, _r_         shone, _r_\n  shoe            shod               shod\n  shoot           shot               shot\n  show            showed             shown, _r_\n  shrink          shrank             shrunk (en)\n  shut            shut               shut\n  sing            sang               sung\n  sink            sank               sunk\n  sit             sat                sat\n  slay            slew               slain\n  sleep           slept              slept\n  slide           slid               slid (en)\n  sling           slung              slung\n  slink           slunk              slunk\n  slit            slit               slit\n  smite           smote              smitten\n  sow             sowed              sown, _r_\n  speak           spoke              spoken\n  speed           sped               sped\n  spend           spent              spent\n  spill           spilt, _r_         spilt, _r_\n  spin            spun               spun\n  spit            spit               spit\n  split           split              split\n  spoil           spoilt, _r_        spoilt, _r_\n  spread          spread             spread\n  spring          sprang             sprung\n  stand           stood              stood\n  stave           stove, _r_         stove, _r_\n  steal           stole              stolen\n  stick           stuck              stuck\n  sting           stung              stung\n  stink           stunk              stunk\n  strike          struck             struck\n  strike          struck             stricken\n  stride          strode             stridden\n  string          strung             strung\n  strive          strove             striven\n  strew           strewed            strewn, _r_\n  swear           sworn              sworn\n  sweat           sweat, _r_         sweat, _r_\n  sweep           swept              swept\n  swell           swelled            swollen, _r_\n  swim            swam               swum\n  swing           swung              swung\n  take            took               taken\n  teach           taught             taught\n  tear            tore               torn\n  tell            told               told\n  think           thought            thought\n  throw           threw              thrown\n  thrust          thrust             thrust\n  tread           trod               trod (den)\n  wake            woke, _r_          woke, _r_\n  wear            wore               worn\n  weave           wove               woven\n  wed             wed, _r_           wed, _r_\n  weep            wept               wept\n  wet             wet, _r_           wet, _r_\n  whet            whet, _r_          whet, _r_\n  win             won                won\n  wind            wound              wound\n  work            wrought, _r_       wrought, _r_\n  wring           wrung              wrung\n  write           wrote              written\n\n\n\n\n                    SPELLING\n\n                    LESSON 6\n\n\nEvery vowel or every vowel combination pronounced as one vowel sound\nindicates a syllable (excepting final _e_ in such words as _fate_,\n_late_, _rode_, etc.) Take the word _combination_, for example. In this\nword we have four syllables, thus: _Com-bi-na-tion_.\n\n+A syllable is that part of a word which can be uttered distinctly by a\nsingle effort of the voice.+ Remember that each syllable must contain a\nvowel or a vowel combination like _oi_ or _ou_, which is pronounced as\none vowel. Sometimes the vowel alone makes the syllable as in _a-lone_,\n_e-qual_, etc. The final _e_ in words like _late_, and _fate_ is not\nsounded. It is silent, we say.\n\nAll words ending in silent _e_ have the long vowel sound, with a very\nfew exceptions. Words without the final _e_ have the short vowel sound\nas for example: _fate_, _fat_; _mate_, _mat_; _hide_, _hid_; _rode_,\n_rod_.\n\nIn dividing words into syllables the consonant is written with the\npreceding vowel when that vowel is short. If the vowel is long the\nconsonant is written with the next syllable, as for example, de-fine and\ndef-i-ni-tion. In de-fine the _e_ is long therefore _f_, the consonant\nfollowing, is written with the next syllable, _fine_. In def-i-ni-tion\nthe _e_ has the short sound, therefore the _f_ is written with the _e_\nin the syllable, _def_.\n\nWhen there are two consonants following the vowel, divide between the\nconsonants, as for example, _in-ven-tion_, _foun-da-tion_, etc. Never\ndivide a digraph, that is, two consonants which are sounded together as\none sound, as for example, _moth-er_, _catch-er_, _te-leg-ra-pher_, etc.\n\nIn writing words containing double consonants like _dd_, _ll_, _ss_,\ndivide the word into syllables between the double consonants, as for\nexample, _per-mit-ted_, _ad-mis-sion_, _sad-dest_, etc.\n\n  +Monday+\n\n    Important\n    Accommodate\n    Person\n    Correspond\n    Action\n\n  +Tuesday+\n\n    Difference\n    Notice\n    Indicate\n    Remember\n    Irregular\n\n  +Wednesday+\n\n    Mistake\n    Conversation\n    Correctly\n    President\n    Ordinary\n\n  +Thursday+\n\n    Participle\n    Passive\n    Various\n    Phrase\n    Quotation\n\n  +Friday+\n\n    Imagine\n    Confidence\n    Humanity\n    Faith\n    Future\n\n  +Saturday+\n\n    Whisper\n    Thought\n    Ability\n    Knowledge\n    Genius\n\n\n\n\n                    PLAIN ENGLISH\n\n                    LESSON 7\n\n\nDear Comrade:\n\nI wonder if you have ever thought as to how our language grew.\n\nWe get the words in our language from many sources. The English language\ntoday is a development of the early Anglo-Saxon. England was called\noriginally Angle-land which was gradually shortened into England. So we\nhave in our language what are called pure English or Anglo-Saxon words.\nThese words form the bulk of our every day vocabulary, being simple,\nstrong, forceful words. Then we have in our English many foreign words\nwhich we have adopted from other languages. There are many Latin and\nGreek words; these we use in our more elegant speech or writing.\n\nThere is an interesting bit written by Sir Walter Scott in his novel of\nearly England, \"Ivanhoe,\" which illustrates the manner in which words\nhave come into our language and also the difference in speech which\nmarks the working class and the exploiting class. As those who do the\nwork of the world rid themselves of the parasites who have appropriated\nthe produce of their labor, through the ages, they will demand that\nwhich belongs to them--the best--the best in language as in everything\nelse.\n\n  \"'... I advise thee to call off Fangs and leave the herd to their\n  destiny, which, whether they meet with bands of traveling soldiers, or\n  of outlaws, or of wandering pilgrims, can be little else than to be\n  converted into Normans before morning, to thy no small ease and\n  comfort.'\n\n  \"'The swine turned into Normans to my comfort!' quoth Gurth. 'Expound\n  that to me, Wamba, for my brain is too dull and my mind too vexed to\n  read riddles.'\n\n  \"'Why, how call you these grunting brutes running about on their four\n  legs?' demanded Wamba.\n\n  \"'Swine, fool, swine,' said the herd; 'every fool knows that.'\n\n  \"'And swine is good Saxon,' said the jester; 'but how call you the sow\n  when she is flayed, and drawn, and quartered, and hung by the heels\n  like a traitor?'\n\n  \"'Pork,' answered the swineherd.\n\n  \"'I am glad every fool knows that too,' said Wamba; 'and pork, I\n  think, is good Norman-French, and so when the brute lives and is in\n  charge of a Saxon slave, she goes by her Saxon name; but becomes a\n  Norman and is called pork when she is carried to the castle-hall to\n  feast among the nobles. What dost thou think of that, friend Gurth,\n  ha?' ...\"\n\nSo you see even in words the distinction is made between those who\nproduce and those who possess.\n\nBut the day is at hand when those who work shall also enjoy. We have\nfought for religious and political freedom. Today we are waging the\nbattle for industrial freedom. It is _your_ struggle. Study--prepare\nyourself to do battle for your rights.\n\n                    Yours for Freedom,\n\n                              THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.\n\n\n                    FUTURE TIME\n\n+118.+ We have learned how to express present time and past time, by\nchanges in the form of the verb. But we very often desire to make a\nstatement in which we do not express either present or past time, thus\nwe may say:\n\n  We shall enjoy our rights some day.\n  He will join us in the struggle.\n\nWe do not mean to say that we do enjoy our rights now, in the present,\nor that we did in the past, but that we _shall_ enjoy our rights some\ntime in the future. In the second sentence, _will join_ expresses the\nsame idea of future time. To indicate future time, we do not make a\nchange in the verb form, but we use _shall_ and _will_ with the simple\nform of the verb.\n\n+119.+ +We denote future time by use of a verb phrase made by placing\n_shall_ or _will_ before the simple form of the verb.+\n\n+120.+ The rule of some grammarians is to use _shall_ always in the\nfirst person, the person speaking, to denote future time, and _will_\nwith the second person, the person spoken to, and with the third person,\nthe person spoken of, to denote future time. But common usage does not\nalways follow the rules of the grammarians, and, in the course of time,\naffects and changes these rules. So our common usage of today uses\n_will_ in the first person to express future time, as well as _shall_.\n\nThis rule of grammarians marks a nicety of speech and conveys a\ndistinction of meaning which it really seems worth while to retain. The\nidea of the grammarians is that when we use _will_ with the first person\nand _shall_ with the second or third person, we express a _promise_ or\n_determination_. Thus if I say, _I shall go_, I simply mean that my\ngoing will be in the future. But if I say, _I will go_, I either mean\nthat I am promising to go or that I am expressing my determination to\ngo. So also if we use _shall_ in the second and third persons. If we\nsay, _You will go_ or _He will go_, we are simply stating that the going\nwill be in the future, but if we say, _You shall go_, or _He shall go_,\nwe mean that we promise or are determined that you or he shall go.\n\nTo be technically correct this distinction should be observed. _Shall_\nin the first person, and _will_ in the second and third express simple\nfuturity. _Will_ in the first person and _shall_ in the second and third\nexpress promise or determination. But in every day conversation this\ndistinction is not observed, and many of our best writers do not follow\nthis rule.\n\n\n                    Exercise 1\n\nMark the future time forms in the following sentences:\n\n  1. I shall speak of liberty.\n  2. I will never give up.\n  3. I shall write to him.\n  4. He shall not starve.\n  5. We shall expect you.\n  6. They shall suffer for this.\n  7. I shall go to New York.\n  8. He will call for me.\n  9. The hungry shall be fed.\n  10. You will soon see the reason.\n  11. You shall never want for a friend.\n  12. They shall some day see the truth.\n  13. We will not fight against our class.\n  14. We will stand together.\n\n\n                    PERFECT TIME\n\n+121.+ Past, present and future, being the three divisions of time, one\nwould naturally expect that when we had found how to express these three\nforms, we would be through, but if you stop to think, you will find that\nthere are other verb phrases of which we have need.\n\nWhen we wish to speak of action as completed at the present time, we do\nnot say:\n\n  I study my lessons every day, _but_, I have studied my lessons every\n    day.\n  _Not_, You work for him every day, _but_, You have worked for him\n    every day.\n  _Not_, He sees her frequently, _but_, He has seen her frequently.\n\nCan you not readily see the difference in the meaning expressed in _I\nwork every day_, and _I have worked every day_? In the first sentence\nyou express a general truth, _I work every day_, a truth which has been\ntrue in the past, is true in the present, and the implication is that it\nwill continue to be true in the future. But when you say, _I have worked\nevery day_, you are saying nothing as to the future, but you are\ndescribing an action which is completed at the present time. This is\ncalled the _present complete_ or _present perfect_ time.\n\n+122.+ Perfect means complete, and present perfect describes an action\nperfected or completed at the present time. So it is possible for us to\nexpress a necessary shade of meaning by the present perfect time form.\n\n+123.+ +The present perfect time form describes an action completed at\nthe present time, and is formed by using the present time form of\n_have_ and the _past_ participle of the verb.+\n\n       +Present Perfect Time+\n\n       _Singular_         _Plural_\n\n  1st. I have seen.        We have seen.\n  2d.  You have seen.      You have seen.\n  3d.  He has seen.        They have seen.\n\n+124.+ Review in the last lesson how to form the past participle.\nRemember that it is one of the principal parts of the verb. In regular\nverbs the past participle is the same form as the past time form. In\nirregular verbs the past participle is quite often different from the\npast time form, as for example: _go_, _went_, _gone_; _do_, _did_,\n_done_, etc.\n\nWatch closely your irregular verbs and see that you always use the past\n_participle_ with _have_ or _had_; never use the past _time_ form with\n_have_ or _had_.\n\n\n                    PAST PERFECT\n\n+125.+ When you desire to express an action complete at some definite\npast time, you do not say:\n\n  We finished when they came, _but_, We had finished when they came.\n  _Not_, They went when we arrived, _but_, They had gone when we\n    arrived.\n  _Not_, I worked six months when he began, _but_, I had worked six\n    months when he began.\n\nCan you see a difference in the meaning expressed in these sentences: _I\nworked six months when he began_; and _I had worked six months when he\nbegan_? This last sentence describes an action completed or perfected\nbefore some definite past time.\n\n+126.+ +Past perfect time denotes an action perfected or completed at\nsome definite past time. It is formed by using _had_ and the past\nparticiple of the verb.+\n\nRemember always, with irregular verbs, to use the _past participle_.\nNever use the _past time form_ with _had_.\n\n       +Past Perfect Time+\n\n       _Singular_         _Plural_\n\n  1st. I had seen.        We had seen.\n  2d.  You had seen.      You had seen.\n  3d.  He had seen.       They had seen.\n\n\n                    Exercise 2\n\nCorrect the following sentences in which the past time form is used\ninstead of the past participle. Look up the word in the list of\nirregular verbs and use the past participle instead of the past time\nform.\n\n  1. I have saw it often.\n  2. He had shook his fist.\n  3. She has sang for us.\n  4. The boat has sank here.\n  5. He has spoke the truth.\n  6. They had stole the books.\n  7. He has swore to the truth.\n  8. He had took the wrong road.\n  9. She has tore her dress.\n  10. He had threw the ball away.\n  11. The girl had wore the dress.\n  12. He had wrote the letters.\n  13. He had drank too much.\n  14. He had rode the horse.\n  15. The sun has rose.\n  16. He has bore his part.\n  17. They have began already.\n  18. The wind has blew all night.\n  19. It had broke when it fell.\n  20. He has chose the right.\n  21. You have did your duty.\n  22. He has ate his breakfast.\n  23. A heavy rain has fell.\n  24. They had gave it to me.\n  25. He has became rich.\n  26. It has grew rapidly.\n  27. He has knew it always.\n  28. He has mistook her for another.\n\n\n                    FUTURE PERFECT TIME\n\n+127.+ We find also that we need a verb phrase to express time _before_\nsome other future time, to describe an action that will be finished,\nperfected, or completed, before some other future action. Thus,\n\n  I shall have gone before you arrive.\n  You will have earned your money before you get it.\n  I shall have worked thirty days when pay-day comes.\n\nCan you not see a difference in saying, _I shall work thirty days when\npay-day comes_, and _I shall have worked thirty days when pay-day\ncomes_? The first sentence expresses simple future time, or what you\nwill do when pay-day comes; the second describes an action which will be\ncompleted or perfected _before_ pay-day comes. So there is quite a\ndifference in the meaning of the future and the future perfect time.\n\n+128.+ +The future perfect time form expresses or describes an action\nthat will be perfected or completed before some other future time. It is\nformed by using _shall have_ or _will have_ with the past\nparticiple.+\n\nBe careful to use the past participle. Never use the past time form with\n_shall have_ or _will have_.\n\n       +Future Perfect Time+\n\n       _Singular_             _Plural_\n\n  1st. I shall have seen.     We shall have seen.\n  2d.  You will have seen.    You will have seen.\n  3d.  He will have seen.     They will have seen.\n\n\n                    LET US SUM UP\n\n+129.+ We have three time forms, _present_, _past_, _future_.\n\n  +Present+      +Past+       +Future+\n\n  I see          I saw        I shall see.\n\nEach of these three time forms has a _perfect_ form; that is, a time\nform which expresses an action as completed or perfected at the present\ntime, or before some definite past or future time.\n\n    +Present+         +Past+            +Future+\n  +Perfect Time+    +Perfect Time+    +Perfect Time+\n\n  I have seen      I had seen       I shall have seen\n\n+130.+ It is wonderful how a knowledge of words and their uses enables\nus to express so many shades of meaning. It is like our development in\nobserving colors. You know the savage always admires vivid reds and\ngreens and blues. He does not yet see the beautiful shades and\ngradations of color. We enjoy the delicate pinks and blues and all the\nvarying shades between the primal seven colors of the spectrum. And as\nwe develop our artistic ability we see and enjoy all the beauties of\ncolor.\n\nIn music too, we observe the same development. The barbarian enjoys\nloud, crashing, discordant sounds which he calls music, but which to the\neducated ear are only harsh noises. The trained musician catches the\ndelicate overtones and undertones and finds deepest ecstasy in sounds\nwhich the uneducated ear does not even catch. So as we study words and\ntheir uses, we find ourselves able to express shades of meaning, to\npaint our word pictures, not in gaudy, glaring chromo-tints, but in the\nwondrous blending of color that reveals the true artist.\n\nNow get these modes of expressing time firmly fixed in your mind.\n\n+131.+ +Let us get all we have learned about verbs into a summary and\nhave it clearly in mind.+\n\n\n                    VERBS--SUMMARY\n\n                    +Two Classes+\n\n  _Complete_--Taking _no_ complement.\n\n  _Incomplete_--{ Verbs of action requiring object.\n                { Copulative verbs requiring complement.\n\n                    +Inflection--Changes of Form+\n\n  _Simple Form_  _S-Form_   _Past Time_ _Present Part._ _Past Part._\n    see           sees       saw         seeing         seen\n\n\n                    TIME FORMS\n\n                    Present\n\n            _Singular_        _Plural_\n\n            1. I see.         We see.\n            2. You see.       You see.\n            3. He sees.       They see.\n\n\n                    Past\n\n            _Singular_        _Plural_\n\n            1. I saw.         We saw.\n            2. You saw.       You saw.\n            3. He saw.        They saw.\n\n\n                    Future\n\n            _Singular_        _Plural_\n\n            1. I shall see.       We shall see.\n            2. You will see.      You will see.\n            3. He will see.       They will see.\n\n\n                    Present Perfect\n\n            _Singular_       _Plural_\n\n            1. I have seen.      We have seen.\n            2. You have seen.    You have seen.\n            3. He has seen.      They have seen.\n\n\n                    Past Perfect\n\n            _Singular_       _Plural_\n\n            1. I had seen.       We had seen.\n            2. You had seen.     You had seen.\n            3. He had seen.      They had seen.\n\n\n                    Future Perfect\n\n            _Singular_        _Plural_\n\n            1. I shall have seen.    We shall have seen.\n            2. You will have seen.   You will have seen.\n            3. He will have seen.    They will have seen.\n\n\n                    Exercise 3\n\nRead carefully the following quotation. All of the verbs and verb\nphrases are written in _italics_. Study these carefully and decide\nwhether they indicate present, past, future, present perfect, past\nperfect or future perfect time. The verb phrases--_is seizing_, _is\nput_, _is praised_, _is defended_, _can see_, _must have_, _are owned_,\nand _are conducted_, do not belong to any of these six forms. They are\nverb phrases used in ways which we shall study later. All of the other\nverbs or verb phrases belong to one of the six time forms which we have\nstudied. Classify them.\n\n\n               The Working Class Must Strike the Blow\n\n  You _remember_ Victor Hugo's story of the devil-fish; how the monster\n  _put_ forth one tentacle after another and _coiled_ it around his\n  victim; how the hero _recalled_ that there _was_ but one vulnerable\n  spot in his brute enemy; how at the strategic moment he _struck_ a\n  blow at that spot, and the terrible demon of the deep _shuddered_,\n  _released_ his grasp and _fell_ dead.\n\n  Capitalism _is_ a monster which _is seizing_ the body politic. One\n  tentacle _is put_ forth to grasp the major part of the earnings of the\n  working class; another _has seized_ the working-woman; another\n  _reaches_ forth to the child; another _has fastened_ upon government\n  and _has made_ that the instrument of the powerful classes; still\n  another _has turned_ the pen of the journalist into a weapon by which\n  the injustice of Capitalism _is praised_ and _is defended_; and still\n  another _has seized_ the pulpit, _has silenced_ those who _profess_ to\n  speak for God and man, or _has turned_ their phrases into open apology\n  and defense for the crimes of Capitalism!\n\n  But there _is_ one vulnerable spot in Capitalism. If the working class\n  of the world _can see_ that spot and _will strike_, they _shall be_\n  free.\n\n  The fundamental wrong, the basic injustice of the Capitalist System,\n  _is_ that the resources of land and machinery, to which all the people\n  _must have_ access, in order to live and labor, _are owned_ by the few\n  and _are conducted_ by the few for their private profit.\n\n  This _is_ the social tragedy, the monstrous wrong of our time.--_J.\n  Stitt Wilson_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 4\n\nSelect two verbs out of the following poem and write their six time\nforms, in the same manner as the time forms of the verb _see_ are given\nin section 131.\n\n\n                    A MAGIC WORD\n\n    There's a little word below, with letters three,\n    Which, if you only grasp its potency,\n        Will send you higher\n        Toward the goal where you aspire,\n    Which, without its precious aid, you'll never see--\n                          _NOW!_\n\n    Success attends the man who views it right.\n    Its back and forward meanings differ quite;\n        For this is how it reads\n        To the man of ready deeds,\n    Who spells it backwards from achievement's height--\n                          _WON!_\n\n\n                    TENSE\n\nThe grammatical term for the time form of the verb is _TENSE_, which is\nderived from a Latin word meaning _time_. The present time-form of the\nverb is called the _present tense_; the past time-form, the _past\ntense_; the future time-form, the _future tense_; the present perfect\ntime-form, the _present perfect tense_, etc.\n\n\n                    Exercise 5\n\nWrite each of the following four sentences in the six time-forms, or\ntenses,--present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect and future\nperfect, as follows:\n\n  _Present_--Labor _creates_ all wealth.\n  _Past_--Labor _created_ all wealth.\n  _Future_--Labor _will create_ all wealth.\n  _Present Perfect_--Labor _has created_ all wealth.\n  _Past Perfect_--Labor _had created_ all wealth.\n  _Future Perfect_--Labor _will have created_ all wealth.\n\n  1. Hope stirs us to action.\n  2. Human progress is our business.\n  3. The majority demand justice.\n  4. The workers fight all the battles.\n\n\n\n\n                    SPELLING\n\n                    LESSON 7\n\n\nThe division of words into syllables is quite important as an aid to\npronunciation. It is also a very important matter to understand in our\nwritten speech for it is often necessary to divide a word at the end of\na line. If the word is not properly divided, it is much more difficult\nto read and understand. The hyphen is used to divide words into\nsyllables when carrying a portion to the next line.\n\nWhen you must divide a word at the end of a line divide it only between\nsyllables. Never divide a word of one syllable, no matter how long it\nmay be. If you cannot get all of it on the line, write it all on the\nnext line. Do not divide a short word of two syllables if you can avoid\nit and never divide such a word when it leaves only one letter on the\nline or only one letter to be carried over to the next line, as for\nexample: _luck-y_, _a-loud_, etc.\n\nWhen two or more vowels are used together to make one sound they should\nnever be separated by the hyphen, as for example, joy-ous, anx-ious,\ntrail, dis-course, de-feat, boor-ish.\n\nWhen two or more vowels placed together are not used to form one sound\nthen these vowels may be divided, as for example, _tri-al_,\n_co-or-di-nate_, _he-ro-ic_.\n\nLook up the words in this week's lesson in the dictionary carefully and\ndivide into syllables. Notice specially the division of words into\nsyllables where the word contains a diphthong and where it contains two\nvowels written together which are not diphthongs. Notice also the words\nwhich have a single vowel as the first or last syllable.\n\n  +Monday+\n\n    Museum\n    Creatures\n    Peaceable\n    Accruing\n    Already\n\n  +Tuesday+\n\n    Persuade\n    Trivial\n    Plague\n    Alert\n    Inquiry\n\n  +Wednesday+\n\n    Piteous\n    Patriot\n    Poetry\n    Evil\n    Business\n\n  +Thursday+\n\n    Obey\n    Breathe\n    Society\n    Ether\n    Sociable\n\n  +Friday+\n\n    Idealism\n    Pledge\n    Ache\n    Acre\n    Pronunciation\n\n  +Saturday+\n\n    Idle\n    Idol\n    Mutual\n    Wealthy\n    Neighbors\n\n\n\n\n                    PLAIN ENGLISH\n\n                    LESSON 8\n\n\nDear Comrade:\n\nYou have often read the words _organic_ and _inorganic_ but did you ever\nstop to think of the meaning of these words? We say a body is organic--a\nrock is inorganic; one grows from within, the other is built from\nwithout. A tree is organic; it grows. A house is inorganic; it is built.\nThe house was never a baby house, growing from a tiny house to a large\none. But the tree was once a baby tree, a sapling, and grew branch by\nbranch to its present height. So we have two classes of things--those\nwhich grow and those which are made.\n\nLanguage belongs to the class of things which grows. It is organic. We\nhave even used the same terms in speaking about language that we use in\ntalking of a tree. We use the words ROOT, STEM and BRANCH to describe\nits growth.\n\nLanguage, too, has its different terms of life like a tree, its youth,\nits maturity, its old age, its death.\n\nSo we have dead languages like Latin and Greek--languages which are no\nlonger living,--no longer serving mankind. But these dead languages have\nleft living children, languages that have descended from them.\n\nThe Italian language for example is the child, the descendant of the\nclassical Latin. We have many words in our English language from these\ndead languages. About five-sevenths of the words in our English are from\nthese classical languages. The remaining two-sevenths are from the\nAnglo-Saxon. We use the Anglo-Saxon words more frequently, however, in\nour every day speech.\n\nAnd it is interesting to note that our best poetry--that which stirs our\nblood and touches our hearts--is written in the strong forceful\nAnglo-Saxon words.\n\nThese words we are studying have been through some interesting\nexperiences as they have passed from race to race down to us and the\nhistory of life is mirrored in their changes. How much more interesting\nthey seem when we know something of their sources, just as we are more\ninterested in a man when we know something of his boyhood and youth and\nthe experiences through which he has passed.\n\nYou may think that the study of verbs is rather difficult and involved,\nbut it is more simple in English than in any other language. There are\nfewer changes in the verb form in order to express time and person. Do\nnot rely on the memorizing of the rules. Rules never made one a fluent\nspeaker. Write sentences in which the correct form is used. Read aloud\nfrom the best authors until the sound of the words is familiar and they\ncome readily to the tongue. We have used for the exercises in these\nlessons excerpts from the best authors.\n\nStudy these exercises carefully and note the use of the different verbs\nespecially, this week. Verbs, like all else, are yours to command.\nCommand them.\n\n                    Yours for Education,\n\n                              THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.\n\n\n                    PROGRESSIVE VERB PHRASES\n\n+132.+ We have learned how to form the three principal time forms,\n_present_, _past_ and _future_ and the perfect or completed form of each\nof the three, _present perfect_, _past perfect_ and _future perfect_.\nAnd still we have such a wonderful language that we can express other\nshades of meaning in _time_.\n\n+133.+ There is still another phase of action which we must have a verb\nphrase to express. Suppose you want to describe something you are now\ndoing and are continuing to do, something not yet completed. To say, _I\ndo it now_, is not satisfactory. Instead we say, _I am doing it now_.\n\nYou have by the verb phrase, _am doing_, described a progressive action,\nan action _going on_ in the present. You may also want to describe what\nyou were doing yesterday, an action that continued or _progressed_ in\nthe past. You would not say, _I built the house yesterday_ but, _I was\nbuilding the house yesterday_. Again you may want to describe an action\nwhich will be _progressing_ or going on in the future. You do not say,\n_I shall build the house next week_ but, _I shall be building the house\nnext week_.\n\nSo we have progressive verb phrases.\n\n+134.+ +The present progressive describes an action as continuing or\nprogressing in the present.+\n\n+It is formed by using the present time form of the verb _be_ and the\npresent participle.+\n\nYou remember that the present participle is formed by adding _ing_\nto the simple form of the verb.\n\n       Present Progressive\n\n       _Singular_            _Plural_\n\n  1st. I am seeing.          We are seeing.\n  2d.  You are seeing.       You are seeing.\n  3d.  He is seeing.         They are seeing.\n\n+135.+ +The past progressive time form describes an action which was\ncontinuing or progressing in the past. It is formed by using the past\ntime form of the verb _be_ and the present participle.+\n\n       Past Progressive\n\n       _Singular_            _Plural_\n\n  1st. I was seeing.         We were seeing.\n  2d.  You were seeing.      You were seeing.\n  3d.  He was seeing.        They were seeing.\n\n+136.+ +The future progressive describes an action which will be\nprogressing or going on in the future. It is formed by using the future\ntime form of the verb _be_ and the present participle.+\n\n       Future Progressive\n\n       _Singular_             _Plural_\n\n  1st. I shall be seeing.     We shall be seeing.\n  2d.  You will be seeing.    You will be seeing.\n  3d.  He will be seeing.     They will be seeing.\n\n+137.+ The perfect time forms also have a progressive form. There is a\ndifference of meaning in the _present perfect_ and its progressive form.\nYou say for instance, _I have tried all my life to be free_. You mean\nyou have tried until the present time and the inference is that now you\nhave ceased to try. But, if you say, _I have been trying all my life to\nbe free_, we understand that you have tried and are _still_ trying.\n\n+138.+ +So we have the present perfect progressive which describes an\naction which progressed in the past and continued up to the present\ntime. It is formed by using the present perfect form of the verb _be_\nand the present participle.+\n\n       Present Perfect Progressive\n\n       _Singular_              _Plural_\n\n  1st. I have been seeing.     We have been seeing.\n  2d.  You have been seeing.   You have been seeing.\n  3d.  He has been seeing.     They have been seeing.\n\n+139.+ +The past perfect progressive describes an action which was\ncontinuing or progressing at some past time. It is formed by using the\npast perfect time form of the verb _be_ and the present participle.+\n\n        Past Perfect Progressive\n\n        _Singular_            _Plural_\n\n  1st. I had been seeing.     We had been seeing.\n  2d.  You had been seeing.   You had been seeing.\n  3d.  He had been seeing.    They had been seeing.\n\n+140.+ +The future perfect progressive describes an action which will be\nprogressing at some future time. It is formed by using the future\nperfect time form of the verb _be_ and the present participle.+\n\n       Future Perfect Progressive\n\n       _Singular_                  _Plural_\n\n  1st. I shall have been seeing.   We shall have been seeing.\n  2d.  You will have been seeing.  You will have been seeing.\n  3d.  He will have been seeing.   They will have been seeing.\n\n\n                    Exercise 1\n\nIn the following sentences mark all the progressive forms, and note\nwhether they are present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect or\nfuture perfect.\n\n  1. The old order is passing.\n  2. Men will be struggling for freedom so long as slavery exists.\n  3. The class struggle has been growing more intense as wealth has\n     accumulated.\n  4. The workers are realizing their power.\n  5. He had been talking for an hour when we arrived.\n  6. Next Monday I shall have been working for one year.\n  7. The workers will be paying interest on war debts for generations\n     to come unless they repudiate.\n  8. While Marx was writing his books, he lived in abject poverty.\n  9. The Industrial Relations Commission has been investigating\n     industrial conditions.\n  10. Ferrer was martyred because the Modern Schools were educating the\n      people.\n  11. The nations of Europe had been preparing for war for many years.\n\n\n                    ACTIVE AND PASSIVE\n\n+141.+ Notice carefully the following sentences; select the subjects in\nthese sentences which show _who_ or _what_ performed the action; select\nthe subjects that show _who_ or _what_ receives the action. Do you\nnotice any difference in the meaning of these sentences? Do you notice\nany difference in their form?\n\n  The engine struck the man.\n  The man was struck by the engine.\n\n  The system enslaves men.\n  Men are enslaved by the system.\n\n  Leaders often betray the people.\n  The people are often betrayed by leaders.\n\nLet us look carefully at the first two sentences. You remember when we\nstudied transitive verbs we found that every transitive verb had an\n_object_ which was the receiver of the action expressed in the verb. Now\nyou notice in this first sentence, _The engine struck the man_, we have\nthe transitive verb _struck_. _Engine_ is the subject of the verb and\n_man_ is the object of the verb, the receiver of the action expressed by\nthe verb _struck_.\n\nNow in the sentence, _The man was struck by the engine_, we have the\nsame thought expressed but in a different manner. The word _man_, which\nwas the object of the verb _struck_ in the first sentence, has now\nbecome the subject of the sentence, and we have changed our verb form\nfrom _struck_ to _was struck_. In the first sentence of the subject,\n_engine_ was the _actor_. In the second sentence, _The man was struck by\nthe engine_, the subject of the sentence, _man_, is the _receiver_ of\nthe action expressed in the verb.\n\n+142.+ So we have thus changed the verb form from _struck_ to _was\nstruck_ to indicate that the subject of the verb is the receiver of the\naction. _Struck_ is called the active form of the verb because the\nsubject of the verb is the actor. _Was struck_ is called the passive\nform of the verb because the subject receives the action. Passive means\n_receiving_. In the passive form the subject is the receiver of the\naction expressed in the verb.\n\n+143.+ You remember that complete verbs have no object or complement,\ntherefore it would follow that they cannot be put in the passive form\nfor there is no object to become the receiver of the action. Take the\ncomplete verb, _sleep_, for example. We do not _sleep_ anything, hence\n_sleep_ has no passive form for there is no object which can be used as\nthe subject, the receiver of the action.\n\n+Only transitive verbs can be put into the passive form.+ Remember that\na transitive verb in the passive form is one that represents its subject\nas receiving the action.\n\nThe present, past, future and all the perfect time forms of transitive\nverbs can be changed from active to passive. The progressive time forms\ncan be changed into the passive, but it makes an awkward construction\nand should be avoided as much as possible. Occasionally, however, we\nfind it worth our while to use these forms, as for example:\n\n  The book is being written by the man.\n\nThis is the passive form of the present progressive, _The man is writing\na book_.\n\n  The book was being written by the man.\n\nThis is the passive form of the past progressive, _The man was writing\nthe book_.\n\n+144.+ The future progressive passive is awkward, and the present and\npast progressive forms are the only forms we find used in the passive.\nThe best writers use them sparingly for we can usually say the same\nthing by using the active form of the verb and have a sentence which\nsounds much better.\n\n\n                    Exercise 2\n\nAll the verbs in the following sentences are _transitive_ verbs in the\n_active_ form. Rewrite each sentence, putting the verb into the\n_passive_ form and making the _object_ of the _active_ verb the\n_subject_ of the _passive_ verb; as, for example, the first sentence\nshould be rewritten as follows:\n\n  _War on Russia was declared by Germany on August 1, 1914._\n\n  1. Germany declared war on Russia, August 1, 1914.\n  2. Who will sign the Emancipation Proclamation of the Proletariat?\n  3. Marx and Engels wrote the Communist Manifesto.\n  4. Spain murdered Francisco Ferrer, October 13, 1909.\n  5. We celebrate the first of May as International Labor Day.\n  6. The people of Paris stormed the Bastille, July 14, 1789.\n  7. Wat Tyler was leading the English workers in rebellion against\n     the King when the Mayor of London stabbed him in 1381.\n  8. The Inquisition burned Bruno at the stake for heresy in 1600.\n  9. The Paris Commune followed the German siege of Paris in 1871.\n\n\n                    SUMMARY\n\n+145.+ Now let us take the verb _see_ and name all the time forms which\nwe can describe with the changes in the verb forms which we have learned\nto make and also with the verb phrases which we can construct with the\nhelp of the verbs, _be_, _have_, _shall_ and _will_.\n\nFirst, we want to express the present, what is happening now, and we\nwant to put it in both the active and passive forms, so we say:\n\n           +PRESENT TIME+\n\n  +Active+                 +Passive+\n\n  _Singular_               _Singular_\n\n  I see.                   I am seen.\n  You see.                 You are seen.\n  He sees.                 He is seen.\n\n  _Plural_                 _Plural_\n\n  We see.                  We are seen.\n  You see.                 You are seen.\n  They see.                They are seen.\n\nNote that the only change in the verb form in the present ACTIVE is the\n_s-form_ for the third person singular. In the present passive the only\nchange is the special form of the verb _be_ for the first and third\npersons, singular.\n\nWhen we want to tell what occurred yesterday or some time in the past,\nstated in the active and passive form, we say:\n\n            +PAST TIME+\n\n  +Active+                 +Passive+\n\n  _Singular_               _Singular_\n\n  I saw.                   I was seen.\n  You saw.                 You were seen.\n  He saw.                  He was seen.\n\n  _Plural_                 _Plural_\n\n  We saw.                  We were seen.\n  You saw.                 You were seen.\n  They saw.                They were seen.\n\nWe have one other division of time which we must express--the future.\nPrimitive man doubtless lived principally in the present, but with the\ndevelopment of memory and the means of recording events by a written\nlanguage, he was able to make the deeds and achievements of the past a\nvital part of his life. But not until the faculty of thinking developed\nwas the mind able to project itself into the future and make tomorrow\nthe hope of today. Future time expresses hope, desire, growth.\n\n               +FUTURE TIME+\n\n  +Active+                 +Passive+\n\n  _Singular_               _Singular_\n\n  I shall see.             I shall be seen.\n  You will see.            You will be seen.\n  He will see.             He will be seen.\n\n  _Plural_                 _Plural_\n\n  We shall see.            We shall be seen.\n  You will see.            You will be seen.\n  They will see.           They will be seen.\n\nThen you remember we had to devise a way of describing an action\nperfected or completed at the present or at some time in the past or at\nsome time in the future--so we have present perfect, past perfect and\nfuture perfect.\n\n            +PRESENT PERFECT+\n\n  +Active+                 +Passive+\n\n  _Singular_               _Singular_\n\n  I have seen.             I have been seen.\n  You have seen.           You have been seen.\n  He has seen.             He has been seen.\n\n  _Plural_                 _Plural_\n\n  We have seen.            We have been seen.\n  You have seen.           You have been seen.\n  They have seen.          They have been seen.\n\n             +PAST PERFECT+\n\n  +Active+                 +Passive+\n\n  _Singular_               _Singular_\n\n  I had seen.              I had been seen.\n  You had seen.            You had been seen.\n  He had seen.             He had been seen.\n\n  _Plural_                 _Plural_\n\n  We had seen.             We had been seen.\n  You had seen.            You had been seen.\n  They had seen.           They had been seen.\n\n            +FUTURE PERFECT+\n\n  +Active+                +Passive+\n\n  _Singular_              _Singular_\n\n  I shall have seen.       I shall have been seen.\n  You will have seen.      You will have been seen.\n  He will have seen.       He will have been seen.\n\n  _Plural_                _Plural_\n\n  We shall have seen.      We shall have been seen.\n  You will have seen.      You will have been seen.\n  They will have seen.     They will have been seen.\n\n+146.+ But these are not all the phases of time which we can express. We\nhave progressive, continuous action. So each of these six time forms has\na progressive form.\n\n          +PRESENT PROGRESSIVE+\n\n  +Active+                 +Passive+\n\n  _Singular_               _Singular_\n\n  I am seeing.             I am being seen.\n  You are seeing.          You are being seen.\n  He is seeing.            He is being seen.\n\n  _Plural_                 _Plural_\n\n  We are seeing.           We are being seen.\n  You are seeing.          You are being seen.\n  They are seeing.         They are being seen.\n\n             +PAST PROGRESSIVE+\n\n  +Active+                 +Passive+\n\n  _Singular_               _Singular_\n\n  I was seeing.            I was being seen.\n  You were seeing.         You were being seen.\n  He was seeing.           He was being seen.\n\n  _Plural_                 _Plural_\n\n  We were seeing.          We were being seen.\n  You were seeing.         You were being seen.\n  They were seeing.        They were being seen.\n\nOnly the Present and Past Progressive forms have a passive form. The\nrest of the Progressive forms are expressed in the active forms only.\n\n           +FUTURE PROGRESSIVE+\n\n  _Singular_               _Plural_\n\n  I shall be seeing.       We shall be seeing.\n  You will be seeing.      You will be seeing.\n  He will be seeing.       They will be seeing.\n\n     +PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE+\n\n  _Singular_               _Plural_\n\n  I have been seeing.      We have been seeing.\n  You have been seeing.    You have been seeing.\n  He has been seeing.      They have been seeing.\n\n      +PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE+\n\n  _Singular_               _Plural_\n\n  I had been seeing.       We had been seeing.\n  You had been seeing.     You had been seeing.\n  He had been seeing.      They had been seeing.\n\n\n      +FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE+\n\n  _Singular_                   _Plural_\n\n  I shall have been seeing.    We shall have been seeing.\n  You will have been seeing.   You will have been seeing.\n  He will have been seeing.    They will have been seeing.\n\n\n                    Exercise 3\n\nWrite the four following sentences in their active and passive forms, as\nthe sentence, _War sweeps the earth_, is written.\n\n  1. Education gives power.\n  2. Knowledge frees men.\n  3. Labor unions help the workers.\n  4. The people seek justice.\n\n  +Present+     _Active_    War sweeps the earth.\n                _Passive_   The earth is swept by war.\n\n  +Past+        _Active_    War swept the earth.\n                _Passive_   The earth was swept by war.\n\n  +Future+      _Active_    War shall sweep the earth.\n                _Passive_   The earth shall be swept by war.\n\n  +Pres. Per.+  _Active_    War has swept the earth.\n                _Passive_   The earth has been swept by war.\n\n  +Past Per.+   _Active_    War had swept the earth.\n                _Passive_   The earth had been swept by war.\n\n  +Fut. Per.+   _Active_    War shall have swept the earth.\n                _Passive_   The earth shall have been swept by war.\n\n\n                    Exercise 4\n\nUnderscore all the verbs and verb phrases in the following quotation.\nWrite all the time forms of the transitive verb, _lose_, as the time\nforms of the verb _see_ are written in the foregoing table.\n\n  When we study the animal world and try to explain to ourselves that\n  struggle for existence which is maintained by each living being\n  against adverse circumstances and against its enemies, we realize that\n  the more the principles of solidarity and equality are developed in an\n  animal society, and have become habitual to it, the more chance it has\n  of surviving and coming triumphantly out of the struggle against\n  hardships and foes. The more thoroughly each member of the society\n  feels his solidarity with each other member of the society, the more\n  completely are developed in all of them those two qualities which are\n  the main factors of all progress; courage, on the one hand, and, on\n  the other, free individual initiative. And, on the contrary, the more\n  any animal society, or little group of animals, loses this feeling of\n  solidarity--which may chance as the result of exceptional scarcity or\n  else of exceptional plenty--the more the two other factors of\n  progress, courage and individual initiative, diminish; in the end they\n  disappear, and the society falls into decay and sinks before its foes.\n  Without mutual confidence no struggle is possible; there is no\n  courage, no initiative, no solidarity--and no victory!--_Kropotkin_.\n\n\n\n\n                    SPELLING\n\n                    LESSON 8\n\n\nIn pronouncing words of more than one syllable we always lay a little\ngreater stress upon one syllable of the word; that is, that syllable\nreceives the emphasis of the voice so as to make it more prominent than\nthe other syllables. This is called accent, and the syllable which\nreceives the special stress is called the accented syllable.\n\n+Accent is the stress of the voice upon one syllable of the word.+\n\nYou will notice when you look up the pronunciation of words in your\ndictionary that a little mark called the accent mark is placed after the\naccented syllable, as for example: di-vide'.\n\nMany words differ in meaning according to which syllable receives the\naccent. Our spelling lesson for this week contains a number of these\nwords.\n\nThese words, when accented on the first syllable, are nouns; when\naccented on the second syllable, they are verbs.\n\n  +Monday+\n\n    Con' tract    Con tract'\n    Pro' test     Pro test'\n    Rec' ord      Re cord'\n    Im' port      Im port'\n    De' tail      De tail'\n\n  +Tuesday+\n\n    Con' vert     Con vert'\n    Con' flict    Con flict'\n    Prog' ress    Pro gress'\n    Im' press     Im press'\n    Ref' use      Re fuse'\n\n  +Wednesday+\n\n    Con' test    Con test'\n    Con' duct    Con duct'\n    Proj' ect    Pro ject'\n    Des' ert     De sert'\n    Ex' tract    Ex tract'\n\n  +Thursday+\n\n    Con' trast    Con trast'\n    Con' sort     Con sort'\n    Reb' el       Re bel'\n    Con' script   Con script'\n    Pres' ent     Pre sent'\n\n  +Friday+\n\n    Com' pound   Com pound'\n    Re' tail     Re tail'\n    Com' press   Com press'\n    Im' print    Im print'\n    Com' bine    Com bine'\n\n  +Saturday+\n\n    Con' fine    Con fine'\n    Sus' pect    Sus pect'\n    Com' mune    Com mune'\n    Ex' port     Ex port'\n    In' crease   In crease'\n\n\n\n\n                    PLAIN ENGLISH\n\n                    LESSON 9\n\n\nDear Comrade:\n\nYou have been studying several weeks now in this Plain English Course\nand we trust you are enjoying the unfolding of the powers of expression.\nWe have been necessarily studying rules to some extent but you have seen\nhow these grew out of the need for expression. We have been breaking the\nsentence up into its different parts. First we had the names of things\nand now we are studying the words used to tell what these things _do_\nand _are_--namely verbs. And as our life has grown complex and our\npowers of thinking diversified covering the whole range of time, past,\npresent and future, we have had to invent many forms of the verb to\nexpress it all.\n\nNow do not try to commit these facts concerning the verb to memory. You\nare not studying English in order to know rules. You are studying\nEnglish that you may be able to say and write the things you _think_. So\nfirst of all, _think_, _think_! That is your inalienable right! Do not\naccept anything just by blind belief. Think it out for yourself. Study\nuntil you see the '_why_' of it all. \"Independent thinking has given us\nthe present, and we will forever continue to make tomorrow better than\ntoday. The right to think is inalienable, or a man is a machine. Thought\nis life or a human soul is a thing.\"\n\nAnd do not lack the courage of your own thoughts. _You_ do not need to\ncringe or apologize to any man. \"Our life is not an apology but a life.\"\nDare to think and dare to express and live your thought.\n\nDid you ever read Emerson's definition of genius? \"To believe your own\nthought, to believe that what is true for you in your private heart is\ntrue for all men,--that is genius.\" Then he says, \"We dismiss without\nnotice our own thoughts, because they are ours. Tomorrow a stranger will\nsay with masterly good sense, precisely what we have thought and felt\nall along and we shall be forced to take with shame our own opinion from\nanother.\"\n\nHave you not experienced this? How often we hear some one express a\ntruth and we say to ourselves, \"That is just what I have long believed\nbut I have never dared say so.\" We have been so taught all our lives to\ndepend on some outside power and discredit the power within ourselves,\nthat we pay no attention to the thoughts that are ours for who are we\nthat we should dare to think and perchance disagree with those who have\nassumed authority over us! But that is precisely what we should dare to\ndo--to think and to do our own thinking always. Who dares place anything\nbefore a man!\n\nSo _think_ as you study these lessons and use these rules and formulas\nsimply as means to an end, as tools to aid you in expressing these\nthoughts.\n\n                    Yours for Education,\n\n                              THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.\n\n\n                    PARTICIPLES\n\n+147.+ We have found that the verb has five forms, made by internal\nchanges in the verb itself,--the present time form, the s-form, the past\ntime form, the present participle and the past participle.\n\nWe have also found that we can express various time forms by verb\nphrases formed by using the helping verbs, _shall_, _will_, _have_ and\n_be_ with one of the verb forms. All of these forms are used as the\nasserting word in the sentence. So long as the verb or verb phrase forms\nthe predicate--the word or words that assert something of the\nsubject--it still remains a verb. But we have found that the participle\nforms of the verb may be used as other parts of speech while still\nretaining some of the qualities of the verb.\n\n+148.+ You remember a sentence which we used when we studied\nparticiples, _Making shoes is his work_. Here we have the present\nparticiple _making_, with its object _shoes_, used as the subject of the\nverb _is_. Now a noun never takes an object, so _making_ in this\nsentence is partly a verb, partly a noun, and is called a participle,\nwhich means _partaker_.\n\nWe have studied and used two forms of participles, the present and the\npast participle. The present participle always ends in _ing_ and\nexpresses action or existence in the present, or at the time mentioned\nin the sentence. For example, _being_, _bringing_, _working_, _seeing_,\n_loving_, _hating_, etc.\n\nThe past participle we found to be one of the principal parts of the\nverb. It expresses action or existence which is past or completed, at\nthe time mentioned in the sentence. It is formed by adding _d_ or _ed_\nto the regular verbs and by a change in the form in irregular verbs. For\nexample, regular verbs: _learned_ from _learn_, _defeated_ from\n_defeat_, _watched_ from _watch_. Irregular verbs: _taught_ from\n_teach_, _seen_ from _see_, _won_ from _win_.\n\n+We have found that these participles may be used either as nouns or as\nadjectives.+ As for example:\n\n  The _crying_ of the child annoyed the people.\n  The _crying_ child ran to its mother.\n  The _coming_ of the new day will bring peace.\n  We await the _coming_ day of peace.\n\n\n                    PARTICIPLE PHRASES\n\n+149.+ The present and the past participles are each single words; but\nwe may also have participle phrases; that is, two or more words used as\na participle, as for example:\n\n  His _having joined_ the strikers caused him to lose his job.\n  The man, _having been discharged_, left the mill.\n\nIn these sentences we have the participle phrases, _having joined_ and\n_having been discharged_. _Having joined_ is a participle phrase used as\na noun, the subject of the verb _caused_. _Having been discharged_ is a\nparticiple phrase used as an adjective to modify the noun _man_. Notice\nthat _having joined_ is an active participle describing the action\nperformed by the man who is referred to by the pronoun _his_. _Having\nbeen discharged_ is a passive participle expressing an action of which\nthe subject of the sentence, _man_, is the receiver.\n\nThese are both perfect participles, expressing actions which are\ncomplete at the present time.\n\n+150.+ We have also progressive participles expressing action which is\ncontinuing or progressing. These progressive participles are also used\nin both the active and the passive forms. The progressive active\nparticiple is formed by using _having been_ with the present participle,\nas _having been working_. The progressive passive participle is formed\nby using _being_ with the past participle, as for example, _being\nwatched_, _being driven_, _being gone_, etc. So we have six participles,\nthree active and three passive.\n\nNote the following table:\n\n           +Active+\n\n  _Present._       Sending.\n\n  _Perfect._       Having sent.\n\n  _Progressive._   Having been sending.\n\n\n           +Passive+\n\n  _Past._          Sent.\n\n  _Perfect._       Having been sent.\n\n  _Progressive._    Being sent.\n\n+These participle phrases may be used either as nouns or as\nadjectives.+\n\n\n                    Exercise 1\n\nIn the following sentences mark the participles and the participle\nphrases. Underscore those used as _nouns_ with a single line; those used\nas _adjectives_ with two lines.\n\n  1. He denies having been hired by the employer.\n  2. Our friends, having arrived, joined us at dinner.\n  3. The rain, falling incessantly, kept us from going.\n  4. Having often seen him passing, I judged he lived near.\n  5. The man, being discouraged and ill, was unable to do his work well.\n  6. Happiness shared is happiness doubled.\n  7. Having finished his work, he rests at last.\n  8. The army, beaten but not vanquished, waited for the morrow.\n  9. The men, having been unemployed for months, were desperate.\n  10. Being prepared will not save us from war.\n  11. \"Rest is not quitting this busy career;\n      Rest is the fitting of self to its sphere.\n      It's loving and serving the highest and best;\n      It's onward, not swerving; and that is true rest.\"\n\n\n                    Exercise 2\n\nWrite the six participle forms of the verbs _see_ and _teach_, and use\nin sentences of your own construction.\n\n\n                    INFINITIVES\n\n+151.+ We have found that the various forms of the participles may be\nused as other parts of speech. They partake of the nature of a verb and\neither of a noun or an adjective. Notice the following sentences:\n\n  Traveling is pleasant.\n  Eating is necessary.\n\nCan you think of any other way in which you could express the same\nthought? Do you not sometimes say,\n\n  To travel is pleasant.\n  To eat is necessary.\n\nWe have expressed practically the same thought in these two sentences,\nwhich is expressed in the sentences above, where we used the participle.\n_To travel_ and _to eat_ are used as nouns, subjects of the verb _is_\njust as _traveling_ and _eating_ are used as nouns, the subjects of the\nverb _is_.\n\nHere we have another form of the verb used as a noun. When we use the\nverb in this way, we are not speaking of the _traveling_ or _eating_ as\nbelonging to or being done by any particular person, nor do we indicate\nwhether one person or more than one is concerned in the action. It might\nbe anyone doing the traveling or eating, and it might be one person or a\nthousand. We are making a general statement of everybody in the world,\nso we call this form the _infinitive_.\n\n+152.+ Infinite means _unlimited_, without limit as to persons or\nnumber. Almost every verb in the language may be used in this way, and\nsince _to_ is generally used before the infinitive, _to_ is often called\nthe sign of the infinitive. For example:\n\n  _To be_, or not _to be_, that is the question.\n  _To have_ and _to hold_ is the problem.\n  He likes _to travel_.\n\nYou note in all of these infinitives _to_ is used with the simple form\nof the verb.\n\n+153.+ _To_ is generally omitted after verbs like _help_, _hear_, _bid_,\n_feel_, _let_, _make_, _see_ and _have_, or words of similar meaning.\nFor example:\n\n  Help me (to) find it.\n  He bade me (to) stay.\n  Feel it (to) shake.\n  Make him (to) come.\n  Hear me (to) sing.\n  Let us (to) go.\n  See him (to) run.\n  Have him (to) copy this.\n\n+154.+ _To_ is also omitted after _need_ and _dare_ when _not_ is used.\n\n  They need to work.\n  They need not work.\n\n  They dared to come.\n  They dared not come.\n\n+155.+ _To_ is sometimes omitted after prepositions:\n\n  He will do anything for his class, except (to) fight for it.\n  He would do nothing but (to) go away.\n\n+156.+ We have a number of different forms of the infinitive, both\nactive and passive. Note the following table:\n\n          +Active+\n\n  _Present._        To love.\n  _Perfect._        To have loved.\n  _Present Prog._   To be loving.\n  _Perfect Prog._   To have been loving.\n\n          +Passive+\n\n  _Present._        To be loved.\n  _Perfect._        To have been loved.\n\n+157.+ Notice that only the _present_ and _perfect_ infinitives have the\n_passive_ form. The progressive infinitives cannot be used in the\npassive. Remember also that only _incomplete_ verbs, those which require\nan object to receive the action, can have a passive form.\n\nThe verb _loved_, which we have used in the above table, has a passive\nform because it is an incomplete verb, for there must be that which is\nthe object of our love.\n\n+158.+ The complete verbs,--verbs which require no object,--cannot have\na passive form for there is no object to become the receiver of the\naction. Take for example the verb _dwell_. This is a complete verb which\ncan have no passive form. You cannot dwell anything, therefore you\ncannot say _to be dwelt_ or _to have been dwelt_.\n\n+So complete verbs have only the four active forms+, as follows:\n\n          +Active+\n\n  _Present._        To dwell.\n  _Perfect._        To have dwelt.\n  _Present Prog._   To be dwelling.\n  _Perfect Prog._   To have been dwelling.\n\n+159.+ Infinitives, like participles, may be used either as nouns or\nadjectives. When used as nouns, they are used in the various ways in\nwhich nouns are used. The infinitive may be the _subject_ of a sentence,\nthus:\n\n  _To hesitate_ now will be fatal.\n  _To be defeated_ is no crime.\n\n+160.+ The infinitive may be the _object_ or _complement_ of the verb.\nFor example:\n\n  He wanted _to see_ you.\n  His desire is _to learn_.\n\n+161.+ The infinitive may be used as the object of a _preposition_; as,\n\n  He is about _to go_.\n  They will do anything for the cause except _to live_ for it.\n\n+162.+ The infinitive may be used as an adjective to modify a noun. For\nexample:\n\n  He showed me the way _to go_.\n  We must have food _to eat_ and clothes _to wear_.\n  The question _to be decided_ is before us.\n  Claim your right _to live_.\n\n+163.+ The infinitive may also be used as an adverb to modify the\nmeaning of a verb, adjective or adverb, thus:\n\n  He was forced _to go_.\n  They are slow _to learn_.\n  The fruit was not ripe enough _to eat_.\n\nNote that the infinitives in these sentences may all be changed into\nadverb phrases. As for example in the first sentence, He was forced _to\ngo_, the infinitive _to go_, which modifies the verb _forced_, may be\nchanged to the adverb phrase, _into going_, thus, _He was forced into\ngoing_. In the second sentence, _They are slow to learn_, the infinitive\n_to learn_ may be changed into the adverb phrase _in learning_, thus,\n_They are slow in learning_. In the last sentence, _The fruit is not\nripe enough to eat_, the infinitive _to eat_, which modifies the adverb\n_enough_, may be changed into the adverb phrase, _for eating_, as for\nexample, _The fruit was not ripe enough for eating_.\n\n+164.+ The infinitive is quite a useful form of the verb, and we will\nfind that we use it very frequently in expressing our ideas. While it is\nnot the asserting word in the sentence, it retains the nature of a verb\nand may have both an object and an adverb modifier. As for example, in\nthe sentence:\n\n  I wish _to learn_ my lesson quickly.\n\n_To learn_ is the infinitive, used as a noun, the object of the verb\n_wish_. The infinitive also has an object, to learn--_what?_ _My lesson_\nis the object of the infinitive _to learn_. We also have an adverb\nmodifier in the adverb _quickly_, which tells _how_ I wish to learn my\nlesson. So the infinitive retains its verb nature, in that it may have\nan object and it may be modified by an adverb.\n\n\n                    Exercise 3\n\nNotice carefully the use of the infinitives in the following sentences.\nUnderscore all infinitives.\n\n  1. To remain ignorant is to remain a slave.\n  2. Teach us to think and give us courage to act.\n  3. Children love to be praised, but hate to be censured.\n  4. To obey is the creed taught the working class by the masters.\n  5. To be exploited has always been the fate of the workers.\n  6. Ferrer wrote on his prison wall, \"To love a woman passionately, to\n     have an ideal which I can serve, to have the desire to fight\n     until I win--what more can I wish or ask?\"\n  7. The people wish the man to be punished for the crime.\n  8. Primitive man found plenty of wood to burn.\n  9. We have learned to use coal and oil.\n  10. The lecture to have been given this evening has been postponed.\n  11. They are eager to hear the news.\n  12. He has failed to come.\n  13. We felt the house shake on its foundation.\n  14. Have him find the book for me.\n  15. To be defeated is no crime; never to have dared is the real crime.\n  16. The rich will do anything for the poor except to get off their\n      backs.\n  17. To have slept while others fought is your shame.\n  18. Claim your right to do, to dream and to dare.\n\n\n                    Exercise 4\n\nWrite sentences containing the six infinitive forms of the verb _obey_.\n\n\n                    DON'TS FOR INFINITIVES\n\n+165.+ +Don't split your infinitives.+ Keep the _to_ and the infinitive\ntogether as much as possible. Don't say, _They intended to never come\nback_. Say rather, _They intended never to come back_. Sometimes,\nhowever, the meaning can be more aptly expressed by placing the adverb\nmodifier between the _to_ and the infinitive, as for example:\n\n  To almost succeed is not enough.\n  It will be found to far exceed our expectations.\n\nIn these sentences the adverbs _almost_ and _far_ express our meaning\nmore closely if they are placed between the _to_ and the infinitive.\nOrdinarily, however, do not split your infinitives, but place the adverb\nmodifier either before or after the infinitive.\n\n+166.+ +Don't use _to_ by itself without the rest of the infinitive.+\nDon't say, _Do as I tell you to_. Say instead, _Do as I tell you to do_;\nor, _Do as I tell you_. Don't say, _He deceived us once and he is likely\nto again_. Say rather, _He deceived us once and he is likely to deceive\nus again_, or _to do so again_.\n\n+167.+ +Don't use _and_ for _to_. Don't say, _Try and go if you can_.\nSay instead, _Try to go if you can_.\n\nCorrect the following sentences:\n\n  We ought to bravely fight for our rights.\n  I will do all my employer tells me to.\n  We shall try and get our lessons.\n  I ought to at least help my comrades but I am afraid to.\n\n\n                    Exercise 5\n\nStudy carefully the infinitives in the following quotation. Notice which\nare active and which are passive infinitives.\n\n  The twenty thousand men prematurely slain on a field of battle, mean,\n  to the women of their race, twenty thousand human creatures _to be\n  borne_ within them for months, _to be given_ birth to in anguish, _to\n  be fed_ from their breasts and _to be reared_ with toil, if the\n  members of the tribe and the strength of the nation are _to be\n  maintained_. In nations continually at war, incessant and unbroken\n  child-bearing is by war imposed on all women if the state is _to\n  survive_; and whenever war occurs, if numbers are _to be maintained_,\n  there must be an increased child-bearing and rearing. This throws upon\n  woman, as woman, a war tax, compared with which all that the male\n  expends in military preparations is comparatively light.\n\n  It is especially in the domain of war that we, the bearers of men's\n  bodies, who supply its most valuable munition, who, not amid the\n  clamor and ardor of battle, but singly, and alone, with a\n  three-in-the-morning courage, shed our blood and face death that the\n  battle-field might have its food, a food more precious to us than our\n  heart's blood; it is we, especially, who, in the domain of war, have\n  our word _to say_, a word no man can say for us. It is our intention\n  _to enter_ into the domain of war and _to labor_ there till in the\n  course of generations we have extinguished it.--_Olive Schreiner_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 6\n\nMark the participles and infinitives.\n\n    Gold! Gold! Gold! Gold!\n    Bright and yellow, hard and cold,\n    Molten, graven, hammer'd and roll'd;\n    Heavy to get, and light to hold;\n    Hoarded, barter'd, bought, and sold,\n    Stolen, borrow'd, squander'd, doled:\n    Spurn'd by the young, but hugg'd by the old\n    To the very verge of the churchyard mould;\n    Price of many a crime untold:\n    Gold! Gold! Gold! Gold!\n    Good or bad a thousand-fold!\n    How widely its agencies vary--\n    To save--to ruin--to curse--to bless--\n    As even its minted coins express,\n    Now stamp'd with the image of Good Queen Bess,\n    And now of a bloody Mary.--_Thos. Hood_.\n\n\n\n\n                    SPELLING\n\n                    LESSON 9\n\n\nIn our English lessons, we have been studying the division of words into\nparts of speech. We have been studying them as we use them in expressing\nour thoughts but we may study them in other ways also. We may study them\nas words alone.\n\nStudied in this way we find that we have simple, compound and derivative\nwords. For example, _man_, _man-slaughter_, _manly_. _Man_ is a simple\nword. _Man-slaughter_ is a compound word formed of two simple words.\n_Manly_ is a derivative word derived from _man_.\n\nWhen a compound word is first formed, it is usually written with a\nhyphen; but after the word has been used awhile the hyphen is often\ndropped and the two parts are written together as a simple word.\n\n+A simple word is a single word which cannot be divided into other words\nwithout changing its meaning.+\n\n+A compound word is composed of two or more simple words into which it\nmay be divided, each retaining its own meaning.+\n\n+A derivative word is one which is derived from a simple word by the\naddition of another syllable.+\n\nIn next week's lesson we will take up the study of these derivatives.\n\nDivide the compound words in this week's lesson into the simple words of\nwhich they are composed.\n\n  +Monday+\n\n    Birthday\n    Coal-tar\n    Craftsman\n    Foreman\n    Gunpowder\n\n  +Tuesday+\n\n    Handkerchief\n    Headquarters\n    Lawsuit\n    Lockout\n    Bookkeeper\n\n  +Wednesday+\n\n    Motorman\n    Newspaper\n    Pasteboard\n    Postage-stamp\n    Postmaster\n\n  +Thursday+\n\n    Salesman\n    Second-hand\n    Shirtwaist\n    Sidewalk\n    Staircase\n\n  +Friday+\n\n    Trademark\n    Time-table\n    Typewriter\n    Tableware\n    Sewing-machine\n\n  +Saturday+\n\n    Undergarment\n    Underhand\n    Water-mark\n    Woodwork\n    Workshop\n\n\n\n\n                    PLAIN ENGLISH\n\n                    LESSON 10\n\n\nDear Comrade:\n\nWe have been studying this course in Plain English for some weeks now\nand I trust that you have been enjoying as well as benefiting by the\nstudy of our wonderful and expressive language. Did you ever stop to\nthink what a wonderful step it was in evolution when man first began to\nuse the spoken word? And yet it was a still more wonderful step in\nadvance when he began to use the written word for our highest evolution,\nand development would have been impossible without the help of written\nspeech. An illiterate man may be a good workman and prosperous so far as\nthe material things of life and his immediate contact with his fellow\nmen are concerned, but we have only to think for a moment of what this\nworld would be if we had no written language, to understand what a\nmighty power it has been in evolution.\n\nSuppose we had no way by which we could communicate with our friends at\na distance. Suppose there were no written words by which we could set\ndown the countless dealings between man and man. What a hopeless tangle\nthis social life of ours would soon become! Suppose also that we had no\nknowledge of the past, no knowledge of the discoveries and inventions of\npast generations except that which could be handed down to us through\noral speech. All our knowledge of history, of the deeds and development\nof the past, all the observations by which science has uncovered to us\nthe mysteries of nature would be largely lost to us. It was the\ninvention of writing alone which made possible man's growth from\nbarbarism to civilization, and it is more true than we oftentimes\nrealize, that it is \"only a wall of books that separates the civilized\nman of to-day from the savage of yesterday.\" And yet I wonder if we have\never stopped to think how this art of writing developed. Knowledge of\nthe alphabet and of the letters by which we form our words and hence are\nable to express our ideas, has become such a common-place thing to us\nthat we have forgotten what a wonder it is and how it has slowly grown\nand developed through the centuries. Yet there are races to-day that\nhave no written language such as we know and to whom our written\nlanguage seems truly a miracle.\n\nThe story is told of an Indian who was sent from one colony to another\nwith four loaves of bread accompanied by a letter stating their number.\nThe Indian ate one of the loaves and of course, was found out. The next\ntime when he was sent upon a similar errand he repeated the theft but he\ntook the precaution to hide the letter under a stone while he was eating\nthe bread so that it might not see him!\n\nBut it is only the things that we do not understand which we invest with\nmystery and as we study the story of the alphabet in this series of\nletters we find that it has been a natural development accomplished by\nthe growing powers of man. In succeeding letters we will trace this most\ninteresting story of the alphabet.\n\n                    Yours for Education,\n\n                              THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.\n\n\n                    HELPING VERBS\n\n+168.+ We have found that whenever a verb is used by itself in making an\nassertion it denotes either present or past time. When we use a verb\nphrase, it expresses some other time than the past or present. These\nverb phrases are formed by using _shall_, _will_, _have_, _had_, and the\nvarious forms of the verb _be_ with some form of the principal verb.\nThese verbs which help to form verb phrases are called _helping_, or\n_auxiliary verbs_. Auxiliary means helping.\n\nWe have used _have_ and _had_ with the past participle to form the\npresent perfect and past perfect time forms. We have used _shall_ and\n_will_ with different forms of the verb to denote future time, and we\nhave used different forms of the verb _be_ in making the various other\ntime forms. So _shall_, _will_, _have_, _had_ and the various forms of\nthe verb _be_ are _helping verbs_, which we use to help us in making\nverb phrases.\n\n+169.+ But these are not all of the helping verbs. There are other\nhelping verbs which we use in forming verb phrases to express different\nideas. These are such verbs as _should_ and _would_, _may_ and _might_,\n_can_ and _could_, _must_ and _ought_, _do_ and _did_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 1\n\nFill the blank spaces in the following sentences with the appropriate\nforms of the helping verbs, _shall_, _will_, _have_, _had_ and _be_.\n\n  1. When......the workers organize?\n  2. Education......help us win.\n  3. The world......had enough of war.\n  4. We......deceived by the masters.\n  5. The workers......organized into craft unions.\n  6. They......never ceased the struggle.\n  7. The state......founded on exploitation.\n  8. Mutual aid......been an important factor in evolution.\n  9. The truth......taught to the people.\n  10. The victory......gained by the proletariat.\n  11. The nations of Europe......preparing for war for years.\n  12. The International......recognized war for defense.\n  13. We......not made the class distinctions, but we......recognize\n      them as long as they exist.\n  14. The evolution of animals and the evolution of\n      plants......proceeded according to the same general laws.\n  15. We......never win while the majority remains ignorant.\n  16. The strikers......betrayed by their leaders.\n\n\n                    SHOULD AND WOULD\n\n+170.+ _Should_ and _would_ are the past-time forms of _shall_ and\n_will_. We use them to express action or existence dependent upon some\ncondition, thus:\n\n  I should go if I were well enough.\n  He should join us if you asked him.\n\nIn these sentences _should_ and _would_ express action which is possible\nnow or will be in the future, provided some other action takes place.\n\nThe same distinction which we found made in the use _shall_ and _will_\nhas been made with _should_ and _would_; that is, that _should_ used\nwith the first person, expresses action dependent upon condition; but\n_would_, used with the first person, implies exercise of the will. This\nrule is not closely followed, though it expresses a nice distinction in\nthe use of _should_ and _would_. In ordinary usage we use either\n_should_ or _would_ with the first person without any distinction of\nmeaning, as for example:\n\n  I should struggle on even if it meant death.\n  I would stand for my principles though I stood entirely alone.\n\nWe do not use _should_ however, with the second and third persons to\nexpress an action or existence dependent upon some condition. _Should_\nused with the second and third person implies obligation. _Would_ is\nused with the second or third person to express an action dependent upon\nsome condition, as for example:\n\n  He would not go, even if you insisted.\n  They would come if you invited them.\n  You would believe him if you could hear him.\n  You would be surprised if I should tell you the reason.\n\n+171.+ _Should_ and _would_ in all of the sentences which we have quoted\nare used to express action or existence dependent upon some condition\nwhich is expressed in that part of the sentence introduced by such\nconjunctions as _if_ and _though_.\n\nThe parts of the sentence introduced by these conjunctions express the\ncondition upon which the other action is dependent. When we use _should_\nin sentences without this condition, it means practically the same as\n_ought_, and implies an obligation. We use _should_ with the first and\nsecond and third persons when we use it with this meaning, as for\nexample:\n\n  I should have gone yesterday.\n  You should be with us in this fight.\n  They should never fear defeat.\n\n+172.+ _Ought_ could be used in all these sentences and express\npractically the same meaning. _Should_ used in this way implies\nobligation.\n\n\n                    Exercise 2\n\nStudy carefully the following sentences. Write in the blank space\npreceding each sentence the number of the paragraph in the lesson which\ngoverns the use of the helping verb in that sentence.\n\n  1. ...... The workers should organize if they desire to control\n  production.\n  2. ...... The proletariat would destroy this system if they\n  understood their power.\n  3. ...... Every worker would join his fellows if he could but realize\n  the class struggle.\n  4. ...... We would all enjoy plenty if we produced for use instead of\n  for profit.\n  5. ...... The ruling class would not give up their privileges even\n  though they knew that their cupidity endangers society.\n  6. ...... The injury of one should be the injury of all.\n  7. ...... The workers' International should stand for the\n  international solidarity of the workers.\n  8. ...... You should never fear the ridicule of little minds.\n  9. ...... You would never fear ridicule if you were conscious of your\n  own power.\n  10. ...... No man should fear to think for himself.\n  11. ...... No man would fear to think for himself if the world were\n  truly free.\n  12. ...... Compromise now would mean defeat.\n\n\n                    MAY AND MIGHT\n\n+173.+ _May_ used as a helping verb means present permission in regard\nto an action or possession, as:\n\n  You may come with us.\n  He may have the money.\n\n+174.+ It may also mean a possible action or possession. _You may come\nwith us_, for example, might mean that some time in the future it is\npossible that you will come with us. _He may have the money_, might mean\neither _He is given permission to have the money_, or _It is possible\nthat he has it_.\n\n_May_, used with many verb forms, means _it is possible_. For example:\n_He may be hungry_, _He may have starved_. _He may have been starving_;\nthat is, it is possible that _he is hungry_; that _he has starved_; that\n_he was starving_.\n\n+175.+ _Might_ is the past form of _may_ and expresses past permission\nto do or to be and also possibility in the past. For example: _The\nofficer said he might go_. That is, he gave him permission to go. _You\nmight have helped your comrades_; that is, _you had the power to have\nhelped_.\n\n_Might_ is also used to express permission or the power to do in the\npresent and future, on condition. For example:\n\n  He might find work if he were trained.\n  The workers might destroy this insane system if they would.\n\n\n                    Exercise 3\n\nStudy carefully the following sentences. Write in the blank space\npreceding each sentence the number of the paragraph in the lesson which\ngoverns the use of the helping verbs _may_ or _might_ in that sentence.\n\n  1. ...... The solidarity of the workers might have averted this war.\n  2. ...... \"Of all sad words of tongue or pen,\n            The saddest are these--'it might have been.'\"\n  3. ...... You might join us.\n  4. ...... The people struggle that they may live.\n  5. ...... Try; you might succeed.\n  6. ...... The day may come when this day's deeds shall be remembered.\n  7. ...... Victory might be ours if we dared to face the issue.\n  8. ...... \"Men may come and men may go;\n             But I go on forever.\"\n  9. ...... It seemed possible that we might win.\n  10. ...... May we ever be loyal and true!\n  11. ...... It appeared for a time that we might be involved in war.\n  12. ...... Let come what may, we will not yield.\n\n\n                    CAN AND COULD\n\n+176.+ _Can_ is the present-time form and _could_ the past-time form,\nand both imply ability or power to do or to be. _You can go_ means _You\nare able to go_,--_You have the power to go_. _You may go_ means _You\nhave permission to go_. _Can_ is often used when we should use _may_,\nwhen we mean to give permission. Habit plays a great part in our life\nand knowledge of the right way does not always suffice. It is only\ncontinued effort that will establish correct habits of speech. Good\nEnglish would be easy of accomplishment if \"to do were as easy as to\nknow what it were good to do.\"\n\nWe are too often like the mother in the story. \"Can I have a piece of\npie?\" asked the child. \"May I?\" the mother corrected. Then the child\nasked, \"May I have a piece of pie?\" and the mother answered, \"Yes, you\ncan.\" Knowledge said, _may_; habit said _can_, and the ready tongue\nobeyed the force of habit.\n\nSay the correct word over and over aloud until it sounds right to your\near and flows readily to your tongue.\n\n+177.+ _Could_ is sometimes used in the present sense to denote power to\ndo, conditioned upon willingness, as:\n\n  He could if he would.\n\n\n                    Exercise 4\n\nStudy carefully the following sentences. Write in the blank space\npreceding each sentence the number of the paragraph in the lesson which\ngoverns the use of the helping verbs _can_ or _could_ in that sentence.\n\n  1. ...... I can say love when others say hate;\n            I can say every man when others say one man;\n            What can I do? I can give myself to life,\n            When other men refuse themselves to life.\n  2. ...... No one can be free till all are free.\n  3. ...... They could win their freedom if they would prepare\n            themselves to be free.\n  4. ...... What can I do, being alone?\n  5. ...... If all men could catch the vision of freedom, wars would\n            cease.\n  6. ...... Could you find a better way to spend your time than in\n            study?\n  7. ...... Men would rise in revolt if they could know the facts.\n\n\n                    MUST AND OUGHT\n\n+178.+ _Must_ and _ought_ imply obligation. _Must_ conveys the idea of\nbeing obliged to do an action from necessity or compulsion, as,\n\n  You must have known it.\n  He must go.\n\n_Ought_ was originally the past time form of _owe_, hence means _to be\nindebted to_, _to owe_. It conveys the idea of a moral obligation, as,\n\n  You ought to help the cause.\n  You ought to understand.\n\n+179+. _Ought_ is always used with the infinitive, and the same form is\nused to express both the present and the past time. The difference in\ntime is expressed by a change in the infinitive instead of a change in\nthe form of the helping verb. With _may_ and _might_ and _can_ and\n_could_, present and past time are expressed by a change in the form of\nthe helping verb. With the helping verb _ought_, the difference in time\nis expressed in the infinitive. For example:\n\n  He ought to pay us our wages.\n\nThis means, _He owes it to us to pay us our wages now_.\n\n  He ought to have paid us our wages.\n\nThis means, _He owed it to us to pay us our wages some time in the\npast_.\n\n+180.+ The present infinitive is used with the helping verb _ought_ to\nexpress present time and the perfect infinitive is used with _ought_ to\nexpress past time.\n\n\n                    Exercise 5\n\nStudy carefully the following sentences. Write in the blank space\npreceding each sentence the number of the paragraph in the lesson which\ngoverns the use of the helping verb _must_ or _ought_ in that sentence.\n\n  1. ...... Service must be the key note of the future.\n  2. ...... Competition must give place to co-operation.\n  3. ...... Ought we to fear, who know the truth?\n  4. ...... Government ought to be the administration of things.\n  5. ...... No man ought to have the power of life and death over any\n            other human being.\n  6. ...... It may cost much but humanity must be set free at any cost.\n  7. ...... What ought to be the attitude of the workers toward war?\n  8. ...... \"For man must work and woman must weep,\n            For there is little to do and many to keep.\"\n  9. ...... The day must come when we can live the dream.\n\n\n                    DO AND DID\n\n+181.+ _Do_ and _did_ are used as helping verbs to give emphasis--to\nform emphatic verb phrases. _Do_ is the present time form and _did_ the\npast time form, as for example:\n\n  I do wish you would come.\n  I did hope he would win.\n\n+182.+ When we use the negative _not_ we use the helping verbs _do_ and\n_did_ to form our verb phrases. For example, we do not say:\n\n  I obey not.\n  I walked not.\n  He comes not.\n  They arrived not.\n\nBut in expressing the present and past time forms with the negative\n_not_, we say instead:\n\n  I do not obey.\n  I did not walk.\n  He does not come.\n  They did not arrive.\n\n+183.+ We also use _do_ and _did_ with the present and past time forms\nof the verb in writing interrogative sentences. For example, we do not\nsay:\n\n  Comes he with them?\n  Studied you yesterday?\n  Found they the book?\n  Think you it is true?\n\nBut we say instead:\n\n  Does he come with them?\n  Did you study yesterday?\n  Did they find the book?\n  Do you think it is true?\n\n\n                    Exercise 6\n\nWrite in the blank space before each sentence the number of the\nparagraph which governs the use of the helping verb _do_ or _did_ in\nthat sentence.\n\n  1. ...... Slaves do not think; they obey.\n  2. ...... Men do not obey; they think.\n  3. ...... Do you know that two per cent of the people own sixty per\n            cent of the wealth?\n  4. ...... The children of the masses do not have the opportunity to\n            attend school.\n  5. ...... Did not every nation claim a war for defense?\n  6. ...... \"We did not dare to breathe a prayer,\n            Or give our anguish scope.\"\n  7. ...... We do desire the freedom of the people.\n  8. ...... We did hope that war might be averted.\n\n+Let us sum up the auxiliary or helping verbs.+\n\n+184.+ Helping verbs are used to express:\n\n  +The different time forms+--_shall_, _will_, _have_, _had_, _be_.\n  +Power to do or to be+--_can_, _could_, _might_.\n  +Permission+--_may_ and _might_.\n  +Possibility+--_may_ and _might_.\n  +Obligation+--_must_, _ought_ and _should_.\n  +Necessity+--_must_.\n  +Condition+--_would_.\n\nMark the helping verbs in the following exercise:\n\n\n                    Exercise 7\n\n  The earth shall rise on new foundations.\n  We have been naught, we shall be all.\n  No more tradition's chains shall bind us.\n  Oh! Liberty! Can man resign thee?\n  Can dungeon's bolts and bars confine thee?\n  Capital could never have existed if labor had not first existed.\n  What can I do? I can talk out when others are silent. I can say man\n  when others say money.\n  Do you hear the children weeping, O my brothers?\n  Political freedom can exist only where there is industrial freedom.\n  Political democracy can exist only where there is industrial\n  democracy.\n  Who would be free, themselves must strike the blow.\n  If there is anything that cannot bear free thought, let it crack.\n  No doctrine, however established, should be protected from discussion.\n  Society can overlook murder, adultery or swindling; it never forgives\n  the preaching of a new gospel.\n  The tree of liberty must be refreshed from time to time with the\n  blood of patriots and tyrants.\n  Every man is a consumer and ought to be a producer.\n  No picture of life can have any variety which does not admit the\n  odious facts.\n  I know not what course others may take, but as for me, give me liberty\n  or give me death.\n\n\n                    Exercise 8\n\nNote the use of the helping verbs in the following quotation. Could you\nuse _might_ or _must_ or _ought_ anywhere and strengthen the emphasis?\n\n  \"I have looked at this claim by the light of history and my own\n  confidence, and it seems to me, so looked at, to be a most just claim,\n  and that resistance to it means nothing short of a denial of the whole\n  of civilization.\n\n  This then is the claim:\n\n  It is right and necessary that all men should have work to do which\n  shall be worth doing and be of itself pleasant to do; and which should\n  be done under such conditions as would make it neither over-wearisome\n  nor over-anxious.\n\n  Turn that claim about as I may, think of it as long as I can, I cannot\n  find that it is an exorbitant claim; yet if society would or could\n  admit it, the face of the earth would be changed; discontent and\n  strife and dishonesty would be ended. To feel that we were doing work\n  useful to others and pleasant to ourselves, and that such work and its\n  due reward could not fail us! What serious harm could happen to us\n  then? And the price to be paid for so making the world happy, must be\n  revolution.\"--_William Morris_.\n\n\n\n\n                    SPELLING\n\n                    LESSON 10\n\n\nSimple words are sometimes spoken of as root words. _Root_ means that\nfrom which something grows. We know our language is a living, growing\nthing and these root words are the roots where the growth begins. One\nway in which this growth is accomplished and new words added to our\nlanguage is by placing syllables before or after the root word--the\nsimple word--as, for example: _unmanly_.\n\nIn this we have a syllable placed before and a syllable placed after the\nroot word _man_. The syllable placed before the root word is called the\nprefix from the Latin _pre_ meaning _before_ and the Latin word to\nplace. Therefore, prefix means literally _to place before_.\n\n+A prefix consists of one or more syllables placed before a word\nto qualify its meaning.+\n\nThe syllable placed after the root word, or simple word, is called the\nsuffix, from the Latin _sub_ meaning after and the Latin word to place.\n_Subfix_ the word should be literally, but for the sake of the\nsound--the euphony, the good sound--we say _suffix_.\n\n+A suffix consists of one or more syllables placed after a word to\nqualify its meaning.+\n\n+The words made by adding prefixes and suffixes are called derivative\nwords.+\n\nYou remember we used a suffix in forming participles. The present\nparticiple is formed by adding the suffix _ing_ to the simple form of\nthe verb. The past participle is formed by adding the suffix _ed_ to the\nsimple form of the verb.\n\nThe words in the spelling lesson for this week are derivative words\nformed by adding a prefix or suffix, or both, to the simple word. Draw a\nline through the prefix and the suffix and leave the simple or root\nword.\n\n  +Monday+\n\n    Wonderful\n    Prosperous\n    Disloyalty\n    Uncovered\n    Government\n\n  +Tuesday+\n\n    Memorize\n    Unreality\n    Co-operation\n    Dependent\n    Truly\n\n  +Wednesday+\n\n    Beautify\n    Countless\n    Uncomfortable\n    Dishonesty\n    Producer\n\n  +Thursday+\n\n    Existence\n    Untruthfulness\n    Discontentment\n    Victory\n    Removable\n\n  +Friday+\n\n    Impurity\n    Unwillingness\n    Indebted\n    Overwearisome\n    Enjoyable\n\n  +Saturday+\n\n    Obligation\n    Hopeless\n    Endanger\n    Precaution\n    Denial\n\n\n\n\n                    PLAIN ENGLISH\n\n                    LESSON 11\n\n\nDear Comrade:\n\nAs we begin the study of the story of the alphabet and the evolution of\nwritten speech, we discover that primitive man imagined the art of\nwriting to have had divine origin, to have been handed down from the\npowers above.\n\nIt is natural for us to personify and envelop in mystery the things that\nwe do not understand. So these primitive people have attributed the\ndiscovery of the art of writing to the gods and have looked upon the\nparchment containing the written word which they cannot understand, as\npossessing magical power; but as we come to learn the origin and causes\nof things, they are divested of their mystery and become no longer gods\nand enslavers of men. We understand the laws that govern their action\nand they become our servants. Take lightning for example. Primitive\npeople personified the lightning or called it the thunder bolts of Jove\nor attributed it to an act of divine providence. We have learned the\nlaws that govern the action of electricity and so this mighty giant is\nno longer a god to whom we bow in submission, and who slays us at his\nwhim. He has become our most faithful servant who travels along the\nwires at our behest and obeys our every bidding. So in the early stages,\nthe art of writing belonged only to the favored few and was made the\nmeans of enslavement of the common people instead of the means of\nliberation.\n\nKnowledge has always been power and the ruling classes of the world,\ndesiring power over the people, have striven to keep knowledge within\ntheir own circle; so the art of writing was known only to the few. The\nfew books in circulation were laboriously written by hand and\ncirculated, largely among the clergy, who used it as priests have ever\nused their power--from medicine man to Pope,--for the enslavement of the\npeople and the protection of the privileges of a few. This is aptly\nillustrated in the law which was known as \"the benefit of clergy\" which\nwas not entirely repealed until the year 1827. Under this statute,\nexemption from trial for criminal offenses was given to the clergy and\nalso to any man who could read. If a person were sentenced to death for\nsome criminal offense, the bishop of that community might claim him as a\nclerk and if, when given a Latin book, he could read a verse or two, the\ncourt would declare \"he reads like a clerk\" and the offender was only\nburned in the hand and then set free.\n\nThe invention of the printing press in the fifteenth century which made\npossible the diffusion of knowledge among the people, was the beginning\nof the emancipation of the workers of the world. But while we realize,\nperhaps, what this art of writing means to us and by the knowledge of\nits growth and development no longer ascribe it to divine origin or\nconsider it a blessing designed by a supreme being for a favored few,\nstill most of us know very little of the interesting evolution which\nmade possible the alphabet which is the basis of our written and spoken\nlanguage of to-day. When we realize how through all these long centuries\nman has been struggling, striving, evolving, developing, reaching out\ntoward fuller, freer and richer life, it gives us courage in our\nstruggle and makes us see ourselves, not as individuals alone, but as\nlinks in a mighty chain clasping hands with that primitive man of the\npast, from whom we have inherited the power we now possess, and reaching\nforth also to clasp the hands of those who shall come and handing on to\nthem the things for which we have struggled and added to the inheritance\nof the past.\n\nNext week we will have the story of man's first beginning in the art of\nwriting.\n\n                    Yours for Education,\n\n                              THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.\n\n\n                    THE VERB \"BE\"\n\n+185.+ The verb is perhaps the most difficult part of speech to master\nbecause it has more form changes than any other part of speech.\n\nIn this lesson we are going to emphasize the most important things to\nremember in the study of the verb and also call attention to the most\ncommon mistakes.\n\n+186.+ First, master that little verb be in all its forms. The only way\nto do this is to commit to memory these forms. Say them over and over\nuntil any other form does not sound right.\n\n  +Present+           +Past+          +Future+\n\n  _Singular_          _Singular_        _Singular_\n\n  1. I am.            I was.            I shall be.\n  2. You are.         You were.         You will be.\n  3. He is.           He was.           He will be.\n\n  _Plural_            _Plural_           _Plural_\n\n  1. We are.          We were.          We shall be.\n  2. You are.         You were.         You will be.\n  3. They are.        They were.        They will be.\n\n  _Pres. Perf._       _Past Perf._      _Fut. Perf._\n\n  Have been.          Had been.         Shall have been.\n\n+187.+ Do not use _aint_ for _is not_ or _am not_. Do not say, _He aint\nhere_, or _I aint going_. Say, _He isn't here_; _I am not going_.\n\n\n                    A FREQUENT MISTAKE\n\n+188.+ Perhaps one of the most frequent mistakes is the confusion in the\nuse of the past time form and the past participle. Remember that the\npast time form is never used except in expressing past time; never use\nit in forming a verb phrase. Take the verb _do_, for example--say, _He\ndid the work_, never, _He done the work_; but we should say, _He has\ndone the work_, never, _He has did the work_. _Say_ and _seen_ are\nconfused in the same manner. Watch this carefully.\n\n\n                    Exercise 1\n\nUnderline the correct word in the following:\n\n  1. Who did--done it?\n  2. He sung--sang well.\n  3. He sunk--sank before we could reach him.\n  4. She written--wrote him a letter.\n  5. He taken--took the book.\n  6. They swum--swam the river.\n  7. I saw--seen him do it.\n  8. They drank--drunk too much.\n  9. He soon began--begun to fail.\n  10. The lad ran--run home.\n  11. They come--came yesterday.\n\n\n                    WITH HELPING VERBS\n\n+189.+ Never use the past time form with the helping verbs _has_, _had_,\n_was_ and _were_. Always use the past participle. Watch this carefully.\nFor example, never say, _He has went_. _Went_ is the past time form.\nSay, _He has gone_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 2\n\nUnderscore the correct word in the following sentences:\n\n  1. He had tore--torn the book.\n  2. Have you ever sang--sung this tune?\n  3. They have showed--shown us how to win.\n  4. She has went--gone away.\n  5. The trees were shook--shaken by the wind.\n  6. He was chose--chosen for leader.\n  7. He has rose--risen from the ranks.\n  8. It was wrote--written by him.\n  9. He has took--taken the prize.\n  10. He was gave--given the money.\n  11. I have forgot--forgotten the rule.\n  12. The river was froze--frozen over.\n  13. The machine was broke--broken.\n  14. It was wore--worn out.\n  15. The meal was ate--eaten in silence.\n\n\n                    PAST TIME FORMS\n\n+190.+ Watch your speech to see if you use an incorrect verb form for\nthe past time form. Study the table of irregular verbs and refer to it\nfrequently. We often make the mistake of forming the past time form by\nadding _ed_ when properly it is formed irregularly. For example: we\noften say _drawed_ for _drew_, _throwed_ for _threw_, etc.\n\n\n                    Exercise 3\n\nDraw a line under the correct form in the following:\n\n  1. He grew--growed rapidly.\n  2. He knew--knowed better.\n  3. He catched--caught the ball.\n  4. He drew--drawed the water.\n  5. They threw--throwed him over.\n  6. I drinked--drank the water.\n  7. I climbed--clumb the tree.\n  8. I seed--saw him do it.\n  9. She teached--taught school.\n\n\n                    VERBS OF SIMILAR FORM\n\n+191.+ Do not use one verb for another of similar form but different\nmeaning. The following are the most common of these:\n\n+Lay+ (incomplete verb, requires an object) meaning to place or to put;\nas, _to lay the book down_. Principal parts: _Present_, lay; _Past_,\nlaid; _Past participle_, laid.\n\n+Lie+ (complete verb, takes no object) meaning to recline, to rest; as,\n_to lie in bed_. Principal parts: _Present_, lie; _Past_, lay; _Past\nparticiple_, lain.\n\n+Set+ (incomplete verb, requires an object) meaning to place or to put;\nas, _to set the table_. Principal parts: _Present_, set; _Past_, set;\n_Past participle_, set.\n\n+Sit+ (complete verb, takes no object) meaning to rest, as, _to sit in a\nchair_. Principal parts: _Present_, sit; _Past_, sat; _Past participle_,\nsat.\n\n+Raise+ (incomplete verb, requires an object) meaning to cause to rise,\nto lift up. Principal parts: _Present_, raise; _Past_, raised; _Past\nparticiple_, raised.\n\n+Rise+ (complete verb, takes no object) meaning to get up, to ascend.\nPrincipal parts: _Present_, rise; _Past_, rose; _Past participle_,\nrisen.\n\n+192.+ +NOTE--These three verbs need an object to complete their\nmeaning:+\n\n  _Present_      _Past_       _Past Participle_\n\n  set            set           set\n  lay            laid          laid\n  raise          raised        raised\n\n+193.+ +NOTE--These three verbs need no object:+\n\n  _Present_      _Past_      _Past Participle_\n\n   sit            sat          sat\n   lie            lay          lain\n   rise           rose         risen\n\n\n                    Exercise 4\n\nFill in the following blanks with the correct form of the verbs _sit_,\n_set_, _lay_, _lie_, _raise_ and _rise_:\n\n  1. I......it on the table and there it.......\n  2. They......the battle ship, Maine.\n  3. Where did you......it?\n  4. A mile of pipe has been.......\n  5. The miners......a large strike fund.\n  6. She......down to sleep.\n  7. The body......in state three days.\n  8. The farmers of the U. S.......an enormous wheat crop.\n  9. The city......on the right bank.\n  10. We have......the corner stone.\n  11. When wages are......, prices are......too.\n  12. He......in bed all morning.\n  13. ......down Fido.\n  14. The sun......at six this morning.\n  15. She has been......there all day.\n  16. The ship......to during the storm.\n  17. They have been......new tracks.\n  18. The hen is......on the eggs.\n  19. Somebody said, \"Early to bed and early to......,\n      Makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise.\"\n  20. He......motionless for an hour.\n  21. He......out the trees in rows.\n  22. He will......in his position.\n  23. The court will......in May.\n  24. Where did he......?\n  25. She......the table while he......there.\n  26. He......the clock for six o'clock.\n  27. The water has......two feet since the rain.\n  28. He......the book down and......on it.\n  29. The hen has been......a week.\n  30. ......it on the table.\n  31. He......in the shade and watched her......the plants.\n\n\n                    COMMON ERRORS\n\n+194.+ Remember that in the present time form the third person singular\ntakes the s-form, but the s-form is never used _except_ with the _third\nperson singular_. We often make the mistake of using the _s-form_ with a\n_plural_ subject. Notice carefully the following sentences, and correct\nthe errors. All of the sentences are wrong.\n\n  1. The days is getting shorter.\n  2. The men has struck.\n  3. The trains was late.\n  4. These papers is written for you.\n  5. You was disappointed, wasn't you?\n  6. There is several coming.\n  7. The nights was dark and cloudy.\n  8. The clouds has gathered.\n  9. They was anxious to come.\n\n+195.+ +When two subjects are connected by _and_, the s-form of the\nverb must not be used+, unless both subjects refer to one person; as:\n\n  The president and the secretary (two persons) were late.\n  The president and secretary (one person) was elected.\n\n+196.+ +But when the two subjects are connected by _or_ or _nor_\nthen use the s-form of the verb+; as:\n\n  Neither Germany nor Russia admits a war of offense.\n  Either the House or the Senate rejects the bill.\n\n+197.+ +Never use the infinitive sign _to_ by itself+; as:\n\n  I have not written and do not expect _to_.\n  He has not gone nor does he intend _to_.\n\n+198.+ +Never use don't for doesn't.+ The use of _don't_ for _doesn't_\nis a very common mistake. _Don't_ is a contraction of _do not_ and\n_doesn't_ of _does not_. When you are in doubt as to which to use, think\nor speak the two words in full and see if the verb agrees with the\nsubject. _Do not_ is used with a plural subject, and _does not_ with a\nsingular subject. For example: _He don't believe me_. This sentence in\nfull would be, _He do not believe me_, which is incorrect. _He does not_\n(_doesn't_) _believe me_ is correct. Or, _They doesn't believe me_. This\nsentence in full would read, _They does not believe me_, which is\nincorrect. _They do not_ (_don't_) _believe me_ is correct.\n\n+199.+ +Do not use _has got_, or _have got_ for _must_.+ For\nexample, do not say, _We have got to go_. Say, _We must go_. Not, _He\nhas got to do what I say_; but, _He must do as I say_.\n\n+200.+ +Do not say _had ought_.+ For example: _You had ought to know\nbetter_. Omit the _had_; it is unnecessary and incorrect. Say, _You\nought to know better_.\n\n+201.+ +Do not say _says I_ or _thinks I_.+\n\n  Says I, \"Will you go?\"\n  Says he, \"That's what will happen.\"\n  Thinks I to myself, \"I'll show you.\"\n\nThese are incorrect. Say instead:\n\n  I said, \"Will you go?\"\n  He said, \"That's what will happen.\"\n  I thought, \"I'll show you.\"\n\n\n                    Exercise 5\n\nMark all the verbs in the following quotations and note carefully their\nuse.\n\n  1. Speak properly and in as few words as you can but always plainly;\n     for the end of speech is not ostentation but to be\n     understood.--_Penn_.\n\n  2. \"Freedom's battle, once begun,\n     Bequeathed from bleeding sire to son,\n     Though baffled oft, is ever won.\"\n\nNote the use of _may_ and _can_ in this quotation:\n\n  3. Knowledge cannot be stolen from us. It cannot be bought or sold. We\n     may be poor, and the sheriff may come and sell our furniture, or\n     drive away our cow, or take our pet lamb and leave us homeless and\n     penniless; but he cannot lay the law's hand upon the jewelry of our\n     minds.--_E. Burritt_.\n\nNote the use of _shall_ and _will_ and _would_ and _should_ in the\nfollowing. Richard Grant White says: \"I do not know in English\nliterature another passage in which the distinction between _shall_ and\n_will_ and _would_ and _should_ is at once so elegantly, so variously,\nso precisely, and so compactly illustrated.\"\n\n  4. \"How long I shall love him I can no more tell,\n     Than, had I a fever, when I should be well.\n     My passion shall kill me before I will show it,\n     And yet I would give all the world he did know it;\n     But oh how I sigh, when I think, should he woo me,\n     I cannot refuse what I know would undo me.\"\n\n  5. I want it said of me by those who know me best that I always\n     plucked a thistle and planted a flower where I thought a flower\n     would grow.--_Abraham Lincoln_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 6\n\nNote the nouns as well as the verbs in the following quotation. Note\nalso the use of infinitives and participles. Mark every verb and use it\nin a sentence of your own.\n\n\n                    +Faith and Truth+\n\n  You say \"Believe;\" I say \"Trust.\"\n\n      Between those two words is a great gulf fixed.\n\n  The idea that there can be a moral obligation to believe external\n      facts is unworthy of a freeman, but to trust is as much the true\n      nature of man as it is that of a babe to draw in its mother's\n      milk.\n\n  You say \"Creed;\" I say \"Faith.\"\n\n  A creed at best is but a sorry caricature of a faith.\n\n  Faith is the proper atmosphere of man, trust is his native buoyancy,\n      and his only obligation is to follow the highest law of his being.\n\n  You have one supreme duty above all creeds and conventions--namely,\n      to think honestly, and say what you think.\n\n  Have you doubts about your creed? say so; only thus has the true faith\n      ever advanced.\n\n  It is not God, but the devil, who whispers: \"Think at your peril!\"\n\n  Do you see flaws in the ancient structure of respectability and law\n      and order? Say so; only thus has the condition of man ever\n      improved.\n\n  Have courage to be the heretic and traitor that you are by nature, and\n      do not worry about the consequences.\n\n  Be a creator, as you were born to be, and spurn beyond all infamies\n      the wretched role of a repeater and apologist.\n\n  The world lives and grows by heresy and treason.\n\n  It dies by conformity to error and loyalty to wrong.\n\n                                       _Ernest Crosby_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 7\n\nIn the following paragraph, the predicates are printed in italics, and\nthe participles and infinitives in italic capitals. Study carefully.\n\n  If it _were taught_ to every child, and in every school and college,\n  that it _is_ morally wrong for anyone _TO LIVE_ upon the _COMBINED_\n  labor of his fellowmen without _CONTRIBUTING_ an approximately equal\n  amount of useful labor, whether physical or mental, in return, all\n  kinds of _GAMBLING_, as well as many other kinds of useless\n  occupations, _would be seen_ _TO BE_ of the same nature as direct\n  dishonesty or fraud, and, therefore _would_ soon _come_ _TO BE\n  CONSIDERED_ disgraceful as well as immoral.\n\n                                       _Alfred Russel Wallace_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 8\n\nUnderscore all the verbs in the following and note the participles, the\ninfinitives and the various time forms; also the helping verbs:\n\n  What, speaking in quite unofficial language, is the net purport of\n  war? To my knowledge, for example, there dwell and toil, in the\n  British village of Dumrudge, usually some five hundred souls. From\n  these, by certain 'natural enemies' of the French, there are selected,\n  say thirty able-bodied men; Dumrudge, at her own expense, has suckled\n  and nursed them; she has, not without difficulty and sorrow, fed them\n  up to manhood and trained them in the crafts, so that one can weave,\n  another build and another hammer. Nevertheless, amidst much weeping\n  and swearing, they are selected; all dressed in red and shipped away,\n  at the public charges, some two thousand miles, or, say only to the\n  south of Spain, and fed there till wanted. And now to that same spot\n  in the south of Spain are thirty similar French artisans, in like\n  manner, wending their ways; till at length the thirty stand facing the\n  thirty, each with his gun in his hand. Straightway, the word 'Fire' is\n  given, and they blow the souls out of one another; and in the place of\n  the sixty brisk, useful craftsmen, the world has sixty dead carcasses,\n  which it must bury and anew shed tears for.\n\n  Had these men any quarrel? Busy as the devil is, not the smallest!\n  They lived far enough apart; were the entirest strangers; nay, in so\n  wide a universe, there was even, unconsciously, by commerce, some\n  mutual helpfulness between them.\n\n  How then?\n\n  Simpleton! Their governors had fallen out; and instead of shooting one\n  another, had these poor blockheads shoot.--_Carlyle_.\n\n\n\n\n                    SPELLING\n\n                    LESSON 11\n\n\nThere are but few rules which can be learned to aid in the spelling of\nEnglish words. The spelling of words must be largely mastered by\nconcentration and effort of the memory. It will help you to memorize the\ncorrect spelling if you will write each word a number of times. This\ngives you a visual image of the word. Then spell it aloud a number of\ntimes. This will give you an auditory image.\n\nWords which you find difficult to master, write in a list by themselves\nand review frequently. There are a few rules, however, which are helpful\nto know. There is one rule of spelling we want to learn this week\nconcerning words formed by adding a suffix.\n\n+A word of one syllable which ends in a single consonant before which\nstands a single vowel, doubles the final consonant when a suffix\nbeginning with a vowel is added.+\n\nFor example: _mat_, _matted_, _matting_; _sun_, _sunned_, _sunning_.\n\n_Mat_ ends in _t_, a single consonant which is preceded by the single\nvowel _a_,--so you double the _t_ when you add the suffix _ed_ or _ing_,\nwhich begin with a vowel.\n\nNotice these: _Blend_, _blended_, _blending_; _Help_, _helped_,\n_helping_.\n\nThese words do not end in a single consonant, so you do not double the\nconsonant.\n\nNotice also: _Lean_, _leaned_, _leaning_; _Rain_, _rained_, _raining_.\n\nThese words end in a single consonant, but before the consonant is a\ndouble vowel, _ea_ in _lean_ and _ai_ in _rain_. So we do not double the\nfinal consonant.\n\nThis same rule holds true of any suffix, beginning with a vowel, as _er_\nand _est_, for example: _sad_, _sadder_, _saddest_. _Slim_, _slimmer_,\n_slimmest_.\n\nLearn to spell the following words. Add the suffixes _ed_ and _ing_ to\nthe words for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday. Add _er_ and _est_ to the\nwords for Thursday, Friday and Saturday.\n\n  +Monday+\n\n    Chat\n    Cheat\n    Grin\n    Groan\n    Suit\n\n  +Tuesday+\n\n    Sap\n    Soap\n    Bet\n    Beat\n    Rot\n\n  +Wednesday+\n\n    Talk\n    Teach\n    Gain\n    Stir\n    Plan\n\n  +Thursday+\n\n    Thin\n    Dear\n    Flat\n    Cheap\n    Straight\n\n  +Friday+\n\n    Clean\n    Brief\n    Fair\n    Shrill\n    Wet\n\n  +Saturday+\n\n    Strong\n    Great\n    Mad\n    Fleet\n    Fat\n\n\n\n\n                    PLAIN ENGLISH\n\n                    LESSON 12\n\n\nDear Comrade:\n\nIn this lesson we are beginning the study of still another part of\nspeech. You will notice that in words, at least, we give credit and\nplace in society only because of _work performed_. In the society of\nmen, people are given place and position too often because of outward\ndress and form or because of some special privilege. They are not given\ntheir place in society because of the work which they do or because they\nperform any useful function. In fact, in our topsy-turvy world, those\nwho perform no work at all, but are simply parasites upon society, have\nclaimed for themselves the best of everything and the highest positions.\n\nSurely some time we shall see a society as successfully organized as our\nsociety of words, when men will be received, not because of that which\nthey possess, but because of that which they do and are. Man has really\nlaid the foundation for an ideal commonwealth in his organization of\nwords into a spoken and written language.\n\nWhen we think back across the centuries and think of the primitive man\nas he dwelt in trees to protect himself from the wild animals, we wonder\nwhat sort of speech he used then. Possibly it was only a little more\narticulate than the speech of some animals.\n\nBut man had within him the instinct to question, and this has been the\nroot of all his progress. We can imagine these primitive men witnessing\nthe wonder of fire, as the terrible unknown god of the lightning set\nfire to the forest in which they lived; but after the fear had subsided,\nsome adventurous, inquiring forefather of ours ventured near the ashes,\nand began to investigate concerning this fearful and wonderful thing.\n\nSo gradually they discovered the use of fire, and with it a wonderful\nnew future opened before the primitive man. With these great\ndiscoveries, he needed a better form of communication with his comrades,\nso articulate speech developed. But when we go back into the beginning\nof written speech, it is difficult for us to trace it to its beginning.\n\nThe first evidence we find was of man as a sign maker. On the walls of\ncaves in France and Belgium and here in America, we have found rude\nsketches which the scientists tell us date back to the Ice Age and the\nOld Stone Age. Here the primitive man has drawn for us crude pictures\ndescribing different phases of his life, the animals about him, the hunt\nand the chase, and in these pictures we find the very beginning of our\nalphabet of to-day.\n\nHow much more wonderful it makes our spoken and written language to know\nthat man has developed it himself. It has not been handed down by some\ngod or powers above; but the spirit of rebellion against the things that\nbe; the great desire to know more and to find out the reason _why_ of\nall the things around us,--these have been the forces that have led the\nrace from the animal-like beings that lived in trees to the race of\ntoday that understands in a large measure the laws that govern life.\n\nIt is only as we, through this spirit of rebellion, this same divine\ndiscontent with the things that are, seek to do our own thinking that we\ncan add our share to the heritage of the race. Let us have the same\ncourage that must have inspired the heart of that primitive man who\ndared to venture and inquire concerning the fearful things of nature\nround about him. Let us think for ourselves. Ask always the question\n\"why\" and demand the reason for all things. Thus we shall free ourselves\nand help to free the race.\n\n                    Yours for Education,\n\n                              THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.\n\n\n                    IN PLACE OF A NOUN\n\n+202.+ You remember in our study of the parts of speech we found that we\nhave one part of speech that can be used in place of a noun. This is a\nvery helpful part of speech for it saves us a great deal of tiresome\nrepetition. Notice the following sentences:\n\n  John Smith is a machinist.\n  John Smith works at the machine.\n  The machine is John Smith's master.\n\nThis is awkward and the repetition is tiresome. So we say instead:\n\n  John Smith is a machinist.\n  He works at the machine.\n  It is his master.\n\nYou readily understand who and what we mean by _he_ and _it_ and _his_,\nand we will all agree that the latter is a much better way of making the\nstatements. These words like _he_ and _his_ and _it_, which we use in\nplace of the noun, we call _pronouns_. _Pro_ means literally in the\nLatin, _for_ or _in place of_; so when we say pronoun we are practically\nsaying, in place of a noun.\n\n+A pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun.+\n\n+203.+ The word for which a pronoun stands or the noun in whose place it\nis used is called its antecedent. _Ante_ means _before_ and _cedent_\ncomes from the Latin word meaning _go_, hence antecedent means\nliterally, _going before_.\n\nNotice this sentence: _The manager spoke to the men before he left and\ntold them to stop at the office_. _Manager_ is the antecedent of the\npronoun _he_, and _men_ is the antecedent of the pronoun _them_.\n\n+The word for which a pronoun stands is called its antecedent.+\n\n\n                    KINDS OF PRONOUNS\n\n+204.+ The Latin language has had a great deal of influence upon\nEnglish. Many of our words are taken from the Latin. You remember that\nall of the names of our parts of speech are derived from Latin words. We\nalso feel the influence of the Latin language in the way in which we\nnumber our personal pronouns. The Romans naturally thought that one\nwould think of one's self first, and so the pronouns referring to one's\nself, or the person speaking, are called the _first_ person pronouns.\nThey are, _I_, _my_, _mine_, _me_ and _we_, _our_, _ours_, and _us_.\n\nThen they naturally thought that one would think second of the person\nspoken to, so the pronouns referring to the person spoken to are called\nthe _second_ person pronouns. Formerly _thou_ was used in speaking to\none person. In German and many other languages this form is still used,\nbut in English we do not today use the singular form _thou_ with its\nvariations, _thy_, _thine_, and _thee_, except in poetry or poetic\nprose. In every-day speech we use _you_ and its forms, _your_ and\n_yours_, for both the singular and the plural.\n\nThen the Romans considered last the person or thing of whom they were\nspeaking; so pronouns referring to the person or thing spoken of are\ncalled the _third_ person pronouns. These are _he_, _she_, and _it_,\nwith their other forms, _his_, _him_, _her_, _hers_, _its_, in the\nsingular, and _they_, _their_, _theirs_ and _them_ in the plural.\n\n+A personal pronoun is one that denotes the speaker, the person spoken\nto, or the person or thing spoken of.+\n\n\n                    COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS\n\n+205.+ All of these forms of pronouns which we have named are simple\nforms; but we have several personal pronouns which have a compound form;\nthat is, a form made by the addition of _self_ or _selves_ to the simple\nforms.\n\nThese are called compound personal pronouns. They are, in the singular,\n_myself_, _thyself_, _yourself_, _himself_, _herself_, _itself_, and in\nthe plural, _ourselves_, _yourselves_ and _themselves_.\n\nThe compound personal pronouns have two uses, reflexive and emphatic.\n\n\n                    Reflexive\n\n+206.+ A compound personal pronoun has a reflexive use when the actor\nbecomes the object of its own action or in other words when the subject\nand the object refer to the same thing; as in this sentence, _He has\nhurt himself_, _himself_ is the object of the incomplete verb _has\nhurt_, but it refers to the subject _he_. Reflexive is from the Latin\n_re_ meaning _back_ and from the Latin verb meaning _throw_, so\nreflexive means literally _thrown_ back. These pronouns throw their\nmeaning back to the subject.\n\n\n                    Emphatic\n\n+207.+ A compound personal pronoun has also an emphatic use when it\ndirects especial attention to the noun or pronoun to which it refers.\nFor example in the sentence, _He did the work himself_, or, _He,\nhimself, did the work_, _himself_ gives emphasis or intensifies the\nmeaning of the pronoun _he_.\n\nRemember a compound personal pronoun is correctly used only in these two\nways, reflexive and emphatic. For example, the following sentences are\nincorrect:\n\n  This is for yourself and your comrade.\n  Ourselves will find out the reason.\n\nThe correct form would be:\n\n  This is for you and your comrade.\n  We, ourselves, will find out the reason.\n\n+208.+ You can readily distinguish between the reflexive and the\nemphatic use. In the reflexive, the compound personal pronoun is always\nthe _object_ of a verb or preposition, and the subject of the sentence\nis its antecedent. The subject and the object always refer to the same\nthing.\n\nIn the emphatic use, the compound personal pronoun is neither the\nsubject nor the object, but is thrown into the sentence simply to render\nit emphatic, and to call special attention to its antecedent.\n\n\n                    Exercise 1\n\nSupply the compound personal pronoun in the following blanks and tell\nwhether the use is reflexive or emphatic.\n\n  1. He discovered the truth.......\n  2. The workers have robbed......by their ignorance.\n  3. You must educate.......\n  4. You must do the work.......\n  5. He must defend.......\n  6. Capitalism overreaches.......\n  7. The people will rule.......\n  8. We will settle the question.......\n\n\nWrite six sentences in which the compound personal pronouns are\ncorrectly used.\n\n\n                    SINGULAR AND PLURAL\n\n+209.+ Personal pronouns, like nouns, have number form. Nouns simply add\n_s_ to the singular form to denote the plural, but in personal pronouns\nwe have different words which we use to express one or more than one\nperson or thing. In the first, second, and third person forms, personal\npronouns also have different forms for the object form, the possessive\nand the subject form. The following table gives the singular and plural\nof the subject form,--that is the form which is used as the subject of\nthe sentence.\n\n                      +Subject Form+\n\n                      _Singular_        _Plural_\n\n  _First person._      I                We\n  _Second person._     You              You\n  _Third person._      He, she, it.     They\n\n                      +Compound Personal Pronouns+\n\n                 _Singular_                     _Plural_\n\n  _First._       Myself                         Ourselves\n  _Second._      Yourself                       Yourselves\n  _Third._       Himself, herself, itself.      Themselves\n\n+210.+ Remember that the first person refers to the person speaking, the\nsecond to the person spoken to, and the third person to the person or\nthings spoken of. When we speak of things, we never use the first or\nsecond person, unless we are speaking of them in a personified form. So\nin the third person singular, we have the pronoun _it_ which refers to\none thing. In the plural, we have no special pronoun referring to\nthings, but the pronoun _they_ is used to refer both to persons and\nthings.\n\n\n                    Exercise 2\n\nWhich of the following pronouns refer to the person speaking, which to\nthe person spoken to, and which to the person or thing spoken of? Which\nare singular, which plural?\n\n  I will defend my principles.\n  Give them to me for they are mine.\n  Do you believe him to be your friend?\n  We saw their mistake at once.\n  They acknowledged it was their fault.\n  Success will be your portion if you persevere.\n  He struggles for his rights; she does not understand her rights.\n  It forces us to struggle for our education.\n  Woman craves her freedom.\n  Workers of the world, unite; you have a world to gain and nothing to\n  lose but your chains.\n\nForm sentences of your own containing all these pronouns.\n\n\n                    POSSESSIVE FORM\n\n+211.+ You will note in these sentences above that we have used the\npronoun _my_ and _your_ and _his_ and _her_ as _my principles_, _your\nfriend_, _his rights_, _her freedom_. This is the possessive form of\nthese personal pronouns, the form that denotes ownership or possession.\nYou remember that nouns had a possessive form, a form to denote\npossession or ownership, as, _The man's book._ _The boy's school._ _The\nworker's college._ So pronouns also have a possessive form which we use\nto show that an object belongs to such and such a person or thing. If I\nwant to tell you that I own or possess a home, I say, _I own my home_.\nEach personal pronoun has its possessive form, thus:\n\n                     +Singular+\n\n                     _Subject Form_         _Possessive_\n\n  _First person._     I                     My, mine\n  _Second person._    You                   Your, yours\n  _Third person._     He, she, it           His, her, hers, its\n\n                     +Plural+\n\n                     _Subject Form_         _Possessive_\n\n  _First person._     We                    Our, ours\n  _Second person._    You                   Your, yours\n  _Third person._     They                  Their, theirs\n\n\n                    POSSESSIVE FORM\n\n+212.+ You will notice that the possessive forms, _my_, _our_, _her_,\n_your_, _its_, _his_ and _their_, are always used with the name of the\nobject possessed. As for example; _my work_, _our library_, _her\ndelight_, _your task_, _its purpose_, _his home_, _their mistake_.\n\n+213.+ The possessive forms, _mine_, _thine_, _hers_, _ours_, _yours_\nand _theirs_, are always used by themselves and are used either as\nsubject, object or complement. As for example:\n\n  That letter is mine.\n  The work is hers.\n  Thine is the glory.\n  Is that yours?\n  Theirs not to reason why; theirs but to do and die.\n\nThe possessive form _his_ may be used either in connection with the name\nof the object possessed or by itself. For example:\n\n  This is _his_ home.\n  This home is _his_.\n\n\n                    OBJECT FORM\n\n+214.+ Pronouns have one form which nouns do not have. We use the same\nform for the noun no matter whether it is the subject or the object. For\nexample:\n\n  The man saw me.\n  I saw the man.\n\nIn the first sentence _man_ is the subject of the verb _saw_, and in the\nsecond sentence _man_ is the object of the verb _saw_. The same word is\nused; but you will notice that in the first sentence _me_ is the object\nof the verb _saw_, and in the second _I_ is the subject; yet both refer\nto the same person, the first person, the person speaking.\n\nSo we have a different form of the pronoun for the object, for example:\n_I saw him._ _He saw me._ _She watched us._ _We watched her._ _You found\nthem._ _Him_, _me_, _us_, _her_, and _them_ in these sentences are used\nas the objects of the verbs, _see_, _watch_ and _found_, and are called\nthe object forms of the pronouns. _You_ and _it_ have the same form for\nboth the subject and object; as, _You did it._ _It frightens you._ _Her_\nis used as both the possessive form and the object form, as, _Her work\ntires her._\n\n+215.+ The following table gives the subject and the object forms of the\npersonal pronouns, and these should never be confused in their usage. We\nmust not use the object form as the subject of the verb, nor the subject\nform as the object of the verb.\n\n                    +Singular+\n\n                    _Subject_      _Object_\n\n        _First._     I              Me\n        _Second._    You            You\n        _Third._     He, she, it    Him, her, it\n\n\n                    +Plural+\n\n                    _Subject_      _Object_\n\n        _First._     We             Us\n        _Second._    You            You\n        _Third._     They           Them\n\n\n                    GENDER\n\n+216.+ You notice in all of these tables that there are three forms\ngiven for the third person singular, _he_, _she_, and _it_. These are\nthe only forms in which pronouns express gender. In all other forms the\ngender can be determined only by the gender of the antecedent.\n\n+He, representing a male, is masculine.+\n\n+She, representing a female, is the feminine.+\n\n+It represents a sexless thing, and hence is said to be of the neuter\ngender.+\n\n\n                    THE LITTLE VERB _BE_\n\n+217.+ You remember when we studied verbs, we had the incomplete verb\nthat took an object; the complete verb that needed no object, since it\nwas complete in itself; and one other kind of a verb. Do you remember\nthis third kind of verb? This third kind is the copulative verb, and the\ncopulative verb which we use most frequently is the one in the use of\nwhich we make the most mistakes.\n\nIt is that troublesome, bothersome, little verb _be_, which is so\ndifficult to master. You remember it is an incomplete verb, but instead\nof taking an object, it takes a complement or completing word. So when\nyou see a pronoun with any form of this verb _be_, you must use the\n_subject_ form and not the _object_ form. This copulative verb _be_ is\nsimply a connecting word, not a verb that asserts action or takes an\nobject.\n\n+218.+ Here is where we make so many mistakes. We say, _It was me_, _It\nwas them_, _It was him_, _It wasn't her_; instead of, _It was I_, _It\nwas they_, _It was he_, _It wasn't she_. We have used the incorrect form\nin this particular so often that the correct form has a strange sound to\nour ears.\n\nThe only way to remedy this is to repeat over and over aloud the correct\nform until it has a familiar sound. Don't think this is putting words,\nas you should do in everything. We of the working class have built the\nworld in its beauty. Why should we live in shacks, dress in shoddy, talk\nin slang? There is no reason except that we endure it. When the united\nworking class demands its own, it will receive it. Demand yours and\narouse the stupid from their sleep as rapidly as you can.\n\nRepeat the following sentences aloud ten times every day this week and\nsee if the correct form does not come to your lips more readily. We can\nlearn the rule, but only continued practice and watchfulness can break\nus of our old habits.\n\n  It is I who seek my own.\n  It shall be they who are defeated.\n  It was I who was ignorant.\n  It is they who cause all wars.\n  It is he who must be aroused.\n  It is we who strive for freedom.\n  It shall be I who shall win.\n  It was she who was enslaved.\n  It shall be we who shall demand equality.\n  It shall be they who shall conquer.\n\n\n                    Agreement\n\n+219.+ Pronouns are very agreeable members of the co-operative\ncommonwealth of words. They strive to agree with their antecedents.\nSometimes we do not allow the pronoun to agree, and then our sentence is\nincorrect.\n\n+A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number, gender and person.+\n\nFor example, if you are referring to one man, you must use a masculine\npronoun, singular, third person form, as _I saw the man but he did not\nsee me_. _Man_ is the antecedent. It is singular, masculine, third\nperson and so we use the pronoun _he_.\n\n_The girl came, but she could not stay._ In this sentence _girl_ is the\nantecedent; it is singular, feminine, third person, and so we use the\npronoun _she_.\n\n_The boys did not come when the teacher called them._ In this sentence\n_boys_ is the antecedent; it is plural, masculine, third person, and so\nwe use the pronoun _them_.\n\n+220.+ +Sometimes there are two words used as the antecedent, joined by\n_and_.+ We use a singular pronoun in referring to them if they denote the\nsame person or thing; as:\n\n  The secretary and treasurer (one person) resigned _his_ position.\n  My comrade and friend (one person) gave me _his_ help.\n\n+221.+ +But two nouns joined by _and_, that mean different persons or\nthings, must be represented by a plural pronoun, thus+:\n\n  Marx and Engels (two persons) wrote _their_ call to liberty, the\n  Communist-Manifesto.\n  Men and women will struggle for _their_ freedom.\n  Childhood and youth should have _their_ rightful joys.\n\n+222.+ +Use the singular pronoun when the nouns are kept separate by the\nuse of _each_, _every_, _many a_, or _no_.+\n\n  Each man and boy must do _his_ part. (Not _their_ part.)\n  Every soldier and every officer must do _his_ duty.\n  Many a city and many a village gave _its_ best to the army.\n  No comrade and no Socialist will give _his_ consent to war.\n\n+223.+ +If you have two singular nouns as antecedents, joined by _or_,\nor _nor_, use the singular pronoun+, thus:\n\n  Either Germany or France must abandon _its_ position.\n  Neither Wilson nor Bryan kept _his_ promise to the people.\n\n+224.+ +When you use a collective noun and are speaking of the\ncollection as a whole, use a singular pronoun+, as:\n\n  The committee will make _its_ report.\n  The audience was hearty in _its_ appreciation.\n  The jury has returned _its_ verdict.\n\n+225.+ +But if you are referring to the individuals of the collection\nseparately, use a plural pronoun+; as:\n\n  The committee adjourned for _their_ dinner.\n  The audience kept _their_ seats until the close.\n  The jury argued until _their_ nerves were on edge.\n\n\n                    PERSONIFICATION\n\n+226.+ We sometimes speak of things as if they were persons, and so use\neither masculine or feminine pronouns in referring to them. Such objects\nare said to be personified. Thus, we say:\n\n  The sun his ceaseless course doth run.\n  The moon sheds her silvery ray.\n  Nature dons her robes of green.\n\nHere we speak of the sun as though it were a man or possessing the\nqualities of a man and use the pronoun _his_. Then we speak of the moon\nand nature as though they were women and use the pronoun in the feminine\nform.\n\n\n                    REMEMBER\n\n+227.+ +A pronoun must agree with its antecedent.+\n\n+Use the subject form of the pronoun if the pronoun is the subject of\nthe sentence.+\n\n+Use the object form when the pronoun is the object of a verb or a\npreposition.+\n\n+Use the compound personal pronouns only in their reflexive or emphatic\nuse.+\n\n+With all forms of the verb _be_, use the subject form of the\npronouns.+\n\n\n                    SUMMARY\n\n                             SUBJECT    POSSESSIVE      OBJECT\n  First person  (_Singular_     I       my (mine)       me\n                (_Plural_       we      our (ours)      us\n\n  Second person (_Singular_\n                (_Plural_       you     your (yours)    you\n\n  Third person  (_Sing. Masc._  he      his             him\n                (_Sing. Fem._   she     her (hers)      her\n                (_Sing. Neut._  it      its             it\n                (_Plural_       they    their (theirs)  them\n\n\n                    Exercise 3\n\nRead carefully the following beautiful dream of Olive Schreiner's. Mark\nall of the personal pronouns and note carefully their use and by\nreferring to the table above decide just what form each pronoun is.\nWatch carefully too for the antecedents of the pronouns and note the\nagreement of the pronoun with its antecedent.\n\n\n                    \"I THOUGHT I STOOD\"\n\n                              I.\n\n  I thought I stood in Heaven before God's throne, and God asked me what\n  I had come for. I said I had come to arraign my brother, Man.\n\n  God said, \"What has he done?\"\n\n  I said, \"He has taken my sister, Woman, and has stricken her and\n  wounded her and thrust her out into the streets; she lies there\n  prostrate. His hands are red with blood. I am here to arraign him;\n  that the kingdom be taken from him, because he is not worthy, and\n  given unto me. My hands are pure.\"\n\n  I showed them.\n\n  God said, \"Thy hands are pure. Lift up thy robe.\"\n\n  I raised it; my feet were red, blood-red, as if I had trodden in wine.\n\n  God said, \"How is this?\"\n\n  I said, \"Dear Lord, the streets on earth are full of mire. If I should\n  walk straight on in them my outer robe might be bespotted, you see how\n  white it is! Therefore I pick my way.\"\n\n  God said, \"_On what?_\"\n\n  I was silent, and let my robe fall. I wrapped my mantle about my\n  head. I went out softly. I was afraid that the angels would see me.\n\n\n                              II.\n\n  Once more I stood at the gate of Heaven, I and another. We held fast\n  by one another; We were very tired. We looked up at the great gates;\n  angels opened them, and we went in. The mud was on our garments. We\n  walked across the marble floor, and up to the great throne. Then the\n  angels divided us. Her, they set upon the top step, but me, upon the\n  bottom; for, they said, \"Last time this woman came here she left red\n  foot-marks on the floor; we had to wash them out with our tears. Let\n  her not go up.\"\n\n  Then she with whom I came, looked back and stretched out her hands to\n  me; and I went and stood beside her. And the angels, they, the shining\n  ones who never sinned and never suffered, walked by us, to and fro, up\n  and down; I think we should have felt a little lonely there if it had\n  not been for one another, the angels were so bright.\n\n  God asked me what I had come for; and I drew my sister forward a\n  little that He might see her.\n\n  God said, \"How is it you are here together today?\"\n\n  I said, \"She was upon the ground in the street, and they passed over\n  her; I lay down by her, and she put her arms around my neck, and so I\n  lifted her, and we two rose together.\"\n\n  God said, \"Whom are you now come to accuse before Me?\"\n\n  I said, \"We are come to accuse no man.\"\n\n  And God bent and said, \"My children--what is it that you seek?\"\n\n  And she beside me drew my hand that I should speak for both.\n\n  I said, \"We have come to ask that Thou shouldst speak to Man, our\n  brother, and give us a message for him that he might understand, and\n  that he might----\"\n\n  God said, \"Go, take the message down to him!\"\n\n  I said, \"But what _is_ the message?\"\n\n  God said, \"Upon your hearts it is written; take it down to him.\"\n\n  And we turned to go; the angels went with us to the door. They looked\n  at us.\n\n  And one said, \"Ah! but their dresses are beautiful!\"\n\n  And the other said, \"I thought it was mire when they came in, but see,\n  it is all golden!\"\n\n  But another said, \"Hush, it is the light from their faces!\"\n\n  And we went down to him.\n\n                                        --_Olive Schreiner_.\n\n\n         The Cry of the People\n\n    Tremble before your chattels,\n      Lords of the scheme of things!\n    Fighters of all earth's battles,\n      Ours is the might of kings!\n    Guided by seers and sages,\n      The world's heart-beat for a drum,\n    Snapping the chains of ages,\n      Out of the night we come!\n\n    Lend us no ear that pities!\n      Offer no almoner's hand!\n    Alms for the builders of cities!\n      When will you understand?\n    Down with your pride of birth\n      And your golden gods of trade!\n    A man is worth to his mother, Earth,\n      All that a man has made!\n\n    We are the workers and makers!\n      We are no longer dumb!\n    Tremble, O Shirkers and Takers!\n      Sweeping the earth--we come!\n    Ranked in the world-wide dawn,\n      Marching into the day!\n    The night is gone and the sword is drawn\n      And the scabbard is thrown away!\n\n                                        --_Neihardt_.\n\n\n                    SPELLING\n\n                    LESSON 12\n\n\nLast week we learned the rule governing the spelling of derivatives of\n_one_ syllable ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel\nwhen we add a suffix beginning with a vowel.\n\nThe same rule applies to words of two or more syllables, accented on the\nlast syllable.\n\nFor example:\n\n  _Compel_, compelled, compelling.\n  _Prefer_, preferred, preferring.\n\n+Words accented on the last syllable, when they end in a single\nconsonant preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant when\nyou add a suffix beginning with a vowel.+\n\nWhen these words take a suffix that begins with a _consonant_, they do\n_not_ double the final consonant; as, _preferment_.\n\nWords accented on any syllable but the last, do _not_ double the final\nconsonant; as, _offer_, _offered_, _offering_.\n\nWords that have two vowels before a single final consonant do not double\nthe final consonant; as, _reveal_, _revealed_, _revealing_.\n\nWords that end in a double consonant or any two consonants, keep the two\nconsonants, no matter what suffix they take; as, _indent_, _indented_;\n_skill_, _skilled_, _skillful_.\n\nThe only exception to this rule is when the addition of the suffix\nthrows the accent back to a preceding syllable. When this is the case,\nthe final consonant is not doubled. For example: _refer_, _referred_,\n_ref'erence_; _confer_, _conferring_, _con'ference_.\n\nLook up the following words in the dictionary, watch for the accent,\nmark and add the suffixes, _ed_, _ing_, _ence_ or _ance_, if possible.\n\n  +Monday+\n\n    Repel\n    Alter\n    Prefer\n    Debar\n    Answer\n\n  +Tuesday+\n\n    Inter\n    Offer\n    Demur\n    Wonder\n    Succeed\n\n  +Wednesday+\n\n    Detain\n    Combat\n    Compel\n    Occur\n    Cancel\n\n  +Thursday+\n\n    Permit\n    Travel\n    Repeal\n    Control\n    Profit\n\n  +Friday+\n\n    Forbid\n    Neglect\n    Expel\n    Render\n    Infer\n\n  +Saturday+\n\n    Benefit\n    Retain\n    Submit\n    Reveal\n    Limit\n\n\n\n\n                    PLAIN ENGLISH\n\n                    LESSON 13\n\n\nDear Comrade:\n\nDid you ever tie a knot in your handkerchief to help you remember to get\nsomething you felt almost sure you would forget? Well, tying a knot in a\ncord was one of the first ways devised by our ancestors of long ago to\naid them to remember. They also used this plan to send word to those at\na distance or to keep track of things for succeeding generations. A\nrelic of this old device of our forefathers is also found in the rosary\non which the Roman Catholic counts his beads as an aid to memory.\n\nThere are some primitive tribes to-day who still use knotted strings as\nan aid to memory. These consist of a main cord, and fastened at given\ndistances are finer cords of different colors. Each cord is knotted in\ndifferent ways to mean different things and each color, too, has its own\nmeaning. A red string stands for soldiers, a yellow for gold, and a\ngreen for corn, and so on, while a single knot may mean ten, two single\nknots twenty, a double knot 100, two double knots 200. In this way, they\nkeep a record of things, transmit orders and use them for various\npurposes.\n\nOnly a generation ago the tax gatherers in the Island of Hawaii kept\naccount of the assessable property on lines of cordage knotted in this\nmanner, and these cords in some cases were three thousand feet long. The\nmethod of keeping track of things by means of a notched stick is easily\nwithin the memory of many people living today. For in England in the\nearly part of the last century, accounts of debts to the government were\nkept by means of tally sticks, which were merely notched sticks.\n\nSuch methods as these were the only ways primitive man had of keeping\ntrack of things before he had discovered the art of written speech. And\neven after written speech was known and used, these old methods\npersisted.\n\nGradually, step by step, man has come along the path of progress.\nAdventurous spirits, not satisfied with the old way of doing things,\nsought new ways. The conservatives of their day thought them dangerous\npeople, no doubt, and feared that they would destroy the very\nfoundations of society. And this they oft-times did, but only that there\nmight rise a more perfect form of society. It is the seeking,\nquestioning mind that demands the reason for all things, that seeks ever\nbetter ways of doing things. They have always throughout the ages\nrefused to bow to the authority of the past but have dared to live their\nown lives. To them we owe the progress of the world and we are the\ninheritors of their spirit.\n\nLet us prove our kinship by daring to live our own lives and think our\nown thoughts.\n\n                    Yours for Freedom,\n\n                              THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.\n\n\n                    INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS\n\n+228+. You recall that in our first lesson we studied concerning the\nfour different kinds of sentences which we use in expressing our\nthoughts, the _assertive_, the _interrogative_, the _imperative_ and the\n_exclamatory_. The interrogative sentence is the form which we use in\nasking a question, _interrogative_ being derived from the Latin _inter_,\nmeaning _between_, and _rogare_, _to ask_, meaning literally _to ask\nbetween_. The interrogative sentence differs from the assertive sentence\nin the arrangement of the words; for in order to ask questions, we\nusually place the predicate, or part of it at least, before the subject,\nthus:\n\n  _Can_ you _use_ good English?\n  _Did_ you _spell_ the word correctly?\n  _Has_ he _studied_ grammar?\n\nIn these sentences, you note that the helping verbs, _can_, _did_ and\n_has_, are placed first instead of the subject. It is by this\narrangement that we put the sentence in the interrogative form.\n\n+229.+ Frequently, however, in asking questions we wish to ask\nconcerning a person or thing whose name we do not know. So we need a\nword to refer to the unknown object. See how these uses of words grow\nout of our need! We have three interrogative pronouns, _who_ and _which_\nand _what_, that we use to meet this need. Notice the use of these three\npronouns in the following sentences:\n\n  _Who_ wrote the Communist Manifesto?\n  _Which_ of the two men is the better known?\n  _What_ are the closing words of this famous document?\n\nIn these sentences, _who_ and _which_ and _what_ are the interrogative\npronouns, used to ask questions concerning the unknown persons or\nobjects.\n\n+230.+ +Who refers only to human beings or to personified objects.+\n\n+Which refers either to human beings, animals or things.+\n\n+What refers only to things.+\n\n_Which_ and _what_ have the same form for both the subject and the\nobject. _Who_ has a different form for all three forms, the subject\nform, the possessive form, and the object form. It uses the same form,\nhowever, both in singular and plural.\n\n  _Subject form_  _Possessive form_   _Object form_\n\n        Who            Whose               Whom\n\n+231.+ We often make mistakes in the use of the different forms of the\npronoun _who_. We often use the subject form for the object form, using\n_who_ where we should have used _whom_. For example:\n\n  Who did you see?\n\nThe correct form is:\n\n  Whom did you see?\n\nThe pronoun _whom_ is the object of the verb _see_, hence the object\nform should be used. However, the use of the subject form _who_ instead\nof _whom_ is coming into such general use today that some grammarians\naccept it as a permissible usage. The will of the people influences\nlanguage, as it does all other human institutions, and gradually creates\nnew rules.\n\nWrite three sentences, using _who_, _which_ and _what_ as interrogative\npronouns.\n\n+An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun used to ask a question.+\n\n\n                    RELATIVE PRONOUNS\n\n+232.+ There is one other class of pronouns which plays a great part in\nour speech and is a wonderful help to us. For example, suppose I want to\ntell you several things about this book. I say: _I am reading this book.\nIt interests me greatly._ Now it would be a great advantage to me if I\ncould put these two sentences together, and we have for this use a\npronoun which makes it possible for us to combine these sentences, and\nso I say:\n\n  The book which I am reading interests me greatly.\n\nThus I am able to unite two short sentences into a long sentence, which\nconveys my meaning better than the two short sentences and gives a\nsmoother bit of reading. We have four pronouns which we use in this way,\n_who_, _which_, _that_ and _what_ and they are called relative pronouns\nbecause they refer or relate to some noun in the sentence and they also\nserve to connect two statements.\n\n+233.+ +A relative pronoun is a pronoun that relates to an antecedent\nand at the same time connects two statements.+\n\nA relative pronoun always relates to its antecedent and at the same time\nconnects the statement that it introduces with the one that contains the\nantecedent to which it relates, as in the sentence above, _The book\nwhich I am reading, interests me greatly._ _Which_ is the relative\npronoun; first, because it relates to the antecedent, _book_; and\nsecond, because it connects the statement, _I am reading_, with the rest\nof the sentence. Notice these sentences also:\n\n  The man who thinks will not enlist in the army.\n  We will destroy the system that enslaves us.\n\n_Who_ and _that_ are the relative pronouns in these two sentences and\ntheir antecedents are _man_ and _system_, and they connect the\nstatements, _who thinks_ and _that enslaves us_, with the rest of the\nsentence.\n\n+234.+ +Who is used to relate to persons.+\n\n+Which is used to relate only to animals and things.+\n\n+That may relate to either persons, animals or things.+\n\n+What relates to things.+\n\nNote that _which_, as an interrogative, may refer to persons as well as\nto animals and things; but as a relative, _which_ never refers to\npersons.\n\n+235+. Note that we use the same pronouns _who_, _which_ and _what_ as\nboth relative and interrogative pronouns. You will not be confused in\nthis matter if you will remember that they are called interrogative\npronouns only when they are used to ask questions. When they are used as\ninterrogative pronouns they never have an antecedent. _Who_ and _which_\nand _what_ are always relative pronouns when used in an assertive\nsentence and referring to an antecedent.\n\n_That_ and _what_ have the same form for both the subject and object\nforms. They have no possessive form. _Who_ has a different form for the\nsubject form and the possessive form and the object form. _Which_ has\nthe same form for subject and object forms, and a different form for the\npossessive form. Note the following:\n\n  _Subject form_    _Possessive form_   _Object form_\n\n       who             whose              whom\n       which           whose              which\n\n  I know the man _who_ called him.\n  I know the man _whose_ voice I hear.\n  I know the man _whom_ they called.\n\nIn these three sentences we have the pronoun _who_ used in its three\nforms, subject, possessive and object form. We should be very careful\nnot to confuse the subject and the object forms of the pronoun _who_.\n\n  This is the book _which_ tells the truth.\n  This is the book _whose_ author is in prison.\n  This is the book _which_ I wanted.\n\nIn these three sentences we have the pronoun _which_ used in its three\nforms, _subject_ form, _possessive_ form and _object_ form. In the first\nsentence the pronoun is the subject of the verb _tells_; in the second\nsentence, it is used in the possessive form with the noun _author_; in\nthe third sentence, it is used as the object of the verb _wanted_.\n\n+236.+ _What_ differs from the other relative pronouns in that its\nantecedent is never expressed, for it is implied in the word itself.\n_What_ is always equivalent to _that which_, or _the thing which_. For\nexample, the sentence, _Do not tell what I have told you_, is equivalent\nto saying, _Do not tell that which I have told you_, or _the thing which\nI have told you_.\n\n+237+. Never use _what_ in a sentence as a _relative_ pronoun unless you\ncan replace it and make good sense by using _that which_, or _the thing\nwhich_ in place of _what_.\n\nFor example, do not say, _I know that what he would say_. This is\nincorrect. You should say, _I know that which he would say_, or _I know\nwhat he would say_, using _what_ in place of _that which_. Here is a\nsentence that occurred in an English examination recently, which\nillustrates most aptly this point. _A subject is that what something is\nsaid about._ Here _what_ is used incorrectly. _A subject is that about\nwhich something is said_, would have been the correct form.\n\nWatch for this in your speech for it is a most common error and to the\neducated ear is harsh and marks the speaker as uneducated. All of these\nmistakes which we make so commonly will require a considerable amount of\neffort to overcome, but the result is worth the effort, for even those\nabout us who will not take the pains or give the required time and\neffort to acquiring an education for themselves, will give greater heed\nto the speech of those who do speak correctly, and will readily\nacknowledge the leadership of those who have given the time and effort\nto self-development.\n\n+238.+ The antecedent of _who_ is sometimes omitted and understood; for\nexample, _Who follows the cause must endure hardship_, _He_, is\nunderstood and omitted. _He who follows the cause must endure hardship._\n\n+239.+ The relative pronoun itself is often omitted. For example:\n\n  These are the men (whom) you must help.\n  The words (that) you use and the deeds (that) you do, are your judges.\n\n+240.+ The relative pronouns have compound forms also, such as\n_whoever_, _whosoever_, _whichever_, _whichsoever_, _whatever_ and\n_whatsoever_, which are used in the same manner as the simple forms.\n\n\n                    COMMON ERRORS\n\n+241.+ Here are a number of common errors which only constant practice\nand watchfulness can overcome. Study these over and watch your\nconversation closely. Force yourself to speak correctly for a time, and\nsoon correct speech will become a habit.\n\n+1.+ +Do not use both a noun and a pronoun as the subject of a\nsentence+; as, _John, he waited for me._ _Mary, she refused to go._\nLeave out the pronouns _he_ and _she_ in these sentences. They are\nunnecessary and incorrect.\n\n+2.+ +Never use+ _hern_, _ourn_, _hisn_ or _yourn_ for _hers_, _ours_,\n_his_ and _yours_; as, _The book is hisn._ _Ourn stopped on the first._\n_Did you get yourn?_ Say: _This book is his._ _Ours stopped on the\nfirst._ _Did you get yours?_\n\n+3.+ +Never say+ _hisself_ for _himself_. There is no such word as\n_hisself_. Do not say, _He hurt hisself_. Say, _He hurt himself_.\n\n+4.+ +Do not say+ _them_ for _those_; as, _Did you bring them songs?_\n_Them things are not right._ Say, _Did you bring those songs?_ _Those\nthings are not right._\n\n+5.+ +Do not use an apostrophe in writing the possessive forms of\npronouns+, as _her's_, _our's_, _it's_. Leave out the apostrophe and\nwrite _hers_, _ours_, _its_.\n\n+6.+ +Do not use _who_ to relate to animals or things+; as, _The dog\nwho bit me was killed_. Say, _The dog that bit me was killed_.\n\n+7.+ +Do not use _myself_ as the subject+. It can be used only as an\nemphatic or reflexive pronoun. It is correct to say, _I found the book\nmyself_, and _I hurt myself_. But do not say, _They asked my friend and\nmyself_, or _Myself and my wife will go_. Say, _They asked my friend and\nme_. _My wife and I will go._\n\n+8.+ +Avoid the use of pronouns when the reference to the antecedent is\nnot clear.+ Better repeat the nouns or re-write the sentence. For\nexample:\n\n  He said to his friend that if he did not feel better soon he thought\n  he had better go home.\n\nNow you can interpret this in at least four different ways. No one but\nthe speaker can ever know to whom the pronouns _he_ refer, whether to\nthe speaker or to his friend. Or in the sentence,\n\n  A tried to see B in the crowd, but could not because he was so short.\n\nWho was short, _A_ or _B_? _John's father died before he was born._ Did\nJohn's father die before John was born or did John's father die before\nJohn's father, himself, was born? Be careful in the use of pronouns in\nthis way.\n\n+9.+ +Remember that _I_, _we_, _he_, _she_, _they_ and _who_ are\nalways used as subject forms and also as the complement of all forms of\nthe verb _be_.+\n\n+10.+ +Remember that _me_, _him_, _her_, _them_, _us_ and _whom_ are\nalways object forms+. Never say, _They charged he and I too much_. Say,\n_They charged him and me too much_. In an attempt to speak correctly and\nfollow the niceties of English, this mistake is so often made. Always\nuse the object form as the object of a verb or preposition.\n\n+11.+ +When a participle is used as a _noun_, and a pronoun is used\nwith it, the pronoun should always be in the _possessive_ form+. We\nmake this mistake so frequently. For example, we say: _Us going there\nwas a mistake_. We should have used the possessive form, _Our going\nthere was a mistake_. _I have never known of him being absent from\nwork._ We should say: _I have never known of his being absent from\nwork_. _Did he tell you about me joining with them?_ This should be,\n_Did he tell you about my joining with them?_ _You talking to him set\nhim to thinking._ This should be, _Your talking to him set him to\nthinking_. Watch this and wherever you have used a participle as a\n_noun_, use the pronoun in the _possessive_ form, as you would with any\nother noun.\n\n+12.+ +Watch carefully that the number of the pronoun always agrees with\nthe number of its antecedent.+ If you are speaking of one person or\nthing use a singular pronoun. If you are speaking of more than one\nperson or thing in your antecedent, use the plural pronoun. For example:\n_Each man must do his own work._ _The soldiers fully understood their\ndanger._\n\n+13.+ +When a singular noun, in the common gender (this means that it\nmay name either a male or female being), is the antecedent of the\npronoun, it is customary for us to use the masculine pronoun.+ For\nexample:\n\n  Every student should send in _his_ examination paper promptly.\n\n  Every member of the class may select _his_ own subject.\n\nDo not use the pronoun _their_ when the antecedent is a singular noun.\n\n\n                    SUMMARY\n\n          Pronoun--In Place of a Noun\n\n  CLASSES\n\n  _Personal_       {Simple--         {1st Person, _speaking_.\n                   {Compound--       {2nd Person, _spoken to_.\n                                     {3rd Person, _spoken of_.\n\n  _Interrogative_  {To ask questions.\n                   {_Who_, _which_ and _what_.\n\n  _Relative_       {To refer to another word and connect two statements.\n                   {_Who_, _which_, _that_ and _what_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 1\n\nComplete the following sentences by using the correct form of _I_, _me_,\nor _myself_, in the blank spaces:\n\n  1. My partner and......joined the union.\n  2. They asked Henry and......to go.\n  3. May my friend and......call?\n  4. I will attend to that.......\n  5. Let my comrade and......go with you.\n  6. Are you sure it was......?\n  7. I blame......for joining with them.\n  8. They accused......of bothering them.\n  9. I am nearly beside......with grief.\n  10. The manager dismissed the men......among the rest.\n\n\n                    Exercise 2\n\nComplete the following sentences by using the correct form of _we_, _us_\nor _ourselves_ in the blank spaces:\n\n  1. They are better off than.......\n  2. The French as well as......claim a war of defense.\n  3. Can you blame......who have always stood by you?\n  4. We will do that for.......\n  5. Between......comrades there should be no differences.\n  6. They gave......men work.\n  7. Do not trouble;......will attend to this.......\n  8. They sent a special notice to our friends and.......\n\n\n                    Exercise 3\n\nComplete the following sentences by using the correct form of _thou_,\n_thee_, _thy_ or _thyself_ in the blank spaces:\n\n  1. To......be true, and it follows as the night the day......\n     canst not then be false to any man.\n  2. Paul,......art beside......; much learning hath made ......mad.\n  3. ......shalt love......neighbor as.......\n  4. Trust....... Every heart vibrates to that iron string.\n\n\n                    Exercise 4\n\nComplete the following sentences by using the correct form of _he_,\n_him_, or _himself_ in the blank spaces:\n\n  1. ......and John are to blame.\n  2. I think it was.......\n  3. My friend and......called on you.\n  4. He blamed......for the accident.\n  5. You are no better than.......\n  6. I shall call for you and.......\n  7. You and......must come on time.\n  8. He found the place.......\n  9. There should be no quarrel between you and......who loves you.\n  10. If you were......would you go?\n\n\n                    Exercise 5\n\nComplete the following sentences by using the correct form of _she_,\n_her_, or _herself_ in the blank spaces:\n\n  1. They asked Mary and......to go.\n  2. Mary and......went.\n  3. May......and I go with you?\n  4. Let......and Harry go.\n  5. Is that Mary? Yes, it is.......\n  6. There are many points of difference between......and me.\n  7. You are more beautiful than.......\n  8. She brought it to me.......\n  9. If......and I join you, will you go?\n  10. They must not quarrel over......and me.\n\n\n                    Exercise 6\n\nComplete the following sentences using the correct form of _they_,\n_them_, or _themselves_ in the blank spaces:\n\n  1. They gave......up.\n  2. ......and I will finish the work.\n  3. I found......where......hath thrown......down to rest.\n  4. I am sure it was......for I saw......plainly.\n  5. The workers enslave......by their lack of solidarity.\n  6. ......must learn the lesson.......\n\n\n                    Exercise 7\n\nCross out the wrong word in the following sentences:\n\n  1. Everybody do--does as he pleases--they please.\n  2. No one should waste his--their opportunities.\n  3. The jury rendered its--their verdict.\n  4. If anyone wishes war, let him--them do the fighting.\n  5. The audience displayed its--their approval by its--their applause.\n  6. The audience remained quietly in its--their seats.\n  7. The jury adjourned for its--their dinner.\n  8. Nobody willingly gives up his--their rights.\n  9. Each one may express his--their opinion.\n  10. Every man received his--their wages.\n\n\n                    Exercise 8\n\nComplete the following sentences by using the correct form of the\npronouns _who_, _whose_, or _whom_:\n\n  1. ......do you think I am?\n  2. I am the man......you taught yesterday.\n  3. With......are you going?\n  4. The contract was let to a man......we are sure cannot fulfill it.\n  5. The contractor......wishes to bid will come tomorrow.\n  6. On......are you depending?\n  7. The friends......counsel I took, stood by me.\n  8. He is a man......I am sure will succeed.\n  9. We tried to talk to those......we thought would understand us.\n  10. For......did you work?\n\n\n                    Exercise 9\n\nInsert _who_, _whose_, _whom_, _which_, _that_ or _what_ in the blanks\nin the following sentences:\n\n  1.  Man is the only animal......uses a written speech.\n  2.  Can you save......you earn?\n  3.  Ricardo's law was that the workers always receive a\n      wage......permits them to produce and reproduce.\n  4.  Have you read the book \"War, What For\"......Kirkpatrick wrote.\n  5.  Newspapers......distort the news......they print to serve the\n      ruling class are dangerous foes to the workers.\n  6.  The massacre at Ludlow was an event......aroused the working\n      class.\n  7.  They......live by the labor of others are drones in society and\n      should be given the fate......they deserve.\n  8.  The big machine gun......will destroy slavery is the printing\n      press.\n  9.  The man......leadership we should follow is he......preaches\n      social equality.\n  10. We know......we need and we will demand......is our right.\n\n\n                    Exercise 10\n\nIn the following quotations note the use of the pronouns and mark\nwhether they are _personal_, _relative_ or _interrogative_, whether they\nare used in the _subject_ form, _possessive_ form or _object_ form:\n\n  1. \"Camerado, I give you my hand,\n      I give you my love more precious than money,\n      I give you myself before preaching or law;\n      Will you give me yourself, will you come travel with me,\n      Shall we stick by each other as long as we live?\"\n\n  2. \"I think I could turn and live with animals they are so placid and\n        self-contained,\n     I stand and look at them long and long, they do not sweat and whine\n        about their condition,\n     They do not lie awake in the dark and weep for their sins,\n     They do not make me sick discussing their duty to God;\n     Not one is dis-satisfied, not one is demented with the mania of\n        owning things.\n     Not one kneels to another nor to his kind, that lived thousands of\n        years ago,\n     Not one is respectable or unhappy over the whole earth.\"\n                                        --_Whitman_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 11\n\nNote the omission of the antecedent in the first sentence, also the use\nof the relative _what_ in the last sentence of the first paragraph:\n\n  \"Whoso would be a man, must be nonconformist. He who would gather\n  immortal palms must not be hindered by the name of goodness, but must\n  explore if it be goodness. Nothing is at last sacred but the integrity\n  of our own mind. Absolve you to yourself, and you shall have the\n  suffrage of the world. I remember an answer which, when quite young, I\n  was prompted to make to a valued adviser who was wont to importune me\n  with the dear old doctrines of the church. On my saying, \"What have I\n  to do with the sacredness of traditions, if I live wholly from\n  within?\" my friend suggested--\"But these impulses may be from below,\n  not from above.\" I replied, \"They do not seem to me to be such; but if\n  I am the devil's child, I will live then from the devil.\" No law can\n  be sacred to me but that of my nature. Good and bad are but names very\n  readily transferable to that or this; the only right is what is after\n  my constitution; the only wrong what is against it.\n\n  A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds, adored by\n  little statesmen and philosophers and divines. With consistency a\n  great soul has simply nothing to do. He may as well concern himself\n  with his shadow on the wall. Out upon your guarded lips! Sew them up\n  with pack threads, do. Else, if you would be a man, speak what you\n  think today in words as hard as cannon balls, and tomorrow speak what\n  tomorrow thinks in hard words again, though you contradict everything\n  you said today. Ah, then, exclaim the aged ladies, you shall be sure\n  to be misunderstood. Misunderstood! It is a right fool's word. Is it\n  so bad then to be misunderstood? Pythagoras was misunderstood, and\n  Socrates, and Jesus, and Luther, and Copernicus, and Galileo, and\n  Newton, and every pure and wise spirit that ever took flesh. To be\n  great is to be misunderstood.\"--_Emerson_.\n\n\n\n\n                    SPELLING\n\n                    LESSON 13\n\n\nThere are a few more rules governing the spelling of derivative words.\nWords ending in silent _e_ keep the _e_ before the suffix beginning with\na consonant. Notice the following words:\n\n  excite     excitement\n  like       likeness\n  force      forceful\n  shame      shameless\n  lone       lonesome\n  live       lively\n\nWords ending in silent _e_ drop the _e_ before the suffix beginning with\na vowel, as:\n\n  excite     excitable\n  live       living\n  grieve     grievous\n  force      forcible\n\nSome words ending in silent _e_ retain the _e_ before the suffix\nbeginning with a vowel, to prevent a change in the pronunciation or to\npreserve the identity of the word. Notice the following words:\n\n  peace     peaceable\n  courage   courageous\n  singe     singeing\n  change    changeable\n  shoe      shoeing\n  notice    noticeable\n\nThese are words ending in the soft sound of _c_ and _g_, where the _e_\nis retained to preserve the correct pronunciation of the _c_ and _g_,\nand with some few words like _toe_, _dye_, etc., where the dropping of\nthe _e_ would lose the identity of the word.\n\nThe _e_ is dropped in a few words before the suffix beginning with a\nconsonant, as in _wholly_, _nursling_, _judgment_, _wisdom_, _lodgment_.\n\nAdd the suffixes _ment_ and _ing_ to the words in Monday's lesson; the\nsuffix _able_ to the words for Tuesday and Wednesday; the suffixes\n_some_ and _ous_ to the words for Thursday; the suffixes _ly_ or _ness_\nto the words for Friday and Saturday.\n\n  +Monday+\n\n    Excite\n    Advise\n    Chastise\n    Disfranchise\n    Enslave\n\n  +Tuesday+\n\n    Manage\n    Receive\n    Blame\n    Exchange\n    Imagine\n\n  +Wednesday+\n\n    Admire\n    Service\n    Desire\n    Peace\n    Pronounce\n\n  +Thursday+\n\n    Whole\n    Meddle\n    Courage\n    Advantage\n    Outrage\n\n  +Friday+\n\n    Accurate\n    Positive\n    False\n    Definite\n    Distinct\n\n  +Saturday+\n\n    Agreeable\n    Careful\n    Awful\n    Sure\n    Secure\n\n\n\n\n                    PLAIN ENGLISH\n\n                    LESSON 14\n\n\nDear Comrade:\n\nYou remember our definition of a word; a word is the sign of an idea. In\nour lessons we have been studying the different kinds of words which we\nuse in the expression of our complete thoughts. Probably the first step\nin the development of language was to name the objects about us. Then\nthe next logical step would be to invent words which would tell what\nthese objects did. So we have our nouns, which are the names of things;\nour verbs, which tell what these things do; and in these we have the\nfoundation for spoken and written speech. We soon found, however, that\nthe constant repetition of a name was tiresome and annoying, so we\ninvented words which we could use in place of these nouns; and we have\npronouns.\n\nAll of the things about us possess certain qualities and our next great\nneed was for words to describe these qualities; so we have adjectives.\nEach adjective is a sign of an idea. It adds its part to the expression\nof our complete thought. So we find that each part of speech comes\nlogically in its place to fill a certain need. Without any one of them,\nwe would be crippled in our power of expression. Each different word is\nthe sign of an idea and the combination of these ideas as represented by\nthe various signs gives us the complete expression of our thought.\n\nSo primitive man in the development of written speech had signs to\nexpress the various things about him. Naturally his first sign was a\npicture, as nearly as he could draw it, of the object itself. If he\nwanted to tell you about a tree he drew a picture of the tree; the\npicture of a man represented a man, and so on. You will notice among\nchildren that this is the first development in their endeavor to express\ntheir thoughts in writing. They draw pictures. The average small child\ncannot understand why you read those strange marks on the page. They\nwant you to read the pictures. To their mind that is the only way to\ncommunicate ideas.\n\nThese early forefathers of ours grew to be very adept at this picture\nwriting. We have examples of this among the Indians of our own country.\nThere is a picture on the face of a big rock on the shores of Lake\nSuperior which records an expedition across the lake led by a noted\nIndian chief. Canoes are shown in the picture with the crew denoted by a\nseries of upright strokes and there is a picture of the chief on\nhorseback. You or I would have great difficulty in reading this picture\nwriting, but an Indian could read it right off just as we would read a\nwritten page. Aids to memory such as knotted strings and tally sticks\nwere the first step toward written speech. This picture writing was the\nsecond step toward the development of written speech.\n\nWe owe a great deal to the work which these primitive ancestors of ours\naccomplished. It took them years and years to develop through these\ndifferent stages and our rapid development of the last few centuries has\nonly been made possible because of this slow and patient building of the\nfoundation. An understanding of this helps us to appreciate the place we\noccupy in this great struggle of the ages. The power of written speech\nopens up to us such tremendous possibilities. Let us make the most of\nthem, that we too may hand on worth while things to those who follow us.\n\n                    Yours for Education,\n\n                              THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.\n\n\n                    CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES\n\n+242.+ Adjectives, like nouns and pronouns, are divided into classes.\nAdjectives are divided into two main classes, _qualifying_ and\n_limiting_.\n\n+243.+ An adjective which qualifies a noun is one which names some\nquality which is possessed by the word which it modifies. When we say,\n_Trees grow_, we are making a general statement; that is, we are saying\nsomething that is true of any kind of trees. We have not described any\nparticular tree. But when we say, _The tall trees grow_, _The old trees\ngrow_, _The young trees grow_, the words _tall_, _old_ and _young_\ndescribe certain qualities of the trees, which separate them into\nclasses. So these adjectives are _qualifying adjectives_.\n\nAn adjective qualifies a noun when it attributes some quality to the\nnoun, as, _The brave man_, _The sweet apple_, _The pretty girl_, _The\nlarge house_, etc.\n\n+244.+ But if we say, _this tree_, _that tree_, _some trees_, _many\ntrees_, _three trees_, or _four trees_, we are not giving any quality of\nthe tree, but are pointing out a particular tree or trees and limiting\nthe word to the ones pointed out. So such adjectives as _the_, _this_,\n_that_, _some_, _many_, _three_ and _four_ are limiting adjectives. An\nadjective limits a noun when it restricts or limits its meaning as to\nquantity or number.\n\n+245.+ So adjectives are divided into two classes, _qualifying_\nadjectives and _limiting_ adjectives.\n\n+Words that limit or qualify other words are called _modifiers_\nbecause they modify or affect the meaning of the words to which they\nare added.+ So adjectives are modifiers of the nouns and pronouns to\nwhich they are added because they modify or qualify or limit the meaning\nof the noun or pronoun.\n\nThe limiting adjectives answer the questions _which_ and _how many_. The\nqualifying adjectives answer the questions _which_ and _what kind_.\n\n+246.+ +A qualifying adjective is an adjective which describes the noun\nit modifies by attributing to it some quality.+\n\n+A limiting adjective is an adjective which merely shows which one or\nhow many, without describing the noun it modifies.+\n\n\n                    HOW TO DISCOVER AN ADJECTIVE\n\n+247.+ Sometimes the noun may have several adjectives qualifying or\nmodifying it; as,\n\n  The beautiful, old elm tree shades the lawn.\n\n_The_, _beautiful_, _old_ and _elm_, all modify _tree_, telling\nsomething of the qualities or pointing out which tree we are speaking\nof. You can discover an adjective in a sentence by asking the questions,\n_which_, _what kind_, or _how many_; and the words that answer these\nquestions will be the adjectives in the sentence. For example in this\nsentence:\n\n  Those three immense factories employ thousands of men.\n\n_Factories_ is the noun, subject of the sentence. _Which_ factory is\nindicated by the adjective _those_. _How many_ factories is indicated by\nthe adjective _three_. _What kind_ of factories is indicated by the\nadjective _immense_. So we have three adjectives answering the three\nquestions, _which_, _what kind_ and _how many_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 1\n\nIn the following sentences the adjectives are printed in _italics_.\nStudy them carefully and determine which are qualifying and which are\nlimiting adjectives. Note that the possessive nouns and possessive\npronouns are _not_ adjectives. _Its_ in the phrases _its cruel fangs_\nand _its savage claws_, is a possessive pronoun, third person singular.\nIn the last sentence _beggar's_, _miser's_, and _Ingersoll's_, are nouns\nin the possessive form.\n\n  _This terrible_ war in Europe is slaughtering _the_ working-class.\n  _Gaunt_ famine follows war.\n  A _docile_, _meek_, _humble_, working-class makes war _possible_.\n  _The shrieking_ shell snarls like a _living_ thing; like _some wild_\n  beast in _ferocious_ glee it thrusts its _cruel_ fangs in earth and\n  rock and rends _living_ flesh with its _savage_ claws.\n  Its _fetid_ breath of _poison_ powder scorches in _the autumn_ winds.\n  _Shattered_ bones, _torn_ flesh and _flowing_ blood were mingled on\n  _the_ battlefield with _broken_ swords and _split_ rifles.\n  _The best modern_ rifles will force _a_ bullet through _five human_\n  bodies at _a_ range of _twelve hundred_ feet.\n  _The pitiful_ dead, _slain_ in war, sleep under _the solemn_ pines,\n  _the sad_ hemlock, _the tearful_ willow and _the embracing_ vines.\n  A world without _the_ beggar's _outstretched_ palm, _the_ miser's\n  _heartless_ _stony_ stare, _the piteous_ wail of want, _the livid_\n  lips of lies, _the cruel_ eyes of scorn, was Ingersoll's vision of\n  _the_ future.\n\n\n                    QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES\n\n+248.+ Qualifying adjectives are also called _descriptive_ adjectives\nbecause they describe the noun. They answer the questions _which_ and\n_what kind_.\n\nYou remember we found in the beginning of our study of English, that\nwords were grouped into classes according to the work which they do in\nthe sentence, not according to the form of the word itself. For\ninstance, we have already found that some words, without changing their\nform, may be used either as a noun or as a verb. Take the word _oil_,\nfor instance. I may say, _I oil the engine_. Here I have used the word\n_oil_ as a verb telling what I do. But I may say, _The oil is gone_.\nHere I have used the word _oil_ as a noun, subject of the sentence. The\npart of speech to which a word belongs in the English language, always\ndepends upon the work which it does in the sentence.\n\n+1.+ So we have nouns which are used as descriptive adjectives, for\nexample the word _oil_, which we have found we can use either as a noun\nor a verb, may also be used as an adjective. For example; I may say,\n_the oil tank_. Here I have used the word _oil_ as a descriptive\nadjective modifying the word _tank_. So also we may say, _the oak tree_,\n_the stone curb_, _the earth wall_. In these expressions _oak_, _stone_\nand _earth_ are nouns used as descriptive adjectives.\n\n+2.+ We have descriptive adjectives derived from proper nouns, as\nFrench, English, American. These are called proper adjectives; and since\nall proper nouns must begin with a capital letter, these proper\nadjectives, also, should always begin with a capital letter.\n\n+3.+ We have also descriptive adjectives derived from verbs as _active_,\n_talkative_, _movable_, _desirable_, derived by the addition of suffixes\nto the verbs _act_, _talk_, _move_ and _desire_.\n\n\n                    LIMITING ADJECTIVES\n\n+249.+ Limiting adjectives are also divided into classes, the\n_numerals_, the _demonstratives_ and the _articles_.\n\n\n                    Numeral Adjectives\n\n+250.+ Numeral adjectives are those which limit nouns as to number or\norder. They are such adjectives as _one_, _two_, _three_, _four_, etc.,\nand _first_, _second_ and _third_, etc., as for example:\n\n  _Three_ men applied for work.\n  The train ran at the rate of _forty_ miles an hour.\n  There have always been _two_ classes in the world.\n  The _first_ martyr to anti-militarism was Jaures.\n  The _eighteenth_ day of March is the anniversary of the Paris Commune.\n\nIn these sentences the adjectives _three_, _forty_, _two_, _first_ and\n_eighteenth_ are all numeral adjectives. They limit the nouns which they\nmodify as to number or order.\n\n+Adjectives that limit nouns as to number or order are called numeral\nadjectives. Numeral adjectives answer the question how many or in what\norder.+\n\n\n                    Demonstratives\n\n+251.+ We have also a class of adjectives which are used to point out\nsome particular person or thing. These are called _demonstrative_\nadjectives. Demonstrate means literally _to point out_. So these\nadjectives point out from a number of things, one particular thing to\nour attention. These demonstrative adjectives are _this_, _that_,\n_those_, _these_, _yonder_, _former_, _latter_ and _same_.\n\n_These_ and _those_ are the plural forms of _this_ and _that_. _This_\nand _these_ are used to point out things near at hand. _That_ and\n_those_ are used to point out things more distant, as _This is my book_.\n_These are my papers_, meaning _this book_ or _these papers_, close to\nme. By, _That is my pencil_ and _Those are my letters_, I mean _that\npencil_, and _those letters_, which are farther away from me.\n\n_Former_ and _latter_ are used to show which of two things already\nmentioned is referred to, and to point out things in point of time, not\nof place. For example, we may say:\n\n  We no longer observe the _former_ customs, but rather prefer the\n  _latter_.\n  He did not like his _former_ job but this _latter_ job pleases him.\n\nYou understand from this that we have been discussing and describing two\nkinds of work, and that the first in point of time was unpleasant and\nthe second pleasant.\n\nThe demonstrative adjective _same_ refers to something of which we have\njust spoken, as for example, _He has gone to work, I must do the same\nthing_. These demonstrative adjectives answer the question which, so\nwhen you wish to discover a demonstrative in a sentence, ask the\nquestion _which_, and the answer will be the demonstrative adjective.\n\n\n                    Exercise 2\n\n  1. _This_ study is very interesting.\n  2. _These_ comrades will stand by us.\n  3. _That_ solution will never deceive the people.\n  4. _Those_ books have opened our eyes.\n  5. _Yonder_ battle appals the world.\n  6. _Former_ investigations have had no results.\n  7. _This latter_ decision has reversed the _former_.\n  8. The class struggle has persisted through the centuries; we are\n     engaged in the _same_ struggle.\n\nMake sentences of your own containing these demonstrative adjectives.\n\n\n                    ARTICLES\n\n+252.+ We have three adjectives which are used so commonly that we have\nput them in a class by themselves. These three little words are _a_,\n_an_ and _the_, and we call them articles. The word _article_ literally\nmeans a little joint or limb, and these three little words are so\nclosely connected with the nouns with which they are used that they seem\nto be a part or joint or limb of the noun itself, and so we have called\nthem articles.\n\n_A_ and _an_ are called the _indefinite_ articles because they point out\nan object in a very indefinite manner. _The_ is called the _definite_\narticle for it points out in a more definite way.\n\nWe use _a_ before words beginning with a consonant sound, as _a man_, _a\ntree_, _a book_; and we use _an_ before words beginning with a vowel\nsound, as _an apple_, _an editor_, _an orange_, _an heir_. In _heir_ the\n_h_ is silent, and we say _an_ because the word begins with a vowel\nsound. _A_ is used before words beginning with _u_ because long _u_ is\nequivalent in sound to a consonant, for the blending of the sounds of\nwhich long _u_ is composed produces the initial sound of _y_, which is a\nconsonant sound. For example, we say, _a university_, _a useful work_,\netc., and not _an university_. Before words beginning with short _u_,\nuse _an_, as, _an upstart_, etc.\n\nIn deciding whether to use _a_ or _an_, watch the initial _sound_ of the\nword, not the initial _letter_. If it is a vowel sound use _an_, if a\nconsonant sound, use _a_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 3\n\nUnderscore the correct article in the following sentences:\n\n  1. Bring me an--a apple.\n  2. He is a--an able orator.\n  3. A--an heir was born to the German King.\n  4. He built a--an house for his family.\n  5. He is an--a honest man.\n  6. He is a--an undertaker.\n  7. I had to take a--an upper berth.\n  8. He joined a--an union.\n  9. It is a--an unique book.\n  10. He is a--an unruly member of society.\n  11. He told a--an untruth.\n  12. He wears a--an uniform.\n  13. It is a--an honor to be chosen.\n\n+253.+ When a singular noun is modified by several adjectives, only one\nof the articles _an_ or _a_ must be used if the noun denotes but _one_\nobject; but if the noun denotes more than one object the article must be\nrepeated before each noun. For example, I say, _A red, white and blue\nflag_. You know I mean but one flag, containing the three colors, red,\nwhite and blue. But if I say, _A red, a white and a blue flag_, you know\nI mean three flags, one red, one white, and one blue.\n\nNote the use of the article in the following sentences:\n\n  He wears a black and white suit.\n  He wears a black and a white suit.\n  He sold a red and white cow.\n  He sold a red and a white cow.\n  He bought a gas and coal stove.\n  He bought a gas and a coal stove.\n\nThe first sentences in each of the above series refers to only one\nobject. The second sentences all refer to two objects.\n\n+254.+ There are some rules concerning the article _the_ that it is well\nto know because we do not always say what we wish to say, if we do not\nobserve these rules or customs of speech. For example, I say, _The\neditor and publisher of this book is unknown_. I have used the article\n_the_ but once, and I mean that the editor and publisher is one person.\nBut I may say, _The editor and the publisher of this book are well\nknown_. In this sentence I have used the article _the_ twice, _the_\neditor and _the_ publisher, and I mean that the editor and the publisher\nare two different persons.\n\nSo when two or more nouns following each other denote the same person or\nthing, the article is not repeated, but when the nouns denote different\npersons or things, the article must be repeated before each noun. Be\nsure to use the proper form of the verb.\n\nNote the following sentences and underscore the proper verb to complete\nthe meaning:\n\n  The secretary and treasurer were--was here.\n  The secretary and the treasurer were--was elected.\n  The singer and artist were--was with me.\n  The singer and the artist were--was on the program.\n\nSometimes we have two things so closely associated in use that they may\nbe considered as forming a single idea, so that we may use the article\nbefore the first one only. For example:\n\n  The pen and ink is gone.\n  He bought a horse and buggy.\n  The bread and butter is on the plate.\n\n\n                    INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES\n\n+255.+ You remember we found in the study of pronouns that we have\ninterrogative pronouns which we use in asking questions when we do not\nknow the name of the object concerning which we are asking. We also have\nadjectives which we use in asking questions when we do not know the\nnumber or quality of the object concerning which we are asking. For\nexample:\n\n  _Which_ book did you enjoy most?\n  _What_ work are you doing now?\n  _What_ machine did you order?\n\n_Which_ and _what_ are the interrogative adjectives in these sentences.\n\n+Interrogative adjectives are adjectives used in asking questions.+\n\n\n                    INDEFINITES\n\n+256.+ We have one more class of adjectives called indefinites.\n\n+An indefinite adjective is one that does not denote any particular\nperson or thing.+\n\nAll such adjectives as _each_, _every_, _either_, _neither_, _some_,\n_any_, _many_, _much_, _few_, _all_, _both_, _no_, _none_, _several_ and\n_certain_ are indefinite adjectives. We use them when we are not\nspeaking of any particular person or thing, but are speaking in a broad,\ngeneral sense and in an indefinite manner.\n\n+257.+ The interrogative adjectives are sometimes used in this\nindefinite way. They are sometimes used to modify nouns when a direct\nquestion is not asked, and they are then used, not as interrogative\nadjectives, but as indefinite adjectives. For example:\n\n  He did not know which party to join.\n  I have not learned what time he will go.\n\nIn these sentences _which_ and _what_ are not used to ask questions, but\nare used to describe an unknown object.\n\n\n                    Exercise 4\n\nAll the words in italics are adjectives. Decide to which class each\nadjective belongs.\n\nNote in this exercise the compound words used as adjectives, as:\n_earth-born_, _self-made_, _new-lit_, _blood-rusted_. Look up the\nmeaning of these adjectives and see if you can use other adjectives in\ntheir places and keep the same meaning. Note the use of _fellest_.\n\n  Slavery, _the earth-born_ Cyclops, _fellest_ of _the giant_ brood,\n  Sons of _brutish_ Force and Darkness, who have drenched _the_ earth\n    with blood,\n  _Famished_ in his _self-made_ desert, _blinded_ by our _purer_ day,\n  Gropes in yet _unblasted_ regions for his _miserable_ prey;--\n  Shall we guide his _gory_ fingers where our _helpless_ children play?\n  They have rights who dare maintain them; we are traitors to our sires,\n  _Smothering_ in their _holy_ ashes Freedom's _new-lit_ altar-fires;\n  Shall we make their creed our jailer? Shall we, in our haste to slay,\n  From the tombs of _the old_ prophets steal _the funeral_ lamps away\n  To light up _the_ martyr-fagots round _the_ prophets of to-day?\n\n  _New_ occasions teach _new_ duties; Time makes _ancient_ good,\n    _uncouth_;\n  They must upward still, and onward, who would keep _abreast_ of\n    Truth;\n  Lo, before us gleam her camp-fires! We ourselves must Pilgrims be,\n  Launch our Mayflower, and steer boldly through _the desperate winter_\n    sea,\n  Nor attempt _the_ Future's portal with _the_ Past's _blood-rusted_\n    key.\n                                        --_Lowell_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 5\n\nThe following is from Oscar Wilde's story of _The Young King_. Oscar\nWilde was a master of English, and if you have the opportunity, read all\nof this beautiful story and watch his use of adjectives. Mark the\nadjectives in this excerpt and use them in sentences of your own.\n\n  And as the young King slept he dreamed a dream, and this was his\n  dream. He thought that he was standing in a long, low attic, amidst\n  the whirr and clatter of many looms. The meager daylight peered in\n  through the grated windows and showed him the gaunt figures of the\n  weavers, bending over their cases. Pale, sickly-looking children were\n  crouched on the huge crossbeams. As the shuttles dashed through the\n  warp they lifted up the heavy battens, and when the shuttles stopped\n  they let the battens fall and pressed the threads together. Their\n  faces were pinched with famine, and their thin hands shook and\n  trembled. Some haggard women were seated at a table, sewing. A\n  horrible odor filled the place. The air was foul and heavy, and the\n  walls dripped and streamed with damp.\n\n  The young King went over to one of the weavers and stood by him and\n  watched him.\n\n  And the weaver looked at him angrily and said, \"Why art thou watching\n  me? Art thou a spy set on us by our master?\"\n\n  \"Who is thy master?\" asked the young King.\n\n  \"Our master!\" cried the weaver, bitterly. \"He is a man like myself.\n  Indeed, there is but this difference between us--that he wears fine\n  clothes while I go in rags, and that while I am weak from hunger he\n  suffers not a little from overfeeding.\"\n\n  \"The land is free,\" said the young King, \"and thou art no man's\n  slave.\"\n\n  \"In war,\" answered the weaver, \"the strong make slaves of the weak,\n  and in peace the rich make slaves of the poor. We must work to live,\n  and they give us such mean wages that we die. We toil for them all day\n  long, and they heap up gold in their coffers, and our children fade\n  away before their time, and the faces of those we love become hard and\n  evil. We tread out the grapes, another drinks the wine. We sow the\n  corn, and our own board is empty. We have chains, though no eye\n  beholds them; and are slaves, though men call us free.\"\n\n  \"Is it so with all?\" he asked.\n\n  \"It is so with all,\" answered the weaver, \"with the young as well as\n  with the old, with the women as well as with the men, with the little\n  children as well as with those who are stricken in years. The\n  merchants grind us down, and we must needs do their bidding. The\n  priest rides by and tells his beads, and no man has care of us.\n  Through our sunless lanes creeps Poverty with her hungry eyes, and Sin\n  with his sodden face follows close behind her. Misery wakes us in the\n  morning, and Shame sits with us at night. But what are these things to\n  thee? Thou art not one of us. Thy face is too happy.\" And he turned\n  away scowling, and threw the shuttle across the loom, and the\n  young King saw that it was threaded with a thread of gold.\n\n  And a great terror seized upon him, and he said to the weaver, \"What\n  robe is this that thou art weaving?\"\n\n  \"It is the robe for the coronation of the young King,\" he answered;\n  \"What is that to thee?\"\n\n  And the young King gave a loud cry and woke and lo! he was in his own\n  chamber, and through the window he saw the great honey- moon\n  hanging in the dusky air.\n\n\n\n\n                    SPELLING\n\n                    LESSON 14\n\n\nYou remember in the formation of plurals, we learned that words ending\nin _y_ change _y_ to _i_ when _es_ is added; as, _lady, ladies_; _baby,\nbabies_; _dry, dries_, etc.\n\nThere are several rules concerning words ending in _y_, knowledge of\nwhich will aid us greatly in spelling.\n\n+1.+ +Words ending in _ie_ change the _ie_ to _y_ before _ing_\nto prevent a confusing number of vowels.+ For example, _die, dying_;\n_lie, lying_; _tie, tying_.\n\n+2.+ +Words of more than one syllable ending in _y_ preceded by a\nconsonant, change _y_ into _i_ before all suffixes except those\nbeginning with _i_.+ For example:\n\n  happy,       happily,      happiness;\n  witty,       wittier,      wittiest;\n  satisfy,     satisfied,    satisfying;\n  envy,        enviable,     envying.\n\nThis exception is made for suffixes beginning with _i_, the most common\nof which is _ing_, to avoid having a confusing number of _i's_.\n\n+3.+ +Most words ending in _y_ preceded by a vowel retain the _y_\nbefore a suffix.+ For example:\n\n  destroy,     destroyer,     destroying;\n  buy,         buyer,         buying;\n  essay,       essayed,       essayist.\n\nThe following words are exception to this rule:\n\n  laid,\n  paid,\n  said,\n  daily,\n  staid.\n\nMake as many words as you can out of the words given in this week's\nspelling lesson by adding one or more of the following suffixes: _er_,\n_est_, _ed_, _es_, _ing_, _ly_, _ness_, _ful_, _ment_, _al_.\n\n  +Monday+\n\n    Beauty\n    Portray\n    Deny\n    Rare\n    Multiply\n\n  +Tuesday+\n\n    Mercy\n    Bury\n    Obey\n    Lovely\n    Envy\n\n  +Wednesday+\n\n    Tie\n    Defy\n    Study\n    Decry\n    Crazy\n\n  +Thursday+\n\n    Merry\n    Silly\n    Lusty\n    Imply\n    Day\n\n  +Friday+\n\n    Dismay\n    Duty\n    Employ\n    Satisfy\n    Pretty\n\n  +Saturday+\n\n    Pay\n    Joy\n    Journey\n    Qualify\n    Sorry\n\n\n\n\n                    PLAIN ENGLISH\n\n                    LESSON 15\n\n\nDear Comrade:\n\nIn this week's lesson we are finishing the study of adjectives, which\nadds another part of speech to those which we have studied. We can see\nin the study of each additional part of speech how each part has its\nplace in the expression of our ideas. We could not express ourselves\nfully if we lacked any of these parts of speech. Each one is not an\narbitrary addition to our language but has come to us out of the need\nfor it. We see that there are no arbitrary rules but in language, as in\nall things else, growing needs have developed more efficient tools. With\nthese have grown up certain rules of action so we can have a common\nusage and system in our use of these tools. It has taken years of effort\nto accomplish this. The changes have been slow and gradual, and this\nlanguage which we are studying is the finished product.\n\nThis slow development in the use of language, even in our own lives,\nmakes us realize how many thousands of years it must have taken our\nprimitive ancestors to reach a point where they could use the phonetic\nalphabet. We have found that at first they used simple aids to memory,\nas knotted strings and tally sticks. Then they began to draw pictures of\nthings about them and so were able to communicate with one another by\nmeans of these pictures. When a man was going away from his cave and\nwanted to leave word for those who might come, telling them where he had\ngone and how soon he would return, he drew a picture of a man over the\nentrance with the arm extended in the direction in which he had gone.\nThen he drew another picture of a man in a sleeping position and also\none of a man with both hands extended in the gesture which indicated\nmany. These two pictures showed that he would be away over many nights.\nIn some such rude manner as this, they were able to communicate with one\nanother.\n\nBut man soon began to _think_, and he needed to express ideas concerning\nthings of which he could not draw pictures. He could draw a picture of\nthe sun, but how could he indicate light? How could he indicate the\ndifferent professions in which men engaged, such as the farmer and\npriest, etc.?\n\nHe was forced to invent symbols or signs to express these ideas, so his\nwriting was no longer a picture of some object, but he added to it\nsymbols of abstract ideas. A circle which stood for the sun written with\nthe crescent which stood for the moon, indicated light. The bee became a\nsymbol of industry. An ostrich feather was a symbol of justice, because\nthese feathers were supposed to be of equal length. A picture of a woman\nstood simply for a woman, but a picture of two women stood for strife,\nand three women stood for intrigue. These old ancestors of ours became\nwise quite early concerning some things. The symbol for a priest in the\nearly Egyptian picture writing was a jackal. Perhaps not because he\n\"devoured widows' houses,\" but because the jackal was a very watchful\nanimal. The symbol for mother was a vulture because that bird was\nbelieved to nourish its young with its own blood.\n\nIt naturally required a good memory and a clear grasp of association to\nbe able to read this sort of writing. It required many centuries for\nthis slow development of written speech.\n\nThe development of language has been a marvelous growth and a wonderful\nheritage has come to us. Let us never be satisfied until we have a\nmastery of our language and find a way to express the ideas that surge\nwithin us. A mastery of these lessons will help us.\n\n                    Yours for Education,\n\n                              THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.\n\n\n                    ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS\n\n+258.+ From our study of the adjective, we know that it is a word used\nwith a noun to qualify or limit its meaning. But a great many times we\nfind these adjectives used without the noun which they modify. As, for\nexample, I may say, _This is mine_, and the adjective _this_ is used\nalone without the noun which it modifies, and you are able to tell only\nby what I have been saying or by some action of mine to what I am\nreferring when I say _this_.\n\nWhen adjectives are used in this manner, they are used like pronouns--in\nplace of a noun. So sometimes we find an adjective used with a noun, and\nsometimes used as a pronoun, in place of a noun; and since we name our\nparts of speech by the work which they do in the sentence, an adjective\nused in this way is not an adjective, but a pronoun or word used in\nplace of a noun.\n\nSo these words are pronouns when they stand alone to represent\nthings--when they are used in place of a noun. They are adjectives when\nthey are used _with_ a noun to limit or qualify the noun. For example, I\nmay say, _This tree is an elm, but that tree is an oak_. _This_ and\n_that_ in this sentence are adjectives used to modify the noun _tree_.\nBut I may say, _This is an oak and that is an elm_, and in this sentence\n_this_ and _that_ are used without a noun, they are used as pronouns.\n\n+259.+ Our being able to name every part of speech is not nearly so\nimportant as our being able to understand the functions of the different\nparts of speech and being able to use them correctly. But still it is\nwell for us to be able to take a sentence and point out its different\nparts and tell what each part is and the function which it serves in the\nsentence. So sometimes in doing this we may find it difficult to tell\nwhether certain words are adjectives or pronouns. We can distinguish\nbetween adjectives and pronouns by this rule:\n\nWhen you cannot supply the noun which the adjective modifies, from the\n_same_ sentence, then the word which takes the place of the noun is a\npronoun, but if you can supply the omitted noun from the same sentence,\nthen the word is used as an adjective. Thus, we do not say that the noun\nis understood unless it has already been used in the same sentence and\nis omitted to avoid repetition. We make each sentence a law unto itself\nand classify each word in the sentence according to what it does in its\nown sentence.\n\nSo if a noun does not occur in the same sentence with the word about\nwhich we are in doubt as to whether it is a pronoun or adjective, it is\na pronoun or word used in place of a noun. For example, in the sentence,\n_This book is good but that is better_; _book_ is understood after the\nword _that_ and left out to avoid tiresome repetition of the word\n_book_. Therefore _that_ is an adjective in this sentence. But if I say,\n_This is good, but that is better_; there is no noun understood, for\nthere is no noun in the sentence which we can supply with _this_ and\n_that_. Therefore in this sentence _this_ and _that_ are pronouns, used\nin place of the noun. And since _this_ and _that_, when used as\nadjectives, are called demonstrative adjectives; therefore when _this_\nand _that_, _these_ and _those_, and similar words, are used as pronouns\nthey are called demonstrative pronouns.\n\n+260.+ Be careful not to confuse the possessive pronouns with\nadjectives. Possessive pronouns modify the nouns with which they are\nused, but they are not adjectives, they are possessive pronouns. _My_,\n_his_, _her_, _its_, _our_, _your_ and _their_ are all possessive\npronouns, not adjectives. Also be careful not to confuse nouns in the\npossessive form with adjectives.\n\n\n                    ADJECTIVES AS NOUNS\n\n+261.+ Sometimes you will find words, which we are accustomed to look\nupon as adjectives, used alone in the sentence without a noun which they\nmodify. For example, we say, _The strong enslave the weak_. Here we have\nused the adjectives _strong_ and _weak_ without any accompanying noun.\nIn sentences like this, these adjectives, being used as nouns, are\nclassed as nouns. Remember, in your analysis of a sentence, that you\nname every word according to the work which it does in that sentence, so\nwhile these adjectives are doing the work of nouns, we will consider\nthem as nouns.\n\nThese words are not used in the same manner in which demonstrative\nadjectives are used as pronouns. There is no noun omitted which might be\ninserted, but these adjectives are used rather to name a class. As, for\nexample; when we say, _The strong_, _The weak_, we mean all those who\nare strong and all those who are weak, considered as a class. You will\nfind adjectives used in this way quite often in your reading, and you\nwill find that you use this construction very often in your ordinary\nspeech. As, for example:\n\n  The rich look down upon the poor.\n  The wise instruct the ignorant.\n\nMany examples will occur to you. Remember these adjectives are nouns\nwhen they do the work of nouns.\n\n\n                    ADJECTIVES WITH PRONOUNS\n\n+262.+ Since pronouns are used in place of nouns, they may have\nmodifiers, also, just as nouns do. So you will often find adjectives\nused to modify pronouns. As, for example; _He, tired, weak and ill, was\nunable to hold his position_. Here, _tired_, _weak_ and _ill_ are\nadjectives modifying the pronoun _he_.\n\n+263.+ We often find a participle used as an adjective with a pronoun.\nAs, for example:\n\n  She, having finished her work, went home.\n  They, having completed the organization, left the city.\n  He, having been defeated, became discouraged.\n\nIn these sentences, the participles, _having finished_, _having\ncompleted_, and _having been defeated_, are used as adjectives to modify\nthe pronouns _she_, _they_ and _he_.\n\n\n                    COMPARISON\n\n+264.+ We have found that adjectives are a very important part of our\nspeech for without them we could not describe the various objects about\nus and make known to others our ideas concerning their various\nqualities. But with the addition of these helpful words we can describe\nvery fully the qualities of the things with which we come into contact.\nWe soon find, however, that there are varying degrees of these\nqualities. Some objects possess them in slight degree, some more fully\nand some in the highest degree. So we must have some way of expressing\nthese varying degrees in the use of our adjectives.\n\nThis brings us to the study of comparison of adjectives. Suppose I say:\n\n  That orange is sweet, the one yonder is sweeter, but this one is\n  sweetest.\n\nI have used the adjective _sweet_ expressing a quality possessed by\noranges in three different forms, _sweet_, _sweeter_ and _sweetest_.\nThis is the change in the form of adjectives to show different degrees\nof quality. This change is called comparison, because we use it when we\ncompare one thing with another in respect to some quality which they\npossess, but possess in different degrees.\n\nThe form of the adjective which expresses a simple quality, as _sweet_,\nis called the positive degree. That which expresses a quality in a\ngreater degree, as _sweeter_, is called the comparative degree. That\nwhich expresses a quality in the greatest degree, as _sweetest_, is\ncalled the superlative degree.\n\n+265.+ +Comparison is the change of form of an adjective to denote\ndifferent degrees of quality.+\n\n+There are three degrees of comparison, positive, comparative and\nsuperlative.+\n\n+The positive degree of an adjective denotes simple quality.+\n\n+The comparative degree denotes a higher degree of a quality.+\n\n+The superlative degree denotes the highest degree of a quality.+\n\n+266.+ Most adjectives of one syllable and many adjectives of two\nsyllables regularly add _er_ to the positive to form the comparative\ndegree, and _est_ to the positive to form the superlative degree, as:\n\n  _Positive_    _Comparative_   _Superlative_\n\n  sweet          sweeter         sweetest\n  cold           colder          coldest\n  soft           softer          softest\n  brave          braver          bravest\n  clear          clearer         clearest\n\n+267.+ Adjectives ending in _y_ change _y_ to _i_ and add _er_ and _est_\nto form the comparative and superlative degree, as:\n\n   _Positive_    _Comparative_   _Superlative_\n\n  busy           busier          busiest\n  lazy           lazier          laziest\n  sly            slier           sliest\n  witty          wittier         wittiest\n\n+268.+ Many adjectives cannot be compared by this change in the word\nitself, since the addition of _er_ and _est_ would make awkward or\nill-sounding words. Hence we must employ another method to form the\ncomparison of this sort of words. To say, _beautiful_, _beautifuller_,\n_beautifullest_, is awkward and does not sound well. So we say\n_beautiful_, _more beautiful_, _most beautiful_.\n\nMany adjectives form the comparative and superlative degree by using\n_more_ and _most_ with the simple form of the adjective, as:\n\n  _Positive_     _Comparative_       _Superlative_\n\n  beautiful      more beautiful      most beautiful\n  thankful       more thankful       most thankful\n  sensitive      more sensitive      most sensitive\n  wonderful      more wonderful      most wonderful\n\n+269.+ Adjectives of two syllables, to which _er_ and _est_ are added to\nform the comparison, are chiefly those ending in _y_ or _le_, such as:\n\n  _Positive_    _Comparative_   _Superlative_\n\n  happy          happier         happiest\n  noble          nobler          noblest\n  steady         steadier        steadiest\n  feeble         feebler         feeblest\n  able           abler           ablest\n  witty          wittier         wittiest\n\n+270.+ Some adjectives, few in number, but which we use very often, are\nirregular in their comparison. The most important of these are as\nfollows: (It would be well to memorize these.)\n\n  _Positive_      _Comparative_     _Superlative_\n\n  good             better            best\n  well               \"                 \"\n  bad              worse             worst\n  ill                \"                 \"\n  much             more              most\n  many               \"                 \"\n  little           less              least\n  late             later             latest\n                   latter            last\n  far              farther           farthest\n  (up) adv.        upper             uppermost\n  (in) adv.        inner             innermost\n\n\n                    DESCENDING COMPARISON\n\n+271.+ The change in form of adjectives in the positive, comparative and\nsuperlative shows that one object has more of a quality than others with\nwhich it is compared. But we also wish at times to express the fact that\none object has less of the quality than is possessed by others with\nwhich it is compared; so we have what we may call the descending\ncomparison, by means of phrases formed by using _less_ and _least_\ninstead of _more_ and _most_. Using _less_ with the positive degree\nmeans a degree less than the positive, while using _least_ expresses the\nlowest degree. For example:\n\n                    Descending Comparison\n\n  _Positive_        _Comparative_          _Superlative_\n\n  beautiful         less beautiful         least beautiful\n  intelligent       less intelligent       least intelligent\n  sensitive         less sensitive         least sensitive\n  thankful          less thankful          least thankful\n\n\n                    PARTICIPLES AS ADJECTIVES\n\n+272.+ You remember, when we studied the participle, that we found it\nwas called a participle because it partook of the nature of two or more\nparts of speech. For example; in the sentence, _The singing of the birds\ngreeted us_; _singing_ is a participle derived from the verb _sing_, and\nis used as a noun, the subject of the verb _greeted_.\n\nBut participles are used not only as nouns; they may also be used as\nadjectives. For example; we may say, _The singing birds greeted us_.\nHere the participle _singing_ describes the birds, telling what kind of\nbirds greeted us, and is used as an adjective modifying the noun\n_birds_.\n\nYou will recall that we found there were two forms of the participle,\nthe present participle and the past participle. The present participle\nis formed by adding _ing_ to the root form of the verb; and the past\nparticiple in regular verbs is formed by adding _d_ or _ed_ to the root\nform, and in irregular verbs by a change in the verb form itself. These\ntwo simple forms of participles are often used as adjectives.\n\n+273.+ The present participle is almost always active; that is, it\nrefers to the actor. As, for example; _Vessels, carrying soldiers, are\nconstantly arriving_. Here the present participle _carrying_ describes\nthe noun _vessels_, and yet retains its function as a verb and has an\nobject, _soldiers_. So it partakes of two parts of speech, the verb and\nthe adjective.\n\n+274.+ The past participle, when used alone, is almost always passive,\nfor it refers not to the actor, but to what is acted upon, thus:\n\n  The army, beaten but not conquered, prepared for a siege.\n\nIn this sentence _beaten_ is the past participle of the irregular verb\n_beat_, and _conquered_ is the past participle of the regular verb\n_conquer_, and both modify the noun _army_, but refer to it, not as the\nactor, but as the receiver of the action. Hence, the past participle is\nalso the _passive_ participle.\n\nNote in the following sentences the use of the present and past\nparticiple as adjectives:\n\n  A _refreshing_ breeze came from the hills.\n  They escaped from the _burning_ building.\n  _Toiling_, _rejoicing_, _sorrowing_, onward through life he goes.\n  The man, _defeated_ in his purpose, gave up in despair.\n  The child, _driven_ in its youth to work, is robbed of the joy of\n  childhood.\n  The army, _forced_ to retreat, destroyed all in its path.\n  The children, _neglected_ by society, grow up without their rightful\n  opportunities.\n\n\n                    Exercise 1\n\nThe adjectives and participles used as adjectives in the following\nsentences are printed in _italics_. Determine which adjectives are\ncapable of comparison, and whether they are compared by adding _er_ or\n_est_, or by the use of _more_ and _most_.\n\n  In _a_ community _regulated_ by laws of demand and supply, but\n  _protected_ from _open_ violence, _the_ persons who become _rich_ are,\n  generally _speaking_, _industrious_, _resolute_, _proud_, _covetous_,\n  _prompt_, _methodical_, _sensible_, _unimaginative_, _insensitive_ and\n  _ignorant_. _The_ persons who remain _poor_ are _the_ entirely\n  _foolish_, _the_ entirely _wise_, _the idle_, _the reckless_, _the\n  humble_, _the thoughtful_, _the dull_, _the imaginative_, _the\n  sensitive_, _the well-informed_, _the improvident_, _the_ irregularly\n  and impulsively _wicked_, _the clumsy_ knave, _the open_ thief, and\n  _the_ entirely _merciful_, _just_ and _godly_ persons.--_Ruskin_.\n\n\n                    PARTICIPLE PHRASES\n\n+275.+ If you will refer now to Lesson 9 you will find that we studied\nin that lesson concerning participle phrases; that is, several words\nused as a participle. We found that these participle phrases may also be\nused as nouns; as, for example:\n\n  His having joined the union caused him to lose his position.\n\n_Having joined_ is here a participle phrase used as a noun, subject of\nthe verb _caused_. Participle phrases may also be used as adjectives.\n\nYou remember that we had four participle phrases, as follows:\n\n  +Present perfect+, _active_, having called.\n  +Present perfect+, _passive_, having been called.\n  +Progressive+, _active_, having been calling.\n  +Progressive+, _passive_, being called.\n\nThese participle phrases are used as adjectives to describe and modify\nnouns, thus:\n\n  The soldier, _having joined_ his comrades, fought in the trenches.\n  The nurse, _having been watching_ for days, was nearly exhausted.\n\nThe passive phrases also are used as adjectives, thus:\n\n  The woman, _having been hired_ by the manager, went to work.\n  The man, _being attacked_, fought bravely.\n\nHere the participle phrases _having been hired_ and _being attacked_ are\nused as adjectives to modify the nouns _woman_ and _man_.\n\nUse the participles and participle phrases of the verbs _see_ and _obey_\nin sentences of your own.\n\n\n                    USES OF ADJECTIVES\n\n+276.+ In our use of adjectives, we find it convenient to use them in\nseveral different ways. The most common use is closely connected with\nthe noun as a modifying word, seeming in a sense almost a part of the\nnoun; as in the sentence, _These brave men have bequeathed to us\nsplendid victories_. In this sentence _these_ and _brave_ are easily\ndiscovered to be adjectives, being used in such close connection with\nthe noun.\n\nBut sometimes we find the adjectives a little farther away from the noun\nwhich it describes, and then it becomes a little more difficult to find.\nYou will recall, in our study of the copulative verb _be_, that we found\nit was simply a connecting word, connecting that which followed the verb\nwith its subject. So we often find an adjective used in the predicate\nwith a copulative verb showing what is asserted of the subject. When an\nadjective is used in this way, it modifies the subject just as much as\nif it were directly connected by being placed immediately before the\nnoun. For example:\n\n  The lesson was long and difficult.\n\n_Long_ and _difficult_ are used in the predicate after the copulative\nverb _was_, but are used to modify the subject _lesson_ just as much as\nthough we said instead, _It was a long and difficult lesson_. So watch\ncarefully for adjectives used with the copulative verb _be_ in all its\nforms, _am_, _is_, _are_, _was_, _were_; and the phrases, _has been_,\n_will be_, _must be_, etc.\n\n+277.+ You may find adjectives also used following the noun. As, for\nexample: _The man, cool and resolute, awaited the attack_. _Cool_ and\n_resolute_ are adjectives modifying the noun _man_, but they follow the\nnoun, instead of being placed before it.\n\n\n                    COMMON ERRORS\n\n+278.+ There are a number of common errors which we make in comparison,\nwhich we should be careful to avoid.\n\n1. A number of adjectives cannot be compared for they in themselves\nexpress the highest degree of quality, so they have no shades of meaning\nand will not admit of comparison. For example: _full_, _empty_, _level_,\n_round_, _square_. If a thing is full or empty or level or round or\nsquare, it cannot be more full, or more empty, or more level, or more\nround, or more square. So do not compare adjectives that already express\nthe highest degree of a quality. Also such words as _supreme_,\n_eternal_, and _infallible_, cannot be compared for they also express\nthe highest degree of quality.\n\n2. Do not use _more_ with the comparative form made by using _er_, or\n_most_ with the superlative form, made by using _est_. For example: do\nnot say, _They cannot be more happier than they are_. Say, _They cannot\nbe happier_; or _They cannot be more happy_. Use either form but never\nboth. Do not say, _That is the most wisest plan_. Say either, _That is\nthe wisest plan_; or _That is the most wise plan_, but never use both\nforms. Never use _most_ with a superlative form.\n\n3. Do not use the superlative form in comparing _two_ objects. The\nsuperlative form is used only when more than two are compared. For\nexample; do not say, _He is the smallest of the two_. Say, _He is the\nsmaller of the two_. _Which is the largest end?_ is incorrect. _Which is\nthe larger end?_ is correct. _Which is the oldest, John or Henry?_ is\nalso incorrect. This should be, _Which is the older, John or Henry?_ Use\nthe _comparative_ form always when comparing _two_ objects.\n\n4. In stating a comparison, avoid comparing a thing with itself. For\nexample; _New York is larger than any city in the United States_. In\nthis sentence, when you say _any_ city in the United States, you are\nincluding New York; so you are really comparing New York with itself,\nand you are saying that New York is larger than itself. You should have\nsaid, _New York is larger than any other city in the United States_; or,\n_New York is the largest city in the United States_. When you compare an\nobject with all others of its kind be sure that the word _other_ follows\nthe comparative word _than_.\n\n5. When an adjective denoting _one_ or _more than one_ modifies a noun,\nthe adjective and the noun must agree in number. For example; _The house\nis 30 foot square_. _Thirty_ denotes more than one, so a plural noun\nshould be used, and this sentence should be, _The house is 30 feet\nsquare_. _We are traveling at the rate of 40 mile an hour._ This should\nbe, _We are traveling at the rate of 40 miles an hour_.\n\n6. Only two adjectives, _this_ and _that_ change their form when\nmodifying a plural noun. _These_ and _those_ are the plural forms of\n_this_ and _that_. So remember always to use _this_ and _that_ with\nsingular nouns and _these_ and _those_ with plural nouns. For example;\ndo not say, _These kind of people will never join us_. You should say,\n_This kind of people will never join us_. Or, _Those sort of flowers\ngrows easily_. You should say, _That sort of flowers grows easily_.\n\n7. Place your adjectives where there can be no doubt as to what you\nintend them to modify. Put the adjective _with_ the noun which it\nmodifies. For example; do not say, _a fresh bunch of flowers_, _a new\npair of shoes_, _a salt barrel of pork_, _an old box of clothes_, _a\ncold cup of water_, _a new load of hay_. Put the adjective with the noun\nwhich it modifies, and say, _a bunch of fresh flowers_, _a pair of new\nshoes_, _a barrel of salt pork_, _a box of old clothes_, _a cup of cold\nwater_, _a load of new hay_.\n\n8. Adjectives are usually placed before the nouns they qualify, but\nsometimes, especially in poetry or in the use of participles, they\nfollow the nouns. They should not, however, be placed too far away from\nthe noun which they modify or be unnecessarily separated from the noun.\nWhere there are two or more adjectives used to qualify the same noun,\nplace nearest the noun the adjective most closely connected with the\nobject described and place farthest from the noun the adjective least\nclosely connected with the noun. If they are all of the same rank, place\nthem where they will sound best, usually according to their length,\nnaming the shortest adjective first.\n\nCorrect the following sentences by arranging the adjectives in the\nproper order:\n\n  The summer sky was a blue, soft, beautiful sky.\n  He bought a brown, fine, big horse.\n  A gold, beautiful, expensive watch was given her.\n  The new, beautiful apartment building is on the corner.\n  He advertised for a young, intelligent, wide awake man.\n\n9. Never use _them_ as an adjective. _Them_ is a pronoun. One of the\nworst mistakes which we can make is to use such phrases as _them\nthings_, _them men_, _them books_. Say, _those things_, _those men_,\n_those books_.\n\n10. Do not use _less_ for the comparative form of _few_. The comparative\nform of _few_ is _fewer_. _Less_ refers only to quantity, _fewer_ to\nnumber. For example:\n\n  He raised _less_ grain this year than last, because he has _fewer_\n  horses now than he had then.\n  He uses _fewer_ words because he has _less_ to say.\n  There are but _few_ people here today; there were still _fewer_ (not\n  less) yesterday.\n\n\n                    Exercise 2\n\nCorrect the adjectives in this exercise:\n\n  1. Hand me the little knife.\n  2. He claims to be more infallible than anyone else.\n  3. Mary is the oldest of the two.\n  4. He was the bestest boy in school.\n  5. The barn is forty foot long.\n  6. Yonder is a happy crowd of children.\n  7. Which is the largest end?\n  8. I found the bestest book.\n  9. This is the most principal rule.\n  10. Give me a cold cup of water.\n  11. These kind of books will not do.\n  12. Give me them books.\n  13. Who is the tallest, you or John?\n\n\n                    Exercise 3\n\nMark all the adjectives in this poem. Note especially the participles\nused as adjectives.\n\n                    THE COLLECTION\n\n    I passed the plate in church.\n    There was a little silver, but the crisp bank-notes heaped\n            themselves up high before me;\n    And ever as the pile grew, the plate became warmer and warmer, until\n        it fairly burned my fingers, and a smell of scorching flesh rose\n        from it, and I perceived that some of the notes were beginning\n        to smolder and curl, half-browned, at the edges.\n    And then I saw through the smoke into the very substance of the\n        money, and I beheld what it really was:\n    I saw the stolen earnings of the poor, the wide margin of wages\n        pared down to starvation;\n    I saw the underpaid factory girl eking out her living on the street,\n        and the over-worked child, and the suicide of the discharged\n        miner;\n    I saw the poisonous gases from great manufactories, spreading\n        disease and death;\n    I saw despair and drudgery filling the dram-shop;\n    I saw rents screwed out of brother men for permission to live on\n        God's land;\n    I saw men shut out from the bosom of the earth and begging for the\n        poor privilege to work, in vain, and becoming tramps and paupers\n        and drunkards and lunatics, and crowding into almshouses, insane\n        asylums and prisons;\n    I saw ignorance and vice and crime growing rank in stifling, filthy\n        slums;\n    I saw shoddy cloth and adulterated food and lying goods of all\n        kinds, cheapening men and women, and vulgarizing the world;\n    I saw hideousness extending itself from coal-mine and foundry over\n        forest and river and field;\n    I saw money grabbed from fellow grabbers and swindled from fellow\n        swindlers, and underneath the workman forever spinning it out of\n        his vitals;\n    I saw the laboring world, thin and pale and bent and care-worn and\n        driven, pouring out this tribute from its toil and sweat into\n        the laps of the richly dressed men and women in the pews, who\n        only glanced at them to shrink from them with disgust;\n    I saw all this, and the plate burned my fingers so that I had to\n        hold it first in one hand and then in the other; and I was glad\n        when the parson in his white robes took the smoking pile from me\n        on the chancel steps and, turning about, lifted it up and laid\n        it on the altar.\n    It was an old-time altar, indeed, for it bore a burnt offering of\n        flesh and blood--a sweet savor unto the Moloch whom these people\n        worship with their daily round of human sacrifices.\n    The shambles are in the temple as of yore, and the tables of the\n        money-changers waiting to be overturned.\n\n                                        --_Ernest Crosby_.\n\n\n\n\n                    SPELLING\n\n                    LESSON 15\n\n\nThere is a class of words having the sound of long _e_, represented by\nthe diphthong _ie_, and another class having the same sound represented\nby _ei_. It is a matter of perplexity at times to determine whether one\nof these words should be spelled with _ie_ or _ei_. Here is a little\nrhyme which you will find a valuable aid to the memory in spelling these\nwords:\n\n  When the letter _c_ you spy,\n  Put the _e_ before the _i_.\n\nFor example, in such words as _deceit_, _receive_ and _ceiling_, the\nspelling is _ei_. On the other hand, when the diphthong is not preceded\nby the letter _c_, the spelling is _ie_, as in _grief_, _field_,\n_siege_, etc.\n\nThere are a few exceptions to this rule, such as _either_, _neither_,\n_leisure_, _seize_ and _weird_. Most words, however, conform to the\nrule--when preceded by _c_, _ei_ should be used; when preceded by any\nother letter, _ie_.\n\nObserve that this rule applies only when there is a diphthong having the\nsound of long _e_. When the two letters do not have the sound of long\n_e_, as in _ancient_, the rule does not apply.\n\n  +Monday+\n\n    Deceive\n    Belief\n    Conceive\n    Brief\n    Ceiling\n\n  +Tuesday+\n\n    Field\n    Receive\n    Piece\n    Chief\n    Leisure\n\n  +Wednesday+\n\n    Receipt\n    Wield\n    Weird\n    Thief\n    Perceive\n\n  +Thursday+\n\n    Deceit\n    Yield\n    Grief\n    Seize\n    Conceit\n\n  +Friday+\n\n    Relieve\n    Neither\n    Liege\n    Shield\n    Niece\n\n  +Saturday+\n\n    Relief\n    Achievement\n    Reprieve\n    Lien\n    Siege\n\n\n\n\n                    PLAIN ENGLISH\n\n                    LESSON 16\n\n\nDear Comrade:\n\nWe have been tracing the development of written speech in order that we\nmight have a clearer understanding of our own language. We have found\nhow our earliest ancestors communicated with each other by signs and an\narticulate speech that was probably a little better than that of some\nanimals of today. They gradually developed this articulate speech and\nthen began to have need for some form of written speech. That which\ndistinguishes man from the animals primarily is his power to remember\nand to associate one idea with another. From this comes his ability to\nreason concerning the connection of these ideas. Without this power of\nassociative memory we would not be able to reason. If you could not\nrecall the things that happened yesterday and had not the power of\nimagination concerning the things that may happen tomorrow, your\nreasoning concerning today would not be above that of the animals.\n\nSo man soon found it necessary to have some way of recalling accurately,\nin a manner that he could depend upon, the things that happened\nyesterday and the day before and still farther back in time. So that his\nfirst step was the invention of simple aids to memory such as the\nknotted strings and tally sticks. Then he began to draw pictures of the\nobjects about him which he could perceive by the five senses, the things\nwhich he could see and hear and touch and taste and smell.\n\nBut man, the Thinker, began to develop and he began to have ideas about\nthings which he could not see and hear and touch and taste and smell. He\nbegan to think of abstract ideas such as light and darkness, love and\nhate, and if he was to have written speech he must have symbols which\nwould express these ideas. So we have found that he used pictures of the\nthings he perceived with his five senses to symbolize some of his\nabstract ideas, as for example; a picture of the sun and moon to\nrepresent light; the bee to symbolize industry; the ostrich feather to\nrepresent justice. But as his ideas began to develop you can readily see\nthat in the course of time there were not enough symbols to go around\nand this sort of written speech became very confusing and very difficult\nto read.\n\nNecessity is truly the mother of invention, and so this need of man\nforced him to invent something entirely new--something which had been\nundreamed of before. He began now to use pictures which were different\nin sense but the names of which had the same sound. You can find an\nexample of this same thing on the Children's Puzzle Page in the rebus\nwhich is given for the children to solve. As for example: A picture of\nan eye, a saw, a boy, a swallow, a goose and a berry, and this would\nstand for the sentence, I saw a boy swallow a gooseberry.\n\nPerhaps you have used the same idea in some guessing game where a mill,\na walk and a key stands for Milwaukee. And so we have a new form of\npicture writing. Notice in this that an entirely new idea has entered\nin, for the picture may not stand for the whole word but may stand for\none syllable of the word as in the example given above. The mill stands\nfor one syllable, walk for another and key for another. This was a great\nstep for it meant the division of the word into various sounds\nrepresented by the syllables.\n\nWhat a new insight it gives us into life when we realize that not only\nour bodies but the environment in which we live, the machines with which\nwe work and even the language which we use has been a product of man's\nown effort. Man has developed these things for himself through a\nconstant and steady evolution. It makes us feel that we are part of one\nstupendous whole; we belong to the class which has done the work of the\nworld and accomplished these mighty things. The same blood flows in us;\nthe same power belongs to us. Truly, with this idea, we can stand erect\nand look the whole world in the face and demand the opportunity to live\nour own lives to the full.\n\n                    Yours for Freedom,\n\n                              THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.\n\n\n                    WORDS ADDED TO VERBS\n\n+279.+ We have just finished the study of adjectives and we have found\nthat adjectives are words added to nouns to qualify or to limit their\nmeaning. Without this class of words it would be impossible for us to\nexpress all of our ideas, for we would be at a loss to describe the\nobjects about us. Adjectives enable us to name the qualities or tell the\nnumber of the objects with which we come in contact.\n\nThe verb, we have found, expresses the action of these objects; in other\nwords, the verb tells what things do. So with adjectives and verbs we\ncan describe the objects named by the nouns and tell what they do. For\nexample, I may say, _Men work_. Here I have used simply a noun and a\nverb; then I may add various adjectives to this and say, _Strong,\nindustrious, ambitious men work_. By the use of these adjectives, I have\ntold you about the kind of men who work; but I have said nothing about\nthe action expressed in the verb _work_. I may want to tell you _how_\nthey work and _when_ they work; _where_ they work and _how much_; in\nother words, describe fully the action expressed in the verb _work_, so\nI say:\n\n  The men work busily.\n  The men work late.\n  The men work well.\n  The men work inside.\n  The men work hard.\n  The men work here.\n  The men work now.\n  The men work more.\n\nWords like _busily_, _hard_, _late_, _here_, _well_, _now_, _inside_,\nand _more_, show _how_, _when_, _where_ and _how much_ the men work.\n\nWe could leave off these words and still have a sentence, since the\nother words make sense without them, but these words describe the action\nexpressed in the verb.\n\nWords used in this way are called adverbs because they are added to\nverbs to make our meaning more definite, very much as adjectives are\nadded to nouns.\n\n+280.+ The word adverb means, literally, _to the verb_, and one would\nsuppose from this name that the adverb was strictly a verb modifier, but\nan adverb is used to modify other words as well. An adverb may be used\nto modify an adjective; for example, we might say: _The man was very\nbusy_. _This lesson is too long._ Here _very_ and _too_ are added to the\nadjectives _busy_ and _long_ to qualify their meaning.\n\n+281.+ You remember in the comparison of adjectives, we used the words\n_more_ and _most_ to make the comparative and superlative degrees. Here\n_more_ and _most_ are adverbs used with the adjectives to qualify their\nmeaning. Adverbs used in this way will always answer the question, _how\nmuch_, _how long_, etc. In the sentence, _The man is very busy_, _very_\nis used to answer the question _how_ busy. And in the sentence, _The\nlesson is too long_, the adverb _too_ answers the question _how_ long.\n\nAn adverb is also added to another adverb sometimes to answer the\nquestion _how_. For example; we say, _The man works very hard_. Here the\nadverb _hard_ tells _how_ the man works and _very_ modifies the adverb\n_hard_, and answers the question _how hard_. So we have our definition\nof an adverb:\n\n+282.+ +An adverb is a word that modifies the meaning of a verb, an\nadjective or another adverb.+\n\nRemember that adjectives are used only with nouns or pronouns, but the\nadverb may be used with a verb or an adjective or another adverb. You\nremember that we had in our first lesson, as the definition of a word,\nthat, _a word is a sign of an idea_. The idea is a part of a complete\nthought. See how all of these various words represent ideas, and each\ndoes its part to help us express our thoughts.\n\n\n                    HOW TO TELL ADVERBS\n\n+283.+ We need not have much difficulty in always being able to tell\nwhich words in a sentence are adverbs, for they will always answer one\nof the following questions: _How?_ _When?_ _Where?_ _Why?_ _How long?_\n_How often?_ _How much?_ _How far?_ or _How little?_ etc. Just ask one\nof these questions and the word that answers it is the adverb in your\nsentence. Take the following sentence:\n\n  He _always_ came _down too rapidly_.\n\nThe word _always_ answers the question _when_. So _always_ is an adverb,\ndescribing the time of the action expressed in the verb _came_--He\n_always_ came. _Down_ answers the question _where_. So _down_ is the\nadverb describing the _place_ of the action. _Rapidly_ answers the\nquestion _how_, and is the adverb describing the _manner_ of the action.\n_Too_ also answers the question _how_, and modifies the adverb\n_rapidly_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 1\n\nUnderscore the adverbs in the following sentences and tell which\nword they modify:\n\n  1. He writes correctly.\n  2. She answered quickly.\n  3. A very wonderful future awaits us.\n  4. You should not speak so hastily.\n  5. You can speak freely here.\n  6. He could never wait patiently.\n  7. We very often make mistakes.\n  8. She very seldom goes there.\n  9. He usually walks very rapidly.\n  10. I have read the lesson quite carefully.\n  11. We would willingly and cheerfully give our all for the cause.\n  12. He frequently comes here but I do not expect him today.\n  13. If we work diligently and faithfully we will soon learn to speak\n      correctly and fluently.\n  14. I am almost sure I can go there tomorrow.\n  15. It was more beautifully painted than the other.\n  16. We eagerly await the news from the front.\n  17. He always gladly obeyed his father.\n  18. She spoke quite simply and met with a very enthusiastic reception.\n  19. The difficulty can be easily and readily adjusted.\n\n\n                    Exercise 2\n\nUse the following adverbs in sentences to modify verbs:\n\n  slowly\n  here\n  now\n  gently\n  loudly\n  never\n  soon\n  carefully\n  nobly\n  down\n  seldom\n  easily\n\nUse the following adverbs in sentences to modify adjectives:\n\n  quite\n  very\n  more\n  too\n  most\n  less\n  nearly\n  so\n\nUse the following adverbs in sentences to modify adverbs:\n\n  too\n  very\n  quite\n  less\n  more\n  most\n  least\n  so\n\n\n                    CLASSES OF ADVERBS\n\n+284.+ There are a good many adverbs in our language, yet they may be\ndivided, according to their meaning, into six principal classes:\n\n+1. Adverbs of time.+ These answer the question _when_, and are such\nadverbs as _now_, _then_, _soon_, _never_, _always_, etc.\n\n+2. Adverbs of place.+ These answer the question _where_, and are such\nadverbs as _here_, _there_, _yonder_, _down_, _above_, _below_, etc.\n\n+3. Adverbs of manner.+ These answer the question _how_, and are such\nadverbs as _well_, _ill_, _thus_, _so_, _slowly_, _hastily_, etc.\n\n+4. Adverbs of degree.+ These answer the questions _how much_, _how\nlittle_, _how far_, etc., and are such adverbs as _much_, _very_,\n_almost_, _scarcely_, _hardly_, _more_, _quite_, _little_, etc.\n\n+5. Adverbs of cause.+ These answer the question _why_, and are such\nadverbs as _therefore_, _accordingly_, _hence_, etc.\n\n+6. Adverbs of number.+ These are such adverbs as _first_, _second_,\n_third_, etc.\n\n\n                    Exercise 3\n\nIn the following sentences there are adverbs of each class used. Find\nthe adverbs of the different classes.\n\n  1. We shall always be found in the forefront of the struggle.\n  2. It is much more effective to train the young.\n  3. He came first and remained through the entire program.\n  4. It is pleasant to know that we have done well.\n  5. Our comrades are fighting yonder in the trenches.\n  6. Therefore we shall never acknowledge defeat.\n  7. Come down and discuss the matter with us.\n  8. We would soon be able to agree if we understood the facts.\n  9. Study your lessons slowly and carefully.\n  10. He was scarcely able to tell his story.\n  11. Accordingly I am sending you full particulars of the plan.\n  12. He came third in the ranks.\n\n\n                    INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS\n\n+285.+ The adverbs _how_, _when_, _where_, _why_, _whither_, _whence_,\netc., are used in asking questions, and when they are used in this way\nthey are called interrogative adverbs. For example:\n\n  _How_ did it happen?\n  _Where_ are you going?\n  _Whence_ came he?\n  _When_ did he come?\n  _Why_ did you do it?\n  _Whither_ are you going?\n\nThese adverbs, _how_, _when_, _where_, _why_, _whence_ and _whither_,\nare used in these sentences to modify the verbs and ask the questions\nconcerning the _time_ or _place_ or _manner_ of action expressed in the\nverb.\n\n_How_ may also be used as an interrogative adverb modifying an adjective\nor another adverb. For example:\n\n  How late did he stay?\n  How large is the house?\n\nIn the first sentence, the adverb _how_ modifies the adverb _late_, and\nintroduces the question. In the second sentence _how_ modifies the\nadjective _large_ and introduces the question.\n\n\n                    Exercise 4\n\nWrite sentences containing the interrogative adverbs _how_, _when_,\n_where_ and _why_, to modify verbs and ask simple questions.\n\nWrite sentences using the interrogative adverb _how_ to modify an\nadjective and an adverb and to introduce a question.\n\n\n                    ADVERBS OF MODE\n\n+286.+ There are some adverbs which scarcely fall into any of the above\nclasses and cannot be said to answer any of these questions. They are\nsuch adverbs as _indeed_, _certainly_, _fairly_, _truly_, _surely_,\n_perhaps_ and _possibly_. These adverbs really modify the entire\nsentence, in a way, and are used to show how the statement is\nmade,--whether in a positive or negative way or in a doubtful way. For\nexample:\n\n  _Surely_ you will not leave me.\n  _Truly_ I cannot understand the matter as you do.\n  _Perhaps_ he knows no better.\n  _Indeed_, I cannot go with you.\n\nHere, these adverbs, _truly_, _surely_, _perhaps_ and _indeed_, show the\nmanner in which the entire statement is made; so they have been put in a\nclass by themselves and called +adverbs of mode+. _Mode_ means literally\n_manner_, but these are not adverbs that express manner of action, like\n_slowly_ or _wisely_ or _well_ or _ill_. They express rather the manner\nin which the entire statement is made, and so really modify the whole\nsentence.\n\n\n                    PHRASE ADVERBS\n\n+287.+ We have certain little phrases which we have used so often that\nthey have come to be used and regarded as single adverbs. They are such\nphrases as _of course_, _of late_, _for good_, _of old_, _at all_, _at\nlength_, _by and by_, _over and over_, _again and again_, _through and\nthrough_, _hand in hand_, _ere long_, _in vain_, _to and fro_, _up and\ndown_, _as usual_, _by far_, _at last_, _at least_, _in general_, _in\nshort_, etc. These words which we find used so often in these phrases we\nmay count as single adverbs.\n\n\n                    ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS\n\n+288.+ Sometimes the same word may be used either as an adjective or as\nan adverb, and you may have some difficulty in telling whether it is an\nadjective or an adverb. Some of these words are: _better_, _little_,\n_late_, _far_, _hard_, _further_, _first_, _last_, _long_, _short_,\n_much_, _more_ and _high_. For example:\n\n  The _late_ news verifies our statement.\n  The man came _late_ to his work.\n\nIn the first sentence, the word _late_ is used as an adjective modifying\nthe noun _news_. In the second sentence, the word _late_ is used as an\nadverb to modify the verb _came_.\n\n+289.+ You can always distinguish between adjectives and adverbs by\nthis rule: Adjectives modify _only nouns_ and _pronouns_, and the one\nessential characteristic of the adverb, as a limiting word, is that it\nis _always_ joined to some other part of speech than a noun. An adverb\nmay modify a verb, adjective or other adverb, but never a noun or\npronoun.\n\nYou recall the rule which we have made the very foundation of our study:\nnamely, that every word is classified in the sentence according to the\n_work_ which it does in that sentence. So a word is an adjective when it\nlimits or modifies or qualifies a noun or pronoun; a word is an adverb\nwhen it qualifies any part of speech other than a noun or pronoun,\neither a verb or an adjective or an adverb, or even an entire sentence,\nas is the case with adverbs of mode.\n\n+290.+ Many adverbs are regularly made from nouns and adjectives by\nprefixes and suffixes. Adverbs are made from adjectives chiefly by\nadding the suffix _ly_, or by changing _ble_ to _bly_. For example:\n_honestly_, _rarely_, _dearly_, _ably_, _nobly_, _feebly_. But all words\nthat end in _ly_ are not adverbs. Some adjectives end in _ly_ also, as,\n_kingly_, _courtly_, etc. The only way we can determine to which class a\nword belongs is by its use in the sentence.\n\n\n                    Exercise 5\n\nIn the following sentences, tell whether the words printed in italics\nare used as adjectives or as adverbs: also note the words ending in\n_ly_. Some are adverbs and some adjectives.\n\n  1. The boy was very _little_.\n  2. It was a _little_ early to arrive.\n  3. It was a _hard_ lesson.\n  4. She works _hard_ every day.\n  5. I read the _first_ book.\n  6. I read the book _first_ then gave it to him.\n  7. He went to a _high_ mountain.\n  8. The eagle flew _high_ in the air.\n  9. We saw clearly the lovely picture.\n  10. He is a wonderfully jolly man.\n  11. His courtly manner failed when he saw his homely bride.\n  12. He speaks slowly and clearly.\n  13. They are very cleanly in their habits.\n\n\n                    NOUNS AS ADVERBS\n\n+291.+ Words that are ordinarily used as nouns, are sometimes used as\nadverbs. These are the nouns that denote time, distance, measure of\nvalue or direction. They are added to verbs and adjectives to denote the\ndefinite time at which a thing took place, or to denote the extent of\ntime or distance and the measure of value, of weight, number or age.\nThey are sometimes used to indicate direction. For example:\n\n  They were gone a _year_.\n  He talked an _hour_.\n  They will return next _week_.\n  They went _south_ for the winter.\n  They traveled 100 _miles_.\n  The wheat is a _foot_ high.\n  The man weighed 200 _pounds_.\n\nIn these sentences, the nouns, _year_, _miles_, _hour_, _foot_, _week_,\n_pounds_ and _south_ are used as adverbs. Remember every word is\nclassified according to the work which it does in the sentence.\n\n\n                    Exercise 6\n\nMark the adverbs in the following poem and determine what words they\nmodify:\n\n          THE BRIDGE OF SIGHS\n\n    One more Unfortunate\n        Weary of breath,\n    Rashly importunate,\n        Gone to her death!\n\n    Take her up tenderly,\n        Lift her with care;\n    Fashion'd so slenderly,\n        Young, and so fair!\n\n    Look at her garments\n    Clinging like cerements;\n        Whilst the wave constantly\n    Drips from her clothing;\n        Take her up instantly,\n    Loving, not loathing.\n\n    Touch her not scornfully;\n    Think of her mournfully,\n        Gently and humanly;\n    Not of the stains of her--\n    All that remains of her\n        Now is pure womanly.\n\n    Make no deep scrutiny\n    Into her mutiny\n        Rash and undutiful;\n    Past all dishonor,\n    Death has left on her\n        Only the beautiful.\n\n       * * * * * * *\n\n    Alas! for the rarity\n    Of Christian charity\n        Under the sun!\n    O! it was pitiful!\n    Near a whole city full,\n        Home, she had none.\n\n       * * * * * * *\n\n\n    The bleak wind of March\n        Made her tremble and shiver;\n    But not the dark arch,\n        Or the black flowing river:\n    Mad from life's history\n    Glad to death's mystery\n        Swift to be hurled--\n    Anywhere, anywhere\n        Out of the world!\n\n    In she plunged boldly,\n    No matter how coldly\n        The rough river ran;\n    Over the brink of it,--\n    Picture it, think of it,\n        Dissolute Man!\n    Lave in it, drink of it,\n        Then, if you can!\n\n    Take her up tenderly,\n        Lift her with care;\n    Fashion'd so slenderly,\n    Young and so fair!\n\n    Ere her limbs frigidly\n    Stiffen too rigidly,\n        Decently, kindly,\n    Smooth and compose them;\n    And her eyes, close them,\n        Staring so blindly!\n\n    Dreadfully staring\n        Thro' muddy impurity,\n    As when with the daring\n    Last look of despairing\n        Fix'd on futurity.\n\n    Perishing gloomily,\n    Spurr'd by contumely,\n    Cold inhumanity,\n    Burning insanity,\n        Into her rest.\n    Cross her hands humbly\n    As if praying dumbly,\n        Over her breast!\n\n    Owning her weakness,\n        Her evil behavior,\n    And leaving, with meekness,\n        Her sins to her Saviour!\n\n                    --_Thomas Hood_.\n\n\n\n\n                    SPELLING\n\n                    LESSON 16\n\n\nThe English language is truly a melting pot, into which have been thrown\nwords from almost every language under the sun. This makes our spelling\nvery confusing many times. Because of this also, we have in our\nlanguage, words which have the same sound but different meaning, having\ncome into the language from different sources. These words are called\n_homonyms_.\n\n+Homonyms are words having the same sound but different meaning.+ For\nexample:\n\n  Plane, plain;\n  write, right.\n\nSynonyms are words which have the same meaning. For example:\n\n  Allow, permit;\n  lazy, idle.\n\nOur spelling lesson for this week contains a list of most of the\ncommonly used homonyms. Look up the meaning in the dictionary and use\nthem correctly in sentences. You will note that in some instances there\nare three different words which have the same sound, but different\nmeanings.\n\nNotice especially _principal_ and _principle_. Perhaps there are no two\nwords which we use frequently which are so confused in their spelling.\n_Principle_ is a noun. _Principal_ is an adjective. You can remember the\ncorrect spelling by remembering that _adjective_ begins with _a_.\n_Principal_, the adjective, is spelled with an _a_, _pal_.\n\nNotice also the distinction between _two_, _to_ and _too_. Look these up\ncarefully, for mistakes are very often made in the use of these three\nwords. Also notice the words _no_ and _know_ and _here_ and _hear_.\n\n  +Monday+\n\n    Buy--by\n    Fair--fare\n    Meat--meet\n    Our--hour\n    Pain--pane\n\n  +Tuesday+\n\n    Deer--dear\n    Hear--here\n    New--knew\n    No--know\n    Peace--piece\n\n  +Wednesday+\n\n    Two--to--too\n    Pair--pare--pear\n    Birth--berth\n    Ore--oar\n    Ought--aught\n\n  +Thursday+\n\n    Seen--scene\n    Miner--minor\n    Aloud--allowed\n    Stare--stair\n    Would--wood\n\n  +Friday+\n\n    Bear--bare\n    Ascent--assent\n    Sight--site--cite\n    Rain--reign--rein\n    Rote--wrote\n\n  +Saturday+\n\n    Great--grate\n    Foul--fowl\n    Least--leased\n    Principle--principal\n    Sale--sail\n\n\n\n\n                    PLAIN ENGLISH\n\n                    LESSON 17\n\n\nDear Comrade:\n\nWe are finishing in this lesson the study of a very important part of\nspeech. Adverbs are a necessary part of our vocabulary, and most of us\nneed a greater supply than we at present possess. We usually have a few\nadverbs and adjectives in our vocabulary which are continually\noverworked. Add a few new ones to your vocabulary this week.\n\nDo not slight the exercises in these lessons. The study of the lesson is\nonly the beginning of the theoretical knowledge. You do not really know\na thing until you put it into practice. You may take a correspondence\ncourse on how to run an automobile but you can not really know how to\nrun a machine until you have had the practical experience. There is only\none way to become expert in the use of words and that is to use them.\nEvery day try to talk to some one who thinks and reads. While talking\nwatch their language and your own. When a word is used that you do not\nfully understand, look it up at your very first opportunity and if you\nlike the word use it a number of times until it has become your word.\n\nWe have been following in these letters, which are our weekly talks\ntogether, the development of the alphabet. It is really a wonderful\nstory. It brings to us most vividly the struggle of the men of the past.\nLast week we found how they began to use symbols to express syllables,\nparts of a word. We found that this was a great step in advance. Do you\nnot see that this was not an eye picture but an ear picture? The symbol\ndid not stand for the picture of the object it named but each symbol\nstood for the sound which composed part of the word.\n\nAfter a while it dawned upon some one that all the words which man used\nwere expressed by just a few sounds. We do not know just when this\nhappened but we do know that it was a wonderful step in advance.\nCumbersome pictures and symbols could be done away with now. The same\nidea could be expressed by a few signs which represented the few sounds\nwhich were used over and over again in all words. Let us not fail to\nrealize what a great step in advance this was. These symbols represented\nsounds. The appeal was through the _ear gate_ of man, not through the\n_eye gate_.\n\nThus came about the birth of the alphabet, one of the greatest and most\nmomentous triumphs of the human mind. Because of this discovery, we can\nnow form thousands of combinations expressing all our ideas with only\ntwenty-three or twenty-four symbols,--letters that represent sounds.\nSince we have at our command all of this rich fund of words, let us not\nbe content to possess only a few for ourselves. Add a word daily to your\nvocabulary and you will soon be surprised at the ease and fluency of\nyour spoken and written speech; and with this fluency in speech will\ncome added power in every part of your life.\n\n                    Yours for Education,\n\n                              THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.\n\n\n                    COMPARISON OF ADVERBS\n\n+292.+ You will recall that we found that adjectives change in form to\nshow different degrees of quality. A few adverbs are compared the same\nas adjectives. Some form the comparative and superlative degree in the\nregular way, just as adjectives, by adding _er_ and _est_; for example:\n\n  _Positive_       _Comparative_       _Superlative_\n\n  soon             sooner              soonest\n  late             later               latest\n  often            oftener             oftenest\n  early            earlier             earliest\n  fast             faster              fastest\n\n+293.+ Most adverbs form their comparative and superlative by the use of\n_more_ and _most_ or _less_ and _least_, just as adjectives do; for\nexample:\n\n  _Positive_       _Comparative_       _Superlative_\n\n  clearly          more clearly        most clearly\n  nobly            more nobly          most nobly\n  ably             more ably           most ably\n  truly            more truly          most truly\n\nOr, in the descending comparison:\n\n  clearly           less clearly       least clearly\n  nobly             less nobly         least nobly\n  ably              less ably          least ably\n  truly             less truly         least truly\n\n+294.+ The following adverbs are compared irregularly. It would be well\nto memorize this list:\n\n  _Positive_       _Comparative_       _Superlative_\n\n  ill               worse               worst\n  well              better              best\n  badly             worse               worst\n  far               further (farther)   furthest (farthest)\n  little            less                least\n  much              more                most\n\nSome adverbs are incapable of comparison, as _here_, _there_, _now_,\n_today_, _hence_, _therefore_, etc.\n\n\n                    Exercise 1\n\nIn the following sentences mark which adverbs are used in the positive,\nwhich in the comparative and which in the superlative degree:\n\n  1. He came too late to get his letter.\n  2. I can understand clearly since you have explained the matter to me.\n  3. He speaks most truly concerning a matter of which he is well\n     informed.\n  4. If he comes quickly he will arrive in time.\n  5. I will be able to speak more effectively when I have studied the\n     subject.\n  6. Those who argue most ably are those who are in complete possession\n     of the facts.\n  7. He needs to take a course such as this very badly.\n  8. I am too weary to go farther today.\n  9. This is the least expensive of them all.\n  10. If he arrives later in the day I will not be able to see him.\n  11. I can understand him more clearly than I can his friend.\n  12. You must work more rapidly under the Taylor system of efficiency.\n  13. Those who are least trained lose their positions first.\n  14. Those who are best fitted for the positions do not always receive\n      them.\n\n\n                    POSITION OF ADVERBS\n\n+295.+ When we use an adverb with an adjective or other adverb, we\nusually place the adverb before the adjective or adverb which it\nmodifies. For example:\n\n  She is _very_ studious.\n  Results come _rather_ slowly.\n  It is _quite_ evident.\n  He speaks _too_ rapidly.\n\nWhen we use an adverb with the simple form of the verb, (that is, either\nthe present or past time form or any time form in which we do not need\nto use a phrase), if the verb is a complete verb, we place the adverb\nafter the verb. For example:\n\n  The boat arrived _safely_.\n  The man came _quickly_.\n  The boy ran _fast_.\n  The teacher spoke _hastily_.\n\nBut when the verb is an incomplete verb used in the simple form, the\nadverb usually precedes it in order not to come between the verb and its\nobject. As, for example:\n\n  He _willingly_ gave his consent to the proposition.\n  She _gladly_ wrote the letter which we requested.\n  A soldier _always_ obeys the command of a superior officer.\n\nWhen the object of the incomplete verb is short, then the adverb is\nsometimes placed after the object. As, for example:\n\n  I study my lessons _carefully_.\n  He wrote a letter _hastily_.\n\nThe object is more closely connected with the verb and so is placed\nnearer the verb. However, when the object is modified by a phrase the\nadverb is sometimes placed immediately after the verb, as:\n\n  I studied _carefully_ the lessons given for this month.\n  He wrote _hastily_ a short letter to his son.\n\nWhen we use an adverb with a verb phrase, we usually place the adverb\nafter the first word in the verb phrase. For example:\n\n  The boy has _always_ worked.\n  The workers will _then_ understand.\n  He will _surely_ have arrived by that time.\n\nWhen the verb is in the passive form the adverb immediately precedes the\nprincipal verb, as for example:\n\n  The work can be _quickly_ finished.\n  The obstacles can be _readily_ overcome.\n  The lesson must be _carefully_ prepared.\n  The workers must be _thoroughly_ organized.\n\nWhen an adverb of time and an adverb of manner or place are used to\nmodify the same verb, the adverb of time is placed first and the adverb\nof manner or place second, as for example:\n\n  I _often_ stop _there_.\n  He _usually_ walks _very rapidly_.\n  They _soon_ learn to work _rapidly_.\n\nIf the sentence contains adverbs of time, of place, and of manner; the\nadverb of time should come first; of place, second; and of manner,\nthird; as:\n\n  He _usually_ comes _here quickly_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 2\n\nImprove the location of the adverbs in the following sentences and\nobserve how the change of place of the adverb may alter the meaning of\nthe sentence:\n\n  1. I _only_ saw the President once.\n  2. Such prices are _only_ paid in times of great scarcity.\n  3. No man has _ever_ so much wealth that he does not want more.\n  4. It seems that the workers can be _never_ aroused.\n  5. I want to _briefly_ state the reason for my action.\n  6. I shall be glad to help you _always_.\n  7. I _only_ mention a few of the facts.\n  8. He _nearly_ walked to town.\n  9. We are told that the Japanese _chiefly_ live upon rice.\n  10. They expected them to sign a treaty _daily_.\n  11. Having _nearly_ lost all his money he feared _again_ to venture.\n\n\n                    ADVERBS AND INFINITIVES\n\n+296.+ You remember when we studied the infinitive in Lesson 9, we found\nthat it was not good usage to split the infinitive; that is, to put the\nmodifying word between _to_ and the verb. For example: _We ought to\nbravely stand for our rights_. The correct form of this is: _We ought to\nstand bravely for our rights_.\n\nBut we have found, also, that common usage breaks down the old rules and\nmakes new rules and laws for itself, and so we frequently find the\nadverb placed between the infinitive and its sign.\n\nSometimes it seems difficult to express our meaning accurately in any\nother way; for example, when we say: _To almost succeed is not enough_,\nwe do not make the statement as forceful or as nearly expressive of our\nreal idea, if we try to put the adverb _almost_ in any other position.\nThis is also true in such phrases as _to far exceed_, _to more than\ncounterbalance_, _to fully appreciate_, and various other examples which\nyou will readily find in your reading. The purpose of written and spoken\nlanguage is to express our ideas adequately and accurately.\n\nSo we place our words in sentences to fulfill this purpose and not\naccording to any stereotyped rule of grammarians. Ordinarily, though, it\nwould be best not to place the adverb between the infinitive verb and\nits sign _to_. Do not split the infinitive unless by so doing you\nexpress your idea more accurately.\n\n\n                    COMMON ERRORS\n\n+297.+ The position in the sentence of such adverbs as, _only_, _also_\nand _merely_, depends upon the meaning to be conveyed. The place where\nthese adverbs occur in the sentences, may completely alter the meaning\nof the sentence. For example:\n\n_Only the address can be written on this side._ We mean that nothing but\nthe address can be written on this side.\n\n_The address can only be written on this side._ We mean that the address\ncannot be printed, but must be written.\n\n_The address can be written only on this side._ We mean that it cannot\nbe written on any other side, but on this side only.\n\nSo you see that the place in which the adverb appears in the sentence\ndepends upon the meaning to be conveyed and the adverb should be placed\nin the sentence so as to convey the meaning intended.\n\n+Never use an adjective for an adverb.+ One common error is using an\nadjective for an adverb. Remember that adjectives modify nouns only.\nWhenever you use a word to modify a verb, adjective or another adverb,\nuse an adverb. For example, _He speaks slow and plain_. This is\nincorrect. The sentence should be, _He speaks slowly and plainly_. Watch\nthis carefully. It is a very common error.\n\n+Another very common error is that of using an adverb instead of an\nadjective with the copulative verb.+ Never use an adverb in place of an\nadjective to complete a copulative verb. When a verb asserts an action\non the part of the subject, the qualifying word that follows the verb is\nan adverb. For example, you would say:\n\n  The sea was calm.\n\nHere we use an _adjective_ in the predicate, for we are describing the\nappearance of the sea, no action is expressed. But if we say: _He spoke\ncalmly_, we use the adverb _calmly_, for the verb _spoke_ expresses an\naction on the part of the subject, and the adverb _calmly_ describes\nthat action, it tells how he spoke. So we say: _The water looks clear_,\nbut, _We see clearly_. _She appears truthful._ _They answered\ntruthfully._ _She looked sweet._ _She smiled sweetly._\n\nWith all forms of the verb _be_, as _am_, _is_, _are_, _was_, _were_,\n_have been_, _has been_, _will be_, etc., use an adjective in the\npredicate; as, _He is glad_. _I am happy._ _They were eager._ _They will\nbe sad._ Use an adjective in the predicate with verbs like _look_,\n_smell_, _taste_, _feel_, _appear_ and _seem_. For example: _He looks\nbad._ _It smells good._ _The candy tastes sweet_. _The man feels fine\ntoday._ _She appears anxious._ _He seems weary._\n\n+Never use two negative words in the same sentence.+ The second negative\ndestroys the first and we really make an affirmative statement. The two\nnegatives neutralize each other and spoil the meaning of the sentence.\nFor example, never say:\n\n  I don't want no education.\n  He didn't have no money.\n  Don't say nothing to nobody.\n  She never goes nowhere.\n  He won't say nothing to you.\n  He does not know nothing about it.\n  He never stops for nothing.\n  The stingy man gives nothing to nobody.\n\nIn all of these sentences we have used more than one negative; _not_ and\n_no_, or _not_ and _nothing_, or _never_ and _no_, or _never_ and\n_nothing_. Never use these double negatives. The correct forms of these\nsentences are:\n\n  I don't want any education.\n  He didn't have any money.\n  Don't say anything to any one.\n  She never goes anywhere.\n  He won't say anything to you.\n  He knows nothing about it.\n  He never stops for anything.\n  The stingy man gives nothing to any one.\n\n+Where to place the negative adverb, not.+ In English we do not use the\nnegative adverb _not_ with the common verb form, but when we use _not_\nin a sentence, we use the auxiliary _do_. For example, we do not say:\n\n  I like it not.\n  They think not so.\n  He loves me not.\n  We strive not to succeed.\n\nOnly in poetry do we use such expressions as these. In ordinary English,\nwe say:\n\n  I do not like it.\n  They do not think so.\n  He does not love me.\n  We do not strive to succeed.\n\n+We often use _here_ and _there_ incorrectly after the words _this_\nand _that_.+ For example, we say:\n\n  This here lesson is shorter than that there one was.\n\nThis should be: _This lesson is shorter than that one_.\n\n  Bring me that there book.\n  This here man will not listen.\n\nThese sentences should read:\n\n  Bring me that book.\n  This man will not listen.\n\nNever use _here_ and _there_ in this manner.\n\n+Another common mistake is using _most_ for _almost_.+\n\nFor example, we say:\n\n  We are most there.\n  I see her most every day.\n\nThese sentences should read:\n\n  We are almost there.\n  I see her almost every day.\n\n_Most_ is the superlative degree of _much_, and should be used only in\nthat meaning.\n\n+We often use the adjective _real_ in place of _very_ or _quite_,\nto modify an adverb or an adjective.+\n\nFor example, we say:\n\n  I was real glad to know it.\n  She looked real nice.\n  You must come real soon.\n\nSay instead:\n\n  I am very glad to know it.\n  She looked very nice.\n  You must come quite soon.\n\n_Really_ is the adverb form of the adjective _real_. You might have\nsaid:\n\n  I am really glad to know it.\n\nBut never use _real_ when you mean _very_ or _quite_ or _really_.\n\n+We use the adjective _some_ many times when we should use the adverb\n_somewhat_.+ For example, we say:\n\n  I am some anxious to hear from him.\n  I was some tired after my trip.\n\nWhat we intended to say was:\n\n  I am somewhat anxious to hear from him.\n  I was somewhat tired after my trip.\n\n+Do not use _what for_ when you mean _why_.+ Do not say:\n\n  What did you do that for?\n\nOr worse still,\n\n  What for did you do that?\n\nSay:\n\n  Why did you do that?\n\n+Do not use _worse_ in place of _more_.+ Do not say:\n\n  I want to go worse than I ever did.\n\nSay:\n\n  I want to go _more_ than I ever did.\n\n+Observe the distinction between the words _further_ and _farther_.+\nFarther always refers to distance, or extent. For example:\n\n  He could go no farther that day.\n  We will go farther into the matter some other time.\n\nFurther means more. For example:\n\n  He would say nothing further in regard to the subject.\n\n+Never use _good_ as an adverb+. _Good_ is always an adjective. _Well_\nis the adverb form. _Good_ and _well_ are compared in the same way,\n_good_, _better_, _best_, and _well_, _better_, _best_. So _better_ and\n_best_ can be used either as adjectives or adverbs; but _good_ is always\nan adjective. Do not say, _He talks good_. Say, _He talks well_. Note\nthat _ill_ is both an adjective and an adverb and that _illy_ is always\nincorrect.\n\n\n                    Exercise 3\n\nCorrect the adverbs in the following sentences. All but two of these\nsentences are wrong.\n\n  1. Come quick, I need you.\n  2. The boy feels badly.\n  3. Give me that there pencil.\n  4. I am some hungry.\n  5. The people learn slow.\n  6. He never stopped for nothing.\n  7. What did you say that for?\n  8. This here machine won't run.\n  9. I make a mistake most every time.\n  10. Watch careful every word.\n  11. The man works good.\n  12. The tone sounds harsh.\n  13. I don't want no dinner.\n  14. I hope it comes real soon.\n  15. I want to learn worse than ever.\n  16. She looked lovely.\n  17. She smiled sweet.\n  18. He sees good for one so old.\n  19. She answered correct.\n  20. He won't say nothing about it.\n  21. I will be real glad to see you.\n  22. That tastes sweetly.\n  23. The man acted too hasty.\n  24. We had most reached home.\n  25. They ride too rapid.\n\n\n                    DO NOT USE TOO MANY ADVERBS\n\n+298.+ Like adjectives it is better to use adverbs sparingly. This is\nespecially true of the adverbs used to intensify our meaning. Do not use\nthe adverbs, _very_, _awfully_, etc., with every other word. It makes\nour speech sound like that of a gushing school girl, to whom everything\nis _very, awfully sweet_. More than that, it does not leave us any words\nto use when we really want to be intense in speech. Save these words\nuntil the right occasion comes to use them.\n\n\n                    Exercise 4\n\nAdverbs should always be placed where there can be no doubt as to what\nthey are intended to modify. A mistake in placing the adverb in the\nsentence often alters the meaning of the sentence. Choose the right word\nin each of the following sentences:\n\n  1. He looked glad--gladly when I told him the news.\n  2. Slaves have always been treated harsh--harshly.\n  3. I prefer my eggs boiled soft--softly.\n  4. The lecturer was tolerable--tolerably well informed.\n  5. Speak slower--more slowly so I can understand you.\n  6. The evening bells sound sweet--sweetly.\n  7. The house appears comfortable--comfortably and\n     pleasant--pleasantly.\n  8. If you will come quick--quickly you can hear the music.\n  9. I was exceeding--exceedingly glad to hear from you.\n  10. The bashful young man appeared very awkward--awkwardly.\n  11. The young lady looked beautiful--beautifully and she sang\n      beautiful--beautifully.\n  12. I looked quick--quickly in the direction of the sound.\n  13. The sun is shining bright--brightly today and the grass looks\n      green--greenly.\n\n\n\n\n                    SPELLING\n\n                    LESSON 17\n\n\nIn our study of adjectives we have found that we use them to express\nsome quality possessed by a noun or pronoun which they modify. You will\nrecall when we studied nouns, we had one class of nouns, called abstract\nnouns, which were the names of qualities. So we find that from these\nadjectives expressing quality we form nouns which we use as the name of\nthat quality.\n\nFor example from the adjective _happy_, we form the noun _happiness_,\nwhich is the name of the quality described by the adjective _happy_, by\nthe addition of the suffix _ness_. We use this suffix _ness_ quite often\nin forming these derivative nouns from adjectives but there are other\nsuffixes also which we use; as for example, the suffix _ty_ as in\n_security_, formed from the adjective _secure_, changing the _e_ to _i_\nand adding the suffix _ty_. When the word ends in _t_ we sometimes add\nonly _y_ as in _honesty_, derived from the adjective _honest_.\n\nYou remember that an abstract noun may express not only quality but also\naction, considered apart from the actor; so abstract nouns may be made\nfrom verbs. For example:\n\n_Running_, from the verb _run_; _settlement_, from the verb _settle_.\n\nIn our lesson for this week the list for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday\ncontains adjectives of quality from which abstract nouns expressing\nquality can be made, by the addition of the proper suffix, either\n_ness_, _y_, _ty_ or _tion_. The list for Thursday, Friday and Saturday\nconsists of verbs from which abstract nouns can be made by the addition\nof the suffixes _ment_ and _ing_.\n\nMake from each adjective and verb in this week's lesson an abstract noun\nby the addition of the proper suffix. Be able to distinguish between the\nuse of the qualifying adjective and the noun expressing quality.\n\n  +Monday+\n\n    Stately\n    Forgetful\n    Real\n    Concise\n    Noble\n\n  +Tuesday+\n\n    Slender\n    Empty\n    Equal\n    Righteous\n    Deliberate\n\n  +Wednesday+\n\n    Submissive\n    Dreadful\n    Eager\n    Sincere\n    Resolute\n\n  +Thursday+\n    Enlist\n    Defile\n    Adorn\n    Nourish\n    Commence\n\n  +Friday+\n\n    Content\n    Adjust\n    Induce\n    Indict\n    Adjourn\n\n  +Saturday+\n\n    Discourage\n    Refine\n    Acquire\n    Enrich\n    Infringe\n\n\n\n\n                    PLAIN ENGLISH\n\n                    LESSON 18\n\n\nDear Comrade:\n\nLast week we finished the study of adverbs and we found that they were a\nvery important part of our vocabulary, and that most of us needed a\ngreater supply than we at present possess. This is true of both adverbs\nand adjectives. While we do not use as many adverbs as adjectives in our\nordinary speech, nevertheless, adverbs are a very important factor in\nexpression. A great many adjectives can be readily turned into adverbs.\nThey are adjectives when they are used to describe a noun, but by the\naddition of a suffix, they become adverbs used to describe the action\nexpressed by the verb. So in adding to our stock of adjectives we also\nadd adverbs to our vocabulary as well.\n\nWatch your speech this week and make a list of the adverbs which you use\nmost commonly, then go to your dictionary and see if you cannot find\nsynonyms for these adverbs. Try using these synonyms for awhile and give\nthe adverbs which you have been using for so long, a well earned rest.\nRemember that our vocabulary, and the power to use it, is like our\nmuscles, it can only grow and develop by exercise.\n\nThe best exercise which you can possibly find for this purpose is\nconversation. We spend much more time in talking than in reading or in\nwriting. Conversation is an inexpensive pleasure and it does not even\nrequire leisure always, for we can talk as we work; yet our conversation\ncan become a great source of inspiration and of influence as well as a\npleasant pastime. But do not spend your time in vapid and unprofitable\nconversation. Surely there is some one in the list of your acquaintances\nwho would like to talk of things worth while. Hunt up this some one and\nspend some portion of your day in profitable conversation.\n\nRemember also that a limited vocabulary means also a limited mental\ndevelopment. Did you ever stop to think that when we think clearly we\nthink in words? Our thinking capacity is limited, unless we have the\nwords to follow our ideas out to their logical conclusions.\n\nThis matter of vocabulary is a matter, too, that is exceedingly\npractical. It means success or failure to us in the work which we would\nlike to do in the world. A command of words means added power and\nefficiency; it means the power to control, or at least affect, our\nenvironment; it means the power over men and things; it means the\ndifference between being people of ability and influence and being\nobscure, inefficient members of society.\n\nSo feel when you are spending your time in increasing your vocabulary\nthat you are not only adding to your enjoyment of life but that you are\ndoing yourself the best practical turn; you are increasing your\nefficiency in putting yourself in a position where you can make your\ninfluence felt upon the people and circumstances about you. This effort\nupon your part will bear practical fruit in your every day life.\n\n                    Yours for Education,\n\n                              THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.\n\n\n                    A GROUP OF WORDS\n\n+299.+ We have studied about the independent parts of speech, that is,\nthe nouns and pronouns and verbs. These are independent because with\nthem we can form sentences without the help of other words. And these\nare the only three parts of speech which are so independent--with which\nwe can form complete sentences. Then we have studied also the words that\nmodify,--that is, the words that are used with nouns and pronouns and\nverbs to describe and explain more fully the ideas which they express.\nSo we have studied adjectives, which modify nouns and pronouns; and\nadverbs, which modify verbs or adjectives or other adverbs.\n\n+300.+ The adjectives and adverbs which we have studied thus far are\nsingle words; but we find that we may use little groups of words in\nabout the same way, to express the same idea which we have expressed in\nthe single adjective or adverb. For example, we may say:\n\n  Strong men, _or_, men of strength.\n  City men, _or_, men from the city.\n  Jobless men, _or_, men without jobs.\n  Moneyed men, _or_, men with money.\n\nThese groups of words like, _of strength_, _from the city_, _without\njobs_, and _with money_, express the same ideas that are expressed in\nthe single adjectives, _strong_, _city_, _jobless_ and _moneyed_.\n\nYou recall that we defined any group of words used as a single word as a\n_phrase_; so these groups of words are phrases which are used as\nadjectives. The phrase, _of strength_, modifies the noun _men_, just as\nthe adjective _strong_ modifies the noun _men_. So we may call these\nphrases which modify nouns, or which may be used to modify pronouns\nalso, _adjective phrases_, for they are groups of words used as\nadjectives.\n\n\n                    Exercise 1\n\nChange the adjectives which are printed in italics in the following\nsentences into phrases:\n\n  1. _Strong_ men know no fear.\n  2. She bought a _Turkish_ rug.\n  3. He followed the _river_ bed.\n  4. _Fashionable_ women are parasites.\n  5. He left on his _homeward_ journey.\n  6. _Sensible_ men readily understand their economic slavery.\n  7. _Intelligent_ people will not always submit to robbery.\n  8. _Senseless_ arguments cannot convince us of the truth.\n\n\n                    USED AS ADVERBS\n\n+301.+ These phrases may be used in the place of single adverbs also.\nYou remember an adverb is a word that modifies a verb or an adjective or\nanother adverb. Let us see if we can not use a phrase or a group of\nwords in the place of a single adverb. For example:\n\n  The man works rapidly, or, The man works with rapidity.\n  The man works now, or, The man works at this time.\n  The man works here, or, The man works at this place.\n\nIn these sentences _rapidly_, _now_ and _here_ are single adverbs\nmodifying the verb _work_. The phrases, _with rapidity_, _at this time_,\nand _at this place_, express practically the same ideas, conveyed by the\nsingle adverbs, _rapidly_, _now_ and _here_. These phrases modify the\nverb in exactly the same manner as the single adverbs. Therefore we call\nthese groups of words used as single adverbs, _adverb phrases_.\n\nWe also use adverbs to modify adjectives. Let us see if we can use\nadverb phrases in the same way:\n\n  Rockefeller is _excessively_ rich; or, Rockefeller is rich _to\n  excess_.\n  He is _bodily_ perfect, but _mentally_ weak; or, He is perfect _in\n  body_ but weak _in mind_.\n\nIn the sentences above, the adverb _excessively_ modifies the adjective\n_rich_; the same meaning is expressed in the adverb phrase, _to excess_.\nIn the sentence, _He is bodily perfect, but mentally weak_, the adverb\n_bodily_ modifies the adjective _perfect_ and the adverb _mentally_\nmodifies the adjective _weak_. In the last sentence, the same meaning is\nexpressed by the adverb phrases, _in body_ and _in mind_. These phrases\nmodify the adjectives _perfect_ and _weak_, just as do the single\nadverbs _bodily_ and _mentally_.\n\n+302.+ We can use a phrase in the place of almost any adverb or\nadjective. It very often happens, however, that there is no adjective or\nadverb which we can use to exactly express our meaning and we are forced\nto use a phrase. For example:\n\n  He bought the large house _by the river_.\n  The man _on the train_ is going _to the city_.\n  He came _from the country_.\n\nIt is impossible to find single words that express the meaning of these\nphrases, _by the river_, _on the train_, _to the city_, and _from the\ncountry_. You could not say the _river house_; that is not what you\nmean. You mean the large house _by the river_, yet the phrase _by the\nriver_ modifies and describes the house quite as much as the adjective\n_large_. It is an adjective phrase used to modify the noun _house_, yet\nit would be impossible to express its meaning in a single word.\n\n\n                    Exercise 2\n\nWhich phrases in the following sentences are used as adjectives and\nwhich phrases are used as adverbs?\n\nChange these phrases to adjectives or adverbs, if you can think of any\nthat express the same meaning.\n\n  1. Men lived _in caves_ long ago.\n  2. Man's discovery _of fire_ was the beginning _of industry_.\n  3. _After this discovery_, men lived _in groups_.\n  4. The work _of the world_ is done _by machinery_.\n  5. The workers _of Europe_ were betrayed.\n  6. They are fighting _for their country_.\n  7. The struggle _for markets_ is the cause _of war_.\n  8. The history _of the world_ records the struggle _of the workers_.\n  9. The idea _of democracy_ is equal opportunity _for all_.\n  10. The invention _of the printing press_ placed knowledge _within the\n      reach_ _of the masses_.\n  11. If you will study _with diligence_ you can learn _with ease_.\n  12. This knowledge will be _of great value_ _to you_.\n  13. Diplomacy means that the plans _of nations_ are made _in secret_.\n  14. The men _in the factory_ are all paid _by the month_.\n  15. They are afraid to take a trip _through Europe_ _at this time_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 3\n\nUse a phrase instead of the adjective or adverb in the following\nsentences:\n\n  1. The men in the trenches are fighting _bravely_.\n  2. An _uneducated_ man is _easily_ exploited.\n  3. Our _educational_ system is inadequate.\n  4. The _skilled_ workers must be organized.\n  5. _Careless_ men endanger the lives of others.\n  6. The plans have been _carefully_ laid.\n  7. _Ambitious_ men often trample on the rights of others.\n  8. Shall our education be controlled by _wealthy_ men?\n  9. We want to live _courageously_.\n  10. We want to face the future _fearlessly_.\n  11. We want to possess _peacefully_ the fruits of our labor.\n  12. By constant practice we can learn to speak _effectively_.\n  13. This book will be a _valuable_ addition to your library.\n  14. The number of _unemployed_ men _constantly_ increases.\n  15. The men mastered each step _thoroughly_ as they proceeded.\n  16. In order to express one's self _eloquently_ it is necessary to\n      think _clearly_.\n  17. We must consecrate ourselves _completely_ to the cause of\n      humanity.\n  18. A _kind_ act is its own reward.\n  19. _Experienced_ workers can _more easily_ secure positions.\n  20. He spoke _thoughtlessly_ but the people listened _eagerly_.\n  21. The soldier was rewarded for his _heroic_ deed.\n  22. He is an _honorable_ man and I am not surprised at this _brave_\n      act.\n  23. A _prudent_ man should be chosen to fill that _important_ office.\n\n\n                    PREPOSITIONS\n\n+303.+ Have you noticed that all of these phrases, which we have been\nstudying and using as adjectives and adverbs, begin with a little word\nlike _of_, _with_, _from_, _in_, _at_ or _by_, which connects the phrase\nwith the word it modifies? We could scarcely express our meaning without\nthese little words. They are connecting words and fill an important\nfunction. These words usually come first in the phrase. For this reason,\nthey are called _prepositions_, which means _to place before_.\n\nLet us see what a useful place these little words fill in our language.\nSuppose we were watching the play of some boys outside our windows and\nwere reporting their hiding place. We might say:\n\n  The boys are hiding _in_ the bushes.\n  The boys are hiding _among_ the bushes.\n  The boys are hiding _under_ the bushes.\n  The boys are hiding _behind_ the bushes.\n  The boys are hiding _beyond_ the bushes.\n\nThese sentences are all alike except the prepositions _in_, _among_,\n_under_, _behind_ and _beyond_. If you read the sentences and leave out\nthese prepositions entirely, you will see that nobody could possibly\ntell what connection the _bushes_ had with the rest of the sentence. The\nprepositions are necessary to express the relation of the word _bushes_\nto the rest of the sentence.\n\nBut this is not all. You can readily see that the use of a different\npreposition changes the meaning of the sentence. It means quite a\ndifferent thing to say, _The boys are hiding in the bushes_, and to say,\n_The boys are hiding beyond the bushes_. So the preposition has a great\ndeal to do with the true expression of our ideas.\n\nThe noun _bushes_ is used as the object of the preposition, and the\npreposition shows the relation of its object to the word which it\nmodifies. You remember that nouns have the same form whether they are\nused as subject or as object, but if you are using a pronoun after a\npreposition, always use the object form of the pronoun. For example:\n\n  I bought the book from _him_.\n  I took the message to _them_.\n  I found the place for _her_.\n\nIn these sentences the pronouns, _him_, _them_, and _her_ are used as\nobjects of the prepositions _from_, _to_ and _for_. So we have used the\nobject forms of these pronouns.\n\n+304+. The noun or pronoun that follows the preposition, and is used\nwith it to make a phrase, is the object of the preposition. The\npreposition is used to show the relation that exists between its object\nand the word the object modifies. In the sentence above, _The boys are\nhiding in the bushes_, the preposition _in_ shows the relationship\nbetween the verb phrase, _are hiding_ and the object of the preposition,\n_bushes_.\n\nThe noun or pronoun which is the object of a preposition may also have\nits modifiers. In the sentences used about the noun _bush_, which is the\nobject of the prepositions used, is modified by the adjective _the_.\nOther modifiers might also be added, as for example:\n\n  The boys are hiding in the tall, thick bushes.\n\nThe entire phrase, _in the tall, thick bushes_, is made up of the\npreposition _in_, its object _bushes_ and the modifiers of bushes,\n_the_, _tall_ and _thick_.\n\n+305+. The preposition, with its object and the modifiers of the object,\nforms a phrase which we call a _prepositional phrase_. These\nprepositional phrases may be used either as adjectives or as adverbs, so\nwe have our definitions:\n\n+A preposition is a word that shows the relation of its object to some\nother word.+\n\n+A phrase is a group of words used as a single word.+\n\n+A prepositional phrase is a phrase composed of a preposition and its\nobject and modifiers.+\n\n+An adjective phrase is a prepositional phrase used as an adjective.+\n\n+An adverb phrase is a prepositional phrase used as an adverb.+\n\n+306.+ Here is a list of the most common and most important\nprepositions. Use each one in a sentence:\n\n  above\n  about\n  across\n  after\n  against\n  along\n  around\n  among\n  at\n  before\n  behind\n  below\n  beneath\n  beside\n  between\n  beyond\n  by\n  down\n  for\n  from\n  in\n  into\n  of\n  off\n  on\n  over\n  to\n  toward\n  through\n  up\n  upon\n  under\n  with\n  within\n  without\n\n\n                    ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS\n\n+307.+ Many of the words that are used as prepositions are used also as\nadverbs. It may be a little confusing to tell whether the word is an\nadverb or a preposition, but if you will remember this simple rule you\nwill have no trouble:\n\n+A preposition is always followed by either a noun or a pronoun as its\nobject, while an adverb never has an object.+\n\nSo when you find a word, that can be used either as a preposition or an\nadverb, used alone in a sentence without an object, it is an adverb; but\nif it is followed by an object, then it is a preposition. This brings\nagain to our minds the fundamental rule which we have laid down, that\nevery word is classified according to the work which it does in a\nsentence. The work of a preposition is to show the relation between its\nobject and the word which that object modifies. So whenever a word is\nused in this way it is a preposition. For example: _He went about his\nbusiness_.\n\nHere, _about_ is a preposition and _business_ is its object. But in the\nsentence, _He is able to be about_, _about_ is used as an adverb. It has\nno object.\n\n_He sailed before the mast._ Here, _before_ is a preposition introducing\nthe phrase _before the mast_, which modifies the verb _sailed_. But in\nthe sentence, _I told you that before_, _before_ is an adverb modifying\nthe verb _told_.\n\nBy applying this rule you can always readily determine whether the word\nin question is an adverb or a preposition.\n\n\n                    Exercise 4\n\nTell whether the words printed in italics in the following sentences,\nare prepositions or adverbs and the reason why:\n\n  1. He came _across_ the street.\n  2. He is _without_ work.\n  3. Come _in_.\n  4. He lives _near_.\n  5. He brought it _for_ me.\n  6. I cannot get _across_.\n  7. We will go _outside_.\n  8. This is _between_ you and me.\n  9. He can go _without_.\n  10. Stay _in_ the house.\n  11. Do not come _near_ me.\n  12. They all went _aboard_ at six o'clock.\n  13. He enlisted _in_ the navy and sailed _before_ the mast.\n  14. I do not know what lies _beyond_.\n  15. I will soon be _through_.\n  16. The aeroplane flew _above_ the city for hours.\n\n\n                    PHRASE PREPOSITIONS\n\n+308.+ Sometimes we have a preposition made up of several words which we\nhave used so commonly together that they are used as a single word and\nwe call the entire phrase a preposition. As, for example: _According\nto_--_on account of_--_by means of_, etc.\n\n  1. He answered _according to_ the rule.\n  2. I could not go _on account of_ illness.\n  3. He won the election _by means of_ fraud.\n  4. The strike was won _by help of_ all the comrades.\n  5. You can learn to spell only _by dint of_ memory.\n  6. We speak incorrectly _by force of_ habit.\n  7. He went to New York _by way of_ Chicago.\n  8. Ferrer died _for the sake of_ his ideals.\n  9. _In consideration of_ this payment, we will send you the set of\n     books.\n  10. Germany issued her ultimatum _in defiance of_ the world.\n  11. _In view of_ all the facts, we are convinced of his innocence.\n  12. He will gladly suffer _in place of_ his comrade.\n  13. _In conformity with_ the information contained in your letter,\n      I will join you on the 10th.\n\n\n                    Exercise 5\n\nMark the prepositions in the following quotation. In the first three\nparagraphs the prepositional phrases are printed in italics. Determine\nwhether they are used as adjective phrases or as adverb phrases.\nUnderscore the prepositional phrases in the remainder of the quotation\nand determine which word is used as the object of the preposition.\n\n\n          THE SUNLIGHT LAY ACROSS MY BED\n\n_In the dark_ one night I lay _upon my bed_. And _in the dark_ I dreamed\na dream. I dreamed God took my soul _to Hell_.\n\nAnd we came where hell opened _into a plain_, and a great house stood\nthere. Marble pillars upheld the roof, and white marble steps led up _to\nit_. The wind _of heaven_ blew _through it_. Only _at the back_ hung a\nthick curtain. Fair men and women there feasted _at long tables_. They\ndanced, and I saw the robes _of women_ flutter _in the air_ and heard\nthe laugh _of strong men_. They feasted _with wine_; they drew it _from\nlarge jars_ which stood somewhat _in the background_, and I saw the wine\nsparkle as they drew it.\n\nAnd I said _to God_, \"I should like to go up and drink.\" And God said,\n\"Wait.\" And I saw men coming _into the banquet house_; they came in\n_from the back_ and lifted the corner _of the curtain_ _at the sides_\nand crept in quickly; and they let the curtain fall _behind them_; they\nbore great jars they could hardly carry. And the men and women crowded\n_round them_, and the newcomers opened their jars and gave them _of the\nwine_ to drink; and I saw that the women drank even more greedily than\nthe men. And when others had well drunken they set the jars _among the\nold ones_ _beside the wall_, and took their places _at the table_. And I\nsaw that some _of the jars_ were very old and mildewed and dusty, but\nothers had still drops _of new must_ _on them_ and shone _from the\nfurnace_.\n\nAnd I said to God, \"What is that?\" For amid the sounds of the singing,\nand over the dancing of feet, and over the laughing across the winecups,\nI heard a cry.\n\nAnd God said, \"Stand away off.\"\n\nAnd He took me where I saw both sides of the curtain. Behind the house\nwas a wine-press where the wine was made. I saw the grapes crushed, and\nI heard them cry. I said, \"Do not they on the other side hear it?\"\n\nGod said, \"The curtain is thick; they are feasting.\"\n\nAnd I said, \"But the men who came in last. They saw?\"\n\nGod said, \"They let the curtain fall behind them--and they forgot!\"\n\nI said, \"How came they by their jars of wine?\"\n\nGod said, \"In the treading of the press these are they who came to the\ntop; they have climbed out over the edge and filled their jars from\nbelow; and have gone into the house.\"\n\nAnd I said, \"And if they had fallen as they climbed--?\"\n\nGod said, \"They had been wine.\"\n\nI stood away off watching in the sunshine, and I shivered.\n\nAnd after a while I looked, and I saw the curtain that hung behind the\nhouse moving.\n\nI said to God, \"Is it a wind?\"\n\nGod said, \"A wind.\"\n\nAnd it seemed to me that against the curtain I saw pressed the forms of\nmen and women. And after a while, the feasters saw it move, and they\nwhispered one to another. Then some rose and gathered the most worn-out\ncups, and into them they put what was left at the bottom of other\nvessels. Mothers whispered to their children, \"Do not drink all, save a\nlittle drop when you have drunk.\" And when they had collected all the\ndregs they slipped the cups out under the bottom of the curtain without\nlifting it. After a while the curtain left off moving.\n\nI said to God, \"How is it so quiet?\"\n\nHe said, \"They have gone away to drink it.\"\n\nI said, \"They drink it--their own!\"\n\nGod said, \"It comes from this side of the curtain, and they are very\nthirsty.\"\n\nAnd still the feast went on.\n\nMen and women sat at the tables quaffing great bowls. Some rose, and\nthrew their arms about each other and danced and sang. They pledged each\nother in the wine, and kissed each other's blood-red lips.\n\nMen drank till they could drink no longer, and laid their heads upon the\ntable, sleeping heavily. Women who could dance no more leaned back on\nthe benches with their heads against their lovers' shoulders. Little\nchildren, sick with wine, lay down upon the edge of their mothers'\nrobes.\n\nI said, \"I cannot see more, I am afraid of Hell. When I see men dancing\nI hear the time beaten in with sobs; and their wine is living! Oh, I\ncannot bear Hell!\"\n\nGod said, \"Where will you go?\"\n\nI said, \"To the earth from which I came; it was better there.\"\n\nAnd God laughed at me; and I wondered why He laughed.\n\n                                        --_Olive Schreiner_.\n\n\n\n\n                    SPELLING\n\n                    LESSON 18\n\n\nThere are a number of words that are ordinarily followed by a\npreposition with its phrase. We make a great many mistakes in the use of\nthe proper preposition with these words. Our spelling lesson this week\ncovers a number of these words with examples illustrating the\nappropriate preposition to be used with each word. Learn to spell these\nwords, look up their meaning in the dictionary and use each word with\nits proper preposition in sentences of your own construction.\n\n  +MONDAY+\n\n  +Abhorrence+, of; We have an abhorrence _of_ war.\n  +Abhorrent+, to; War is abhorrent _to_ us.\n  +Acquaint+, with; I will acquaint you _with_ the facts in the case.\n      You will then be acquainted _with_ the facts.\n  +Acquit+, of; The man was acquitted _of_ the charge.\n  +Adequate+, to; Our resources are not adequate _to_ the demand.\n\n  +TUESDAY+\n\n  +Angry+, with, at; We are angry _with_ persons and angry _at_ things.\n  +Astonished+, at or by; (Never with) I am astonished _at_ you, or\n      _by_ you, not _with_ you.\n  +Confer+; We confer _with_ people, _upon_ or _about_ matters.\n  +Contrary+; A thing is contrary _to_ our ideas, (not _from_ or\n      _than_).\n  +Controversy+; with, between, or about, (not over). I had a\n      controversy _with_ you. There is a controversy _between_ the two\n      _about_ the result.\n\n  +WEDNESDAY+\n\n  +Convicted+, of (not for). He was convicted _of_ the crime.\n  +Copy+; We copy _after_ people, _from_ things, and _out_ of books.\n  +Deprive+, of, (not from). We are deprived _of_ an education.\n  +Desire+, of and for; We may speak of the desire _of_ a man, meaning\n      man's desire; but we should always say \"He has a desire _for_\n      position, _for_ wealth,\" etc.\n  +Die+, of, for and from; A person dies _of_, not _from_, a disease. He\n      dies _from_ the effects of an injury. One person may die _with_\n      another, but never _with_ a disease, for the disease does not die.\n\n  +THURSDAY+\n\n  +Differ+, from, among, about, concerning, with; Persons or things\n      differ _from_ each other; that is, they are dissimilar in\n      appearance. Two persons may differ _with_ each other; that is,\n      contend or disagree. Several persons differ _among_ themselves\n      _about_ or _concerning_ some matter.\n  +Dissent+, from (not to). There was a general dissent _from_ that\n      idea.\n  +Guilty+, of (not for). He is guilty _of_ the crime.\n  +Incentive+, to (not for). It is a great incentive _to_ action.\n  +Receive+, from, (not of). Received _from_ John Smith, thirty dollars,\n      etc.\n\n  +FRIDAY+\n\n  +Infer+, from, (not by). I infer this _from_ your remarks, not _by_\n      your remarks.\n  +Introduce+; A man is introduced _to_ a woman, a speaker _to_ an\n      audience; _into_ society or _into_ new surroundings. We introduce\n      a bill _in_ Congress or a resolution _in_ a committee.\n  +Involved+, in (not with). We are involved _in_ difficulties.\n  +Listen+; We listen +for+ the expected news; we listen +to+ our\n      friends, not _at_.\n  +Married+; One person is married +to+ another, not +with+ another.\n\n  +SATURDAY+\n\n  +Matter+, with, (not of). What is the matter _with_ this?\n  +Opposition+, to (not against). There is opposition _to_ the motion.\n  +Part+, to part _from_, means to leave. I will part _from_ my friends.\n      To part _with_ means to give up. A fool soon parts _with_ his\n      money.\n  +Remedy+, for; We have a remedy _for_ the disease.\n  +Preventive+, against; We have a preventive _against_ disease.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n    It is easy to sit in the sunshine\n        And talk to the man in the shade;\n    It is easy to float in a well-trimmed boat,\n        And point out the places to wade.\n\n    But once we pass into the shadows\n        We murmur and fret and frown;\n    At our length from the bank, we shout for a plank,\n        Or throw up our hands and go down.\n\n    It is easy to sit in a carriage\n        And counsel the man on foot;\n    But get down and walk and you'll change your talk,\n        _As_ you feel the peg in your boot.\n\n    It is easy to tell the toiler\n        _How_ best he can carry his pack;\n    But not one can rate a burden's weight\n        _Until_ it has been on his back.\n\n    The up-curled mouth of pleasure\n        Can preach of sorrow's worth;\n    But give it a sip, and a wryer lip,\n        Was never made on earth.\n\n                    --_Ella Wheeler Wilcox_.\n\n\n\n\n                    PLAIN ENGLISH\n\n                    LESSON 19\n\n\nDear Comrade:\n\nIn this lesson we are completing our study of the preposition. The\npreposition is one of the last parts of speech which we take up for\nstudy and it is also one of the last parts of speech to be added to our\nvocabulary. The child does not use the preposition when it first begins\nto talk. It uses the names of things; words of action; words that\ndescribe objects and actions. It does not begin to use prepositions\nuntil it begins to relate ideas.\n\nThe relation of ideas means that we are thinking; combining ideas into\nthoughts. Then we begin to need prepositions, which are words of\nrelation, connecting words, expressing the relationship between ideas.\nThe measure of the fullness and richness of our lives is the measure of\nour understanding of the world about us, of the relationship existing\nbetween the different phases of that world and of our relationship to it\nall.\n\nSo words do not mean much to us until we can relate them to our own\nlives and our own experiences. When you look up a word in the\ndictionary, do not study the word alone; study also the thing for which\nit stands. A person with a good memory might acquire a vocabulary by\nsheer feat of memory; but what good would it do unless each word could\nbe related to practical experience? It is only in this way that words\nbecome _alive_ to us. We must have an idea, a concept and knowledge of\nthe thing for which the word stands.\n\nSo let us use our dictionary in this way. Do not be satisfied when you\nhave looked up a word simply to know how to spell and pronounce the word\nand understand somewhat of its meaning. Do not be satisfied until it has\nbecome a live word to you. Have a clear image and understanding of just\nwhat each word stands for. Use the words in sentences of your own. Use\nthem in your conversation. Make them a part of your every-day life.\n\nDo not pass over any of the words in the lesson without understanding\ntheir meaning. Study the poem _Abou Ben Adhem_ in this week's lesson.\nAfter you have read it over a number of times, close the book and\nrewrite the poem in prose in your own language. Then compare your\nversion with the poem. Note where you have used different expressions\nand decide which is the better, the words used in the poem or your own\nwords. Rewrite it several times until you have a well-written version of\nthis poem.\n\nExercises such as this will increase your vocabulary and quickly develop\nthe power of expression. No power can come in any department of life\nwithout effort having been expended in its acquisition. Our great\nwriters have been careful students. Robert Louis Stevenson says that he\nhas often spent a half a day searching for the particular word which he\nneeded to express precisely the idea in mind. Stevenson is a master of\nthe English and this power came to him by this sort of studious and\nearnest work.\n\n                    Yours for Education,\n\n                              THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.\n\n\n                    AN IMPORTANT WORD\n\n+309.+ Things are not always to be judged by their size. Sometimes the\nmost important things are very small and unimportant in appearance. A\ngreat machine is before you. You see its giant wheels, its huge levers.\nThese may seem to be the most important parts of the machine, but here\nand there throughout this great machine are little screws and bolts.\nThese bind the giant parts together. Without these connecting links, the\ngreat wheels and levers and revolving belts could not work together. Let\na little bolt slip out of its place in the mechanism, and the great\nwheels stop, the throbbing machinery comes to a standstill. No work is\npossible until this little bolt has been replaced.\n\nSo in our sentence building, the _preposition_ is the bolt that joins\nwords together. The importance of the preposition in a language\nincreases just in proportion as the nation learns to think more exactly\nand express itself more accurately.\n\nWe found in our last lesson that by changing a preposition we can change\nthe entire meaning of the sentence. A man's life may depend upon the use\nof a certain preposition. You may swear his life away by bearing\ntestimony to the fact whether you saw him _within_ the house, or\n_without_ the house; or _before_ dark, or _after_ dark.\n\n+310.+ The preposition is an important word in the sentence. We can use\nit to serve our purpose in various ways. We have found, for instance,\nthat we can use it:\n\n_First_, to change an adjective into an adjective phrase. As, for\nexample:\n\n  The _fearless_ man demands his rights.\n  The man _without fear_ demands his rights.\n\n_Second_, to change an adverb into an adverb phrase. As, for example:\n\n  We want to possess _peacefully_ the fruits of our labor.\n  We want to possess _in peace_ the fruits of our labor.\n\n_Third_, to express a meaning which we can express in no other way; as,\nfor example, _They are fighting for their country_. There is no single\nword which we can use to express the meaning which we express in the\nphrase, _for their country_.\n\n+311.+ So the preposition has given us a new means of expression, _the\nprepositional phrase_. We can, by its help, use a phrase in place of an\nadjective to modify a noun or a pronoun, and in place of an adverb to\nmodify a verb or an adjective. And we can also use the prepositional\nphrase to express relationship which we cannot express by a single\nadjective or adverb.\n\nIf I want to tell you that I see a bird in yonder tree, such an\nexpression would be impossible without that little preposition _in_. By\nthe use of various prepositions, I can express to you the relationship\nbetween the bird and the tree. I can tell you whether it is _under_ the\ntree, or _in_ the tree, or _over_ the tree, or flying _around_ the tree,\nor _near_ the tree. By the use of the various prepositions, I can\nexpress accurately the relationship that exists between the _bird_ and\nthe _tree_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 1\n\nLook up the list of prepositions in Section 306, on page 184. Use the\nfollowing pairs of words in sentences and use as many different\nprepositions as you can to express the different relationships which may\nbe expressed between these words. For example, take the two words, _man_\nand _house_. You may say:\n\n  The man went _around_ the house.\n  The man went _about_ the house.\n  The man went _over_ the house.\n  The man went _under_ the house.\n  The man went _without_ the house.\n  The man went _into_ the house.\n  The man went _by_ the house.\n  The man went _beyond_ the house.\n  The man went _to_ the house.\n\n  enemy       city\n  soldiers    cannon\n  man         machine\n  woman       factory\n  children    school\n  government  people\n\n\n                    A GOVERNING WORD\n\n+312.+ The preposition shows the relation between two words. In this way\nit enables us to use a noun or a pronoun as a modifying word. For\nexample, in the sentence given above, _I see the bird in the tree_, the\npreposition _in_ shows the relationship between _bird_ and _tree_, and\nmakes of _tree_ a modifying word. It expresses a different meaning than\nif we used the word _tree_ as an adjective. For we do not mean that we\nsee a tree bird, but a bird in a tree. So with the help of the\npreposition _in_, we have used _tree_ as a modifying word.\n\nBut the preposition _in_ also governs the form of the word that follows\nit. Since nouns have the same form whether they are used as subject or\nobject, this does not mean any change in the form of the nouns. But\npronouns have different forms for the subject and object, so when we use\na pronoun with a preposition, we must use the object form. There are\nseven object forms of the personal pronouns, and after a preposition,\nalways use one of these object forms.\n\n  He gave it to _me_.\n  Give it to _him_.\n  Give it to _her_.\n  Add this to _it_.\n  Bring it to _us_.\n  I will give it to _you_.\n  He gave it to _them_.\n\n+313.+ Be careful to always use the object form of the pronoun following\na preposition. Observe this also in the use of the relative and\ninterrogative pronoun \"who.\" The object form is \"whom.\" For example:\n\n  To whom will you go?\n  This is the man to whom I wrote.\n  For whom are you looking?\n  Where is the woman for whom you would make such a sacrifice?\n\n\n                    Where to Put the Preposition\n\n+314.+ The preposition generally precedes its object. This is the reason\nit was given its name, _preposition_, meaning _to place before_.\nSometimes, however, the preposition is separated from its object. This\nis often true when it is used with an interrogative or relative pronoun.\nWith these pronouns, the preposition is often thrown to the end of the\nsentence. For example:\n\n  This is the book about which I was speaking; _or_, This is the book\n  which I was speaking about.\n  To whom shall I give this letter; _or_, Who shall I give this\n  letter to?\n\nThe sentence, _To whom shall I give this letter_, is grammatically\ncorrect; but in ordinary usage we use the form, _Who shall I give this\nletter to?_\n\nWhile the rule calls for the object form of the relative pronoun after a\npreposition--so that the use of _to whom_ is grammatically correct--in\ncommon usage we use the subject form of the pronoun when it is used so\nfar away from the preposition which governs it. So we find this use\ncommon. For example, instead of saying, _For whom is this letter?_ we\nsay, _Who is this letter for?_\n\n+315.+ In poetry also, we often find the object coming before the\npreposition. For example:\n\n    \"The interlacing boughs between\n    Shadows dark and sunlight sheen,\n    Alternate, come and go.\"\n\n_Boughs_ is here the object of the preposition _between_, but in this\npoetic expression the object is placed before the preposition. Note also\nin the following:\n\n    \"The unseen mermaid's pearly song,\n    Comes bubbling up the weeds _among_.\"\n\n    \"Forever panting and forever young,\n    All breathing human passion far _beyond_.\"\n\n+316.+ After an interrogative adjective, the preposition is also often\nthrown to the end of the sentence. As, for example:\n\n  What men are the people talking _about_?\n  Which person did you write _to_?\n\nWith these few exceptions, however, the preposition usually precedes its\nobject, as:\n\n  We were astonished _at_ the news.\n  He arose _from_ his sleep.\n\n\n                    POSSESSIVE PHRASES\n\n+317.+ Review Lesson 4, in which we studied the possessive use of nouns.\nYou will recall that we make the possessive form of the nouns by the use\nof the apostrophe and _s_. But instead of using the possessive forms of\nthe name of inanimate things; that is, things without life, we generally\ndenote possession by the use of a phrase. Thus we would say, _The arm of\nthe chair_, instead of, _The chair's arm_; or, _The roof of the house_,\ninstead of, _The house's roof_.\n\n+318.+ We also use a possessive phrase when the use of a possessive form\nwould give an awkward construction. As, for example: _Jesus' sayings_.\nSo many hissing sounds are not pleasant to the ear and so, we say\ninstead, _The sayings of Jesus_.\n\n+319.+ We use a phrase also where both nouns are in the plural form. In\nmany words, there is no difference in the sound between a single noun in\nthe possessive form and a plural noun in the possessive form. We can\nreadily tell the meaning when it is written, because the place of the\napostrophe indicates the meaning, but when it is spoken the sound is\nexactly the same. As, for example:\n\n  The lady's hats.\n  The ladies' hats.\n\nWritten out in this way, you know that in the first instance I am\nspeaking of the hats belonging to one lady, but in the second instance\nof the hats belonging to two or more ladies. But when it is spoken, you\ncan not tell whether I mean one lady or a number of ladies. So we use a\nphrase and say, _The hats of the lady_; or, _The hats of the ladies_.\nThen the meaning is entirely clear.\n\n+320.+ Sometimes we want to use two possessives together, and in this\ncase it is better to change one of them into a phrase; for example,\n_This is my comrade's father's book_. This is an awkward construction.\nSay instead, _This is the book belonging to my comrade's father_.\n\n+321.+ Do not overlook the fact, however, that the phrase beginning with\n_of_ does not always mean possession. Consider the following examples\nand see if there is not a difference in meaning:\n\n  The history of Wilson is interesting.\n  Wilson's history is interesting.\n\nIn the first instance, I mean the history of Wilson's life is\ninteresting; in the second instance I mean the history belongs to or\nwritten by Wilson is interesting. So there is quite a difference in the\nmeaning. The phrase _of Wilson_ used in the first example does not\nindicate possession.\n\nNote the difference in meaning between the following sentences:\n\n  The picture of Millet is good.\n  Millet's picture is good.\n\n  The statue of Rodin stands in the park.\n  Rodin's statue stands in the park.\n\nWould you say:\n\n  The invention of gunpowder, or gunpowder's invention?\n  The destruction of Louvain, or Louvain's destruction?\n  The siege of Antwerp, or Antwerp's siege?\n  The boat's keel, or the keel of the boat?\n\n\n                    COMMON ERRORS\n\n+322.+ Prepositions are usually very small and seemingly unimportant\nwords, yet we make a great many mistakes in their use. It is these\nlittle mistakes that are most difficult to avoid.\n\nNotice carefully in your own speech this week, and in the conversation\nwhich you overhear, the use of the prepositions. Notice especially the\nfollowing cautions:\n\n+1. Do not use prepositions needlessly.+ We often throw a preposition in\nat the close of a sentence which we have already used in the sentence,\nand which we should not use again. The little preposition _at_ is most\nfrequently used in this way. See how many times this week you hear\npeople use such phrases as:\n\n  At which store do you trade at?\n  At what corner did you stop at?\n\nThe last _at_ is entirely unnecessary. It has already been used once and\nthat is enough. We also use _at_ and _to_ at the close of sentences\nbeginning with an interrogative adverb, where they are not necessary.\nFor example, we say:\n\n  Where did you go to?\n  Where did you stop at?\n  Where am I at?\n\nThe correct form of these sentences is:\n\n  Where did you go?\n  Where did you stop?\n  Where am I?\n\nDo not use _at_ and _to_ in this way, they are entirely superfluous and\ngive a most disagreeable sound to the sentence. Do not close a sentence\nwith a preposition in this way.\n\n+2. Do not omit the preposition where it properly belongs.+ For example,\nwe often say:\n\n  The idea is no use to me.\n\nWe should say, _The idea is of no use to me_.\n\n  I was home yesterday.\n\nWe should say, _I was at home_ yesterday.\n\n+3. Do not use the preposition _of_ with a verb that requires an\nobject.+ The noun cannot be the object of both the verb and the\npreposition. As, for example:\n\n  He does not remember _of_ seeing you.\n  Do you approve _of_ his action?\n\n_Remember_ and _approve_ are both incomplete verbs requiring an object,\nand the nouns _seeing_ and _action_ are the objects of the incomplete\nverbs _remember_ and _approve_. The preposition _of_ is entirely\nsuperfluous. The sentences should read:\n\n  He does not remember seeing you.\n  Do you approve his action?\n\nOther verbs with which we commonly use the preposition _of_ in this way\nare the verbs _accept_ and _recollect_. As, for example:\n\n  Will you accept _of_ this kindness?\n  Will you try to recollect _of_ it?\n\nThese sentences should read:\n\n  Will you accept this kindness?\n  Will you try to recollect it?\n\n\n                    The Correct Preposition\n\n+323.+ We make a great many mistakes also in the choice of\nprepositions. For example, the preposition _between_ refers to two\nobjects and should never be used when you are speaking of more than two,\nthus:\n\n  We settled the quarrel _between_ the two men.\n\nThis is correct, but it is incorrect to say:\n\n  We settled the quarrel _between_ the members of the Union.\n\nWe cannot settle a quarrel between a _dozen_ people. When there are more\nthan two, use the word _among_. We can perhaps attempt to settle a\nquarrel _among_ a dozen people. _Between_ refers to two objects, _among_\nrefers to more than two. For example:\n\n  Divide the work _between_ the two men.\n  Divide the work _among_ twenty men.\n\n+324.+ Do not confuse the use of _in_ and _into_. When entrance is\ndenoted use _into_. As, for example:\n\n  He came into the room.\n  He got into the auto.\n\nOften the use of _in_ will give an entirely different meaning to the\nsentence. For example:\n\n  He ran _in_ the water.\n  He ran _into_ the water.\n  The man acted as our guide _in_ the city.\n  The man acted as our guide _into_ the city.\n  The horse ran _in_ the pasture.\n  The horse ran _into_ the pasture.\n\n+325.+ Do not use _below_ and _under_ to mean _less_ or _fewer_ in\nregard to an amount or number. _Below_ and _under_ have reference to\nplace only. It is correct to say:\n\n  He went _under_ the bridge.\n  He came out _below_ the falls.\n\nBut it is incorrect to say:\n\n  The price is _below_ cost.\n  There were _under_ fifty present.\n\nSay instead:\n\n  The price is _less_ than cost.\n  There were _fewer_ than fifty present.\n\n+326.+ Do not misuse _over_ and _above_. These prepositions have\nreference only to _place_. They are incorrectly used to mean _more than_\nor _greater than_.\n\nIt is correct to say:\n\n  The boat anchored above the landing.\n  He flew over the city.\n\nIt is incorrect to say:\n\n  He bought above a hundred acres.\n  He lives over a mile from here.\n\nThese sentences should be:\n\n  He bought more than a hundred acres.\n  He lives more than a mile from here.\n\n\n                    THE PREPOSITION WITH VERBS\n\n+327.+ In our first lesson on prepositions, we had a list of verbs and\nthe correct preposition to use with these verbs. There are a few words\nwhich we use very commonly in which the meaning is slightly different\naccording to the preposition which we use in connection with the verb.\nForeigners especially who are learning the English language have great\ndifficulty with the prepositions. Here are a few of these common words:\n\n+Adapt.+ With _adapt_ we can use either the preposition _to_ or _for_.\nFor example; we adapt ourselves _to_ circumstances, that is, we\naccommodate or conform ourselves; but a thing can be adapted _for_ a\ncertain purpose.\n\n+Agree.+ We can use the prepositions _with_ and _to_ with the verb\n_agree_, but with different meanings. For example, we say, We agree\n_with_ you about a certain matter; and, We agree _to_ the proposal which\nyou make.\n\n+Ask.+ We ask a favor _of_ a person. We ask a friend _for_ a favor. We\nask _about_ some one or thing that we wish to hear about.\n\n+Charge.+ There are several prepositions we can use with the verb\n_charge_. Your grocer charges you _for_ the things that you buy. If you\nrun an account you are charged _with_ a certain amount. These things are\ncharged _to_ you; but in war the enemy charges _upon_ you.\n\n+Compare.+ One thing is compared _with_ another in quality, but it is\ncompared _to_ another when we are using the comparison for an\nillustration.\n\n+Complain.+ We make complaint _to_ the manager _of_ the things we do not\nlike.\n\n+Comply.+ We comply _with_ the request of another, but he does a thing\n_in_ compliance _with_ that request. Do not use the preposition _to_\nwith compliance.\n\n+Correspond.+ With correspond, we use either the preposition _with_ or\n_to_. For example, I may correspond _with_ you, meaning that I\ncommunicate with you by letter, but one thing corresponds _to_ another,\nmeaning that it is like the other.\n\n+Disgust.+ We are disgusted _with_ our friends sometimes _at_ the things\nwhich they do. We are disgusted _with_ people and _at_ things.\n\n+Reconcile.+ With reconcile, we use either the preposition _with_ or\n_to_. For example, I may become reconciled _with_ you; that is, I am\nrestored to friendship or favor after an estrangement. But we reconcile\none thing _to_ another; that is, we harmonize one thing with another.\n\n+Taste.+ We have a taste _for_ music, art or literature, but we enjoy\nthe taste _of_ good things to eat. When taste refers to one of the five\nsenses, use the preposition _of_, but when you use it to mean\nintellectual relish or enjoyment, use the preposition _for_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 2\n\nMark all of the prepositional phrases in the following poem:\n\n          THE ANGEL OF DISCONTENT\n\n    When the world was formed and the morning stars\n        Upon their paths were sent,\n    The loftiest-browed of the angels was made\n        The Angel of Discontent.\n\n    And he dwelt with man in the caves of the hills,\n        Where the crested serpents sting,\n    And the tiger tears and the she-wolf howls,\n        And he told of better things.\n\n    And he led them forth to the towered town,\n        And forth to the fields of corn,\n    And told of the ampler work ahead,\n        For which his race was born.\n\n    And he whispers to men of those hills he sees\n        In the blush of the misty west;\n    And they look to the heights of his lifted eye--\n        And they hate the name of rest.\n\n    In the light of that eye does the slave behold\n        A hope that is high and brave;\n    And the madness of war comes into his blood--\n        For he knows himself a slave.\n\n    The serfs of wrong by the light of that eye\n        March with victorious songs;\n    For the strength of the right comes into their hearts\n        When they behold their wrongs.\n\n    'Tis by the light of that lifted eye\n        That error's mists are rent;\n    A guide to the table-lands of Truth\n        Is the Angel of Discontent.\n\n    And still he looks with his lifted eye,\n        And his glance is far away,\n    On a light that shines on the glimmering hills\n        Of a diviner day.\n\n                    --_Sam Walter Foss_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 3\n\nMark all of the prepositions in the following poem. Write out the entire\nphrases and mark the word which is the object of the preposition. For\nexample, in the phrase in the second line; _from a rich dream_, _dream_\nis the object of the preposition _from_; and _a_ and _rich_ modify the\nnoun _dream_.\n\n    Abou Ben Adhem (may his tribe increase)\n    Awoke one night from a rich dream of peace,\n    And saw, within the moonlight of his room,\n    Making it rich, and like a lily in bloom,\n    An angel, writing in a book of gold.\n    Exceeding peace had made Ben Adhem bold,\n    And to the Presence in the room he said,\n    \"What writest thou?\" The Vision raised its head,\n    And, with a look made of all sweet accord,\n    Answered, \"The names of those who love the Lord.\"\n    \"And is mine one?\" said Abou. \"Nay, not so,\"\n    Replied the Angel. Abou spoke, more low,\n    But cheerily still; and said, \"I pray thee, then,\n    Write me as one that loves his fellow-men.\"\n    The angel wrote and vanished. The next night\n    It came again, with a great wakening light,\n    And showed the names whom love of God had blessed,\n    And lo! Ben Adhem's name led all the rest.\n\n                    --_Leigh Hunt_.\n\n\n\n\n                    SPELLING\n\n                    LESSON 19\n\n\nThere are a few prepositions which might really be called derivative\nprepositions.\n\n1. A few prepositions are formed from verbs. These are really participle\nprepositions, for they are the present participles of the verbs but have\ncome to be used like prepositions. These are such as _concerning_,\n_excepting_, _regarding_, _respecting_, _during_, _according_, etc.\nNearly all of these participle prepositions can be expressed by a\npreposition phrase, as for example, we can either say; I wrote\n_regarding_ these facts, or I wrote you _in regard to_ these facts. I\nmentioned them all _excepting_ the last, or, I mentioned them all _with\nthe exception of_ the last. I have gone _according_ to the directions,\nor, I have gone _in accord with_ the directions.\n\n2. Derivative prepositions are also formed by prefixing _a_ to other\nparts of speech, as _along_, _around_, _abroad_, etc. Strictly speaking\nthese might be called compound prepositions for the prefix _a_ is really\nfrom the preposition _on_.\n\n3. We have also compound prepositions formed:\n\nBy uniting two prepositions, as _into_, _within_, _throughout_, etc.\n\nBy uniting a preposition and some other part of speech, usually a noun\nor an adjective, as _beside_, _below_ and _beyond_.\n\nWe also have a number of compound verbs which are made by prefixing a\npreposition to a verb. Some of these compound words have quite a\ndifferent meaning from the meaning conveyed by the two words used\nseparately; as for example, the compound verb _withstand_, derived from\nthe preposition _with_ and the verb _stand_, has almost the opposite\nmeaning from _stand with_.\n\nOur spelling lesson this week includes a number of these compound verbs\nformed by the use of the verb and a preposition. Look up the meaning in\nthe dictionary. Use them in sentences in the compound form; then the two\nwords separately as a verb and a preposition and note the difference in\nthe meaning.\n\n  +Monday+\n\n    Upset\n    Withdraw\n    Outrun\n    Overlook\n    Understand\n\n  +Tuesday+\n\n    Oversee\n    Undergo\n    Outnumber\n    Withhold\n    Overcome\n\n  +Wednesday+\n\n    Overflow\n    Undertake\n    Overreach\n    Overthrow\n    Outshine\n\n  +Thursday+\n\n    Overhear\n    Withstand\n    Overgrow\n    Overhaul\n    Overrun\n\n  +Friday+\n\n    Concerning\n    Regarding\n    Respecting\n    According\n    Excepting\n\n  +Saturday+\n\n    Against\n    Throughout\n    Around\n    Between\n    Beneath\n\n\n\n\n                    PLAIN ENGLISH\n\n                    LESSON 20\n\n\nDear Comrade:\n\nWe are taking up in this lesson the study of the last important part of\nspeech. We have spent some little time on the study of these parts of\nspeech, but it has been time well spent. We cannot use good English and\nconstruct sentences that express our thoughts without an adequate\nknowledge of the words we use in sentence building. As soon as we finish\nthe study of the parts of speech, we will spend several weeks in\nsentence building. This will give us a review of these lessons in which\nwe have studied separate words.\n\nThe English language is one of the most interesting of all to study. It\nis the most truly international of all languages, for the English\nlanguage contains words from almost every language in the world. Did you\never stop to think that we could have internationalism in language as\nwell as in other things? We can be as narrowly patriotic concerning\nwords as concerning anything else.\n\nNations have been prone to consider all those who do not speak their\nlanguage as barbarians. Germany, perhaps, possesses as strong a\nnationalistic spirit as any country, and in Germany this spirit has\nfound expression in a society formed for the purpose of keeping all\nforeign words out of the German language. They have published handbooks\nof native words for almost every department of modern life. They insist\nthat the people use these words, instead of foreign importations. The\nGerman State takes great pride in the German language and considers it\nthe most perfect of any spoken today. The rulers of Germany believe that\nit is a part of their duty to the world to see that all other nations\nspeak the German language. In conquered Poland, only German is permitted\nto be taught in the schools or to be spoken as the language of commerce.\nThe patriots in language seem to believe that there is some connection\nbetween purity of language and purity of race.\n\nIn English, however, we have the beginnings of an international speech.\nOur civilization is derived from various sources. Here in America we are\ntruly the melting-pot of the nations, and this is mirrored forth in our\nlanguage which is, in a way, a melting-pot also, in which have been\nthrown words from every tongue. Those for whom nationalism is an\nimportant thing will probably cling to the idea of a pure unmixed\nlanguage, but to those of us to whom Internationalism is not an empty\nword, but a living ideal, an international language becomes also part of\nthe ideal.\n\nThere is a wealth of wonderful literature open to us once we have gained\na command of the English language. Pay especial attention to the\nquotations given in each lesson. These are quotations from the very best\nliterature. If there are any of them that arouse your interest and you\nwould like to read more from the same author, write us and we shall be\nglad to furnish you full information concerning further reading.\n\n                    Yours for Education,\n\n                              THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.\n\n\n                    CONJUNCTIONS\n\n+328.+ You remember that in Lesson 3, where we studied the parts of\nspeech, we found that we had another connective word besides the\npreposition,--the conjunction.\n\nA preposition connects two words and shows what one of them has to do\nwith the other. The conjunction plays a different part as a connective,\nfor it connects not only words but also phrases and clauses. Note the\nfollowing sentences:\n\n  Shall we be men _or_ machines?\n  We must struggle for ourselves _and_ for our children.\n  We pray for peace _but_ furnish ammunition for war.\n\nThe use of the conjunction saves a great deal of tiresome repetition,\nfor, by its use, where two subjects have the same predicate or two\npredicates have the same subject, we can combine it all into one\nsentence.\n\nYou will readily realize how important this part of speech is to us. If\nwe did not have conjunctions our speech would be cumbersome and we would\nhave to use a great many short sentences and a great deal of repetition.\nIf we wanted to make the same statement concerning a number of things,\nwithout conjunctions, we would have each time to repeat the entire\nstatement. Try to write a description of a scene and avoid the use of\nconjunctions and you will see what an important part these connective\nwords play in our power of expression.\n\nWithout the use of the conjunction, you would necessarily use a great\nmany short expressions and repeat the same words again and again, and\nyour description would be a jerky, tiresome, unsatisfactory piece of\nwriting.\n\n\n                    Exercise 1\n\nRewrite the following sentences, writing in separate sentences the\nclauses that are united by the conjunctions:\n\n\n  1. The birds are singing _and_ spring is here.\n  2. We talk of peace, _but_ war still rages.\n  3. The unemployed cannot find work _and_ they are dying of hunger.\n  4. We believed in war for defense _and_ every nation is now fighting\n     for defense.\n  5. We believe in education _and_ we are struggling for universal\n     education.\n  6. The old order is fast passing _and_ the new order is rapidly\n     appearing.\n  7. Profit is the keynote of the present, _but_ service shall be the\n     keynote of the future.\n  8. All children should be in school, _but_ thousands must earn their\n     bread.\n\nNote that these sentences are made up of two or more simple sentences\ncombined; and each of these simple sentences is called a clause, and\neach clause must contain a subject and a predicate.\n\n\n                    Exercise 2\n\nRewrite the following simple sentences, using conjunctions to avoid a\nrepetition of the same subject and predicate. Rewrite these into a\nparagraph, making as well written a paragraph as you possibly can:\n\n  One hundred years ago the workers fought for universal education.\n  As a result we have our public schools of today.\n  Our public schools have been our chief bulwark against oppression.\n  Our public schools are our chief bulwark against oppression.\n  Our public schools are our greatest safeguard for the protection of\n  such liberty as we enjoy.\n  Our public school system embodies a socialistic ideal.\n  Our public school system is the most democratic of our institutions.\n  There has been a subtle subversion of the ideal.\n  The public school system has been made to serve the master class.\n  We have spent millions to make the ideal a reality.\n  Have we realized the ideal?\n  Is there universal education?\n  Is there education for every child beneath the flag?\n  The grounds of our public schools have cost millions.\n  The buildings have cost millions.\n  The courses of study are many.\n  They are varied.\n  They are elaborate.\n  But the workers of the world do not enjoy this feast.\n  The children of the workers do not enjoy this feast.\n\n\n                    CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS\n\n+329.+ Conjunctions are divided into classes, as are other parts of\nspeech, according to the work which they do. Notice the following\nsentences and notice how the use of a different conjunction changes the\nmeaning of the sentence.\n\n  We are united _and_ we shall win.\n   _When_ we are united, we shall win.\n\nIn the first sentence the conjunction _and_ connects the two clauses,\n_we are united_ and _we shall win_. They are both independent clauses,\nneither is dependent upon the other, and both are of equal importance.\nBut by the use of the conjunction _when_, instead of the conjunction\n_and_, we have changed the meaning of the sentence. There is quite a\ndifference in saying, _We are united and we shall win_, and _When we are\nunited we shall win_.\n\nBy connecting these two statements with the conjunction _when_, we have\nmade of the clause, _we are united_, a dependent clause, it modifies the\nverb phrase _shall win_. It tells _when_ we shall win, just as much as\nif we had used an _adverb_ to modify the verb phrase, and had said, _We\nshall win tomorrow_, instead of, _We shall win when we are united_.\n\nSo in these two sentences we have two different kinds of conjunctions,\nthe conjunction _and_, which connects clauses of equal rank or order,\nand the conjunction _when_, which connects a dependent clause to the\nprincipal clause.\n\n+330.+ So the conjunctions like _and_ are called co-ordinate\nconjunctions. _Co-ordinate_ means literally of equal rank or order.\nConjunctions like _when_ are called sub-ordinate conjunctions.\n_Sub-ordinate_ means of inferior rank or order.\n\nSo we have our definitions:\n\n+331.+ +A conjunction is a word that connects words or phrases or\nclauses.+\n\n+A co-ordinate conjunction is one that joins words, phrases or clauses\nhaving the same rank.+\n\n+A subordinate conjunction is one that connects a dependent clause to\nthe principal clause.+\n\n\n                    CO-ORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS\n\n+332.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases or clauses of\nequal rank.+ The most commonly used co-ordinate conjunctions are; _and_,\n_but_, _or_, _nor_.\n\n+333.+ But there are a number of words which we often use as adverbs,\nwhich may also be used as co-ordinate conjunctions. These words are not\nalways conjunctions, for they are sometimes used as adverbs. When they\nare used as conjunctions they retain something of their adverbial\nmeaning; but still they are conjunctions, for they are used to show the\nconnection between two clauses of equal rank. Thus:\n\n  I am not in favor of the motion, _nevertheless_ I shall vote for it.\n  The deputies voted for the war appropriation, _notwithstanding_ they\n  had carried on an extensive anti-war propaganda.\n  I did not believe in the change, _however_ I did not oppose it.\n\n+334.+ The co-ordinate conjunctions which we use with this adverbial\nmeaning also, are; _therefore_, _hence_, _still_, _besides_,\n_consequently_, _yet_, _likewise_, _moreover_, _else_, _than_, _also_,\n_accordingly_, _nevertheless_, _notwithstanding_, _otherwise_,\n_however_, _so_ and _furthermore_.\n\nThese conjunctions always refer to what has been said before and serve\nto introduce and connect new statements.\n\n+335.+ We often use these conjunctions, and also, _and_, _but_, _or_,\nand _nor_, at the beginning of a separate sentence or paragraph to\nconnect it in meaning with that which has gone before. You will often\nsee the use of these conjunctions as the first word of a new paragraph,\nthus relating this paragraph to that which has preceded it.\n\n+336.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions connect words of equal rank.+\n\n\n                    NOUNS\n\nCo-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more _nouns_ used as the\nsubject of a verb. As:\n\n  _Death_ and _disaster_ follow in the wake of war.\n\nIn this sentence, _death_ is just as much the subject of the verb\n_follow_ as is the word _disaster_, but no more so. You can omit either\nof these words and the other will make a subject for the sentence. They\nare both of equal importance, both of the same rank in the sentence, and\nneither depends upon the other. These two words taken together form the\nsubject of the sentence. This is called the _compound subject_, for it\nconsists of two simple subjects.\n\nCo-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more nouns used as the\n_object_ of a verb.\n\n  He studies history and science.\n\nIn this sentence the words _history_ and _science_ are both used as\nobjects of the verb _studies_.\n\nCo-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more nouns used as the\nobject of a _preposition_.\n\n  He called for the letters and the papers.\n\nIn this sentence _letters_ and _papers_ are both objects of the\npreposition _for_, connected by the co-ordinate conjunction _and_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 3\n\nNote in the following sentences the nouns which are connected by\nconjunctions and decide whether they are used as the subject of the\nsentences or the object of verbs or of prepositions. Draw a line under\ncompound subjects.\n\n  1. John and Henry are going home.\n  2. Music and painting are fine arts.\n  3. The grounds and buildings of our public schools have cost millions.\n  4. The time calls for brave men and women.\n  5. We struggle for truth and freedom.\n  6. Will you study English or arithmetic?\n  7. Education and organization are necessary for success.\n  8. We must learn the truth about production and distribution.\n  9. We demand justice and liberty.\n  10. The great struggle is between the working class and the ruling\n      class.\n\n\n                    PRONOUNS\n\n+337.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions may also connect pronouns.+\n\nThese are used in the same way as nouns,--either as subject or object.\nNouns have the same form whether used as subject or object. Pronouns,\nhowever, have different forms when used as the object. Here is where we\noften make mistakes in the use of pronouns. When the pronouns are\nconnected by co-ordinate conjunctions they are of the same rank and are\nused in the same construction;--if they are used as subjects both must\nbe used in the subject form;--if they are used as objects, both must be\nused in the object form. For example, it is incorrect to say, _He told\nthe story to her and I_. Here _her_ is properly used in the object form,\nfor it is the object of the preposition _to_; the pronoun _I_ connected\nwith _her_ by the use of the conjunction _and_ is also the object of the\npreposition _to_, and the object form should be used. You would not say,\n_He told the story to I_. The sentence should read, _He told the story\nto her and me_.\n\nCo-ordinate conjunctions may connect two pronouns used as the _subject_\nof a sentence, as for example:\n\n  _She_ and _I_ arrived today.\n\nCo-ordinate conjunctions may connect two pronouns used as the _object_\nof the verb, as for example:\n\n  Did you call _her_ or _me_?\n\nCo-ordinate conjunctions may connect two pronouns used as the object of\nthe _preposition_, as:\n\n  He gave that to _you_ and _me_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 4\n\nStudy closely the following sentences and correct those in which the\nwrong form of the pronoun is used.\n\n  1. He and I are old friends.\n  2. Did you ask him or me?\n  3. They promised him and I that they would come.\n  4. Find the place for she and me.\n  5. Me and him will get it for you and she.\n  6. She and I will go with you.\n  7. You and I must decide matters for ourselves.\n  8. You will find him and her to be loyal comrades.\n\n\n                    VERBS\n\n+338.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect verbs.+ Verbs\nconnected in this way have the same subject; and with the use of the\nconjunction to connect the verbs, we save repeating the subject.\n\n  He _reads_ and _studies_ constantly.\n\nIn this sentence _reads_ and _studies_ are words of the same kind and of\nthe same rank; either could be omitted and the other would make a\npredicate for the sentence. They are of equal importance in the sentence\nand are connected by the conjunction _and_. They have a single subject,\nthe pronoun _he_.\n\nThis is called a compound predicate.\n\nIn the sentence, _He reads constantly_, we have a simple predicate, the\nsingle verb _reads_; but in the sentence, _He reads and studies\nconstantly_, we have a compound predicate, compound of the two verbs\n_reads_ and _studies_. A sentence may have both a compound subject and a\ncompound predicate. As, for example:\n\n  John and James read and study constantly.\n\nIn this sentence _John_ and _James_ is the compound subject of both the\nverbs, _read_ and _study_. So we have a compound subject and a compound\npredicate.\n\n\n                    Exercise 5\n\nNotice the verbs in the following sentences connected by co-ordinate\nconjunctions. Draw lines under each compound predicate.\n\n  1. The days come _and_ go in a ceaseless round.\n  2. The brave man dreams _and_ dares to live the dream.\n  3. The coward dreams _but_ dares not live the dream.\n  4. We produce splendidly _but_ distribute miserably.\n  5. The bought press twists _and_ distorts the facts.\n  6. Only a traitor aids _or_ supports the enemy.\n  7. We agitate _and_ educate for the cause of liberty.\n\n\n                    ADJECTIVES\n\n+339.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are used to connect adjectives.+\n\nIn this way we use a number of adjectives to modify the same word\nwithout tiresome repetition. When several adjectives are used to modify\nthe same word, the conjunction is used only between the last two\nadjectives. As, for example:\n\nA _simple_, _clear_ and _concise_ course has been prepared.\n\n\n                    Exercise 6\n\nIn the following sentences, underscore the adjectives which are\nconnected by co-ordinate conjunctions.\n\n  1. The plains of France are covered with the dead and dying soldiers.\n  2. Education should be both universal and free.\n  3. They are faithful and loyal comrades.\n  4. This was only our just and legal right.\n  5. Old and hoary was the man who sat on the stool by the fireless and\n     godless altar.\n  6. The service of humanity is a sweet and noble task.\n  7. We must be brave and true.\n  8. He lived a noble and courageous life.\n  9. All was old and cold and mournful.\n  10. Most powerful and eloquent is the voice of the disinherited.\n\n\n                    ADVERBS\n\n+340.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect adverbs.+ This\ngives us the power to describe the action expressed in verbs without the\ntiresome repetition of the verb. For example:\n\n  He spoke _fluently_ and _eloquently_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 7\n\nIn the following sentences underscore the adverbs which are connected\nby co-ordinate conjunctions:\n\n  1. Man selfishly and greedily prevents his fellow men from the\n     enjoyment of nature's bounties.\n  2. She is wonderfully and gloriously brave.\n  3. He speaks eloquently and impressively, but very slowly.\n  4. Nature has provided lavishly and bountifully for her children.\n  5. Advice spoken truly and wisely is always in season.\n  6. We must resist injustice bravely and courageously.\n  7. He feels keenly and deeply the wrongs of his class.\n  8. He writes easily and rapidly.\n  9. The words, calmly and coolly spoken, were instantly opposed.\n  10. He reached that conclusion naturally and inevitably.\n  11. He was gently but unwaveringly firm.\n  12. The revolution comes slowly but surely.\n\n\n                    PHRASES\n\n+341.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are used, not only to connect words,\nbut also to connect phrases.+\n\n\n                    Verb Phrases\n\n+342.+ Verb phrases may be connected by conjunctions. For example:\n\n  The People's College _is owned_ and _controlled_ by the working class.\n  We _have made_ and _are making_ a fierce struggle for a free press.\n\n\nIn this last sentence the two verb phrases, _have made_ and _are making_\nare connected by the co-ordinate conjunction _and_. Often in using verb\nphrases, we use phrases in which the same helping verb occurs in both\nphrases. When this is the case the helping verb is quite often omitted\nin the second phrase and only the participle is connected by the\nconjunction. As, for example:\n\n  The People's College is owned and controlled by the working class.\n\nIn this sentence the helping verb _is_ belongs in both the phrases but\nis omitted in the second phrase in order to make a smoother sounding\nsentence. In the second phrase, only the past participle _controlled_ is\nused. It is understood that we mean,\n\n  The People's College _is owned_ and _is controlled_ by the working\n      class.\n\n\n                    Exercise 8\n\nNote the use of the conjunction in the following sentences to connect\nthe verb phrases. Supply the helping verb where it is omitted.\n\n  1. Our system of education is rooted and grounded in outgrown dogmas.\n  2. We have written but have received no answer.\n  3. Will you come or stay?\n  4. Man must struggle or remain in slavery.\n  5. The workers are organizing and demanding their rights.\n  6. We must arouse and educate our comrades.\n  7. We have sought but have not found.\n\n\n                    Prepositional Phrases\n\n+343.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are used to connect prepositional\nphrases.+\n\nThese phrases may be used as adjective phrases. For example:\n\n  The books _in the book case_ and _on the table_ belong to me.\n\nThese phrases may be used as adverb phrases. For example:\n\n  He works _with speed_ and _with ease_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 9\n\nNote in the following sentences, the prepositional phrases which\nare connected by co-ordinate conjunctions. Mark which are used as\nadjective and which as adverb phrases.\n\n  1. Education is the road out of ignorance and into the light.\n  2. The army charged over the plain and up the hill.\n  3. The first men lived in groups and in clans.\n  4. Democracy means government of the people and by the people.\n  5. Shall we take the path toward progress or toward barbarism.\n  6. They are not fighting for their country but for their king.\n  7. Human rights are not protected by the law nor by the courts.\n  8. The problem of the working class and of society is the problem of\n     equitable distribution.\n  9. They are deceived by their leaders and by their press.\n  10. You can pay either by the week or by the month.\n  11. Our government is not the rule of the majority but of the\n      minority.\n\n\n                    Infinitives and Participles\n\n+344.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect infinitives\nand participles.+\n\n\n                    Exercise 10\n\nIn the following sentences mark the infinitives and participles\nconnected by co-ordinate conjunctions.\n\n  1. Those words will inspire us to dream and to dare.\n  2. We shall learn to produce and to distribute.\n  3. To be or not to be, that is the question.\n  4. Puffing and panting, the great engine pulled up to the station.\n  5. A cringing and trembling coward fears to demand his own.\n  6. The warped and twisted facts in the daily press deceive the masses.\n  7. Singing and dancing should be enjoyed by all children.\n  8. The exploiting and robbing of the people is made a virtue in ruling\n     class ethics.\n\n\n                    CLAUSES\n\n+345.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect clauses of\nequal rank.+ For example:\n\n  _The floods came and the winds blew._\n\nEach of these clauses is a complete sentence in itself, but they are\ncombined into one compound sentence by the use of the co-ordinate\nconjunction, _and_. Clauses united in this way may have a compound\nsubject and a compound predicate, but two complete clauses must be\nunited by a co-ordinate conjunction in order to form a compound\nsentence. For example:\n\nThe rain and snow fell, _and_ the wind blew a mighty gale.\n\nHere the first clause in the compound sentence, _the rain and snow\nfell_, contains a compound subject, _rain and snow_.\n\nThe boys are running and shouting, _and_ the girls are gathering\nflowers.\n\nHere the first clause has a compound predicate, _are running_ and\n_shouting_. The second _and_ connects the two clauses forming the\ncompound sentence.\n\n\n                    CORRELATIVES\n\n+346.+ Certain co-ordinate conjunctions are used in pairs, such as\n_both, and_; _either, or_; _neither, nor_; _whether, or_. These pairs\nare called correlatives. The first word in the pair, as, _both_,\n_either_, _neither_, or _whether_, is used as an assistant conjunction\nhelping the other to do the connecting. These are used in such sentences\nas:\n\n  I have _both_ seen _and_ heard him.\n  They will join us _either_ in April _or_ in May.\n  Labor has received _neither_ liberty _nor_ justice.\n  _Whether_ to go forward _or_ to retreat was the problem.\n\nNote that _nor_ is always the proper correlative to use with _neither_\nand also with the negatives _not_ and _never_ when they apply to what\nfollows as well as to what precedes. For example:\n\n  There are thousands in this country who can _neither_ read _nor_\n  write.\n  _Neither_ you _nor_ I can foretell the future.\n  He will _not_ write _nor_ should you.\n  Capital punishment is _nothing_ more _nor_ less than legalized murder.\n  We shall _never_ lower our colors _nor_ retreat.\n\n_Or_ is always used with the correlative _either_. For example:\n\n  We will _either_ come _or_ write you.\n  _Either_ he was mistaken _or_ he deliberately lied.\n\n\n                    Exercise 11\n\nNote the use of the co-ordinate conjunctions _and_, _but_, _or_ and\n_nor_, in the following quotation. Mark especially the use of _and_ as\nan introductory conjunction, introducing a new sentence, but connecting\nit with that which has gone before.\n\n  In my judgment slavery is the child of ignorance. Liberty is born of\n  intelligence. Only a few years ago there was a great awakening in the\n  human mind. Men began to inquire, \"By what right does a crowned robber\n  make me work for him?\" The man who asked this question was called a\n  traitor.\n\n  They said then, and they say now, that it is dangerous for the mind of\n  man to be free. I deny it. Out on the intellectual sea there is room\n  for every sail. In the intellectual air, there is space enough for\n  every wing. And the man who does not do his own thinking is a slave,\n  and does not do his duty to his fellow men. For one, I expect to do my\n  own thinking. And I will take my oath this minute that I will express\n  what thoughts I have, honestly and sincerely. I am the slave of no man\n  and of no organization. I stand under the blue sky and the stars,\n  under the infinite flag of nature, the peer of every human being.\n\n  All I claim, all I plead is simple liberty of thought. That is all. I\n  do not pretend to tell what is true nor all the truth. I do not claim\n  that I have floated level with the heights of thought, nor that I have\n  descended to the depths of things; I simply claim that what ideas I\n  have, I have a right to express, and any man that denies it to me is\n  an intellectual thief and robber.\n\n  Every creed that we have today has upon it the mark of the whip or the\n  chain or the fagot. I do not want it. Free labor will give us wealth,\n  and has given us wealth, and why? Because a free brain goes into\n  partnership with a free hand. That is why. And when a man works for\n  his wife and children, the problem of liberty is, how to do the most\n  work in the shortest space of time; but the problem of slavery is, how\n  to do the least work in the longest space of time. Slavery is poverty;\n  liberty is wealth.\n\n  It is the same in thought. Free thought will give us truth; and the\n  man who is not in favor of free thought occupies the same relation to\n  those he can govern that the slaveholder occupied to his slaves,\n  exactly. Free thought will give us wealth. There has not been a\n  generation of free thought yet. It will be time to write a creed when\n  there have been a few generations of free-brained men and splendid\n  women in this world. I don't know what the future may bring forth; I\n  don't know what inventions are in the brain of the future; I don't\n  know what garments may be woven, with the years to come; but I do\n  know, coming from the infinite sea of the future, there will never\n  touch this \"bank and shoal of time\" a greater blessing nor a grander\n  glory, than liberty for man, woman and child.\n\n  Oh, liberty! Float not forever in the far horizon! Remain not forever\n  in the dream of the enthusiast and the poet and the philanthropist.\n  But come and take up thine abode with the children of men\n  forever.--_Ingersoll_.\n\n\n\n\n                    SPELLING\n\n                    LESSON 20\n\n\nWe found that we often formed adjectives by adding suffixes to other\nwords. We also form many adverbs by the addition of suffixes to other\nwords. Derivative adverbs are formed in the following ways:\n\n1. By adding suffixes to adjectives, chiefly the suffix _ly_, as for\nexample; _chiefly_, _truly_, _really_, _lately_, etc.\n\n2. By changing _ble_ to _bly_, as in _ably_, _nobly_, etc.\n\n3. By adding the suffix _ward_, as in _forward_, _upward_, _skyward_,\n_downward_, _homeward_, etc.\n\n4. We have some adverbs formed by adding the prefix _a_ to adjectives\nand nouns, as _ahead_, _afoot_, _afresh_, also by adding the prefix\n_be_, as in _besides_, _beyond_.\n\nWe often misspell a number of adverbs by adding _s_ where it does not\nrightfully belong; as, _anywheres_, _everywheres_, _backwards_,\n_forwards_, _towards_, _upwards_, _downwards_, _afterwards_,\n_homewards_, etc. All of these words should be written without the _s_.\n\nWe also have a number of compound adverbs which are made by the union of\ntwo other parts of speech, such as _sometime_, _henceforth_, _forever_,\n_overheard_, _outside_, etc.\n\nIn the lesson for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday, adjectives are given\nhaving opposite meanings. Make the proper adverbs from these adjectives\nby the addition of the suffix _ly_.\n\nThursday's and Friday's lessons are made up of both adjectives and\nadverbs that end in _ly_. Look up in your dictionary and be sure you\nknow which are adjectives and which are adverbs.\n\nSaturday's lesson is made up of compound adverbs.\n\n  +Monday+\n\n    Haughty--Humble\n    Wise--Ignorant\n    Careful--Careless\n    Firm--Wavering\n\n  +Tuesday+\n\n    Honest--Deceitful\n    Fearful--Fearless\n    Punctual--Tardy\n    Identical--Different\n\n  +Wednesday+\n\n    Thoughtful--Thoughtless\n    Rich--Poor\n    Attentive--Inattentive\n    Industrious--Lazy\n\n  +Thursday+\n\n    Quickly\n    Lovely\n    Clearly\n    Cleanly\n\n  +Friday+\n\n    Homely\n    Truly\n    Courtly\n    Nearly\n\n  +Saturday+\n\n    Otherwise\n    Herewith\n    Sometime\n    Always\n\n\n\n\n                    PLAIN ENGLISH\n\n                    LESSON 21\n\n\nDear Comrade:\n\nIn this lesson we are completing the study of conjunctions. We have\nstudied the conjunction last among the parts of speech and in the order\nof the development of language, the conjunction naturally comes last.\nThe need of connective words does not come in any language until the\nlanguage is quite well developed. You will notice that the connective\nwords, such as prepositions and conjunctions are the last words the\nchild begins to use. The child first begins to use the names of the\nthings with which it comes in contact, then it learns the words that\nexpress what these things do. But it is not until the child begins to\nreason that it begins to use connective words. These become necessary\nwhen we have reached a stage of development where we can consider the\nrelationship existing between things.\n\nThe use of conjunctions, however, can be greatly overdone. The long and\ninvolved sentences are more difficult to understand. If you will note\nthe authors which you enjoy the most, it will probably be those who use\nshort and crisp sentences. We have some authors who by the use of\nconjunctions can string one sentence out over several pages. You wonder\nhow they manage to exist so long without stopping for breath. It is very\neasy for us to fall into this error when we are thinking rapidly and our\nthoughts all seem to be closely connected. But no mind can grasp many\nideas at one time. Break your sentences up and express your ideas\nconcisely and clearly. Use conjunctions rather sparingly, especially\nthese subordinate conjunctions. Do not have too many subordinate clauses\nin one sentence.\n\nNotice in your reading for this week those who use the short, crisp\nsentences and those who use the longer and more involved sentences.\nNotice which are understood more readily and which are more enjoyable to\nread. Take some of the paragraphs from those who write long and involved\nsentences and break them up into short sentences and see if these\nshorter sentences do not make the meaning simpler and clearer. This will\nbe excellent practice also in gaining the power of expression.\n\nEspecially in the class struggle do we need those who can write clearly\nand simply of the great problems of the day. As the work of the world is\nconducted today, the workers have too little time for reading. They are\napt, after a hard day's work, to be too tired to follow an author\nthrough long, winding, involved passages.\n\nIn the spoken word, this is also true. You will find your hearers much\nmore in sympathy with you if you will use short sentences. Break your\nthought up so they can readily grasp your meaning and follow you to your\nconclusion.\n\nConjunctions are very important to save us from tiresome repetitions and\nshort, jerky sentences, but we must avoid using them too frequently.\n\n                    Yours for Education,\n\n                              THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.\n\n\n                    SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS\n\n+347.+ We have found that co-ordinate conjunctions connect words,\nphrases and also clauses that are entirely independent; that is, they do\nnot depend in the slightest degree upon any other word, phrase or\nclause. Subordinate conjunctions connect inferior clauses to the main\nclauses of the sentence. These inferior clauses are dependent clauses.\nSubordinate conjunctions never connect words or phrases; but only\ndependent clauses, to the rest of the sentence. Note the following\nsentences:\n\n  He came _quickly_.\n  He came _on time_.\n  He came _when he was called_.\n\nIn the first sentence the word _quickly_ is an adverb modifying the verb\n_came_ and answers the question _when_. It tells _when_ he came. In the\nsecond sentence, the phrase _on time_ is an adverb phrase modifying the\nverb _came_, and answers the question _when_. It tells _when_ he came.\nIn the third sentence, the clause _when he was called_, also answers the\nquestion _when_, and tells _when_ he came. Therefore, it is a clause\nused as an adverb. It is different from the phrase _on time_, for the\nphrase _on time_ does not contain a subject and a predicate.\n\n+348.+ The difference between the phrase and the clause is that the\nphrase does not contain either a subject or a predicate, while the\nclause _always_ contains both a subject and a predicate. So in the\nclause, _when he was called_, _he_ is the subject and _was called_ is\nthe predicate, and _when_ is the subordinate conjunction, which connects\nthis adverb clause to the verb _came_, which it modifies. The clause _he\ncame_, and the clause _when he was called_, are not of equal rank and\nimportance, because the clause, _when he was called_, simply modifies\nthe verb contained in the clause _he came_, by describing the _time_ of\nthe action expressed in the verb _came_. So the clause, _when he was\ncalled_, is a subordinate or dependent clause, and the conjunctions\nwhich connect this class of clauses to the main clause are called\nsubordinate conjunctions.\n\n+349.+ +A subordinate conjunction is one that connects a dependent\nclause to the principal clause.+\n\n\n                    CLASSES OF SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS\n\n+350.+ Most subordinate conjunctions are used to make adverb clauses.\nThese clauses will answer some one of the questions answered by adverbs.\nThey will tell _how_, _when_, _where_ or _why_ the action expressed in\nthe verb in the principal clause occurred. There are six classes of\nthese subordinate conjunctions which are used to introduce adverb\nclauses. They introduce:\n\n+351.+ +Adverb clause of time.+ These clauses will answer the question\n_when_ and are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as, _before_,\n_since_, _as_, _while_, _until_, _when_, _after_ and _as soon as_.\nNotice in the following sentences the difference made in the meaning of\nthe sentences by the use of the different conjunctions:\n\n  We waited _until_ you came.\n  We waited _after_ you came.\n  We waited _as_ you came.\n  We waited _before_ you came.\n  We waited _since_ you came.\n  We left _while_ you were gone.\n  We left _when_ you were gone.\n  We left _as soon as_ you were gone.\n\n+352.+ +Adverb clause of place.+ These answer the question _where_, and\nare introduced by the conjunctions, _where_, _whence_, _whither_.\n\n  I will go _where_ you go.\n  The wind blows _whither_ it listeth.\n  He went _whence_ he came.\n\n+353.+ +Adverb clauses expressing cause or reason.+ These will answer\nthe question _why_. They are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions\nas, _because_, _for_, _since_, _as_, _whereas_, _inasmuch as_, etc.\n\nNote the difference in the meaning of the following sentences expressed\nby the use of different conjunctions:\n\n  I will come _because_ you expect me.\n  I will come _since_ you expect me.\n  I will come _as_ you expect me.\n  I will come _for_ you expect me.\n  I will come _inasmuch as_ you expect me.\n\n+354.+ +Adverb clauses of manner.+ These clauses will answer the\nquestion _how_, and are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as,\n_as_, _as if_, _as though_, etc.\n\n  Study _as though_ you were in earnest.\n  Come _as if_ you had been called.\n  Do _as_ I say, not _as_ I do.\n\nIn these clauses of _manner_, introduced by _as if_, and _as though_,\n_were_ is used in the present form with either singular or plural\nsubjects. For example:\n\n  He writes as if he _were_ informed of the facts.\n  They talk as though they _were_ confident of success.\n  You act as though I _were_ your slave.\n\n+355.+ +Adverb clauses of comparison.+ These clauses are introduced by\nthe subordinate conjunctions _than_ and _as_. The verbs are often\nomitted in these dependent clauses introduced by _than_ and _as_. For\nexample: _He is taller than I_. The complete sentence would be: _He is\ntaller than I am_. _He is not so tall as I._ Here the sentence would be:\n_He is not so tall as I am_.\n\nWhen the pronoun occurs in these dependent clauses, be sure to use the\nproper form of the pronoun. It may be the subject or the object of the\nverb which is not expressed. For example; it is incorrect to say: _I am\nnot so tall as him_. The correct form is: _I am not so tall as he_. The\ncomplete sentence would be: _I am not so tall as he is_, and the pronoun\nshould be in the subject form, for it is the subject of the verb _is_,\nwhich is understood and omitted.\n\nThe use of the _subject_ or of the _object_ form may make a difference\nin the meaning of your sentence. For example, you say: _I admire them as\nmuch as he_. You mean that you admire them as much as he admires them.\nBut if you say, _I admire them as much as him_, you mean that you admire\nthem as much as you admire him. Quite a different meaning!\n\nBe careful in the use of your pronouns in this way, for you can express\nquite a different meaning. For example, if you say, _I care more for you\nthan he_, you mean, I care more for you than he cares for you. But if\nyou say, _I care more for you than him_, you mean, I care more for you\nthan I care for him. A mistake like this might mean a great deal to you\nsome time, if the one to whom you had been speaking had been studying a\ncourse in Plain English!\n\n+356.+ +Adverb clauses of condition.+ These clauses are introduced by\nsuch conjunctions as, _if_, _provided_, _supposing_, _unless_, _except_,\n_otherwise_, _though_, _notwithstanding_, _albeit_, and _whether_. For\nexample:\n\n  I will come _if_ you need me.\n  I will come _provided_ you need me.\n  I will go _notwithstanding_ you need me.\n  I will not go _unless_ I am called.\n  He will not go _except_ he is called.\n  He will not go _though_ he is called.\n  He came, _otherwise_ I would go.\n  He will go _whether_ you go or stay.\n\nWhen subordinate clauses beginning with _if_, _though_ or _unless_ are\njoined to clauses containing _might_, _could_, _would_ or _should_, the\nverb _were_ is sometimes used with a singular subject, in such sentences\nas:\n\n  If this _were_ true, I should know it.\n  Unless I _were_ positive, I would not say so.\n  Though our leader _were_ lost, yet we would not despair.\n  If he _were_ here, he would explain it himself.\n  If I _were_ with you, I might make you understand.\n\nSometimes in sentences like these, _if_ is omitted in the clause, and\nthe verb placed first. For example:\n\n  _Were_ he here, he would deny these slanders.\n  _Were_ he truly class-conscious, he would oppose this war.\n  _Were_ this fact known, the people would never submit.\n\nThese clauses express something which is uncertain, or which is to be\ndecided in the future; a supposition contrary to a fact or a wish.\nOccasionally you will find the verb _be_ used instead of _is_, in\nclauses of this kind introduced by _if_, _though_, _unless_, _except_,\n_lest_, etc. For example:\n\n  If it _be_ true, I will hear it.\n  Though he _be_ guilty, we will not desert him.\n\nIn subordinate clauses connected by _if_, _unless_, etc., with a\nprincipal clause which expresses future time, the present form of the\nverb is used in the subordinate clause. For example:\n\n  If they are willing, we will join them.\n  Unless he comes, I shall not leave.\n  If it rains, we will not go.\n\n+357.+ +Adverb clauses expressing purpose.+ These are introduced by such\nsubordinate conjunctions as, _that_, _in order that_ and _lest_. For\nexample:\n\n  Take good care _that_ you understand this lesson.\n  I will go today _in order that_ I may meet him.\n  Watch these carefully _lest_ they be stolen.\n  Read the labor press _that_ you may know the truth.\n\nNotice that _that_, when used in this way, as a pure conjunction, means\n_in order that_. For example, the sentence above might read:\n\n  Read the labor press _in order that_ you may know the truth.\n\n+358.+ +Adverb clauses expressing result.+ These are introduced by the\nsubordinate conjunction _that_, as for example:\n\n  They were so late _that_ I could not go.\n\n\n                    SUMMARY\n\n+359.+ We have then adverb clauses introduced by subordinate\nconjunctions expressing:\n\n  1. +Time.+ Answer the question _when_.\n  2. +Place.+ Answer the question _where_.\n  3. +Cause or reason.+ Answer the question _why_.\n  4. +Manner.+ Answer the question _how_.\n  5. +Comparison.+ Used to compare.\n  6. +Condition.+ Answer the question _on what condition_.\n  7. +Purpose.+ Answer the question _for what purpose_.\n  8. +Result.+ Answer the question _to what result_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 1\n\nIn the following sentences, mark the conjunctions and tell to what class\nthey belong; ask the question _when_, _where_, _why_, _how_, _on what\ncondition_, _for what purpose_, _to what result_. Underscore the\nsubordinate clauses. The subjects of the subordinate clauses are printed\nin italics.\n\n  1.  Speech was developed that _we_ might be able to communicate with\n      one another.\n  2.  The International failed in the crisis because _it_ had no\n      definite war program.\n  3.  We will fail if _we_ have no definite program.\n  4.  If _labor_ were united, we could destroy wage slavery.\n  5.  When the _people_ understand, they will no longer submit.\n  6.  Labor cannot win until _it_ learns solidarity.\n  7.  After the terrible _war_ is over, the workers in all countries may\n      come closer together.\n  8.  We are convinced of the folly of nationalism since the _war_ has\n      been declared.\n  9.  If _we_ knew the facts we could not be misled.\n  10. Inform yourself before _you_ seek to teach others.\n  11. We must unite in order that _we_ may possess power.\n  12. It is more than the _heart_ can bear.\n  13. May you have courage to dare ere _you_ have ceased to dream.\n  14. If _we_ remain ignorant, we shall remain enslaved.\n  15. We sometimes fear to trust our own thought because _it_ is our\n      own.\n  16. Though _we_ should lose the strike we will not despair.\n  17. The battle waged so fiercely that _thousands_ were slain.\n\n\n                    PHRASE CONJUNCTIONS\n\n+360.+ There are certain phrases which have come to be used together as\nconjunctions so commonly that we may consider them as conjunctions. They\nare:\n\n_As if_, _as though_, _but also_, _but likewise_, _so that_, _except\nthat_, _inasmuch as_, _notwithstanding that_, _in order that_, _as well\nas_, _as far as_, _so far as_, _as little as_, _provided that_, _seeing\nthat_, etc.\n\n\n                    Exercise 2\n\nWrite sentences using these phrase conjunctions to introduce clauses.\n\n\n                    NOUN CLAUSES\n\n+361.+ We have found that there are two kinds of clauses, principal\nclauses and subordinate clauses.\n\n+A principal clause is one that does not depend on any word.+\n\n+A subordinate clause is one that depends upon some word or words in the\nprincipal clause.+\n\nWe have found, also, that these principal clauses are always connected\nby co-ordinate conjunctions, for they are of equal rank and importance;\nneither is dependent upon the other.\n\nSubordinate clauses are always connected with the principal clause by a\nsubordinate conjunction. The subordinate clauses which we have been\nstudying have all been adverb clauses which are used to describe the\naction expressed in the verb contained in the principal clauses.\n\nThe subordinate clause in a sentence may also be used as a noun. When\nthe subordinate clause is used as a noun it is called a noun clause.\n\n+362.+ +A noun clause is a clause used as a noun.+\n\nA noun clause may be used in any way in which a noun is used, except as\na possessive. It may be used as a subject, an object, a predicate\ncomplement, or in apposition with a noun. These noun clauses may be\nintroduced by either relative pronouns, interrogative pronouns or by\nconjunctions. For example:\n\n  I know _who_ he is.\n  He asked, \"_what_ do you want?\"\n  I know _where_ it is.\n\nIn the first sentence, _who he is_, is a noun clause used as the object\nof the verb _know_. It tells _what_ I know, and is the object of the\nverb _know_,--just as if I had said; _I know the facts_. In this\nsentence the noun, _facts_, is the object of the verb _know_.\n\nIn the second sentence, _He asked, \"what do you want?_\" the noun clause\n_what do you want_ is the object of the verb _asked_, and is introduced\nby the interrogative pronoun _what_.\n\nWe will study in a subsequent lesson the use of noun clauses introduced\nby relative pronouns. In this lesson we are studying the conjunctions.\n\nIn the last sentence, _I know where it is_, the noun clause _where it\nis_, is the object of the verb _know_, and is introduced by the\nconjunction _where_.\n\n+363.+ Noun clauses are introduced by the subordinate conjunctions,\n_where_, _when_, _whence_, _whither_, _whether_, _how_, _why_, and also\nby the subordinate conjunction _that_. For example:\n\n  I know _where_ I can find it.\n  I inquired _when_ he would arrive.\n  We do not know _whence_ it cometh nor whither it goeth.\n  Ask _whether_ the train has gone.\n  I don't know _how_ I can find you.\n  I cannot understand _why_ he does so.\n  I believe _that_ he is honest.\n\nIn all of these examples the noun clauses are used as the objects of the\nverb. Noun clauses may also be used as objects of prepositions. As, for\nexample:\n\n  You do not listen to _what is said_.\n  He talked to me about _what had happened_.\n  He told me to come to _where he was_.\n\n+364.+ Noun clauses may also be used as the subject of a sentence. As\nfor example:\n\n  _That he is innocent_ is admitted by all.\n  _That he was guilty_ has been proven.\n  _Why he should do this_ is very strange.\n  _How we are to live_ is the great problem.\n\nIn all of these sentences, the noun clause is used as the subject of the\nverb. You will note that most frequently the noun clause used as subject\nof the verb is introduced by the subordinate conjunction _that_. But\nquite often we write these sentences in a somewhat different way. For\nexample:\n\n  It is admitted by all _that he is innocent_.\n  It has been proven _that he was guilty_.\n\nYou will notice in these sentences we have expressed practically the\nsame thought as in the sentences where the noun clause was used as the\nsubject of the verb.\n\nBut now we have this little pronoun _it_ used as the subject, instead of\nthe clause, which is the real subject of the sentence. _It_ is simply\nused as the introductory word in the sentence. The noun clause is in\nreality the subject of the sentence.\n\n+365.+ Noun clauses may also be used as the predicate complement with a\ncopulative verb. For example:\n\n  The general opinion is _that he is innocent_.\n  The problem is _how we may accomplish this quickly_.\n  The question was _why any one should believe such statements_.\n\nIn all of these sentences the noun clause is used as the complement of\nthe incomplete verbs _is_ and _was_, to complete the meaning, just as we\nuse a noun as the predicate complement of a copulative verb in such\nsentences as, _Socialism is a science._ _War is murder._\n\n+366.+ A noun clause may also be used in apposition to a noun to explain\nits meaning. Apposition means to place alongside of. Note in the\nfollowing sentences:\n\n  The fact, _that such a law had been passed_, alters the situation.\n  His motion, _that the matter should be laid on the table_, was\n  adopted.\n\nIn the first sentence, the clause, _that such a law had been passed_, is\nplaced beside the noun _fact_ and explains _what_ that fact is. The\nclause, _that the matter should be laid on the table_, is in apposition\nto and explains the noun _motion_.\n\nThese noun clauses are used in apposition.\n\n\n                    Exercise 3\n\nComplete the following sentences by inserting the appropriate\nconjunctions and pronouns in the blank spaces:\n\n  1. Can you tell......Germany has a million fighting men?\n  2. Would you be pleased......the United States should intervene in\n     Mexico?\n  3. The Mexican revolution will continue......the people possess the\n     land.\n  4. No one may vote in the convention......he has credentials.\n  5. ......Debs was in Woodstock jail, he became in Socialist.\n  6. ......the treaty was signed, hostilities ceased.\n  7. We shall win......we have the courage.\n  8. ......we have lost this battle we shall not cease to struggle.\n  9. All are enslaved......one is enslaved.\n  10. Humanity will be free......labor is free.\n  11. Let us do our duty......we understand it.\n  12. Man will never reach his best......he walks side by side with\n      woman.\n  13. We must struggle......we would be free.\n  14. ......we shout for peace, we support war.\n  15. All our sympathies should be with the man......toils,......we\n      know......labor is the foundation of all.\n  16. ......all have the right to think and to express their thoughts\n      every brain will give to all the best......it has.\n  17. ......man develops he places greater value upon his own rights.\n  18. ......man values his own rights he begins to value the rights of\n      others.\n  19. ......all men give to all others the rights......they claim for\n      themselves this world will be civilized.\n\n\n                    Exercise 4\n\nNote all the co-ordinate and subordinate conjunctions in the following\nverses from \"The Ballad of Reading Gaol.\" Underscore the subordinate\nclauses. Are they adverb or noun clauses? Do the co-ordinate\nconjunctions connect words, phrases or clauses?\n\n    I know not _whether_ Laws be right,\n        Or _whether_ Laws be wrong;\n    All that we know who lie in gaol\n        Is _that_ the wall is strong;\n    _And that_ each day is like a year,\n        A year whose days are long.\n\n    _But_ this I know, _that_ every Law\n        That men have made for Man,\n    _Since_ first Man took his brother's life,\n        _And_ the sad world began,\n    But straws the wheat _and_ saves the chaff\n        With a most evil fan.\n\n    This too I know--_and_ wise it were\n        _If_ each could know the same--\n    _That_ every prison that men build\n         Is built with bricks of shame,\n    _And_ bound with bars _lest_ Christ should see\n         _How_ men their brothers maim.\n\n    With bars they blur the gracious moon,\n        _And_ blind the goodly sun:\n    _And_ they do well to hide their Hell,\n        _For_ in it things are done\n    That son of God _nor_ son of Man\n        Ever should look upon!\n\n    In Reading gaol by Reading town\n        There is a pit of shame,\n    _And_ in it lies a wretched man\n        Eaten by teeth of flame,\n    In a burning winding sheet he lies,\n        _And_ his grave has got no name.\n\n    _And_ there, _till_ Christ call forth the dead,\n         In silence let him lie:\n    No need to waste the foolish tear,\n        _Or_ heave the windy sigh:\n    The man had killed the thing he loved,\n        _And so_ he had to die.\n\n    _And_ all men kill the thing they love,\n        By all let this be heard,\n    Some do it with a bitter look,\n        Some with a flattering word,\n    The coward does it with a kiss,\n        The brave man with a sword.\n\n                    --_Oscar Wilde_.\n\n\n\n\n                    SPELLING\n\n                    LESSON 21\n\n\nIn Lesson No. 17 we studied concerning abstract nouns derived from\nqualifying adjectives. We found that we formed these nouns expressing\nquality from adjectives that describe quality by the addition of\nsuffixes.\n\nAdjectives may likewise be formed from nouns and also from verbs by the\naddition of suffixes. There are a number of suffixes which may be used\nto form adjectives in this way; as, _al_, _ous_, _ic_, _ful_, _less_,\n_able_, _ible_, _ary_ and _ory_. Notice the following words: nation,\n_national_; peril, _perilous_; reason, _reasonable_; sense, _sensible_;\ncustom, _customary_; advise, _advisory_; hero, _heroic_; care,\n_careful_, _careless_.\n\nTo some words, more than one suffix may be added and an adjective of\ndifferent meaning formed; for example, use, _useless_, _useful_; care,\n_careless_, _careful_.\n\nMake as many adjectives as you can from the nouns and verbs given in the\nspelling lesson for this week by the addition of one or more of the\nfollowing suffixes:\n\n_Al_, _less_, _ous_, _ic_, _ful_, _able_, _ible_, _ary_, _ory_, and\n_ly_.\n\n  +Monday+\n\n    Accident\n    Danger\n    Origin\n    Commend\n    Element\n\n  +Tuesday+\n\n    Critic\n    Libel\n    Attain\n    Revolution\n    Contradict\n\n  +Wednesday+\n\n    Cynic\n    Injury\n    Respect\n    Station\n    Migrate\n\n  +Thursday+\n\n    Event\n    Parent\n    Order\n    Virtue\n    Marvel\n\n  +Friday+\n\n    Second\n    Fashion\n    Consider\n    Murder\n    Incident\n\n  +Saturday+\n\n    Constitution\n    Industry\n    Vibrate\n    Tribute\n    Compliment\n\n\n\n\n                    PLAIN ENGLISH\n\n                    LESSON 22\n\n\nDear Comrade:\n\nWe have practically finished the study of the different parts of speech.\nWe are now in possession of a knowledge of the tools which we need to\nuse in expressing ourselves. We are ready to make practical application\nof this knowledge in writing and speaking. We will find that with our\nincreasing ability to express ourselves there comes also the power to\nthink clearly. The analysis of language has meant a growing power to\n_think_ on the part of the people.\n\nWe sometimes imagine that simplicity of language was a part of primitive\nlife, but this is not true. Simplicity of language is the product of\nhigh civilization. Primitive life was marked, not by simplicity of\nlanguage, but by the scarcity of language. They made one word stand for\nan entire sentence, and if they wished to express a little different\nmeaning, an entirely different word had to be used, as for example, in\nthe primitive language: _I said to her_, would be one word, and _I said\nto him_, would be another, entirely different, word.\n\nBut as the power of thought began to develop, we began to analyze our\nmeaning and we found that this thought was identical except the _him_\nand the _her_. So as we analyzed our thought our expression of it became\nmore simple. In most languages, the different meaning of the verb, for\nexample, is expressed by an arbitrary change in the verb form. This is\ncalled the inflection of the verb. In English we would use several words\nto express the same thing. For example, the Latin word _Fuissem_\nrequires four English words to express the same meaning; _I should have\nbeen_, we say in English. So instead of having to learn a great number\nof different changes in the verb form, we, by the use of auxiliary\nverbs, _have_, _shall_, _do_, _be_, etc., are able to express all these\nshades of thought much more simply and clearly.\n\nMost other languages also have changes for gender. Every noun has a\ngender of its own and sometimes this form gives the wrong gender to\nliving beings and attributes sex to sexless objects and the only way to\nknow the gender of the noun is simply by memory. Then the adjectives,\npossessive pronouns and the articles _a_ and _the_ have gender also and\nhave to be changed to suit the gender of the noun; this involves a great\neffort of memory. So while the English may seem somewhat involved to\nyou, it is, after all, much simpler than other languages. It has been\nfreed from many superfluous endings and unnecessary complications.\n\nTake a little time each day to read something out of the best\nliterature. The quotations given in each of these lessons are from our\nvery best writers. A study of these will be a wonderful help and\ninspiration to you and bring you in touch with some of the great\nthinkers of the revolution. They are our comrades and are putting into\nwords the thoughts and hopes and dreams of our lives.\n\n                    Yours for the Revolution,\n\n                                  THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.\n\n\n                    ADJECTIVE CLAUSES\n\n+367.+ In our study of subordinate clauses, we have studied subordinate\nclauses used as adverbs and as nouns. We have found that adverb clauses\ncan be used in the same way as adverbs, to describe the time, place,\nmanner, cause, condition or purpose of the action expressed in the verb.\nWe have found, also, that a noun clause may be used in any way in which\na noun can be used, as the subject of the sentence, the object of a verb\nor preposition or as the predicate complement. But these are not the\nonly uses to which the subordinate clause may be put. Note the following\nsentences:\n\n  _Wealthy_ men desire to control the education of the people.\n  Men _of wealth_ desire to control the education of the people.\n  Men _who are wealthy_ desire to control the education of the people.\n\nDo you see any difference in the words which are used to modify the noun\n_men_? In the first sentence, _wealthy_ is an adjective, modifying the\nnoun _men_. In the second sentence, _of wealth_ is a prepositional\nphrase, used as an adjective modifying the noun _men_. In the last\nsentence, _who are wealthy_ is a clause used in exactly the same way\nthat the adjective _wealthy_ and the adjective phrase _of wealth_ are\nused, to modify the noun _men_.\n\nWe have expressed practically the same meaning in these three ways: by a\nword; by a phrase; by a clause.\n\n+368.+ +A word used to describe and modify a noun is an adjective.+\n\n+A phrase used to describe and modify a noun is an adjective phrase.+\n\n+A clause used to describe and modify a noun is an adjective clause.+\n\nNote the difference between a phrase and a clause.\n\n+369.+ A prepositional phrase, used as an adjective, consists of the\npreposition and the noun which is its object, together with its\nmodifiers. A phrase never has either a subject or a predicate. _Who are\nwealthy_, is a clause because it does contain a subject and a predicate.\nThe pronoun _who_ is the subject in the clause, and the predicate is the\ncopulative verb _are_ with the predicate complement, the adjective\n_wealthy_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 1\n\nIn the following sentences change the adjective into a phrase and also\ninto a clause, if possible. For example:\n\n  A _fearless_ man always defends his rights.\n  A man _without fear_ always defends his rights.\n  A man _who is fearless_ always defends his rights.\n\n  1. The _unemployed_ men are becoming desperate.\n  2. The _uneducated_ masses are demanding equal opportunity.\n  3. The discovery of gold was an _important_ discovery.\n  4. _Unorganized_ labor is helpless.\n  5. The revolution needs _intelligent_ rebels.\n  6. A few _wealthy_ men are striving to control education.\n  7. This will be a _progressive_ movement.\n  8. _Labor-saving_ inventions throw men out of employment.\n  9. _Scientific_ men prophesy a great advance for the mass.\n\n\n                    THE INTRODUCING WORD\n\n+370.+ You will notice that these adjective clauses are introduced by\nthe relative pronouns _who_, _which_ and _that_. These relative pronouns\nfulfil something of the office of a conjunction, because they are\nserving as connecting elements; they join these subordinate clauses to\nthe words which they modify. But you will note, also, that these\nrelative pronouns not only serve as connecting elements, but they also\nplay a part in the subordinate clause, as either the subject or object.\nFor example:\n\n  The man who has no education is handicapped in the struggle.\n  Are these the books that you ordered?\n\nIn the first sentence, _who has an education_ is an adjective clause\nmodifying the noun _man_, introduced by the relative pronoun _who_,\nwhich is also the subject of the verb _has_.\n\nIn the second sentence, _that you ordered_ is an adjective clause,\nmodifying the noun _books_, introduced by the relative pronoun _that_,\nwhich is also the object of the verb _ordered_.\n\n+371.+ There is no need to be confused in this matter of clauses. If the\nclause is used as a noun, either as the subject or the object or in any\nother way in which a noun can be used, it is a noun clause. If it is\nused as an adverb and will answer any of the questions _why_, _when_,\n_where_, or _how_, etc., it is an adverb clause. If it is used as an\nadjective,--if it modifies a noun or pronoun,--it is an adjective\nclause.\n\nYou will note that the only way in which a noun is used that does not\nhave its corresponding clause is as a possessive. We do not have\npossessive clauses. The clause used as an adjective always modifies a\nnoun or pronoun.\n\n+372.+ +An adjective clause is a clause used as an adjective and hence\nalways modifies a noun or pronoun.+\n\nAn adjective clause may be introduced by the relative pronouns, _who_,\n_which_ or _that_. The use of this clause is a great help to us in the\nexpression of our ideas, for it enables us to combine several sentences\ncontaining related thoughts into one sentence so we have it all\npresented to the mind at once.\n\n\n                    Exercise 2\n\nIn the following sentences, note which are the noun clauses and which\nare the adjective clauses and which are the adverb clauses. The verb in\nthe subordinate clause is in italics.\n\n  1. Life is what we _make_ it.\n  2. We acquire the strength that we _overcome_.\n  3. While he _slept_ the enemy came.\n  4. All that he _does_ is to distribute what others _produce_.\n  5. When faith _is lost_, when honor _dies_, the man is dead.\n  6. Thrice is he armed who _hath_ his quarrel just; he is naked though\n     he _be locked_ up in steel whose conscience with injustice is\n     _corrupted_.\n  7. When strength and justice _are_ true yoke fellows, where can we\n     find a mightier pair than they?\n  8. You will gain a good reputation if you _endeavor_ to be what you\n     _desire_ to appear.\n  9. Live as though life _were_ earnest and life will be so.\n  10. He that _loveth_ makes his own the grandeur that he _loves_.\n  11. Who _does_ the best his circumstance _allows_ does well; angels\n      could do no more.\n  12. He is not worthy of the honeycomb that _shuns_ the hive because\n      the bees _have_ stings.\n  13. We always may be what we _might have been_.\n  14. Rich gifts wax poor when givers _prove_ unkind.\n  15. Let me make the songs of the people and I care not who _makes_ the\n      laws.\n  16. Attention is the stuff that memory _is made_ of.\n  17. A great writer has said that grace _is_ beauty in action; I say\n      that justice _is_ truth in action.\n  18. If we do not _plant_ knowledge when young it will give us no shade\n      when we _are_ old.\n  19. You can no more exercise your reason if you _live_ in constant\n      dread of laughter than you _can enjoy_ your life if you _live_ in\n      constant dread and terror of death.\n\n\n                    WHICH RELATIVE PRONOUN TO USE\n\n+373.+ We are sometimes confused as to which relative pronoun to use in\nintroducing an adjective clause. We hesitate as to whether we should use\n_that_ or _who_ or _which_. Remember that _who_ always refers to\n_persons_, _which_ refers to _animals_ or _things_, and _that_ may refer\nto either _persons_, _animals_ or _things_.\n\nSo when referring to a _person_, we may use either _who_ or _that_, and\nwhen referring to _animals_ or _things_, we may use either _which_ or\n_that_. As, for example, we may say, either, _The man who was here\nyesterday came back today_, or _The man that was here yesterday came\nback today_. Either is correct, for _who_ and _that_ both refer to\npersons.\n\n+374.+ We may make a little distinction in the use of _who_ and _that_\nwhen referring to _persons_, however. A clause introduced by _that_ is\nusually a restrictive clause. It limits or restricts the meaning of the\nnoun which it modifies. When you say, _The man that was here yesterday_,\nyou mean _that_ man and no other, limiting your meaning to that\nparticular man. On the other hand, when you say, _The man who was here\nyesterday_, there is no restriction or limitation expressed in the use\nof the clause, but it is merely a descriptive clause, adding a new fact\nto our knowledge concerning that particular man.\n\nThe same is true when we are speaking of _things_ using either _that_ or\n_which_. The clause introduced by _which_ is presumably a descriptive\nclause. We do, however, often use _who_ or _which_ when the sense of the\nclause is restrictive, but we should never use _that_ to introduce an\nadjective clause, unless the sense is restrictive. When in your\nsentences you can use, instead of the relative pronoun _who_ or _which_,\nthe conjunction _and_, you can know that the use of the pronoun _who_ or\n_which_ is correct. As, for example:\n\n  I have read the book, _which_ I found very interesting.\n\nYou could say instead:\n\n  I have read the book _and_ I found it very interesting.\n\nThis would express the same meaning. But if you say: _I have read the\nbook that I found very interesting_, you mean that you limit your idea\nto this particular book.\n\n+375.+ We do not always observe these niceties in our spoken and written\nspeech, but it is interesting to know the shades of thought and meaning\nwhich you can express by the proper use of the language. The man who\nruns an engine and learns to know and love his machine almost as though\nit were a human being, can easily recognize the slightest change in the\naction of his machine. His ear catches the least difference in the sound\nof the running of the machine, a difference which we, who do not know\nand love the machine, would never notice.\n\nSo it is in language. Once we have sensed its beauty and its wondrous\npower of expression, we notice all these slight differences and shades\nof meaning which may be expressed by the use of words. In just the same\nmanner the musician catches the undertones and overtones of the music,\nwhich we, who possess an uneducated ear, cannot know; and the artist\nalso has a wondrous range of color, while we, who are not sensitive to\ncolor, know only a few of the primal colors.\n\n\n                    ADJECTIVE CLAUSES WITH CONJUNCTIONS\n\n+376.+ The adjective clauses which we have been studying so far have\nbeen introduced by relative pronouns. Adjective clauses may also be\nintroduced by conjunctions, such as, _where_, _when_, _whence_, or\n_why_. As, for example:\n\n  Antwerp is the place where a terrible battle was fought.\n  No man knows the hour when opportunity will be his.\n  Each group has a different reason why this world-war was precipitated.\n\nNote in these sentences the clauses, _where a terrible battle was\nfought_, _when opportunity will be his_, _why this world-war was\nprecipitated_, are all adjective clauses modifying the nouns _place_,\n_hour_ and _reason_, and are introduced by the conjunctions _where_,\n_when_, and _why_. These are adjective clauses because they modify, by\neither limiting or describing, the nouns with which they are used. You\nwill note that we could omit the nouns in the first two of these\nsentences and these clauses would become noun clauses, for they would be\nused in the place of a noun. As, for example:\n\n  Antwerp is where a terrible battle was fought.\n  No man knows when opportunity will be his.\n\n+377.+ We determine whether a clause is an adjective or an adverb or a\nnoun clause just as we determine whether a word is an adjective, adverb\nor noun, by the work which it does in a sentence. Noun clauses are used\nin the place of a noun; adverb clauses modify verbs, adjectives, and\nadverbs; adjective clauses modify nouns and pronouns.\n\n\n                    THE LITTLE WORD \"AS\"\n\n+378.+ Adjective clauses may also be introduced by _as_. _As_ is a very\nconvenient word and may be used in several different ways; sometimes as\nan adverb, sometimes as a conjunction; and it may also be used as a\nrelative pronoun after _such_, _same_ and _many_. For example:\n\n  Such books _as_ you should read are listed here.\n  No such person _as_ he ever came here.\n  We are facing the same crisis _as_ our comrades faced.\n  This is the same _as_ you gave before.\n  He has made as many mistakes _as_ you have.\n\nIn these sentences _as_ is really used as a relative pronoun, connecting\nthese adjective clauses to the words which they modify. _As_ may also be\nused as an adverb. _I am as tall as you are._\n\nHere the first _as_ modifies _tall_ and is used as an adverb; the second\n_as_ is a conjunction connecting the subordinate clause _you are_, with\nthe principal clause. Note that in making comparisons, _as_ is always\nused when the comparison is equal, _so_ when it is unequal, thus:\n\n  I am _as_ tall as you are.\n  She is not _so_ tall as you are.\n\nWe have found that _as_ is also used as a conjunction to introduce an\nadverb clause. For example:\n\n  She is as beautiful _as_ she is good.\n\nThe clause, _as she is good_, is an adverb clause, modifying the\nadjective _beautiful_. In the sentence, _Do as I say_, _as I say_ is an\nadverb clause of manner, modifying the verb _do_.\n\n\n                    CONNECTIVE WORDS\n\n+379.+ Let us not be confused in this matter of connectives. There are\njust four classes of connective words:\n\n  1. +Copulative verbs.+\n  2. +Relative pronouns.+\n  3. +Prepositions.+\n  4. +Conjunctions.+\n\n+380.+ The copulative verb is not a pure connective, for it serves\nanother purpose in the sentence. For example, in the sentence, _The book\nis interesting_, the copulative verb _is_ connects the adjective\n_interesting_ with the noun _book_, which it modifies; but it also is\nthe asserting word in the sentence. So it fulfils a double function. It\nis an asserting word and also a connective word.\n\n+381.+ The relative pronoun also is not a pure connective, for it serves\ntwo purposes in the sentence. It not only connects the clause which it\nintroduces, with the word which it modifies, but it also serves as\neither the subject or object in the clause. For example: _The man who\nwas here has gone_. The clause, _who was here_, is introduced by the\nrelative pronoun _who_, which connects that clause with the noun _man_,\nwhich the clause modifies. _Who_ also serves as the subject of the verb\n_was_.\n\nIn the sentence, _The men whom we seek have gone_, the clause, _whom we\nseek_, is introduced by the relative pronoun _whom_, which connects the\nclause with the word _men_, which it modifies. _Whom_ also serves as the\nobject of the verb in the clause, the verb _seek_.\n\n+382.+ A preposition is not a pure connective, since it serves a double\nfunction. It shows the relation of its object to the rest of the\nsentence and also governs the form of its object. As, for example, in\nthe sentence: _The man before me is not the culprit_, the preposition\n_before_ connects its object _me_ with the noun _man_, which the\nprepositional phrase modifies, showing the relation between them; and it\ngoverns the form of its object, for the pronoun following a preposition\nmust be used in the _object_ form.\n\n+383.+ Even co-ordinate conjunctions can scarcely be considered pure\nconnectives unless it be the co-ordinate conjunction _and_. Co-ordinate\nconjunctions such as _but_, _yet_, _still_, _however_, etc., not only\nconnect words, phrases and clauses of equal rank, but in addition to\nconnecting the words and expressions they also indicate that they are\nopposite in thought.\n\n+384.+ Co-ordinate conjunctions like _therefore_, _hence_, _then_, etc.,\nconnect words, phrases and clauses of equal rank, and also introduce a\n_reason_ or _cause_. Co-ordinate conjunctions like _or_, _either_,\n_nor_, _neither_, _whether_, etc., connect words, phrases and clauses of\nequal rank, and also express the choice of an alternative. Thus these\nco-ordinate conjunctions can scarcely be considered as pure connectives.\n\n+385.+ Subordinate conjunctions are most frequently used to introduce\nadverb clauses and have an adverbial meaning. They express, as do\nadverbs, _place_, _time_, _manner_, _cause_, _reason_, _purpose_,\n_condition_ or _result_. Some authorities indicate this double function\nby calling such words as these conjunctive adverbs, because, even when\nthey are used as conjunctions, they retain some of their adverbial\nforce.\n\nBut according to our rule that every word in the sentence is classified\naccording to the function which it performs in that sentence, all words\nthat perform the function of a conjunction are called conjunctions,\nalthough we understand that these conjunctions which introduce dependent\nclauses do still retain some of their adverbial meaning.\n\n\n                    Exercise 3\n\nIn the following sentences the connectives are in italics. Determine\nwhether they are copulative verbs, relative pronouns, prepositions,\nco-ordinate conjunctions or subordinate conjunctions.\n\n  1. They _are_ slaves _who_ dare not be _in_ the right _with_ two\n     _or_ three.\n  2. _In_ the twentieth century war _will be_ dead, dogmas _will be_\n     dead, _but_ man will live.\n  3. The abuse _of_ free speech dies _in_ a day, _but_ its denial slays\n     the life _of_ the people _and_ entombs the race.\n  4. Liberty _for_ the few _is_ not liberty.\n  5. Liberty _for_ me _and_ slavery _for_ you means slavery _for_ both.\n  6. The greatest thing _in_ the world _is for_ a man to know _that_ he\n     _is_ his own.\n  7. Nothing can work me damage _except_ myself.\n  8. He _that_ loveth maketh his own the grandeur _which_ he loves.\n  9. My life _is_ not an apology, _but_ a life.\n  10. I cannot consent to pay _for_ a privilege _where_ I have intrinsic\n      right.\n  11. It _is_ difficult to free fools _from_ the chains _which_ they\n      revere.\n  12. Desire nothing _for_ yourself _which_ you do not desire _for\n      others_.\n  13. All our liberties _are_ due _to_ men _who_, _when_ their\n      conscience compelled them, have broken the laws _of_ the land.\n  14. \"It takes great strength to live _where_ you belong,\n      _When_ other people think _that_ you _are_ wrong.\"\n  15. _If_ the truth shall make you free, ye _shall be_ free indeed.\n  16. He _is_ true _to_ God _who is_ true _to_ man.\n\n\n                    Exercise 4\n\nIn the following sentences underscore all the connectives--copulative\nverbs, prepositions, relative pronouns, co-ordinate and subordinate\nconjunctions.\n\n\"There was a bird's egg once, picked up by chance upon the ground, and\nthose who found it bore it home and placed it under a barn-yard fowl.\nAnd in time the chick bred out, and those who had found it chained it by\nthe leg to a log lest it should stray and be lost. And by and by they\ngathered round it, and speculated as to what the bird might be.\n\nOne said, \"It is surely a waterfowl, a duck, or it may be a goose; if we\ntook it to the water it would swim and gabble.\" But another said, \"It\nhas no webs to its feet; it is a barn-yard fowl; if you should let it\nloose it will scratch and cackle with the others on the dungheap.\" But a\nthird speculated, \"Look now at its curved beak; no doubt it is a parrot,\nand can crack nuts.\"\n\nBut a fourth said, \"No, but look at its wings; perhaps it is a bird of\ngreat flight.\" But several cried, \"Nonsense! No one has ever seen it\nfly! Why should it fly? Can you suppose that a thing can do a thing\nwhich no one has ever seen it do?\" And the bird, with its leg chained\nclose to the log, preened its wings.\n\nSo they say about it, speculating and discussing it: and one said this,\nand another that.\n\nAnd all the while, as they talked, the bird sat motionless, \"Suppose we\nlet the creature loose to see what it will do?\"--and the bird shivered.\nBut the others cried, \"It is too valuable; it might get lost. If it were\nto try to fly it might fall down and break its neck.\" And the bird, with\nits foot chained to the log, sat looking upward into the clear sky; the\nsky, in which it had never been--for the bird--the bird, knew what it\nwould do--because it was an eaglet!\"\n\n                                        --_Olive Schreiner_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 5\n\nThese stirring lines are taken from Arturo Giovannitti's \"Arrows in the\nGale\" and are a part of the poem \"The Sermon on the Common.\" Note the\nuse of the conjunctions. Mark all of the clauses.\n\n  Ye are the power of the earth, the foundations of society, the\n  thinkers and the doers of all things good and all things fair and\n  useful, the makers and dispensers of all the bounties and the joys and\n  the happiness of the world, and if ye fold your mighty arms, all the\n  life of the world stands still and death hovers on the darkened abodes\n  of man.\n\n  Ye are the light of the world. There was darkness in all the ages when\n  the torch of your will did not blaze forth, and the past and the\n  future are full of the radiance that cometh from your eyes.\n\n  Ye are eternal, even as your father, labor, is eternal, and no power\n  of time and dissolution can prevail against you.\n\n  Ages have come and gone, kingdoms and powers and dynasties have risen\n  and fallen, old glories and ancient wisdoms have been turned into\n  dust, heroes and sages have been forgotten and many a mighty and\n  fearsome god has been hurled into the lightless chasms of oblivion.\n\n  But ye, Plebs, Populace, People, Rabble, Mob, Proletariat, live and\n  abide forever.\n\n  Therefore I say unto you, banish fear from your hearts, dispel the\n  mists of ignorance from your minds, arm your yearning with your\n  strength, your vision with your will, and open your eyes and behold.\n\n  Do not moan, do not submit, do not kneel, do not pray, do not wait.\n\n  Think, dare, do, rebel, fight--ARISE!\n\n  It is not true that ye are condemned to serve and to suffer in shame\n  forever.\n\n  It is not true that injustice, iniquity, hunger, misery, abjection,\n  depravity, hatred, theft, murder and fratricide are eternal.\n\n  There is no destiny that the will of man cannot break.\n\n  There are no chains of iron that other iron cannot destroy.\n\n  There is nothing that the power of your arms, lighted by the power of\n  your mind, cannot transform and reconstruct and remake.\n\n  Arise, then, ye men of the plow and the hammer, the helm and the\n  lever, and send forth to the four winds of the earth your new\n  proclamation of freedom which shall be the last and shall abide\n  forevermore.\n\n  Through you, through your united, almighty strength, order shall\n  become equity, law shall become liberty, duty shall become love and\n  religion shall become truth.\n\n  Through you, the man-beast shall die and the man be born.\n\n  Through you, the dark and bloody chronicles of the brute shall cease\n  and the story of man shall begin.\n\n  Through you, by the power of your brain and hand,\n\n  All the predictions of the prophets,\n\n  All the wisdom of the sages,\n\n  All the dreams of the poets,\n\n  All the hopes of the heroes,\n\n  All the visions of the martyrs,\n\n  All the prayers of the saints,\n\n  All the crushed, tortured, strangled, maimed and murdered ideals of\n  the ages, and all the glorious destinies of mankind shall become a\n  triumphant and everlasting reality in the name of labor and bread and\n  love, the great threefold truth forever.\n\n  And lo and behold, my brothers, this shall be called the revolution.\n\n\n\n\n                    SPELLING\n\n                    LESSON 22\n\n\nIn our study of the spelling of English words we have found that there\nare not many rules that apply. In fact, the only way to learn to spell\ncorrectly is by sheer dint of memory.\n\nIn last week's lesson we found that a number of adjectives can be formed\nfrom nouns or verbs by the addition of _able_ or _ible_, but we find it\ndifficult to determine whether to add _able_ or _ible_. The sound is\npractically the same and we are confused as to whether we should use _a_\nor _i_. There is no rule which applies in this case and there is nothing\nto do but to master the spelling of these words by memory. These are\nwords which we use a great deal and which are very helpful members of\nour working vocabulary.\n\nOur list of words in this week's lesson contain some of the most common\nwords which we use ending in _ible_ or _able_. The words for Monday,\nTuesday, and Wednesday all end in _able_; the words for Thursday,\nFriday, and Saturday will end in _ible_. Notice them carefully and get\nfixed firmly in mind the correct spelling. Notice also that most of\nthese adjectives can be changed into adverbs by changing _ble_ to _bly_.\nSo when you have added these adjectives to your vocabulary, you have\nalso added the adverbs as well.\n\n  +Monday+\n\n    Probable\n    Capable\n    Usable\n    Considerable\n    Respectable\n\n  +Tuesday+\n\n    Durable\n    Salable\n    Advisable\n    Available\n    Equitable\n\n  +Wednesday+\n\n    Tolerable\n    Profitable\n    Remarkable\n    Valuable\n    Comfortable\n\n  +Thursday+\n\n    Possible\n    Horrible\n    Plausible\n    Intelligible\n    Terrible\n\n  +Friday+\n\n    Credible\n    Visible\n    Infallible\n    Responsible\n    Sensible\n\n  +Saturday+\n\n    Forcible\n    Permissible\n    Feasible\n    Corruptible\n    Eligible\n\n\n\n\n                    PLAIN ENGLISH\n\n                    LESSON 23\n\n\nDear Comrade:\n\nIn this lesson we are taking up the study of interjections.\nInterjections are the language of emotion. This was probably the\nearliest form of speech. You notice that children use these exclamations\noften, and the sounds which are imitations of the noises about them.\nThis language belongs also to the savage, whose peculiar and expressive\ngrunts contain whole areas of condensed thought. As we progress from\nfeeling to thinking, the use of the interjection diminishes.\n\nYou will not find interjections used in a book on mathematics or\nphysical science or history. To attempt to read one of these books may\nmake you use interjections and express your emotion in violent language,\nbut you will not find interjections in these books. These books of\nscience are books that express thought and not feeling. But if you turn\nto fiction and to oratory you will find the interjection used freely,\nfor these are the books which treat of the human emotions and feelings.\nEspecially in poetry will you find the interjection used, for poetry is\nthe language of feeling and the interjection is an important part of the\npoet's stock in trade.\n\nIn conversation, these exclamatory words are very useful. They fill the\ngaps in our conversation and they help to put the listener and the\nspeaker in touch with one another. They are usually accompanied by a\ngesture, which adds force to the word. The tone of the voice in which\nthey are expressed also means a great deal. You can say, Oh! in half a\ndozen different ways; you may express surprise, wonder, joy, sorrow,\npain, or disgust. A great many different and widely separated feelings\ncan be expressed simply by the tone in which you use the exclamatory\nwords. Some one has said that these words grease the wheels of talk.\nThey serve to help the timid, to give time to the unready and to keep up\na pleasant semblance of familiarity.\n\nWhen we use them in the stress of emotion to express deep feeling, their\nuse is perfectly justified. But one author has called these words \"the\nmiserable refuge of the speechless.\" We use them many times because we\nhave no words with which to express ourselves. This use is unjustified.\nBe careful that you do not use them in this way. It has been said that\nthe degree of a man's civilization can be pretty fairly judged by the\nexpletives which he uses. Do not sprinkle your conversation with\ninterjections and even stronger words because you are at a loss for\nother words.\n\nThere is a rich mine of words at your disposal. Do not be satisfied with\nbits of glass that have no value, when the rich diamonds of real\nexpression can be yours for just a little digging. Save your emotional\nlanguage for the time when you really need it to express deep emotion.\n\n                    Yours for Education,\n\n                              THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.\n\n\n                    INTERJECTIONS\n\n+386.+ We have been studying the parts of speech,--the elements of which\nsentences are composed. But we have another class of words which we call\nparts of speech because they are spoken and written as words, but which\nare really not parts of speech in the same sense as the words which we\nhave been discussing. These are words which we call interjections.\n\nInterjection means, literally, thrown between, from _jecto_, to throw,\nand _inter_, between. So interjections do not enter into the\nconstruction of sentences but are only thrown in between. Every word\nthat is really a part of the sentence is either a noun, a pronoun, a\nverb, an adjective, an adverb, a preposition or a conjunction.\n\nThere are words, however, that we use with sentences which do not enter\ninto the construction. For example, you say:\n\n  Oh! I am wounded.\n  Aha! I have conquered.\n  Alas! He came too late.\n\n+387.+ Words which we use in these sentences, like, _oh_, _aha_, _alas_,\nare used to express the emotion which you feel in making the statement.\nYour _Oh!_ in a sentence like: _Oh! I am wounded_, would probably sound\nvery much like a groan. But your _Aha!_ in the, _Aha! I have conquered_,\nwill sound like a shout of victory, and your _Alas!_ in the sentence,\n_Alas! He came too late_, will express grief or regret over the fact\nthat he came too late.\n\nThese words do not assert anything and very much of the meaning which we\ngive them must come from the tone in which they are uttered. Every one,\nupon hearing them, knows at once whether they express grief or delight.\n\n+388.+ +An interjection is an exclamatory word or phrase used to express\nfeeling or to imitate some sound.+\n\n+389.+ Interjections may be divided into four classes:\n\n1. +Words which we use instead of an assertion to express feeling of\nvarious kinds+, as:\n\n  (a) Surprise or wonder; as, _Oh_, _Aha_, _What_.\n  (b) Pleasure, joy, or exaltation; as, _Hurrah_, _Ha, Ha_.\n  (c) Pain, sadness or sorrow; as, _Alas_, _Alack_.\n  (d) Contempt or disgust; as _Fie_, _Fudge_, _Ugh_, _Pshaw_.\n\n2. +Words used instead of a question+; as, _Eh?_ _Hey?_\n\n3. +Words used instead of a command+; as:\n\n  (a)  To call attention; as, _Hello_, _Ahoy_, _Whoa_.\n  (b)  To express silence; as, _Shh_, _Hush_, _Hist_.\n  (c)  To direct or drive out, etc., as, _Whoa_, _Gee_, _Haw_, _Scat_.\n\n4. +Words used to imitate sounds made by animals, machines, etc.+, as,\n_Bow-wow_, _Ding-dong_, _Bang_, _Rub-a-dub_.\n\nWhen we wish to imitate noises or sounds made by animals, machines,\netc., in writing, we spell out the words as nearly as we can, just as we\nwrite _ding-dong_ to represent the sound of the bell or _tick-tock_ to\nindicate the ticking of a clock.\n\nNote that a number of our verbs and nouns have been formed from\nimitating the sound which these nouns or verbs describe or express, as\nfor instance, _crash_, _roar_, _buzz_, _hush_, _groan_, _bang_, _puff_,\netc.\n\n\n                    Exercise 1\n\nMark the interjections in the following sentences. Which express\nsurprise? Which joy? Which sorrow? Which disgust?\n\n  1. Alas! We shall never meet again.\n  2. Bravo! You have done well.\n  3. Pshaw! Is that the best you can do?\n  4. Ship ahoy! All hands on deck.\n  5. Hello! When did you come?\n  6. Hurrah! We have won the victory.\n  7. Alas, alack! Those days will never come again.\n  8. Hist! You must be as still as mice.\n\n\n                    Exercise 2\n\nWrite sentences using an interjection to express: 1. Joy. 2. Surprise.\n3. Pain. 4. Sorrow. 5. Disgust. 6. To ask a question. 7. To call\nattention. 8. To silence. 9. To direct. 10. To imitate the sound made by\nan animal. 11. By a machine.\n\n\n                    EXCLAMATORY WORDS\n\n+390.+ Interjections express only emotion or feeling. They do not\nexpress ideas. However, we have a number of words which are used\nsomewhat as interjections are used, which we may class as exclamatory\nwords, but they express more than interjections, for they express ideas\nas well as emotions; but, like interjections, they are used\nindependently and have no part in the construction of the sentence.\n\n+391.+ Many ordinary words and phrases are used in this way as\nexclamations. When they are so used they have no place in the\nconstruction of the sentence; that is, they do not depend upon the\nsentence in which they are used, in any way. A noun used in this way is\nnot used as the subject or the object, but simply as an exclamation.\n\nFor example; the noun _nonsense_ may be used as an interjection, as in\nthe sentence; _Nonsense! I do not believe a word of it_. In this\nsentence, _nonsense_ is a noun used as an interjection and plays no part\nin the sentence, either as subject or object, but is an independent\nconstruction. There are a number of words used in this way:\n\n1. Nouns and pronouns, as _fire_, _mercy_, _shame_, _nonsense_, _the\nidea_, _what_.\n\n2. Verbs like, _help_, _look_, _see_, _listen_, _hark_, _behold_,\n_begone_.\n\n3. Adjectives like, _good_, _well_, _brave_, _welcome_, _strange_.\n\n4. Adverbs like, _out_, _indeed_, _how_, _why_, _back_, _forward_.\n\n5. Prepositions like, _on_, _up_, _down_.\n\n6. Phrases like, _Oh dear_, _dear me_, _good bye_.\n\nWords and phrases such as these, used as exclamations, are not true\ninterjections, for they express a little more than feeling. They express\nan idea which, in our haste, we do not completely express. The other\nwords necessary to the expression of the idea are omitted because of the\nstress of emotion. For example:\n\n  Silence! I will hear no more.\n\nIn this sentence it is understood that we mean, _Let us have silence, I\nwill hear no more_. But in the stress of our emotion, we have omitted\nthe words, _Let us have_.\n\nIf we say, _Good! that will do splendidly_, you know that we mean, _That\nis good_, we have simply omitted _That is_, which is necessary to\ncomplete the sentence. Sometimes when we are greatly excited we abandon\nour sentence construction altogether and use only the most important\nwords. For example:\n\n  A sail! a sail!\n\nThis is not a sentence, for it does not contain a verb, yet we know that\nwhat was meant was, _I see a sail, I see a sail_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 3\n\nWrite sentences using the words given in the foregoing list as\nexclamatory words, and add as many more to the list as you can think of.\n\n\n                    YES AND NO\n\n+392.+ The words _yes_ and _no_, which we use in reply to questions were\noriginally adverbs, but we no longer use them as adverbs. We no longer\ncombine them with other words as modifying or limiting words, but use\nthem independently. They are in themselves complete answers. Thus, if\nyou ask me the question, _Will you come?_ I may say _Yes_, meaning, _I\nwill come_; or, _No_, meaning, _I will not come_.\n\nThe responsives _yes_ and _no_ thus stand for whole sentences, so they\nare really independent words. We may use them in connection with other\nsentences. For example; I may say, _Yes, I will come_, or _No, I will\nnot come_. Used in this way, they still retain an independent\nconstruction in the sentence. We call them responsives because they are\nused in response to questions.\n\n\n                    OTHER INDEPENDENT EXPRESSIONS\n\n+393.+ Other words may be used in an independent construction in\nsentences, without depending upon the sentence in which they are used or\nwithout having the sentences depend upon them, such as:\n\n1. +A word used in address.+ For example:\n\n  Mr. President, I move that a committee be now appointed.\n  Fellow Workers, I rise to address you.\n\nIn these sentences, _Mr. President_ and _Fellow Workers_ are nouns used\nindependently; that is, they are neither the subject of the sentence nor\nused as object or predicate complement. They are independent of all\nother words in the sentence.\n\nThe most common use of words used independently in direct address occurs\nwith imperative sentences. For example:\n\n  _Comrades_, rouse yourselves.\n  _Men_, strike for freedom.\n\n2. +Exclamatory expressions.+ These are nouns used in the manner in\nwhich we have already discussed, as in the sentence:\n\n  _Nonsense!_ I do not believe a word of it.\n  Alas! poor _Yorick_! I knew him well.\n\n3. +Words and phrases used parenthetically+, as for example:\n\n  _By the way_, I met a friend of yours today.\n  We cannot, _however_, join you at once.\n  He called, _it seems_, while we were gone.\n\nIn these sentences such words as, _however_, and such phrases as, _by\nthe way_, and, _it seems_, are used independently,--in parenthesis, as\nit were; that is, they are just thrown into the sentences in such a way\nthat they do not modify or depend upon any other word in the sentence.\nWhen we analyze our sentences, these independent words are not\nconsidered as elements of the sentences in which they are used. It is\nsufficient to say that they are independent words.\n\n4. +Conjunctions used as introductory words.+ We have noted the use of\nconjunctions like the co-ordinates _and_, _but_, etc., and the\nsubordinates _because_, _in order that_, _so_, _for_, _wherefore_,\n_how_, _whether_, etc., which are used to introduce sentences and\nconnect them in thought with sentences and paragraphs which have gone\nbefore.\n\n\n                    INTRODUCTORY WORDS\n\n+394.+ +We have a number of words which we use to introduce our\nsentences.+ They are such words as, _so_, _well_ and _why_. These are\nordinarily adverbs, but when they are used merely to introduce a\nsentence they retain little of their adverbial force. For example:\n\n  _So_, that is your only excuse.\n  _Well_, I cannot understand why you should accept it.\n  _Why_, that is no reason at all.\n\nIn these sentences, _so_, _well_ and _why_ do not modify any of the\nwords in the sentences, but are used merely to introduce the sentences.\nThey serve in a measure to connect them with something which has gone\nbefore.\n\n+395.+ +The adverb _there_ is also used as an introductory word.+ When\nit is used in this manner, it loses its adverbial force. _There_, as\nordinarily used, is an adverb of place, but it is often used to\nintroduce a sentence. For example: _There is some mistake about it_. In\nthis sentence _there_ is not used as an adverb, but it is used simply as\nan introductory word. It is used to introduce a sentence in which the\nverb comes before the real subject. _Mistake_ is the real subject of the\nverb is, and _there_ is used simply as the introductory word.\n\n+396.+ +The indefinite pronoun _it_ is also used as an introductory\nword+, to introduce a sentence in much the same manner as _there_. The\nreal subject of the verb occurs later in the sentence. For example:\n\n  It is best to know the truth.\n\nThis could be written, _To know the truth is best_, and the entire\nmeaning of the sentence would be conveyed.\n\n+397.+ +Adverbs of mode.+ You remember in our study of adverbs, we had\ncertain adverbs which were called adverbs of mode. These are used to\nmodify the entire sentence. They express the feeling in which the entire\nsentence is uttered. Adverbs of mode may be regarded also as independent\nwords. They are such words as, _indeed_, _surely_, _certainly_,\n_perhaps_, etc. For example:\n\n  _Indeed_, I cannot tell you now.\n  _Surely_, I will comply with your request.\n  _Perhaps_ it may be true.\n  I _certainly_ hope to do so before long.\n\n\n                    Exercise 4\n\nNote in the following sentences the words which are pure interjections,\nand those which are other parts of speech used as exclamatory words.\nMark those which are used in direct address, those which are used\nparenthetically, and those which are used as mere introductory words.\n\n  1. Oh, it seems impossible to believe it.\n  2. Surely, you will accept my word.\n  3. Nonsense, there is not the least truth in the story.\n  4. It will be impossible for us to join.\n  5. Therefore we urge you to join in this campaign.\n  6. There is only one solution to the problem.\n  7. It is difficult to discover the true facts.\n  8. Well, I have done my best to persuade you.\n  9. Mr. Chairman, I rise to a point of order.\n  10. Comrades, come and stand for your rights.\n  11. Yes, I have studied that philosophy.\n  12. Enough! we have been enslaved too long.\n  13. Hark! we hear the tramp of the army of labor.\n  14. Alas! that any should refuse to join in this battle.\n  15. You have not, it seems, understood the issue.\n  16. Indeed, solidarity is our only hope.\n  17. Br-r-r-r-r-r-r, thus whirl the machines that grind our children's\n      lives.\n  18. Hush! Over the crash of the cannon sounds the wail of Europe's\n      women and children.\n\n\n                    EXPLANATORY WORDS\n\n+398.+ We sometimes use words which do not belong in the construction of\na sentence to explain other words in the sentence. For example:\n\n  We, _the undersigned_, subscribe as follows:\n  Helen Keller, _the most wonderful woman of this age_, champions the\n  cause of the working class.\n\nIn the first sentence, the words, _the undersigned_, are added to the\npronoun _we_ to explain who _we_ means. In the second sentence, the\nwords, _the most wonderful woman of this age_, are added to explain who\nHelen Keller is. Words added to other words in this way are called\nexplanatory words. They are placed in apposition to the noun which they\nexplain. Apposition means _by the side of_, or _in position near_. You\nremember that in clauses we found that a clause may be placed in\napposition with a noun to explain the meaning of that noun. For example:\n\n  There is an old saying, _in union there is strength_.\n\nThese words in apposition may themselves be modified or limited by other\nwords or phrases or clauses. For example:\n\n  Helen Keller, the most wonderful woman of this age, champions the\n  cause of the working class.\n\nIn this sentence, _woman_ is the noun placed in apposition to the\nparticular name, Helen Keller, and the noun _woman_ is modified by the\nadjectives _the_, and _wonderful_, and by the phrase _of this age_.\n\nSometimes a second explanatory word is placed in apposition to the first\none. This is quite often the case in legal documents or resolutions,\nwhere the language is quite formal. For example:\n\n  We, the undersigned, _members of Local No. 38_, do hereby move, etc.\n  I, John Smith, _Notary Public_, in and for the county of Clay, etc.\n\nThese words, _undersigned_ and _members_, are both placed in apposition\nto the pronoun _We_, explaining to whom that pronoun refers.\n\n\n                    Exercise 5\n\nIn the following sentences note the explanatory words and their\nmodifiers:\n\n  1. Wendell Phillips, the great abolitionist, was a man of genius.\n  2. Buckle, the historian, writes from the view point of the\n     materialistic conception of history.\n  3. Giovannitti, the poet, wrote \"Arrows in the Gale.\"\n  4. Helen Keller, champion of the working class, wrote the introduction\n     to this book.\n  5. We, the workers of the world, will some day claim our own.\n  6. He was found guilty of treason, a crime punishable by death.\n  7. Ferrer, the martyr of the twentieth century, was put to death by\n     the Spanish government.\n  8. Jaures, the great French socialist, was the first martyr to peace.\n  9. But ye, Plebs, Populace, People, Rabble, Mob, Proletariat, live and\n     abide forever.\n  10. Ye are eternal, even as your father, labor, is eternal.\n  11. This document, the Constitution of the United States, hinders the\n      progress of the people.\n  12. The memory of Guttenberg, the inventor of the printing press,\n      should be reverenced by every class-conscious worker.\n  13. Wallace, the scientist and author, was co-discoverer with Darwin\n      of the theory of evolution.\n  14. Karl Marx, the thinker, applied this theory to social forces.\n  15. Do you understand the three basic principles of Socialism--the\n      class struggle, economic determinism and surplus value?\n\n\n                    Exercise 6\n\nRead the following list of words and note the ideas which they suggest\nto you, then make sentences containing these words, _modified by a word\nor group of words in apposition_, which explain more fully these words.\n\n  Law, martyr, society, education, inventor, commander, freedom, Eugene\n  V. Debs, Karl Marx, Kaiser Wilhelm, The Balkan, Lawrence, Colorado,\n  Calumet.\n\n\n                    ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTION\n\n+399.+ We have found that every word in a sentence bears some relation\nto every other word, except these words which we have been studying,\nwhich we use independently. These explanatory words which we have just\nbeen studying are not used independently, but do in a sense modify the\nnoun with which they are placed in apposition. Sometimes we place a noun\nor a pronoun and its modifiers alongside the whole sentence and it does\nnot really modify any part of the sentence, but modifies the whole\nsentence in a way, for it expresses an attendant thought or an\naccompanying circumstance. For example:\n\n  The workers being unorganized, the strike was easily defeated.\n  The strikers having won, work was resumed on their terms.\n\n_The workers being unorganised_ and _the strikers having won_ are not\nclauses for they do not contain a verb. _Being unorganized_ and _having\nwon_ are participles. Neither do they modify any word in the sentence.\nThey are not placed in apposition with any other word. While they do\nexpress a thought in connection with the sentence, in construction they\nseem to be cut loose from the rest of the sentence; that is, they are\nnot closely connected with the sentence, hence they are called absolute\nconstructions. _Ab_ means from, and _solute_, loose; so this means,\nliterally, loose from the rest of the sentence.\n\nWe speak of these as absolute constructions, instead of independent,\nbecause the thought expressed is connected with the main thought of the\nsentence and is really a part of it. Notice that the noun used in the\nabsolute construction is not the _subject_ of the sentence.\n\nTake the sentence, _The workers being unorganized, the strike was_\n_easily defeated_, the noun _strike_ is the subject of the sentence, and\nthe noun _workers_ is used in the absolute construction with the\nparticiple, _being unorganized_.\n\nThese absolute constructions can ordinarily be rewritten into adverb\nclauses. For example, this sentence might read: _The strike was easily\ndefeated because the workers were unorganized_. Do not make the mistake\nof rewriting your sentences and using the noun in the absolute\nconstruction as the subject of the sentence. For example:\n\n  The workers, being unorganized, were easily defeated.\n\nThis is not the meaning of this sentence. The meaning of the sentence is\nthat the _strike_ was easily defeated _because_ the workers were\nunorganized. But the adverb clause, _because the workers were\nunorganized_, instead of being written as an adverb clause, has been\nwritten in the absolute construction, _the workers being unorganized_.\n\nWhile it is nearly always possible to change these absolute\nconstructions into adverb clauses the sentences are sometimes weakened\nby the change. These absolute constructions often enable us to make a\nstatement in a stronger manner than we could make it with a clause or in\nany other way.\n\n\n                    Exercise 7\n\nIn the following sentences, note the groups of words which are used in\nabsolute construction. Rewrite these sentences and if possible change\nthese words used in absolute construction into equivalent adverb phrases\nor clauses. Note how some of the sentences are weakened when you make\nthis change.\n\n  1. _Nationalism having been taught to generation after generation_,\n     the workers obeyed the call of the master class to slaughter their\n     fellow workers.\n  2. _The hour having arrived_, Ferrer was blindfolded and led forth to\n     die.\n  3. _The mass being without education_, capitalism gains an easy\n     victory.\n  4. _The class struggle being a fact_, why should we hesitate to join\n     our class?\n  5. _These facts being true_, such a conclusion is inevitable.\n  6. _Darwin having stated the theory of evolution_, Marx applied its\n     principles to social science.\n  7. _Chattel slavery having been destroyed_, wage-slavery became the\n     corner stone of capitalism.\n  8. _The price having been paid_, we claim our own.\n  9. _The battle ended_, the army left the trenches.\n\n\n                    Exercise 8\n\nMark the interjections in the following quotations. Note the independent\nconstructions. Mark the words used as explanatory words in apposition.\n\n  In the mind's eye, I see a wonderful building, something like the\n  Coliseum of ancient Rome. The galleries are black with people; tier\n  upon tier rise like waves the multitude of spectators who have come to\n  see a great contest. A great contest, indeed! A contest in which all\n  the world and all the centuries are interested. It is the contest--the\n  fight to death--between Truth and Error.\n\n  The door opens, and a slight, small, shy and insignificant looking\n  thing steps into the arena. It is Truth. The vast audience bursts into\n  hilarious and derisive laughter. What! Is this Truth? This shuddering\n  thing in tattered clothes, and almost naked? And the house shakes\n  again with mocking and hisses.\n\n  The door opens again, and Error enters--clad in cloth of gold,\n  imposing in appearance, tall of stature, glittering with gems, sleek\n  and huge and ponderous, causing the building to tremble with the thud\n  of its steps. The audience is for a moment dazzled into silence, then\n  it breaks into applause, long and deafening. \"Welcome!\" \"Welcome!\" is\n  the greeting from the multitude. \"Welcome!\" shout ten thousand\n  throats.\n\n  The two contestants face each other. Error, in full armor--backed by\n  the sympathies of the audience, greeted by the clamorous cheering of\n  the spectators; and Truth, scorned, scoffed at, and hated. \"The issue\n  is a foregone conclusion,\" murmurs the vast audience. \"Error will\n  trample Truth under its feet.\"\n\n  The battle begins. The two clinch, separate, and clinch again. Truth\n  holds its own. The spectators are alarmed. Anxiety appears in their\n  faces. Their voices grow faint. Is it possible? Look! See! There!\n  Error recedes! It fears the gaze of Truth! It shuns its beauteous\n  eyes! Hear it shriek and scream as it feels Truth's squeeze upon its\n  wrists. Error is trying to break away from Truth's grip. It is making\n  for the door. It is gone!\n\n  The spectators are mute. Every tongue is smitten with the palsy. The\n  people bite their lips until they bleed. They cannot explain what they\n  have seen. \"Oh! who would have believed it?\" \"Is it possible?\"--they\n  exclaim. But they cannot doubt what their eyes have seen--that puny\n  and insignificant looking thing called Truth has put ancient and\n  entrenched Error, backed by the throne, the altar, the army, the\n  press, the people and the gods--to rout.\n\n  The pursuit of truth! Is it not worth living for? To seek the truth,\n  to love the truth, to live the truth? Can any religion offer\n  more?--_Mangasarian_.\n\n\n\n\n                    SPELLING\n\n                    LESSON 23\n\n\nMany words contain letters for which there are no corresponding sounds\nin the spoken words. Thus, in the spoken word _though_ there are only\ntwo sounds, the _th_ and the _o_; _u_ and _g_ and _h_ are silent. There\nare a great many words in the English language which contain these\nsilent letters. There has been a movement inaugurated for the purpose of\nsimplifying the spelling of these words, omitting these silent letters.\nSome writers have adopted this method of simplified spelling, and so in\nsome magazines and books which you read you will find these silent\nletters dropped; for example, you will find _though_ spelled _tho_,\n_through_ spelled _thru_.\n\nThis method of simplified spelling has not been universally adopted and\nwe have not followed it in these lessons because we feared that it would\nbe confusing. Probably in most of your reading you will find the old\nmethod of spelling followed and all of these silent letters included. No\ndoubt, as time goes on, we shall adopt this simplified method of\nspelling and drop all of these silent and useless letters.\n\nIn our spelling lesson for this week we have a number of words\ncontaining silent letters.\n\n\n                    +MONDAY+\n\nIn a number of words you will find _ea_ pronounced as short _e_. The\nboard of simplified spelling has suggested that we drop the _a_, which\nis a silent letter, from these words. If we adopted their suggestion,\nwords like _head_ would be spelled _hed_. Note the spelling of the\nfollowing words in which _ea_ is pronounced as short _e_ and the _a_ is\nsilent.\n\nSpread, stead, threat, meant, pleasant, stealth.\n\n\n                    +TUESDAY+\n\nWe have a number of words ending in _ough_ in which the _gh_ is silent.\n\n1. In some of these words the _ou_ is pronounced like _ow_. We have\nalready changed the spelling of a few of these words, for example, we no\nlonger use _plough_, but write it _plow_.\n\n2. In other words ending with _ough_ the _ugh_ is silent and the words\nend with a long _o_ sound, as in _though_. Many writers have dropped the\nsilent letters ugh and spell this simply _tho_.\n\n3. A few other words ending with _ough_ end with a _u_ sound and those\nwho adopt the simplified spelling have dropped the _ough_ and used\nsimply _u_, as in _through_; many writers spell it simply _thru_.\nObserve the spelling of the following words and mark the silent letters:\n\nBough, through, thorough, furlough, borough, though.\n\n\n                    +WEDNESDAY+\n\nWe have a number of words ending in _mn_ in which the _n_ is silent.\nNote the spelling of the following words:\n\nAutumn, solemn, column, kiln, hymn, condemn.\n\n\n                    +THURSDAY+\n\nWe have a number of words containing a silent _b_. Notice the spelling\nof the following words:\n\nDoubt, debt, dumb, limb, thumb, lamb.\n\n\n                    +FRIDAY+\n\nA number of words end with silent _ue_ after _g_. Some writers omit the\nue and probably after a while we will drop this silent _ue_, but you\nwill find it used now in most of your reading. These are such words as:\n\nCatalogue, demagogue, decalogue, tongue, league, harangue.\n\n\n                    +SATURDAY+\n\nWe have a number of words ending with _gh_ in which the _gh_ has the\nsound of _f_, as in the following words:\n\nTrough, rough, enough, laugh, tough, cough.\n\n\n\n\n                    PLAIN ENGLISH\n\n                    LESSON 24\n\n\nDear Comrade:\n\nWe have finished our study of the different parts of speech and are\ngoing to enter upon the work of sentence building. In the next few\nlessons we will gather up all that we have been studying in these\nlessons so far. This is a good time to give this work a thorough review.\nPerhaps there have been a number of things in the lessons which you have\nnot thoroughly understood, or perhaps there have been some rules for\nwhich you have not seen the reason. Now as we begin to construct our\nsentences, all of this will fit into its place. We shall find the reason\nfor many of the things which may not have seemed thoroughly clear to us.\n\nThere _is_ a science in language as in everything else, and language,\nafter all, is governed by the will of the people. This has seemed so\nself-evident to those who make a special study of the language and its\ndevelopment that they have given this power a special name. They speak\nof the \"Genius of the Language\" as though there was some spirit guiding\nand directing the developing power of language.\n\nThere is a spirit guiding and directing the developing power of\nlanguage. That spirit is the creative genius of the people. It is the\nsame spirit that would guide and direct all phases of life into full and\nfree expression, if it were permitted to act. There being no private\nprofit connected with the control of the language, the creative genius\nof the people has had fuller sway.\n\nThe educator sitting in his study cannot make arbitrary rules to change\nor conserve the use of words. The people themselves are the final\narbiter in language. It is the current usage among the masses which puts\nthe final stamp upon any word. Think what this same creative genius\nmight do if it were set free in social life, in industrial life. It\nwould work out those principles which were best fitted to the advance of\nthe people themselves. But those who would profit by the enslavement of\nthe people have put stumbling blocks,--laws, conventions, morals,\ncustoms,--in the way of the people.\n\nTheir creative genius does not have full sway or free sweep, but let us\nrejoice that in language, at least, we are free. And let us, as we\nrealize the power of the people manifest in this phase of life,\ndetermine that the same power shall be set free to work out its will in\nall life. Some day the revolution will come. The people will be free to\nrule themselves, to express their will, not in the realms of words\nalone, but in their social and economic life; and as we become free\nwithin, dare to think for ourselves and to demand our own, we each\nbecome a torch of the revolution, a center of rebellion--one of those\nwho make straight the path for the future.\n\n                    Yours for the Revolution,\n\n                                  THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.\n\n\n                    SENTENCE BUILDING\n\n+400.+ Every expression of a complete thought is a sentence. A sentence\nis the unit in language. Words are the material out of which we build\nour sentences, so we have been studying the various parts of speech that\nare used in sentence building. Now we are ready to use these parts of\nspeech in the building of sentences. We have found that there are eight\nparts of speech, though the interjection, which is termed the eighth\npart of speech, is not in reality a part of the sentence; but is a\ncomplete, independent construction. So in your sentences all of the many\nhundreds of words which we use can be grouped into seven divisions;\n_nouns_, _pronouns_, _adjectives_, _verbs_, _adverbs_, _prepositions_\nand _conjunctions_.\n\n+401.+ You remember in our first lesson we found that there were just\nthree kinds of sentences. The _assertive_, the _interrogative_ and the\n_imperative_; or in other words, sentences which state a _fact_, ask a\n_question_ or give a _command_. We also found that these three kinds of\nsentences could all be expressed in _exclamatory_ form.\n\n\n                    THREE KINDS OF SENTENCES\n\n  +Assertive.+ Makes a statement.\n  +Interrogative.+ Asks a question.\n  +Imperative.+ Gives a command.\n\n  +Assertive sentence;+ _I remember the day._\n  +Interrogative sentence;+ _Do you not remember the day?_\n  +Imperative sentence;+ _Remember the day._\n\n\n  In Exclamatory Form\n\n  +Assertive;+ _Nonsense! I remember the day._\n  +Interrogative;+ _What! Do you not remember the day?_\n  +Imperative;+ _Oh come! Remember the day._\n\n\n                    ANALYSIS--SIMPLE SENTENCES\n\n+402.+ Now that we have finished the study of the various parts of\nspeech, we are ready for sentence building and for sentence analysis.\nSentence analysis is the breaking up of the sentence into its different\nparts in order to find out how and why it is thus put together. To\nanalyze anything is to break it up or separate it into its different\nparts. We speak of analyzing a sentence when we pick out the subject and\nthe predicate and their modifiers, because we thus unloosen them or\nseparate them from one another.\n\nThese parts of the sentence are called the elements of the sentence. The\nelements of a sentence consist of the words, phrases and clauses used in\nforming the sentence.\n\n+403.+ Let us begin from the simplest beginning and build up our\nsentences, using the various parts of speech as we have studied them.\nLet us take the simplest form of sentence which we can consider. For\nexample:\n\n  Men work.\n\nThere are only three parts of speech which can be used to make a simple\nsentence in this manner, and these are, either the noun and the verb, or\nthe pronoun and the verb. We might say instead of _Men work_, _They\nwork_, and have a complete sentence.\n\nIn the sentence _Men work_, _men_ is the subject and _work_ is the\npredicate. The subject and the predicate are the two principal elements\nin a sentence. No sentence can be formed without these two parts and\nthese two parts can express a thought without the help of other\nelements. Now we may begin to enlarge the subject by adding modifiers.\n\nYou remember we have found that a noun may be modified by an adjective.\nSo we add the adjective _busy_, and we have:\n\n  Busy men work.\n\nOur simple subject is still the noun _men_, but the complete subject is\nthe noun with its modifier, _busy men_. We may add other adjectives and\nsay:\n\n  The busy, industrious men with families work.\n\nHere we have our simple subject _men_ modified by the adjectives, _the_,\n_busy_ and _industrious_, and also by the adjective phrase, _with\nfamilies_. So the complete subject of the sentence now is, _the busy,\nindustrious men with families_.\n\nOur predicate is still the single verb _work_. Let us now enlarge the\npredicate. We have found that adverbs are used to modify verbs, and so\nwe may say:\n\n  The busy, industrious men with families work hard.\n  The busy, industrious men with families work hard in the factory.\n\nOur simple predicate, _work_ is now enlarged. It is modified by the\nadverb, _hard_ and the adverb phrase, _in the factory_. So our complete\npredicate is now, _work hard in the factory_.\n\n+404.+ These sentences with the simple subject and the simple predicate\nand their modifying words and phrases form simple sentences.\n\n+A simple sentence is one which expresses a single statement, question\nor command.+\n\n+405.+ A simple sentence, therefore, will contain but one subject and\none predicate. The subject may be a compound subject and the predicate\nmay be a compound predicate, but still the sentence expresses a single\nthought. For example: _The boys sing_. This is a simple statement with a\nsimple subject and a simple predicate. Then we may say: _The boys sing\nand play_. We still have a single statement, but a compound predicate,\n_sing and play_.\n\nNow we may make a compound subject, and say, _The boys and girls sing\nand play_, but we have still a single statement, for both predicates are\nasserted of both subjects. So, _The boys and girls sing and play_, is a\nsimple sentence.\n\nIf we say, _The boys sing and the girls play_, we have a compound\nsentence, composed of two simple sentences, _The boys sing_, _The girls\nplay_.\n\nIf we say, _The boys sing while the girls play_, we have a complex\nsentence formed of the simple sentence, _The boys sing_, and the\ndependent clause, _while the girls play_.\n\n+406.+ Now let us sum up our definitions:\n\n+Every sentence must contain two parts, a subject and a predicate.+\n\n+The subject of a sentence is that part about which something is said.+\n\n+The predicate is that part which asserts something of the subject.+\n\n+The simple subject of a sentence is a noun, or the word used in place\nof a noun, without modifiers.+\n\n+The simple predicate is the verb or verb phrase without its modifiers.+\n\n+The complete subject of a sentence is the simple subject with all of\nits modifiers.+\n\n+The complete predicate of a sentence is the simple predicate with all\nof its modifiers.+\n\n+A simple sentence is one which expresses a single statement, question\nor command.+\n\n+A complex sentence is one containing an independent clause and one or\nmore dependent clauses.+\n\n+A compound sentence is one containing two or more independent clauses.+\n\n+A clause is a part of a sentence containing a subject and a predicate.+\n\n\n                    Exercise 1\n\nIn the following sentences the simple subject and the simple predicate\nare printed in _italics_. Find all of the modifiers of the subject and\nall of the modifiers of the predicate, and draw a single line under the\ncomplete subject and two lines under the complete predicate.\n\n  1. Beautiful _pictures hang_ on the wall.\n  2. Those elm _trees grow_ rapidly every year.\n  3. A terrible _storm broke_ unexpectedly at sea.\n  4. The clear, crystal _water runs_ swiftly to the sea.\n  5. The beautiful _flowers fade_ quickly in the heat.\n  6. The happy, boisterous _children play_ at school every day.\n  7. The sturdy _oak_ in the forest _stands_ bravely through every\n     storm.\n  8. Their arching _tops_ almost _speak_ to us.\n  9. A _cry_ of joy _rings_ through the land.\n  10. The _leaves_ of the trees _flutter_ in the wind.\n  11. Great _clouds_ of smoke _float_ in the air.\n\n\n                    Exercise 2\n\nNote carefully the following simple sentences. Each of these groups of\ntwo words will suggest ideas and pictures to you. Lengthen each sentence\nby adding modifiers to the simple subject and to the simple predicate so\nas to make a fuller and more definite statement. For example: _Ships\nsail_. This is a simple subject and simple predicate. We add adjectives\nand an adjective phrase and adverbs and an adverb phrase as modifiers\nand we have, as follows:\n\n  The stately _ships_ in the bay _sail_ proudly away to foreign shores.\n\n  Snow melts.\n  Winds blow.\n  House stands.\n  Boys run.\n  Soldiers fight.\n  Tides flow.\n  Children play.\n  Ships sail.\n  Guns boom.\n  Women endure.\n\n\n                    ANOTHER ELEMENT\n\n+407.+ You will note that all of these verbs which we have used in these\nsentences have been complete verbs as _hang_, _grow_, _runs_, _fade_,\netc. A complete verb, you will remember, is a verb that does not need an\nobject or a complement. It is complete within itself. It may be modified\nby an adverb or an adverb phrase, but when you leave off these modifiers\nyou still have complete sense.\n\nIn any of the sentences above you may cross out the adverb or the adverb\nphrase which modifies the verb and you will still have complete\nsentences. For example:\n\n  Great clouds of smoke float in the air.\n\nHere, the adverb phrase, _in the air_, may be omitted and still we have\ncomplete sense, thus:\n\n  Great clouds of smoke float.\n\n+408.+ The incomplete verbs, however, require either an object or\ncomplement to complete their meaning.\n\nIncomplete verbs are of two kinds; those that express _action_ and those\nthat express _state_ or _condition_.\n\nAn incomplete verb that expresses action requires an object which is the\nreceiver of the action expressed in the verb, so we have another element\nwhich enters into the simple sentence, when we use an incomplete verb.\nFor example:\n\n  The busy man makes shoes.\n\nIn order to complete the sentence, we must use an object with the\nincomplete verb _makes_. To say, _The busy man makes_, is not enough. We\nmust have an object which is the receiver of the action expressed in the\nverb, _makes_. Verbs of action often have two objects. One object names\nthe _thing_ that _receives_ the action and the other names the _thing_\nindirectly _affected_ by the action. For example:\n\n  The tailor made him a coat.\n\n+409.+ _Coat_ is the _direct_ object of the verb _made_. But we have\nanother object in the pronoun _him_. We do not mean that the tailor made\n_him_, but that the tailor made him a _coat_. _Coat_ is the direct\nobject and _him_ is the indirect object. The indirect object is always\nplaced before the direct object. The indirect object may be used as the\nobject of the preposition _to_ or _for_. As for example, this sentence\nmight be rewritten to read, _The tailor made a coat for him_. In this\nsentence, _him_ is not the indirect object of the verb, but is the\nobject of the preposition _for_.\n\n+410.+ The direct object of the verb always answers the question _what?_\nAs for example, the tailor made _what?_--_a coat_. The indirect object\nof the verb names the person or thing _to_ or _for_ which the act is\ndone,--_the tailor made a coat for whom?_--for _him_.\n\nThe direct and indirect object become a part of the complete predicate\nof the sentence. There may be other modifiers also, as adverbs or adverb\nphrases, and all of these taken together form the complete predicate in\nthe sentences where you have used an incomplete verb. As for example:\n\n  The tailor gladly made him a coat for the occasion.\n\nThe complete predicate is, _gladly made him a coat for the occasion_,\nformed of the verb _made_, the direct object, _coat_, the indirect\nobject _him_, the adverb modifier, _gladly_, and the phrase modifier,\n_for the occasion_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 3\n\nIn the following sentences, underscore the direct object with one line\nand the indirect object with two lines. The verb is in italics.\n\n  1. He _gave_ her a book.\n  2. He _wrote_ me a long letter.\n  3. Her father _bought_ her a watch.\n  4. The nurse _gave_ the patient his medicine.\n  5. The mother _gave_ her daughter a present.\n  6. _Give_ me time to think.\n  7. The clerk _sold_ her a dress.\n  8. The teacher _read_ the children a story.\n  9. The company _furnishes_ the men food and shelter.\n  10. The man _showed_ us his wounds.\n\n\n                    Exercise 4\n\nIn the following sentences underscore the complete subject and the\ncomplete predicate. Notice especially the direct and the indirect\nobjects of the incomplete verbs. The simple subjects and the direct\nobjects are in italics.\n\n  1. A great many _miles_ separate _us_ from our friends.\n  2. The merry _shouts_ of the children fill the _air_ with music.\n  3. A gentle _breeze_ brings us the _perfume_ of the flowers.\n  4. A careless _druggist_ gave the unfortunate man the wrong\n     _medicine_.\n  5. His admiring _friends_ gave him a beautiful _ring_.\n  6. _Soldiers_ obey _orders_ from their superiors.\n  7. This terrible _war_ claims _thousands_ of victims.\n  8. The _power_ of hunger drives the _unemployed_ to rebellion.\n  9. The _workers_ of the world produce _enough_ for all.\n  10. The retiring _secretary_ showed us a _letter_ from the president.\n  11. The old sea _captain_ told them an interesting _story_ of life at\n      sea.\n  12. _Labor_ produces all _wealth_.\n\n\n                    COPULATIVE VERBS\n\n+411.+ We have another class of incomplete verbs which require a\ncomplement to complete their meaning. These are the copulative verbs.\nThe number of copulative verbs is small. They are: all forms of the verb\n_be_; also, _like_, _appear_, _look_, _feel_, _sound_, _smell_,\n_become_, _seem_, etc. These verbs require a noun or an adjective or a\nphrase as a complement, to complete their meaning. They are really\nconnective words serving to connect the noun or adjective or phrase used\nin the predicate with the noun which they modify. The noun or adjective\nor phrase used to complete the meaning of the copulative verb is called\na predicate complement. For example:\n\n  The man is a hero.\n\nHere we have a noun, _hero_, used as a predicate complement after the\ncopulative verb, _is_, to describe the noun _man_.\n\n  The man is class-conscious.\n\nIn this sentence, we have an adjective, _class-conscious_, in the\npredicate to modify the subject, _man_. It is connected with the subject\nby the copulative verb _is_.\n\n  The man is in earnest.\n\nHere we have a phrase, _in earnest_, used in the predicate to modify the\nnoun _man_, and connected with the subject by the copulative verb _is_.\n\n+412.+ So in the predicate with the copulative verbs--incomplete verbs\nwhich express state or condition--we may use a noun or an adjective or a\nphrase. A noun used as the predicate complement may have modifiers. It\nmay be modified by one or more adjectives or adjective phrases. These\nadjectives in turn may be modified by adverbs. The complete predicate,\nthen, is the copulative verb with its predicate complement and all its\nmodifiers. For example:\n\n  Grant was the most famous general of the Civil war.\n\nIn this sentence, _Grant_ is the complete subject, _was the most famous\ngeneral of the Civil war_ is the complete predicate. _Was_ is the\ncopulative verb; _general_ is the noun used as the predicate complement;\n_the_ and _famous_ are adjectives modifying _general_; _most_ is an\nadverb modifying the adjective _famous_, and, _of the Civil war_ is an\nadjective phrase modifying _general_, so our complete predicate is, _was\nthe most famous general of the Civil war_.\n\nWhen an adjective is used in the predicate complement it, too, may have\nmodifiers and more than one adjective may be used. For example:\n\n  The man is very brave and loyal to his class.\n\nHere we have two adjectives used in the predicate complement, _brave_\nand _loyal_. _Brave_ is modified by the adverb _very_, and _loyal_ is\nmodified by the adverb phrase, _to his class_. The complete predicate\nis, _is very brave and loyal to his class_.\n\nWhen we use a phrase as a predicate complement, it, too, may have\nmodifiers and more than one phrase may be used. For example:\n\n  The man is in the fight and deeply in earnest.\n\nIn this sentence, two phrases are used in the predicate complement, _in\nthe fight_ and _in earnest_. The second phrase, _in earnest_ is modified\nby the adverb _deeply_. The complete predicate is, _is in the fight and\ndeeply in earnest_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 5\n\nFill the blanks in the following sentences with a noun and its modifiers\nused as predicate complement. Name all of the parts of speech which you\nhave used in the predicate complement as we have done in the sentences\nanalyzed above:\n\n  The men are _loyal members of the Union_.\n  Slavery is.......\n  Liberty will be.......\n  War is.......\n  The machine is.......\n  The children were.......\n\nFill the blanks in the following sentences with one or more adjectives\nand their modifiers used in the predicate complement.\n\n  The work is _hard and destructive to the children_.\n  The history will be.......\n  Labor has been.......\n  Peace will be.......\n  Poverty is.......\n\nFill the blanks in the following sentences with a phrase used in the\npredicate complement.\n\n  His service was _for his class_.\n  Socialism is.......\n  The workers are.......\n  The message shall be.......\n  The government is.......\n  The opportunity is.......\n\n\n                    VERB PHRASES\n\n+413.+ Note that in most of the sentences which we have used, we have\nused the simple form of the verb, the form that is used to express\n_past_ and _present_ time. In expressing other time forms we use verb\nphrases. Note the summary given in section 145, which gives the\ndifferent time forms of the verb.\n\n+414.+ Sometimes in using the verb phrase you will find that other words\nmay separate the words forming the phrase. When you analyze your\nsentence this will not confuse you. You will easily be able to pick out\nthe verb phrase. For example:\n\n  I shall very soon find out the trouble.\n\nHere the adverbs, _very_ and _soon_, separate _find_ from its auxiliary\n_shall_. The verb phrase is, _shall find_. The negative _not_ very often\nseparates the words forming a verb phrase. For example:\n\n  I will not go.\n\nIn this sentence, _will go_ is the verb phrase.\n\nWhen we use the auxiliary verb _do_ to express emphasis, and also the\nnegative _not_, _not_ comes between the auxiliary verb _do_, and the\nprincipal verb. For example:\n\n  I do not obey, I think.\n\nIn this sentence, _do obey_ is the verb phrase.\n\nIn interrogative sentences, the verb phrase is inverted and a part of\nthe verb phrase is placed first and the subject after. For example:\n\n  Will you go with us?\n\n_You_ is the subject of this interrogative sentence and _will go_ is the\nverb phrase; but in order to ask the question, the order is inverted and\npart of the verb phrase placed first. In using interrogative adverbs in\nasking a question, the same inverted order is used. For example:\n\n  When will this work be commenced?\n\nIn this sentence, _work_ is the subject of the sentence and _will be\ncommenced_ is the verb phrase. If you should write this in assertive\nform, it would be:\n\n  This work will be commenced when?\n\nBy paying close attention we can easily distinguish the verb phrases\neven when they are used in the inverted form or when they are separated\nby other parts of speech.\n\n\n                    LET US SUM UP\n\n+415.+ The elements of a sentence are the words, phrases or clauses of\nwhich it is composed.\n\n+A simple sentence is one which contains a single statement, question or\ncommand.+\n\n+A simple sentence contains only words and phrases.+ It does not contain\ndependent clauses. The elements of a simple sentence are:\n\n                         {The simple subject--the noun, or the\n  The complete subject   {  word used in place of the noun--and\n                         {  all its modifiers.\n\n  The complete predicate {The simple predicate--the verb, and\n                         {  all its modifiers.\n\n\n                    Exercise 6\n\nIn the following sentences, the simple subjects and the simple\npredicates of the principal clauses are printed in italics. Locate all\nthe modifiers of the subjects and predicates, and determine the part of\nspeech of each word in the sentence.\n\nSentences Nos. 1, 5, 6, 14, 15, 16, 18, 30, 31, 32 and 37 are simple\nsentences.\n\nSentences Nos. 2, 4, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 22, 26, 28, 33, 34 and 36 are\ncomplex.\n\nSentences Nos. 3, 10, 12, 21, 23, 24, 25, 29 and 35 are compound.\n\nNo. 8 is incomplete, having neither subject nor predicate.\n\nNo. 9 is incomplete, there being no predicate in the principal clause.\n\nNo. 20 is a simple sentence, with a complex sentence in parenthesis.\n\nNo. 27 consists of two dependent clauses.\n\nIn the complex sentences, draw a line under the dependent clauses.\n\n  \"Br--r--r--r--r--r--r--r--r--.\"\n\n  1. What _are_ the _machines saying_, a hundred of them in one long\n     room?\n  2. _They must be talking_ to themselves, for I see no one else for\n     them to talk to.\n  3. But yes, there _is_ a boy's red _head_ bending over one of them,\n     and beyond _I see_ a pale face fringed with brown curly locks.\n  4. There _are_ only five _boys_ in all, on the floor, half-hidden by\n     the clattering machines, for one bright lad can manage twenty-five\n     of them.\n  5. Each _machine makes_ one cheap, stout sock in five minutes,\n     without seam, complete from toe to ankle, cutting the thread at the\n     end and beginning another of its own accord.\n  6. The _boys have_ nothing to do but to clean and burnish and oil the\n     steel rods and replace the spools of yarn.\n  7. But how rapidly and nervously _they do_ it--the slower hands\n     straining to accomplish as much as the fastest!\n  8. Working at high tension for ten hours a day in the close, greasy\n     air and endless whirr----\n  9. _Boys_ who ought to be out playing ball in the fields or taking a\n     swim in the river this fine summer afternoon.\n  10. And in these good times, the _machines go_ all night, and other\n      _shifts_ of boys _are kept_ from their beds to watch them.\n  11. The young _girls_ in the mending and finishing rooms downstairs\n      _are_ not so strong as the boys.\n  12. _They have_ an unaccountable way of fainting and collapsing in\n      the noise and smell, and then _they are_ of no use for the rest of\n      the day.\n  13. The kind _stockholders have had_ to provide a room for collapsed\n      girls and to employ a doctor, who finds it expedient not to\n      understand this strange new disease.\n  14. Perhaps their _children will be_ more stalwart in the next\n      generation.\n  15. Yet this _factory is_ one of the triumphs of our civilization.\n  16. With only twenty boys at a time at the machines in all the rooms,\n      _it produces_ five thousand dozen pairs of socks in twenty-four\n      hours for the toilers of the land.\n  17. _It would take_ an army of fifty thousand hand-knitters to do what\n      these small boys perform.\n\n  \"Br--r--r--r--r--r--r--r--r--.\"\n\n  18. What _are_ the _machines saying_?\n  19. _They are saying_, \"We are hungry.\"\n  20. \"_We have eaten_ up the men and women. (There is no longer a\n      market for men and women, they come too high)--\n  21. _We have eaten_ up the men and women, and now _we are devouring_\n      the boys and girls.\n  22. How good _they taste_ as we suck the blood from their rounded\n      cheeks and forms, and cast them aside sallow and thin and\n      careworn, and then call for more.\n  23. Br--r--r--r--r--r--r--r! how good _they taste_; but _they give_\n      us so few boys and girls to eat nowadays, although there are so\n      many outside begging to come in--.\n  24. Only one _boy_ to twenty of us, and _we are_ nearly _famished_!\n  25. _We eat_ those they give us and _those_ outside _will starve_, and\n      soon _we shall be left_ almost alone in the world with the\n      stockholders.\n  26. Br--r--r--r--r--r--r--r! What shall we do then for our food?\" the\n      _machines chatter_ on.\n  27. \"When we are piling up millions of socks a day for the toilers\n      and then there are no toilers left to buy them and wear them.\n  28. Then perhaps we shall have to turn upon the kind stockholders and\n      feast on them (how fat and tender and toothsome they will be!)\n      until at last we alone remain, clattering and chattering in a\n      desolate land,\" _growled the machines_.\n  29. While the _boys went_ on anxiously, hurriedly rubbing and\n      polishing, and the _girls_ downstairs _went_ on collapsing.\n  30. \"Br--r--r--r--r--r--r--r!\" _growled_ the _machines_.\n  31. The _devil has_ somehow _got_ into the machines.\n  32. _They came_ like the good gnomes and fairies of old, to be our\n      willing slaves and make our lives easy.\n  33. Now that, by their help, one man can do the work of a score, why\n      _have we_ not plenty for all, with only enough work to keep us\n      happy?\n  34. _Who could have foreseen_ all the ills of our factory workers and\n      of those who are displaced and cast aside by factory work?\n  35. The good wood and iron _elves came_ to bless us all, but _some_ of\n      us _have succeeded_ in bewitching them to our own ends and turning\n      them against the rest of mankind.\n  36. _We must break_ the sinister charm and _win_ over the docile,\n      tireless machines until they refuse to shut out a single human\n      being from their benefits.\n  37. _We must cast_ the devil out of the machines.\n\n                                        --_Ernest Crosby_.\n\n\n\n\n                    SPELLING\n\n                    LESSON 24\n\n\nAmong the common suffixes in English are the suffixes _or_ and _er_.\nThese suffixes mean _one who_ or _that which_. For example, _builder_,\none who builds; _actor_, one who acts; _heater_, that which heats. But\nwe are confused many times to know whether to add the suffix _or_ or\n_er_ to form these derivative words. There is no exact rule which can be\ngiven, but the following rule usually applies with but few exceptions:\n\nTo the shorter and commoner words in the language add the suffix _er_.\nFor example, _writer_, _boxer_, _singer_, etc. To the longer and less\ncommon words, usually those derived from the Latin or the Greek, add the\nsuffix _or_. For example, _legislator_, _conqueror_, etc.\n\nThere are a number of words in the English like _honor_, in which the\nlast syllable used to be spelled _our_ instead of _or_. You will\nprobably run across such words as these in your reading. This mode of\nspelling these words, however, is being rapidly dropped and the ending\n_or_ is being used instead of _our_. There are also a number of words in\nour language like _center_, which used to be spelled with _re_ instead\nof _er_. The _re_ ending is not used any more, although you may run\nacross it occasionally in your reading. The proper ending for all such\nwords as these is _er_. There are a few words, however, like _timbre_ (a\nmusical term) and _acre_, which are still properly spelled with the _re_\nending.\n\nThe spelling lessons for Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday,\ncontain words from which derivatives can be formed by adding _er_ or\n_or_. Look these words up in the dictionary and be sure that you have\nadded the proper suffix. The list for Friday consists of words which you\nmay find in your reading spelled with the _our_ ending. The list for\nSaturday contains words which you may find spelled with the _re_ ending\ninstead of the _er_.\n\n  +Monday+\n\n    Create\n    Produce\n    Profess\n    Debate\n    Govern\n\n  +Tuesday+\n\n    Edit\n    Consume\n    Consign\n    Legislate\n    Design\n\n  +Wednesday+\n\n    Solicit\n    Pay\n    Success\n    Observe\n    Invent\n\n  +Thursday+\n\n    Vote\n    Debt\n    Organize\n    Sail\n    Strike\n\n  +Friday+\n\n    Labor\n    Neighbor\n    Rumor\n    Valor\n    Candor\n\n  +Saturday+\n\n    Theater\n    Scepter\n    Fiber\n    Somber\n    Meager\n\n\n\n\n                    PLAIN ENGLISH\n\n                    LESSON 25\n\n\nDear Comrade:\n\nIn logic, we have two ways of reasoning, from the general to the\nparticular and from the particular to the general. In other words, we\nmay take a certain number of facts and reason to a conclusion; or we may\ngo the other way about and start with our conclusion and reason back to\nthe facts which produce the conclusion. Scientists use the former\nmethod. They gather together all the facts which they possibly can and\nfrom these facts they reach their conclusions.\n\nThis was what Karl Marx did for the social problems of his day. He\nanalyzed these problems. He gathered together all of the facts which he\ncould obtain concerning conditions of his day and from these facts he\nreached certain conclusions. He foretold the rise of capitalism and\noutlined present day conditions so perfectly that had he lived long ago\namong superstitious people, they would probably have called him a\nprophet.\n\nThis mastery of analysis, of marshaling our facts and from them reaching\nconclusions, is a wonderful power to possess, and this is exactly what\nwe are doing in our English work. We are analyzing our sentences,\nfinding the elements of which they are composed, and then building the\nsentence; and since neither the thought nor the sentence can be really\nstudied except in connection with each other, this analysis of sentences\ngives us an understanding of the thought. The effort to analyze a\ndifficult sentence leads to a fuller appreciation of the meaning of the\nsentence. This, in turn, cultivates accuracy in our own thought and in\nits expression.\n\nSo do not slight the analysis of the sentence or this work in sentence\nbuilding. You will find it will help you to a quicker understanding of\nthat which you are reading and it will also give you a logical habit of\nmind. You will be able to think more accurately and express yourself\nmore clearly. After a little practice in analysis you will find that in\nyour reading you will be able to grasp the author's meaning quickly. You\nwill see at a glance, without thinking about it consciously, the subject\nand the predicate and the modifiers in the sentence. Then you will not\nconfuse the meaning. You will not have to go back and reread the passage\nto find out just what the author was talking about; and when you come to\nwrite and speak yourself, you will have formed the habit of logical\nexpression. In this way you will be able to put your thought in such a\nmanner that your listener can make no mistake as to just what you mean.\n\nNow, no habit comes without practice. You cannot do a thing\nunconsciously until you have done it consciously a great many times. So\npractice this analysis of sentences over and over. It really is an\ninteresting game in itself, and the results which it will bring to you\nare tremendously worth while.\n\nNothing is too much trouble which will give us the power to think for\nourselves and to put that thought into words.\n\n                    Yours for Freedom,\n\n                              THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.\n\n\n                    THE SUBJECT OF A SIMPLE SENTENCE\n\n+416.+ We have found that the two parts of a simple sentence are the\ncomplete subject and the complete predicate. The noun is most often used\nas the subject of a sentence. It may have a number of modifiers, but\nwhen we strip away these modifiers we can usually find a noun which is\nthe subject of the sentence. Occasionally the subject is a pronoun or a\nparticiple or adjective used as a noun but most frequently the subject\nis a noun. As for example:\n\n  A wild piercing _cry_ rang out.\n  Hopeless, helpless _children_ work in the cotton mills.\n  The golden _age_ of peace will come.\n  Little child _lives_ are coined into money.\n  Defenseless, helpless _children_ suffer most under capitalism.\n  Every neglected _child_ smites my conscience in the name of humanity.\n  The thrilling, far-sounding _battle-cry_ shall resound.\n\nNote that in all of these sentences the word in italics is a noun, which\nis the simple subject of the sentence. All of the other words which\ncomprise the complete subject are the modifiers of this noun, or\nmodifiers of its modifiers.\n\nBut in our study of words, we have found that there are a number of\nother words which can be used in place of a noun and these may all be\nused as the subject of a sentence.\n\n+417.+ +A pronoun may be used as the subject of a sentence+, for the\npronoun is a word used in place of the noun; and a pronoun used as the\nsubject of a sentence may have modifiers just as a noun. It may be\nmodified by adjectives or adjective phrases, as for example:\n\n  _We_ are confident of success.\n  _He_, worried and out of employment, committed suicide.\n  _She_, heartsick and weary, waited for an answer.\n  _She_, with her happy, watchful ways, blessed the household.\n  _They_, victorious and triumphant, entered the city.\n  How can _I_, without money or friends, succeed?\n\n    \"Out of the night that covers me,\n    Black as the pit from pole to pole,\n    _I_ thank whatever Gods there be\n    For my unconquerable soul.\"\n\nIn all of these sentences the pronoun is the simple subject of the\nsentence, and the pronoun with all of its modifiers is the complete\nsubject of the sentence.\n\n+418.+ +The participle may be used as a noun, the subject of the\nsentence.+ For example:\n\n  _Traveling_ is pleasant.\n\nHere the present participle _traveling_ is used as a noun, subject of\nthe sentence.\n\nParticiple phrases may also be used as nouns, as for example:\n\n  _Being prepared_ will not save us from war.\n  His _having signed_ the note was the cause of the trouble.\n\nIn these sentences, _being prepared_ and _having signed_ are participle\nphrases used as nouns, the subjects of the verbs _will save_ and _was_.\nNote the use of the participle used as the subject in the following\nsentences:\n\n  _Painting_ is an art.\n  _Making_ shoes is his work.\n  _Being discovered_ seems to be the real crime.\n  His _having joined_ his comrades was a brave act.\n  Your _remaining_ here will be dangerous.\n\nNote that when the participle is used as a noun, the possessive form\nof the pronoun is always used with it, as in the sentence above:\n\n  _Your_ remaining here will be dangerous.\n\nNotice that in some of these sentences the participle has an object; as,\nmaking _shoes_, his having joined his _comrades_. The participle still\nretains some of its verb nature in that it may take an object. The\nentire phrases, _His having joined his comrades_, and, _Making shoes_,\nare the subjects of the sentences.\n\n+419.+ +The infinitive may also be used as a noun, the subject of the\nsentence.+ Note in the following sentences the use of the infinitive as\nthe subject of the sentence:\n\n  _To err_ is human; _to forgive_ is divine.\n  _To be_ or not _to be_ is the question.\n  _To toil_ all day is wearisome.\n  _To aim_ is one thing; _to hit_ the mark is another.\n  _To remain_ ignorant is to remain a slave.\n\n+420.+ +An adjective can also be used as the subject.+ You remember in\nour study of adjectives we found that an adjective may be used as a\nnoun, as for example:\n\n  The _strong_ enslave the weak.\n\nHere the adjective _strong_ is used as a noun, subject of the sentence.\nNote in the following sentences, the use of the adjectives as subjects:\n\n  The _wise_ instruct the ignorant.\n  The _dead_ were left upon the battlefields.\n  The _rich_ look down upon the poor.\n  The _mighty_ of the earth have forced this war upon us.\n  The _poor_ are enslaved by their ignorance.\n  The _wounded_ were carried to the hospitals.\n\n\n                    PLACE OF THE SUBJECT IN A SENTENCE\n\nThe subject usually comes first in the sentence. If it has any\nmodifiers, they alone precede the subject, as for example:\n\n  A wonderful, inspiring _lecture_ was given.\n  The weary _army_ slept in the trenches.\n\nBut occasionally we find the subject after the verb.\n\n+421.+ +By simple inversion.+\n\nWe will often find this use in poetry or in poetic prose, as for\nexample:\n\n  Never have _I_ heard one word to the contrary.\n\nIn this sentence _I_ is the subject of the sentence, _have heard_ is the\nverb, and _never_ is an adverb modifying the verb phrase, _have heard_.\nBut in order to place emphasis upon the word _never_, which is the\nemphatic word in the sentence, _never_ is placed first, and the verb\nphrase inverted so that the subject _I_ comes in between the two words\nwhich form the verb phrase. The sentence expressed in its usual order\nwould be:\n\n  I have never heard one word to the contrary.\n\nYou will note that this statement does not carry the same emphasis upon\nthe word _never_ as the inverted statement.\n\n+422.+ +In interrogative sentences, the subject comes after the helping\nverb or after the interrogative used to introduce the sentence.+ As for\nexample:\n\n  Have _you_ heard the news?\n  When will _we_ hear from you?\n  How have the _people_ been managing?\n  What will the _children_ do then?\n  Will the _students_ come later?\n  Can the _work_ be accomplished quickly?\n  Must our _youth_ end so quickly?\n\n+423.+ +The real subject comes after the verb when we use the\nintroductory word it.+ As for example:\n\n  It will not be safe _to go_.\n\n_To go_ is really the subject of the sentence. _To go will not be safe._\n\n_It_ is sometimes the real subject of a sentence, as in the sentence;\n_It is a wonderful story_.\n\nHere _it_ is the subject of the sentence and _a wonderful story_ is the\npredicate complement. But in the sentence:\n\n  It is wonderful to hear him tell the story.\n\n_To hear him tell the story_ is the real subject of the sentence. The\nfirst sentence, _It is a wonderful story_, could not be rewritten, but\nthe second sentence could be rewritten, as follows:\n\n  To hear him tell the story is wonderful.\n\n+424.+ +The introductory word there reverses the order of the sentence+,\njust as the introductory word _it_. The real subject is used later in\nthe sentence. As for example:\n\n  There were a great many people present.\n\nThis could be rewritten, omitting the introductory word _there_. We\ncould say:\n\n  A great many people were present.\n\nThe noun _people_ is the subject of the sentence.\n\n\n                    Exercise 1\n\nIn the following sentences, underscore the complete subject with one\nline, and the simple subject with two lines, and decide whether the\nsimple subject is a noun, pronoun, participle, infinitive or an\nadjective used as a noun:\n\n\n  1. A great man is universal and elemental.\n  2. To love justice was his creed.\n  3. A more inspiring and noble declaration of faith was never born of\n     human heart.\n  4. The reading of good books should begin in childhood.\n  5. Dreaming of great things will not bring us to the goal.\n  6. The weary seek for rest.\n  7. To believe in yourself is the first essential.\n  8. He, speaking and writing constantly for the cause, has given his\n     life to the movement.\n  9. To remain ignorant is to remain a slave.\n  10. A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds.\n  11. A great soul has simply nothing to do with consistency.\n  12. To be great is to be misunderstood.\n  13. Traveling is a fool's paradise.\n  14. It is not enough to be sincere.\n  15. We, seeking the truth, have found our own.\n  16. There are thousands of comrades with us.\n\n\n                    THE COMPLETE PREDICATE\n\n+425.+ Look first in the predicate for your verb. It will always be the\nprincipal part of your predicate. It may be a verb or a verb phrase, but\nthe first thing in analyzing the complete predicate of the sentence is\nto find the verb. The verb or verb phrase without any of its modifiers\nconstitutes the simple predicate. If the verb is a complete verb, its\nonly modifiers will be adverbs or adverb phrases. For example:\n\n  A splendid statue of Lincoln stands yonder in the park.\n\nIn this sentence, _stands yonder in the park_ is the complete predicate.\n_Stands_ is a complete verb. It requires no object, but it is modified\nby the adverb _yonder_ and by the adverb phrase _in the park_.\n\n\n                    INCOMPLETE VERBS\n\n+426.+ If the verb in the predicate is an incomplete verb of action,\nthen the object of the verb is also part of the predicate. The complete\npredicate containing an incomplete verb of action may contain five\nparts; a verb, a direct object, an indirect object, an adverb and an\nadverb phrase. As for example:\n\n  The tailor gladly made him a coat at that time.\n\nIn this sentence, the complete predicate is _gladly made him a coat at\nthat time_. _Made_ is the verb. It is an incomplete verb of action, and\n_coat_ is its direct object. _Him_ is the indirect object. _Made_ is\nalso modified by the adverb _gladly_, and the adverb phrase, _at that\ntime_.\n\nAll of these are not always used, of course, in every predicate; but\nthese are the elements which may occur in the predicate with an\nincomplete verb.\n\n\n                    THE OBJECT OF THE VERB\n\n+427.+ Words used as objects of a verb are practically the same as those\nwhich may be used for its subject.\n\n+We may have a noun used as the object of the verb.+ For example:\n\n  Hail destroyed the _crops_.\n  The banks rob the _farmers_.\n  We must educate the _children_.\n  Labor produces all _wealth_.\n\nIn these sentences, _crops_, _farmers_, _children_ and _wealth_ are\nnouns used as the object of the verb.\n\n+A pronoun may also be used as the object of a verb.+ For example:\n\n  Will you not teach _me_?\n  Send _them_ to her.\n  They have invited _us_.\n  The comrades will remember _him_.\n\nIn the above sentences, _me_, _them_, _us_ and _him_ are the objects of\nthe verbs, _will teach_, _send_, _have invited_ and _will remember_.\n\nRemember that in pronouns we have a different form for the object form,\nas, _me_, _her_, _him_, _us_ and _them_.\n\n+428.+ +An infinitive may also be used as the object of a verb+, thus:\n\n  I like _to study_.\n  He asked _to go_.\n  I want _to learn_ all that I can.\n\nIn this last sentence, the infinitive, _to learn_, is the direct object\nof the verb _want_. The object of the infinitive, _to learn_, is _all\nthat I can_. All of this taken together with the verb _want_, forms the\ncomplete predicate, _want to learn all that I can_.\n\n+429.+ +The participle may also be used as the object of a verb+, thus:\n\n  We heard the _thundering_ of the cannon.\n  We enjoyed the _dancing_.\n  Do you hear the _singing_ of the birds?\n\nIn these sentences, the participles _thundering_, _dancing_, and\n_singing_ are the objects of the verbs _heard_, _enjoyed_ and _do hear_.\n\n+430.+ +An adjective used as a noun may also be used as the object of a\nverb+, thus:\n\n  I saw the _rich_ and the _poor_ struggling together.\n  The struggle for existence crushes the _weak_.\n  Seek the _good_ and the _true_.\n\nIn these sentences the adjectives _rich_, _poor_, _weak_, _good_ and\n_true_, are used as nouns and are the objects of the verbs _saw_,\n_crushes_ and _seek_.\n\n\n                    VERBS OF STATE OR CONDITION\n\nWe have found that with the incomplete verbs of state or condition, or\ncopulative verbs, the predicate complement may be either a noun, as,\n_The man is a hero_; or an adjective, as, _The man is class-conscious_;\nor a phrase, as, _The man is in earnest_.\n\nThe predicate complement may also be:\n\n+431.+ +A pronoun+; as,\n\n  Who is she?\n  That was he.\n  This is I.\n\nIn these sentences the subjects of the verbs are _she_, _that_ and\n_this_, and the pronouns _who_, _he_ and _I_ are used as predicate\ncomplements.\n\n+432.+ +Infinitives may also be used as the predicate complement+, thus:\n\n  To remain ignorant is _to remain_ a slave.\n\n_To remain ignorant_, is the subject of the copulative verb _is_, and\nthe infinitive, _to remain_, with its complement, _a slave_, is the\npredicate complement.\n\n+433.+ +A participle used as a noun may also be used as the predicate\ncomplement+, thus:\n\n  Society is the mingling of many elements.\n\n_Mingling_, in this sentence is a participle of the verb _mingle_, but\nis used as a noun, the predicate complement of the verb _is_. _Society_\nis the subject of the verb.\n\nWhere the present participle is used to form a verb phrase, the\nparticiple is part of the verb phrase, thus:\n\n  We are mingling in society.\n\nHere, _are mingling_, is the present progressive verb phrase, and the\nparticiple _mingling_ is not used as a noun or adjective, but is part of\nthe verb phrase _are mingling_.\n\nIf you will observe the different parts of speech carefully, you will\nnot be easily confused as to whether the participle is a noun or a part\nof the verb phrase.\n\n\n                    Exercise 2\n\nIn the following sentences the incomplete verbs, including infinitives\nand participles, are in italics. Mark the words, phrases or clauses\nwhich are used as objects or complements, to complete the meaning of\nthese verbs.\n\n  There _is_ no such thing in America as an independent press, unless it\n  _is_ in the country towns.\n\n  You _have_ and I _know_ it. There _is_ not one of you who _dares to\n  write_ his honest opinions. If you did, you _know_ beforehand that it\n  would never appear in print.\n\n  I _am paid_ $150.00 a week for _keeping_ my honest opinions out of the\n  paper with which I am connected. Others of you _are paid_ similar\n  salaries for similar things. Any one of you who _would be_ so foolish\n  as _to write_ his honest opinions _would be_ out on the streets\n  looking for another job.\n\n  The business of the New York journalist _is to destroy_ the truth, to\n  lie outright, to pervert, to villify, to fawn at the feet of Mammon,\n  and _to sell_ his race and his country for his daily bread.\n\n  You _know_ this and I _know_ it. So what folly _is_ this _to be\n  toasting_ an \"Independent Press.\"\n\n  We _are_ the tools and vassals of rich men behind the scenes. We _are_\n  the jumping-jacks; they _pull_ the strings and we dance. Our talents,\n  our possibilities and our lives _are_ all the property of other men.\n  We _are_ intellectual prostitutes.--_John Swinton_.\n\n\n                    MODIFIERS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE\n\n+434.+ Remember that a simple sentence is one that contains a single\nstatement, question or command. It is a clause, for it contains a\nsubject and a predicate; but it contains only the one subject and the\none predicate. A sentence containing two principal clauses, or a\nprincipal clause and a subordinate clause, would contain two complete\nstatements, questions or commands, therefore it would not be a simple\nsentence, but compound or complex.\n\nRemember, however, that the simple sentences may contain two or more\nsubjects with the same predicate, or two or more predicates with the\nsame subject, or both a compound subject and a compound predicate.\n\n+435.+ The modifiers in a simple sentence are always words or phrases.\nThe modifiers of the subject are either adjectives or adjective phrases.\nThe modifiers of the predicate are either adverbs or adverb phrases. If\nan adjective or an adverb clause is used as a modifier, then the\nsentence is no longer a simple sentence, but becomes a _complex_\nsentence, for it now contains a dependent clause.\n\n\n                    ORDER OF ELEMENTS\n\n+436.+ The usual order of the principal elements in the sentence is the\nsubject, the predicate and the object or complement, thus:\n\n  _Subject_    _Predicate_\n    _Men_        _work_\n\n  _Subject_    _Predicate_    _Object_\n    _Men_        _build_      _houses_\n\n  _Subject_    _Predicate_    _Complement_\n    _Books_      _are_        _helpful_\n\nThis is called the natural or logical order. Logical means according to\nsense or reason.\n\nAdjectives usually stand before the nouns they modify, thus:\n\n  _Good_ books are helpful.\n\nAdverbs may be placed either before or after the verbs they modify,\nthus:\n\n  The men _then_ came _quickly_ to the rescue.\n\nThe adverb _then_ precedes the verb _came_, which it modifies; and the\nadverb _quickly_ is placed after the verb.\n\nAdverbs which modify adjectives or other adverbs are placed before the\nwords which they modify, thus:\n\n  The _more_ industrious students learn _quite_ rapidly.\n\nIn this sentence, the adverb _more_ is placed before the adjective\n_industrious_, which it modifies; and the adverb _quite_ is placed\nbefore the adverb _rapidly_, which it modifies.\n\nAdjective and adverb phrases usually follow the words which they modify,\nthus:\n\n  The men _in the car_ came quickly _to the rescue_.\n  The manager _of the mine_ remained _with the men_.\n\nIn this last sentence, the adjective phrase, _of the mine_, is placed\nafter the noun _manager_, which it modifies, and the adverb phrase,\n_with the men_, is placed after the verb _remained_, which it modifies.\n\n+437.+ These sentences illustrate the logical order in which the\nelements of the sentence usually come. But this logical order is not\nstrictly adhered to. Many times, in order to place the emphasis upon\ncertain words, we reverse this order and place the emphasized words\nfirst, as:\n\n  _Without your help_, we cannot win.\n\nThe logical order of this sentence is:\n\n  We cannot win without your help.\n\nBut we want to place the emphasis upon _your help_, so we change the\norder of the words and place the phrase, _without your help_, first.\n\n+438.+ This inversion of the order helps us to express our thought with\nmore emphasis. Our language is so flexible that we can express the same\nthought in different ways by simply changing the order of the elements\nin the sentence. Notice in the following sentences, the inversion of the\nusual order, and see what difference this makes in the expression of the\nthought.\n\n  Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown.\n  A more terrible scene you cannot imagine.\n  With the shrieking of shot and shell the battle raged.\n  Louder and louder thundered the tempest.\n  Silently and sadly the men returned to their homes.\n\nTo transpose these inverted sentences--that is to place the elements in\ntheir logical order, gives us an insight into the thought expressed in\nthe sentence. It is worth a great deal to us to be able in our reading\nto see the live elements in the sentence at a glance, and in this way we\ncan grasp at once the thought of the sentence. So you will find that\nthis analyzing of the sentences is very helpful to us in our reading.\n\n+439.+ When we have learned to analyze a sentence quickly we will not be\nlost in the maze of words. A paragraph is often like a string of pearls.\nThe author has a single thread of thought running through the different\nsentences which compose the paragraph and if we have trained ourselves\nwell in sentence analysis, we will never lose this thread. It will be\nlike a life line to which we cling while the breakers of thought and\nemotion roar about us.\n\n\n                    Exercise 3\n\nIn the following poem, study carefully the inverted order of the\nsentences. Rewrite them, placing the elements in their logical order. As\nfor example:\n\n  To the poor man you've been true from of old.\n\nThe elements of the sentence are inverted in this quotation. Rewritten\nin their logical order this would read:\n\n  You've been true to the poor man from of old.\n\nYou will note that this inversion is quite common in poetry.\n\n\n          HUNGER AND COLD\n\n    Sisters, two, all praise to you,\n    With your faces pinched and blue;\n    To the poor man you've been true,\n        From of old;\n    You can speak the keenest word,\n    You are sure of being heard,\n    From the point you're never stirred,\n        Hunger and Cold!\n\n    Let sleek statesmen temporize;\n    Palsied are their shifts and lies\n    When they meet your bloodshot eyes,\n        Grim and bold;\n    Policy you set at naught,\n    In their traps you'll not be caught,\n    You're too honest to be bought,\n        Hunger and Cold!\n\n    Let them guard both hall and bower;\n    Through the window you will glower,\n    Patient till your reckoning hour\n        Shall be tolled;\n    Cheeks are pale, but hands are red,\n    Guiltless blood may chance be shed,\n    But ye must and will be fed,\n        Hunger and Cold!\n\n    God has plans man must not spoil,\n    Some were made to starve and toil,\n    Some to share the wine and oil,\n        We are told;\n    Devil's theories are these,\n    Stifling hope and love and peace,\n    Framed your hideous lusts to please,\n        Hunger and Cold!\n\n    Scatter ashes on thy head,\n    Tears of burning sorrow shed,\n    Earth! and be by Pity led\n        To love's fold;\n    Ere they block the very door\n    With lean corpses of the poor,\n    And will hush for naught but gore,\n        Hunger and Cold!\n\n                    --_Lowell_.\n\n\n\n\n                    SPELLING\n\n                    LESSON 25\n\n\nYou remember in our lesson in the study of consonants we found there\nwere a number of consonants in English which had more than one sound;\nfor example, _c_, _s_, _g_, _x_, etc.\n\nA number of other consonants have sounds which are similar; that is,\nthey are made with the organs of articulation in the same position, only\none is a soft, and the other a hard sound; for example, _p_ and _b_, _t_\nand _d_, _f_ and _v_, etc. These sounds are called cognate sounds.\nCognate means literally _of the same nature_, and so these sounds are of\nthe same nature, only in one the obstruction of the vocal organs is more\ncomplete than in the other.\n\nOur language contains a number of words in which there is a difference\nin the pronunciation of the final consonant when the word is used as a\nnoun and as a verb. The final consonants in these words are the cognate\nsounds, _f_, _v_; _t_, _d_; _th_ soft or _th_ hard, _s_ soft, or _s_\nhard. When the consonant sound is a soft sound, the word is a noun; and\nwhen the consonant sound is a hard sound the word is a verb. For\nexample; _use_ and _use_; _breath_ and _breathe_; _life_ and _live_,\netc.\n\nThe spelling lessons for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday contain words\nending in cognate sounds, in which the words ending with a soft sound\nare nouns and the words ending in the hard sounds are verbs. Add others\nto this list as they occur to you.\n\nWe have a number of words in the English beginning with _ex_. In some of\nthese words, the _ex_ has the sound of _eks_, and in some of the words\nthe _ex_ has the sound of _egs_. It is not easy at times to know which\nsound to use.\n\nIn regard to the use of _ex_, follow this rule: When a word beginning\nwith _ex_ is followed by an accented syllable beginning with a vowel,\nthe _ex_ is pronounced _egs_; in all other words _ex_ is pronounced\n_eks_; for example, in _executor_, the _ex_ is followed by an accented\nsyllable beginning with a vowel, therefore, _ex_ is pronounced _egs_. In\n_execute_, the _ex_ is followed by an unaccented syllable beginning with\na vowel, and therefore _ex_ is pronounced _eks_. In _explain_, _ex_ is\nfollowed by a syllable beginning with a consonant, and it is therefore\npronounced _eks_.\n\nNote that in words like _exhibit_, _exhort_, etc., the _ex_ is followed\nby a vowel sound, the _h_ being silent, and it is therefore, pronounced\n_egs_, for it is followed by an accented syllable beginning with a vowel\nsound.\n\nThe spelling list for Thursday, Friday and Saturday contains words\nbeginning with _ex_. Watch carefully the pronunciation.\n\n  +Monday+\n\n    Excuse     Excuse\n    Abuse      Abuse\n    Grease     Grease\n    Sacrifice  Sacrifice\n    Device     Devise\n\n  +Tuesday+\n\n    Intent     Intend\n    Advice     Advise\n    Relief     Relieve\n    Cloth      Clothe\n    Reproof    Reprove\n\n  +Wednesday+\n\n    Ascent     Ascend\n    Strife     Strive\n    Mouth      Mouth\n    Grief      Grieve\n    Bath       Bathe\n\n  +Thursday+\n\n    Exile\n    Except\n    Exhibit\n    Expert\n    Exempt\n\n  +Friday+\n\n    Example\n    Excellent\n    Exhaust\n    Exit\n    Expropriate\n\n  +Saturday+\n\n    Exercise\n    Exist\n    Experiment\n    Exaggerate\n    Explanation\n\n\n\n\n                    PLAIN ENGLISH\n\n                    LESSON 26\n\n\nDear Comrade:\n\nThere are really two things which will come to us out of the study of\ngrammar. One of these, which we discussed in our letter last week, is\nthe power of logical thinking. The second is the ability to express our\nthoughts correctly; that is, according to accepted usage. So you can\nconsider your spoken and written speech from two viewpoints. First, you\ncan look to see if you have used the words correctly. We have noted\nthese common errors especially in our study of the various parts of\nspeech. There are certain errors we often make, as for example, using a\nplural noun with a singular verb, or using the past time form of the\nverb for the past participle.\n\nWe have noted a great many of these errors in our speech. We might make\nourselves understood and express ourselves fairly accurately and still\nmake these mistakes, but it is wise for us to try to eliminate them from\nour speech for several reasons. To those who understand the use of\ncorrect English, these mistakes mark us as ignorant and uneducated. No\nmatter how important and absolutely accurate the thought we are\nexpressing, if we make these grammatical errors, they very naturally\ndiscount our thought also. They feel that if we cannot speak correctly,\nin all probability we cannot think accurately, either.\n\nThen, too, these words in our speech distract the attention of our\nhearers from the things which we are saying. It is like the mannerism of\nan actor. If he has any peculiar manner of walking or of talking and\npersists in carrying that into whatever character he is interpreting, we\nalways see the actor himself, instead of the character which he is\nportraying. His mannerisms get in the way and interfere with our grasp\nof the idea.\n\nSo in music. You may be absorbed in a wonderful selection which some one\nis playing and if suddenly he strikes a wrong note, the discord\ndistracts your attention and perhaps you never get back into the spirit\nof the music again.\n\nSo we must watch these common errors in our speech, but we must not let\nour study of English be simply that alone. The greatest benefit which we\nare deriving from this study is the analytic method of thought and the\nlogical habit of mind, which the effort to express ourselves clearly and\naccurately and in well-chosen words will give us. Put as much time as\nyou can possibly spare into this analysis of sentences. Take your\nfavorite writer and analyze his sentences and find out what is his\nparticular charm for you. If there is any sentence which gives you a\nlittle trouble and you cannot analyze it properly, copy it in your next\nexamination paper and state where the difficulty lies. Rewrite the\npassages which please you most and then compare your version with the\nauthor's and see if you really grasped his meaning. In this way you will\nadd quickly to your enjoyment of the writing of others and to your power\nof expressing yourself.\n\n                    Yours for Freedom,\n\n                              THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.\n\n\n                    THE SIMPLE SENTENCE\n\n+440.+ We have been analyzing the simple sentence, which contains only\nwords and phrases. We have found that there may enter into the simple\nsentence, the following elements:\n\n  1. The simple subject.\n  2. The simple predicate.\n  3. The modifiers of the subject.\n  4. The object of the verb.\n  5. The predicate complement.\n  6. The modifiers of the predicate.\n\nThis is not the order in which the elements will appear in the sentence,\nbut this is the order of their importance. We first look for the simple\nsubject and the simple predicate; then we can determine which words are\nthe modifiers of the subject; then we find the object or predicate\ncomplement of the verb and the modifiers of the verb; and thus we have\nall of the elements which go into the construction of the simple\nsentence.\n\nWe may also have two nouns used as the subject or two verbs used in the\npredicate, connected by a co-ordinate conjunction, thus:\n\n  Marx and Engels lived and worked together.\n\nHere we have two proper nouns used as the subject, _Marx_ and _Engels_.\nWe have also two verbs used as the predicate, _lived_ and _worked_. We\ncall this a compound subject and compound predicate.\n\nSo in one simple sentence, that is a sentence which makes a single\nassertion, we may have every part of speech. For example:\n\n  The most intelligent men and women think for themselves.\n\nIn this sentence, we have a _noun_, _verb_, _pronoun_, _adjective_,\n_adverb_, _conjunction_ and _preposition_--every part of speech except\nthe _interjection_, which is an independent element and does not enter\ninto the construction of the sentence.\n\n\n                    Exercise 1\n\nWrite simple sentences of your own containing:\n\n  1. A compound subject.\n  2. A compound predicate.\n  3. A noun as subject modified by one or more adjectives.\n  4. A noun as subject modified by a phrase.\n  5. An incomplete verb with a direct and an indirect object.\n  6. An incomplete verb with a predicate complement.\n  7. A predicate modified by one or more adverbs.\n  8. A predicate modified by an adverb phrase.\n\n\n                    COMPLEX SENTENCES\n\n+441.+ The simple sentence is the unit of speech. It is a combination of\nwords which makes a single statement, question or command. But many\ntimes a constant repetition of these short sentences would become\ntiresome, and our written and spoken speech would not flow as smoothly\nand rapidly as we desire. So we have evolved a way in which we may\ncombine these sentences into longer statements. Let us take the two\n_simple_ sentences:\n\n\n  We are united.\n  We shall succeed.\n\nWe may combine these into a single sentence by using the co-ordinate\nconjunction _and_. Then our sentence reads:\n\n  We are united and we shall succeed.\n\nThis is a _compound_ sentence, formed by uniting two simple sentences.\nBoth of the clauses are independent and are of equal rank. Neither\ndepends upon the other. They are united by the co-ordinate conjunction\n_and_. We can combine these sentences in a different way. For example,\nwe may say:\n\n  If we are united, we shall succeed.\n\nNow we have a subordinate clause, _if we are united_, which is used to\nmodify the verb of the main clause, _succeed_. We have used the\nsubordinate conjunction _if_, and so we have a _complex_ sentence formed\nby uniting the principal clause and a dependent clause.\n\n+442.+ The next step in sentence building, after the simple sentence, is\nthe complex sentence. A complex sentence is a combination of two or more\nsimple sentences, which are so united that one sentence remains the main\nsentence--the backbone, as it were--and the other sentence becomes\nsubordinate or dependent upon it.\n\n+443.+ +A complex sentence is one containing a principal clause and one\nor more subordinate clauses.+\n\n+A principal clause is one which makes a complete statement without the\nhelp of any other clause or clauses.+\n\n+A subordinate or dependent clause is one which makes a statement\ndependent upon or modifying some word or words in the principal clause.+\n\n\n                    KINDS OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES\n\n+444.+ Dependent clauses are of three kinds. They may be used either as\n_nouns_, _adjectives_ or _adverbs_, and so are called _noun clauses_,\n_adjective clauses_ or _adverb clauses_.\n\n\n                    NOUN CLAUSES\n\n+445.+ +Noun clauses are those which are used in place of a noun.+ They\nmay be used in any way in which a noun may be used, except as a\npossessive.\n\n1. +The noun clause may be used as the subject of the sentence.+ For\nexample:\n\n  _That he is innocent_ is admitted by all.\n\nThe clause, _that he is innocent_ is used as a _noun_, the subject of\nthe sentence.\n\n2. +The noun clause may be used as the object of a verb+, thus:\n\n  I admit _that I cannot understand your argument_.\n\nThe clause, _that I cannot understand your argument_, is in this\nsentence the object of the verb _admit_.\n\n3. +The noun clause may be used as the predicate complement+, thus:\n\n  The fact is _that this policy will never win_.\n\nThe clause, _that this policy will never win_, is here used in the\npredicate with the copulative verb _is_.\n\n4. +The noun clause may also be used in apposition, explaining the noun\nwith which it is used+, thus:\n\n  The motion, _that the question should be reconsidered_, was carried.\n\n_That the question should be reconsidered_, is here a noun clause, used\nin apposition with the noun _motion_, and explains the meaning of the\nnoun.\n\n5. +The noun clause may also be used as the object of a preposition+,\nthus:\n\n  I now refer to _what he claims_.\n\nThe noun clause, _what he claims_, is here the object of the\npreposition, _to_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 2\n\nIn the following sentences the noun clauses are printed in italics.\nDetermine whether they are used as the subject, or object of the verb,\nas predicate complement, in apposition, or as the object of a\npreposition.\n\n  1. The fact is _that I was not listening_.\n  2. _Whatever King Midas looked upon_ turned to gold.\n  3. He acknowledged _what we had suspected_.\n  4. We will never know _what the real situation was_.\n  5. The fact _that the wage is insufficient_ can be easily proved.\n  6. He replied to _what had been asked_.\n  7. The claim was _that he had made a speech inciting to riot_.\n  8. The law _that labor unions are in restraint of trade_ was upheld.\n  9. _That we cannot win by compromise_ is readily apparent.\n  10. Labor demands _that it shall have its full product_.\n  11. _Whoever controls education_ controls the future.\n  12. He came to _where the militia was in camp_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 3\n\nWrite sentences containing noun clauses used:\n\n  1. As the subject of a verb.\n  2. As the object of a verb.\n  3. As a predicate complement.\n  4. In apposition.\n  5. As the object of a preposition.\n\n\n                    ADJECTIVE CLAUSES\n\n+446.+ A dependent clause in a complex sentence may also be an adjective\nclause.\n\n+An adjective clause is a clause used as an adjective+, and, hence,\nalways modifies a noun or some word used as a noun, such as a pronoun or\na participle. In Lesson 22, we studied adjective clauses and found that\nthey could be introduced by the relative pronouns, _who_, _which_,\n_that_ and _as_, and also by conjunctions such as, _when_, _where_,\n_whither_, _whence_, etc. An adjective clause may modify any noun or any\nword used as a noun in the sentence.\n\n1. +An adjective clause may modify the subject+, thus:\n\n  Men _who have become class-conscious_ do not make good soldiers.\n\nIn this sentence the clause, _who have become class-conscious_, modifies\nthe noun _men_, and is introduced by the relative pronoun _who_.\n\n2. +An adjective clause may modify the noun which is the object of the\nverb+, as:\n\n  The men supported the party _which fought for their rights_.\n\nHere the clause, _which fought for their rights_, is an adjective clause\nintroduced by the pronoun _which_, and it modifies the noun _party_,\nwhich is the object of the verb _supported_.\n\n3. +An adjective clause may also be used to modify the noun which is\nused in the predicate complement+, as:\n\n  That was the book _which I enjoyed_.\n\nIn this sentence the clause, _which I enjoyed_, is an adjective clause\nmodifying the noun _book_, which is used as the predicate complement\nwith the copulative verb _was_.\n\n4. +An adjective clause may also be used to modify the noun which is\nused as the object of a preposition+, as:\n\n  He arrived on the train _which was late_.\n\nHere the adjective clause, _which was late_, modifies the noun _train_,\nwhich is the object of the preposition _on_.\n\nSometimes it is a little difficult to discover these adjective clauses,\nfor frequently the connecting word is omitted, as for example:\n\n  I could not find the man _I wanted_.\n\nIn this sentence, the pronoun _whom_ is omitted; the complete sentence\nwould read:\n\n  I could not find the man _whom I wanted_.\n\n_Whom I wanted_ is an adjective clause modifying the noun _man_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 4\n\nIn the following sentences the relative pronouns and the conjunctions\nintroducing adjective clauses are omitted. Rewrite the sentences using\nthe proper relative pronouns and conjunctions. The adjective clauses are\nin italics.\n\n  1. The people _you are seeking_ are not here.\n  2. I have read the book _you brought_.\n  3. The articles _you mentioned_ are not listed.\n  4. I will go to the place _you say_.\n  5. This is a book _you should read_.\n  6. Those are ideals _the people will readily grasp_.\n  7. We make Gods of the things _we fear_.\n  8. I listened to every word _he said_.\n  9. I should love the cause _you love_.\n  10. The things _the people demand_ are just and right.\n\n\n                    Exercise 5\n\nIn the following sentences the adjective clauses are all printed in\nitalics. Determine whether they modify the subject or the object, the\npredicate complement or the object of the preposition.\n\n  1. In that moment _when he saw the light_ he joined our cause.\n  2. Other men are lenses _through which we read our own minds_.\n  3. This is perhaps the reason _why we are unable to agree_.\n  4. He _that loveth_ maketh his own the grandeur _that he loves_.\n  5. The other terror _that scares us from self-trust_ is our\n     consistency.\n  6. There is a popular fable of a sot _who was picked up dead drunk in\n     the street, carried to the Duke's house, washed and dressed and\n     laid in the Duke's bed, and, on his waking, treated with all\n     ceremony like a duke and assured that he had been insane_.\n  7. He _who would gather immortal palms_ must not be hindered by the\n     name of goodness, but must explore if it be goodness.\n  8. Superstition, _who is the mother of fear and faith_, still rules\n     many people.\n  9. We are looking for the time _when the useful shall be the\n     honorable_.\n  10. He _who enslaves another_ cannot be free.\n  11. He _who attacks the right_ assaults himself.\n  12. The force _that is in every atom and every star, in everything\n      that grows and thinks, that hopes and suffers_, is the only\n      possible God.\n  13. He _who adds to the sum of human misery_ is a blasphemer.\n  14. The grandest ambition _that can enter the soul_ is the desire to\n      know the truth.\n\n\n                    ADVERB CLAUSES\n\n+447.+ The third kind of clause which we may use in a complex sentence\nis the adverb clause.\n\n+An adverb clause is a clause which takes the place of an adverb.+ It\nmay modify a _verb_, an _adjective_, or an _adverb_. We studied adverb\nclauses in lesson 21 and we found eight classes of adverb clauses,\nexpressing _time_, _place_, _cause_ or _reason_, _manner_, _comparison_,\n_condition_, _purpose_ and _result_. For example:\n\n  1. +Adverb clause of time:+\n  No man is truly free _until all are free_.\n\n  2. +Adverb clause of place:+\n  We must live _where we can find work_.\n\n  3. +Adverb clause expressing cause or reason:+\n  We lost the strike _because the men were not class-conscious_.\n\n  4. +Adverb clause of manner:+\n  We must work _as if the result depended entirely upon us_.\n\n  5. +Adverb clause of comparison:+\n  The working class must become more class-conscious _than it is\n  today_.\n\n  6. +Adverb clause of condition:+\n  We will continue to be exploited _if we do not demand our rights_.\n\n  7. +Adverb clause expressing purpose:+\n  We must read the labor press _in order that we may know the truth\n  concerning conditions_.\n\n  8. +Adverb clause expressing result:+\n  The battle raged so furiously _that thousands were slain_.\n\n\n                    ANALYZING COMPLEX SENTENCES\n\n+448.+ To analyze a complex sentence; that is, to break it up into its\ndifferent parts--treat the sentence first as a whole, then find the\nsimple subject and the simple predicate. If a noun clause is the\nsubject, treat it first as a noun. Treat adjective clauses as adjectives\nmodifying certain words and the adverb clauses as adverbs modifying\ncertain words.\n\nIn other words, analyze the sentence first as a simple sentence with\ndependent clauses considered as modifying words; then analyze each\ndependent clause as though it were a simple sentence. Make an outline\nlike the following and use it in your analysis of the sentence. Let us\ntake this sentence and analyze it:\n\n  Conscious solidarity in the ranks would give the working class of the\n  world, now, in our day, the freedom which they seek.\n\n  +Simple subject+, _solidarity_.\n\n  +Simple predicate+, _would give_.\n\n  Modifiers of the subject:\n\n    Adjective, _conscious_.\n    Adjective phrase, _in the ranks_.\n    Adjective clause, (_none_).\n\n  +Complete subject+, _Conscious solidarity in the ranks_.\n\n  Modifiers of the predicate:\n\n    Adverb, _now_.\n    Adverb phrase, _in our day_.\n    Adverb clause, (_none_).\n\n  +Direct object+, _freedom_.\n\n  Modifiers of direct object:\n\n    Adjective, _the_.\n    Adjective phrase, (_none_).\n    Adjective clause, _which they seek_,\n\n  +Indirect object+, _class_.\n\n  Modifiers of indirect object:\n\n    Adjectives, _the_, _working_.\n    Adjective phrase, _of the world_.\n    Adjective clause, (_none_).\n\n  +Complete predicate+, _would give the working class of the world,\n    now, in our day, the freedom which they seek_.\n\nAnalyze the dependent clause, _which they seek_, just as a principal\nclause is analyzed. _They_ is the simple subject, _seek_ is the simple\npredicate, _which_ is the direct object. The complete predicate is _seek\nwhich_.\n\n+449.+ Notice that the first two sentences given in the exercise below\nare imperative sentences,--the subject, the pronoun _you_, being omitted\nso that the entire sentence is the complete predicate. As for example:\n_Take the place which belongs to you_. The omitted subject is the\npronoun _you_. _Take the place which belongs to you_ is the complete\npredicate, made up of the simple predicate _take_; its object, the noun\n_place_; the adjective _the_, and the adjective clause, _which belongs\nto you_, both of which modify the noun _place_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 6\n\nUsing the outline given above, analyze the following complex sentences.\n\n  1. Take the place which belongs to you.\n  2. Let us believe that brave deeds will never die.\n  3. The orator knows that the greatest ideas should be expressed in\n     the simplest words.\n  4. Gratitude is the fairest flower that sheds its perfume in the\n     human heart.\n  5. Children should be taught that it is their duty to think for\n     themselves.\n  6. We will be slaves as long as we are ignorant.\n  7. We must teach our fellow men that honor comes from within.\n  8. Cause and effect cannot be severed for the effect already blooms\n     in the cause.\n  9. Men measure their esteem of each other by what each has.\n  10. Our esteem should be measured by what each is.\n  11. What I must do is all that concerns me.\n  12. The great man is he who, in the midst of the crowd, keeps the\n      independence of solitude.\n  13. The only right is what is after my constitution.\n  14. Whoso would be a man must be a non-conformist.\n  15. They who build on ideas build for eternity.\n\n\n                    Exercise 7\n\nWe have studied all the parts of speech, and now our work is to combine\nthese parts for the expression of thought. It will be good practice and\nvery helpful to us to mark these different parts of speech in our\nreading. This helps us to grow familiar with their use. It also helps us\nto add words to our vocabulary and to learn how to use them correctly.\nIn the following quotation, mark underneath each word, the name of every\npart of speech. Use _n._ for noun, _v._ for verb, _pro._ for pronoun,\n_adv._ for adverb, _adj._ for adjective, _p._ for preposition and _c._\nfor conjunction. Write _v. p._ under the verb phrases. For example:\n\n  +The    workers  of   the     world   do     not     have,\n  _adj._  _n._     _p._ _adj._  _n._    _v.p._ _adv._  _v.p._\n\n  under this    system, very   many     opportunities\n  _p._  _adj._  _n._    _adv._ _adj._   _n._\n\n  for   rest   and  pleasure  for   themselves.+\n  _p._  _n._  _c._  _n._      _p._  _pro._\n\n\nMark in this manner every part of speech in the following quotation:\n\n  The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class\n  struggles.\n\n  Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guildmaster\n  and journeyman,--in a word, oppressor and oppressed,--stood in\n  constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now\n  hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a\n  revolutionary re-constitution of society at large, or in the common\n  ruin of the contending classes.\n\n  In the earlier epochs of history, we find almost everywhere a\n  complicated arrangement of society into various orders, a manifold\n  gradation of social rank. In ancient Rome we have patricians, knights,\n  plebeians, slaves; in the middle ages, feudal lords, vassals,\n  guild-masters, journeymen, apprentices, serfs; in almost all of these\n  classes, again, subordinate gradations.\n\n  The modern bourgeois society, that has sprouted from the ruins of\n  feudal society, has not done away with class antagonisms. It has but\n  established new classes, new conditions of oppression, new forms of\n  struggle in place of the old ones.\n\n                                        --_Communist Manifesto_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 8\n\nIn the following quotation, mark all of the clauses and determine\nwhether they are dependent or independent clauses. If they are dependent\nclauses, determine whether they are noun, adjective or adverb clauses.\nMark all the sentences and tell whether they are simple or complex.\n\nI see in the near future a crisis approaching that unnerves me, and\ncauses me to tremble for the safety of my country. As a result of war,\ncorporations have been enthroned, and an era of corruption in high\nplaces will follow. The money power of the country will endeavor to\nprolong its reign by working upon the prejudices of the people, until\nall the wealth is aggregated in a few hands, and the republic is\ndestroyed. I feel at this moment more anxiety for the safety of our\ncountry than ever before, even in the midst of war. God grant that my\nforebodings may be groundless. Monarchy itself is sometimes hinted at as\na refuge from the power of the people. In my present position I could\nscarcely be justified were I to omit to raise a warning voice against\nthe approach of a returning despotism.... It is assumed that labor is\navailable only in connection with capital; that nobody labors unless\nsomebody else, owning capital, somehow, by the use of it, induces him to\nlabor. Labor is prior to and independent of capital. Capital is only the\nfruit of labor, and could not have existed if labor had not first\nexisted. Labor is the superior of capital, and deserves much the higher\nconsideration. I bid the laboring people beware of surrendering the\npower which they possess, and which, if surrendered, will surely be used\nto shut the door of advancement for such as they, and fix new\ndisabilities and burdens upon them until all of liberty shall be lost.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nIn the early days of our race the Almighty said to the first of mankind,\n\"In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread,\" and since then, if we\nexcept the light and air of Heaven, no good thing has been or can be\nenjoyed by us without first having cost labor. And inasmuch as most good\nthings have been produced by labor, it follows that all such things\nbelong of right to those whose labor has produced them. But it has so\nhappened, in all ages of the world, that some have labored and others\nhave without labor enjoyed a large portion of the fruits. This is wrong,\nand should not continue. To secure to each laborer the whole product of\nhis labor, as nearly as possible, is a worthy object of any government.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nIt seems strange that any man should dare to ask a just God's assistance\nin wringing bread from the sweat of other men's faces.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThis country, with its institutions, belongs to the people who inhabit\nit.\n\n                                        --_Lincoln_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 9\n\nIn the following poem find all of the assertive, interrogative and\nimperative sentences. Mark all of the simple sentences and all of the\ncomplex sentences. Mark all of the dependent clauses and determine\nwhether each is used as a noun, adjective or adverb clause. The verbs\nand the verb phrases are in italics.\n\n    _Shall_ you _complain_ who _feed_ the world,\n    Who _clothe_ the world,\n    Who _house_ the world?\n    _Shall_ you _complain_ who _are_ the world,\n    Of what the world _may do_?\n    As from this hour you _are_ the power,\n    The world _must follow_ you.\n\n    The world's life _hangs_ on your right hand,\n    Your strong right hand,\n    Your skilled right hand;\n    You _hold_ the whole world in your hand;\n    _See_ to it what you _do_!\n    For dark or light or wrong or right,\n    The world _is made_ by you.\n\n    Then _rise_ as you never _rose_ before,\n    Nor _hoped_ before,\n    Nor _dared_ before;\n    And _show_ as never _was shown_ before\n    The power that _lies_ in you.\n    _Stand_ all as one; _see_ justice done;\n    _Believe_ and _dare_ and _do_.\n\n                    --_Charlotte Perkins Gilman_.\n\n\n\n\n                    SPELLING\n\n                    LESSON 26\n\n\nIn our last lesson we had examples of words in which the _s_ had the\nsoft sound, and also of words in which the _s_ had the sound of _z_. In\nsome English words, it is difficult to determine which sound to use.\nThere are a number of words in English beginning with _dis_. In a few of\nthe words, the _s_ has the sound of _z_, and in other words it has the\nsound of _s_. There are only a few words which are pronounced with the\n_diz_ sound. _Discern_, _dismal_ and _dissolve_ are always pronounced\nwith the _diz_ sound. _Disease_ and _disaster_ are pronounced both ways.\nSome dictionaries give the _diz_ sound and some give the _dis_ sound.\n\nThe spelling lesson for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday contains a number\nof words beginning with _dis_. Be sure of the pronunciation. Run through\nthe words in the dictionary beginning with the _dis_ sound and mark\nthose in which the _dis_ has the sound of _diz_.\n\nWe have also a number of words in the English language which end in\n_ise_ or _ize_, and we are often confused to know which ending to use.\nThere is a rule, which has very few exceptions, which covers the use of\n_ise_ and _ize_. Words should be spelled with the _ize_ ending when the\n_ize_ can be cut off, and the word that is left can be used alone. For\nexample; _author_, _authorize_. In this word you can cut off the _ize_\nand the word _author_ can be used alone. But in the word _exercise_, if\nyou cut off the _ise_, the remaining portion cannot be used alone.\n\n_Recognize_ and _criticise_ are exceptions to this rule. When used as a\nsuffix added to a noun or adjective to form a verb, _ize_ is the proper\nending; as _theory_, _theorize_, _civil_, _civilize_, etc. Final _e_ or\n_y_ is dropped before _ize_, as in the words _memorize_, _sterilize_,\netc.\n\nThe spelling lesson for Thursday, Friday and Saturday contains a number\nof common words ending with _ize_ or _ise_. Study carefully this list\nand add as many words to it as you can.\n\n  +Monday+\n\n    Disappear\n    Distress\n    Discern\n    Disburse\n    Discipline\n\n  +Tuesday+\n\n    Discount\n    Discredit\n    Distribute\n    Dismal\n    Disseminate\n\n  +Wednesday+\n\n    Disguise\n    Distance\n    Dissolve\n    Discontent\n    Disposition\n\n  +Thursday+\n\n    Franchise\n    Civilize\n    Surprise\n    Organize\n    Compromise\n\n  +Friday+\n\n    Monopolize\n    Revise\n    Legalize\n    Enterprise\n    Capitalize\n\n  +Saturday+\n\n    Memorize\n    Advertise\n    Theorize\n    Comprise\n    Systematize\n\n\n\n\n                    PLAIN ENGLISH\n\n                    LESSON 27\n\n\nDear Comrade:\n\nIngersoll said: \"Words are the garments of thought and the robes of\nideas.\" This is a beautiful and poetic way of expressing the\nrelationship between words and thoughts. Words are really the body which\nwe give to our thoughts. Until they are clothed in words, our thoughts\nare only ghosts of ideas. Other people cannot see or come into contact\nwith them, and they can have but little influence upon the world.\n\nWithout thought, no language is possible. It is equally true that\nwithout language, no growth of thought is possible. It is futile to try\nto determine which is first, language or thought. The two are entirely\nnecessary to each other and make possible social and individual\ndevelopment.\n\nEvery time that you add a word to your vocabulary, you have added to\nyour mental equipment. You have also added greatly to your power of\nenjoyment. Through these words you will come into a new relationship to\nyour fellow men. Each new word enlarges the circle of your acquaintance.\nA knowledge of language brings us into a circle of wonderful friends.\nWhen we have learned to read we need never more be lonely. Some one has\nwritten in a book somewhere just the thing we are hungry for at this\nmoment.\n\nIn the pages of a book we can meet and talk with the great souls who\nhave written in these pages their life's experience. No matter what mood\nyou are in, you can find a book to suit that mood. No matter what your\nneed, there is a book which meets that need. Form the habit of reading\nand you will find it a wonderful source of pleasure and of profit.\n\nNor do we need to be barred because of our lack of educational\nadvantages in our youth. Buckle, the author of the greatest history that\nhas ever been written, left school at the age of fourteen, and it is\nsaid that at that age, except a smattering of mathematics, he knew only\nhow to read; but when he died at the age of forty, this man, who did not\nknow his letters when he was eight years old, could read and write seven\nlanguages and was familiar with ten or twelve more. He had written a\nwonderful book and had become a teacher of teachers. Engraven upon his\nmarble altar tomb is the following couplet:\n\n  \"The written word remains long after the writer.\n  The writer is resting under the earth, but his words endure.\"\n\nGood books are so cheap nowadays that they are within the reach of every\none of us. Let us not be content to live in the narrow world of work and\nworry. Let us forget the struggle occasionally in the reading of books,\nand let us prepare ourselves, by reading and studying, for the battle\nfor the emancipation of the workers of the world.\n\n                    Yours for Education,\n\n                              THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.\n\n\n                    KINDS OF SENTENCES\n\n+450.+ +A simple sentence is a sentence which makes a single assertion,\nquestion or command.+\n\nThe simple sentence contains only words and phrases.\n\n+451.+ +A complex sentence is one which contains a principal statement\nand one or more modifying statements.+\n\nThe statements made in addition to the principal statement are made in\ndependent clauses. The complex sentence has only one main clause and one\nor more dependent clauses.\n\n+452.+ +A compound sentence is one which contains two or more\nindependent clauses.+\n\nThese compound sentences may contain any number of dependent clauses but\nthey must always have at least two independent or principal clauses.\nThese principal clauses are always connected by co-ordinate\nconjunctions, for the principal clauses in a compound sentence are\nalways of equal rank or order.\n\n\n                    Exercise 1\n\nReview the lesson on co-ordinate conjunctions and notice which\nconjunctions are used to unite principal clauses into single sentences.\nUse these co-ordinate conjunctions to unite the following pairs of\nsimple sentences into compound sentences. For example:\n\n  The sun rises _and_ the day dawns.\n  The men work _but_ the boys play.\n\nThe sun rises.              The day dawns.\n\nHe studies diligently.      He learns rapidly.\n\nHe came early.              He could not stay.\n\nThe weather is cold.        The plants are not growing.\n\nThe men work.               The boys play.\n\nThe day is cold.            The wind is blowing.\n\nTake the above sentences and use subordinate instead of co-ordinate\nconjunctions, and make complex sentences instead of compound out of each\npair of simple sentences. For example:\n\n  _When_ the sun rises, the day dawns.\n  The men work _while_ the boys play.\n\n\n                    KINDS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES\n\n+453.+ +Compound sentences may be made up of two simple sentences.+\n\nRewrite the following compound sentences, making of each sentence two\nsimple sentences:\n\n  The birds are singing and spring is here.\n  He believes in war but his brother is against it.\n  We must arouse ourselves or we shall be involved.\n  He will not study nor will he allow any one else to study.\n\n+454.+ +A compound sentence may be made up of a simple sentence and a\ncomplex sentence, joined by a co-ordinate conjunction.+ For example:\n\n  John goes to school, but Mary stays at home in order that she may help\n  her mother.\n\nThis compound sentence is made up of the simple sentence, _John goes to\nschool_, and the complex sentence, _Mary stays at home in order that she\nmay help her mother_.\n\n+455.+ +Both parts of the compound sentence may be complex; that is,\nboth principal clauses in a compound sentence may contain dependent\nclauses.+ For example:\n\n  John goes to school where his brother goes, but Mary stays at home in\n  order that she may help her mother.\n\nThis compound sentence is made up of two complex sentences. The\nsentence, _John goes to school where his brother goes_, is complex\nbecause it contains the dependent clause, _where his brother goes_; the\nsentence, _Mary stays at home in order that she may help her mother_, is\ncomplex because it contains the dependent clause, _in order that she may\nhelp her mother_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 2\n\nRead carefully the following sentences, determine which are simple\nsentences, which are complex and which are compound.\n\n  1. When the state is corrupt, then the laws are most multiplied.\n  2. To teach the alphabet is to inaugurate revolution.\n  3. Freedom degenerates unless it has to struggle in its own defense.\n  4. The destroyers have always been honored.\n  5. Liberty of thought is a mockery if liberty of speech is denied.\n  6. Where slavery is, there liberty cannot be; and where liberty is,\n     there slavery cannot be.\n  7. All our greatness was born of liberty and we cannot strangle the\n     mother without destroying her children.\n  8. In the twentieth century, war will be dead, but man will live.\n  9. The abuse of free speech dies in a day, but the denial entombs the\n     hope of the race.\n\n\n                    SENTENCE ANALYSIS\n\n+456.+ There is no more important part of the study of English than the\nanalysis of sentences. The very best result that can come to one from\nthe study of grammar is the logical habit of mind. The effort to analyze\na difficult passage gives us a fuller appreciation of its meaning. This\ncultivates in us accuracy, both of thought and of expression. So, spend\nas much time as you can on the analysis of sentences.\n\nThe subject and the predicate are the very body of the sentence, upon\nwhich all the rest of the sentence is hung. The other parts of the\nsentence are but the drapery and the garments which clothe the body of\nthe sentence. Hence, the most important thing in sentence analysis is to\nbe able to discover the _subject_ and _predicate_.\n\nIn the expression of a thought, there are always two important\nessentials, that about which something is said,--which constitutes the\nsubject,--and that which is said about the subject, which constitutes\nthe predicate.\n\nThere may be a number of modifying words, phrases or subordinate\nclauses, but there is always a main clause which contains a simple\nsubject and a simple predicate. Find these first, and you can then fit\nthe modifying words and phrases and clauses into their proper places.\n\n+457.+ Let us take for study and analysis the following paragraph from\nJack London:\n\n  Man's efficiency for food-getting and shelter-getting has not\n  diminished since the day of the cave-man. It has increased a\n  thousand-fold. Wonderful artifices and marvelous inventions have been\n  made. Why then do millions of modern men live more miserably than the\n  cave-man lived?\n\nLet us take the first sentence out of this paragraph and analyze it.\n_Man's efficiency for food-getting and shelter-getting has not\ndiminished since the day of the cave-man._ What is the main word in this\nsentence--the word about which the entire statement is made? Clearly it\nis the word _efficiency_. _Efficiency_ is the noun which is the subject\nof the sentence.\n\nThen you might ask _what sort of_ efficiency and _whose_ efficiency?\nWhat sort of efficiency is explained by the adjective phrase, _for\nfood-getting and shelter-getting_. Whose efficiency is explained by the\npossessive noun, _man's_. Therefore, the complete subject is, _Man's\nefficiency for food-getting and shelter-getting_.\n\nNow we are ready to consider the predicate. What has efficiency done? It\n_has not diminished_. _Has diminished_ is the verb phrase, which is the\nsimple predicate of this sentence. It is modified by the adverb _not_,\nso we have _Man's efficiency has not diminished_. Then we might ask,\n_when_ has it not diminished? And this is answered by the phrase, _since\nthe day of the cave-man_. So we have our complete predicate, _Has not\ndiminished since the day of the cave-man_.\n\nIn this way we can analyze or break up into its different parts, every\nsentence. First find the subject, then ask what that subject does, and\nthe answer will be the predicate or verb. Do not confuse the verb with\nthe words which state _how_ or _why_ the action is performed, and do not\nconfuse the verb with the _object_ of the action. The verb simply\nasserts the action. The other words will add the additional information\nas to how or why or when or upon whom the action was performed.\n\nLet us finish the analysis of the sentences in the paragraph quoted from\nJack London. In the second sentence, _It has increased a thousand-fold_,\nthe personal pronoun _it_, which refers to the noun _efficiency_, is the\nsubject of the sentence; and when you ask what _it_ has _done_, you find\nthat the question is answered by the verb, _has increased_. Therefore,\n_has increased_ is the verb in the sentence. The noun, _thousand-fold_\nis used as an adverb telling how much it has increased. It is an\nadverb-noun, which you will find explained in Section 291.\n\nIn the next sentence, _Wonderful artifices and marvelous inventions have\nbeen made_, we find two _nouns_ about which a statement is made.\n_Artifices_ have been made and _inventions_ have been made; so\n_artifices_ and _inventions_ are both the _subjects_ of the sentence.\nTherefore, we have a compound subject with a single verb, _have been\nmade_. _Artifices_ is modified by the adjective _wonderful_, and\n_inventions_ is modified by the adjective _marvelous_, so we have\n_wonderful artifices and marvelous inventions_, as the complete subject,\nand _have been made_, as the complete predicate.\n\nIn the last sentence, _Why then do millions of modern men live more\nmiserably than the cave-man lived?_, we find a sentence which is a\ntrifle more difficult of analysis. It is written in the interrogative\nform. If you find it difficult to determine the subject and the verb or\nverb phrase in an interrogative sentence, rewrite the sentence in the\nassertive form, and you will find it easier to analyze.\n\nWhen we rewrite this sentence we have, _Millions of modern men do live\nmore miserably than the cave-man lived_. Now it is evident that the noun\n_millions_ is the subject of the sentence. We see quickly that _men_\ncannot be the subject because it is the object of the preposition _of_,\nin the phrase, _of modern men_. So we decide that the noun _millions_ is\nthe simple subject.\n\nWhen we ask the question what millions _do_, our question is answered by\nthe verb phrase, _do live_. So _do live_ is the simple predicate, and\nthe skeleton of our sentence, the simple subject and the simple\npredicate, is _millions do live_. The subject _millions_ is modified by\nthe adjective phrase _of modern men_.\n\nThen we ask, _how_ do men live? And we find our question answered by\n_they live miserably_. But we are told _how_ miserably they live by the\nadverb _more_ and the adverb clause, _than the cave-man lived_, both\nmodifying the adverb _miserably_. So we have our complete predicate, _do\nlive more miserably than the cave-man lived_.\n\nThis interrogative sentence is introduced by the interrogative adverb\n_why_.\n\nDo not drop this subject until you are able to determine readily the\n_subject_ and _predicate_ in every sentence and properly place all\nmodifying words. There is nothing that will so increase your power of\nunderstanding what you read, and your ability to write clearly, as this\nfacility in analyzing sentences.\n\n\n                    Exercise 3\n\nThe following is Elbert Hubbard's description of the child-laborers of\nthe Southern cotton-mills. Read it carefully. Notice that the sentences\nare all short sentences, and the cumulative effect of these short\nsentences is a picture of the condition of these child-workers which one\ncan never forget. The subjects and predicates are in italics. When you\nhave finished your study of this question, rewrite it from memory and\nthen compare your version with the original version.\n\n  _I thought_ that _I would lift_ one of the little toilers. _I wanted_\n  to ascertain his weight. Straightway through his thirty-five pounds of\n  skin and bone there _ran_ a _tremor_ of fear. _He struggled_ forward\n  to tie a broken thread. _I attracted_ his attention by a touch. _I\n  offered_ him a silver dime. _He looked_ at me dumbly from a face _that\n  might have belonged_ to a man of sixty. _It was_ so furrowed, tightly\n  drawn and full of pain. _He did_ not _reach_ for the money. _He did_\n  not _know_ what _it was_. There _were dozens_ of such children in this\n  particular mill. A _physician who was_ with me _said_ that _they\n  would_ probably all _be_ dead in two years. Their _places would be_\n  easily _filled_, however, for there _were_ plenty _more_. _Pneumonia\n  carries_ off most of them. Their _systems are_ ripe for disease and\n  when _it comes_ there _is_ no _rebound_. _Medicine_ simply _does_ not\n  _act_. _Nature is whipped, beaten, discouraged._ _The child sinks_\n  into a stupor and _dies_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 4\n\nIn the following sentences, mark the simple sentences, the complex\nsentences and the compound sentences, and analyze these sentences\naccording to the rules given for analyzing simple sentences, complex\nsentences and compound sentences:\n\n  1. Force is no remedy.\n  2. Law grinds the poor, and the rich men rule the law.\n  3. Force and fraud are in war the two cardinal virtues.\n  4. Freedom is a new religion, a religion of our time.\n  5. Desire nothing for yourself which you do not desire for others.\n  6. An ambassador is a man who goes abroad to lie for the good of his\n     country.\n  7. A journalist is a man who stays at home to pursue the same\n     vocation.\n  8. Without free speech no search for truth is possible.\n  9. Liberty for the few is not liberty.\n  10. Liberty for me and slavery for you mean slavery for both.\n  11. No revolution ever rises above the intellectual level of those who\n      make it.\n  12. Men submit everywhere to oppression when they have only to lift\n      their heads to throw off the yoke.\n  13. Many politicians of our time are in the habit of saying that no\n      people ought to be free till they are fit to use freedom. The\n      maxim is worthy of the fool in the old story who resolved not to\n      go into the water till he had learned to swim. If men are to wait\n      for liberty till they become wise and good in slavery they may\n      indeed wait forever.\n\n\n                    SUMMARY\n\n+458.+ The following is a summary of that which we have learned in\nsentence building:\n\n                {         { Assertive\n                {    Use  { Interrogative\n  Sentences are {         { Imperative\n  classified    {         { Exclamatory\n  according to  {\n                {         { Simple\n                {    Form { Complex\n                {         { Compound\n\n  Elements       { +Words+, the eight parts of speech.\n    of           { +Phrases+, adjective, adverb and verb phrases.\n  The Sentence.  { +Clauses+, adjective, adverb and noun clauses.\n\n\n+459.+\n                    ESSENTIALS OF A SIMPLE SENTENCE\n\n  +Subject+   +Predicate+\n\n  Subject    Complete Verb\n  Subject    Copulative Verb    Predicate Complement\n  Subject    Transitive Verb    Direct Object\n  Subject    Transitive Verb    Direct Object    Indirect Object\n\n+460.+\n                    THE SUBJECT\n\n                        { _Noun_--The _man_ came.\n                        { _Pronoun_--_He_ came.\n  +The simple subject+  { _Adjective_--The _poor_ came.\n  may be                { _Infinitive_--_To find_ work is difficult.\n                        { _Participle_--_Walking_ is good exercise.\n                        { _Clause_--_What I learn_ cannot be lost.\n\n  +Complete subject+--Simple subject and modifiers.\n\n                    Modifiers of the Subject\n\n                { Word--_Wealthy_ men rule.\n  +Adjective+   { Phrase--Men _of wealth_ rule.\n                { Clause--Men _who are wealthy_ rule.\n\n  +Possessive+--The _man's_ energy was great.\n\n                { Word--The poet, _Lowell_, was the author.\n  +Appositive+  { Clause--The fact, _that you came_, pleases me.\n\n                { The soldiers, _wounded and dying_, were\n  +Participle+  {     left on the field\n\n  +Infinitive+--A plan _to end the war_ was discussed.\n\n+461.+\n                    THE PREDICATE\n\n  +The simple+  { _Verb_--The man _came_.\n  +predicate+   { _Verb phrase_--The man _has been coming_ daily.\n\n                 { +Predicate Complement+--The man was a _hero_.\n  A COMPLETE     { +Direct Object+--The man brought the _book_.\n  PREDICATE      { +The Indirect Object+--The man brought _me_ the book.\n  _equals a verb {\n  or verb phrase {             {_Word_--The man works _rapidly_.\n  and_           { +Adverb+    { _Phrase_--The man works _in the factory_.\n                 { +Modifiers+ { _Clause_--The man works _whenever he\n                 {                          can_.\n\n                    { _Words_--The man works hard.\n  SIMPLE SENTENCES  { _Phrases_--The man _on your right_ works _in the\n  CONTAIN ONLY      {          factory._\n\n                      { _Words_,              The man works steadily\n  +Complex sentences+ { _Phrases_             in the factory _whenever\n  +contain+           { and                   there is work_.\n                      { _Dependent clauses._\n\n+Compound sentences contain+ two or more principal clauses, as:\n\n  _The sun rises_ and _the day dawns_.\n\n+462.+ Take the simple subjects and simple predicates in Exercise 5, and\nbuild up sentences; first, by adding a word, then a phrase and then a\nclause to modify the subject; then add a word and a phrase and a clause\nto modify the predicate.\n\nSo long as you have only words and phrases you have simple sentences.\nWhen you add a dependent clause you have a complex sentence. When you\nunite two independent clauses in one sentence, then you have a compound\nsentence, and the connecting word will always be a co-ordinate\nconjunction. These will be readily distinguished for there are only a\nfew co-ordinate conjunctions.\n\nGo back to the lesson on co-ordinate conjunctions and find out what\nthese are, and whenever you find two clauses connected by these\nco-ordinate conjunctions you know that you have a compound sentence.\nRemember that each clause must contain a subject and predicate of its\nown. When you have two words connected by these co-ordinate conjunctions\nyou do not have a clause. Each clause must contain a subject and a\npredicate of its own.\n\n+463.+ Here is an example of a sentence built up from a simple subject\nand a simple predicate:\n\n\n                    SIMPLE SUBJECT ENLARGED\n\n+Simple Subject and Predicate+--_Soldiers obey._\n\n_Adjectives_ added--_The enlisted_ soldiers obey.\n\n_Phrase_ added--The enlisted soldiers _in the trenches_ obey.\n\n_Clause_ added--The enlisted soldiers in the trenches, _who are\ndoomed to die_, obey.\n\n\n                SIMPLE PREDICATE ENLARGED\n\n+Simple Subject and Predicate+--_Soldiers obey._\n\n_Object_ added--Soldiers obey _orders_.\n\n_Adverb_ added--Soldiers obey orders _quickly_.\n\n_Phrase_ added--Soldiers obey orders quickly and _without\nquestion_.\n\n_Clause_ added--Soldiers obey orders quickly and without question\n_because they are taught to do so_.\n\nCombining our enlarged subject and predicate we have the sentence:\n\n  The enlisted soldiers in the trenches, who are doomed to die, obey\n  orders quickly and without question because they are taught to do so.\n\nThis is a complex sentence because it contains dependent clauses. We\nmight add another independent clause and make of this a compound\nsentence. For example:\n\n  The enlisted soldiers in the trenches, who are doomed to die, obey\n  orders quickly and without question because they are taught to do so,\n  and _this is patriotism_.\n\n\n                    Exercise 5\n\nEnlarge the following simple subjects and simple predicates:\n\n\n  Men write.\n  Boys play.\n  People study.\n  The law rules.\n\n\n                    Exercise 6\n\n  In the following poem underscore all of the dependent clauses.\n  Determine whether they are noun, adjective or adverb clauses. Do you\n  find any simple or compound sentences in this poem?\n\n    MEN! whose\n    boast it is that ye\n    Come of fathers brave and free,\n    If there breathe on earth a slave,\n    Are you truly free and brave?\n    If ye do not feel the chain,\n    When it works a brother's pain,\n    Are ye not base slaves indeed,\n    Slaves unworthy to be freed?\n\n    Women! who shall one day bear\n    Sons to breathe New England air,\n    If ye hear without a blush,\n    Deeds to make the roused blood rush\n    Like red lava through your veins,\n    For your sisters now in chains,--\n    Answer! are you fit to be\n    Mothers of the brave and free?\n\n    Is true Freedom but to break\n    Fetters for our own dear sake,\n    And, with leathern hearts, forget\n    That we owe mankind a debt?\n    No! true freedom is to share\n    All the chains our brothers wear,\n    And, with heart and hand, to be\n    Earnest to make others free!\n\n    They are slaves who fear to speak\n    For the fallen and the weak;\n    They are slaves who will not choose\n    Hatred, scoffing, and abuse,\n    Rather than in silence shrink\n    From the truth they needs must think;\n    They are slaves who dare not be\n    In the right with two or three.\n\n                    --_Lowell_.\n\n\n\n\n                    SPELLING\n\n                    LESSON 27\n\n\nWe have studied concerning the formation of derivatives by the addition\nof suffixes. Derivatives are also formed by the addition of prefixes.\nYou remember that a prefix is a syllable which is placed before a simple\nword to form the derivative. Among the most common of these prefixes are\n_in_, _un_ and _mis_. The prefix _in_ used with an adjective or adverb\nmeans _not_; for example, _insane_ means _not_ sane; _incorrect_ means\n_not_ correct, etc.\n\nThe prefix _in_ used with a noun means _lack of_; for example,\n_inexperience_ means _lack of_ experience; _inability_ means _lack of_\nability, etc.\n\nIn words beginning with _m_ or _p_, _in_, meaning _not_ or _lack of_, is\nchanged to _im_. This is done for the sake of euphony. The _n_ does not\nunite readily with the sound of _m_ or _p_. So we do not say _inmodest_\nand _inpartial_, but _immodest_ and _impartial_.\n\nThe prefix _un_, used with participles, means _not_; for example,\n_unprepared_ means _not_ prepared; _unguarded_ means _not_ guarded, etc.\n\nThe prefix _un_ used with verbs, means to take off or to reverse; for\nexample, _uncover_ means to take off the cover; _untwist_ means to\nreverse the process of the twisting.\n\nThe prefix _un_ used with adjectives means _not_; for example,\n_uncertain_ means _not_ certain; _uncommon_ means _not_ common.\n\nThe prefix _mis_ used with nouns or verbs, means _wrong_. For example,\n_mistreatment_ means _wrong_ treatment; _to misspell_ means to spell\n_wrong_.\n\nAdd the prefix _in_ to the nouns given in Monday's list; add the prefix\n_in_ to the adjectives given in Tuesday's list; add the prefix _im_ to\nthe adjectives and nouns in Wednesday's lesson; add the prefix _un_ to\nthe participles and adjectives in Thursday's lesson; add the prefix _un_\nto the verbs in Friday's lesson, and add the prefix _mis_ to the nouns\nand verbs in Saturday's lesson.\n\n  +Monday+\n\n    Tolerance\n    Frequency\n    Competence\n    Efficiency\n    Coherence\n\n  +Tuesday+\n\n    Convenient\n    Expedient\n    Famous\n    Adequate\n    Solvent\n\n  +Wednesday+\n\n    Pertinent\n    Morality\n    Patience\n    Moderate\n    Pious\n\n  +Thursday+\n\n    Balanced\n    Biased\n    Gracious\n    Stable\n    Solicited\n\n  +Friday+\n\n    Burden\n    Veil\n    Fasten\n    Screw\n    Furl\n\n  +Saturday+\n\n    Construe\n    Apprehension\n    Inform\n    Guide\n    Judge\n\n\n\n\n                    PLAIN ENGLISH\n\n                    LESSON 28\n\n\nDear Comrade:\n\nWe are beginning with this lesson the study of the use of capitals and\nof punctuation. The use of capitals as well as punctuation has nothing\nto do with our spoken words, but both are very important in our written\nlanguage.\n\nThere is nothing that will mark us as uneducated more quickly than bad\nspelling, faulty punctuation and the incorrect use of capitals.\n\nThe rules for the use of capitals may seem somewhat arbitrary. After an\nunderstanding of them, however, you will discover that they are not\narbitrary, but are based upon a single principle. The word which is of\nthe most importance, or which should receive the most emphasis is the\nword which is capitalized, as for example, the principal words in a\ntitle, the first words in a sentence, proper names, etc.\n\nStudy these rules carefully, note the use of the capitals in your\nreading and watch your written language carefully for a time. Soon the\nproper use of capitals will seem easy and most natural. In the meantime\ndo not fail to keep up your study of words. Add at least one word to\nyour vocabulary every day.\n\nDid you ever consider how we think in pictures? Nearly every word that\nwe use calls up a certain image or picture in our minds. The content of\nwords has grown and developed as our ability to think has developed.\n\nTake, for example, words like head or hand. Head originally referred to\na portion of the body of a living thing; then it was used to refer to\nsome part of an inanimate object which might resemble or call up a\npicture of an animal's head, for example, the head of a pin. Again, it\nwas used to refer to some part of an inanimate thing which was\nassociated with the head of a human being, as the head of the bed. Then,\nby the power of association, since the head was considered the most\nconspicuous and important part of the body, that which was most\nconspicuous and important was called the head, as the head of the army,\nthe head of the nation.\n\nThen, since the head was the seat of the brain and of the mental\nfaculties, the head was often used instead of the brain or mental\nfaculties. We speak of a clear head or a cool head. Thus we have a\nnumber of idiomatic expressions. We may speak of the head of the river;\nor the subject matter was divided under four heads; or again, the matter\ncame to a head; he is head and ears in debt; we cannot make head against\nthe opposition, etc.\n\nThis transfer of our ideas from the physical to the mental and spiritual\nmarks vividly the growth of the language and the development of thought.\nTrace the words like hands, arm, foot, eye, tongue, in their use, first\nas physical then as mental or spiritual.\n\nThis will be the most interesting pastime and will enlarge the content\nof the words which you use.\n\n                    Yours for Education,\n\n                              THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.\n\n\n                    CAPITAL LETTERS\n\n+464.+ In our written speech we often display our lack of education by\nour use of capital letters and punctuation. We may understand the use of\nwords and be able to speak fairly well, but if we do not understand the\nproper use of capitals and of punctuation marks, our written language\nreadily betrays our ignorance.\n\n+465.+ There are a number of rules for the use of capitals which we must\nobserve. Some of the writers in our magazines defy these rules of\ncapitalization, in an effort to seem different from other people,\nperhaps. These rules for the use of capital letters, like all other\nrules, are not arbitrary rules laid down by any body of men, but are\nsimply a statement of accepted usage among people. We should not feel\nthat we should say this or that or we are violating a rule of grammar.\nWe should feel rather that the majority of the people who speak and\nwrite good English do thus, and so, for this reason, I shall do it also.\n\nThis is simply obeying the standard of majority rule. If there is any\ngood and sufficient reason why we feel this should not be a rule, we may\nbe justified in breaking it and making a new rule. Many people feel that\nour spelling should be simplified and so they insist upon spelling\ncertain words in a more simple way. They feel that they have good and\nsufficient reason for insisting upon this change and gradually if these\nreasons appeal to the majority as being good and sufficient reasons,\nthen this simplified mode of spelling will become the accepted usage.\n\nBut there seems no good reason why any writer should scatter capital\nletters with a lavish hand throughout his writing. One feels as though a\nwriter in so doing is expressing his desire to be different, in a very\nsuperficial manner. Let us be unique and individual in our thought. If\nthis forces us to a different mode of living or of expression from the\nrest of the world, then we are justified in being different from the\nrest. We have thought and reason behind our action. This is far\ndifferent from the attitude of one who poses as a radical and whose only\nprotest is in the superficial external things. So let us learn and\nobserve these rules for the use of capital letters.\n\n\n                    RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS\n\n+466.+ +Use a capital for the first word of every sentence.+\n\nWhen you begin a new sentence always begin that sentence with a capital\nletter. Each sentence is a statement of a complete thought and is\nindependent of every other sentence. The use of the capital letter\nindicates this independence and calls attention to the fact that you are\nbeginning a new thought.\n\n+467.+ +Begin every line of poetry with a capital letter.+ Sometimes in\npoetry, the line is too long to be printed on a single line and must be\ncarried over into another line; in this case, the first word of the\nsecond line does _not_ begin with a capital letter.\n\n+468.+ +Use a capital for every proper noun.+ This includes names of\npersons, countries, states, towns, cities, streets and geographical\nnames, as the names of seas, lakes, mountains, rivers, etc.\n\n+469.+ +The words North, South, East and West are capitalized when they\nare used to refer to geographical divisions.+ When these words simply\nrefer to the points of the compass, they should not begin with a\ncapital.\n\n+470.+ +The pronoun _I_ and the interjection _O_ should always be\ncapitals.+ Never write the pronoun _I_ with a small _i_.\n\n+471.+ +Every proper adjective should begin with a capital letter.+\nProper adjectives are adjectives derived from proper nouns. For example:\nthe _Marxian_ philosophy, the _Darwinian_ theory, _Indian_ money,\n_Japanese_ labor, etc.\n\n+472.+ +Always begin the names of the months and the days of the week\nwith capital letters.+ For example: _January_, _February_, _August_,\n_Monday_, _Tuesday_, _Friday_, etc.\n\n+473.+ +Use a capital letter for every name or title of the Deity.+ For\nexample: _God_, _Jehovah_, _Christ_, _Jesus_, etc. It is also customary\nto capitalize all personal pronouns referring to God or Christ.\n\n+474.+ +Begin with a capital letter names of all religious sects and\npolitical parties, also all adjectives derived from them.+ As for\nexample: _Christian Church_, _Methodism_, _Republican Party_,\n_Mohammedan_, _Socialist_, etc.\n\n+475.+ +Begin the names of all things spoken of as persons with a\ncapital.+ In poetry or poetic prose we often speak of _war_, _fame_,\n_death_, _hope_, _fancy_, _liberty_, etc., as persons. Whenever these\nwords are used in this way they should begin with a capital letter.\n\n+476.+ +Use capital letters to begin important words in the title of a\nbook or the subject of a composition.+ In titles the nouns, pronouns,\nadjectives, verbs and adverbs should begin with a capital, while the\nprepositions and conjunctions should begin with small letters. The\narticles, _the_, _a_ and _an_ are not capitalized unless they are the\ninitial word in the title.\n\n+477.+ +Use a capital to begin every direct quotation.+ The first word\nof an indirect quotation should begin with a small letter. A direct\nquotation is one which uses the exact words of the speaker. For example:\n_He said_, \"_I will come_.\" This is a direct quotation, but _He said\nthat he would come_, is an indirect quotation.\n\n+478.+ +Use a capital to begin an important statement or to ask a\nquestion.+ For example: _Resolved; That the United States should\ndemocratize war. The question is, Shall the people determine the\nquestion of war?_\n\n+479.+ +Use capitals for the chief items of any enumeration of\nparticulars.+ For example;\n\n  The bill is as follows:\n    For Composition                 $20.00\n    For Press Work                   10.00\n    Paper                            25.00\n\n+480.+ +Begin the words indicating titles of offices and honor with a\ncapital.+ For example, _President Wilson_, _Doctor Smith_, _Professor\nLocke_. When you use a title of this kind as a general term, that is,\nnot indicating any particular person, do not use a capital. As for\nexample: _The society has had several presidents._ But if you use the\ntitle to take the place of the person's name, for example: _The\nPresident read the message to Congress_, always use a capital.\n\n+481.+ +Use capitals for the titles at the beginning of a letter or in\nwritten composition and in direct address.+ For example: _My dear\nFather_, _My dear Mother_, _My dear Comrade_, _Dear Aunt Emma_, _Dear\nFriend_, _Dear Fellow Workers_, etc. Also in conversation.\n\n  Are you coming with me, Mother?\n  What did the Doctor say, Comrade Smith?\n\nWhen these words are not used in direct address, however, they should\nnot be capitalized. For example, at the close of a letter you would\nwrite:\n\n  Your sincere friend.\n  Your loving brother.\n\nOr in conversation:\n\n  I asked my mother to go with me.\n  My brother wrote me concerning the matter.\n\n+482.+ +Begin the names of important buildings and localities with a\ncapital.+ For example:\n\n  Public Library, High School, The East Side, The Union Square, Central\n  Market, etc.\n\nThese words used in a general sense, however, should not begin with a\ncapital letter. For example:\n\nOur public libraries, our high schools, jails, prisons, post offices,\netc.\n\n+483.+ +The words state and territory, when they refer to particular\ndivisions of the country, should be capitalized.+ For example:\n\nThe State of New York, The Territory of Alaska, The French Government,\netc.\n\n_State_ and _government_ are also capitalized when they are used in\nplace of proper names. For example:\n\n  The State is based on exploitation.\n  The Government has issued an edict of war.\n\nWe do not use a capital in such expressions as:\n\n  Church and state, state affairs; they occupy a large territory, etc.\n\n+484.+ +In directing letters or other matter for the mail, capitalize\nall words except prepositions, conjunctions or articles.+ These should\nbe capitalized only when they begin a line.\n\n\n                    Exercise 1\n\nDraw a line under each word in the following that should be begun with a\ncapital:\n\n  john joffre, lake michigan, day, thursday, friday, spring, august,\n  december, germany, country, france, man, jones, smith, doctor, doctor\n  george, professor moore, girl, mary, susan, methodist, mohammedan,\n  church, party, republican party, socialist, company, national electric\n  light company, river, mississippi river, the red river, essex county,\n  state of illinois, iowa, railway, new york, new york central railway,\n  the french revolution, novel, the sea wolf, poem, arrows in the gale,\n  american.\n\n\n                    Exercise 2\n\nNotice carefully the following quotations and sentences and capitalize\nevery word that should begin with a capital letter.\n\n  1. iron, the twin brother of fire, the first born out of the matrix\n     of the earth, a witness everlasting to the glory of thy labor, am\n     i, o man.\n  2. therefore i say unto you, banish fear from your hearts.\n  3. but ye, plebs, populists, people, rebels, mob, proletariat, live\n     and abide forever.\n  4. and they came here from all parts of the earth, the syrians and\n     the armenians, the thracians and the tartars, the jews, the greeks\n     and the romans, the gauls and the angles and the huns and the\n     hibernians, even from the deserts of the sands to the deserts of\n     ice they came to listen unto his words.\n  5. marx and engels wrote the communist manifesto.\n  6. its closing words are; working men of all countries unite.\n  7. italy was the last of the great powers of europe to become\n     involved in the war.\n  8. john randolph submitted an amendment to the constitution providing\n     that the judges of the supreme court of the united states shall be\n     removed by the president on the joint address of both houses of\n     congress.\n  9. eugene v. debs spent six months in woodstock jail for exercising\n     his right of free speech.\n  10. col. the abbreviation for colorado, is easily confused with cal.\n      the abbreviation for california.\n  11. the people's college is a college maintained by the working\n      class.\n  12. william jennings bryan won his first nomination for president of\n      the united states by a very dramatic speech delivered in the\n      national democratic convention.\n  13. marion craig wentworth, a socialist playwright, has written a play\n      called \"war brides.\"\n  14. the play closes with these words; a message to the emperor: i\n      refuse to bear my child until you promise there shall be no more\n      war.\n  15. olive schreiner's \"woman and labor\" is full of fascinating\n      thought.\n\n\n                    Exercise 3\n\nNotice carefully the use of capitals in the following quotations, and\ndetermine the reason for the use of every capital:\n\n  As the nobles of England wrung their independence from King John, and\n  as the tradesmen of France broke through the ring of privilege\n  enclosing the Three Estates; so today the millions who serve society\n  in arduous labor on the highways, and aloft on the scaffoldings, and\n  by the sides of the whirring machines, are demanding that they, too,\n  and their children, shall enjoy all of the blessings that justify and\n  make beautiful this life.--_Frank Walsh_.\n\n    \"The toad beneath the harrow knows\n      Exactly where the tooth-point goes.\n    The butterfly beside the road\n      Doth preach contentment to that toad.\"\n\n  \"When I came here, it was said that the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company\n  voted every man and woman in their employ without any regard to their\n  being naturalized or not; and even their mules, it used to be\n  remarked, were registered if they were fortunate enough to possess\n  names.\" _From a letter written by Mr. L. M. Bowers, Chairman of The\n  Board of Directors of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company, to the\n  Secretary of Mr. John D. Rockefeller, Jr., under date of May 13,\n  1913._\n\n    Master, I've done Thy bidding, wrought in Thy many lands.\n    Not by my sins wilt Thou judge me, but by the work of my hands.\n    Master, I've done Thy bidding, and the light is low in the west,\n    And the long, long shift is over ... Master, I've earned it--Rest.\n\n                                        --_Robert Service_.\n\n    It's O! to be a slave\n      Along with the barbarous Turk,\n    Where woman has never a soul to save,\n      If this is Christian work!\n\n                    --_Thos. Hood_.\n\n  While there is a lower class, I am in it.\n  While there is a criminal element, I am of it.\n  While there is a soul in jail, I am not free.\n\n                    --_Eugene V. Debs_.\n\n  When Adam delved and Eve span,\n  Who was then the gentleman?\n\n    The vilest deeds, like poison weeds,\n      Bloom well in prison-air;\n    It is only what is good in man\n      That wastes and withers there:\n    Pale Anguish keeps the heavy gate,\n      And the Warder is Despair.\n\n                    --_Oscar Wilde_.\n\n\n                    ABBREVIATIONS AND CONTRACTIONS\n\n+485.+ There are a number of words which we abbreviate or contract, in\nour every-day use. A contraction is a shortened form of the word used to\nsave time or space and is made by omitting a letter or letters. The\napostrophe is used to indicate the omission in a contracted word. As,\nfor example:\n\n  B'ld'g, B'l'v'd, M'f'g.\n\nWhen the word is contracted in this way and the apostrophe is used,\nthese contractions are not followed by the period but are used just as\nthe completely written word would be used. There is no accepted list of\nthese contractions. We devise them according to our need at the moment.\n\nAn abbreviation, however, is an authorized contraction of the word. It\nis the shortening of a term which is habitually used to save time and\nspace. The apostrophe is not used and the abbreviation should be\nfollowed by a period. As for example:\n\n  Bldg.  Blvd.  Mfg.\n\nThese abbreviations and contractions are very helpful to us in saving\ntime and space but should not be used too frequently. Too many\ncontractions or abbreviations make writing ridiculous. Take time to\nwrite out the majority of words. Only use abbreviations or contractions\nfor certain accepted words. Avoid an excessive use of abbreviations.\n\n\n                    COMMONLY USED ABBREVIATIONS\n\n+486.+ We quite often abbreviate the names of the months, especially\nthose which have long names. Short names like _March_, _April_, _May_,\n_June_ and _July_, should never be abbreviated. For the other months we\nuse in correspondence the abbreviations, _Jan._, _Feb._, _Aug._,\n_Sept._, _Oct._, _Nov._, _Dec._ Days of the week are also sometimes\nabbreviated as follows: _Sun._, _Mon._, _Tues._, _Wed._, _Thur._,\n_Fri._, _Sat._ Do not use these abbreviations too often. Spell out the\nnames of the months and of the days of the week except in lists of dates\nor something that calls for abbreviations to save time or space.\n\n_Mr._, _Mrs._, _Messrs._, _Jr._, _Sr._, are never spelled out, but are\nalways written in the abbreviated form. You will often find _Doctor_ and\n_Professor_ abbreviated to _Dr._, _Prof._ This is permissible but it is\nalways good form to write them out in full.\n\n+487.+ We have abbreviated forms for a number of names; as for example:\n_Geo._, _Chas._, _Thos._, _Wm._, etc. But it is always much better to\nwrite these names out in full: _George_, _Charles_, _Thomas_, _William_,\netc.\n\nRemember that nicknames are not abbreviations and do not require a\nperiod after them. _Jim_, _Charley_, _Tom_, and _Bill_ are not\nabbreviations but nicknames.\n\nIn correspondence or in any circumstance that demands the saving of time\nor space, we abbreviate the names of states and territories, as follows:\n\n  Alabama, Ala.\n  Arizona, Ariz.\n  Arkansas, Ark.\n  California, Cal.\n  Colorado, Colo.\n  Connecticut, Conn.\n  Delaware, Del.\n  District of Columbia, D. C.\n  Florida, Fla.\n  Georgia, Ga.\n  Idaho, Ida.\n  Illinois, Ill.\n  Indiana, Ind.\n  Iowa, Ia.\n  Kansas, Kan.\n  Kentucky, Ky.\n  Louisiana, La.\n  Maine, Me.\n  Maryland, Md.\n  Massachusetts, Mass.\n  Michigan, Mich.\n  Minnesota, Minn.\n  Mississippi, Miss.\n  Missouri, Mo.\n  Montana, Mont.\n  Nebraska, Neb.\n  Nevada, Nev.\n  New Hampshire, N. H.\n  New Jersey, N. J.\n  New Mexico, N. M.\n  New York, N. Y.\n  North Carolina, N. C.\n  North Dakota, N. D.\n  Ohio, O.\n  Oklahoma, Okla.\n  Oregon, Ore.\n  Pennsylvania, Pa. or Penna.\n  Rhode Island, R. I.\n  South Carolina, S. C.\n  South Dakota, S. D.\n  Tennessee, Tenn.\n  Texas, Tex.\n  Vermont, Vt.\n  Virginia, Va.\n  Washington, Wash.\n  West Virginia, W. Va.\n  Wisconsin, Wis.\n  Wyoming, Wyo.\n\n+488.+ Use _a. m._ and _p. m._ after dates in lists of dates or\nschedules of trains or for any similar purpose, but in the text of a\nletter or manuscript it is better to write them out in full. As for\nexample, do not say:\n\n  I will arrive tomorrow a. m., or, You may call about eight p. m.\n\nSay rather:\n\n  I will arrive tomorrow morning. You may call at eight o'clock this\n  evening.\n\nThe letters _a. m._ are the abbreviation for ante meridiem, Latin for\nbefore noon; and _p. m._ for post meridiem, meaning afternoon.\n\n+489.+ Two consecutive years may be written 1914-15, but use 1915 rather\nthan '15. In the heading of letters it is better to write the date out\nin full, as, _May 28, 1915_, instead of 5-28-15.\n\nIn the back of your dictionary you will find a complete list of accepted\nabbreviations used in writing and printing. The list that follows\ncontains abbreviations most commonly used, especially in business\ncorrespondence:\n\n  @ for at\n  acct. for account\n  agt. for agent\n  amt. for amount\n  ans. for answer\n  asst. for assistant\n  atty. for attorney\n  av. for average\n  bal. for balance\n  bbl. for barrel\n  bdl. for bundle\n  bro. for brother\n  bros. for brothers\n  blk. for black\n  bls. for bales\n  bu. or bush. for bushels\n  Co. for company\n  chgd. for charged\n  C. O. D. for \"cash on delivery\"\n  cr. creditor\n  cts. cents\n  cwt. for hundred weight\n  cu. for cubic\n  do. for the same\n  dr. for debtor\n  doz. for dozen\n  ea. for \"each\"\n  et al. for \"and others\"\n  e. g. for example\n  etc. for \"and so forth\"\n  ft. for foot or feet\n  frt. freight\n  f. o. b. \"free on board\"\n  gal. gallon\n  guar. for guaranty\n  hdkfs. for handkerchiefs\n  h. p. horse power\n  in. for inches\n  ins. for insurance\n  inst. for this month\n  i. e. for \"that is\"\n  Jr. for junior\n  lb. for pound\n  memo. for memorandum\n  Mon. for Monday\n  mo. for month\n  mos. for months\n  mdse. for merchandise\n  mfg. for manufacturing\n  Mss. for manuscript\n  no. for number\n  N. B. for take notice\n  O. K. for \"all correct\"\n  oz. for ounce\n  % for per cent\n  pp. pages\n  pr. for pair\n  pt. for pint\n  pk. for peck\n  prox. for next month\n  qt. for quart\n  recd. for received\n  sec. for second\n  Sec. for secretary\n  Sr. for senior\n  Supt. for superintendent\n  ult. for last month\n  via by way of\n  viz. namely\n  vol. for volume\n  wt. for weight\n  yd. for yard\n  yds. for yards\n  yr. for year\n\n\n                    Exercise 4\n\nWrite the proper abbreviations for the following words:\n\n  Building\n  Charles\n  Boulevard\n  Tuesday\n  Arkansas\n  Mississippi\n  Foot\n  Virginia\n  Georgia\n  Senior\n  By way of\n  Per cent\n  Charged\n  Avenue\n  October\n  Delaware\n  Professor\n  Thursday\n  Colorado\n  Kansas\n  Handkerchiefs\n  January\n  Secretary\n  Superintendent\n  Received\n  That is\n  Free on board\n  Monday\n  Oklahoma\n  July\n  Thomas\n  California\n  Company\n  Account\n  Friday\n  Merchandise\n  Number\n  All correct\n  Cash on delivery\n  And so forth\n  Colonel\n  Maine\n  August\n  William\n  Missouri\n  Brothers\n  Amount\n  Wyoming\n\n\n\n\n                    SPELLING\n\n                    LESSON 28\n\n\nThere is no way to learn to spell except by constant application. Watch\nin your reading the spelling of all words. Whenever you wish to add a\ncertain word to your vocabulary, master immediately the spelling as well\nas the meaning of that word. Keep your dictionary handy; use it\nconstantly in the study of your lessons. Do not guess at the spelling of\nthe word. You are not likely to forget quickly the spelling of any word\nwhich you have taken the trouble to look up.\n\nRead your examinations over carefully before sending them in, watching\nclosely for any error in spelling and in punctuation. When your papers\nare graded and returned you, make a list of all the words which are\nmisspelled and master then and there the spelling of these words. Do not\nbe guilty of the same error twice. Remember that correct spelling is a\nmark of intelligence and scholarship and that nothing will so detract\nfrom the influence of your written work as incorrect spelling.\n\nWhile there is always a certain word which more aptly expresses our\nmeaning than any other, we can usually find two or more words which\nexpress practically the same meaning.\n\n+Words which have nearly the same meaning are called synonyms.+\n\nIt is always an interesting exercise and will add greatly to your\nvocabulary to select a certain paragraph and go through it replacing\ncertain words with other words which have practically the same meaning.\nIt is this mastery of synonyms which gives the great writers and orators\ntheir power. They do not use the same word over and over again until our\nears have grown weary of it. With their wonderful mastery of language\nthey are never at a loss for words in which to re-clothe their meaning.\n\nFor the first three days of this week's work in spelling we have words\nand their synonyms. For the words given in the lessons for the last\nthree days, look up in your dictionary a suitable synonym.\n\n  +Monday+\n\n    Abundant\n    Plenty\n\n    Precarious\n    Uncertain\n\n    Behavior\n    Conduct\n\n  +Tuesday+\n\n    Abuse\n    Invective\n\n    Hateful\n    Odious\n\n    Praise\n    Applause\n\n  +Wednesday+\n\n    Sufficient\n    Enough\n\n    Refuge\n    Asylum\n\n    Achieve\n    Attain\n\n  +Thursday+\n\n    Insolent\n    Revenge\n    Curb\n    Repudiate\n    Censure\n    Regret\n\n  +Friday+\n\n    Prosperity\n    Subterfuge\n    Event\n    Observe\n    Portion\n    Destroy\n\n  +Saturday+\n\n    Talkative\n    Indolent\n    Profit\n    Volunteer\n    Cordial\n    Enormous\n\nThere are a number of nouns very similar in form, yet different in\nmeaning, which we very often use incorrectly.\n\nCross out in these sentences the incorrect word. Look them up in the\ndictionary and be sure of the exact meaning:\n\n  Roger's _essay_--_assay_ won him praise.\n  The _assay_--_essay_ indicated the quantity of gold in the metal.\n  The _completion_--_completeness_ of the course entitled me to a\n  Diploma.\n  The _completion_--_completeness_ of the arrangements fills us with\n  hope of success.\n  _Confidants_--_confidence_ often betray us.\n  The business world is built upon _confidants_--_confidence_.\n  The _conscience_--_consciousness_ of a religious person is very\n  sensitive.\n  The class struggle develops class _conscience_--_consciousness_.\n  The strikers listened to unwise _counsel_--_council_.\n  The _council_--_counsel_ refused the franchise.\n  You knew he was a _cultured_--_cultivated_ man, the moment you met\n  him.\n  It is a highly _cultured_--_cultivated_ plant.\n  I asked her for the _recipe_--_receipt_ for making cake.\n  He gave her a _receipt_--_recipe_ for the money.\n  _Emigration_---_immigration_ has reduced the population of Servia.\n  _Emigration_--_immigration_ is flooding the United States with cheap\n  labor.\n  Edison's _discovery_--_invention_ of the storage battery was a\n  momentous event.\n  The _discovery_--_invention_ of gold in Alaska attracted the attention\n  of the world.\n  The state placed a _limitation_--_limit_ upon the sale of liquor\n  within certain _limits_--_limitations_.\n\n\n\n\n                    PLAIN ENGLISH\n\n                    LESSON 29\n\n\nDear Comrade:\n\nThe spirit of self-help is the root of all genuine growth in any man or\nwoman. It is the things which we do for ourselves in any line of work\nthat count the most for us. The things which come to us without any\neffort on our part do not stay with us very long nor do us much good\nwhile we have them.\n\nSometimes we feel discouraged because we have not had the opportunity to\nattend school as much as we would like. There is no gainsaying but that\nthis is a tremendous handicap and yet, after all, it is not an\ninsurmountable obstacle. It is much better to have the appetite without\nthe food than to have the food without the appetite. There is always a\nchance of securing the food if we want it bad enough and will struggle\nhard enough. So in the matter of an education. Many a man who has never\nseen the inside of a college is better educated than those who have been\nthrough college.\n\nThese men have really wanted knowledge, have sought it early and late,\nand have found knowledge; and because they were in the work-a-day world,\nin constant contact with their fellow-men, they were able to relate the\nknowledge which they gained out of books to the world in which they\nlived and this is true education. This is, also, what many college-bred\npeople lack. A student is half made as soon as he seeks knowledge for\nits own sake. If you are striving to learn, not to make grades or to\npass examinations or to secure a degree, but simply for the sake of\nknowing things, then indeed you are on the way to become really\neducated.\n\nStimulate within yourself a desire for knowledge, observe the things\nabout you, add to your store of information daily; read a good book each\nday, even if you have time to read only a page or two, and you will be\nsurprised at the result in your life.\n\nTake, for example, our spelling. Why should we continually misspell the\nwords which we use every day and which we see every day on a printed\npage. If we are wide-awake and have our eyes open, we can soon learn to\nspell correctly all these common words, at least. Make a list this week\nof fifty things with which you come in contact in your daily work, then\nlook these words up in your dictionary and see how many of them you have\nmisspelled. There is no reason why we should not be learning constantly\nand the more we observe, the more acute becomes our power of\nobservation.\n\nLet us determine more than ever to feel that we are part of the great\nworld movement, that we belong in the ranks of those who have caught the\nvision of what the world might be, and that we belong to that glorious\narmy of those who are fighting for the dream; so we may take courage; so\nwe may find joy in the struggle, bitter as it may be, and so we may do\nour part in the fight.\n\n                    Yours for Education,\n\n                              THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.\n\n\n                    PUNCTUATION\n\n+490.+ Marks of punctuation are very important in our written language.\nThey take the place of the gesture and pause and inflection and\nintonation of the voice, by which we make our meaning clear in vocal\nspeech. So the marks of punctuation do not become mere mechanical\ndevices. They are marks full of meaning and necessary to express our\nthought.\n\nPunctuation is a word derived from the Latin word _punctum_ which means\n_a point_. We have other words from the same derivation, as puncture,\netc.\n\n+Punctuation is the art of pointing off our written language so as to\nmake its meaning clear.+\n\nSome very amusing errors have occurred because of the misplacing or the\nomission of punctuation marks. It is said, that a toast was one time\ngiven at a public dinner; \"Woman! without her, man would be a savage.\"\nThe next day it appeared in print; \"Woman, without her man, would be a\nsavage.\" You can readily see that the punctuation in this instance made\na very great difference in the meaning of the sentence.\n\n+491.+ In conversation, the tone of the voice which we use, has a great\neffect upon our meaning, for example I might say, _The International\nfailed_, in such a tone of voice, that it would express despair and\nchagrin, and indicate that the International was a thing of the past; or\nI might say, _The International failed_, with such an inflection, that\nyou would understand that even the suggestion was to be treated with\ncontempt, that the International was still powerful and its triumph\ninevitable. And in writing, the only way we have of expressing these\nshades of meaning is by means of punctuation marks.\n\nSo these marks of punctuation are not thrown upon a page haphazardly, or\nput there simply for decoration; they have a meaning and a very great\nmeaning. Those who use short, crisp sentences have less need for\npunctuation marks than those who use longer and more involved sentences.\nWhen we have learned to express ourselves directly and simply, we will\nnaturally use fewer marks of punctuation.\n\n+492.+ You will find that, in writing in connection with business, there\nis much less need of punctuation than in literary and philosophical\nwritings. Business writing is usually direct and simple in style. Its\npurpose is to state facts. The literary and philosophical writing,\nhowever, expresses more involved ideas and emotions, and in these, the\npunctuation is exceedingly important.\n\n+493.+ One of the great purposes served by punctuation is to indicate a\npause or break in the thought. A very good rule to go by in punctuating\nis to repeat the sentence aloud, and whenever you pause for breath or\nbecause of a break in the thought, it is a pretty safe indication that\nin that place, you should have a punctuation mark.\n\n+494.+ The following are the chief marks of punctuation:\n\n  1. The Comma               ,\n  2. The Semi-colon          ;\n  3. The Colon               :\n  4. The Period              .\n  5. The Interrogation Point ?\n  6. The Exclamation Point   !\n  7. The Dash               --\n  8. The Parenthesis        ()\n  9. The Bracket            []\n  10. The Quotation Marks   \"\"\n  11. The Apostrophe         '\n  12. The Hyphen             -\n\n\n                    THE COMMA\n\n+495.+ The comma is the mark used to indicate a slight break in the\nthought.\n\nThere are a number of rules given for the use of commas. These rules,\nlike the rules for the use of capitals, you cannot commit to memory;\nbut, after repeated practice in your own writing and paying attention to\nyour reading, you will gradually develop an instinctive sense of the use\nof the comma. Select some book which you are reading and go through it,\nnoticing especially the use of the commas. See if you can determine the\nreason which prompted the author to place his commas where he did.\nNotice, also, what effect the placing or the omission of the comma would\nhave upon the meaning of the sentence.\n\n+496.+ +The Comma indicates the slightest degree of separation between\nthe parts of a sentence.+\n\n+RULE 1.+\n\n+497.+ +Words, phrases and clauses, forming a series and used in the\nsame construction, should be separated from each other by commas when\nthe conjunctions are omitted.+\n\n\n                    WORDS WHICH FORM A SERIES\n\n+498.+ The words which form a series, separated by a comma may\nbe either nouns, adjectives, adverbs or verbs. The comma is only used\nwhere the conjunction is omitted. Note carefully the following\nsentences:\n\n  Love, laughter and happiness are the right of every child.\n  He visited every city, town and village.\n  The working class has been meek, humble, docile and gullible.\n  All the crushed, tortured, strangled, maimed and murdered ideals of\n  the ages shall become an everlasting reality.\n  He struggled patiently, faithfully and fearlessly for the cause.\n  If labor thinks, dares, rebels, fights, it will be victorious.\n\n\n                    PHRASES WHICH FORM SERIES\n\n+499.+ Phrases which are used in the same construction and form a series\nare separated by commas where the conjunction is omitted. For example:\n\n  Day after day, year after year, century after century, the class\n  struggle has proceeded.\n  The struggle in the mines, in the fields, in the factories and in the\n  shops, will go on until labor receives the product of its toil.\n\n\n                    CLAUSES USED IN A SERIES\n\n+500.+ Sometimes clauses are used without the co-ordinate conjunction\nand a comma is used to indicate the omission. For example:\n\n  Do not moan, do not submit, do not kneel, do not pray, do not wait.\n  Speak as you mean, do as you profess, perform what you promise.\n\n\n+RULE 2.+\n\n+501.+ +Explanatory and introductory expressions, words in direct\naddress, parenthetical words and phrases, are separated from the rest of\nthe sentence by commas.+\n\nNote carefully the following examples:\n\n  Jaures, the great French Socialist, was the first martyr to peace.\n  War having been declared, the troops were mobilized.\n  No, I cannot believe you.\n  Mr. Chairman, I desire to speak to the convention.\n  We can, of course, give you the information you desire.\n\n\n+RULE 3.+\n\n+502.+ +Words, phrases or clauses written in the sentence out of their\nnatural order should be separated from the rest of the sentence by\ncommas.+\n\nThese words, phrases and clauses are often written at the beginning of\nthe sentences or at the end of the sentences, or in some place out of\ntheir natural order, for the sake of emphasis, instead of with the words\nthey modify.\n\nNotice in the following sentences how these words, phrases and clauses\nare separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. Rewrite these\nsentences, placing these words, phrases and clauses in their natural\norder and omit the commas.\n\n  Longingly and anxiously, he waited.\n  With this exception, the figures are correct.\n  The music, sweet and dreamy, floated upon the air.\n  The waves came rolling in, white with foam.\n  To deceive the men, he resorted to shameful tricks.\n  Before anyone else could speak, he was on his feet.\n\n\n+RULE 4.+\n\n+503.+ +Co-ordinate clauses, when closely related in meaning are\nseparated by commas. The comma should precede the co-ordinate\nconjunction.+ For example:\n\n  I have not intended to detain you, but the matter required\n  explanation.\n\n\n+RULE 5.+\n\n+504.+ +The omission of the verb in a sentence or a clause should be\nindicated by a comma.+ Sometimes in writing for effect or to give\nemphasis we omit the verb in the sentence; at other times we omit the\nverb when the same verb occurs in a series of brief sentences, and its\ncontinued use would mean a tiresome repetition. For example:\n\n  Reading maketh a full man; conference, a ready man; writing, an\n  exact man.\n\nHere the verb is omitted in the last two clauses and the omission is\nindicated by the use of the comma.\n\n\n+RULE 6.+\n\n+505.+ +Short, direct quotations should be preceded by a comma.+ For\nexample:\n\n  Their slogan is, \"An injury to one is the concern of all.\"\n  Ferrer's last words were, \"Long live the modern school.\"\n\n\n+RULE 7.+\n\n+506.+ +Separate the figures in large numbers into groups of three\nfigures each by the use of commas.+ For example:\n\n  The population of the United States has now reached 100,000,000.\n  According to the census of 1900, there are 29,073,233 people engaged\n  in gainful occupations in the United States.\n\n\n                    Exercise 1\n\nSupply commas in the following sentences in the proper places:\n\n  1. Food clothes and shelter are the fundamental needs of life.\n  2. We believe in education free from theocracy aristocracy or\n     plutocracy.\n  3. Man is the master of nature of law of life.\n  4. We shall struggle rebel arise and claim all being for our own.\n  5. Sickness and suffering sorrow and despair crime and war are the\n     fruits of poverty.\n  6. You should seek after knowledge steadily faithfully and\n     perseveringly.\n  7. The most inspiring powerful and impressive oratory is the voice of\n     the disinherited.\n  8. Through your united almighty strength order shall become equity law\n     shall become liberty duty shall become love and religion shall\n     become truth.\n  9. First let us consider the main question.\n  10. Mr. President I rise to a point of order.\n  11. We the workers of the world must unite.\n  12. The class struggle being a fact why should we hesitate to join our\n      class?\n  13. You have not it seems understood the issue.\n  14. Of all our needs education is the greatest.\n  15. Regularly and monotonously the machine whirs to and fro.\n  16. Before any one can take special training he must have a good\n      knowledge of English.\n  17. We plead for education universal and free.\n  18. The first ingredient in conversation is truth the next good sense\n      the third good humor and the fourth wit.\n  19. The slogan of the People's College is The education of the workers\n      by the workers.\n  20. According to the last census the enrollment of the schools of the\n      United States is 18521002.\n  21. There are 4611000 in the first grade and 155000 in the last year\n      of high school.\n\n\n                    THE SEMI-COLON\n\n+507.+ The semi-colon indicates a break more complete than that of the\ncomma. The period indicates a complete break in the thought. So the\ncomma indicates a slight break, the semi-colon a greater break in the\nthought, and the period, the completion of the thought.\n\n\n                    RULES FOR THE USE OF THE SEMI-COLON\n\n+508.+ The semi-colon is often used instead of the comma where a longer\npause is desired or we wish to indicate a greater break in the thought.\nFor example:\n\n    \"The wind is chill;\n    But let it whistle as it will,\n    We'll keep our Christmas merry still.\"\n\n+509.+ As a rule we separate by semi-colons those parts of the sentences\nthat are already punctuated by commas. For example:\n\n  After considerable delay, he came back to look for his friends; but,\n  though he looked diligently, he could not find them.\n\n+510.+ The semi-colon is used to separate closely connected simple\nsentences when the conjunction is omitted. The continual repetition of\nthe conjunction would become very tiresome and detract from the\nforcefulness of our sentences. So instead of continually repeating the\nconjunction we separate these simple sentences by semi-colons. For\nexample:\n\n  Through the industrial revolution, the face of the earth is making\n  over even as to its physical forms; political boundaries are wiped out\n  and moved about as if they were indeed only lines on a paper map;\n  population is hurriedly gathered into cities from the ends of the\n  earth; habits of living are altered with startling abruptness; the\n  search for the truths of nature is infinitely stimulated; and the\n  application of these truths to life is made not only practicable, but\n  commercially necessary.\n\n+511.+ The semi-colon should be used after each item in a series of\nspecific statements. For example:\n\n  We quote you the following prices: Grade No. 1, $1.00; Grade No. 2,\n  $2.90; poorer grades not in demand.\n\n\n                    RULES FOR THE USE OF THE COLON\n\n+512.+ The colon is not used as much as it formerly was. The comma and\nthe semi-colon and the period are now used in most of the places where\nolder writers used the colon.\n\nOne authority in English says that, \"in strict logic the colon is to the\nsentence in which it is used what the mark of equality is in\nmathematics.\"\n\n+513.+ The colon is used before a formal list of items. For example:\n\n  Economics has three important divisions: production, distribution,\n  consumption.\n\n+514.+ The colon is used after a salutation at the beginning of a\nletter. For example: _Dear Sir:_ _Gentlemen:_ _Comrades:_\n\nIn such cases the dash is also frequently used with the colon. For\nexample: _My dear Sir:--_ _Gentlemen:--_ _Comrades:--_\n\n+515.+ The colon is more often used instead of the semi-colon after such\nexpressions as, _thus:_ _as follows:_ _the following:_ _for example:_\netc.\n\nThe colon is also used to separate a series of sentences which are\nexplanatory of the main clause. For example:\n\n  The People's College has two great aims: the first is to bring\n  education within the reach of every worker; the second is to teach\n  from the viewpoint of the working class.\n  We were advised to proceed thus: first, to be systematic in our work;\n  second, to concentrate; third, to go slowly and surely; and last of\n  all, to think for ourselves.\n\n\n                    RULES FOR THE USE OF THE PERIOD\n\n+516.+ +The period is a mark of punctuation that denotes the completion\nof a sentence.+\n\n+517.+ The period is used at the close of all assertive and imperative\nsentences. For example:\n\n  There is talk of peace but preparation for war.\n  Claim your own at any hazard.\n\n+518.+ The period is used after all initials and all abbreviations, as\nfor example: E. V. Debs; T. P. O'Connor; Mr., Dr., Co., Mass., N. Y., C.\nO. D., F. O. B., U. S. A., etc.\n\n+519.+ The period is used to separate whole numbers and decimal numbers.\nFor example: 3.1416 9.342.\n\nA period is used for the decimal point between dollars and cents;\nas: $4.50, $2.25, $16.54, $35926.72.\n\nIt is also used to separate the various denominations of sterling money,\nas: L14. 15s. 6d.\n\n+520.+ The period is used after letters used as numerals or after\nfigures used to number paragraphs, notes, remarks, questions or any list\nof particulars. For example:\n\nThe letters which are used to denote sub-heads in the enumeration of\nrules as _a. b. c._, etc., also the numerals and letters marking\nsections or sub-sections in chapters, as _Chapter 8._ _Paragraph 1._\n_Rule 1._ _Page 4._ _Volume 2._ _Paragraph 3._ _P. 16._\n\n+521.+ The period is also used after headings and titles, after dates\nand signatures to letters and other documents; also at the close of the\naddress at the beginning of a letter, and of the name at the close of\nthe letter; also after the last item in the direction of an envelope or\npackage.\n\n\n                    Exercise 2\n\nIn the following quotations place the commas, semi-colons, colons and\nperiods in their proper places, and be able to give a reason for what\nyou do:\n\n  The man who stabs his brother to death is a criminal and is hanged the\n  general who under a flag slays a regiment is a hero and is decorated\n  with a cross\n\n  The most thrilling oratory the most powerful and impressive eloquence\n  is the voice of the disinherited the oppressed the suffering and the\n  submerged it is the voice of poverty and misery of wretchedness and\n  despair it is the voice of humanity crying to the infinite it is the\n  voice that resounds throughout the earth and reaches heaven it is the\n  voice that wakens the conscience of the race and proclaims the truths\n  that fill the world with life liberty and love\n\n  The number of lives lost in the great wars of the world have been as\n  follows Napoleonic wars 1900000 our Civil War 656000 Franco-German War\n  290000 Boer War 90898 Russo-Japanese 555900 and in the present\n  world-war untold millions\n\n  Walt Whitman who represents individualism at its best writes \"I sing\n  the song of myself\" To this the Socialist replies \"Inasmuch as my\n  redemption is bound up in that of my class I sing the song of my\n  class\"\n\n  We believe with John Ruskin \"whether there be one God or three no God\n  or ten thousand children should be fed and their bodies should be kept\n  clean\"\n\n  My dear Mr Smith Your letter of the 15th has been received\n\n  Through the dreams of all the ages rings the voice of labor beginning\n  as a murmur growing in volume and grandeur as it rolls round the world\n  And this is the burden of its message By the sweat of no other's brow\n  shalt thou eat bread\n\n  The sun of the new world is rising it is rising out of the solidarity\n  of the working class Its rays of light are bursting through the dark\n  horizon which ignorance and deceit have so long riveted upon us It is\n  lighting up the faces of a new order of men and women supermen and\n  women men and women not discouraged by defeat god-like men and women\n  who have found the secret springs of life and are already drinking\n  deep and glorious draughts men and women who are standing erect and\n  whose joined hands encircle the world men and women who see the\n  world's wretchedness and the world's poverty and are ready to throw\n  away their lives with a song on their lips that such things shall not\n  be\n\n\n                    Exercise 3\n\nNote the punctuation in the following poem and determine for yourself,\nin accordance with the rules we have studied, why the commas,\nsemi-colons, colons and periods are used as they are:\n\n                    JOHN BROWN\n\n            States are not great\n            Except as man may make them;\n    Men are not great except they do and dare.\n            But States, like men,\n            Have destinies that take them--\n    That bear them on, not knowing why or where.\n\n            The _why_ repels\n            The philosophic searcher--\n    The _why_ and _where_ all questionings defy,\n            Until we find,\n            Far back in youthful nurture,\n    Prophetic facts that constitute the _why_.\n\n            All merit comes\n            From braving the unequal;\n    All glory comes from daring to begin.\n            Fame loves the State\n            That, reckless of the sequel,\n    Fights long and well, whether it lose or win.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n            And there is one\n            Whose faith, whose fight, whose failing,\n    Fame shall placard upon the walls of time.\n            He dared begin--\n            Despite the unavailing,\n    He dared begin, when failure was a crime.\n\n            When over Africa\n            Some future cycle\n    Shall sweep the lake-gemmed uplands with its surge;\n            When, as with trumpet\n            Of Archangel Michael,\n    Culture shall bid a <DW52> race emerge;\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n            From boulevards\n            O'erlooking both Nyanzas,\n    The statured bronze shall glitter in the sun,\n            With rugged lettering:\n            \"JOHN BROWN OF KANSAS:\n              HE DARED BEGIN;\n                HE LOST,\n            BUT, LOSING, WON.\"\n\n                                        --_Eugene Ware_.\n\n\n\n\n                    SPELLING\n\n                    LESSON 29\n\n\nLast week we studied words which had the same, or nearly the same,\nmeaning. There is always a slight distinction in the meaning of words,\nbut some of them are so nearly the same that it makes very little\ndifference which word we use. Some writers, however, are very careful\nand spend a great deal of time in the selection of just the right word\nto express their meaning.\n\nRobert Louis Stevenson once said a good writer would wait half a day in\norder to secure the best word to convey a certain idea.\n\nA very amusing story is told of Thomas Carlyle, who was very careful to\nuse words expressing just the shade of meaning which he desired to\nexpress. He had a habit of writing in a note book these words as they\noccurred to him, so he would have them for ready reference and use. One\nday he had searched all day for a certain word which eluded him.\nSuddenly in the middle of the night he wakened with the word flashing in\nhis mind. He wanted to write it down immediately lest he should forget\nit in the morning, but it was cold and he dreaded getting up in the cold\nto secure his note book so he nudged Jeanie, his wife, and said:\n\"Jeanie, Jeanie, get up! I have thought of a good word, and I want you\nto write it down.\" Now it was equally cold for Jeanie, so Jeanie nudged\nThomas and said: \"Thomas, Thomas, get up yourself. I have thought of a\nbad one!\"\n\nNevertheless, it is a good idea when these good words occur to you to\nwrite them down. Possibly to save trouble, you had better write them for\nyourself!\n\nBut in addition to words which have the same meaning, or almost the same\nmeaning, there are also words which express just the opposite meaning,\nand it is well for us to be master of these words also.\n\n+These words which express opposite meaning are called antonyms.+ Words\nand their antonyms are given in this week's spelling lesson in the words\nfor the first three days' study. For the last three days, words only are\ngiven. Look these words up in your dictionary and determine upon the\nmost suitable antonyms.\n\n  +Monday+\n\n    Legal\n    Illegal\n\n    Artificial\n    Natural\n\n    Assert\n    Deny\n\n  +Tuesday+\n\n    Civilized\n    Barbarous\n\n    Courage\n    Cowardice\n\n    Active\n    Passive\n\n  +Wednesday+\n\n    Initial\n    Final\n\n    Temporary\n    Permanent\n\n    History\n    Legend\n\n  +Thursday+\n\n    Addition\n    Cleverness\n    Assured\n    Genuine\n    Acquit\n    Increase\n\n  +Friday+\n\n    Affection\n    Composure\n    Enlarge\n    Anxious\n    Prompt\n    Discord\n\n  +Saturday+\n\n    Succeed\n    Describe\n    Winning\n    Wasteful\n    Superficial\n    Grieve\n\nWrite the proper word in the following blanks:\n\n  PATIENTS or PATIENCE\n\n  The Doctor has many.......\n  We have no......with stupidity.\n\n  NEGLIGENCE or NEGLECT\n\n  The accident was due to the......of the employer.\n  He has been guilty of......of his family for he was injured by the\n  criminal......of the Railroad Company.\n\n  OBSERVANCE or OBSERVATION\n\n  The troops were concealed from.......\n  Trade Unions never fail in the......of Labor Day.\n  A man's own......will guide him in the......of all good customs.\n\n  RELATIVES or RELATIONS\n\n  Taft and Roosevelt did not always have pleasant......with each other.\n  He has gone to visit his.......\n  We do not always have pleasant......with our.......\n\n  SECTS or SEX\n\n  There are many religious.......\n  Woman is refused the ballot because of her.......\n\n  STATUE or STATUTE\n\n  The law was placed upon the......books.\n  The world will sometime erect a......to the man of the people.\n\nDo not fear to be thought a \"high-brow\" if you use these words in your\nevery day speech. The very people who may laugh are in their hearts\nadmiring you, and are, in all probability, envious. The man who has\naccused another of being a \"high-brow\" has by that very act, admitted\nhis own inferiority.\n\nDemand the best for yourself in words, as in everything else.\n\n\n\n\n                    PLAIN ENGLISH\n\n                    LESSON 30\n\n\nDear Comrade:\n\nWith this lesson we are finishing this course in Plain English. We have\ncovered a great deal of ground and have studied the essentials of\ngrammar. We have tried, as far as possible, to avoid the stupid conning\nof rules or learning by rote. We have attempted at least to make the\nreason and necessity for every rule apparent before the rule was stated.\n\nWe have also tried to weave into the lessons something of the romance of\nlanguage, for language is a romance; in its growth is written the epic\nof the race. Our words portray the struggle of man from savage to sage.\nSo, feeble as our efforts in this regard may have been, we trust that\nyou have enjoyed and profited by this course and have caught a new\nvision of life. Most of us are forced so inexorably into the bitter\nstruggle for existence that we have little time or opportunity to catch\nmuch of the beauty of life. That is the curse of a society that dooms\nits citizens to weary, toil-burdened lives, robbed of the joy and beauty\nof living.\n\nYet, if we know how to read we can always have access to books and\nthrough them we can escape the sordidness and ugliness of the life in\nwhich we are compelled to live and spend at least a little time each day\nin the company of great souls who speak to us from the printed page. The\nquotations in these lessons have been taken from these great writers.\n\nWill you not pursue the acquaintanceship and become real friends with\nthese men and women? Above all things they will bring you into the\natmosphere of liberty and of freedom. For throughout all the pain of the\nstruggle of the past and of the present, there has been the fight of man\nfor freedom. We have gained the mastery over nature. Wild animals, which\nwere a constant menace to savage man, have been destroyed. We have been\nfreed from fear and superstition by the discovery of the laws of nature.\nWith the invention of the machine, man has increased his ability to\nprovide the essentials of life,--food, clothing and shelter--a\nthousandfold. The past has seen revolution after revolution in the\nstruggle for mastery.\n\nWe now stand on the threshold of another great revolution when man shall\nmaster the machines which he has invented and shall cease serving them\nand make them serve him. His increased facilities for food-getting and\nshelter-getting shall be made to serve all mankind. We have a part to\nplay in that great revolution.\n\nWhatever you may have gained from the study of this course; what\nincreased facility of understanding or of expression may have come to\nyou; may it be not only for the service of yourself but also for the\nservice of the revolution that shall bring the worker into his own.\n\n                    Yours for Education,\n\n                              THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.\n\n\n                    THE ETERNAL WHY\n\n+522.+ There is no more important mark of punctuation than the\nInterrogation Point. Asking questions is the foundation and beginning of\nall wisdom. Progress is based upon the eternal _Why_. If men had always\nbeen satisfied with the knowledge of their age and had not continually\nasked questions which they set themselves to answer, we would still be\nliving in caves or dwelling in trees.\n\nThe natural child, that is, the child whose will has not been broken, is\nan animated Interrogation Point. He is full of questions. He wants to\nknow _why_ this and _why_ that. This is a most natural trait and one\nthat should not be destroyed. It may sadly interfere sometimes with the\nthings that we wish to do, to stop and answer the child's questions as\nto why cats have tails or who made the world and what did he stand on\nwhile he was doing it; but it is decidedly important that some one\nshould answer these questions which the child asks, in a manner to\nsatisfy its present craving for knowledge. The fact that this trait has\nbeen quenched in so many children by the impatient grown-ups explains\ntheir stupidity in later years. Encourage every child to ask questions.\nEncourage it also to be persistent until it finds somewhere the answer\nto its questions.\n\nCultivate also this trait yourself. Do not accept a thing simply because\nsome one says it is so. Insist upon knowing for yourself. This is the\nsecret of progress, that we should think for ourselves, investigate for\nourselves and not fear to face the facts of life or to express our own\nideas. The wise man does not accept a thing because it is old nor does\nhe reject it because it is new. He inquires, demands, reasons and\nsatisfies himself as to the merit of the question. So the Interrogation\nPoint in the written language of man has a tremendous meaning. It stands\nfor the open and inquiring mind; for the courage that dares question all\nthings and seek the truth.\n\n\n                    THE INTERROGATION POINT\n\n+523.+ An Interrogation Point should be placed after every direct\nquestion.\n\nA direct question is one that can be answered. An indirect question is\none that cannot be answered. If I say, _Why do you not study?_, I am\nasking a direct question to which you can give an answer; but if I say,\n_I wonder why you do not study_, I have asked an indirect question which\ndoes not require a direct answer.\n\n  Why do you not go? (_Direct_)\n  He asked why you did not go. (_Indirect_)\n\n+524.+ When an interrogative clause is repeated in the body of another\nsentence, use the interrogation point after the clause, and begin the\nclause with a capital letter. For example:\n\n  The question, _Shall we be involved in war?_, should be settled by\n  the people.\n\n\n                    THE EXCLAMATION POINT\n\n+525.+ The exclamation point should be placed after words, phrases or\nsentences that express strong emotion. For example:\n\n  Oh! When shall peace reign again?\n  Alas! I am undone!\n  To the firing line! the battle rages!\n\n+526.+ Ordinarily the exclamation point is placed immediately after the\ninterjection or word used as an interjection, but frequently when the\nstrong emotion continues throughout the expression, the exclamation\npoint is placed at the close of the sentence instead of after the\ninterjection, even though the interjection comes first in the sentence.\nFor example:\n\n  On, Comrades, on!\n  Charge, Chester, charge!\n\n\n                    THE DASH\n\n+527.+ The dash is a much abused punctuation mark. A great many writers\nwho are not familiar with the rules of punctuation use a dash whenever\nthey feel the need of some sort of a punctuation mark. Their rule seems\nto be, \"whenever you pause make a dash.\" Punctuation marks indicate\npauses but a dash should not be used upon every occasion. The dash\nshould not be used as a substitute for the comma, semi-colon, colon,\netc. In reality, the dash should be used only when these marks cannot be\ncorrectly used.\n\n+528.+ The chief use of the dash is to indicate a sudden break in the\nthought or a sudden change in the construction of the sentence. For\nexample:\n\n  In the next place--but I cannot discuss the matter further under the\n  circumstances.\n\n+529.+ The dash is frequently used to set a parenthetical expression off\nfrom the rest of the sentence when it has not as close connection with\nthe sentence as would be indicated by commas. As for example:\n\n\n  The contention may be true--although I do not believe it--that this\n  sort of training is necessary.\n\n+530.+ The dash is also used in place of commas to denote a longer or\nmore expressive pause. For example:\n\n  The man sank--then rose--then sank again.\n\n+531.+ The dash is often used after an enumeration of several items as a\nsumming up. For example:\n\n  Production, distribution, consumption--all are a part of economics.\n\n+532.+ A dash is often used when a word or phrase is repeated for\nemphasis. For example:\n\n  Is there universal education--education for every child beneath the\n  flag? It is not for the masses of the children--not for the children\n  of the masses.\n\n+533.+ If the parenthetical statements within dashes require punctuation\nmarks, this mark should be placed before the second dash. For example:\n\n  War for defense--and was there ever a war that was not for\n  defense?--was permitted by the International.\n  This sight--what a wonderful sight it was!--greeted our eyes with the\n  dawn.\n\n+534.+ The dash is also used to indicate the omission of a word,\nespecially such words as _as_, _namely_, _viz._, etc. For example:\n\n  Society is divided into two classes--the exploited and the exploiting\n  classes.\n\n+535.+ After a quotation, use the dash before the name of the author.\nFor example:\n\n  Life only avails, not the having lived.--_Emerson_.\n\n+536.+ The dash is used to mark the omission of letters or figures. For\nexample:\n\n  It happened in the city of M--.\n  It was in the year 18--.\n\n\n                    PARENTHESIS\n\n+537.+ In our study of the comma and the dash we have found that\nparenthetical statements are set off from the rest of the sentence\nsometimes by a comma and sometimes by a dash. When the connection with\nthe rest of the sentence is close, and yet the words are thrown in in a\nparenthetical way, commas are used to separate the parenthetical\nstatement from the rest of the sentence.\n\n+538.+ When the connection is not quite so close, the dash is used\ninstead of the comma to indicate the fact that this statement is thrown\nin by way of explanation or additional statement. But when we use\nexplanatory words or parenthetical statements that have little or no\nconnection with the rest of the sentence, these phrases or clauses are\nseparated from the rest of the sentences by the parenthesis.\n\n+539.+ +GENERAL RULE:--Marks of parenthesis are used to set off\nexpressions that have no vital connection with the rest of the\nsentence.+ For example:\n\n  Ignorance (and why should we hesitate to acknowledge it?) keeps us\n  enslaved.\n  Education (and this is a point that needs continual emphasis) is the\n  foundation of all progress.\n\n\n                    THE PUNCTUATION OF THE PARENTHESIS\n\n+540.+ If the parenthetical statement asks a question or voices an\nexclamation, it should be followed by the interrogation point or the\nexclamation point, within the parenthesis. For example:\n\n  We are all of us (who can deny it?) partial to our own failings.\n  The lecturer (and what a marvelous orator he is!) held the audience\n  spellbound for hours.\n\n\n                    OTHER USES OF THE PARENTHESIS\n\n+541.+ An Interrogation Point is oftentimes placed within a parenthesis\nin the body of a sentence to express doubt or uncertainty as to the\naccuracy of our statement. For example:\n\n  In 1858 (?) this great movement was started.\n  John (?) Smith was the next witness.\n\n+542.+ The parenthesis is used to include numerals or letters in the\nenumeration of particulars. For example:\n\n  Economics deals with (1) production, (2) distribution,\n  (3) consumption.\n  There are three sub-heads; (a) grammar, (b) rhetoric, (c) composition.\n\n+543.+ Marks of parenthesis are used to inclose an amount or number\nwritten in figures when it is also written in words, as:\n\n  We will need forty (40) machines in addition to those we now have.\n  Enclosed find Forty Dollars ($40.00) to apply on account.\n\n\n                    THE BRACKET\n\n+544.+ The bracket [] indicates that the word or words included in the\nbracket are not in the original discourse.\n\n+545.+ The bracket is generally used by editors in supplying missing\nwords, dates and the like, and for corrections, additions and\nexplanations. For example:\n\n  This rule usually applies though there are some exceptions. [See Note\n  3, Rule 1, Page 67].\n\n+546.+ All interpretations, notes, corrections and explanations, which\nintroduce words or phrases not used by the author himself, should be\nenclosed in brackets.\n\n+547.+ Brackets are also used for a parenthesis within a parenthesis. If\nwe wish to introduce a parenthetical statement within a parenthetical\nstatement this should be enclosed in a bracket. For example:\n\n  He admits that this fact (the same fact which the previous witness\n  [Mr. James E. Smith] had denied) was only partially true.\n\n\n                    QUOTATION MARKS\n\n+548.+ Quotation marks are used to show that the words enclosed by them\nare the exact words of the writer or speaker.\n\n+549.+ A direct quotation is always enclosed in quotation marks. For\nexample:\n\n  He remarked, \"I believe it to be true.\"\n\nBut an indirect quotation is not enclosed in quotation marks. For\nexample:\n\n  He remarked that he believed it was true.\n\n+550.+ When the name of an author is given at the close of a quotation\nit is not necessary to use the quotation marks. For example:\n\n  All courage comes from braving the unequal.--_Eugene F. Ware_.\n\nWhen the name of the author precedes the quotation, the marks are used,\nas in the following:\n\n  It was Eugene F. Ware who said, \"Men are not great except they do and\n  dare.\"\n\n+551.+ When we are referring to titles of books, magazines or\nnewspapers, or words and phrases used in illustration, we enclose them\nin quotation marks, unless they are written in italics. For example:\n\n  \"Whitman's Leaves of Grass\" or _Whitman's Leaves of Grass_. \"The New\n  York Call\" or _The New York Call_. The word \"book\" is a noun, or, The\n  word _book_ is a noun.\n\n\n                    THE QUOTATION WITHIN A QUOTATION\n\n+552.+ When a quotation is contained within another, the included\nquotation should be enclosed by single quotation marks and the entire\nquotation enclosed by the usual marks. For example:\n\n  He began by saying, \"The last words of Ferrer, 'Long live the modern\n  school' might serve as the text for this lecture.\"\n  The speaker replied, \"It was Karl Marx who said, 'Government always\n  belongs to those who control the wealth of the country.'\"\n\nYou will note in this sentence that the quotation within the quotation\noccurs at the end of the sentence so there are three apostrophes used\nafter it, the single apostrophe to indicate the included quotation and\nthe double apostrophe which follows the entire quotation.\n\n\n                    PUNCTUATION WITH QUOTATION MARKS\n\n+553.+ Marks of punctuation are (except the interrogation point and the\nexclamation point which are explained later) placed inside the quotation\nmarks. For example:\n\n  A wise man said, \"Know thyself.\"\n\nNotice that the period is placed after the word _thyself_ and is\nfollowed by the quotation marks.\n\n  \"We can easily rout the enemy,\" declared the speaker.\n\nNotice that the comma is placed after _enemy_, and before the quotation\nmarks.\n\n+554.+ The Interrogation Point and the Exclamation Point are placed\nwithin the quotation marks if they refer _only_ to the words quoted, but\nif they belong to the entire sentence they should be placed outside the\nquotation marks. For example:\n\n  He said, \"Will you come now?\"\n  Did he say, \"Will you come now\"?\n  He said, \"What a beautiful night!\"\n  How wonderfully inspiring is Walt Whitman's poem, \"The Song of the\n  Open Road\"!\n\n+555.+ Sometimes parenthetical or explanatory words are inserted within\na quotation. These words should be set off by commas, and both parts of\nthe quotation enclosed in quotation marks. For example:\n\n  \"I am aware,\" he said, \"that you do not agree with me.\"\n  \"But why,\" the speaker was asked, \"should you make such a statement?\"\n  \"I do not believe,\" he replied, \"that you have understood me.\"\n\n\n                    THE APOSTROPHE\n\n+556.+ The apostrophe is used to indicate the omission of letters or\nsyllables, as: _He doesn't_, instead of _does not_; _We're_, instead of\n_we are_; _I'm_, instead of _I am_; _ it's_, instead of _it is_;\n_ne'er_, instead of _never_; _they'll_, instead of _they will_, etc.\n\n+557.+ The apostrophe is also used to denote possession. In the single\nform of the nouns it precedes the _s_. In the plural form of nouns\nending in _s_ it follows the _s_. For example:\n\n  Boy's, man's, girl's, king's, friend's, etc.\n  Boys', men's, girls', kings', friends', etc.\n\nNote that the apostrophe is not used with the possessive pronouns\n_ours_, _yours_, _its_, _theirs_, _hers_.\n\n+558.+ The apostrophe is used to indicate the plural of letters, figures\nor signs. For example:\n\n  Dot your _i's_ and cross your _t's_.\n  He seems unable to learn the table of 8's and 9's.\n  Do not make your _n's_ and _u's_ so much alike.\n\n+559.+ The apostrophe is used to mark the omission of the century in\ndates, as: '87 instead of 1887, '15 instead of 1915.\n\n\n                    THE HYPHEN\n\n+560.+ The hyphen is used between the parts of a compound word or at the\nend of a line to indicate that a word is divided. We have so many\ncompound words in our language which we have used so often that we have\nalmost forgotten that they were compound words so it is not always easy\nto decide whether the hyphen belongs in a word or not. As, for example;\nwe find such words as _schoolhouse_, _bookkeeper_, _railway_ and many\nothers which are, in reality, compound words and in the beginning were\nwritten with the hyphen. We have used them so frequently and their use\nas compound words has become so commonplace, that we no longer use the\nhyphen in writing them. Yet frequently you will find them written with\nthe hyphen by some careful writer.\n\n+561.+ As a general rule the parts of all words which are made by\nuniting two or more words into one should be joined by hyphens, as:\n\n  Men-of-war, knee-deep, half-hearted, full-grown, mother-in-law, etc.\n\n+562.+ The numerals expressing a compound number should be united by a\nhyphen, as; _forty-two_, _twenty-seven_, _thirty-nine_, etc.\n\n+563.+ When the word _self_ is used with an adverb, a noun or an\nadjective, it is always connected by the hyphen, as; _self-confidence_,\n_self-confident_, _self-confidently_, _self-command_, _self-assertive_,\n_self-asserting_, etc.\n\n+564.+ When the word _fold_ is added to a number of more than one\nsyllable, the hyphen is always used, as; _thirty-fold_, _forty-fold_,\n_fifty-fold_, etc. If the numeral has but one syllable, do not use the\nhyphen, as; _twofold_, _threefold_, _fourfold_, etc.\n\n+565.+ When fractions are written in words instead of figures always use\nthe hyphen, as; _one-half_, _one-fourth_, _three-sevenths_,\n_nine-twelfths_, etc.\n\n+566.+ The words _half_ and _quarter_, when used with any word, should\nbe connected by a hyphen, as; _half-dollar_, _quarter-pound_,\n_half-skilled_, _half-barbaric_, _half-civilized_, _half-dead_,\n_half-spent_, etc.\n\n+567.+ Sometimes we coin a phrase for temporary use in which the words\nare connected by the hyphen. For example:\n\n  It was a never-to-be-forgotten day.\n  He wore a sort of I-told-you-so air.\n  They were fresh-from-the-pen copies.\n\n\n                    ADDITIONAL MARKS OF PUNCTUATION\n\nThere are a few other marks of punctuation which we do not often use in\nwriting but which we find on the printed page. It is well for us to know\nthe meaning of these marks.\n\n+568.+ The caret (^) is used to mark the omission of a letter or word or\na number of words. The omitted part is generally written above, and the\ncaret shows where it should be inserted. For example:\n\n                               s\n  I cannot give you this permis ion.\n                               ^\n             received\n  I have just a letter from him.\n             ^\n\n  Please write your matriculation number on all examination\n      and all letters\n  papers sent in to the College.\n        ^\n\nThe above examples illustrate the use of the caret with the omission of\na letter, a word or phrase.\n\n+569.+ If a letter or manuscript is not too long, it should always be\nrewritten and the omissions properly inserted. Occasionally, however, we\nare in a hurry and our time is too limited to rewrite an entire letter\nbecause of the omission of a single letter or word so we can insert it\nby the use of the caret. If, however, there are many mistakes, the\nletter or paper should be rewritten, for the too frequent use of the\ncaret indicates carelessness in writing and does not produce a favorable\nimpression upon the recipient of your letter or manuscript.\n\n\n                    MARKS OF ELLIPSIS\n\n+570.+ Sometimes a long dash (--------) or succession of asterisks (* *\n* * * *) or of points (. . . . . .) is used to indicate the omission of\na portion of a sentence or a discourse. In printed matter usually the\nasterisks are used to indicate an omission. In typewritten matter\nusually a succession of points is used to indicate an omission. In\nwriting, these are difficult to make and the omission of the portion of\nmaterial is usually indicated by a succession of short dashes (-- -- --\n--).\n\n\n                    MARKS OF REFERENCE\n\n+571.+ On the printed page you will often find the asterisk (*), or the\ndagger, ([Symbol: dagger]), the section (symbol for Section), or parallel\nlines (||), used to call your attention to some note or remark written at\nthe close of the paragraph or on the margin, at the bottom of the page or\nthe end of the chapter. It is advisable to hunt these up as soon as you\ncome to the mark which indicates their presence, for they usually contain\nsome matter which explains or adds to the meaning of the sentence which\nyou have just finished reading.\n\n\n                    Exercise 1\n\nIn the following exercise, note the various marks of punctuation and\ndetermine why each one is used:\n\n\n                    THE MARSEILLAISE\n\n    Ye sons of toil, awake to glory!\n      Hark, hark, what myriads bid you rise;\n    Your children, wives and grandsires hoary--\n      Behold their tears and hear their cries!\n    Shall hateful tyrants, mischief breeding,\n      With hireling hosts, a ruffian band,--\n      Affright and desolate the land,\n    While peace and liberty lie bleeding?\n\n    CHORUS\n\n      To arms! to arms! ye brave!\n        Th' avenging sword unsheathe!\n      March on, march on, all hearts resolved\n        On Victory or Death.\n\n    With luxury and pride surrounded,\n      The vile, insatiate despots dare,\n    Their thirst for gold and power unbounded,\n      To mete and vend the light and air;\n    Like beasts of burden would they load us,\n      Like gods would bid their slaves adore,\n    But Man is Man, and who is more?\n      Then shall they longer lash and goad us? (CHORUS)\n\n    O Liberty! can man resign thee,\n      Once having felt thy generous flame?\n    Can dungeons' bolts and bars confine thee,\n      Or whip thy noble spirit tame?\n    Too long the world has wept bewailing,\n      That Falsehood's dagger tyrants wield;\n      But Freedom is our sword and shield,\n    And all their arts are unavailing! (CHORUS)\n\n                                        --_Rouget de Lisle_.\n\n\n                    THUS SPAKE ZARATHUSTRA\n\n  I teach ye the Over-man. The man is something who shall be overcome.\n  What have ye done to overcome him?\n\n  All being before this made something beyond itself: and you will be\n  the ebb of this great flood, and rather go back to the beast than\n  overcome the man?\n\n  What is the ape to the man? A mockery or a painful shame. And even so\n  shall man be to the Over-man: a mockery or a painful shame.\n\n  Man is a cord, tied between Beast and Over-man--a cord above an abyss.\n\n  A perilous arriving, a perilous traveling, a perilous looking\n  backward, a perilous trembling and standing still.\n\n  What is great in man is that he is a bridge, and no goal; what can be\n  loved in man is that he is a going-over and a going-under.\n\n  I love them that know how to live, be it even as those going under,\n  for such are those going across.\n\n  I love them that are great in scorn, because these are they that are\n  great in reverence, and arrows of longing toward the other\n  shore!--_Nietzsche_.\n\n\n\n\n                    SPELLING\n\n                    LESSON 30\n\nThere are a great many words in English which are frequently\nmispronounced; the accent is placed upon the wrong syllable; for\nexample, _thea'ter_ instead of _the'ater_; the wrong sound is given to\nthe vowel, for example, _hearth_ is pronounced _hurth_. Sometimes, too,\nan extra letter is added in the pronunciation; for example, _once_ is\noften pronounced as though it were spelled _wunst_.\n\nThe following is a list of common words that are frequently\nmispronounced, and there are many others which you may add to this list\nas they occur to you. Look up the correct pronunciation in the\ndictionary and pronounce them many times aloud.\n\nIn the second column in this list is given the incorrect pronunciation,\nwhich we often hear.\n\n  Acoustics    a-cow-stics\n  Aeroplane    air-e-o-plane\n  Apron        a-pron\n  Athlete      ath-a-lete\n  Autopsy      au-top'-sy\n  Awkward      awk-ard\n  Column       col-yum\n  Coupon       coo-pon\n  Deficit      de-fic'it\n  Diphtheria   dip-ther-y\n  Economic     ee'co-nom-ic\n  Errand       ur-rant\n  Faucet       fos-set\n  Figure       fig-ger\n  Film         fill-um\n  Finance      fi'nance\n  Guardian     guar-deen'\n  Height       heighth\n  Hostile      hos-tile'\n  Hundred      hund'erd\n  Idea         i-dee'\n  Inaugurate   in-aug-er-ate\n  Inquiry      in'qui-ry\n  Inventory    in-ven'-to-ry\n  Length       lenth\n  Magazine     mag'-a'zinn\n  Mischievous  mis-chie'-vi-ous\n  Municipal    mu-ni-cip'-al\n  Opponent     op'-ponent\n  Overalls     over-hauls\n  Rheumatism   rheumatiz\n  Stomach      stum-ick\n  Twice        twict\n  Vaudeville   vaw'de-ville\n\nThere are a number of words in English which sound very much alike and\nwhich we are apt to confuse. For example, I heard a man recently say in\na speech that the party to which he belonged had taken slow poison and\nnow needed an anecdote. It is presumed that he meant that it needed an\nantidote. Some one else remarked that a certain individual had not been\nexpelled but simply expended. He undoubtedly meant that the individual\nhad been suspended.\n\nThis confusion in the use of words detracts from the influence which our\nstatements would otherwise have. There are a number of words which are\nso nearly alike that it is very easy to be confused in the use of them.\nIn our spelling lesson for this week we have a number of the most common\nof these easily confounded words. Add to the list as many others as you\ncan.\n\n  +Monday+\n\n    Lightening, _to make light_\n    Lightning, _an electric flash_\n    Prophesy, _to foretell_\n    Prophecy, _a prediction_\n    Accept, _to take_\n    Except, _to leave out_\n\n  +Tuesday+\n\n    Advice, _counsel_\n    Advise, _to give counsel_\n    Attendants, _servants_\n    Attendance, _those present_\n    Stationary, _fixed_\n    Stationery, _pens_, _paper_, _etc._\n\n  +Wednesday+\n\n    Formerly, _in the past_\n    Formally, _in a formal way_\n    Addition, _process of adding_\n    Edition, _publication_\n    Celery, _a vegetable_\n    Salary, _wages_\n\n  +Thursday+\n\n    Series, _a succession_\n    Serious, _solemn_\n    Precedent, _an example_\n    President, _chief or head_\n    Partition, _a division_\n    Petition, _a request_\n\n  +Friday+\n\n    Ingenious, _skillful_\n    Ingenuous, _honest_\n    Jester, _one who jests_\n    Gesture, _action_\n    Lose, _to suffer loss_\n    Loose, _to untie_\n\n  +Saturday+\n\n    Presence, _nearness_\n    Presents, _gifts_\n    Veracity, _truthfulness_\n    Voracity, _greediness_\n    Disease, _illness_\n    Decease, _death_\n\n\n                    THE END AND THE BEGINNING\n\nAs we look back over the study of these thirty lessons we find that we\nhave covered quite a little ground. We have covered the entire field of\nEnglish grammar including punctuation. But our study of English must not\nconclude with the study of this course. This is simply the foundation\nwhich we have laid for future work. You know when students graduate from\nhigh school or college the graduation is called the Commencement. That\nis a peculiarly fitting term, for the gaining of knowledge ought truly\nto be the commencement of life for us.\n\nSome one has said that the pursuit of knowledge might be compared to a\nman's marriage to a charming, wealthy woman. He pursued and married her\nbecause of her wealth but after marriage found her so charming that he\ngrew to love her for herself. So we ofttimes pursue wisdom for practical\nreasons because we expect it to serve us in the matter of making a\nliving; because we expect it to make us more efficient workers; to\nincrease our efficiency to such an extent that we may command a higher\nsalary, enter a better profession and be more certain of a job.\n\nAll this is well; but we often find that after we have pursued wisdom\nfor these reasons, practical as they are, we have fallen in love with\nher for her own sake. We begin to take pleasure in her society; we begin\nto want to know things for the sake of knowing them, for the pleasure\nthat it brings us, quite divorced from any idea of monetary gain.\n\nSo while we have urged upon you the study of English because of the\ngreat practical benefit that it will be to you, we trust that you have\nalso grown to love the study for its own sake.\n\nMake this but the beginning of your work in the study of English.\n\n\n\n\n                    INDEX\n              (by Section No.)\n\n  Abbreviations, 486-489\n\n  Absolute Construction, 399\n\n  Adjectives\n    Defined, 36\n    Classification of, 242-245\n    Qualifying, 246\n    Limiting, 246\n    Descriptive, 248\n    Numeral, 249-250\n    Demonstrative, 251\n    How to discover, 247\n    Interrogative, 255\n    Indefinite, 256-257\n    Used as pronouns, 258-259\n    Used as nouns, 261\n    Comparison of, 264-271\n    Participles used as, 272-274\n    Participle phrases used as, 275\n\n  Adverbs\n    Defined, 41, 282\n    Use of, 279-281\n    How to tell, 283\n    Classes of, 284\n    Interrogative, 285\n    Of mode, 286, 397\n    Phrase Adverbs, 287\n    To Distinguish from Adj, 288-289\n    Derivation of, 290\n    Nouns used as, 291\n    Comparison of, 292-294\n    Position of, 295\n    With Infinitive, 296\n    Common errors in use of, 297-298\n\n  Articles\n    A and An, use of, 252-253\n    The, use of, 254\n\n  Capital Letters\n    Need of, 464\n    Uses of, 22, 60, 465\n    Rules for, 466-484\n\n  Clauses\n    Defined, 406\n    Noun, 361-366, 371, 445\n    Adjective, 367-372, 446\n      With Conjunctions, 376\n      Introduced by as, 378\n    Adverb, 447\n    Dependent, kinds of, 444-447\n\n  Conjunctions\n    Defined, 52, 331\n    Uses of, 328\n    Classes of, 329-330\n    Co-ordinate, 332-334\n      Uses of, 336-345\n    Correlatives, 346\n    Subordinate, defined, 349\n      Use of, 347\n      Classes of, 350-359\n    Phrase Conjunctions, 360\n\n  Connective Words\n    Classes of, 379\n    Uses of, 380-385\n\n  Contractions, 485\n\n  Dictionary, Use of, 4\n\n  Exclamatory Words, 390-391\n\n  Explanatory Words, 398\n\n  Good English, defined, 2\n\n  Grammar, English, defined, 10\n\n  Independent Expressions, 393\n\n  Infinitives\n    Use of, 151-167\n    To, omitted, 153-155\n    Forms of, 156\n    Passive, 156-157\n\n  Interjections\n    Defined, 57, 388\n    Classes of, 389\n\n  Introductory Words, 394-396\n\n  Language\n    Defined, 8\n    Natural, 5\n    Spoken, 6\n    Written, 7\n\n  Nouns\n    Defined, 26\n    Classification of, 59\n    Proper, defined, 60\n    Common, defined, 60\n    Collective, defined, 61\n    Abstract, 62-66\n    Concrete, 63\n    Number, defined, 68\n    Number, Singular, 68\n    Number, Plural, 68\n    Formation of Plural, 69-84\n    Formation of Possessive, 89-90, 92\n    Compound, 91\n    Gender, defined, 85\n      Formation of Feminine, 86\n      Neuter, 87\n      Common, 88\n\n  Object\n    Direct, 100, 408-410, 427-430\n    Indirect, 408-410\n\n  Participle\n    Defined, 116\n    Active form, 114\n    Present form, 114, 148\n    Passive form, 115, 148\n    Past form, 115\n    Past irregular forms, 124\n    Used as nouns, 148\n    Used as adjective, 272-274\n    Phrase, 149-150\n    Phrase used as adjective, 275\n\n  Parts of Speech, 24\n\n  Phrases\n    Verb, 29, 413\n    Adverbs, 287\n    Prepositional, 300-305, 317-321\n    Prepositions, 308\n    Conjunctions, 360\n\n  Predicate\n    Defined, 17\n    Complete, 406, 425\n    Simple, 406\n    Simple Enlarged, 463\n    Complement, 411-412\n    Modifiers of, 461\n\n  Prepositions\n    Defined, 47, 305\n    Use of, 309-312\n    Object of, 304, 313\n    List of, 306\n    How to Distinguish from Adverbs, 307\n    Phrase prepositions, 308\n    Place of, 314-316\n    Common errors in use of, 322\n    With verbs, 327\n    Choice of, 323-326\n\n  Prepositional Phrases, 300-305\n    Use of, 317-321\n\n  Pronouns\n    Defined, 43, 202\n    Antecedent of, 203\n    Personal, 204\n    Compound personal, 205-208\n    Number forms of, 209\n    Object forms of, 214-215\n    Possessive forms of, 211-213\n    Gender forms of, 216\n    With verb \"be\", 217-218\n    Agreement of, 219-225\n    Personification, 226\n    Interrogative, 228-231\n    Relative, 232-236\n      What, 234, 236-240\n      Who, 234, 235, 240\n      Which, 234-236, 240\n      That, 234-236\n      Omitted, 239\n\n  Punctuation\n    Need of, 490-493\n    Marks of, 494\n    The Comma, 495-496\n      Rules for use of, 497-506\n    The Semi-colon, 407-511\n    The Colon, 512-515\n    The Period, 22, 516-521\n    The Interrogation Point, 22, 523-524\n    The Exclamation Point, 22, 525-526\n    The Dash, 527-536\n    The Parenthesis, 537-543\n    The Bracket, 544-547\n    The Quotation Marks, 548-555\n    The Apostrophe, 556-559\n    The Hyphen, 560-567\n    The Caret, 568\n    Marks of Ellipsis, 570\n    Marks of Reference, 571\n\n  Responsives, 392\n\n  Sentence\n    Defined, 15\n    Essentials of, 18\n    Use of, 19\n    Assertive, 20\n    Interrogative, 20\n    Imperative, 20\n    Exclamatory, 21\n    Elements, order of, 436-438\n    Analysis of, 456-457\n    Simple, defined, 404-406\n      Modifiers of, 434-435\n      Essentials of, 459\n      Analysis of, 402-405\n    Complex, 406, 443, 451\n      Analysis of, 448\n    Compound, defined, 406, 452\n      Kinds of, 453-455\n    Building of, 400\n    Classification of, 401\n    Summary of, 458\n    Subject of, 416-420\n\n  Subject\n    Defined, 16\n    Complete, 406\n    Simple, 406\n    Simple, enlarged, 462\n    Place of, 421-424\n\n  Thought, Complete, 12-14\n\n  Verb\n    Defined, 29\n    Complete, 95, 103, 131, 158\n    Incomplete, 95, 103, 131, 426\n    Classified, 99, 103\n    Complement of, 95, 102\n    Transitive, defined, 100, 103\n      Object of, 100, 141\n    Copulative, 102-103, 431-433\n    Time forms\n      Present, 104, 108, 111\n      Past, 104, 109, 111\n      Future, 118-120\n      Pres. Perf., 121-123, 145\n      Past Perf., 126\n      Future Perf., 128\n    Regular, 110\n    Irregular, 110\n    Progressive Form, 133\n      Present, 134, 146\n      Past, 135, 146\n      Future, 136, 146\n      Pres. Perf., 138, 146\n      Past Perf., 139, 146\n      Fut. Perf., 140, 146\n    Active, 142\n    Passive, 141-146\n    Helping, 168-184\n    Be, 186\n    Lay, lie, set, sit, raise, rise, 191-193\n    S-form, 106, 194-196\n    Phrase, 29, 413-414\n\n  Words\n    Defined, 8\n    Mastery of, 10\n    Use of, 23\n\n\n\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\n\n\nTranscriber's note:\n\n  1. Punctuation errors such as incorrect or missing end-of-sentence\n  punctuation, period for comma in mid-sentence, and missing end\n  quotation marks have been corrected without comment. Inconsistency\n  in the author's spelling of certain words, such as today\/to-day have\n  been retained.\n\n  2. The list of foreign words broken across pp. 44-45 (section 80.) and\n  the list of abbreviations broken across pp. 295-296 (section 489.)\n  were rearranged to preserve alphabetical order.\n\n  3. The numbering in Exercise 4 on p. 110 (section 193.) was corrected.\n\n  4. Added ditto marks (\") to the table on p. 153 (section 270).\n\n  5. Commas were added to the separate the abbreviations on p. 305\n  (section 518).\n\n  6. The following typographical errors were corrected:\n\n  Page\n   10  \"your vocabularly\" changed to \"your vocabulary\"\n   23  \"verb-phrase\" changed to \"verb phrase\"\n   38  \"as limited a vocabularly\" changed to \"as limited a vocabulary\"\n   41  \"the name of person\" changed to \"the name of the person\"\n   44  \"Mr. Hays\" changed to \"Mr. Hayes\"\n   82  \"the Bastile\" changed to \"the Bastille\"\n  143  \"publiher\" changed to \"publisher\"\n  157  \"than he had them\" changed to \"than he had then\"\n  180  \"the noun _man_\" changed to \"the noun _men_\" (two instances)\n  182  \"a little work\" changed to \"a little word\"\n  187  \"_of_ the desire of\" changed to \"of the desire _of_\"\n  191  \"expresed\" changed to \"expressed\"\n  207  \"He feels keenly and deeply and wrongs of his class.\" changed\n       to \"He feels keenly and deeply the wrongs of his class.\"\n  222  \"our expression of it become more simple.\" changed to \"our\n       expression of it became more simple.\"\n  238  \"in apposition to the pronoun I\" changed to \"in apposition to the\n       pronoun We\".\n  252  \"_I_ see a pale face\" changed to \"_I see_ a pale face\"\n  265  \"With your faces pinches and blue\" changed to \"with your faces\n       pinched and blue\"\n  271  \"the _party which fought for their rights_\" changed to \"the\n       party _which fought for their rights_\"\n  277  \"Find _e_ or _y_\" changed to \"Final _e_ or _y_\"\n  287  \"The prefix _in_ used with adjectives\" changed to \"The prefix\n       _un_ used with adjectives\"\n  312  \"The dash if often used\" changed to \"The dash is often used\"\n\n\n\n***","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}}
+{"text":"\n\n_The Chalk Artist_ is a work of fiction. Names, characters, places, and incidents either are the product of the author's imagination or are used fictitiously. Any resemblance to actual persons, living or dead, events, or locales is entirely coincidental.\n\nCopyright \u00a9 2017 by Allegra Goodman\n\nAll rights reserved.\n\nPublished in the United States by The Dial Press, an imprint of Random House, a division of Penguin Random House LLC, New York.\n\nTHE DIAL PRESS and the HOUSE colophon are registered trademarks of Penguin Random House LLC.\n\nGrateful acknowledgment is made to the following for permission to reprint previously published material:\n\n**The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press:** Excerpt from \"There is a pain so utter\" from _The Poems of Emily Dickinson_ , edited by Thomas H. Johnson (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press), copyright \u00a9 1951, 1955 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College. Copyright \u00a9 renewed 1979, 1983 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College. Copyright \u00a9 1914, 1918, 1919, 1924, 1929, 1930, 1932, 1935, 1937, 1942 by Martha Dickinson Bianchi. Copyright \u00a9 1952, 1957, 1958, 1963, 1965 by Mary L. Hampson. Reprinted by permission of The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.\n\n**New Directions Publishing Corporation:** Excerpt from \"A Virginal\" from _Personae_ by Ezra Pound, copyright \u00a9 1926 by Ezra Pound. Reprinted by permission of New Directions Publishing Corporation.\n\nLibrary of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data\n\nNames: Goodman, Allegra, author.\n\nTitle: The chalk artist : a novel \/ Allegra Goodman.\n\nDescription: First edition. | New York : The Dial Press, [2017]\n\nIdentifiers: LCCN 2016001270| ISBN 9781400069873 | ISBN 9780679605041 (ebook)\n\nSubjects: LCSH: Computer games\u2014Social aspects\u2014Fiction. | Video games\u2014Social aspects\u2014Fiction. | Man-woman relationships\u2014Fiction. | Interpersonal relations\u2014Fiction. | GSAFD: Love stories.\n\nClassification: LCC PS3557.O5829 C47 2017 | DDC 813\/.54\u2014dc23 LC record available at https:\/\/lccn.loc.gov\/\u200b2016001270\n\nEbook ISBN 9780679605041\n\nrandomhousebooks.com\n\nBook design by Caroline Cunningham, adapted for ebook\n\nHand lettering on title page and leaf ornament by Rachel Willey\n\nCover design: Rachel Willey\n\nCover photograph: Rosemary Calvert\/Getty Images (leaves)\n\nv4.1\n\nep\n\n# Contents\n\nCover\n\nTitle Page\n\nCopyright\n\nChapter 1: Grendel's Den\n\nChapter 2: The Orchard\n\nChapter 3: Emerson\n\nChapter 4: Everwhen\n\nChapter 5: Wait for Me\n\nChapter 6: Snow Day\n\nChapter 7: Dream\n\nChapter 8: No Moon, No Stars\n\nChapter 9: Drink Me\n\nChapter 10: In Her Eyes\n\nChapter 11: Caution\n\nChapter 12: The Leopard\n\nChapter 13: Crossing Over\n\nChapter 14: The Visit\n\nChapter 15: Open Door\n\nChapter 16: The Interview\n\nChapter 17: Arkadia\n\nChapter 18: The Gates\n\nChapter 19: Deer\n\nChapter 20: Very Close\n\nChapter 21: Face-to-Face\n\nChapter 22: Pursuit\n\nChapter 23: Admission\n\nChapter 24: Discovery\n\nChapter 25: Lucky\n\nChapter 26: Walden Woods\n\nChapter 27: Half Magic\n\nChapter 28: The Question\n\nChapter 29: The Kiss\n\nChapter 30: Poetry Inaction\n\nChapter 31: Joy Street\n\nChapter 32: Two Rivers\n\nChapter 33: Busted\n\nChapter 34: Bird on a Wire\n\nChapter 35: In the Hall\n\nChapter 36: World-Jumping\n\nChapter 37: Contagion\n\nChapter 38: Win, Lose, or Draw\n\nDedication\n\nBy Allegra Goodman\n\nAbout the Author\n\nHer long hair curtained her face as she sat marking papers. Drunk graduate students surrounded her, but she didn't even look up. Rock pounding, dishes clattering, this was Grendel's in winter, the old Cambridge dive, loud, warm, and subterranean, half a flight down from Winthrop Street. A green lamp lit every table, a hundred mirrors hung on paneled walls. Collin watched her reflection from every angle. She looked so elegant and out of place.\n\nShe came on Tuesday nights, and sometimes Thursdays too. She would order a Mediterranean salad and start grading papers. She was slender, fair, her eyes dark and shining, as though she knew some secret\u2014she alone. Whenever he got close enough, he looked over her shoulder. Her handwriting was precise, her pen purple, extra fine. Once she glanced up and nearly smiled. You realize, he told her silently, if I drop something it's your fault. If I break a plate, it's all because of you.\n\nHe saw guys leering, even if she didn't. \"Everybody's looking at her,\" he told Samantha, the bartender.\n\nSam said, \"Yeah, but mostly you.\"\n\nCollin was twenty-three, bright, artistic, and unhappy. He had just left college for the second time, and although he had good reasons, his mother was upset with him. His ex-girlfriend Noelle was out of patience. His father was in the navy; he had not seen or even heard from the man in seven years. Collin had thought of enlisting, mostly to travel, but he had grown up on a street where signs in the front yards read WAR IS NOT THE ANSWER. He never did enlist. He didn't go anywhere.\n\nHe worked at a bar and went out drinking afterward. Even if he'd enjoyed college and respected his instructors, even if he had excelled at Web design and programming, he didn't have time to go to class. He was busy collecting tips and partying, waking up in other people's beds. Sometimes he despised himself; not often. Sometimes he decided to get serious, but he kept working nights and sleeping in, and hanging with his high school friends, and all of this became a full-time job; youth itself was his vocation.\n\nFor this reason, the girl's diligence fascinated him. She sat for hours grading at her table, and she was so young\u2014way too young to be a teacher. She should have known better than to sit alone down there. Few came to work at Grendel's, and those who tried, didn't get much done. They would open their computers and close them gratefully when drinks arrived. This girl did not respond to guys circling her table. She looked royal in her cardigans and trailing scarves and calfskin boots. He sketched her on his order pad. The princess of solitude, with a crown.\n\nOne Tuesday, when she started packing up, her coat slipped off the back of her chair, and Collin ran to catch it for her. She stood to go, and he realized how tall she was, almost his height. He was close enough to see the gold flecks in her eyes, the freckles dusting her face. He held his breath as she slipped her arms into the sleeves. Then she thanked him, and rushed off.\n\n\"Nice,\" teased a waitress named Kayte. \"Could you catch my coat too? Before it touches the ground?\"\n\nCollin watched for the girl on Thursday while he carried out chicken wings and plates of stuffed potato skins. He served foaming Guinness, caught bits of conversation: _Seriously? How much did that cost? I feel guilty but..._ The Who pounding. Students wailing, _\"The exodus is here.\"_ Busy night and no free time, but Collin kept watching until Sam started flicking ice at him from behind the bar. \"Who're you waiting for?\"\n\n\"Shut up.\"\n\n\"So you admit it.\" Sam was tiny but in your face. She was compiling a book of vintage cocktails.\n\n\"I'm not admitting anything.\"\n\nTrue, Collin wondered about the teacher. He speculated about her at Broadway Bicycle School, where he taught wheel changing, tire patching\u2014basic repair. She had sounded American, but he decided that she came from Paris. Or London. He said, \"Inflate the tube and listen.\" Maybe Barcelona.\n\nOn Monday he colored backdrops for the theater company he had founded with his roommate, Darius. Working with wet chalk on old-fashioned rolling blackboards, he drew slender trunks and arching branches, layered cherry blossoms, white and pink. The edge of his chalk crumbled. He rubbed white and red together with his thumb, and he thought and thought about her. Sometimes she glanced up and she was looking at him, he was sure of it. The next second he would think, No, that can't be true. Daydreaming about her, he felt lighthearted, amused. His fantasies were so chaste and so persistent. She was always sitting at her table, just out of reach, and he liked her there\u2014although he was intensely curious. What was she doing all alone? A girl like that would have a boyfriend. There had to be some story. A long-distance relationship\u2014but she didn't look lonely. He wanted to know her. Or at least to hear her name.\n\nThere were days she never even crossed his mind. He spent a weekend with Noelle. They went to a party and stayed out late dancing, and then they went to her place and he began undressing her. She laughed, and he knew why. Now that they'd sworn off each other their bodies were so eager.\n\nLate the next day they woke stale and headachy, annoyed with themselves. Even so, Darius's girlfriend, Emma, had four tickets to Lady Lamb the Beekeeper in Davis Square, and so they went. All that time, Collin didn't think about the girl, until Lady Lamb bent over her guitar, her long hair curtaining her face. Then suddenly he imagined the girl watching him. He saw himself through her eyes and he was cheap, and aimless. He felt poor, as well, although he didn't consider himself poor. He considered himself free.\n\n\u2014\n\nThe next week, he was taking orders for a party of six when she materialized again. He looked up, and there she was, already seated in Kayte's territory. He was not getting off early, but when he saw the huge stack of papers on her table, he made a secret deal with her. If you keep at it until eleven, I'll walk out with you.\n\nAll night he watched her table, willing her to stay. When she began to stir, he murmured: \"No, you don't. Keep working. You aren't going anywhere.\"\n\nTen forty-five, she pushed back her chair. From behind, he saw her shoulders shaking, and thought she must be sobbing, or choking. He rushed over. \"Are you all right?\"\n\nWhen she looked up, she was laughing, not crying, and she showed him an essay. Curvy handwriting on lined paper, the title in bigger script: _Juliet: Shakespeare's Heroin._ \"What do you think?\"\n\nA thousand ideas crowded his mind, none about her student's spelling, as he watched her add an _e._ \"Are you really a teacher?\"\n\nShe said, \"I keep asking myself.\"\n\n\"You don't look like one.\"\n\nShe shook back her long brown hair and glanced up at him, amused. \"What's a teacher supposed to look like?\"\n\n\"Old,\" he told her. \"Bitter.\"\n\n\"I'm bitter.\"\n\n\"How long have you been teaching?\"\n\n\"Three months.\"\n\n\"Your students are that bad?\"\n\nShe frowned as she looked down at her check. Annoyed? Or just figuring out the tip?\n\nHe said, \"My friend Darius was thinking of directing _Romeo and Juliet,_ but he couldn't find a church.\"\n\n\"He couldn't get permission?\" Already she was shouldering her bag, and standing up to go.\n\n\"He wanted to do it in a cathedral with stained glass and confessionals, but the only church interested was Unitarian.\"\n\n\"Are you an actor?\"\n\nJean-Philippe, the busboy, was trying to get by, and Collin stepped sideways. \"I'm an actor and an artist.\" He regretted the words as soon as he said them. He sounded pretentious. \"Mostly chalk.\"\n\nShe looked puzzled. \"On sidewalks?\"\n\n\"Yeah, but other places too. I do all the art for Theater Without Walls.\"\n\n\"I've heard of them!\"\n\n\"In the _Phoenix_?\" He turned, glancing backward at Kayte. Cover for me, he begged her silently. She was shaking her head, but he knew she liked him. Just five minutes. My tips are yours! \"Wait, let me walk you out.\" He handed the girl a leaflet for _The Cherry Orchard,_ a new production at the MIT tennis courts by Theater Without Walls. Art Director: Collin James.\n\n\"Tennis courts in December?\"\n\n\"They're indoor.\" He led the way upstairs and opened the door for her. The snow around them lit the darkness. \"I'm designing the lights...and the trees. I'm in it too.\"\n\n\"You perform in Sennott Park, right?\"\n\n\"We perform all over. We did _The Tempest_ on a traffic island.\"\n\n\"That's it! I read about the car accident.\"\n\n\"It was just one guy hitting a pole,\" he said. \"Nobody got hurt.\"\n\nShe smiled.\n\n\"Come to _The Cherry Orchard._ I'll get you a ticket. Give me your name and I'll put you on the list.\"\n\nShe didn't say yes, and she didn't say no. She just looked at him, and her eyes were so dark and bright that he drew closer, until she began to laugh.\n\n\"Or not.\" He took a full step back.\n\n\"I wasn't laughing at the play.\"\n\n\"Why, then?\" He had wild curly hair, black eyes, a quick, athletic body, a defensive look.\n\n\"I don't know,\" she said in some confusion.\n\n\"Come if you want,\" he said coolly.\n\n\"Okay,\" she said, automatically polite.\n\nHe didn't ask her name; he pretended she was just a customer. \"Have a good night.\"\n\nCollin could not remember why Darius had insisted on the MIT Bubble. Maybe he'd assumed he could reserve all the courts. As it happened, the actors got just one. All through _The Cherry Orchard_ they competed with the skid and squeak of athletic shoes, and the _thwack_ of tennis balls. Sometimes a stray ball flew over from guys rallying just steps away.\n\nThe idea was no chairs. Everyone could walk freely so that, as the play progressed, the audience followed the action, advancing, retreating, and approaching the net. There was no set except for Collin's chalk orchard, his blackboards filled with blooming trees.\n\nThe other idea\u2014all Darius\u2014was to stage the play as farce. They had fought about this. \"Dude,\" Collin had told Darius, \"the lady returns to where her kid drowned and then finds out she's going to lose her house.\"\n\n\"Yeah, so?\" Darius was a big guy, not as tall as Collin, but broader. Smart, and avant-garde, and something of a rainmaker, he came up with grants from the Cambridge Arts Council, permission to perform in public places.\n\n\"The play is sad,\" Collin said.\n\nDarius dismissed this. \"Yeah, the sad version is really overdone.\"\n\nIn performance, Darius's girlfriend, Emma, romped across the court, starring as the romantic Ranevskaya, who would lose her childhood home, her past, her everything. Emma was more folk-rock Mainer than Russian nobility to begin with, and when she spun around calling, \"Goodbye, old house, old grandfather house,\" you had the feeling she was excited to move on.\n\nPouring imaginary tea as the servant, Collin listened to the audience's cautious laughter, and he wanted to dash his imaginary teapot onto the court and smash all his imaginary cups and saucers too. Where was the darkness in the play? Where were the shadows? In rehearsal Darius had conceded that some moments were bittersweet. Now, under rented lights, nothing bittersweet came through. No darkness, except for Collin's seething servant, and Noelle, who played Ranevskaya's daughter Anya.\n\nEveryone wore street clothes instead of costumes, and Noelle dressed in a little undershirt and a pair of frayed jeans that fit her like a second skin. She was an ex-ballerina with spiky hair and a pierced tongue, and she was pissed. She had a lot of anger in general, but she was angry at Collin in particular. They'd had a huge fight the night before, during which she had said, among many other things, \"First of all, I hate you. Second of all, you are one hundred percent bad for me, because the only thing you care about is the beginning and the end. You can never be in the middle; you can never actually be with someone or learn something or get something done, because you're always starting and then leaving, which is why I hate myself after I've been with you.\"\n\nEven now, performing, he heard hostility in every one of Noelle's lines. At the end of the play, she was brutal when she announced in her husky smoker's voice, \"The cherry orchard is sold, it's gone, that's true, but don't cry, Mama.\" Noelle was hard-core for an ingenue.\n\nCollin was glad the girl from Grendel's hadn't come. Her laughter haunted him, because she had known then\u2014she'd known in advance exactly how the play would be. Pretentious and amateurish all at once. Everyone watching related to or sleeping with the cast. After Act II, a couple of strangers wandered in, but they were carrying their racquet bags.\n\nHe could see the audience tiring, clustering near the baseline. They perked up when the estate was sold and all the characters said their goodbyes. As soon as Chekhov's characters began talking about the future, everybody started folding camping stools and gathering bags. People were already heading out when Collin flipped his blackboards over, one by one. The audience froze for just a moment as he revealed his chalk drawings on the other side. Jagged stumps, fallen petals, broken branches, a holocaust of trees.\n\n\u2014\n\n\"Don't touch the art,\" Collin's mother, Maia, told him at the party afterward. \"Do you have pictures of that orchard?\"\n\n\"Darius had the camera.\"\n\n\"Hey,\" Maia called out to Darius, who sat on a couch overflowing with actors. \"Do you have photos of Collin's orchard?\" She was unhappy with Collin and also fiercely proud, saving every scrap of art, celebrating each performance, inviting the whole cast to her winter solstice celebration. \"That orchard was the best character in the play.\"\n\nDarius raised his beer bottle.\n\nCollin said, \"Good thing he can't hear you.\"\n\n\"I'm your mother,\" said Maia. She meant, You think I care?\n\nShe was tall and young for a mother, darker than Collin, so they didn't quite match. What am I? he used to ask when he was little. Black Irish, his mother said. His father was Irish and she was Italian, French Canadian, and a little bit Native American as well. She worked at the Fletcher Maynard Academy, in the basement therapy room with swings and finger paints, giant inflatable balls. The house was full of teaching prizes, clocks and plaques, two crystal apples from the district. She had posters too. WHAT DO TEACHERS MAKE? I MAKE KIDS WONDER. I MAKE THEM QUESTION...Collin had grown up with all these tributes, apples, and rainbows. He had been famous in school as Maia's son, and had played in her therapy room as a small child. There had never been money for babysitters, so he'd attended his mother's afterschool dance classes as well. Jazz, tap, and tango.\n\nNow Maia's colleagues were arriving, and she served them borscht in honor of the Russian play. She ladled the thick magenta soup into bowls, and when she ran out of bowls, she handed mugs to Mrs. McCabe, the librarian, and Ms. Jamil, the occupational therapist. She found a \"Mad Genius\" mug for Mr. Cooperman, the fifth-grade science teacher, also known as Scienceman.\n\nYoga friends tramped up the porch of the triple-decker and left their boots in the stairwell. In socks they padded into the dining room, where Maia had covered the Ping-Pong table with rich fabric and flatbreads, quiche, empanadas, latkes.\n\nUpstairs neighbors came in slippers. Lois, the art teacher from the second floor. Sage and her wife, Melissa, who grew tomatoes in window boxes on the third floor. Strawberry-blond Kerry O'Neil came from across the street, along with her twins, Aidan and Diana, suddenly sixteen.\n\n\"Can you believe it?\" Maia asked Collin.\n\n\"How'd you people get so big?\" said Collin. \"Did I ever babysit you?\"\n\nThey didn't answer. Aidan wolfed down his food and left, while Diana stayed, nibbling crispy spring rolls.\n\n\"Collin!\" Lois exclaimed, because she had seen the show. \"Your orchard!\"\n\nLois's white hair was short and spiky, her vest hand-quilted, her earrings fashioned of the most precious Scrabble tiles, Z and Q. \"When the production ends, what happens to your art?\"\n\n\"Well...\" Collin began.\n\n\"Don't say it.\"\n\nCollin enjoyed saying it. Gentle, sentimental, Lois and Maia were crushed when he explained, \"I'll wash the boards and start something new.\"\n\nLois tried arguing with him, but he couldn't hear. Everyone was laughing over in the living room. Darius laughed so hard that he had to lean over Emma to defog his black-framed glasses.\n\nThe actors were talking about putting on a druggier, _Big Chill_ Chekhov, like in a big house up in Maine. Meanwhile, the neighbors were discussing snow emergencies and parking bans, and how they were disappointed in the president. Troops still in Afghanistan, prisoners still rotting in Guant\u00e1namo. The economy still in the toilet. What good was he?\n\nThe battered oak floors thrummed with Crosby, Stills, and Nash. \"Judy Blue Eyes,\" \"Marrakesh Express,\" \"Guinnevere.\" Noelle was flirting with some woodworker named Austin. He was much taller than she was, so she rose up on her toes, _en pointe,_ to look into his eyes.\n\nCollin brushed past Noelle and said, \"How's the view?\"\n\nShe ignored him, and he hated her. No, he didn't hate her; he felt nothing. He felt dead.\n\nDarius and Emma started dancing. Maia and Mrs. McCabe joined in, flushed with laughter and with wine, but Collin turned toward the front window to watch the snow. The little street was melting away, all the houses turning to gingerbread, white drifts icing porches and peaked roofs. He wanted to be out in it, away from everyone, especially himself. He pulled his jacket from the pile in the entryway, sat on the stairs and laced his boots.\n\nWhen he stepped onto the porch he was so lonely he could almost see it like his breath. Impatient with himself, he seized the shovel propped up near the door, and began clearing the front steps. Working fast, he excavated a path to the street and started on the sidewalk. It was still snowing heavily, but he was hot, and unzipped his jacket.\n\nHis mother stepped outside and watched him from the porch. \"Oh, come on.\"\n\nHe didn't answer.\n\nShe sighed and disappeared into the house. A moment later, she returned in boots. She was holding a glass of wine.\n\n\"It's only natural to feel a letdown.\"\n\n\"Letdown from what? The performance wasn't any good.\"\n\n\"So then it's even more natural, because the play wasn't as great as the one in your head. That's art.\"\n\n\"That's life,\" he said.\n\n\"I've seen you and Darius do amazing stuff.\"\n\n\"It's _his_ stuff. It's all about him.\"\n\n\"You'll get your chance.\"\n\nCollin planted his shovel in the snow. \"I'm not working with him anymore.\"\n\nHer temper flared. \"Right, that's the answer. Just give up.\"\n\n\"Nobody's interested in theater on traffic islands and indoor tennis courts.\"\n\n\"Who's nobody?\"\n\n\"Nobody in the real world.\"\n\n\"The real world is overrated,\" Maia said.\n\n\"I wouldn't know.\"\n\n\"Your loss.\"\n\nThey stood in silence as the city plow thundered down the street, sparking tiny flames, metal scraping asphalt as it clattered past. Then Collin started shoveling again, heaping snow into the garden.\n\n\"Careful,\" Maia said. \"My hydrangeas are somewhere under there.\"\n\n\"They're okay.\"\n\n\"They'd better be.\" She watched him for a moment in silence and then tried again. \"Do you want my advice?\"\n\n\"No.\" He didn't want advice. He wanted to escape. He wanted to break away, but he kept coming home, working with Darius, returning to Noelle. What was wrong with him? He could draw, but he drew only for Darius. He was a hired hand. No, just a hand! It wasn't like Darius paid him.\n\nHe had cleared the sidewalk and now he carried his shovel up the steps. \"It's a play about regret.\"\n\n\"I know.\" Maia followed him.\n\n\"It's about wanting what you can't have,\" Collin declared under the porch light. \"Maybe that's too obvious for Darius. He always gets what he wants, so he can't even see it.\"\n\nMaia nodded. \"I understand.\"\n\n\"No, you don't.\"\n\n\"Mm-hm. What's her name?\"\n\nLoaded down with books and folders, Nina shouldered the heavy school door open. VISITORS REPORT TO THE OFFICE. THIS DOOR TO REMAIN LOCKED. OUR CHILDREN ARE OUR FUTURE. Dreading the day ahead, she backed her way into school.\n\nDread was not too strong a word for Wednesdays. She had to start with the wild ones, her American lit class. Students came unprepared. (They're kids, said Mrs. West, her department chair.) Some didn't come at all. (It's not about you, said Jeff, her TeacherCorps mentor.) Nothing worked with these eleventh graders. Her lessons were too difficult, her readings too long, her assignments way too complicated.\n\n\"Good morning, Miss Lazare,\" said Mrs. West as they stood in the glass front office, signing in. All the teachers spoke to one another like that, as if afraid a student might overhear their given names. \"Are you okay?\"\n\nNina could only imagine how she looked\u2014pale, sleep-deprived, floundering. Mrs. West, on the other hand, could walk the halls with total mastery, her midnight-blue manicure adorned with tiny crystal stars. Mrs. West was famous for her fingernails, for her languages, French and Haitian Creole, for her gorgeous singing voice, for her in-class performances of _Romeo and Juliet._ Above all, for her way with words. Nina had heard her harangue one boy into submission in the hall. \"You can stand there and tell me that's your best work, but you _know_ that's not true, so get your butt back in your chair and do it again. The end. That's all!\"\n\n\"I've got my eleventh graders,\" Nina said.\n\n\"Don't let up!\" Part coach, part cheerleader, part preacher, Mrs. West admonished Nina, \"If those kids test you\u2014then you test them back!\"\n\nA sudden buzz and pulsing orange lights. A couple of boys had set off the metal detector, and the school's police officers sprang into action. \"Over here, you guys. Bags on the table. Keep the line moving.\" Kids continued shuffling in with their backpacks, their headscarves, their puffy jackets, their attitudes. Nina joined them, climbing the chipped cement steps to her classroom, where she opened her desk and locked her purse inside.\n\nEmerson High School was small, diverse, and experimental. There were no exams, only year-end portfolios in which students collected what they considered their best work. The school was open to everyone by lottery, but had a reputation for \"out of the box\" kids\u2014those who were artistic, or autistic, those with learning differences, or special gifts, or both at once. Each student was required to keep a journal of personal discovery in a marbled composition notebook. Required personal discovery seemed like an oxymoron to Nina, but so did many other aspects of the school. \"A community of learners\" with metal detectors. A non-linear curriculum in a rectilinear 1930s building. The wiring was antique, the doorknobs brass. The basement flooded during rainstorms, and in places the roof leaked. There were computers in every classroom, but some rooms had no heat. There were no whiteboards, let alone SMART Boards. Blackboards were strictly black.\n\nNina took a deep breath and picked up her white chalk. _DO NOW,_ she wrote on the board. _List three adjectives Emerson uses to describe..._\n\n\"Miss?\" Students were starting to drift in. \"Miss?\"\n\n\"Get out your packets,\" Nina announced. There were no textbooks for Emerson's English classes. Humanities teachers had to develop their own materials. \"Turn to the essay 'Nature.' Where's your reading?\" she asked Xavier.\n\n\"I'm not exactly sure.\"\n\n\"Miss.\" Rakim approached the board. \"I think the page was missing or maybe\u2014\"\n\n\"Let me see,\" Nina said.\n\n\"I think my packet is defective or something like that.\"\n\nNina found \"Nature\" for him. \"Have a seat.\"\n\n\"I looked for it,\" he said.\n\n\"Rakim, please sit down.\"\n\nHe raised his hands in mock surrender as he backed away. Two girls started giggling, and Rakim played to the gallery. \"Okay. Okay!\"\n\nSome people had it\u2014that mysterious rapport, the ability to catch a student's gaze and hold it, to direct without seeming to direct, to take a joke and lob it back. Nina thought of her own high school teachers, charismatic Mr. Kincaid, witty Mr. Rousse. Was it a gift like perfect pitch, or something you could learn? She remembered the silence in Mr. Rousse's classroom, the deliberate way he spoke, the way he made you wait for the next word. You shivered when he called on you.\n\nShe had done well in training. For five weeks at Bowdoin College in blackfly season, Nina had learned, in theory, to teach high school. After long days of role-playing, mini lessons, and crash courses in curriculum development, she would sit with other TeacherCorps recruits in a darkened lecture hall to hear testimonies of transformation.\n\nAlumni perched on stools in front of the eight hundred trainees, and, one by one, those alumni stood and walked into the spotlight to tell of raising test scores, breaking through. \"Is there anything you can do in this world that's more important?\" asked one former fellow, now working at McKinsey. \"Is there anything more valuable than the life of a child?\"\n\nAll the alumni said that their students had taught them lessons they would carry with them their whole lives. Nina never doubted this, but as her own kids came in dancing, slouching, scuffling playfully, she hoped she could teach them something too.\n\n\"Miss, could you sign this?\"\n\nLeila was holding a pink slip.\n\n\"You're dropping language arts?\"\n\n\"Switching,\" said Leila, a picture of innocence, framed by her white headscarf. \"Mr. DeLaurentis thinks I'll learn better with Mrs. West.\"\n\nOf course he does, Nina thought miserably. Mrs. West had been teaching almost thirty years. Nina had been trying for thirteen weeks. Mrs. West invented her own acronyms: OWL (Own it, Work it, Learn it). QUACK (Question Underlying Assumptions Critically and Knowledgeably). Nina was still trying to keep her kids in chairs.\n\nShe bent to sign her name, and felt for a moment as though she were signing a confession. _I'm a fraud. I have no idea. I've failed to reach you._ Everyone spoke about epiphanies and transcendent moments, the _Miracle Worker_ of it all: teacher and student swept up in revelation, spelling into each other's palms\u2014touching the word, grasping the concept, feeling the rush of water. People didn't talk so much about students switching out of your class.\n\n\"Okay.\" She handed Leila the pink paper. \"Go for it.\"\n\n\"Thanks.\" Leila ran out, and Nina shut the door behind her.\n\n\"Take out your notebooks,\" she directed, as she took attendance. Sixteen students, eight absent, including one learning better with Mrs. West. \"Write your three adjectives.\"\n\n\"Three adjectives about what?\" Rakim asked, and Nina realized that she hadn't finished writing her _DO NOW_ on the board.\n\n\"Three adjectives Emerson uses to describe...nature.\" She scribbled the missing word.\n\n\"Can I borrow a\u2014\"\n\n\"Can I use a\u2014\"\n\nAlready two kids were up to sharpen pencils by the window.\n\nA pregnant girl named Brynna asked, \"Miss, where's the bathroom pass?\"\n\nYou just got here, Nina thought, as she searched her desk. \"Three adjectives. Faheen, I don't see you writing.\"\n\n\"I'm thinking!\"\n\nSqueaking chairs, rustling papers. Always moving, always whispering, the class never settled. As soon as Nina shushed one conversation, another started. She needed to be everywhere at once, but she tried to focus on one student at a time as she walked between desks, reading over shoulders.\n\n\"Beautiful, gorgeous, natural. No, that's not quite it. I want adjectives that _Emerson_ uses about nature,\" Nina told Diana, who looked up, insulted.\n\n\"Miss?\" Brynna asked again.\n\nNina handed over the restroom key with its big block of wood attached and she began writing on the board the adjectives the students had found in Emerson: _tranquil, perpetual, transparent._\n\n\"Is _theory_ an adjective?\" Chantal asked.\n\n\"Is it descriptive?\"\n\n\"Yeah.\"\n\n\"Give me an example of _theory_ as an adjective.\"\n\n\"Theory of relativity.\"\n\n\"Excuse me?\" Nina asked Marisol and Cierra. The girls looked up from their conversation as Nina began walking over, but she got distracted by Rakim writing furiously, filling in some worksheet for another class. Shit. Nina had forgotten to collect homework. \"Time out. Please hand in your short responses from last night. Rakim? Marisol? Pass them to the front. Cierra, did you hear me?\"\n\nNine homework sheets came in, accompanied by at least five excuses.\n\n\"I was absent yesterday.\"\n\n\"Miss, I didn't get the assignment.\"\n\n\"I never got the questions.\"\n\nNina struggled to assert herself. \"If you were absent, you're still responsible.\"\n\nUnfortunately, when she was frustrated, her voice got quiet. Her kids continued writing, ripping pages out of notebooks, sharpening pencils, and talking, talking.\n\nYou had to get louder in this profession, not softer. You couldn't just look disappointed. You were supposed to scream to show you cared. Mrs. West would cry out, \"Listen up. I'm talking to _you._ \" Across the hall, Ms. Powers stamped her foot. Mr. Allan could bugle like a moose. Nina's emotions were all wrong, if that was possible. She wasn't angry when kids didn't do the reading. She was crushed.\n\n\"If you don't understand, speak up!\" she pleaded. \"If you never got the questions, then come and get them from me.\" For a moment, her class looked at her, gauging her annoyance. \"I'm tired of excuses,\" she added, but the chatter had started up again.\n\n\"You should all be on page thirteen of your packets. Rosie. Page thirteen?\" Once more she walked up and down between the chairs. \"Page thirteen,\" she repeated. \" 'Nature.' Faheen, read the second paragraph for us, starting with _'Nature is...'_ I'm sorry, would you please sit down?\" she told Sevonna, who was standing by the windows. She was a big girl scribbling on a tiny piece of paper, which she stuffed into the back pocket of her jeans. \"Cierra? Marisol? Sevonna, would you please sit down? Please?\" Nina repeated, even as Faheen read slowly, _\"Nature is a setting that fits equally well a comic or a mourning piece. In good health, the air is a cordial of incredible virtue.\"_\n\nThe sky outside was bright. From the fourth-floor window Nina could see Lincoln Playground, framed by black trees striped with snow. \"Keep reading, Faheen.\"\n\n_\"Crossing a bare common, in snow puddles, at twilight, under a clouded sky, without having in my thoughts any occurrence of special good fortune, I have enjoyed a perfect exhilaration.\"_\n\n\"Marisol,\" Nina said. \"What does Emerson mean by _exhilaration_?\"\n\n\"Don't kick my chair, man,\" said Rakim.\n\n\"I never touched your chair.\" Xavier stretched out his long arms and legs and tilted back his own chair until he sat on a diagonal.\n\n\"It was on the homework. _Exhilaration._ \" The noise level was rising, but Nina risked turning her back to write the word on the board, along with the words _transport_ and _ecstasy._ She drew a line and then wrote SUBLIME as the header for these vocabulary words. \"The Transcendentalists were interested in the sublime.\" She spun around just in time to hear a crash and laughter, as Xavier and his chair slammed onto the floor.\n\n\"Ow! Fuck!\" Xavier moaned good-naturedly, and took his time getting up again.\n\n\"Not in my class,\" Nina said, and Xavier apologized for his language, but that took more time. Here she was, clock ticking, eight students absent, not to mention one in the bathroom, and she had covered three sentences.\n\n\"You deserve it.\" Diana was talking to Xavier, but Nina thought Diana might as well have been speaking to her.\n\nAs a child, Nina had wondered why some teachers were so boring. Now she understood. They were bad actors\u2014terrible at performing what they knew. Everything those teachers said fell flat, every lesson trailed off. First the class stopped listening. Then kids began whispering, laughing, talking openly. Finally, they seized power for themselves. As a student she had seen it happen. Now she watched her students turn on her. Xavier's attempts at comic relief, Marisol's and Cierra's and Sevonna's disrespect. Diana's scorn, Brynna's exit into the real drama of the girls' bathroom. Clear-eyed, Nina watched her class spin away from her.\n\nYou don't look like a teacher, Collin James had said at Grendel's. How does a teacher look? Old, he'd said, and bitter. He was a flirt\u2014she'd seen him with the waitresses\u2014but he was right: Teachers had to be hard and spiky, barbed in self-defense. You had to be bitter, to deter kids from eating you alive.\n\nAlready the bell was ringing, and she was trying to explain the homework, even though she hadn't finished her lesson. Her class was racing out the door and Nina wanted to run after them. _Standing on the bare ground,\u2014my head bathed by the blithe air, and uplifted into infinite space,\u2014all mean egotism vanishes._ She would carry Emerson to them. Wait! You forgot this! But they were gone. Too late, too late. She'd lost her chance.\n\n\"Now!\" Sword in hand, he ran through tall grass. \"Jump!\" Together they bounded over rushing water.\n\nThe sky was darkening. Smoke clouded the landscape, smudging hills and trees. Faster and faster he ran, and she flew after him, blue hair streaming. No time to talk, no time to breathe. They raced to the edge of the Trackless Wood, which crackled with fire. Danger never stopped them. They kept running, weaving through the burning trees.\n\nShe was a Tree Elf named Riyah. He was a Water Elf, Tildor. They came from different realms, but for the past three nights they'd qwested, traded, and killed together. They had hunted basilisks, slain dragons, and retrieved two diamonds, which Riyah carried in the bag hanging at her waist. She was an amazing marksman, and beautiful, even for an Elf, her eyes huge, her body supple. Her breasts swayed as she ran, her quiver bouncing behind her.\n\nFlaming branches crashed around them, the crack of falling trees\u2014then something else\u2014a ripping sound.\n\nThey whirled around to face a colossus with jagged teeth and claws, a shifting, seething monster, half man, half bear, tar black. He rose up on his hind legs to seize them with clawed hands. They slashed him with their swords, but he reconstituted, oozing and bubbling. He snatched up his left hand and jammed it on again. Screaming with pain, he retrieved his severed leg and screwed it onto his own bloody stump.\n\n\"Can't finish him with steel,\" Riyah gasped.\n\n\"Shoot.\"\n\n\"Arrows can't penetrate.\"\n\n\"Take a\u2014\"\n\n\"Let me!\" The beast heaved up roaring and she sent her silver dagger into his eye. The colossus melted like a pile of burning tires. \"Yes!\" Breathing hard, she raised her arms in celebration.\n\nA diamond glittered at the melting monster's core. As Tildor plucked the jewel, a white nimbus glowed around him.\n\nRiyah's voice was hushed. \"The third.\"\n\nThorny branches overhead turned into talons, flaming twigs to ashen feathers. The forest phoenix woke, and Riyah and Tildor threw themselves onto the bird's back. The landscape shifted under them as they soared into the air. With each wingbeat, the phoenix carried them over smoldering trees and moonlit fields, twisted sunflowers, stubble glowing with white frost. Wind whistled in their ears. \"That's the Keep.\" Riyah pointed to stone towers in the distance.\n\n\"And there's the\u2014\"\n\n\"Aidan?\"\n\n\"Wait for me,\" he told Riyah.\n\nHe hurried to his bedroom door.\n\n\"Aidan!\"\n\nHe opened the door. _\"What?\"_\n\n\"Take off that headset.\"\n\nHe obeyed and lost the music of the wind and air, the hoots of owls and beating wings, the sound of Riyah's voice. Onscreen the phoenix soared over tangled woods and frozen ponds in the silver winter night of EverWhen. Offscreen, only a computer on a desk, an unmade bed, a backpack open on the floor.\n\n\"Do you know what time it is?\" his mother demanded. She was home from the night shift at the hospital and he was supposed to be getting ready for school.\n\nKerry snatched the headset from his hands. \"Do you even know what day it is? Aidan? Look at me when I'm talking to you!\"\n\nHe looked at her. Unprotesting, he sat down on his bed. Lately when his mother screamed at him, he listened. When she said EverWhen was sucking the life out of him, he didn't argue. If she asked for remorse, he showed remorse. If she declared, You're sixteen years old, you're wasting your time, you're failing school, he said he was sorry and promised to do better. He said whatever she wanted him to say, and all the time he kept his computer screen in view. The landscape dark and hidden, stars spelling out the name ARKADIA.\n\n\u2014\n\nShe worked so hard. He said, I know. She loved him so much. He bent his head. She asked what he thought she should do. He couldn't think of anything. She asked whether he thought life was precious. He said yes.\n\nBut his mother defined life as singular. He rejected that. He didn't live one life. He lived two. Was it his fault that he preferred the second? In EverWhen he was a healer and an Elvish prince, a leader of his company. He had a pile of gold, and a sword worth eighty marks, a magic ring, a diamond flask filled with a hatchling dragon's blood. He had fashioned his own gear: chain mail, silver helmet, enchanted boots. He'd trained for transformation. If he wanted to run like a deer, he could become one. If he qwested underwater, he could be a beaver, otter, or eel. And now in EverWhen he fought with Riyah at his side. Meanwhile, in the outside world, he was just a skinny kid, blue-eyed, dirty-blond, ignored at school. His friends were equally unpopular. Jack was a Water Elf, but in real life he took college-level math. Liam was an amazing warrior, but in real life he smoked so much pot Kerry refused to let him in the door.\n\nAidan's mother worried about drugs, and games, and bad influences\u2014not to mention the transmission on the car, the second mortgage on the house. They lived in a two-family. Priscilla, the piano teacher, paid rent on the other side of the living room wall, but Kerry owned the place. If the roof leaked or the pipes burst, Kerry was responsible. She slept mornings and worked nights, and in her world every day was like the last. No qwests awaited, no treasure maps arrived, no burning trees turned into birds, no cities into stone.\n\nHe knew he could outlast his mother because she was so tired. He let her confiscate his headset and joystick. He promised that he'd stop playing; he would get to school. When Kerry dragged herself to bed, he hunted up his other joystick and slipped back into EverWhen.\n\nThe sun was rising. Not the sun outside his window, but the sun inside the game, blood orange, melting frost and warming icy air. The colors were so clean and bright it took him a moment to adjust his eyes. Riyah was waiting for him in a thicket. She spoke, but without his headset he couldn't hear.\n\nHe typed into the chat box: sorry\n\nAfter a moment, her answer appeared on the screen. you should be. But she turned toward him, beautiful as ever, in the glowing morning light. more?\n\ncant\n\ntoo bad.\n\nlater? he pleaded.\n\nmaybe\n\nwheres the bird?\n\nlook\n\nJoystick in hand, he turned his Water Elf around. Pivoting onscreen, Tildor searched the thicket.\n\nNow Aidan saw the phoenix in new form, long feathers changed to white birches marked with what had been the bird's black eyes and claws.\n\n!!!\n\ni know!\n\nHis sister's alarm was beeping in the next room. He could hear Diana in the bathroom, flushing the toilet, starting her shower, getting ready for school.\n\nI have togo\n\nRiyah answered, bfn.\n\nwait whats your name?\n\nHe waited and waited. He heard the water stop, the shower curtain slide on its metal loops, Diana thumping down the stairs, the kitchen cabinets, the jolt of silverware in the drawer.\n\nEven as he gave up hoping, a word materialized onscreen: daphne\n\nFor a moment he just stared. He had never met a Daphne, and assumed the name was another alias. no, he typed, your real name\n\nThat IS my real name! Riyah folded her arms across her chest.\n\nHe took a breath. i want to see you.\n\nWhat do you want to see?\n\nHe began to answer and then he stopped. Her question confused him. Did he want to see the girl who played with him at night? The one who said her name was Daphne? Or the archer, dagger-thrower, Riyah? It seemed spell-breaking to write, I want to know who you really are\u2014and he wasn't sure if that was true. He wanted to play with Riyah forever. Not his school friends, or his old company. He wanted his headset back. He wanted to talk to her: I need to stay in EverWhen with you.\n\n\"Hey, Aidan.\" Diana was knocking.\n\n\"What?\" Instinctively he shifted in his chair to block his screen.\n\nShe opened his door and stood before him in black jeans and a black sweatshirt. \"You never took the recycling out.\"\n\n\"Because it was your turn.\"\n\n\"It wasn't my turn. Check the calendar.\"\n\n\"You check.\"\n\n\"The truck's already coming up the street.\" She yanked his window shade, but it didn't roll up. She pulled again, harder, and the shade only grew longer.\n\n\"Let go. I believe you.\"\n\nToo late. One final tug and his shade came crashing down. \"Diana! God!\" he whispered fiercely. \"You're going to wake Mom.\"\n\nGray sky. Dirty snow. The orange recycling truck lumbered up Antrim Street under a small, cold winter sun.\n\nu there? Riyah's question floated onscreen.\n\n\"Are you taking it out?\" Diana pressed.\n\n\"No! Get out of my room.\"\n\nThe broken window shade billowed on the floor, but Diana did not apologize. She turned on him. \"I can't believe you're playing again right after you promised Mom not to.\"\n\n\"I said get out.\"\n\n\"I'm going to tell her,\" Diana said slowly as she backed away.\n\n\"Go ahead,\" he said, but he knew she wouldn't tell. They were close, or had been. They had a pact, and even now he trusted Diana. He knew his twin would not betray him.\n\nDiana slammed the door, and the house rattled. He could hear his mother's voice, \"Aidan!\"\n\nHe typed, Invaded. I'll comeback.\n\nWould you try another world?\n\nRL???\n\nanother game\n\nwhich one?\n\ncan you keep a secret?\n\n\"Aidan?\" his mother called.\n\n\"I'm getting dressed.\"\n\nhuge? Riyah asked.\n\nwhat????\n\nHis screen faded to gray. The network hung. No, it only blinked. He and Riyah stood together as before, surrounded by white birches.\n\nI have UnderWorld beta, she told him.\n\n!!!!!! ru shitting me?\n\nno I have it\n\nnoone has it\n\ni do\n\nhow???\n\nyou want it?\n\nYES\n\nwanna play?\n\nHOW WHERE WHEN?\n\nyou need black box\n\nsend!\n\nnot yet\n\nwhen??\n\nyouwant it?\n\nHe pounded out his answer in frustration: Comeon\n\nwhat can you do for me?\n\nWas he still offended? All evening Nina tried to catch his eye, but he was carrying armfuls of dishes, dashing between tables\u2014keeping his distance. She hadn't meant to hurt him. The play had sounded funny and he was charming and she laughed when she was nervous. She couldn't help it.\n\nShe tried to work. _In the play \"A Midsummer Night's Dream\" by William Shakespeare portrays many characters, all with distinguished characteristics._ She marked this sentence: _In the play \"A Midsummer Night's Dream,\"_ _by_ _William Shakespeare portrays many characters, all with_ _distinguished_ **do you mean distinguishing?** _characteristics._ Then, looking up, she saw him emerging from the kitchen.\n\nHe saw her too, and then avoided her.\n\nShe couldn't work at all. She waited for her chance when he passed by. \"Collin,\" she said.\n\nPivoting, he turned toward her.\n\n\"How was the play?\"\n\n\"I'd tell you, but I'd get in trouble standing here so long.\"\n\n\"Oh!\" Instantly she turned back to her work, like a kid caught talking during study hall. _Puck is one of the most unique characters who..._ But this was no study hall, and even with her head down, she felt the warmth of his smile.\n\n\"What's your name?\"\n\n\"Nina.\"\n\nHe bent over his order pad, scribbling, before he rushed away.\n\nA scrap of paper floated down over her student's essay. A drawing no bigger than a silver dollar. Lines quick and confident. Her own face, half hidden by her hair, her chin propped up on her hand. She looked up, trying to find him in the crowded room, but he had disappeared into the kitchen.\n\nHad he really drawn all this just now? His work looked finished, less a sketch than a miniature portrait in black pen. He couldn't have, but yes\u2014she'd told him her name a second ago, and he'd printed in rapid block letters: NINA WAIT FOR ME I'M OFF 11.\n\n\u2014\n\nThat winter was so cold that the drifts never melted, and each storm topped off the one before. Even now, fresh snow was falling, velveting the streets.\n\nThey stood in front of Grendel's, facing JFK Street. The park there, colorful in summer with pigeons, buskers, tourists, now pure and white.\n\n\"I know where to go,\" Collin said. \"I grew up here, so.\"\n\n\"So did I.\"\n\n\"You did not.\"\n\n\"I went to college here too.\"\n\nOh, great, he thought. \"Went to college\" meant Harvard. If she had gone to Lesley she would have come out with it. If she'd attended Boston University, she would have said BU. Anywhere else, she would have named the school.\n\n\"My dad and stepmother still live here,\" she told him.\n\n\"What street?\"\n\nShe hesitated for a fraction of a second. \"Highland.\"\n\nThere were two Highlands in Cambridge. One down near his mother's place, and one west of the Square with spreading trees and Victorian houses layered like wedding cakes. He looked at her and knew which one she meant. I was right the first time, he thought. You're not from here.\n\nEven so, he told her about the play, and he made it sound amazing. Deep instead of flippant, poignant where it had been absurd.\n\nNina said, \"I wish I'd seen it.\"\n\nYou have a boyfriend, Collin thought.\n\nBut Nina said, \"I'm always behind preparing class.\"\n\nHe led the way between snowbanks as they walked up Brattle. Without asking, he took her bags, two canvas totes filled with composition notebooks. \"Where do you teach?\"\n\n\"Emerson High School.\"\n\n\"No way.\" He turned around so fast she almost stepped on him. \"I went there!\"\n\n\"Really?\"\n\n\"Yeah. I know Mr. DeLaurentis.\"\n\nShe could picture Collin in the principal's office. Prankster, troublemaker, effortlessly popular.\n\n\"We had these same notebooks.\" Collin glanced down at her tote bags.\n\n\"You kept Discovery Journals too?\"\n\n\"Mostly I drew pictures of...\"\n\n\"What?\" she demanded playfully.\n\n\"What do you think?\" Collin said.\n\nThey went to Caf\u00e9 Algiers, with its polished samovars and copper bar, its Egyptian almond cookies behind glass. The red walls were hung with ceramic tiles and antique maps, a framed illustration of \"the oriental coffee shop.\" They sat at a wobbly table and Collin ordered hummus, pita triangles, bulgur salad, and Lebanese wine. They were the last customers in the door.\n\n\"Is this table okay?\" He sounded nervous. Actually he sounded like a waiter as he asked, \"Do you want to switch?\"\n\n\"I think they all wobble,\" Nina said. Her knee was almost touching his.\n\nWhen the food came she didn't eat anything. \"I already had dinner,\" she explained.\n\nOf course. He had forgotten that. She'd been nibbling at Grendel's all evening.\n\n\"Go ahead,\" she said.\n\n\"Okay, I'm starving,\" he confessed, but he tried not to eat too fast. He tried not to finish all his wine at once. She was just sipping hers. He could see she didn't really drink.\n\nHe asked Nina, \"Why did you decide to teach?\"\n\nShe parried, \"Why did you decide to draw?\"\n\n\"For the money.\"\n\n\"Oh, okay. That's why I teach too.\"\n\n\"No, really.\"\n\nStill, she didn't answer. She turned the conversation back to his own art. \"I've never seen anybody draw so fast.\"\n\n\"That's nothing,\" he said. In the summer he could chalk a whole Van Gogh painting in an afternoon. Sunflowers outside of Faneuil Hall. Irises. He laid down one wet color after another, deep purple, violet, scarlet, gold. Oh, he thought, you don't know what I can do.\n\n\"Are you in art school?\"\n\n\"Well...\" Collin hedged. \"I've been in art school.\"\n\nYou dropped out, she thought, surprised, confused.\n\nHe said, \"I think, in general, school is overrated. No offense!\"\n\n\"No problem.\"\n\n\"But you're an educator.\"\n\n\"Not a good one,\" Nina said.\n\n\"You look like the sort of person who's good at anything they try.\"\n\n\"Kids hate me.\"\n\nHis eyes were sparkling, full of fun. \"Why?\"\n\n\"My last name is Lazare, so they call me Laser Lips.\"\n\n\"Let me see.\" He got up and leaned over the table. Her smile was tender, rueful. How would you draw a mouth like that? Ever so slightly, she drew back.\n\nHe sat down. \"You're strict.\"\n\n\"Well, I want them to learn.\"\n\n\"Yeah, but I mean, do you want them to learn a _lot_?\"\n\n\"Of course.\"\n\n\"Then obviously they hate you. But that's not bad,\" he hastened to add. \"I mean, sometimes it's good to be feared.\"\n\n\"Nobody fears me. There's always some boy goofing off or fighting or falling out of his chair...\"\n\n\"You're making me feel guilty,\" Collin said. \"Is Mrs. West still there?\"\n\n\"You had Mrs. West?\" She lit up. \"Tell me what you did to Mrs. West.\"\n\n\"I loved her. Mrs. West was great.\"\n\n\"Oh.\"\n\nShe looked so disappointed, he wanted to wrap his arms around her. \"She's been teaching for like a hundred years. She has all that experience.\"\n\n\"I hate hearing how you need experience.\"\n\n\"Me too.\"\n\nHer left hand rested on the table, waiting for him. What else could her hand be doing there? He covered it with his. \"Real teachers are like fifty years old, and they have a wrinkle right between their eyes. Have you seen Miss Dorfman? Studio art?\"\n\nDistracted, she spoke slowly. \"Well, I haven't gone around looking at her eyes.\"\n\n\"You should.\"\n\n\"I'm trying to figure out...\" She wanted his hand back, as soon as he released hers.\n\n\"Kids can tell when teachers are trying,\" Collin said. \"It's like how dogs smell fear.\"\n\n\"I have five weeks of training. I'm totally unqualified.\"\n\nHe spoke with confidence. \"Real teachers don't worry about that.\"\n\n\"Yeah. Because they know what they're doing.\"\n\n\"No, because they leave all the actual learning to the kids. Like\u2014here's the French Revolution. Just putting it out there. Here's physics. What you do with it is up to you.\"\n\n\"No, I don't think that would work.\"\n\n\"What are you actually trying to do?\"\n\n\"I want to teach my students to read\u2014not just superficially, but from the inside.\"\n\n\"Kiss of death!\"\n\n\"I want them to make poetry their own.\"\n\n\"Never ever tell them that!\"\n\n\"I _know._ \"\n\n\"You told them.\"\n\n\"My students think I'm...\"\n\nGorgeous, Collin thought.\n\n\"Hopeless.\"\n\n\"They barely know you,\" Collin said. \"They're still watching you.\"\n\nThe restaurant was closing. It didn't feel late, but the whole city was shutting down. There wasn't anywhere to go.\n\nHe said he'd walk her home. She said no need, she lived really close. In the end he walked her halfway in the snow-lit night.\n\n\"You need a hood,\" Nina told him, as she pulled up hers.\n\n\"I like the snow.\" He ran his fingers through his curly hair until it looked wilder than ever. Then he shook his head like a dog so that the snow flew off.\n\n\"You're silly.\"\n\nHe nodded.\n\nWith a hint of regret, she confessed, \"I'm not.\"\n\nHe took her arm. \"I can help you with that.\"\n\nFresh snow buried Collin's small basement window. His bedroom was dark to begin with, and he'd painted the walls with blackboard paint. Now his room looked like an ice cave. In the stillness and the half-light he lay in bed remembering the night before. He wanted to hold on to every second as long as possible. And then, suddenly, he sprang out of bed and threw on his clothes.\n\nHe stepped into a living room full of salvaged furniture\u2014scarred old tables, mushy upholstered chairs. It was just seven. Darius and Emma were fast asleep, but Collin pulled on coat and boots, swiped a piece of leftover pizza from the fridge, and ran outside. Plunging knee-deep into the snow, he tripped on one of his landlady's scrap-metal sculptures, a sharp-eared cat. He swore and laughed, dusting himself off.\n\nThe house was narrow and Victorian, ocher-trimmed with cadmium red. Collin and Darius had painted it over the summer in exchange for rent, while the owner, Dawn, was visiting her daughter in Northampton. Dawn wasn't just a landlady, of course. She was one of the women Collin had always known, drinking coffee in his mother's kitchen, talking about the universe.\n\nPerfect powder, and still falling. Central Square was ghostly white. All but the coffee shops were closed and dark. Teddy Shoes, where you could buy patent-leather pumps with a kitten heel in men's thirteen. Classic Graphx, where you could print one hundred programs cheap for your stealth underground production of _A Streetcar Named Desire._ Collin passed the Seven Stars bookstore, then 1369 Coffee House, its steamy windows already filled with poets, students, therapists. On second thought, he turned back to 1369 and bought chocolate croissants and a gingerbread latte. Then, holding the warm paper cup, he tramped to Antrim Street to find a sled and ask his mother for the car.\n\n\u2014\n\n\"You'll have to shovel out Sage and Lois too,\" Maia told him, after he gave her the latte. During citywide snow emergencies, the women parked in the one driveway, herding together Maia's ancient Volvo wagon, Lois's Toyota bristling with bike racks, Sage's Subaru. Collin could see three humps of snow through the kitchen window.\n\n\"Just give me the keys so I can move them.\"\n\nMaia shook out the calabash by the front door and tossed each set of keys. He caught them in the air.\n\n\"I like you this way.\"\n\n\"Which way?\"\n\n\"Motivated.\"\n\nCollin flashed her a smile and headed to the cellar door.\n\n\"Hold the railing,\" she called out as he started down the creaky stairs.\n\nBy the light of a naked bulb, he could make out his mother's gardening tools, her leaf bags, damp gloves, and metal rakes, her extra cans of paint and varnish. He squeezed between the rolling blackboards she kept for him. Containers of broken chalk; string bags of sand toys; Cheyenne, the plastic rocking horse galloping on rusty springs and tossing its plastic mane. Lois kept her mountain bikes down here, and Sage had a dresser she was planning to refinish. He had to search behind a collapsed wading pool, a stack of cartons labeled CHRISTMAS, and a pair of ratty wicker chairs before he found the sleds. Two blue singles and a black plastic double. He dusted off the double and texted Nina, Found it.\n\n\u2014\n\nShe looked chilly waiting in the Square. He opened the car door for her and apologized for being late. \"I had to shovel out three cars to get here.\"\n\n\"The heat feels good,\" she said, basking in the car's hot air. She was wearing a white coat, dark velvety jeans, and black suede boots.\n\n\"Are you going to be warm enough?\" He kept looking at her as he drove, because he had never seen her in daylight. Her eyes were not dark as he'd thought, but clear gray, like water over river stones.\n\nThe streets were barely plowed, so they had to inch to Danehy Park. \"I'm sorry this is taking so long,\" he said, although he wasn't really. There she was, close enough to kiss\u2014but he would wait. He could be patient sometimes.\n\nAs he eased into the parking lot, she saw kids tramping up the big hill. \"I wonder if I'll see my students here.\"\n\n\"We'll mow 'em down.\" Collin took her gloved hand and led the way, breaking a path. Her kidskin gloves felt like nothing inside his, which were puffy, cheap, but insulated. Her clothes were way too delicate for real weather.\n\nA stand of dwarf pines covered the hill. Little trees bent down with drifts. Collin held the sled while Nina climbed on, bracing her feet in front of her. She looked out at red coats and purple mittens, a black Lab barking, a little girl crying that her sister never let her steer. All along the snowy slope, she could see children and their parents, every bright detail. \"My father took me here once, and we went down together.\"\n\nCollin sat behind her and wrapped his arms around her waist. \"Like this?\"\n\nHer heart jumped, but she had no time to answer. He pushed off with his feet and the sled flew.\n\nThe hill was faster than either of them remembered. Nina nearly slipped out of his arms, and he had to hold her tight against his chest.\n\nThey skimmed the slope, accelerating into a swoop of snow. Breathless at the bottom, they didn't speak. Her legs felt wobbly, and Collin helped her up, offering his hand.\n\nAgain and again they sped down, and trudged back up the hill, which seemed to grow taller as they climbed. She stepped into his footsteps as he led the way, pulling the sled. At the top he looked at her and saw her glowing cheeks, her trailing scarf, her thin gloves soaked through. \"Take mine,\" he said. \"They're better.\"\n\nHis bare hands stung with cold, but he didn't care.\n\nSledding down, wind scoured her nose. Her hood fell back; her hair whipped into his face. He closed his eyes, concentrating on her and not the hill. When they hit a bump they both went flying.\n\nThey lay together where they fell, and it was sweet and it was surprising, like waking up together in bed. She turned toward him, drawn by his dark eyes, his laughter, his question, \"Are you all right?\"\n\n\"I'm fine.\"\n\n\"You sure?\"\n\nHe brushed her hair from her face with his raw hands. \"No broken bones?\"\n\n\"No.\"\n\n\"No sprains?\"\n\nShe shook her head, even as sleds swerved all around them.\n\n\"Not even a scratch?\" His lips brushed hers so lightly that she wasn't sure he'd kissed her. Before she could decide, he kissed her for real.\n\nTrembling, she sat up. She wanted more, but he helped her to her feet instead.\n\nSlowly they began walking to his car. She was shivering, but she hardly noticed. He was hungry, but he forgot the croissants flattened in his coat pocket. Already it was afternoon, the sun no longer bright but softer, pale gold. Were the days so short now? Or had they been out so long?\n\nCollin drove with his left hand and took Nina's in his right. He said, \"I used to wait and wait for you.\"\n\nShe said, \"I know.\"\n\nThey drove to the Brattle Theatre, the classic-movie house, and bought tickets for _The Adventures of Robin Hood_ with Errol Flynn, the early show. They had the place to themselves, and they spread their wet coats over empty seats. The Brattle's clock glowed lavender, and they leaned back and ate all their buttered popcorn while they waited for the movie to begin.\n\n\"It's warm in here,\" Nina said drowsily.\n\n\"It's quiet.\"\n\n\"I'm starting to feel my toes again.\"\n\n\"Uh-oh.\" He reached down and slipped off her boots, feeling for her feet. \"You're soaked!\" He began pulling off her wet socks.\n\nShe was startled, and then she let him. \"I didn't know the snow would be so deep.\"\n\nThe cartoon was starting, a brief Bugs Bunny called _Rabbit Hood._\n\n\"Didn't your mom teach you to wear good boots for sledding?\" He rubbed her bare feet with his hands.\n\n\"I lived with my father.\" She kept her eyes on the screen.\n\n\"Divorce?\"\n\n\"No, they never married.\"\n\n\"So your dad...\"\n\n\"He doesn't really think about boots.\" Onscreen, with heroic music playing, Bugs Bunny stole a carrot from the King's Carrot Patch, despite warnings posted on stone walls: NO POACHING. NOT EVEN AN EGG.\n\n\"What does he do?\"\n\n\"What's up, Doc?\" Bugs Bunny asked the King's skinny sheriff.\n\n\"What's up, _forsooth_!\" the sheriff retorted, longbow poised to shoot, arrow pointed at Bugs Bunny's heart.\n\n\"Whatever he wants.\"\n\n\"Cool. Where does he work?\"\n\nShe hesitated, even as he rubbed her instep with his thumb.\n\n\"Around here?\" Collin asked.\n\n\"Arkadia.\"\n\n\"Seriously?\" As kids, Collin and Darius had haunted Arkadia's message boards for any hint of the next EverWhen expansion. Once they took the commuter rail out to Waltham and walked three miles from the station just to stand in the company parking lot. The two of them streaked with dirt and sweat, two pilgrims at the shrine. \"What does he work on?\"\n\nNow Nina tucked her bare feet under her. \"You're a gamer.\"\n\n\"I used to play EverWhen.\"\n\n\"What level were you?\"\n\n\"Well...\"\n\n\"Come on.\"\n\n\"Sixty.\"\n\n\"Sixty!\" He could hedge, but Nina had played that labyrinthine game. She had wandered the Trackless Wood of EverWhen and qwested in the caves of EverSea. She knew what level sixty meant. He'd claimed five kingdoms, and hunted all twelve dragons to their dens. He had raced from green to golden fields, and lived a thousand years in Arkadian worlds, before he'd met her. He was just getting to know Nina, but he'd already journeyed deep into her father's realm.\n\nOther parents practiced law or medicine; they traded stock, or ran for office, built houses or sold real estate. Nina's father ran a company that produced MMORPGs (massively multiplayer online role-playing games). Millions lived and dreamed inside his virtual worlds. His work was nowhere and everywhere, ephemeral and everlasting.\n\n\"I used to play all the time,\" Collin admitted. \"I can close my eyes and see the Keep.\"\n\n\"His Most Royal Majesty cometh! Sound the welcomes and blow the crumpets!\" cried Bugs Bunny.\n\nCollin didn't even glance at the cartoon. \"Is your dad a developer? Or is he like...I mean is he specialized, or more...\" He interrupted himself. \"Is he working on UnderWorld?\"\n\n\"He works on everything.\"\n\nIn flickering light, Nina watched Collin put the facts together. Her students called her Laser Lips. Her last name was Lazare. Her father was at Arkadia. He worked on everything, including the long-awaited UnderWorld, unreleased, but trending everywhere with its hash tag, #seeyouinhell.\n\n\"Is your father...?\"\n\n\"Viktor Lazare,\" she said.\n\n\"Nina!\" Playfully, reproachfully, Collin said, \"Your father doesn't work at Arkadia.\"\n\n\"No,\" she conceded.\n\nSoftly Collin said, \"He owns it.\"\n\n\"H _aving once this juice,\"_ Nina read to her sophomores, _\"I'll watch Titania when she is asleep, \/ And drop the liquor of it in her eyes.\"_ She looked up from her book and studied her best-behaved class. \"What's happening here?\"\n\n\"Oberon's going to drug Titania,\" Noemi said.\n\n\"With what kind of juice?\"\n\n\"Liquor.\"\n\n\"Right. Liquor\u2014which is the nectar of a magic flower. Sean, could you read the rest?\"\n\n_\"The next thing then she waking looks upon, \/ Be it on lion, bear, or wolf, or bull, \/ On meddling monkey, or on busy ape, \/ She shall pursue it with the soul of love.\"_\n\n\"So what's going to happen?\"\n\n\"You're asking me?\" Sean looked up with an easy smile.\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"She's going to fall in love.\"\n\nFor a second the answer startled her. Then she said, \"Who or what will Titania love? Sasha?\"\n\n\"The first thing she sees.\"\n\n\"Yes!\" Silently, for just a moment, Nina celebrated. Her kids got it! Then she thought\u2014three kids got it. She looked at the other thirteen arrayed before her, some whispering, some passing notes. Isaiah sat in back, staring out the window. Anton was drawing Titania\u2014or was it Sasha?\u2014topless. He was smart and tough, green-eyed, Russian. Athletic, but he'd been kicked off the basketball team.\n\n\"Anton, why is Oberon going to play this trick on Titania?\"\n\nAnton kept drawing.\n\n\"Put the notebook away,\" Nina said.\n\nHe did not put the notebook away.\n\nShe repeated, \"Please put the notebook away so you can concentrate.\"\n\nAt this moment, Jeff, her TeacherCorps mentor, slipped into the room. He found an empty chair and took out his computer. Nina tensed as she stood her ground, confronting Anton.\n\nThe class rustled, as trees rustle when the breeze picks up. Jeff watched her, and the kids watched Jeff watching her. For the third time she repeated, \"Put the notebook away and tell me about these fairies\u2014Oberon and Titania.\"\n\nSlowly, Anton closed his notebook, and she could breathe again.\n\nMeanwhile, Jeff was typing rapidly. He had cropped blond hair, a runner's build, eyes Eagle Scout blue. He thought data was the answer. That was why he recorded every bent head in Nina's class.\n\n\u2014\n\n\"I noticed,\" he would tell Nina later, \"that two kids had their heads down on their desks when I came in, and three were missing books. Five minutes after that, we've got three kids with heads down on their desks. Everyone is sitting, which is great, but between the missing books and body language, you had six disengaged when you began your line of questioning.\" She couldn't stand him. He distracted the class with his tapping on the keyboard, and then he aggravated her afterward. He always said, \"Look, it's your call,\" before he told her what to do.\n\n\"What are the fairies like?\" she asked her class now. \"Are they kind and good-natured?\" No one answered. \"Are they mischievous? Chandra?\" She appealed to her smallest, quietest student.\n\n\"Mischievous,\" Chandra answered in a tiny voice.\n\n\"Why is that?\"\n\n\"Because they're powerful.\"\n\n\"Yes!\"\n\nHer response amused the class. Miss Lazare was so intense. She jumped if you guessed what she was thinking\u2014like she was playing Bingo in her mind.\n\nNina walked to the board. \"Does power make you mischievous? Is that true? Who thinks it's true?\" She found a broken piece of chalk. \"Isaiah, where does power come from in this play?\"\n\n\"Magic,\" Isaiah said.\n\n\"Good. Where else? Let's list some places power comes from.\"\n\n\"In the play,\" Isaiah asked, \"or in the real world?\"\n\n\"Both!\"\n\n\"Money,\" said Brittani.\n\nNina wrote that on the board.\n\n\"Etienne?\"\n\n\"Wealth.\"\n\n\"Okay.\" Nina wrote wealth next to money.\n\n\"Politics,\" said Sasha, who had been nibbling a cookie when she thought Nina wasn't looking.\n\n\"Jonee?\" Nina tried to call on Jonee every once in a while, but usually Jonee shook her head. Jonee had written permission to keep quiet in class because of a psychosomatic condition that caused her to faint when agitated. Nina found this confusing. She had assumed psychosomatic conditions weren't real. Apparently they were real enough. \"Where else does power come from?\" she asked.\n\n\"Technology,\" said Chandra.\n\n\"Interesting!\" Look at us, she thought, as she scribbled \"technology\" on the board. Hey, Jeff, we're springboarding from Shakespeare to technology. \"Where else does power come from?\"\n\nNo one answered, but she tried to coax the discussion, cup her hands and blow upon the spark. \"What about knowledge? Knowledge is power. Francis Bacon said that. What about language? And art? What about poetry?\"\n\nAnton was drawing again. Girls were whispering in the back.\n\n_\"I know a bank where the wild thyme blows,\"_ Nina said.\n\nSeveral kids looked up, startled by her sudden shift to Shakespeare's language.\n\n_\"Where oxlips and the nodding violet grows...\"_\n\nThe girls stopped talking. The three kids with heads down began to stir themselves.\n\n_\"Quite over-canopied with luscious woodbine, \/ With sweet musk-roses, and with eglantine: \/ There sleeps Titania some time of the night, \/ Lull'd in these flowers with dances and delight.\"_\n\nThey were all staring. Even Anton stared. Jeff himself stopped typing and gazed at Nina with a mixture of admiration and alarm. She was holding her book open in her hands, but she wasn't looking at it.\n\nStrange and still, the mood inside her room. She felt it happening\u2014she had the kids' attention. If only she could make it last. She wished she could enchant her students with the liquor of a magic flower. Cast a spell so that they would fall in love with poetry.\n\n\"How do you know all that by heart?\" Isaiah asked.\n\n\"Well...\" she began.\n\nWhat would she say if she were honest? I memorized almost the whole play in my father's library. _Your father has a library?_ her kids would say. I fell in love with Shakespeare when I was eleven. _When you were eleven? Whoa!_ I was so lonely. No, she wouldn't tell them that.\n\n\"They barely know you,\" Collin had said, and she felt a rush of pleasure, remembering his dark eyes. \"They're still watching you.\"\n\n\"I read the words over and over and over,\" she told the class. \"I kept repeating lines, just the way you learn a song.\"\n\n\"Yeah, but songs have music,\" Sasha pointed out, \"so that's much easier.\"\n\nNina said, \"Poetry has music too.\"\n\nShe lost some of them then. Once again, the girls started whispering, and Nina thought, as she did so many times a day, How do I lure them back? She opened her book. \"Everybody start from _And there the snake._ Read aloud together.\"\n\n_\"And there the snake throws her enamell'd skin,\"_ the kids read together shyly, some mumbling, some faking it. _\"Weed wide enough to wrap a fairy in.\"_\n\n\"Again.\"\n\n_\"And there the snake throws her enamell'd skin,\"_ they read in chorus. _\"Weed wide enough to wrap a fairy in.\"_\n\n\"Again.\"\n\nThey glanced up, wondering if she was serious. _\"And there the snake...\"_\n\nShe looked at her students murmuring together and imagined the conversation she couldn't have with them.\n\nI grew up in an enormous house. _What do you mean \"enormous\"?_ her kids would ask. Her father's house had carved woodwork and marble floors, a polished staircase, rising and turning like the vortex of a storm. There was a glass conservatory and a library with a gallery. _Awesome!_ her kids would shout. _Field trip! Par-tay!_\n\nShe hadn't always lived there. As a tiny girl, she'd lived with her grandparents on Evans Road in Brookline. Her grandmother had been pale, with powder in her creases. She set out crystal bowls filled with butterscotch candies. Her grandfather had deep, dark eyes, a raspy voice, a fearsome smile. When he walked, he dragged his feet, because they were so heavy for him. Her grandparents talked to her in Russian and read her Russian books. They beamed at Nina, spending all their warmth on her. Left to themselves, they sat for hours without speaking. They were a pair of armored lizards; they were stone.\n\nSlowly, Nina's grandfather climbed the stairs, and slowly he descended. The stairs were carpeted dark green like moss, the walls papered with lilacs, the soaps in the bathroom carved like cabbage roses. Everything in her grandparents' house looked like something else. The boot scraper took the shape of a hedgehog, the throw pillows were embroidered cats. Even Nina's grandmother began to look like something else, the Blue Fairy in Nina's book. She wore blue quilted slippers and a sky-blue robe. Her eyes grew paler, purer blue. When she left for the hospital, Viktor took Nina to live with him across the river. She was four years old.\n\n\"Can I go home?\" she would ask her father.\n\n\"Later,\" Viktor said, but she had sensed, even then, that he was powerful and he was mischievous. She saw her grandfather only a few times after that. She never saw her grandmother again.\n\nIn her father's house there were no candy dishes. Nina discovered a stone bird, instead, and a gold man sitting in a flower. A giant cartoon hung in the breakfast room. A naked lady lived in the library without arms or nose.\n\nThere were other toys, and other women. In the library, her father kept two globes, a green and blue globe of the Earth, and a black globe of the sky. In the hall he kept a grandfather clock. Nina sat on the stairs and studied it, imagining her grandfather rising like the sun painted on the round clock face. She saw her grandmother in robe and slippers, creeping across the sky over days and weeks, growing and then disappearing, like the silver moon.\n\nNow she walked between her students' desks and her class was chanting all around her. _\"And there the snake throws her enamell'd skin \/ Weed wide enough to wrap a fairy in.\"_\n\n\"Stand up,\" Nina said. The kids shuffled to their feet. Jeff stood too. \"Read it one more time _loudly._ \"\n\nThe kids were almost shouting, _\"And there the snake throws her enamell'd skin...\"_\n\n\"Read it one last time, softly.\"\n\n_\"And there the snake...\"_ her students whispered, rhythmically.\n\n\"Good. Now close your books. Everybody close your books.\"\n\nThe kids closed their books like hymnals. \"No, don't sit down,\" Nina said. \"Say the lines with me.\"\n\nTogether they recited from memory, _\"And there the snake throws her enamell'd skin \/ Weed wide enough to wrap a fairy in.\"_\n\n\"That's it,\" she said, even as the class applauded. A couple of kids bowed deeply. They were only joking, but even Jeff was smiling. Ha! Nina thought. She'd engaged every student for at least thirty seconds. Log that!\n\nSaturday night, while Kerry was at work, Diana lay in bed listening to her brother and his friends playing EverWhen. Their deep voices rumbled through the wall as they compared weapons, traded for gold arrows, debated their next move. Tunnel underground? Or fly?\n\n\"Hey, Aidan.\" Diana banged the wall above her head.\n\nThen her brother told Jack and Liam to keep it down, and the noise died away, at least for a little while.\n\nShe had no idea how long she had been sleeping when she woke to voices in the hall. \"It's still early,\" Liam was protesting.\n\nJack said, \"It's the weekend!\"\n\n\"Gotta sleep,\" Aidan insisted.\n\nHis friends clattered down the stairs and barreled through the living room to find their boots. The front door slammed. The storm door snapped shut like a trap. Silence, and then a tapping from Aidan's room. Diana sat up and listened. What was he doing? Texting. Playing with someone else, now that his friends were gone. You aren't sleepy at all, she thought. You lied to them.\n\nHe would rather be alone. He would rather play online with strangers than qwest with friends in the same room. He'd rather live in EverWhen than in this house.\n\nShe knew her brother. He might lie to other people, but he couldn't fool her. He was just two minutes older. When they were little they'd played every game together. Hide and seek, tag, and chase. They'd joined forces against big kids who wouldn't let them onto the tire swing at Sennott Park. They had shared a bunk bed at their father's place when he was still allowed to see them. If their dad tried to punish Aidan they would drag that metal bed to barricade the door. They had always protected each other. The year before, when Kerry banned Liam from the house, Diana had lied for Aidan, vouching that his friend no longer came over. In middle school, when someone called Diana fat, Aidan would chase him.\n\nIt was true, although her mother never used that word, even to describe other people. Kerry said \"plump,\" which sounded like pillows, or \"heavy,\" which sounded like uranium down at the bottom of the periodic table. Her mother always said, Stand up straight, you're a beautiful girl. She said all this, but even Diana's arms were fat. She hid behind her long black hair and her mother said, Don't do that! Why do you do that? Kerry had read _Reviving Ophelia_ and she was afraid Diana would end up starving or cutting herself, or dying, like the original Ophelia, who drowned herself with wildflowers in her hair.\n\nWhy do you wear black clothes all the time? her mother asked in her sad, pleading voice. Because I'm in mourning, Diana said. Because I'm Wiccan. I'm practicing black magic. She never admitted the real reason, which was simply that she was trying to disappear. After all, people called her a whale\u2014not to her face, but still. She felt guilty, because she was almost as big around as Brynna, who was six months pregnant. Diana had no excuse, because she had nobody inside her.\n\nShe burrowed down in bed. Hibernated in a nest of blankets and limp pillows, along with her math homework and her Discovery Journal with Miss Lazare's elaborate question. _Thoreau writes: \"I went to the woods because I wished to live deliberately, to front only the essential facts of life, and see if I could not learn what it had to teach, and not, when I came to die, discover that I had not lived.\" What does he mean by this? Why do you go into the woods?_\n\nTo this, Diana replied, _We don't go into the woods very much because my mom is afraid of ticks. Also we do not live near the woods, obviously._\n\nBut that night she dreamed of trees. It was spring, and she was running through green leaves. Branches brushed Diana's shoulders as she floated down the street. She was racing, flying to the Charles River, but she didn't stop there. She took the dirt path along the water. She was warm and sweaty as she ran fast and faster. She ran past rowers with long oars, and joyriders in snarling motorboats. Running east, she overtook the sun. She ran with its heat at her back and flung her clothes onto the grass.\n\nShe woke with a jolt, heart pounding as she fell to earth. Sunday morning. No oars, no river. No piano lessons next door. Priscilla played organ at church services on Sundays. This was as quiet as it ever got. Aidan sleeping. Their mother home from work, rustling _The Boston Globe._\n\nIn plaid flannel pajama bottoms and a giant T-shirt, Diana padded down to the kitchen, where she ate cereal and chocolate milk and two peanut butter cookies. And then a banana, which was healthy.\n\nHer mother said, \"Do you think you should have cookies for breakfast?\"\n\nDiana said, \"It's more like brunch.\"\n\nThe kitchen was chilly because the windows were old and cost a fortune to replace. Kerry had already bought a new boiler and rebuilt the double porch and patched the roof. Even after the repairs, there were squirrels up in the attic. Diana's mother said that couldn't be, but Priscilla heard them with her keen musician's ears. She insisted, \"I hear them trapped inside,\" and Diana pictured rodents crazed with hunger, eating their own children.\n\nShe wished Priscilla would move out. Then they'd have the double house all to themselves. Two living rooms, and two kitchens. Six bedrooms on the second floor! All that space, and no more sonatinas and minuets and little fugues. It was a never-ending guilt trip, sharing a two-family with your old piano teacher.\n\nDiana was not musical, but everyone had been heartbroken when Aidan quit in seventh grade. Priscilla still looked at him wistfully. She would catch him on the porch and say, \"I wish that you'd start up again.\" If Diana was around she'd add, \"You too!\"\n\nAt which point Diana would tell Priscilla, \"I heard the squirrels last night.\"\n\n\"Could you start the laundry?\" Kerry asked now.\n\n\"Could I have some money?\" Diana replied.\n\n\"How much?\"\n\n\"A hundred twenty dollars.\"\n\n\"Why? What do you need that for?\"\n\nDiana went to the front door and picked up her old silver Nikes.\n\n\"Didn't we just buy you shoes?\"\n\n\"Look.\" The uppers were splayed open, the rubber heels warped, the laces frayed and broken.\n\n\"What did you do to them?\" Kerry gazed at Diana's feet, afraid that they were widening with the rest of her. \"Let's go shopping this afternoon.\"\n\n\"Maybe.\" Diana didn't want to hurt her mother's feelings and say she'd already made plans.\n\nWhen her mother went upstairs to sleep, Diana dragged her laundry bag along with her mother's down to the basement. Two heavy sacks thumping down the stairs. She didn't collect Aidan's. He didn't need clothes, since he lived in EverWhen.\n\nShe was afraid of the dank smell and creepy toys. A sophomore at school had been raped in her own basement. A whole gang of boys\u2014guys the girl knew\u2014got in and forced her down. Fast as she could, Diana loaded the washing machine and ran upstairs. Breathing hard, she shut the door behind her.\n\nA heavy step in the living room. She whirled around and saw Brynna. \"How did you get in here?\"\n\n\"I'm doing well,\" said Brynna. \"How are you?\"\n\n\"Seriously, wasn't the door locked?\"\n\n\"No.\" Brynna squeezed herself into a kitchen chair. Pregnancy was good for her skin. Her forehead had cleared up completely. Her green eyes were beautiful to begin with, and she wore her wavy brown hair down over her shoulders, so she looked huge, but gorgeous too.\n\n\"I was having brunch,\" Diana said. \"Care to join me?\"\n\n\"No,\" Brynna said. \"I'm eating right.\"\n\n\"Good for you.\"\n\nBrynna sat on Diana's bed while she got dressed. Diana pulled an all-black sweater over her head, and when she emerged, Brynna was holding her journal.\n\n\"Hey, give that back.\"\n\nBrynna leafed through Diana's black composition notebook. _One single word to describe myself would be conspicuous. People in the halls are always trying to get around me. If I actually look back at them that's considered rude, like how dare you block my view? Last year I..._\n\n\"I said give it back.\" Diana snatched the book from Brynna's hands.\n\n\"Okay!\" Brynna said. \"Sorry! It's not like I was spying on you!\"\n\n\u2014\n\nThey took the bus through the slush to the CambridgeSide Galleria on the river at the edge of town. The Galleria would give anyone a headache, but it had a lot of stores.\n\n\"What are you going to name her?\" Diana asked, as they braved the shiny walkways, all glitter and glass and sleigh bells ringing.\n\n\"I like 'Tasha,' \" Brynna said.\n\n\"Tasha? Is that a name?\"\n\n\"Yes, it's a name.\"\n\n\"Maybe for a cat.\" Diana paused in front of Godiva to look at the truffles in the window. \" _Godiva_ is a good name.\"\n\n\" _What?_ My child is not a candy company!\"\n\n\"Does Anton get a vote?\"\n\nAnton was the baby's father, and Brynna didn't even answer that.\n\nThey fingered dresses at Motherhood Maternity, but they were so ridiculously expensive that Brynna didn't try on a single one. At Sears, they walked past the baby gear in the infant and toddler department. There were cribs and baby swings and play centers and mobiles with themes like rainbow pandas, or tropical islands. Everything was puffy, soft, and new. Brynna was curious, and at the same time afraid to look.\n\n\"Do you want to get something?\" Diana asked.\n\n\"No!\"\n\n\"Why not?\"\n\n\"Because!\"\n\n\"Okay, let's go home.\"\n\n\"Shoes,\" Brynna reminded her.\n\n\"Later.\"\n\n\"Just get it over with.\" Brynna steered her toward Lady Foot Locker.\n\n\"Don't make me go in there.\"\n\n\"Come on. You said you wanted shoes.\" It was ironic that Brynna was the pregnant one, because she was so responsible. Maybe it wasn't ironic. Brynna was already such a mom.\n\nBrynna scanned the walls of shoes arrayed for walking, running, cross-training. Diana sat on the polished blond-wood bench. \"What about these?\" Brynna held up a pair of Sauconys.\n\n\"They have green on them,\" Diana said.\n\n\"One little stripe!\"\n\n\"I don't wear green.\"\n\n\"How about these?\" Brynna held up a pair of silver Nikes.\n\nDiana shook her head.\n\n\"These are the same shoes you have on,\" Brynna said. \"Look. They're exactly the same, except they're not falling apart.\"\n\n\"No, I don't think so.\"\n\n\"You're not even going to buy an exact replica of the shoes you have?\"\n\nDiana looked down at her feet. \"I hate it here. Let's go.\"\n\nShe was almost out the door when a sales associate in a referee uniform flagged her down, asking to help. He was dark black, African, and the name on his badge was Joseph. He had an accent and a nervous look. It was probably his second day. He wanted to know what kind of shoe Diana was looking for and what sport she played.\n\n\"She doesn't play sports,\" Brynna said.\n\nJoseph didn't give up. \"A shoe for exercise?\"\n\n\"She doesn't\u2014\"\n\n\"I do exercise,\" Diana said.\n\nIncredulous, Brynna asked, \"Since when?\"\n\nThe question upset Diana. \"I _could_ exercise. I might.\"\n\nBrynna snorted.\n\n\"Cross-trainers?\" Joseph suggested.\n\n\"Something black. Something like this.\" She pointed to a black shoe on the wall.\n\n\"This one is for running,\" Joseph said.\n\n\u2014\n\nThat night in her room, Diana opened the cardboard box from Lady Foot Locker and took out a pair of pure black running shoes. Black uppers, black heels, black soles, black laces.\n\nOne shoe in each hand, she tapped the wall. She loved the new-shoe smell, clean leather and fresh rubber.\n\n\"Stop,\" Aidan said, after a few seconds.\n\nShe kept drumming her new shoes at the spot she hoped was just above his computer monitor.\n\n\"Stop or I'll kill you.\"\n\n\"He speaks,\" Diana said. \"Hey, Aidan. I got new shoes.\"\n\nNo answer.\n\nWhen she laced the shoes and walked around her room, she bounced. The floor felt like those giant inflatable birthday party castles. She jumped, and jumped again. Her dresser rattled when she landed. She could hear Aidan shuffling around, her fellow cell mate, self-incarcerated in his room. \"I'm going to do something,\" she told him. \"Do you dare me?\"\n\nNo answer.\n\n\"You dare me,\" she answered for him, but that sounded pathetic. \"Okay, I dare myself.\" That sounded even worse, like she was trying to be inspirational. Even when she was little she had hated anything inspirational, like books where kids saved the day or movies involving wildlife and parents getting back together and slow-motion horse races at the end. She sat on her bed and looked down at her feet in the new shoes. Who are you kidding? she thought. She embarrassed herself, even when she was alone.\n\nLong ago, when she was six and seven, she had swung bar by bar across the climbing structure. As a small girl, she'd gone to GAB, Gymnastics Academy of Boston, which was the only day camp open in the very last weeks of August. At the gym near Fresh Pond, she had practiced pikes and flips on the giant trampoline, hurled herself with all her force up and over the vault. She had been a little gymnast and Aidan had been a swimmer, and they had been a matched pair, wiry and strong. Then at about twelve, he grew tall, and she grew round. The weight came on in cookies and gumdrops, and late-night snacks. Aidan ate too, but it didn't show on him. He was over six feet and growing; she was done at five feet four. He paced the house, while Diana hunkered down. He refueled standing at the kitchen counter, while she curled up with goldfish crackers on the couch. He started killing monsters, and she built up her defenses, practiced her self-doubt.\n\nShe was not a small girl anymore, nor was she fast, nor was she flexible. She could barely remember hurtling over anything. For a while now, her tiny pediatrician had been talking about exercise and healthy nutrition. Diana was thirty pounds overweight.\n\nSometimes she felt doomed. Other times she felt as though she were carrying somebody's lost luggage. When would the real owner come to claim it? She felt disgust, resignation, surprise, but no sense of recognition. She avoided herself. Stayed away from scales, mirrors, bright lights, shorts, and bathing suits.\n\nKerry could talk all she wanted about standing up straight and being beautiful; she could say it a thousand times. Words could not change anything. \"You're a beautiful girl\" was like saying God is good. You didn't say these things because they were true, you said them because you hoped the universe would take pity on you.\n\nDiana pounded once more on the wall.\n\n\"What?\" Aidan shouted.\n\nThis time she didn't answer.\n\n\"What?\" he called again.\n\nWhen she spoke, she wasn't even talking to him anymore. Thumping down the stairs, she berated herself. \"Go. Go. Go. I'm tired of waiting for you.\"\n\nNear the front door at the bottom of the stairs, she found her broken Nikes, and picked them up by the laces. Outside she flung them in the garbage can and shut the lid.\n\n\"Where are you going?\" her mother called out from the couch.\n\n\"Nowhere,\" Diana said.\n\nThe night was mild, the snowbanks melting, no longer white, but newsprint gray, the sidewalks cracked, but clear of ice. Diana walked down Antrim Street to Broadway, and she took deep breaths, swinging her arms, speed-walking like the old ladies in the mall. They were probably in better shape than she was. Diana was already hungry after five minutes in the fresh air. At the corner of Prospect Street, she nearly stepped into Tedeschi's market for a bag of chips. The only thing stopping her was Aidan's friend Jack, walking out with two gallons of milk.\n\nHe wore glasses, but he had a way of squinting to look at you. He had been the small one. Tiny! Now he was all legs and bony shoulders, incredibly long arms. \"Diana.\" He couldn't wave, because he had a gallon weighing down each arm. \"What are you doing here?\"\n\n\"Nothing.\" She hated how he examined her.\n\nSince they had known each other since preschool, he thought he had a right to trail after her. He followed her to the traffic light. \"We ran out of milk.\"\n\n\"Yeah. I see that.\" He was heading home to Norfolk Street, where he lived in the Chocolate Factory apartments, so called because yes, the building had been a chocolate factory. She said, \"Okay, I cross here.\"\n\nHe knew she lived in the opposite direction. \"Why are you...?\"\n\nShe didn't wait for the light. She dodged cars, crossing Broadway to Sennott Park. Then she checked that he was gone. She didn't want anyone to see her, so she hid behind a tree to touch her toes.\n\nShe didn't know the real stretches, the kind they did on teams at school. She didn't know the right way or the fast way, so she just started walking the perimeter of the field. There was no moon; she saw no stars. She wasn't quick enough to pass anything moving, only houses and little stores, and the great silent trees. Her legs were heavy under her, and her sides ached. Breathing hard, she began to run.\n\nNow Nina came to Grendel's just to see him. She stacked her students' Discovery Journals on the table and looked up at Collin as he brushed past. He was always hovering near her, or scribbling little notes. His friends thought the situation was hilarious. Not just that Nina was a teacher, but that she'd turned him into such a courtier.\n\nAt closing time, Collin and Kayte cleaned up, while Nina waited at the bar.\n\n\"You're anomalous,\" Samantha told her.\n\n\"Don't listen to her,\" Collin said as he wiped tables.\n\n\"You aren't a teetotaler, are you?\" Sam asked Nina.\n\n\"No.\"\n\n\"Because you never even order beer.\"\n\n\"I drink other things.\"\n\n\"Like what?\"\n\nNina hesitated.\n\n\"Collin!\" Sam cried out as if to say, I can't believe her.\n\nHe threw his wet rag and Sam ducked behind the bar.\n\n\"Drink me! Drink me!\" Sam poured Nina a drop of cr\u00e8me de menthe. Nina shivered, tasting Sam's strange medicine. She really did look like Alice falling down the rabbit hole. Curiouser and curiouser. Collin had to kiss her.\n\n\u2014\n\nShe went with Collin to Charlie's Kitchen, the almost-all-night diner in the Square. They sat together in a red vinyl booth, and he told her of his days performing plays about nutrition at the Children's Museum, where Darius had worn a full tomato suit.\n\n\"Full tomato? Is that like full metal jacket? What were you?\"\n\n\"A loaf of bread.\"\n\nShe laughed.\n\n\"What?\"\n\n\"I'm trying to picture that,\" Nina said.\n\nThey discovered that they were both turning twenty-four in January. Their birthdays were just a week apart, and they had been born in the same hospital, Beth Israel Deaconess. Strange that they had never met.\n\nShe had attended Cambridge-Ellis as a toddler, while he'd spent his days at Aisha's Family Daycare. No chance of meeting there. Ice cream? She had walked to Lizzy's. He'd worked at Christina's. Pizza? She went to The Village Kitchen. He went to Angelo's. Summers she'd interned at CIRCLE, the Center for Information and Research on Civic Learning & Engagement at Tufts. He had taught swimming at the Y. They had grown up two miles apart, but it was as if they came from different cities. He said it was funny. She said, \"I'm not so sure.\"\n\nHe caught the guilty note. \"That's a West Cambridge thing to say.\"\n\nHe told her about the triple-deckers of Antrim Street. The back porches where you could hang in summers. He told her his old girlfriend had worked as a nanny for a baby named Moses. Noelle would lull Mo to sleep inside and then she and Collin would sit out on the porch and smoke weed until all the trees and green leaves shimmered. He told Nina this, but he downplayed the smoking part. He focused on the trees.\n\n\"They're huge,\" he said. \"And people worship them. There was an elm that died and my mom's friend Lois had a funeral before the city took it down.\"\n\n\"What's that like?\" Nina asked. \"A funeral for a tree?\"\n\n\"Pretty straightforward. Everybody gathered and Lois said a eulogy.\"\n\nHe described his mother's garden, tiny but so well planted that you couldn't set foot in it without stepping on a flower. There were pale-green hydrangeas, and purple irises, soft lamb's ears, creeping strawberry vines. \"You'll see,\" he told her. \"If this winter ever ends.\"\n\nNina's stepmother had a garden too. Helen had terraced lawns, and a swimming pool edged with bluestone, and a clay tennis court, but Nina didn't say all that at once. She started with the roses, and the moss on the stone walls.\n\nEach night they stayed out later. They walked to Broadway Bicycle after the shop had closed. Bike seats hung like hunting trophies, the size and shape of deer skulls on the wall. Behind the register, Nina saw hundreds of plastic drawers labeled like body parts: SPIKES, NUTS, SHINS, FANGS.\n\nHe took her to Christina's, where he had chocolate-orange and she had gingersnap ice cream. There were no open seats, so they walked up Cambridge Street with their cones past Boutique Fabulous. When they came upon Rosie's Bakery, Collin said, \"My father used to take me here before he joined the navy.\"\n\n\"That must have been hard,\" Nina said.\n\n\"What do you mean?\"\n\n\"Missing each other?\"\n\n\"They can't get you for child support if you enlist.\"\n\nThey walked down Fayette to the new coffee shop called Dwelltime. \"I liked the boyfriends better,\" Collin said, and he described Maia's main ex-boyfriends: the poet, Greg, who wrote obituaries until he got laid off from _The Boston Globe._ Tony, the chiropractor, who taught Collin how to drive. Best of all was Chris, the guy who'd lived with them until Collin was twelve. \"He gave me this,\" Collin said, showing off an old-fashioned watch with a worn leather band. Chris didn't really work, but he would take Maia and Collin to his parents' farm in Western Mass. They'd drive out in the fall to pick apples and press their own cider. All the ground was covered with peaches, plums, and pears, the fruit ripening, splitting open in the sun, fermenting, so the whole orchard smelled like wine.\n\nThey sipped their coffee and she told him about her stepmother. \"She's taller than my father,\" Nina said. \"She's tall and jealous.\"\n\n\"Without reason?\"\n\n\"No, she has reason.\"\n\nShe told Collin how Viktor traveled, and how she had waited up for him. She described his parties and his renovations, his fights with Peter, his younger brother and business partner.\n\n\"What do they fight about?\" Collin asked.\n\n\"Design, schedule, money,\" Nina said. \"But my father always wins.\"\n\n\"Why?\"\n\n\"Because he's the commercial one.\"\n\nShe told Collin of Viktor's dazzling inventions and the lawsuits afterward. His platforms MORPH and OVID (ocular-virtual integration device). Ideas like comets with long tails. Viktor had invented new ways to use aeroflakes, tiny sensor-receptors that filtered light to construct interactive, immersive fantasies. Aeroflakes drew power wirelessly through walls.\n\n\"I want to see that!\"\n\n\"You will,\" she told him. \"Everybody will.\"\n\nAt work, Viktor was charismatic and aggressive, at home, affectionate and preoccupied, by turns jovial, baffling, furious. Once she had seen her father fly into a rage and smash a table lamp. Another time she'd found him, early in the morning, kissing her au pair. Then Nina ran away to hide. She was the guilty one, terrified he'd punish her.\n\nWhen Nina told Collin this, he saw her all alone and small, and he wondered what else she'd seen with her gray eyes.\n\nThey saw each other almost every night, but she never let him walk her home. Did she think it was too soon? It didn't seem too soon to him. She was so soft, her mouth so sweet. They talked for hours, but she held back. He knew she wasn't teasing; she was a serious person. She didn't take relationships lightly, and that was fine\u2014except he wasn't used to it. He loved the rush, the free fall into intimacy. You had your whole life for conversation afterward.\n\nOne night he pulled her close and closer, swept her hair back from her face, and kissed her neck. Serious as you want, he promised silently. Anything you want. \"Let me take you home.\"\n\n\"No, that's okay.\"\n\n\"Don't walk by yourself.\"\n\nShe stood there in her white down jacket. \"I'm not afraid.\"\n\n\"Yes, you are,\" he said. \"You're afraid of me.\"\n\nShe didn't answer.\n\n\"What's wrong? Are you ashamed of where you live?\"\n\n\"A little bit,\" she confessed.\n\n\"Do you live in some big mansion too expensive for a teacher?\"\n\n\"No, just an apartment.\"\n\n\"Where?\"\n\n\"Mem Drive.\"\n\nShe lived in one of those buildings on the river. He had always wondered who lived there. \"Show me.\"\n\n\"It's not mine,\" she told him as they began walking. \"My father owns it.\"\n\n\"Okay.\" He was not surprised.\n\nShe looked at Collin earnestly. \"Do you know Arkadia's symbol?\"\n\n\"An ouroboros.\"\n\n\"Right. The dragon eating its own tail.\"\n\n\"And that's your father?\"\n\n\"That's my family.\"\n\n\"Lots of families eat their own tails,\" Collin reassured her, but even as he spoke, he realized that she was warning him. Hers was cruel.\n\nShe told Collin about how her father married Helen at the Cape. Nina was six and wore green silk, and she cried during pictures on the pier. She'd trailed her hand on the weathered railing and a splinter had pierced her palm.\n\nThe weather had been perfect, water glassy in the cove called Pleasant Bay. Barely a breeze ruffled the long sea grass, but Nina's tears ruined the photos and annoyed Helen. Nina's uncle Peter took tweezers and worked the splinter out. \"You hate her, don't you?\" Nina's uncle said. He was like a magician, drawing the idea out of her. As soon as he said the words, Nina knew that they were true.\n\nShe was walking slowly now. Collin waited, but for a long moment she didn't speak.\n\nThey were standing in front of Nina's redbrick building, with its bay windows, its faux balconies of fanciful wrought iron.\n\nShe said of her family, \"I love them. Unfortunately.\"\n\nHe slipped his hands into her coat pockets and felt the rounded corners of her phone, her jingling pocket change. He ran his thumb over the rough edges of her keys. \"Why unfortunately?\"\n\n\"I don't believe in them.\"\n\n\"What does that mean? You don't trust them?\"\n\n\"I don't trust them\u2014but I can't get away from them.\"\n\n\"Have you ever tried?\"\n\n\"I'm trying now.\"\n\n\"How? Standing in the cold with me?\"\n\nHe was impudent and funny, more straightforward than other guys she had known. He spoke without embarrassment about his talents and his difficulties. He loved performing, but he hated computer programming. He drew well but he had dyslexia and didn't like to read. He said that, but he read Nina. He listened intently, and he watched her face. Stories of her family didn't scare him. He kept his eyes on her. It was a simple thing, but it was rare. He really looked at her. \"Are you freezing?\" she asked.\n\n\"My hands are warm.\"\n\nShe felt his hands through the lining of her coat. She felt his warmth and she wanted to kiss him, but he must have known before she did, because he was already kissing her, his mouth softly on her mouth. He hadn't shaved, and his rough cheek scratched her face.\n\nWhen she tried to make sense of what was happening, she got scared. She'd known him for only two weeks. He had no career. He wasn't even a student. Once or twice she wondered what he might want from her, and then she felt dishonorable thinking that way. She had never known anyone so uncalculating.\n\nPlease, his body begged.\n\n\"Wait.\"\n\n\"What's wrong?\"\n\n\"Nothing.\"\n\n\"Should I go?\"\n\n\"No.\"\n\nHe murmured in her ear, \"It doesn't matter who your father is or where you live.\"\n\nShe pulled back, just enough to breathe. \"That's not been my experience.\"\n\n\"Try me.\" His hands closed inside her pockets.\n\n\"You have my keys,\" she said.\n\n\u2014\n\nFrom outside, the apartments looked like jewel boxes with their gilt-framed mirrors and carved furniture, their book-lined rooms. Inside, the lobby was dusty and old-fashioned. Chipped plasterwork and scuffed white marble stairs, a squeaky elevator trimmed with brass. The halls were hushed as libraries. Collin pictured old professors tucked away in bed. He smelled wood polish, noticed the umbrella stand inside Nina's door. Who had an umbrella stand?\n\nHer upholstered furniture, her kitchen big enough for chairs, her view, the shining river at her feet. All in an instant, she saw him take it in. Silently she dared him to speak.\n\nHe said nothing. He turned toward her instead, his expression rapt, his dark eyes bright. Even so, he waited. Though they stood just a few feet apart, the distance and the silence seemed dangerous to cross. \"I'll hang up your...\" she began, but the coat closet was too far away. When he pulled her in, she let his jacket fall.\n\nAs they unwound scarves, unlaced boots, she didn't offer him a drink or something to eat. Undressing, they tasted nothing but each other. They lay down on the couch and then on the carpet. And then they were so warm that they forgot the time, the view, the world outside. They forgot that it was winter.\n\nNina still assigned too much homework and popped too many quizzes. She was just as serious in January as she'd been in September\u2014and yet she had changed. She was more relaxed, sitting on her desk or leaning back against the board. Less fearful, less self-conscious, she smiled as she brushed chalk dust from her clothes.\n\nAs soon as he walked into her classroom, Jeff noticed her new confidence. Just as he'd predicted, after weathering the first three months, Nina had returned from winter break with fresh purpose. She struggled, but she wasn't nearly so bewildered. At last she understood what she could cover in one period, and arrived at class with two or three main questions instead of an entire lecture.\n\n\"Sevonna,\" Nina said. \"Sevonna. Cierra...\" Nina walked over to the pencil sharpener, where the girls were whispering, and escorted them to their seats. \"We were talking about the way Puritans policed one another. Xavier?\"\n\n\"Courts.\"\n\n\"Peer pressure,\" said Rakim.\n\n8:20 good intervention \/ continuity with scarlet letter...Jeff typed into his computer log.\n\n\"In those days a lot of morality came from peer pressure,\" Rakim said.\n\n\"Say more!\"\n\n\"Like the stocks,\" Xavier said. \"When you were publicly humiliated.\"\n\n\"But did it work?\" Nina asked.\n\n8:25 avoid jumping in too fast\n\n\"Obviously it didn't work for Hester Prynne,\" said Diana, \"because...\"\n\n\"Because what?\"\n\nJeff surveyed the class. Only two heads down. Open books on half the desks. One hand raised. Nina waited for Diana, even as she shook her head slightly at Rakim, who was leaning back in his chair again. He landed with a thud, but only a few people laughed.\n\n\"Because she had sex anyway, so the peer pressure wasn't working on her,\" said Diana.\n\n\"Exactly.\" Nina tried not to look at Brynna, who was examining her own long hair, holding up strands as she looked for split ends. Probably lots of pregnant high school girls studied _The Scarlet Letter,_ but Brynna was Nina's first, and she couldn't help worrying about what a sixteen-year-old in her third trimester might make of this.\n\n\"It's so ironic,\" Xavier said, without raising his hand, \"that usually peer pressure is for bad things, but in this book it's all about morality.\"\n\nNina smiled.\n\nWas she really smiling at Xavier? The eleventh graders shuffled in their seats. Oh, my God, Xavier was such a player. The word _ironic_ was like crack to Miss Lazare.\n\ngood pause, Jeff typed. He assumed Nina was counting silently to ten, as he had suggested at their last meeting, to allow her students more time to answer.\n\nShe was not counting to ten, or any other number. She felt delicious, strangely alert, then suddenly sleepy. She and Collin had been together three weeks.\n\nAs soon as the bell rang, she rushed off with the students. Jeff tried to catch her with his notes, but she slipped into the windowless, overheated photocopy room and hid behind the supply shelves stacked with paper and toner cartridges. There were several old wooden chairs behind the shelves, and she sat there for five minutes, just to close her eyes. She had to think, she had to dream, but the bell was ringing again. How did it ring so loud? So fast?\n\nAt lunchtime, she escaped to the basement, threading her way through tiled corridors, past the cafeteria smelling of disinfectant and steamed broccoli, to an abandoned resource room filled with giant therapy balls. As she leaned against the biggest, the ball deflated slightly, cushioning her body and her sleepy head. There she could rest and feel his hands. Remember him kissing her bare shoulders, burying himself inside her, breath quickening, fingers knit into hers.\n\nShe had been in love before. Away at school there had been a boy named Emmett, a runner with long dirty-blond hair, always in his eyes. She would sneak out early before class to find him coming back from morning practice and they would walk together through the Hill School's misty playing fields, to lie down in the wet grass. She had ruined a coat that way, spreading it like a blanket over sticks and stones. Emmett was already warm in his running shirt and shorts; he was wet anyway, his body sleek with sweat. Nina was the one who got suspicious looks at breakfast. Leaves caught in her long hair. She had to carry her black coat to math.\n\nIn college she had loved a scruffy literary guy named Jonah who concentrated in philosophy and wrote for the _Lampoon._ Theirs was almost a shipboard relationship; they had lived in such close quarters, studying and sleeping in his narrow bed in Adams House, editing each other's papers, reading poetry.\n\nJonah had curly hair and wore faded cords and raggedy old sweaters. He had theories about religion and politics and the frayed dynamic between love and friendship. He was interested in transcendental meditation and tech design and stand-up comedy. He wanted to be rich, but, like a juggler tossing knife, tennis ball, and frying pan, he debated management consulting, Hollywood, and graduate school. He never tired of perseverating about his future, or pondering the world. He'd hurt Nina when he began tweeting bits of news she'd told him about Viktor and OVID.\n\nCollin came as a relief. He didn't ask about her father, nor did he talk about the future. He brought takeout to her apartment and he spent the night and they laughed about her students. After bad days he comforted her.\n\n\"I could not get them to listen,\" she said.\n\n\"Buy a police whistle,\" he suggested. \"Bring free food.\"\n\nShe leaned against him on the couch. \"My students deserve a better teacher.\"\n\n\"Do something else, then. You could do so many other things.\"\n\n\"But this is what I want to do.\"\n\n\"Why?\"\n\n\"I want to give back.\"\n\nHe looked at her and said in all seriousness, \"Why? What did you take?\"\n\nShe shook her head. He knew that she was rich, but didn't see the rest of it. Her father produced mind-blowing, immersive entertainment. She wanted to separate herself from that. She dreamed of enchanting kids with words instead of optics.\n\n\"There are lots of other ways to give back,\" Collin pointed out. \"Homeless people, clean water, the environment.\"\n\nShe was almost too shy to look at him. \"I want to teach because that's the real magic.\"\n\nHe nodded, because, of course he'd heard this language before. He'd grown up with his mother's golden apples, her #1 TEACHER paperweights. \"Transforming lives.\"\n\n\"I want to give at least a little bit of what my teachers gave to me\u2014but my kids don't even listen.\"\n\n\"I guess you have to be patient.\"\n\nShe tucked her legs under her and considered him. If he'd been patient he would have stayed in college. \"Why did you quit?\"\n\nHe thought of his mother, always hoping he would learn marketable skills. \"I hate Web design.\"\n\n\"But you could do studio art.\"\n\n\"Nah.\"\n\n\"Why not?\n\n\"I'm not conceptual.\"\n\n\"What does that mean?\"\n\n\"I'm not big-picture. My art's not deep.\"\n\n\"You're just being modest!\" She was thinking of the tiny line drawing he'd given her in Grendel's.\n\n\"No, seriously. I have nothing to say. I like to draw. That's all.\"\n\n\"What?\" She had never heard anyone admit to such a thing. Jonah had been all ideas; he'd never stopped talking. \"That can't be true.\"\n\nCollin teased, \"You think I'm tragic!\"\n\nGuilty again. \"No, that's not what I meant!\"\n\n\"I don't need ideas,\" Collin declared. \"I don't need theories in my life.\"\n\n\"What do you need, then?\" she asked, partly curious, partly fishing.\n\nWas he supposed to say you? All I need is you? He answered, \"Just a box of chalk.\"\n\n\"You're funny.\"\n\n\"I'm serious,\" he said, as he caressed her hand.\n\n\u2014\n\nThe world was brighter now, and strange. She saw rabbit prints on the clean snow, and trees of diamonds glittering. When the last bell rang, kids flooded the staircases, and she could lose herself in the crowd, forgetting books and lessons as her students surged around her. Thrilled to leave, she was becoming just like them.\n\nShe took Collin to Burdick's in the Square. He had never had such dark hot chocolate. She took him to Upstairs on the Square just two flights up, but a world away from Grendel's. The dining room all pink and gold, with marble-topped tables and gilt fireplaces.\n\nEvery object in her apartment had a history. Her furniture came from the 1950s. The atomic clock on the kitchen wall came from Finland. She had a Narnia chess set\u2014Aslan and his fauns carved of ebony, arrayed against the White Queen and her henchmen cut in alabaster. When Nina was ten, her father had promised her the set if she could beat him, and then relented when she fought him to a draw.\n\nOn her bookcase she kept a framed drawing of her father, a pen-and-ink caricature by Al Hirschfeld, an artist Collin didn't know. Collin studied her father's cartoon face, his dark eyes, his curly hair, his exaggerated nose. She told him, \"If you look here, you can find my name.\"\n\nSure enough, Hirschfeld had hidden the name _Nina_ in Viktor's bushy brow.\n\nIn the moment, none of this seemed strange. She had beautiful things, but she piled her dishes in the sink like everybody else. When they were together he felt at home. White kitchen, river view, clean sheets. Then he got back to his own place, and he felt like a hobbit living underground. He stood in disbelief on his own threshold, taking in the mousetraps in the kitchen and the dank, shared bathroom. Reentry required several beers. He would sit on Darius's salvaged couch and he would blast Bent Shapes, and draw until he collapsed into his unmade bed.\n\nNever in his life had he devoted so much time to anyone; he barely saw his friends; he abandoned his old haunts\u2014but his behavior didn't seem unusual to Nina. Always, in her quiet way, she wanted more. When she couldn't reach him, she texted, IMY.\n\nAlarmed, he typed, Dont do that!\n\nThe next time they saw each other she asked, \"What's wrong with saying I miss you? It's just a fact.\"\n\nBut it wasn't a fact for him. It was a demand. He read IMY as \"I want more of you.\" He told her, \"This is all the time I have.\"\n\n\"I understand,\" she said, but she didn't, really.\n\n\"I can't be with you every minute of the day,\" he told her.\n\nShe shot back, \"I know! I never asked you to.\"\n\nShe got skittish. She needed reassurance\u2014not just words but hours, entire afternoons. Day to day they held each other in suspense. He had to back off and breathe. She wanted to know him better, to unfold their friendship like a map. What else could he give her? Sometimes the question scared him. Sometimes the answer came easily. He would give himself.\n\nOn a slushy day in late January he met her after school and said, \"I want to show you something.\"\n\nIt was drizzly cold as he hurried her up Cambridge Street, past the fabric store, and the senior center, the Portuguese savings and loan. They dashed across Hampshire in the rain. The trees and bus shelters were dripping. Even the birds hunched up, wet and miserable, on telephone wires.\n\n\"Where are we going?\" Nina asked.\n\n\"You'll see.\"\n\n\"Your apartment?\"\n\n\"That needs fumigating first.\"\n\n\"You always say that.\"\n\n\"Because it's always true.\"\n\n\"I still want to see it.\"\n\n\"No,\" he told her. \"It's embarrassing. Emma labels all her food with skull and crossbones, and Darius forgets to flush.\"\n\n\"I wouldn't mind.\"\n\nThat angered him. Of course she didn't mind. She didn't live there. \"It's a pit.\"\n\n\"But it's yours.\"\n\n\"Exactly,\" he exploded. \"It's _my_ pit of an apartment, and I promise you won't like it there.\"\n\nShe said, \"But it doesn't matter what\u2014\"\n\nHe cut her off. \"Don't tell me it doesn't matter and you wouldn't mind. Don't be so fucking condescending.\"\n\nHe had never spoken so harshly to her. Maybe nobody had spoken to her that way before. He watched her turn and walk away toward Kendall Square.\n\nShe provoked him with her eagerness, her gentleness, her noblesse oblige. After all, what was she doing, spending time with him? He had nothing, he'd done nothing; and when Nina said she didn't mind, she acknowledged it was true.\n\nHe watched her figure receding, and he was furious with her and with himself. He'd been planning to surprise her.\n\n\"Nina, wait.\"\n\nShe didn't turn.\n\n\"Don't go,\" he called out, as he sprinted down the street, splashing through slush puddles. His shoes were soaked when he finally caught up to her.\n\nShe spun around to face him. \"I was telling the truth,\" she said. \"I wouldn't mind. And didn't you say the same thing to me about my apartment? It didn't matter where I live?\" She had been continuing the argument in her head.\n\nBreathing hard, he took her hands in his. \"Let me take you somewhere.\"\n\nShe shook her head.\n\n\"I didn't mean to hurt you.\"\n\n\"Yes, you did.\"\n\n\"I'm an idiot.\"\n\nShe didn't contradict him.\n\n\"Let me start over. There's something I have to show you.\"\n\nIt was as if they'd never quarreled; his mood changed that fast. She was the one who lagged behind. His anger flared and burned out fast; hers smoldered.\n\nHe said, \"I'll take you to my place when Darius and Emma are away in Maine.\"\n\n\"No, that's okay.\"\n\n\"I'll wash everything down.\"\n\nSilence.\n\nHe almost coaxed a smile when he said, \"I'll cook.\"\n\nThey retraced their steps to Antrim Street, and he led her to a dark-green triple-decker, three Victorian apartments stacked one atop the other with three porches.\n\nNina turned to him in surprise. \"Did you tell her that...Shouldn't you call to warn her first?\"\n\n\"Why would I warn my own mother?\"\n\nShe hung back. \"What if it's a bad time?\"\n\n\"Sh.\" He ushered her into the entrance hall and knocked on Maia's door. \"There's no bad time.\"\n\n\"Hey,\" a voice called out. \"Come in.\"\n\nThey slipped off their wet coats and shoes and walked into a half-painted living room with all the furniture piled in the center of the floor. \"Who is it?\"\n\nCollin called back, \"Me.\"\n\n\"Hello, you,\" Maia said, as Collin led Nina into the kitchen.\n\n\"This is Nina.\"\n\nNina felt flustered, entirely unready. It was just like Collin to spring this on her. Even so, she gazed in fascination as Maia took her hands. Collin's mother was tall, and muscular, a dancer wearing plaid pajamas. She had close-cropped hair, showing off her small ears, her beautifully shaped head. Her almond eyes were dark, and she had a birthmark in one, a sepia ink blot in the white. Nina saw the mark, and immediately forgot it, as everybody did.\n\nMaia ushered Nina in with such warmth that Collin shook his head in silent warning.\n\n\"She's so pretty,\" Maia whispered when he followed her to the hall closet with the coats.\n\nHe shot her a look. \"Don't screw up.\"\n\n\"That's just what I was going to say to you.\"\n\nIn the kitchen Maia poured them each a glass of wine.\n\nCollin asked his mother, \"What are you doing with the living room?\"\n\n\"You don't like the green?\"\n\n\"I think it looks like mushy guacamole.\"\n\n\"Okay, thank you, sweetheart.\" Maia turned to Nina. \"I'm not listening to him. Peanut brittle? Caramel corn? Fruit cake?\" She covered the kitchen table with Christmas gifts parents had brought her. \"Try this.\" She sliced homemade fruit cake, dark-spiced and walnut-studded, jeweled with candied cherries, carbuncled with pineapple.\n\n\"Wow,\" said Nina. \"I got candy canes.\"\n\nMaia waved her hand over her cards and deluxe candy apples, her mugs filled with gift certificates, and she told Nina, \"Someday all this will be yours.\"\n\nNina looked doubtful, and Maia laughed.\n\n\"Tell her your secrets,\" Collin said.\n\n\"I don't have secrets.\"\n\n\"You know what I mean. Secrets of teaching.\"\n\n\"Well, the first ten years are the hardest,\" Maia told Nina.\n\n\"Come on, Mom.\"\n\n\"It's humbling. I'm not gonna lie.\"\n\n\"Give her something she can use.\"\n\n\"Hmmm.\" Maia took a long sip and set her wineglass down. \"There is such a thing as reincarnation. If you teach long enough, the same kids keep coming back again.\"\n\nNina said, \"In different forms?\"\n\n\"Yeah, but they're recognizable\u2014like, Oh, _yes._ I remember you. The ones who can't keep still. The ones who don't listen. The ones who fall in love with you.\"\n\n\"That's not advice,\" Collin pointed out.\n\n\"Advice.\" Maia pondered. \"Be funny.\"\n\n\"I'm not,\" said Nina.\n\n\"Be desperate.\"\n\n\"Okay, I'm good at that.\"\n\n\"See, you are funny,\" Maia said. \"Be surprising. For example, I came in one weekend and painted my classroom purple. It's good to blow their minds.\"\n\n\"She likes paint,\" Collin said.\n\n\"Yeah. If you're wondering where he gets the art from, it's from me.\"\n\nMaia pulled down Collin's paintings from the refrigerator, his splotchy grade-school pictures of the river. She spread his drawings of ducks across the kitchen table. \"The early years. See how he did the webbed feet?\"\n\n\"I should have warned you,\" Collin told Nina. \"She keeps all my old stuff.\"\n\n\"I'd keep the new stuff too,\" Maia said serenely. \"Oh, wait. You work in _chalk._ \"\n\n\"I like chalk.\"\n\n\"I like a green living room.\"\n\n\"That green is way too blue.\"\n\nMaia watched Collin pace the kitchen and drink another glass of wine. \"Come back and see it in the light.\"\n\n\"It won't work in daylight either.\" Collin swiped a kitchen towel, soaking it in water.\n\nMaia said, \"If you want a rag, look under the sink.\"\n\nCollin ignored this and disappeared into his old bedroom for socks and shoes. \"Come on.\" He ushered Nina to the entry, where he opened the cellar door and pulled the light string.\n\nMaia called after them, \"Careful on those stairs.\"\n\nCollin ran down quickly and then held out his hand, helping Nina with the last rickety steps.\n\n\"Over here.\" Guiding Nina past the toys and rusty bicycles, he led her to seven rolling blackboards, dark, old-fashioned, like the ones at school. Rising from the basement clutter, they stood mounted in wooden frames with casters underneath.\n\nQuickly, he took the wet towel and wiped the board in front, rubbing the surface clean of every bit of dust and dirt so that it gleamed in the dim light. Then he reached down to excavate a box brimming with chalk. \"What would you like?\"\n\n\"What do you mean?\"\n\n\"What do you want?\" Focused, almost fierce, he picked up a piece of chalk.\n\nShe hesitated. \"Well...what do you like to draw?\"\n\n\"Everything.\" Already his hand was moving across the board. \"Horses.\" He found a clear space and drew a horse with mane and tail streaming. \"Birds.\" A pair of white swans glided from his hand, their long necks curving, reflections rippling in a glassy lake. \"When I was a kid I liked castles.\" In seconds he drew crenellated towers and pennants flying, drawbridge opening. \"Now I draw people.\" With one fluid line, he drew a woman lying on a beach\u2014no, on a bed. It was Nina, leaning back, supporting herself with her elbows. That was her hair falling over her shoulders. Those were her arms, her breasts...\n\n\"Collin!\" She had never seen anyone draw so well, so fast. His horses turned their heads to look at each other, his castle stood on foundations of rough stone, his sketch of Nina captured her tender expression, her soft, mussed hair.\n\nHe stood back for just a moment to admire his work, and then he wiped it all away. Castle, swans, horses, Nina's portrait vanished, and in their place he drew the hemlock in front of his mother's house. He worked with thick and thin edges, smudging snow onto the branches with his hand, outlining telephone wires in white. \"What else?\"\n\nWhat else? She'd like to know how he drew swans so easily. How did he toss off castles in five seconds? He was so quick! He'd told her about his asphalt water lilies and his sidewalk Van Goghs, but she'd been to street fairs, glanced at sidewalk art on Church Street. His work was something else.\n\nHis art was quick but never crude or facile. His drawings were lively, streamlined, beautifully observed. As mimics capture gestures in performance, he drew essential details, the curve of a neck, the soft dent in a pillow, the arc of a careening sled. With each sketch, Nina felt a shock of recognition. She forgot the fight, entirely forgot her funk, lost all consciousness of place and time and Maia upstairs. He was drawing the hill at Danehy Park, the dwarf pines weighted down with snow. How did he do it? He seemed to steal from the world.\n\nBy now he held four pieces of chalk in his hand. \"Tell me what you want.\"\n\n\"A cat.\"\n\nA white cat capered atop a brick wall, and then a calico on a windowsill, and a dark cat with white feet and white nose crouching in tall grass. \"What else?\" He never hesitated as his chalk moved across the board. Sometimes he erased a line or smudged it with his hand, but he seemed to have a picture in his mind. Another cat emerged, a slinky, half-grown animal, ginger with green eyes.\n\n\"You couldn't learn this in school,\" Nina said.\n\n\"No, but I drew all the teachers.\"\n\n\"You drew the wrinkle between Miss Dorfman's eyes.\"\n\nHis right hand traveled over the board. \"Go crazy,\" he told Nina. \"Ask for furniture.\" He drew his mother's kitchen table with six chairs. \"Or tennis.\" He sketched himself, long, sinuous, jumping up to serve. He looked at her. \"I'm showing off.\"\n\n\"Don't stop.\" She remembered his words\u2014\"I have nothing to say\"\u2014but it seemed to her the opposite was true. He had everything to say.\n\n\"What else?\" he pressed.\n\n\"Wait,\" she said. \"Just let me look.\" He had charmed her, delighted her before. She had enjoyed him for himself. He didn't need to impress her, but to her chagrin, she saw him differently now. It should not have mattered, but it did; she saw his gift. \"No!\" she begged. \"Don't erase your pictures.\"\n\nWith a defiant smile he took his rag and erased his art to start again with a sailboat skimming an imaginary sea.\n\nHer heart was racing, because she could help him if he let her. She didn't tell him, because she was afraid once more he'd take offense. To tell him was to flaunt her own position. Worse than that, to judge him. You're so good. What are you doing with your time? She watched in silence as he drew a sail swelling with the wind. She did not speak, even as the words rushed in her ears. Let me do something for you.\n\nOn Sunday Nina met her friends Julianne and Lily at Henrietta's Table. She decided not to mention Collin, because she didn't need her friends passing judgment. The relationship was so new, she wanted to protect it\u2014but they guessed. They knew that she'd been seeing someone. After all, she had been ignoring them.\n\n\"He's an artist,\" Nina said at last. \"Sometimes an actor.\"\n\n\"Oh, no,\" said Julianne.\n\n\"What do you mean, 'Oh, no'?\" This vehemence surprised Nina, because Julianne was studying to be an opera singer.\n\n\"Sometimes an actor?\" Lily asked.\n\n\"I mean, he's not just an actor,\" Nina said.\n\n\"Uh-huh,\" said Lily.\n\n\"He's smart, and he works hard.\"\n\n\"You're blushing!\" Julianne said.\n\n\"I'm not.\"\n\n\"Yes, you are.\"\n\n\"Only because you're staring at me,\" Nina protested, but Julianne had known her since first grade. The girls had grown up ice-skating, scribbling their names inside Nina's closet, pitching tents in the music room of Julianne's stone manor in Milton. This was a house so grand it had its own agent for photo shoots and concerts and commercials. Servants' bells hung in the kitchen. The window seats were deep enough to put on plays.\n\nNina had loved Julianne's house because it made hers seem more ordinary. There had been something last days of Versailles about the empty ballroom and the vaulted dining room. Gold silverware and crystal filled the butler's pantry, but it was hard to find anything to eat. Hundreds of gilt chairs arrived by truck for chamber music concerts, but couches were few and far between. At night, on the third floor, the girls lay in Julianne's four-poster bed, and they heard distant music downstairs and far away. The house was so big that when Julianne's pet tortoise escaped, he was never seen again.\n\n\"Look at yourself.\" Julianne held up her phone now.\n\n\"No, don't!\"\n\nJulianne took a picture of Nina laughing and covering her face.\n\n\"Is he cute?\" said Julianne.\n\n\"Is he an egomaniac?\" said Lily.\n\n\"He has an ego, but he's not a maniac.\"\n\n\"So he's just self-involved.\"\n\n\"No! The opposite.\"\n\n\"But he doesn't have a job.\"\n\n\"He has at least two jobs,\" Nina said. \"Maybe three.\"\n\n\"Hold on.\" Lily held her hand up. \"At _least_ two jobs, or at _most_ two jobs?\"\n\nLily, Nina's college roommate, had been adopted from China but raised a Klein in Santa Barbara. Her mother was a pediatrician, her father an endocrinologist. She had begun college as a writer and a humanist, comping the poetry board of _The Advocate,_ studying folklore and mythology\u2014but within the year, she'd dropped Old Norse and reverted to organic chemistry, dumping her boyfriend from Vermont, along with all his poet friends. In their matchbox room in Thayer, she had confessed to Nina, \"Student poets suck.\"\n\n\"Didn't e. e. cummings go here?\" Nina asked. \"And T. S. Eliot?\"\n\nLily said, \"Yeah, but he didn't write _The Waste Land_ as an undergraduate.\" Lily had lost all sympathy for literary guys. After graduation, she had crossed the river for Harvard Medical School, leaving Asgard far behind.\n\n\"He's talented,\" said Nina.\n\nLily said, \"Apparently.\"\n\n\"He's a chalk artist.\"\n\n\"Like sidewalk chalk?\"\n\n\"He can draw anything.\"\n\n\"Okay.\" Julianne considered this. \"He's good with his hands.\"\n\n\"Be serious!\"\n\n\"I am serious.\" In her low-cut shirt, Julianne looked like a Renaissance goddess of spring, a buxom mezzo with strawberry-blond hair. \"This is your transitional guy.\"\n\n\"What are you reading?\" Nina said.\n\n\"I'm not reading anything!\" The language of recovery came naturally to Julianne, who had been in therapy since she was a child. \"I'm just so glad.\" She'd always said Nina needed to fool around.\n\nBut Nina wasn't fooling. \"I think I can get him a job.\"\n\nLily pounced. \"So he isn't actually working.\"\n\n\"He's working, but I have an idea he could do better.\"\n\n\"Doing what?\" Julianne asked, because she kept an open mind.\n\n\"I thought he could work at Arkadia.\"\n\nSilence.\n\n\"You haven't seen him draw.\"\n\nJulianne and Lily looked at each other. They knew Nina's enthusiasms and her stubborn resolve. They had seen her disappointed tears.\n\n\"Don't you remember Jonah?\" Lily said.\n\nNina quieted a little, even as she said, \"He's nothing like Jonah.\"\n\nLily said, \"You felt used.\"\n\nNina told them, \"He's an artist, and he's incredible.\"\n\n\"Oh, my God,\" Julianne told Lily. \"She's completely in love with him.\"\n\nHer friends didn't understand. They assumed Nina was slumming, although they would never use the word. Of course sidewalk art was just as valid as anything else, and joining TeacherCorps was meaningful. It was the kind of thing everyone should try. They believed all this, and then they were startled when Nina actually followed through. She didn't mean it, right? She was just rebelling. This was her version of sex, drugs, and rock 'n' roll\u2014dating a chalk artist, and teaching school.\n\nThey were prejudiced. No, that wasn't fair. They just wanted to protect her. They were glad she'd found Collin; relieved that she had slept with him. What alarmed them was her urge to help him. She'd been seeing him for what? Six weeks? Obviously he cared about her, but he knew who her father was.\n\nJulianne said, \"I wouldn't help him get a job.\"\n\n\"Why not?\"\n\n\"You aren't thinking,\" Lily said.\n\n\"I am thinking. I haven't decided anything.\"\n\n\"Good,\" said Julianne. \"Don't!\"\n\n\"Don't introduce them?\"\n\n\"Just don't decide.\"\n\nNina's friends hugged her after dinner. The three of them stood outside the Charles Hotel and said goodbye and love you. Julianne and Lily were driving back to Brookline. They offered to drop off Nina, but she said no. Are you upset? they asked. Of course not, she lied, and she walked home alone.\n\nShe wished she'd never told them. Her desire to help Collin tarnished in the open air. She would not admit that they were right, but their doubts awakened hers. Once she introduced him to her father, there would be no going back. She would be pulling strings, and he would always see her that way. She would be manipulating the situation\u2014giving up any pretense of equality. What would that be like? Risky, Julianne said. Big mistake, said Lily. How can you tell what he really wants? Julianne had asked gently, and of course Nina knew what that meant. You have too many things he needs.\n\nThey didn't understand, because they didn't know him. She thought they might change their minds once they met Collin. Then she admitted to herself she wasn't sure.\n\nHe had laughed when she showed him her father's house. It was at night and everyone had been out of town. He'd stepped into the hushed foyer and he'd laughed and laughed. \"Is this for real?\" It wasn't the grand Victorian that flummoxed him, not the gables and turrets and tall windows, but the art inside, the white-flower painting by Georgia O'Keeffe, the eye-popping Lichtenstein of a woman crying on the telephone, the gold Buddha in the dining room.\n\nWhen Collin saw the statue of Venus standing in the library, he caressed the goddess from her broken shoulder over the curve of her breast and through the folds of her drapery to the hem of her robe. Exultant, he said, \"It's like a gallery, but you can touch, and no one's watching!\" He seemed to forget that Nina was watching him. He seemed to forget everything.\n\nSleepless that night, she sat up, marking Discovery Journals.\n\n> _Q. Why does Hester Prynne conceal the identity of her child? Does her decision make sense to you?_\n\nIn large, round handwriting, Marisol wrote: _Hester Prynne not revealing the father of her child isn't so impossible to understand. 1. It's embarrassing. 2. In those days it was not appropriate._\n\nTiara wrote: _It is dangerous to reveal anything when your a Puritan._\n\nDangerous, Nina thought. That was the word. Not the games at Arkadia. The people there.\n\n_To me the whole book is ironic,_ wrote Xavier.\n\nSevonna said, _Without secrets life would be so blatantly obvious it would be ridiculous._\n\nCollin might enjoy her help, and he might resent it too. He might be grateful, but she wasn't sure she wanted gratitude. She imagined his mixed feelings, his guilty delight. She considered how he might treat her, as if he owed her something, or as if she'd trapped him in some grand plan.\n\nDiana's entry was an inky thicket. _Everybody's got secrets. Whats more interesting is when you find out other peoples. Then the question is do you tell on THEM? For example my twin and I were like blood brothers only moreso. Now its like he moved away. I hear him whispering daphne daphne._\n\nDaphne? Nina stopped there, puzzled. Then the word receded into the tangle on the page. _Maybe because he has something to hide, Nathaniel Hawthorne is trying to write in a confusing way. Sometimes_ _its like Nathaniel Hawthorne is trying to be deep._\n\nNina imagined speaking to her father. I have to ask you something. It was a big thing to ask\u2014a serious and revealing question.\n\nGo ahead, Viktor would answer, and as he listened, he would jump three steps ahead of her, and he would laugh.\n\nShe turned off the light and lay awake in bed. She couldn't keep Collin from her father. Knowing her, he must know Viktor\u2014but not so soon! Coming to Arkadia, Collin would know her uncle Peter too. This gave her pause. Her father was scientific and jovial, devoted to technology. Peter was artistic and perverse.\n\nArkadia was harsh, fantastical, a tricky labyrinth. She wanted to shield Collin, but that seemed wrong, discounting his independence and his gift. She remembered just a week before, she and Collin had celebrated their birthdays at a little place called Carmen, in the North End. Brown kraft paper covered all the tables, and as they ate, Collin covered the paper in black pen, sketching places they had been\u2014the bike shop, the bar at Grendel's, the stone castle atop Prospect Hill. When the waitress arrived with their check, she looked wide-eyed at the illustrations and said, \"Do you want me to wrap that up for you?\"\n\nI have to help him, she thought the next morning, as she drove to school. But was there some way she could do it indirectly? She wove through winter streets, looping around the Cambridge Common, dipping into the underpass, and she wished she could help him secretly.\n\nShe was not surprised to see police when she arrived at Emerson. She assumed patrol cars meant a safety drill, but then she saw security blocking off the sidewalk, a traffic jam of cars and school buses redirected to the back entrance. She had to circle the block to find a parking place.\n\nInside the school building, yellow tape cordoned off the lobby, and police officers were directing students downstairs to the gym. CAUTION POLICE LINE DO NOT CROSS. Vandals had attacked the building, spray-painting the entryway.\n\n\"Oh, wonderful,\" said Mr. Allan.\n\nMrs. West was demanding, \"How did they get in?\"\n\nThe black graffiti extended across the lobby wall in a series of initials over a foot high. The other teachers didn't know yet what the letters meant, nor did Mr. DeLaurentis, who stood outside his office, talking on his phone. Was it a new gang? Or some random prank?\n\nOnly Nina understood. She knew instantly, and her face burned. There she'd been, plotting to find Collin a job. Now she wished Arkadia away, along with its obsessive fans. They had tagged her own school with UnderWorld's catchphrase, See You In Hell.\n\nCUCUCUCUCU\u200bCUCUCUCUCU\u200bCUCUCUCUCU\u200bCUCUCUCUCU\u200bCUCUCUCUCU\n\nAcross the river, Kerry was catching up on paperwork when she received a text from Emerson. Partial lockdown, vandalism with violent videogame content, classes continuing, increased security, no imminent danger, please wait until dismissal before coming to school. She read all this at once, and then twice, three times, but the only words she saw were \"violent videogame content.\" She hardly noticed signing out, zipping up her coat, shouldering her bag to leave the ICU.\n\nShe had no idea what was going on, but her thoughts were all for Aidan, even as she glanced back at patients and parents in their glass-walled rooms. She left\u2014although you could never leave entirely\u2014and took the elevator down to the lobby, which was teeming with families and strollers, musicians toting their guitars, pet therapists leading wise-eyed dogs, hospital ambassadors, costumed clowns.\n\nKerry hurried past bright murals and saltwater aquariums. Reaching back, she retied her thick blond hair, stuffing the ponytail into her hood. She passed a girl in a wheelchair with head support, then a man-size boy, clinging to his mother. \"Bless you,\" Kerry said, as the boy sneezed loudly, and then sneezed again.\n\nShe was a believer. She believed in four-leaf clovers and shooting stars. She believed in Jesus and in angels, although they worked mysteriously. She had seen more of death than most, and she believed, to some extent, in ghosts\u2014not the ghoulish kind, but the quiet ones who come to you in dreams.\n\nShe had her superstitions about shoes on tables, and open umbrellas in the house. She had her rituals, and she was not ashamed of them. After all, she worked in a place where knowledge ended and belief began. She got out of bed on the right side, and when she had a chance to swim in the echoing War Memorial pool, she used only a red kickboard\u2014red for happiness\u2014never blue. She didn't think that she could sway the universe, but she hoped that you could nudge it with a prayer.\n\nShe prayed now, as she drove through the maze of hospitals\u2014Children's, Beth Israel Deaconess. Her hands were cold inside her gloves, her car's heater was still warming up, and she shivered as she prayed for her own children.\n\nDiana was secretive, but she followed rules; she did her homework and her chores. Trusting Aidan was an act of faith. Some days were easier. He said hello, or washed the dishes. He came downstairs and looked awake. Other days he didn't even glance at her. His games consumed him and he had nothing left. What would become of him? How would he get into college? She berated him and he listened in silence, waiting for her to leave. At those moments she hated home as much as he did. She would drive to the Star Market on Sidney Street, and wheel her cart through the white aisles, and cry.\n\nDriving across the BU Bridge now, she felt a rising dread. The river spread before her, icy near the banks, but lively in the center, gold water dancing in the morning light. She had loved the drive on other mornings. Today her back tightened and her shoulders ached. She tried to breathe and fogged the windows.\n\nPlease, she prayed as she wiped the glass with her knit glove. I know you work in your own ways\u2014but could you send me a sign that this year will get better? She didn't ask for a miracle. She'd nearly given up on those, but please, she thought. Just something small?\n\nSlowly, she eased her car between the snowbanks in her shared driveway and picked her way up icy steps. Anxiously, she stepped inside the door. All was quiet; the twins were at school. Of course they were. Even so, she peeked into their rooms. She gazed at Diana's rumpled bed. Briefly, she ventured into Aidan's cave. He had covered his window with aluminum foil so that not a crack of light could penetrate. He'd stripped the walls of posters, and wedged his computer desk into the corner. Kerry reached out to touch the monitor and then drew back. He would know.\n\nTiptoeing through her own house, she retreated to wash dishes, to take down a load of laundry, to sort the mail, to read _The Boston Globe._ Finally, she took her little photo album to bed with her and flipped through photos of the twins when they were small. She looked at one picture of her children coming down a slide. It was a little slide and they were wearing overalls. She had forgotten about those overalls. They couldn't have been more than two, laughing Aidan first, his hair white gold. Dark-haired Diana peeking over his shoulder, apprehensive, as she slid down after him. Those days had not been easy, but they had been happier. For one thing, Kerry's parents had been alive. She had moved in with them after her ex left. Her parents had watched the children in North Cambridge while she worked night shifts. Her father had built a sandbox for the children, and a little table with matching stools. Later, her parents left her a small inheritance, which she'd used for the down payment on the house.\n\nNow she wished that she could travel back in time. She wouldn't go far. She had no interest in history or adventure\u2014the recent past was all she wanted. Her mother's voice, her father's patient carpentry, the playground with the green slide, the twins at six, learning in school that vitamin A was good for your eyesight. Venturing down to the basement, they held carrots like torches. She had found Aidan and Diana standing in the dark, nibbling the tips.\n\nHours later, Kerry woke in pale winter light. A creaking, clicking sound, the tick of the gas burner on the stove. \"Diana?\" Kerry called.\n\nNo answer.\n\n\"Diana?\" Kerry descended to find her daughter in the kitchen. \"Diana!\"\n\n_\"What?\"_ Diana shouted. \"Stop calling me over and over.\"\n\n\"Start answering!\"\n\n\"I did answer.\"\n\n\"I couldn't hear you.\"\n\nDiana opened three packets of instant oatmeal.\n\n\"It's only twelve-twenty.\"\n\n\"Early dismissal.\"\n\n\"Because of the lockdown?\"\n\n\"I guess.\" Diana felt for her mother. Kerry's face looked pallid; even her blond hair was dull and fuzzy, not gold, as it had been. Stand up straight, you're a beautiful girl, Diana thought. It was no use. Exhaustion beat Kerry down. Her delicate features had faded, her hands were raw from washing at the hospital.\n\n\"Where's your brother?\" Kerry asked.\n\n\"Where he always is.\"\n\n\u2014\n\nUpstairs, in his room, Aidan was turning a BoX over in his hands. The BoX was black and beautifully smooth, a perfect cube of plastic. He knew what was inside, but he could not find a way to open it.\n\nThe cube was compact, small enough to fit into a backpack, but heavy enough to strain the straps. Kneeling, he ran his fingers over the surface, pressing for a secret spring. Gently, he tapped each side. Nothing happened. He shook the BoX, and shook it harder. \"What's wrong with you?\" He could not open this inert console, although he'd been trying since he got home from school. He'd snatched up the parcel, marked PRIORITY MAIL, and now, like a prisoner, he pried its edges, paced the floor, threw himself down onto his bed, dreamed and despaired of his escape\u2014except that most prisoners imagined getting out. Aidan wanted to get in.\n\nHe'd checked the package a hundred times and found no instructions, no note from Daphne, no code, no Web link. He'd searched online, typing \"UnderWorld,\" \"black BoX,\" \"new platform.\" He'd only turned up articles he'd seen before. Now he sat with the BoX on his lap and entered EverWhen, roaming across the screen, sending Tildor over snowfields to search for Daphne.\n\n???, he typed into the chat box.\n\nNothing.\n\nGotit now what?\n\nNothing.\n\nhow does it open???\n\nNothing.\n\nComeon\n\nNothing.\n\nHelp me open it.\n\nNothing.\n\nIts fake, he typed in rage and in frustration. soru. bitch.\n\nWatch your language.\n\nThe answer came so fast he jumped, and the BoX slid off his lap and crashed onto the floor.\n\nHe was afraid he'd broken it. Kneeling, he found a hairline crack, but as he turned the BoX, he saw the surface wasn't cracked at all, but subtly divided. As with a Rubik's Cube, you could twist the top half of the BoX away from the bottom. As with a child-safe medicine bottle, you twisted while pressing down. Oh, I get it, he thought, even as the top popped off in his hands.\n\nThe room went dark.\n\nFrantic, Aidan gasped for air in what looked like smoke. In fact, he could breathe easily. The air in his room was just the same; only his perception of the atmosphere had changed. He was crouching in a stream of dust motes. These were aeroflakes, imperceptible on their own, flying together in a cloud.\n\nHis room was not his room. His ceiling was dissolving, his walls warping, rippling. A mist rose up around him. Fog that wasn't wet; dry ice that wasn't cold. For a long time he was afraid to stand. Bed, desk, and chair had disappeared, the floor seemed to slide beneath him. Faintly he heard the trickle of water, the rustle of leaves. He imagined a deep forest, but he could barely see. He reached for the light switch on what had been his wall. Aeroflakes shifted and resolved themselves, illuminated by Aidan's ceiling light. He felt for the door of his closet and opened it, groping for the light switch inside. Once more the accumulating mist began to shift and change. Filtering and reflecting light, the particles responded to Aidan's movements and to one another, projecting a multidimensional landscape, deceiving and delighting the eye, coloring the air, even transmitting sound.\n\nNow Aidan perceived bare branches and jagged pieces of blue sky. A forest floor carpeted with leaves, bracken crackling underfoot, trees looming overhead. This was no tableau framed by a computer screen. Without glasses, headset, or joystick, he was standing in a world expanding and deepening every moment.\n\nHe tried to take it all in, the piles of leaves and patches of snow, the ancient trees, the bright sky where his ceiling had been. A sunny afternoon, a winter wood. This was where he found himself. Literally found himself, his avatar, a knight in chain mail, taking shape before his eyes, no flat cartoon, but a shifting, sculptural figure cast from his own body, conjured like the woodland from a cloud of dust.\n\nHe raised his arm, and the knight raised his in turn. He pivoted, and the knight pivoted as well, so that Aidan couldn't see his alter ego's face. He took a step in place, and the knight began walking through the rustling leaves. As in a dream, Aidan watched himself, his motions fluid, his body long and strong.\n\nPlayfully, motes mapped themselves onto the ordinary features of his room. As his knight walked on, Aidan saw his bed take the shape of a great boulder and then a fallen log. Veiled in cloud, illuminating a vaulting winter sky, Aidan's ceiling light shone with the complexity and brilliance of the sun. The knight was just Aidan's height and build, carrying himself as Aidan did. Light-headed, Aidan watched his knight venture deeper. The trees grew closer, stockading against the sky.\n\nSnap of a twig. An animal. No. Something else. He sensed some creature stalking him. Heard it breathing behind him. No, above him. Something in the trees. He wanted to stop, but his knight kept walking. He sensed the creature coming closer. \"Stop,\" he whispered. Then he stamped his foot. His alter ego stopped immediately.\n\nAidan lifted his arm, and his knight drew his sword. He heard the creature hiss. Snake? Dragon? Spitting monster? He lunged, but he guessed wrong. The thing pounced, screaming, tackling him from behind. Whirling, he fought a leopard, sinuous and dark. He slashed, but could not wound the massive cat. He attacked again, but didn't hit. The leopard sank her teeth into his shoulder, and he saw his own blood showering, drenching his tunic and his arm. Shocked, he fell to his knees and his avatar plunged to the forest floor. The leopard came in for the kill, gold eyes shining, long body undulating. She bit his neck and pinned him down, drinking his blood. She was gentle now, teeth no longer penetrating, claws no longer bared, her tongue almost caressing his raw wound.\n\nAs the leopard lapped him up, he felt himself unmoored. He shed his sword and shield, and then he shed his body, legs, arms, head, torso. Whitening like toppled statuary, the corpse of Aidan's knight lay on the forest floor, but the knight's ghost floated free, a weightless spirit-version of his venturing self.\n\nNow the leopard released him. She seemed to purr as she drew back into herself, and he saw that she'd begun to change as well, black velvet lightening to a tawny glow. At first her spots stood out boldly; then they too began to shift and fade; the animal's gold eyes darkened, her head and body turned elfin, white and delicate, claws changing into tapered fingers, great cat changing to a girl in transparent silken robes.\n\nDaphne's voice. \"Let's go.\"\n\nHe forgot he'd ever called her fake. He forgot his anger altogether. She was not an elf, nor was she a warrior. She seemed herself, luscious and three-dimensional. She had never seemed so real. \"This is the most amazing place I've ever been.\"\n\n\"You haven't even seen the Gates.\"\n\n\"Take me.\"\n\n\"You have to cross the river first.\" She brushed his phantom body with her hand, and he had to imagine what he could not feel. This world could represent the subtlest exchange, a word, a sigh, even a breath, the smallest gesture, the quirk of an eyebrow, the tremble of a lip\u2014nothing was lost, except for touch.\n\nHe couldn't touch her, so he followed her instead. He took the first step, and his knight broke through bracken and forded streams, clambering after Daphne.\n\nGradually, the river revealed itself. At first he saw nothing more than a shimmer between trees. The shining water unfolded like a ribbon, then a banner. As Daphne led him from the forest, the river opened further, a watery valley, a realm unto itself between steep banks.\n\nSilver, heavy, vast, the river looked like liquid mercury, so slow it scarcely seemed to move. Aidan picked up a pebble and tried to skip it across the surface. The rock sank without a ripple. No birds flew overhead, no fish surfaced, no reeds or plants grew on the dull clay bank. Aidan threw a bigger rock. In this water nothing splashed. Absorbing each stone, the sluggish flow healed itself.\n\nWeird river. Amazing place. Aidan drew his sword and dipped it in the water.\n\nEven Daphne gasped as heavy silver wicked up the blade and continued up his arm as well, cloaking him in metal to his shoulder. He dropped his sword on the riverbank and the liquid metal stopped rising. Ghostly still, he faced Daphne with a silver arm. He flexed his silver fingers, clenched a gleaming fist.\n\nDrumbeats. Thunder. An incessant pounding in the distance.\n\n\"What's that?\" It took him a moment to realize the pounding was his mother at the door.\n\n\"Do you have to go?\"\n\n\"No,\" he whispered.\n\nOutside, Kerry watched the strip of light beneath the locked bedroom door. She saw the light brighten, shifting from gray-green to silver, heard her son's whisper and his shuffling feet. No tapping noise. No typing at all. She stopped knocking and stood still, straining to listen.\n\n\"Why not?\" she heard Aidan say, and then in a louder voice, \"I did everything.\"\n\nKerry held her breath.\n\nA long pause, and then he said, \"I can't.\"\n\n\"Aidan!\" Kerry called out. She started banging all over again.\n\nOn the other side of the door, Aidan saw a black speck on the water. Slowly, slowly, a boat emerged, an ancient ship with long oars and a black sail. The oars rowed themselves across the heavy river, but hovered mid-stroke just before they reached the bank.\n\n\"Stay,\" begged Aidan.\n\nLightly Daphne jumped into the boat, which began rowing her away.\n\n\"Come back!\"\n\n\"Let me in!\" Kerry called outside his door.\n\n\"I need more,\" Aidan called out.\n\nNow Kerry couldn't make out the words. She heard her own heart beating faster, but she tried to calm herself. Aidan was in his room. He'd gone to school, as usual. Surely the vandalism was some other gamer's work. Aidan had never defaced anything. She took a deep breath and sat down on the stairs.\n\nOn the other side of the door, on the far banks of the silver river, Daphne told Aidan, \"This time, make it silver.\"\n\n\"I can't!\" he answered, but his knight held out his arms to her.\n\nThe pull and slap of heavy water, the rhythmic stroke of oars. _Make it silver._ Kerry heard and yet she didn't hear. Sitting on the top stair, Kerry leaned her head against the wall.\n\nAt the hospital she had seen parents waiting for diagnoses. Cancer, tumor, genetic disease. When doctors came to speak to them, the parents knew what was coming, but couldn't bring themselves to ask. Kerry had seen mothers do this, holding still, afraid to speak. They weren't cowardly; they weren't lying to themselves. They clung to uncertainty in order to survive. She held still now. She would speak to Aidan; she knew she had to speak to him\u2014but not today. She closed her eyes.\n\nLike a dreamer who didn't want to wake, Aidan played and replayed UnderWorld's opening. The nights his mother slept at home, he slept. The nights she worked, he took the black BoX from his desk drawer under a pile of old school papers. He unscrewed the top, and his room filled with aeroflakes, those lively flecks scattering and gathering into UnderWorld's barren landscape. He played through the night, his movements increasingly fluid, his reflexes faster, his consciousness expanding so that his knight no longer seemed a projection, but a real person. Aidan's ordinary body seemed a dim reflection of his gaming self.\n\nEvery morning before dawn, he closed the BoX. He had to put his whole weight into it when he turned the lid. Yielding slowly, the lid attracted aeroflakes. The silver river faded, its barren cliffs collapsed into themselves, as, like metal shavings aligned by a magnetic force, the particles flew in.\n\nHe closed the BoX, but he could not shut UnderWorld away for long. He explored the river's edge in every light. Darkness, and pale morning, cloudy afternoon.\n\nAidan collected stones and threw them in the heavy water. He tried throwing several at once to watch them sink together. Then, with a stick, he dug a shallow trench in the clay at water's edge. Silver oozed up to fill the hole. He was still trying to find a way across, even though he knew there was no way, unless he obeyed Daphne.\n\nHe decided to do the thing she asked. Sometimes fear caught him by surprise\u2014a falling sensation, just as he was drifting off to sleep. A sudden chill walking to school. He did not change his mind. Instead, he tried to judge his dread dispassionately. His anxiety, he thought, was superficial, like a nosebleed. He looked down and saw his fear, but hardly felt it. Hour after hour, the river in his room worked its strange magic, inciting him to cross.\n\nWonderful to await the next installment of his secret life. He became calm, efficient, pleasant, sitting at the kitchen table, catching up on geometry, glancing discreetly at the clock, which looked like a red apple cut in half, with seeds marking the hours. He solved one problem after another, writing out his answers with a sharp pencil. You're so bright, his mother always said. \"Now is the time,\" Mr. Allan had told him at his college counseling meeting. \"Your test scores are outstanding. If you do your work, you'll have options. You could compete for scholarships.\"\n\nAs Kerry cooked spaghetti and meat sauce, she turned to look at Aidan. \"You see.\"\n\n\"See what?\" Aidan asked.\n\nShe didn't answer. She was thinking, Here you are, working at the table. Here you are, returned to me. Wasn't that exactly what she'd prayed for? She wished. She hoped\u2014and doubted.\n\nAidan kept working, and Kerry talked about how he only had to try, and said the thing she always said about how more than half of life was showing up.\n\n\"How much more than half?\" Aidan asked and she pretended to whack him with her spoon. He looked at his mother with that mixture of love and pity he felt when they were closest, and he had no idea she suspected him. In fact she had spent all afternoon online on gaming-addiction message boards. She had Googled UnderWorld-related vandalism, and found one case in Seattle, one in Austin, in addition to the one in Cambridge.\n\nNow Kerry drained the pasta, and the room filled with steam. She made everyone hold hands to say grace, and that meant Aidan had to reach across to Diana. Kerry bowed her head, but Diana and Aidan kept their eyes on the counter, where the brownies were cooling, half with pecans and half without. \"Thank you for this food,\" Kerry said. \"Thank you for our family,\" and then she added silently, Help me figure out what Aidan plans to do.\n\n\"Mom?\" Diana asked.\n\nKerry looked up, and everybody said amen.\n\nDiana had seconds and Aidan had thirds of the spaghetti, although he picked out all the onion from the glistening sauce. Kerry asked what was going on in school, and the twins said nothing, and they said, stuff. It was an ordinary dinner, with Aidan clearing and Diana taking out the recycling, even as Kerry held up Diana's copy of _The Scarlet Letter,_ with its cover torn away. \"Why do you mutilate your books like that?\"\n\nDiana stood in the doorway holding an overflowing bag of newspapers. \"They're all online anyway.\"\n\nKerry said, \"You're mumbling. I can't understand a word you're saying.\"\n\nAidan said, \"Yeah, Diana,\" who shot back, \"Shut up, Aidan,\" and their mother looked nostalgic because they were bickering again.\n\nBut that night, Aidan lay awake, listening to the sleeping house. He heard his sister snoring in her room next door, pictured his mother buried deep in bed. Fully dressed, he heard dark old beams settling, snow dripping, tiny paws thumping as animals ran across the roof.\n\nHe crept downstairs in his socks, and stepped into his waiting boots. Slipped on coat and gloves, collected the bag he'd hidden behind Priscilla's fermenting compost bin. He felt nothing as he walked to the corner, not the slightest apprehension. Like his avatar in UnderWorld, he moved weightlessly, covering the ground with his long strides. Supernatural, he glided across Broadway, ignoring traffic lights and passing cars. Lightly he hopped the low fence and dropped into the field where he'd played soccer years ago.\n\nExcept for a few patches, the snow had melted, exposing tangled old grass and spongy ground. He unzipped his jacket and crouched low, shaking his paint can. A metallic clicking like ball bearings rolling around. The can was full, and, finger to the nozzle, he scarcely had to press. A silver stream hissed straight from his hand.\n\nQuickly now, he did his work, keeping head and shoulders down, shielding the spray can with his body as he crossed the field. Looping over the patchy field, his letters gleamed like a skater's figure eights. He didn't stop to watch for passersby, nor did he pause to consider his own writing. He felt, rather than saw, that he wrote elegantly, his CUs smooth.\n\nAny second, a patrol car could expose him with white lights. He was just blocks from the police station, around the corner from City Hall, but he felt invincible, as though he drew his own luck, and painted his own rules. He carried nothing in his pockets. He had no backup plans, or explanations. All he knew was that no one could catch him; he was too fast.\n\nHe ran past basketball courts, past the children's playground with its corkscrew slides, all the way to the Koreana restaurant, where he threw the paint can into the garbage bin in back. In the morning everyone would see what he had done, but no would find him. No one could pin it on him. He was long gone. Gloved hands in his pockets, he slipped inside the kitchen door. Athlete, artist, ghost.\n\n\"Aidan.\"\n\nHe froze.\n\n\"Come here.\"\n\nKerry was sitting with her coffee at the table.\n\n\"What's going on?\"\n\n\"Nothing.\" He glanced at the apple clock above her head.\n\n\"What am I going to find out in the morning?\"\n\n\"I don't know.\"\n\nShe forced herself to ask, \"Were you at school tonight?\"\n\nHe told the truth. \"No!\"\n\n\"Are you involved in this new game CU?\"\n\n\"There's no game CU.\"\n\n\"UnderWorld, then. Are you playing?\" He heard the dread in her voice. She might as well have asked him: Are you using?\n\n\"It's not even out yet.\"\n\n\"Don't lie to me.\"\n\nHe looked her in the eye. \"I'm not.\"\n\nAidan saw her tension ease, and knew he'd won. Exultant and forgiving all at once, he felt a wave of love for his mother. Kerry was too tired to fight on, but he would be merciful. He would protect her, even as he deceived her.\n\n\"Don't worry. I'm fine,\" he told Kerry softly. This was an understatement. He was strong, and he was young. Immortal. He feared nothing as he stood on the threshold of his other life.\n\n\u2014\n\nJust before dawn, he opened his BoX and saw the river glimmering in darkness. He had already texted Daphne to tell her what he'd done. Now he waited on the bank, expecting his reward. A million stars appeared, more than he had ever seen on Earth. The night opened, unfolding and expanding all around him, a pocket universe.\n\nThe sun rose in muted colors and the stars began to fade. A milky fog obscured the water, neither day nor night. What did it mean? Gradually, Aidan realized that his closet light had burned out.\n\nIn the half-light at the glowing river's edge, his knight dug up rocks and turned them over, looking for a clue. Some were unyielding; others shattered in his hand. One cracked slowly like an egg. Slime trickled out, and then a ragged tooth emerged, prying the rock open from inside. The hatchling looked like a tiny coiled crocodile, its thorny skin the clay color of the riverbank. Hissing, it uncurled and sprang up snapping, tearing and biting Aidan's spectral self. The monster's little teeth snapped right through Aidan's ghostly form, but could not penetrate his silver arm at all; its teeth clanged instead, metal on metal.\n\nHe slashed the creature's throat with his sword, and a red-black ooze pooled under its stony head. Carefully, Aidan laid out the body full-length on the ground. Like a dancer in front of a mirror, he watched himself as he slit the monster lengthwise and peered inside, searching entrails for some clue or sign. He found something hard, a forked rod, a wishbone. Even as he knelt on the riverbank, he felt the bone drawing him toward water with magnetic force. Then again, he really had to pee! He'd put it off as long as possible, but he had to go, and there was no way to pause.\n\nHe dropped the divining rod and dashed to the bathroom, but the door was locked. Pounding, he called to Diana, and heard her answer, \"Wait.\" Running down to the bathroom near the kitchen, he tripped and caught himself, cursing the narrow stairs and his own feet. It wasn't just depressing; it was disorienting, emerging from the game to clomp down the stairs or stand at the toilet with no defense against the peeling paint, the sharp corners of the real world.\n\nHe dashed back again and saw the upstairs bathroom open and empty. He had left his own door ajar, and on reentry caught Diana standing there, gazing at his river and his sky.\n\n\"Out.\"\n\n\"This is so weird,\" she said. The world was beginning to work on her, the mist of particles, the strange half-light, the slow pull of the river. He closed his door and the game closed around them, the river coming into focus, moving even slower than before, like cooling glass.\n\n\"Out,\" he repeated.\n\nDiana didn't move. She stood there staring at the barren riverbank and shattered dragon egg, and for just a moment he let the game wait. He stood there with her, and they were brother and sister, exploring the basement. They were a pair of eight-year-olds walking to the library. They were the woodcutter's children, and their father had abandoned them.\n\n\"Who are you?\" Diana asked, as she gazed at Aidan's ghostly avatar.\n\n\"I don't have a name yet.\"\n\n\"I thought you pick a name at the beginning when you design your body and all that.\"\n\n\"It's not that kind of game.\"\n\n\"What kind of...\" Diana began, and then finished her own sentence. \"This is UnderWorld.\"\n\n\"Just the demo.\"\n\n\"What do you mean? What demo? Where did you get it?\"\n\n\"A girl I know.\"\n\nDiana folded her arms across her chest, and just like that, the spell was broken. She stood there in her black clothes, a wall of skepticism, a frown on her round face. \"Daphne.\"\n\n\"You're spying!\"\n\n\"I'm not! I overheard.\"\n\nHe grabbed her by the shoulder. \"What do you mean you overheard? You never heard anything.\"\n\nShe wrenched away. \"Let me go. I never said anything. I never did anything to you.\" Diana didn't care anymore about the river in his room; she didn't look twice at Aidan's ghost, or silver sword, or his divining rod, quivering on the bank. \"There is no girl. None of this is real.\"\n\n\"It's real,\" Aidan told her. \"Obviously the game is real. She gave it to me.\"\n\n\"You want that to be true.\"\n\n\"How do you know what's true or not?\" Aidan asked his twin, his doubter.\n\n\"How do you?\"\n\n\"Get out.\"\n\n\"Fine.\" Diana turned to leave.\n\n\"You were never here.\"\n\nDiana shot back, \"Neither were you!\"\n\nAt first he drew Nina from memory. After seeing her, he came back to his room and drew her on the walls, chalking her shoulders, her breasts, her slender waist. He grew so intent on capturing her that sometimes he felt he had to get away from her.\n\nOver days and weeks, imagination yielded to experience. In February Collin began bringing her to his apartment. He stopped worrying about what she would think, and slept with her in his own bed. Now his blackboard-painted walls were covered with Nina asleep, awake, half dressed, turning her head. She was brushing her hair. She was sitting in a chair with the ribbon strap of her slip looped over her bare arm.\n\nHe hardly went to parties anymore. He had stopped drawing backdrops for Theater Without Walls. Darius said, \"Who do you think you are, Edgar fucking Degas?\" Noelle said\u2014\"What? Are you too good for us?\" He spent all his time with Nina. Drew her and erased her, studying her every mood.\n\nBut Nina studied Collin too. She watched him focus on one aspect of her body and chalk it over and over until he could re-create it without a second glance. He learned to draw her profile, and then he used that view next time, generalizing with slight variations. He was amazing and relentless, developing a shorthand for her body and her face.\n\nHe studied shapes and colors the way poets studied words. He kept a bird's nest in his room and a collection of old tools. He had a broken ceiling fan on the floor, a bouquet of shriveled flowers, a crumpled chrome fender, because he liked the way it reflected light. He had a whole library of curling art posters, old masters and fantasy art all mixed together. She saw no books, no tablets, no computers.\n\nOne night as he drew her, Nina asked, \"How do you learn your parts when you perform?\"\n\nWith his foot, Collin nudged a tangle of headphones on the floor.\n\n\"You just listen?\"\n\n\"Sometimes I slow down the audio and write the lines.\" As so often when he was holding chalk, he illustrated his point, writing in fluid script, _We are such stuff as dreams are made on..._\n\n\"How do you do that?\" His words looked like calligraphy. \"My printing is so bad half my students say they can't read the homework on the board.\"\n\n\"You're very trusting.\"\n\nShe said quite seriously, \"I want to be.\"\n\nThen he stood back from the board and wondered at her. She was so earnest. \"What were you like when you were little?\"\n\n\"Sad,\" she told him. \"Worried.\"\n\n\"Why?\" He sat next to her on the bed.\n\n\"I worried I was adopted, and my father was going to give me back. Then I worried I wasn't adopted. I was afraid suicide ran in families, so I worried I would die like my mother did.\"\n\nHe was a little shocked, so he asked lightly, \"Oh, is that all?\"\n\nShe didn't mention that her father had lied about her mother, substituting physical for mental illness. Nina had been almost twelve when she found out the truth. She just said, \"I worried about other things too.\"\n\nShe had been afraid of fire, afraid of thunderstorms, afraid of the ocean, afraid of dark, shadowy sharks that could come ripping at her through the water. She had worried about burglars. Distrusting the security system, she had double-checked the doors\u2014all six regular doors and the French doors in her father's house. \"I was afraid of my father leaving.\"\n\n\"Poor Nina!\"\n\n\"Well, I was lucky too.\"\n\nMoney, Collin thought.\n\nBut Nina said, \"I played my dad's games first.\"\n\n\"Before release?\"\n\n\"Before everything.\"\n\n\"Which ones?\"\n\n\"EverRest. EverSea. That's my friend Julianne. That's her voice when all the mermaids sing.\"\n\n\"Seriously? So when you hear the mermaids you're thinking of her.\"\n\nNina shrugged. The memory was strange, pleasure mixed with anger. Julianne singing in the studio, Nina aware of Peter watching.\n\n\"What's it like to be you?\" Collin asked, playfully.\n\n\"This is me when I was eleven.\" Nina reached for her phone and searched for the image from the game. \"The girl collecting sand dollars in the sea cave.\"\n\nCollin looked at a waif of a girl in a green kelp dress. Her hair was long and shimmering, her face serious, her eyes clear gray. \"You should tell your students!\"\n\nNina looked at him in disbelief.\n\n\"You're like a celebrity!\"\n\n\"No way!\"\n\n\"You're no fun.\" Then again, Collin had always preferred the teachers you could sidetrack: Mr. Dillingham, who talked about running during biology; Mrs. Giannetti, who paused while solving equations to reminisce about her summers with Earthwatch as a volunteer archaeologist. His best teachers had been the most distractible. \"When we did Shakespeare, Mrs. West had us perform scenes.\"\n\n\"She still does.\"\n\n\"You should do that! Come dressed as something. Titania.\" He scrambled to his feet and drew Nina as the fairy queen. His sketch was part Pre-Raphaelite, part 1920s _Vogue,_ white chalk and lavender, deep purple, and long trailing wings. He drew a gossamer dress, draped over Nina's naked body.\n\n\"I don't think so!\"\n\n\"Bring props.\"\n\n\"Like ass ears?\"\n\n\"Let me visit,\" Collin told her. \"I'm a veteran.\"\n\n\"Of what?\"\n\n\"Veteran dramatic educator!\"\n\nShe teased. \"Full tomato.\"\n\n\"Hey, I played Edward Winslow for two seasons!\" He knew his living history. He'd done his time as an interpreter at Plimoth Plantation. Walked up and down in wool breeches and white linen, doffing his hat, cleaning his musket, tending goats, thatching roofs, mending woven eel traps while telling the story of the _Mayflower_ to schoolchildren, old couples, tourists from Singapore, Germany, Japan. \"We used to do class visits all the time.\"\n\nNina tried to picture Collin as a seventeenth-century colonist.\n\n\"The voyage was long and stormy,\" he intoned. \"Yet none but a blaspheming sailor was lost at sea...\"\n\n\"But I'm not teaching Pilgrims.\"\n\n\"I could do Shakespeare, no problem.\"\n\n\"My kids are tough,\" said Nina.\n\nHe scoffed. \"I work in Harvard Square. My art's been peed on.\"\n\n\"Are you serious?\"\n\n\"Twice.\"\n\n\"Ohh.\" She sounded so dismayed. He had to laugh. It wasn't just that she'd never seen such a thing. She had never even thought of such a thing.\n\n\u2014\n\nThe last day before February vacation, he bounded into Emerson, setting off the metal detector. Framed by pulsing orange lights, Collin stood resplendent in plumed hat, brown jerkin and slashed doublet, white shirt with pointed lace collar, sweeping velvet cloak lined with tawny satin, thick brown hose.\n\n\"Good morrow, fair lady.\" He doffed his hat to Nina, as security came running.\n\n\"Okay, let's have the sword,\" the guard said.\n\nCollin's hand tightened on the hilt. \"What, surrender my weapon?\"\n\n\"Yup.\"\n\n\"In death alone,\" said Collin. \"Else forfeit sacred honor.\"\n\nNina was laughing. \"Stop!\"\n\n\"Let's have the sword.\"\n\n\"Officer,\" Nina said, \"it isn't real.\"\n\n\"Zero tolerance,\" he replied.\n\nNina watched the guard march Collin into the office. \"My good Lord DeLaurentis,\" Collin announced himself to Mrs. Solomon, the principal's secretary. \"Is he within?\"\n\n\"Collin?\" Mrs. Solomon strained to recognize the young Emerson alumnus in his Jacobean clothes.\n\nAfter some discussion, he surrendered his weapon to DeLaurentis himself, and signed the school guest book with a wonderful crabbed hand. Name: _Wm. Shakespeare._ Organization: _The King's Men._\n\nThen Collin led the way up the stairs of his old school, striding through corridors where crowds parted before him, kids whistling, laughing, calling to one another, \"Oh, my God, check this out. Check the boots!\" Some thought he was from King Richard's Faire. Others said he was doing the LGBTQ assembly, since he looked like such an amazing queen. Gawkers peeked into Nina's room even when passing time was over. Her students loved it when she closed the door, and William Shakespeare belonged to them alone.\n\n\"Today we have a special guest,\" Nina began, as Collin paced behind her, examining the poster of the old Globe Theatre, experimenting with the light switches, gazing at the ceiling, marveling at the fluorescent glow. \"He is an actor, director, playwright, poet...the envy of his peers\u2014\"\n\n\"I have no peers,\" Shakespeare interrupted.\n\n\"Ahem!\" Nina shot him a look and the class laughed. \"His peers, including...Ben Jonson\u2014\"\n\n\"Prithee,\" Shakespeare asked the class, \"hath anybody seen his work?\"\n\nNobody had.\n\n\"Christopher Marlowe,\" Nina continued.\n\nNone of the kids had heard of him. Shakespeare gave Marlowe the thumbs-down.\n\n\"Beaumont and Fletcher.\"\n\n\"Boo!\" Shakespeare cried, and then to Nina, \"Fair lady, I'm the last man standing! They've heard only of me!\" Rhythmically, he clapped his hands and gestured for the students to join in.\n\n\"He was born in Stratford, and he worked in London,\" Nina said as her kids clapped along with Collin. \"He founded his own theater, the Globe.\" She looked down at her notes. \"He invented the words _radiance, equivocal, lustrous, amazement._ Phrases such as _sea change, all of a sudden, dead as a doornail, in stitches, the game is up, fancy free..._ \"\n\nShakespeare gestured for Miss Lazare to move along, and the class laughed as she cut her introduction short. \"His plays are still performed all over the world. I give you William Shakespeare.\"\n\n\"Can I call you Will?\" Isaiah called out, as the applause died.\n\nShakespeare raised an eyebrow.\n\n\"What do we call you, then?\" Isaiah asked.\n\n\"The Bard of Avon.\"\n\nAfter this answer, bold and pretentious, the class drew back a little. Shakespeare didn't seem to mind. He walked up and down, perfectly possessed, actually enjoying the growing distance between him and his audience.\n\nNina tried to catch Collin's eye, to remind him of the Q&A they'd planned. But Collin ignored her. He gazed coolly at the class, and, fascinated, they stared back at him. Without a word, he attracted their attention, offering no greeting, no information, nothing but suspense.\n\n\"We prepared some questions.\" Nina spoke as much to her students as to Shakespeare. \"Who'd like to start?\" She looked out at the students, issuing a silent appeal. Anyone?\n\nFinally, Chandra asked in her small voice, \"When did you start writing?\"\n\n\"When my players needed parts.\"\n\n\"What's your favorite play?\" asked Isaiah.\n\n\"The one that pays.\"\n\nAnother pause, and Nina gestured to Jonee, who read from her open notebook: \"Who did you write the sonnets for?\"\n\n\"None but you,\" Shakespeare cried gallantly, and took her by the hand!\n\nThe class sniggered. Holding hands with Jonee? She was this large, pale, seriously depressing girl, and there she was, with Shakespeare escorting her to the front of the room, seating her on Miss Lazare's own desk.\n\nKhalil laughed so hard he started coughing. \"And you!\" Shakespeare added, offering his hand to Khalil as well.\n\nThe class exploded with whoops and catcalls, as Khalil shrank back.\n\nShakespeare knelt down on the spot. _\"Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?\"_ He looked adoringly at Khalil's stubble and his dreadlocks, then gazed into the boy's dark eyes.\n\nNo! Nina thought. She hovered behind Khalil's chair, trying to catch Collin's attention.\n\n_\"Thou art more lovely and more temperate...\"_\n\n\"Holy shit!\" Khalil interjected, even as Nina gestured for Collin to stop.\n\n_\"Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May.\"_\n\nThe class was in hysterics.\n\n\"Back off!\" Khalil snarled.\n\nIn vain, Nina told her students to settle down. Unheard, her explanation that actually this sonnet was written for a young man. Doubled over, clutching themselves, kids were falling out of their chairs\u2014all but Khalil, who lost his cool completely, and shoved Shakespeare with two hands.\n\nThe Bard lost his balance, since he had been down on one knee, but he recovered fast, springing to his feet.\n\n\"Let's take a moment here,\" Nina said, trying to intercede, but Shakespeare waved her off and turned toward Jonee, still sitting where he had left her on Nina's gray Steelcase desk.\n\n_\"Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines...\"_ he told Jonee. You could see all the blood rush to her face as everyone's attention turned toward her. _\"And often is his gold complexion dimmed.\"_\n\nThe class watched in shock. How could the Bard have known that Jonee panicked if you even looked at her? She had a thing where she could hyperventilate at any moment. She could do it now, even as Shakespeare knelt down, velvet cloak streaming around him. He spoke to her as though they were alone. Jonee's eyes widened as he declared, _\"And every fair from fair sometime declines...\"_\n\nJonee gasped, breathing faster and then faster. Her classmates watched Miss Lazare pluck at Shakespeare's sleeve\u2014to no avail. Jonee's cheeks burned redder than her limp strawberry-blond hair. She swayed.\n\nMiss Lazare tried to stand between Shakespeare and his victim. He waved Lazare away. The guy was hard-core.\n\nEven Anton, who usually kept his head down, was on the edge of his seat. Fully recovered from the assault on his sexuality, Khalil grinned in disbelief. This was going to be the most amazing class in the history of the school; Shakespeare could be causing a medical emergency.\n\nMeanwhile, Shakespeare sounded blissed. _\"But thy eternal summer shall not fade,\"_ he intoned, looking deep into Jonee's eyes.\n\nThe Bard got a standing ovation, especially when Jonee flumped off the desk. She would have fallen in a heap, if not for the Bard's steadying hand. Her classmates shouted, \"Encore! Encore!\" Everybody saw the faint smile on Jonee's face as Shakespeare returned her to her seat.\n\nNina saw Collin raise a frenzy and then with a flick of his hand, silence the whole class. She watched him and she thought, You should have it all\u2014money, fame, every success.\n\nCollin himself broke into her reverie. He whipped around and bowed to her. Then, right in front of all her students, he took her by the hand. There she'd been, enjoying the show. Now suddenly she was in it. \"No. No!\" she whispered. Unfair to ambush her like that! \"Collin,\" she begged under her breath.\n\nHer kids thought this was hilarious. \"Pray be seated,\" Shakespeare said, and Lazare was shaking her head, but she had to listen. The guy was a rock star. She took the hot seat atop her desk.\n\nShakespeare didn't kneel this time. Everybody watched as he looked Lazare up and down. She was so embarrassed she couldn't even meet his eye. Whooo! The guy was her boyfriend. The more she tried to hide it, the more it showed.\n\nWith a wave of his hand, Shakespeare signaled his next speech.\n\n_\"My mistress' eyes,\"_ he said, _\"are nothing like the sun; \/ Coral is far more red than her lips' red.\"_\n\nOh God, Nina thought, knowing what was coming, but he recited so well. The kids loved him, and loved her embarrassment even more.\n\nShakespeare took a step back to view her in profile. _\"If snow be white, why then her breasts are dun.\"_\n\n\"Owwww!\"\n\n\"Her breasts are _dung_?\"\n\n_\"If hairs be wires...\"_ \u2014Shakespeare lifted a lock of Nina's hair\u2014 _\"black wires grow on her head.\"_\n\n\"Hey,\" Nina whispered. She had planned a discussion of playwriting and acting, costuming, performing at the Globe Theatre. \"Collin.\"\n\nEither he ignored her or he couldn't hear. He had galvanized the class, now cheering.\n\n_\"I have seen roses damasked, red and white, \/ But no such roses see I in her cheeks; And in some perfumes is there more delight\"_ \u2014the Bard turned away\u2014 _\"Than in the breath that from my mistress reeks...\"_\n\n\"Ewww!\"\n\n\"Death match! Death match!\" the students screamed.\n\nIsaiah called, \"Miss, don't let him tear you down!\"\n\n_\"I love to hear her speak, yet well I know \/ That music hath a far more pleasing sound.\"_\n\n\"Kill! Kill!\"\n\n_\"I grant I never saw a goddess go; \/ My mistress when she walks treads on the ground. \/ And yet...\"_ Shakespeare paused and looked out at the class and they hushed, wondering what he would do.\n\nHe fell to his knees and pulled a single red plastic rose from his sleeve. \"Awwww,\" chorused the class, amused, but also disappointed to see him cave.\n\nSean said, \"Miss? You gonna _accept_ that from him?\"\n\n\"Reject! Reject!\" the class thundered.\n\nNina shook her head. Her kids cheered as she turned the flower down.\n\nDespite this, Shakespeare had the last word: _\"And yet,_ _by heaven, I think my love as rare \/ As any she belied with false compare.\"_\n\nApplause and cheers and school bells ringing. Wait. Those were alarms pulsing in the halls. Kids groaned and started shuffling for the door. As usual, whenever anything fun happened, DeLaurentis hit them with a fire drill.\n\nCollin was still carrying the plastic rose when everybody trooped outside. Students and staff gathered in the designated area behind the school, where Mr. DeLaurentis waited, furious, in his charcoal-gray suit. This was not a scheduled fire drill, so either a real fire was raging somewhere in the building, or some kid had pulled the alarm.\n\n\"Line up! Line up!\" DeLaurentis barked into his electric bullhorn, as students poured out of the building, but no one paid attention. Fire trucks had already arrived, and firemen were tromping into the school with empty hoses trailing behind them. Meanwhile, it was so close to dismissal that the students figured February break had started. _Yes!_ The problem was their teachers had rushed them out the door without coats. They had to huddle and hug each other to stay warm.\n\nLike temporary parents, Collin and Nina shepherded their class to the school's spiked black iron fence.\n\n\"Yo, Shakespeare,\" one of the boys called out, but Collin wasn't Shakespeare anymore.\n\n\"No reentry,\" blared Mr. DeLaurentis. \"No reentry.\"\n\n\"Bard of Avon,\" Isaiah asked, \"you coming back?\"\n\nCollin stole a look at Nina, but she glanced away.\n\n\"Did I say you could leave?\" Mrs. West was confronting a tall blond kid edging toward the street. \"Did I dismiss you, Aidan?\"\n\n\"Come on, Nina,\" Collin said, but she wouldn't speak to him where her students could overhear.\n\n\"Down. No climbing!\" DeLaurentis crackled, even as the student body surged.\n\nNina saw Aidan close his eyes and lean against the fence. There was something grand about his silent resignation, a royal insolence.\n\nKids and teachers waited for what felt like hours. In fact, after twenty minutes, the returning firefighters reported no fire, no smoke, no evidence of faulty wiring. The official cause for evacuation was some student, and DeLaurentis was talking about consequences, but no one stuck around to listen, because the fire marshal had just given the all-clear.\n\nIn the throng of students racing to empty lockers for vacation week, Collin cleared a path, sheltering Nina with his arm. At last he opened the door for Nina and they took refuge in her empty classroom.\n\n\"Phew.\" Collin tried to keep it light. \"Next time we'll do the theater games.\"\n\nShe was picking up stray papers, rescuing paperbacks splayed open on the floor.\n\n\"Nina?\"\n\nShe turned to face him. \"I never said you could recite sonnets to me in front of my class.\"\n\n\"I know, but\u2014\"\n\n\"I asked you to stop!\"\n\n\"You were laughing.\" He crossed the room to make his appeal.\n\n\"Why didn't you listen?\"\n\n\"Sorry. I gave you away. The secret's out. You have a crazy boyfriend.\"\n\n\"I wanted this lesson to be about Shakespeare, not you.\"\n\n\"It _was_ about Shakespeare,\" he retorted. \"And what's the big deal? The kids already know that you're in love with him.\"\n\n\"You don't understand. They hardly listen to me. I've barely got them sitting down.\"\n\nHe tossed hat and plastic rose onto her desk. \"I wasn't trying to embarrass you.\"\n\n\"No. Just having fun at my expense.\"\n\n\"That's not fair.\"\n\n\"Well, what's fair, Collin?\"\n\n\"I don't know.\" He took her hands.\n\nHe was hard to resist; he was so warm. \"I was embarrassed,\" she admitted. \"and I was...\"\n\n\"What?\"\n\n\"Jealous,\" she confessed. \"You're just...surprising. I don't know what to do with you.\"\n\nHe forgot the classroom door was open. He cupped her face in his hands and kissed her.\n\nAs if on cue, some kid whistled in the hall.\n\nThey sprang apart.\n\n\"No more sonnets,\" he assured her. \"No more school visits. I don't want to mess up your life.\"\n\nHer response surprised him. \"I don't want to mess up yours.\"\n\n\"Yeah, I don't think there's any danger.\"\n\n\"I don't want to do the wrong thing.\"\n\n\"Go ahead,\" he said, not knowing what she meant. \"Do the wrong thing. You need the practice.\"\n\n\"You're so talented...\" she began.\n\nNow his eyes hardened. His body tensed as he guessed where this was going. He had listened to this speech from his mother, from Noelle, from every other serious girlfriend, and he felt a kind of grief to hear Nina start in on him now. Two months before, they had been sledding in Danehy Park. Now the long talks had begun.\n\nShe said, \"You could do a lot more, and earn a lot more, and have a career if you want.\"\n\nHis voice was cold. \"I'm not going back to school.\"\n\n\"It's just an idea\u2014and I keep debating whether to tell you.\" She took a breath. \"I could take you to Arkadia.\"\n\n\"Take me?\"\n\n\"Well...introduce you...\"\n\n\"That's what's on your mind. You want to introduce me to Arkadia.\"\n\n\"I do and I don't,\" she confessed.\n\n\"That's what you're debating. Whether to leave me in my poor miserable life, or invite me to the big leagues?\"\n\n\"I didn't mean it to come out that way.\"\n\n\"I know!\" He almost laughed. \"That's the arrogant part. It comes naturally.\"\n\n\"Wait. Let me explain.\"\n\n\"You don't have to explain. I understand.\"\n\nShe persisted. \"Listen.\"\n\n\"I don't need you to find me a job. I'm not your charity. I'm not your good deed, okay? I don't want help.\"\n\nHands on her hips, she protested, \"I let you help me! I let you embarrass me in front of my whole class.\"\n\n\"That was nothing. You're talking about a job. You've got my whole career planned out.\"\n\n\"I don't,\" she said. \"I don't want to change you or mess up your art.\"\n\n\"You've planned so far ahead you're already up to feeling guilty about it.\"\n\n\"Don't tell me what I'm planning.\"\n\n\"Don't tell me what to do.\"\n\n\"I'm not! And don't assume you'd get a job.\"\n\nShe began rubbing out vocabulary words with her felt eraser. \"You're the arrogant one.\"\n\nHe didn't answer.\n\n\"You don't even listen.\"\n\n\"I'm listening,\" Collin retorted.\n\n\"Is it that hard for you to accept a favor?\"\n\n\"Stop.\" He took the eraser from her hand and drenched it with water from the bottle on her desk. Then he wiped her cloudy board until it was sleek and black again.\n\n\"You would blow them all away.\"\n\n\"Let's go.\"\n\n\"Okay.\" She picked up her bag, but then she said, \"Just let me introduce you to my father.\"\n\n\"He won't meet with me.\"\n\n\"Yes, he will.\"\n\n\"Because of you.\"\n\n\"Well, that has to be enough.\"\n\nHe shot her a look.\n\n\"Can't you just take a chance?\"\n\n\"You're not offering me a chance,\" he said. \"You're offering a gift, out of the goodness of your privileged heart.\"\n\nFor a long moment she didn't answer.\n\nYoung as she was, she understood her position. She could teach for two years or she could quit tomorrow. She could travel, study abroad, go to law school, or do nothing at all. She didn't need to earn a living. Nothing kept her at Emerson but idealism and interest. \"It's not a gift,\" she said at last. \"It's not a job. It's just an open door.\"\n\n\"Thanks. I'll open my own doors.\"\n\nShe leaned against her desk. \"And how will you do that?\"\n\n\"None of your business.\"\n\nNina thought of Collin's theatrics, and her students' laughter\u2014his crazy visit. \"That's what I should have told you!\"\n\n\"You're right,\" he said. \"I'm sorry. Let's get out of here and have a drink.\"\n\nEven then, she persisted. \"Just think about it.\"\n\n\"I told you I don't want help.\"\n\n\"I know,\" she said, \"but you deserve it.\"\n\nThose words pierced him. His mother and his girlfriends and his instructors always accused him. He was wasting his time. He wasn't living up to his potential. Nina said the thing he hardly dared to tell himself.\n\n\"What's wrong?\" she asked, searching his bright eyes.\n\n\"Nothing.\" He wrapped her in his cape.\n\nHe held her in his arms and the velvet cape trailed all around her shoulders. Yes, she thought. Yes he would listen to her, but she was half afraid of what she'd done.\n\nIn silence they headed out together. Seriously, almost ceremonially, he took his plumed hat from her desk. She turned off the lights and he followed her out into the hall, where janitors roared up and down with vacuum canisters strapped onto their backs.\n\n\"I can't program,\" he reminded Nina.\n\n\"That wouldn't matter.\"\n\n\"Yes, it would.\"\n\n\"No, no, no. They'll know what to do with you.\"\n\nCollin wore a button-down shirt, blue-striped, clean but wrinkled and papery. Where had he found it? Of course Nina couldn't ask. Her father was sitting next to her, ordering wine, and Collin had been exiled across the table.\n\nThey were eating dinner at Harvest, and Collin was trying not to stare. Viktor was fifty-four, but he didn't look old. He looked like a guy who woke at dawn to bike up mountains and ford icy streams. His eyes were black, his nose craggy. His dark hair and bushy eyebrows stood up as if to say, Who're you calling short? He smiled to himself as though delighted with his own ideas\u2014and why not? They were worth a ton of money. Nina's father set Collin on edge immediately. Collin saw the laughing ferocity in Viktor's eyes.\n\n\"Nina tells me you act and sing and dance and draw, and I don't know what else,\" Nina's father said. \"Jack of all trades.\"\n\nFuck you, Collin thought. \"I draw,\" he said.\n\n\"Nina says you're very good.\"\n\n\"Dad!\" Nina exclaimed. Clearly he hadn't even opened Collin's portfolio.\n\nViktor heard the reproach. Nina loved him, but she judged him. Even as a small girl, she'd studied him, until he'd had to look away.\n\nOnce, when he was leaving for the airport, he'd knelt down to apologize. \"I wish I could stay.\"\n\n\"Why are you going, then?\" she had demanded.\n\nRecently, in the heat of argument, she had accused him of ignoring her. \"You see,\" he'd declared. \"That proves it. You're my conscience.\" She had been his family before he had a family. (It did not occur to him to count her mother.) Once it had been the two of them\u2014Viktor and his gray-eyed child, his smaller, better self.\n\nNow Nina drew herself up, as if to say, This is your big gesture? Agreeing to have dinner? And Viktor was sorry. For a moment he felt guilty, but the moment passed.\n\n\"Where did you go to school?\" he asked Collin.\n\n\"MassArt. But I'm still there. I mean technically I'm\u2014\"\n\n\"Enrolled?\"\n\n\"Well, not currently, but\u2014\"\n\n\"The best ones leave,\" Viktor said. His words were conciliatory, his tone half-mocking. \"The best ones teach themselves.\"\n\nThey ate steaks and drank a dark Bordeaux, and Viktor watched Collin. \"Did you study game design?\"\n\nSlow down, Collin told himself, as he drank his second glass of wine. \"Not exactly,\" he told Viktor, \"but I have a long-standing interest in EverWhen, so...\" The more he drank, the more he found in the Bordeaux. Autumn and dusky stairwells, and dark old jewels and soft lead pencils sinking into blotting paper. He began to feel warm. Viktor was drinking too, but the wine didn't change him; it was Collin who felt overheated, dangerously glib. Pace yourself, he thought, but he kept talking fast. \"I was a gamer when I was younger, and I know the monsters. For example, I can draw every major dragon in EverWhen.\"\n\n\"But not the minor ones?\" Viktor asked lightly.\n\n\"I can draw them too,\" said Collin. \"And the serpents, basilisks, and hydras, Gnomes, Elves, mermaids, bears, wolves...\" Nina was looking at him anxiously, but he didn't stop. \"Birds of prey, owls, phoenixes _..._ \"\n\n\"In other words\u2014\" Viktor began.\n\n\"Everything,\" Collin cut him off boldly.\n\n\"Excellent,\" Viktor said, without a flicker of surprise. Some fans were like that. Everheads programmed their own game mods, copied screenshots, directed their own films. Arkadia kept online galleries of their art, thousands of drawings and paintings. Viktor appreciated these tributes, but they didn't excite him. He studied optics, graphics, vision, the interplay of imagination and perception. He lived for innovation, not obsessive imitation. \"I'll tell you where to send your stuff.\"\n\nCollin reminded Nina's father, \"I've already sent my stuff to you.\"\n\nNina, Viktor thought. What have you been promising this kid?\n\nShe shot him a look that meant, Stop! You're overbearing and dismissive.\n\nViktor was hurt. He wasn't dismissive; he saw through people quickly. He wasn't overbearing; he was busy.\n\n\"Can I get you some dessert?\" the waiter asked.\n\nViktor said, \"No, thank you.\"\n\nCollin glanced at Nina, who sat with hands clasped together on the table. So much for her sweet, arrogant idea. She knew her father, but Collin knew something about sending unsolicited portfolios. He might have reached across or smiled to reassure her. I don't care; it doesn't matter. The wine was good and I forgive you for the rest. But at that moment Collin cared greatly. He felt an intense desire to prove himself, as soon as he realized he didn't stand a chance.\n\n\"Coffee?\" the waiter suggested.\n\n\"Just the check,\" said Viktor.\n\nBut Collin told the waiter, \"Just a pen.\"\n\nWhen the check arrived, Nina's heart stopped as Collin snatched it out of Viktor's hands. Without even glancing at the numbers, he flipped the little paper over and began drawing on the back, working over the entire surface with the restaurant's black ballpoint. The waiter returned long before he finished, and Viktor had to request another check. He said, \"We're having this one embellished.\"\n\nCollin kept his head down, scribing the paper, so small and flimsy, cross-hatching his shadows, exhausting the pen's ink supply. Viktor watched with mild interest. Nina held her breath.\n\n\"Here.\" Unsmiling, Collin handed Viktor his drawing.\n\nViktor squinted at the drawing, holding it close and then farther away.\n\nNina plucked Viktor's reading glasses from his breast pocket. \"Put these on.\"\n\nViktor sensed his daughter's eagerness, her tremendous hope as the drawing came into focus. \"Look at that,\" he said gently. \"It's the ouroboros.\"\n\nCollin had drawn the dragon exactly as he appeared in EverWhen. Slinky, snarky, with evil needle-teeth. Somehow, even in ballpoint, the ouroboros took on a silvery sheen, scales delicately rendered, claws distinct, serpentine body curled around a treasure chest overflowing with gold coins. The dragon's head was long and vicious, jaws bloodied, eyes rolling backward in ecstatic pain as it devoured its own tail. Collin had used every millimeter, puncturing the paper more than once.\n\nNow, as Viktor held the drawing between his thumb and forefinger, he saw Collin for the first time. Here was a young man who could dash off a perfect dragon in five minutes, drunk. This was a prodigious act of illustration\u2014not only lively but anatomically correct. Did Collin have total recall of the dragon's five claws? Had he studied the beast's twenty-one spikes descending in size down his back? Viktor looked over the top of his reading glasses at Collin. \"What other monsters did you say you draw?\"\n\n\"All of them.\"\n\nViktor considered his own empire and the myriad creatures in it. No one could remember all of them, let alone draw each one from memory.\n\nEven so, Collin boasted, \"I can draw anything.\"\n\nViktor smiled as he studied the fierce dragon in his hands.\n\nCome on, Dad, thought Nina. Say it. He's an artist.\n\nViktor made her wait. He loved pleasing Nina. Pretending he cared about her friends was much less satisfying. Even so, he liked the dragon's looping body\u2014back arching, scales spiking. Collin had caught the monster's self-destroying spirit. \"It's good,\" he said, at last.\n\nNina was almost too glad. \"It would have been even better with a decent pen.\"\n\n\"I don't like pen in general.\" Collin's face was flushed. \"I like to work in chalk. Chalk is pretty much my forte, because you can do so much with dust.\"\n\n\"I can understand that,\" Viktor said. \"I do a lot of work with dust.\"\n\nCollin nodded. \"I like smudging colors, and layering.\"\n\n\"I want to show you something,\" Viktor said.\n\n\u2014\n\nThey drove out to Waltham in Viktor's little BMW, Nina and her father in the front, Collin folded queasily in back. The car was hardly meant for passengers. Hostages, maybe, with their legs trussed up around their ears.\n\nIt was a wet February night, as they sped past glass hotels and low-slung office parks. Viktor was talking to Nina in a low voice and Collin couldn't hear the conversation. He felt like cargo, until Nina turned around to look at him. She looked excited as a child.\n\nWhen they arrived, Collin saw that Arkadia had grown since he and Darius had visited as kids. Like a space colony, its polygonal buildings extended on and on into the night.\n\nThere were the usual glass doors and guards. There was a guest book, and Collin got a sticky name tag printed VISITOR. There were desks and workstations. There was a glass atrium set up as a caf\u00e9. However, on examination, every ordinary feature seemed a little strange. Glass doors darkened as visitors passed through. A life-size sculpture of Toth, the mountain king, loomed over the salad bar, commanding attention with his bear's head and great clawed paws.\n\nViktor led the way through clusters of cubicles. Corporate enough, but as they walked, the cubicles grew larger, and their gray walls taller. It was like entering a forest. With each step, Arkadia grew darker. Programmers clustered at monitors like moths to flames. As his eyes adjusted, Collin saw bits of EverWhen on each monitor, fragments of the Trackless Wood, Elves battling tarry monsters.\n\n\"Where's Peter?\" Viktor asked. Despite the late hour, Arkadia was full of people. It might have been the middle of the day. \"Anyone seen Peter?\"\n\nEmployees looked up, startled by the sudden visit. They seemed almost afraid to answer. \"I saw him heading over there,\" one woman ventured.\n\n\"Hello?\" Viktor was standing before a self-contained room, a windowless cabin in the darkness. He opened the door to a cube insulated and baffled with wavy black foam, a music studio dominated by huge black speakers. There were multiple electric guitars, black piano keyboards, giant computer screens. A burly, bearded man was sitting there, reading a printed book to a little boy in pajamas, visible on his monitor.\n\n\"That's Nicholas,\" Nina whispered to Collin. \"He's a sound engineer.\"\n\nNicholas spun around in his swivel chair to greet them. He wore a Jerry Garcia T-shirt and his voice was husky. He looked like a retired football player, and he sounded like a rocker before his first cup of coffee. \"Bedtime story for my kid.\"\n\n\"Go on, go on!\" Viktor encouraged him.\n\n_\"Of course the Neverland had been make-believe in those days,\"_ read Nicholas, _\"but it was real now...\"_ He waved as his visitors backed out, shutting the heavy door behind them.\n\nStranger and stranger, Arkadia glowed with Whennish light. Viktor led Collin and Nina into a misty corridor. Ethereal shapes appeared, insubstantial from a distance, overwhelming up close. Collin flinched as a dark leopard approached with golden eyes. A few steps farther, he nearly tripped over a bloody giant lying at his feet. Craggy mountains rose up in the distance. He could see an EXIT sign and then the outlines of a door embedded in the rock face, but the door itself was bursting into flame.\n\n\"Nina,\" Collin whispered. Dazzled, he was looking everywhere at once, but she looked at him alone.\n\n\"There's so much more,\" Nina told him.\n\nCollin watched in awe as Nina walked through each illusion. She was the magician's daughter, and mountains shattered, dragons shrank before her. Monsters turned to dust motes in her wake.\n\nThey walked into another dark space, a labyrinth of tall black walls, each workstation a peephole, a glimpse of river, a dark cavern, or white bats. Curious, the nearest animators glanced up at Viktor. \"These are our hellions,\" Viktor said. \"And this is Peter, their developer.\"\n\nA tall man pushed his swivel chair away from his desk.\n\nPeter was ten years younger, his brother's partner, but not quite his equal. Viktor's technology drove the company and much of the marketplace as well. Peter's role as developer, scheduler, manager, and coordinator of every team at UnderWorld was secondary. Nevertheless, Peter had powers of his own. Storyteller, Gorey winner, he was Arkadia's chief geographer, historian, world-builder. The press called him the Dark Lord, while Viktor was simply CEO.\n\nCollin was amazed by Peter's height, his leonine body, his long dark hair and glowing eyes, more gold than brown, like liquid amber. Collin couldn't help staring, but Peter looked at his niece alone.\n\nViktor said, \"Here's our artist, Nina's friend.\"\n\n\"Any friend of Nina's,\" Peter said.\n\nNervous, Nina tried to read her uncle's face, and he gazed back, amused. He was mesmerizing, strange. He had performed card tricks for Nina when she was small. Coin tricks, sleight of hand. He had told stories of blood and magic, seven brothers sewing wings into their flesh as they turned into swans, princesses dismembering frogs. He had taught her the violence in fairy tales, and the cruelty of dragonflies. If he built a sand castle with Nina, he'd show her how to build a siege ramp too. And then there came a time when she rejected him. She had watched him enchant young artists and then throw their work away. She had seen him in the recording booth with Julianne. He had never touched her friend, but she'd caught his predatory gaze.\n\n\"He's not just any artist,\" Nina said, and Peter heard the warning in her voice: Don't hurt him. Don't dismiss him.\n\nPeter turned to Collin. \"What kind of artist are you?\"\n\n\"Any kind you want.\"\n\nYou're cute, Peter thought. Eager, insubstantial. \"What if I want Rembrandt?\"\n\nHis questions nettled Collin. They were insistent, but idle as well. Peter leaned back against the edge of a cubicle and his whole body seemed to say, I'm already bored with you. \"I couldn't _be_ Rembrandt,\" Collin said, \"but I could draw a Rembrandt.\"\n\n\"So you're not an artist. You're a copyist.\"\n\n\"I'm both.\" Asshole, Collin added silently.\n\nPeter led the way to a huge whiteboard. Covering half a wall, its surface was adorned with diagrams and flow charts, doodles and sketches.\n\nCollin frowned. He hated dry-erase markers, their scanty ink, their faded colors and anemic lines. He was up for anything\u2014but how could he show Peter what he could do?\n\nPeter seemed to read his mind. He dipped his finger in the aluminum chalk tray at the bottom of the board, and the white surface, along with all its graffiti, disappeared, changing to pure glossy black. Then he handed Collin a pair of plastic styluses, one thick, one thin. \"You've got your colors here.\" Peter showed Collin the array of colored squares in the chalk tray. \"Just dip the stylus.\" Peter demonstrated with a quick sketch of the girl from EverSea. Collin recognized Nina immediately, ten, maybe eleven, with her hair falling over her shoulders.\n\nNina had never told Collin that Peter could draw. The sketch was simple and unshaded, just a line drawing in silver, and yet it conveyed a kind of magic. Peter's hand was so light, the expression on Nina's face so tender.\n\nPeter cleared the board with a brush of his hand. \"Okay, let's see what you can do.\"\n\nTentatively, Collin touched the electronic chalk tray with the thin stylus and saw the tip turn green. He touched the board and left a dot. As he applied pressure his dot expanded into a green pool, a lake.\n\nHe had never played with an electronic board like this. He drew one line and then another. He scribbled with the wireless chalk, and the board picked up his slightest gesture, responding to his every touch. He could dip into any of a hundred colors, and try a thousand shades. He met with no resistance, and no crumbling. With ordinary chalk he would layer, fuss, and wet his sticks to produce saturated color; here his tints were luminous each time.\n\nLines came fast; color flowed endlessly. The trouble was the surface felt so slick. He was like a runner trying ice skates for the first time. He could not control his strokes. Every time he tried, his stylus glided out from under him. He had to erase, brushing away his blunders with his hand. \"Shit. Sorry!\" he murmured. \"I'm not...\" He tried again, and then again, and all the time he sensed Peter growing colder.\n\nNina turned on her uncle. \"Why can't he have pen and paper?\"\n\n\"What are those?\" Peter replied.\n\n\"Take your time,\" said Viktor, enjoying the sport.\n\nCollin knew he couldn't take his time. He had to figure this out _now._ He had about half a minute before Peter lost interest altogether.\n\nShut them out, he thought, as he glared at the glossy board. Viktor, Peter. Even Nina. He had to forget her hopes for him. Lighten your strokes. Limit yourself. Keep the stylus under you. Don't overdraw.\n\nHe began an easy dragon, an ordinary fire-eater with rolling eyes and iridescent wings. He drew the dragon big, working its undulating body across the length of the board. Then he drew a dragon's nest. He didn't try for every detail; he practiced with the thick stylus until he had the nest just right. Now he drew a dragon with its breath aflame. With his thin stylus he added scales and claws, jagged, sooty teeth.\n\nBuilding confidence, he drew faster. A phoenix swooping through the air. A silver falcon. Then, tiring of birds and flying monsters, he brushed them away with his arm, erasing with his shirtsleeve.\n\n\"Oh.\" Nina sighed. Collin's drawings bloomed like fireworks, dazzling and brief.\n\n\"Don't worry,\" Viktor said, because the board saved each image, captured every stroke.\n\nCollin drew Gnomes and Fire Elves, forest creatures, deer camouflaged in trees. He still slipped, but he corrected quickly. He understood the surface now. With each drawing, Collin grew bolder; his work grew more precise. The board changed into a shimmering landscape and the room began to change as well. He sensed hellions gathering to watch.\n\nPeter stood among them and he felt a rush of jealous pleasure\u2014surprise at Collin's skill, admiration of his line. When Peter glanced at Nina she met his eye as if to say, You see?\n\nHellions stood in silence as Collin drew a riderless horse, a stallion tossing its long mane and tail. He didn't know there was a horse in UnderWorld. He only knew he had an audience.\n\nHe drew the horse huge, devouring the wall. He was working freely now with his whole arm. Galloping across the blackboard, Collin's horse was fearsome, and also strangely beautiful. In silver lines alone, in two dimensions only, Collin animated the horse's corded muscles, its powerful legs, and flying feet. Intent on his work, he couldn't see Nina's rapt expression or Viktor's triumphant smile. He saw none of this, but he sensed Peter drawing closer. Now I have you, Collin thought.\n\nWhen Collin finished he stepped back amid a rustling, a whispering from the crowd. A mix of admiration and foreboding, because Collin's horse was better than the one in UnderWorld. More powerful, more dynamic, and subtler too. The horse they had appeared cartoonish in comparison. The hellions knew, before Peter said a word. They saw fresh art coming, long days and sleepless nights ahead. They saw it all, even before Peter pointed to Collin's stallion and said, \"I want that.\"\n\nWhen Collin started working at Arkadia, he collected enough company T-shirts, caps, ear warmers, and fleece vests to outfit everyone in Theater Without Walls. He got his own Arkadian backpack and water bottle and high-fidelity headphones for blasting music late at night. He had never seen so many gaming toys\u2014not just electronics, but miniatures of every beast and warrior. He could have played for hours with the Elves, no bigger than toy soldiers, but far more beautiful, with their blue hair and meticulously painted clothes. Some carried longbows, some knelt to shoot atop computer monitors, some guarded keyboards, brandishing their needle swords. Once, at night, he stumbled upon an entire squadron lined up in formation on the floor.\n\nEach day, Collin discovered something new, a funhouse mirror, a hall wallpapered in a skull print. Ping-Pong, foosball, mini basketball. He found a cache of real skeletons, an art book on Michelangelo, a war room with a map of the world projected on the wall. In this map's glow, a handful of troubleshooters manned workstations, watching for power outages and natural disasters that could short-circuit Arkadia's network and interrupt players' negotiations and alliances, their qwests and feuds.\n\nThe place was scientific and theatrical. Meetings addressed the physics of an avalanche, the look and feel of UnderWorld's caverns, the speed of flaming arrows, the way a castle might explode. Testers reported back on lags. For example, when you were mowing down your enemies in battle, you wanted them to fall before you instantly. Death throes were fun to watch when you were fighting one-on-one, but in the aggregate they dragged. Speed, fluidity, efficiency: These weren't just computational problems, they were artistic problems too. You could accelerate a war with visual shortcuts. \"Know your history,\" Peter said, and he showed classic sequences from World of Warcraft and Call of Duty and Grand Theft Auto.\n\nA long-haired archivist named Robbie presided over a cache of antique Game Boys, X-Boxes, and arcade consoles. He told Collin, \"I played Pong before you were born.\"\n\nTempted, Collin studied the library of boxed classics, everything from American McGee's Alice to the Bitmap Brothers' Z. Myst, with its subtle island veiled in cloud. Reluctantly, he turned away. He saw how people worked, watched Peter deliver schedules and agendas. UnderWorld was a vast construction project, a virtual cathedral. Animators, modelers, and programmers all scrummed together in small pods, and together the pods built up the game.\n\nHe had signed and initialed a thirty-page contract filled with references to company ownership, licensing, and intellectual property. He had taught his final class at Broadway Bicycle, and waited his last tables at Grendel's. Samantha presented him with her bartender's business card. \"Hey, think of me for parties.\"\n\nParties! He wasn't thinking about parties. He was living, breathing, dreaming horses. He drew them in silhouette, in small black thumbnails, racing, turning, leaping on his slate. Peter judged each variant\u2014one small and muscular like a mustang, one massive, one slender, built to run. He chose elements he liked and Collin worked up a detailed study, a horse noble but also wild, with dark, rolling eyes, broad shoulders, nervous ears, rough mane and tail.\n\nIf Peter approved an image you were golden. More often, he dismissed his artists' work. These were not quiet critiques, nor were they cushioned with encouragement. Peter used group meetings to tear into artists, ripping them apart. Hellions called it getting drawn and quartered.\n\n\"I didn't think this could get worse,\" Peter told an artist named Akosh. \"Somehow you found a way.\"\n\nCollin watched with twenty others as Peter stood at the whiteboard and destroyed an entire winter landscape, gorgeous trees knee-deep in snow. He slashed the forest through with one black stroke.\n\n\"It's pale, it's soft, it's _pretty,_ \" Peter said, and Collin saw that \"pretty\" was a felony.\n\n\"As for you...\" Peter cleared the board and brought up a sketch by an artist named Obi. \"You call this a knight? I asked for rust. I told you his sword is filthy. What is this shit?\" With his stylus Peter roughened armor, bloodied the knight's gleaming weapon.\n\n\"I'll change it,\" Obi said.\n\n\"Don't change it. Start over.\"\n\n\"Okay.\"\n\nObi's conciliatory tone only irritated Peter further. \"Okay. Okay, I'll change it. _No._ Don't tell me what you think I want to hear. Do it right the first time.\"\n\nObi ventured, \"I thought you wanted the knight first and then we'd modify it.\"\n\nPeter didn't answer this. He stood there staring at Obi until the hapless artist had to look away. \"I'm not interested in what you thought,\" Peter said at last. He seemed at that moment a monarch, denying all history and memory. Nothing mattered but his current inclination.\n\n\"He's harsh,\" Collin told Nina.\n\nHer reply surprised him. \"That's good. You know where you stand.\"\n\n\"Have you ever heard him?\" Collin asked in disbelief.\n\nShe nodded. \"Praise is worse.\"\n\n\"Why?\"\n\n\"That's where he messes with your mind.\"\n\nIn fact Peter had singled Collin out for commendation. \"Okay,\" he said when Collin showed him his new horses. Collin could scarcely believe it. Compared to what he'd heard, \"okay\" seemed a precious gem. He treasured that single word for days. \"Could be interesting,\" Peter added on another occasion, and Collin wanted to leap with joy. He remembered Nina's words, but Peter didn't lavish praise on Collin. Instead, he lavished time.\n\nPeter began watching Collin work, and even guiding Collin as he drew. \"More sinew. Ears back. Neck outstretched,\" he directed, as Collin made mid-course corrections.\n\nOther hellions watched Peter work with Collin. True, Collin stood out as a draftsman. Some artists could talk about procedural shaders and facial animation systems. Some could sculpt a gorgeous scene with aeroflakes. But nobody could draw like Collin. As Peter's favorite, he didn't win friends, but gradually he earned respect. Arkadians would crowd around at lunch to see his horses, and he began posting sketches on his cubicle walls.\n\nIn those early days he took his slate and stylus everywhere. He worked at home and at lunch, and even on the company shuttle bus. In the seat next to him, Collin's Brazilian scrum master, Tomas, watched a horse emerge white against the black surface of the slate. Behind them, Akosh leaned over the back of Collin's seat, as did Obi, whose chestnut hair flowed almost to his waist, in the style of the Elvish kings. Only one person on the shuttle held herself apart. It seemed a matter of pride. She wouldn't let Collin catch her watching.\n\nHer name was Daphne. She had just graduated from Full Sail University, and she worked in marketing. Her face was impudent, her dark hair cropped short. Her eyes were pure blue, her expression mocking. She wore black jeans and a CU sweatshirt, so she was all covered up, whether at her desk, or gaming late at night. Only her hands showed, and Collin found himself gazing at the flowers tattooed on her wrists. The petals were finely drawn, as if they'd been scribed in India ink. He wondered who had done the work, and if the design continued up her arms.\n\nDaphne wasn't a programmer, and she wasn't an artist, and she wasn't really a tester, but she was a brilliant gamer. Like a chess master, she could play multiple games at once. She would stand in a pool of light with her avatars lit up around her as she showed off unreleased UnderWorld to the select few\u2014those beta gamers she found most extreme, all kids, all boys.\n\nFluid as a dancer, she darted in and out of worlds. No hellion could beat her in a duel. Nobody even came close, and Collin loved to watch her take her colleagues down. She took such pleasure in it; you couldn't begrudge her gloating. Sometimes she would take a bow. Peter liked to watch as well, and this was the other thing that fascinated Collin. Peter was the only one who rattled Daphne. In his presence her whole body tensed. She shot her virtual arrows and she missed. No one was immune to Nina's uncle. No one except Nina herself\u2014but then she didn't work for him.\n\nHellions feared Peter, but they also worshipped him, waiting for him as he strode the halls, following him with questions. They competed for answers and decisions, but most of all for Peter's sketches. His vision was dark and strange and always new. He never developed drawings; he left his sketches bare and suggestive, a landscape ever so subtly wrong, an imminent nightmare. These were the challenges he set his artists, and then he wondered why they couldn't read his mind.\n\nCollin began to see what Peter was about. Nina's uncle detested all things shiny, perfect, new. He was building a world of darkness, decay, infection, and Collin adapted quickly to this vision. He drew Peter to him with his facility and speed, and soon Peter was thinking out loud while Collin took down ideas on his slate. \"A white dragon,\" Peter said. As Collin sketched, Peter ordered, \"Keep the wings and lose the scales. No. Scales on the body. Open wings. Keep opening.\" Collin drew wings opening big enough to fill a room. \"Bigger,\" Peter said. \"Wings big enough to block the sun.\" An hour passed, but it felt like just a minute. Collin's drawing evolved that fast.\n\nThen Peter lost interest and demanded something new. \"Two horses,\" he said, as though he were ordering at a restaurant. When Collin drew the horses, Peter rejected them instantly. \"What are they, twins? Nobody can tell them apart. Again.\"\n\nCollin looked up, startled.\n\n\"I said draw them again.\"\n\nPeter never let up, but Collin realized this was a sign of favor. He had won Peter's attention.\n\nAll the others noticed. Jealous, they watched Collin draw for Peter. Even Daphne gave up acting cool and hovered, challenging Collin for Peter's time. She caught Peter's attention when she reported news of her campaign. \"We've got CU trending now.\" She held up a tablet, offering him fresh numbers.\n\nWhenever Peter worked with Collin, she waited on the periphery. Eventually she began looking at Collin's work. She started glancing and then she began watching him at night when she thought he wasn't looking. At last she scooted her swivel chair to his workstation to gaze at the horses on his monitor.\n\n\"Seriously?\" she said under her breath.\n\n\"What?\"\n\nHe watched her struggle with herself. She wouldn't compliment him. No, she would not give him the satisfaction. \"Is that all you can do?\"\n\n\"Jealous?\" Collin teased.\n\n\"You wish!\"\n\nHe didn't know Daphne, but her trash talk amused him. He felt chosen by them both\u2014Peter the master, and Daphne the marketer. But they were different. Peter demanded while Daphne teased. Peter pushed while Daphne bantered. There was something hard about Daphne, and also sweet. He felt at ease with her, and confused by her as well. He couldn't tell what she really thought of him.\n\nAlmost unconsciously he began sketching Daphne on his electronic slate, covering the surface with her clever face, her cropped hair and wide blue eyes. He drew Daphne working at her terminal with her legs tucked under her. He drew her in Elvish guise, delicate in thin draperies, and then he sketched her gaming like a boy, brandishing an imaginary sword.\n\n\"What are you doing?\" she said.\n\n\"Nothing. Drawing you.\"\n\nShe drew close and closer. He could feel her quick breath. Then she brushed his slate clean with the cuff of her sleeve. \"I never said you could.\"\n\n\"I didn't know I had to ask!\"\n\n\"Yeah, I'm copyright.\"\n\n\"You can't copyright yourself.\"\n\n\"Well, you have to ask permission.\"\n\n\"Why? I don't need permission to look at you,\" Collin pointed out.\n\n\"Yes, you do.\" For just a moment, she covered his eyes with her small hand.\n\nHe laughed.\n\n\"What?\" she demanded, mock seriously.\n\n\"You really want me to stop drawing you?\"\n\nShe had a smile too quick to capture. Her eyes shone with fun. \"I want to play with you.\"\n\nThe first time they fought in EverWhen, she was a Fire Elf and Collin was a Forest Elf. They fought with spears, and in two blows Daphne cut Collin down, dismembered him, and left him for dead.\n\n\"Once more,\" Collin said.\n\nThey fought with cudgels and he landed only one glancing blow before she knocked Collin to the ground and brained him.\n\nThe third time they clashed swords. They stood on the banks of a crystal stream, and Collin forced Daphne into the water, but once again she was too fast for him. In one swift move, she slashed his arm and then drove her blade through his Elf's chest. The purling water turned blood red.\n\n\"Just one more time,\" he said.\n\n\"Go practice.\"\n\nHe felt a flash of anger, but it lasted only for an instant. Luminous in the Arkadian darkness, she disarmed him.\n\nDaphne was like girls he had once known. A little selfish, a little dangerous. She liked to play; she liked to drink. After long days, Obi and Akosh and Collin and Daphne would go out drinking after work. \"The bars of Waltham,\" Daphne intoned. They would sit together at O'Riley's, joking, and it was like the old days, when he could leave his work behind, and no one wondered where he was at night. Not that he wanted his old life. He knew the difference between odd jobs and full employment. He understood the difference between lust and love, and he wanted what lasted. Of course he did. But the \"of course\" part rankled. How strict and narrow real life turned out to be. Of course you wanted a career. Of course you wanted to be with the girl so much better than you it wasn't even funny. But he missed being funny and stupid and irresponsible.\n\nHe was Collin, even in Arkadia. Especially in Arkadia. He got drunk enough to flirt with Daphne. He drank enough to be himself, pushing her sleeves up off her wrists, catching a glimpse of ink. Most people flaunted their tattoos. Strangely modest, or perversely teasing, Daphne kept hers covered up.\n\n\"What kind of leaves are these?\" He studied her forearms.\n\n\"Laurels,\" she said. \"Duh.\"\n\n\"Show me.\"\n\nShe slipped off her barstool and said, \"You'd have to beat me first.\"\n\nThen Obi and Akosh were laughing as though she'd said something witty, but she meant it, and handed Collin a pool cue. He wasn't bad, but she was lethal with her angles, maddening, and also cute, undeniably funny when she triumphed over him. \"Ha!\" She raised her cue like a Whennish spear. \"I'm so much better than you!\"\n\n\u2014\n\nOver days and weeks, Collin drew a hundred horses. Hoofbeats thundered in his ears. Even when he closed his eyes for a few minutes, he dreamed of horses. He slept on the hellions' black leather couch and saw his horses racing on the beach, kicking sand in the salt air. Then he dreamed of Daphne\u2014a strange Arkadian dream. Leaves unfolded on her slender arms, stems and tendrils crept over her neck. Shocked, he watched her disappear. Her ears changed to budding twigs, her nipples hardened into berries. Her limbs were smooth and silvery, her toes rooted to the ground. Those were not her eyes anymore, but birds sheltering in her branches. That was not her mouth, but a dark nest with fledglings where her tongue had been.\n\n\u2014\n\nGradually Nina saw a haze come over Collin. That spring he was exhausted. Not just a little sleepy, spent. Often when they met for dinner he was too tired to talk, certainly too tired to draw on kraft paper. Sometimes he was too tired to eat. They met at Grafton Street and ordered a Margherita pizza, but his slices grew cold.\n\n\"How's your hand?\" Nina said.\n\n\"It's fine. It hurts.\"\n\n\"Is it hurting now?\"\n\n\"No. It's not too bad.\"\n\nShe said, \"We've got spring fever at school.\" She had been teaching William Carlos Williams to her eleventh graders. \"This Is Just to Say\" and \"Burning the Christmas Greens\" and \"Spring and All.\" \"My student had a baby,\" she told Collin. \"Brynna had a baby girl.\"\n\nCollin smiled. Nina was so beautiful and he was so relieved to see her. She was like home; she took him back.\n\n\"Collin?\"\n\nHe'd drifted off only for a moment.\n\nNina said, \"You can't work all day and all night too.\"\n\n\"I don't.\"\n\nShe leaned across the table. \"Don't let them wear you down.\"\n\n\"Don't lecture me.\"\n\nThat offended her, not just his words, but his cold tone.\n\nIn silence, he paid for dinner. In silence, Nina handed him the leftover pizza in a box. When they walked outside the night was misty, fogging the windows of Harvard Book Store. The spring air woke him, but Nina was angry. He knew it, even though she didn't say it. He knew because she didn't speak.\n\n\"I wasn't lecturing,\" Nina said at last.\n\n\"Yes, you were. That's what you do.\" He had to get away; he had to rest. He would have canceled dinner, except that he'd have disappointed her.\n\nShe looked at him and sensed something was wrong. \"You never draw anymore.\"\n\nHe said, \"I draw all day.\"\n\n\"And you're tired of it now.\"\n\n\"No, I'm just tired.\"\n\n\"You should have said you were too tired to meet me.\"\n\n\"You'd be upset.\"\n\n\"Like I am now?\"\n\n\"Yeah, because I never see you anymore, or I'm working so much that I ignore you.\"\n\n\"I never said that.\"\n\n\"That's what you were thinking.\"\n\n\"Don't tell me what I've been thinking.\"\n\n\"Don't make such a big deal out of everything.\"\n\nTears started in her eyes.\n\nWhat am I doing? Collin thought. Why did he want to hurt her? \"No,\" he said softly.\n\n\"No what?\" Nina asked.\n\n\"Just don't cry.\"\n\nShe took a long breath.\n\n\"I don't forget you. I could close my eyes and draw your face.\" With his finger he traced her profile on the frosty bookstore window. With one curving line he captured her forehead, her straight nose, her decided chin, her long neck. In one more stroke he drew her hair flowing down over her shoulders. \"You're the one who can't remember.\"\n\nShe gazed at her image, a portrait in two lines, the work of a moment, subtle, ephemeral. Collin had caught her likeness, but she found him in the glass as well. She saw his easy grace, his quicksilver imagination. \"I do remember,\" she said. \"That's why I miss you.\"\n\nNow he was creeping closer to the Gates. Digging into sludge with dragon's bone, Aidan's knight caught a glint of gold. He knelt to unearth a token for the ferry, which began gliding toward him, drawn by the bright coin. At last he boarded, crossing to the darker shore.\n\nDaphne didn't show herself, but he heard her voice as he jumped off the boat into thick mud. \"Look down,\" she called. \"Look down.\"\n\nAidan stared at his knight's legs. Leeches, long, black, and gelatinous, had torn his leggings and his boots away. He pulled them off, one after another, flung them away, but they snapped back, wrapping themselves around his arms and neck. Each place they sucked, an ooze of silver flowed and blackened. He dripped with tarnished phantom blood.\n\nInvisible, Daphne laughed as he finally threw the suckers off. He slashed them with his sword and they fell, curling like dark ribbons at the mucky river's edge.\n\nShe taunted him, but he was strong. Furious, he charged ahead and destroyed the next monster he saw, slaughtered a double-headed dog, slashing two throats with one stroke.\n\n\"Where are you?\" he called out to Daphne.\n\n\"Inside.\"\n\nHe stumbled through a marshy swamp, tripping over rocks, and roots, and fallen trees. He cut a path before him, but his sword dulled and slowed as he fought onward. In EverWhen you got stronger, earning more power and collecting more weapons in a qwest. In UnderWorld, you struggled as you advanced; your weapon failed you. The silver blackened on his blade, and his silvered arm tarnished as well.\n\nLight-headed, he played on, late into the night. His schoolbooks lay forgotten in the mud. Jack and Liam wanted to come over, but he told them no. Messages from his company in EverWhen remained unread.\n\nSmaller and smaller in the distance, the people he had known in real life. It was as if he'd left them on the riverbank. Their faces became indistinct and their voices died away. Diana was the last one he could hear. She threatened to tell their mother that he played all night, but he knew she wouldn't. Week after week she kept his secret. Their pact held, even as the wall between them turned to stone.\n\nHe battled demons while his sister slept and his mother worked her night shift at the hospital. He traveled leagues, and it was morning when at last he saw UnderWorld's horizon glowing red, a smudge of fire in the distance. Then, with new strength, he rushed through bog and bracken to arrive stunned, breathless, at massive gates with runic messages forged in iron. ABANDON HOPE he read, and pumped his fist. Yes! He had reached the gates of hell.\n\nSpringtime was an old movie outside. Loud daffodils and bright birds singing. Junior year was a recurring dream. For months he had done the minimum to avoid calls home. Dashed off lab reports, polished off math problems, filled bubbles on answer sheets. He learned the way he ate\u2014gulping down enough to get through the day. School was a holding pen, home a portal for the game.\n\n\"When can I see you?\" he asked Daphne the next night.\n\n\"Inside.\"\n\nHe pulled at the Gates' iron bars with no success. The metal warped and bent, refashioning itself into a massive Iron Man with slits for eyes. The Iron Man was twice the size of Aidan's knight. Under iron feet, the earth resounded like a drum. Aidan tried to fight, but with one blow, the Iron Man knocked him down and snapped his sword.\n\n\"Daphne!\" Aidan dropped his stump of a sword and struggled to his feet.\n\nThe Iron Man had no weapons. He killed with his body and his claws. Without even bending, he kicked Aidan's chest in.\n\nAidan could not recover from that blow. He watched the Iron Man pound his gaming body again and again. Black blood trickled from Aidan's mouth. \"Daphne,\" he called again. As if to silence him, the giant kicked Aidan's head off, and with a surge of nausea, Aidan watched his avatar's staring eyes freeze and his hair blacken in a fountain of blood.\n\nThe world went dark. \"Daphne!\"\n\nNo answer.\n\n\"Where am I?\"\n\n\"Inside.\" Her voice was hollow, echoey, as though she were hiding in a deep cave underground. Then he saw that the game was not altogether dark, but shadowy. He found himself in a new place, vast and wet. He heard the drip of water, and he began to make out the contours of cavern walls. He was ashen, from his bloody hair to his torn leather boots. With his two hands he tried to lift his head and screw it back in place. He got it on backward at first. His gaming vision blurred, and he almost lost his balance. He reached out with an arm to steady himself, and the stone walls buckled for a queasy moment before he got his head on straight.\n\n\"I'm over here.\"\n\nHe whipped around, starting a small avalanche of pebbles. He heard them pinging far below. Looking down he could not see the cavern floor, only ledges upon ledges, piled with guano.\n\n\"Careful.\"\n\nAt last. She leaned against the cavern wall. Her hair was white blond in the darkness, her leather bodice half unlaced.\n\n\"Who are you, really?\" he demanded.\n\n\"Daphne,\" she told him, for the thousandth time.\n\n\"Where do you live?\"\n\n\"Close.\"\n\nFor a moment he couldn't speak; he could scarcely breathe. He played with people from all over the world, and took huge distances for granted. He had never pictured her nearby. \"Please.\" He had to see her; he had to touch her; he couldn't wait.\n\nSlowly he stepped closer. Ever so slowly, he pulled the laces on her bodice, so that for an instant he saw her breasts, or at least the swollen image of her breasts exposed.\n\nHe heard a car and froze. Footsteps on the porch, a door opening. No, that was the other door. Priscilla, not his mother.\n\nIn that instant, Daphne turned away and laced herself up again.\n\nHe lifted his hand and watched himself touch her shoulder. She almost smiled as she looked back at him. He reached, but she escaped again. Sure-footed, she ran down the narrow ledge and vanished.\n\nScrambling after her, he found a long fissure in the rock, an entrance to another cave, not vast, but intimate, a cavern flickering with candles set into the hollows of the walls. He edged inside. \"Which way?\"\n\n\"Right in front of you.\"\n\nHe found her blocking the entrance to a tunnel absolutely dark.\n\n\"This is the way to the First Circle.\"\n\n\"Let me in.\"\n\n\"Why?\" she asked lightly. \"What's in it for me?\" Her teasing voice hurt after all this time qwesting.\n\n\"Nothing,\" he said.\n\n\"Then you can't go on.\" She sealed the entrance with a boulder, easily rolling the gigantic rock. \"You can wait for the release like everybody else.\"\n\n\"Don't go.\"\n\nIn his dreams she struggled, but she couldn't get away. Then he devoured her, ripping off her clothes, pushing himself inside her, biting her nipples until they bled. His dreams throbbed fast and hard as he licked her white skin and tasted her blood, sweet as metal. In his dreams she belonged to him, but in the game, he couldn't catch her.\n\nCaverns and candlelight disappeared. When she materialized again she was standing on a stone bridge, still out of reach. In EverWhen they'd played together. Now she played against him, toying with him, and he was confused by how much he wanted her, and how much he hated her. He sensed that she was using him, but he could not break free.\n\n\"Fight me.\" He bounded onto the bridge, brandishing his broken sword.\n\n\"You know what I want.\" Her voice was close, and slightly agitated, tempted by his intensity.\n\n\"You want me to paint.\" He watched her materialize, holding two weapons.\n\nShe tossed him a new sword, but before he could get a grip, she lunged and sliced his shoulder.\n\n\"See you in hell,\" he said.\n\n\"Write it out.\"\n\n\"If you win,\" he said, parrying her silver blade, \"I'll write it out. But if I win...\"\n\nShe grazed his ear with the knife edge of her blade.\n\n\"I get to see _you._ \" He slashed and severed her wrist. Her left hand fell to the cavern floor.\n\nShe kept her eyes on him as she bent to pick it up, but he was quicker, and he got there first, pocketing her white hand as his prize.\n\nStroke and counterstroke, they watched themselves bleed, clanging swords and breathing hard. They couldn't feel a thing, but they were gasping with each blow. \"See you...\" He pushed hard, driving her back against the wall. \"In real life.\"\n\nShe parried, but he cut her thigh in the gap between her leggings and her tall boots. Then in one fluid motion, he knocked her sword from her hands. \"I get to meet you,\" he said, drawing his dagger, plunging the point deep into her heart.\n\nIn the next room, Diana typed with books and papers spread out on her bed. _In my opinion Huckleberry Finn is a character whose morality is different from society but in a good way._ She picked up her paperback and leafed through it, looking for a quote. Lazare loved quotes, so Diana used as many as possible. The trouble was Lazare expected a lot of other things too. She had written out a rubric, also a series of step-by-step instructions, starting _1. Write with a sense of purpose._\n\nAs usual, her mother was knocking on her door. \"What?\"\n\n\"Hey, it's Aidan.\"\n\nDiana was so surprised she lost her place.\n\n\"Can I come in?\"\n\n\"I guess.\"\n\nHe closed the door behind him, even though their mother wasn't home. She stared as he took a seat on her desk chair, straddling it backward. \"I have to ask a favor.\"\n\n\"No.\"\n\n\"Wait, listen to me first.\"\n\n\"No,\" she repeated, just to annoy him. She missed him so much.\n\nThere were days Diana didn't talk to anyone at all. She woke and ate breakfast alone, walked to school alone, kept her head down in the halls. Brynna was still home with her new baby, and she was coming back to school at some point, but even when she talked about returning, she seemed far away, like a girl who'd died, promising to visit Earth again. Brynna had changed forever, no matter what she said. She was living this strange afterlife, sequestered with her parents and her newborn and a million stuffed animals and white china picture frames with wings and halos. She'd even named the baby Angela.\n\n\"Are you writing your paper?\" Aidan cast his eyes over the papers on Diana's bed.\n\n\"Obviously.\"\n\n\"When you finish, can I copy you?\"\n\nHe spoke without hesitation, but when Diana looked at him, he quavered just a moment. He'd left her far behind, but he still needed her. He ignored her, but she knew his secrets. She'd heard him whispering Daphne's name and talking about tagging walls at night. She'd listened as he crept downstairs. She'd seen his graffiti, the long chain of letters CUCU tagging the lobby of the school.\n\nNaturally, Diana had heard DeLaurentis lecture about defacing public property. She'd scrunched down in the auditorium, knees up on the seat back in front of her, and watched the principal exhort students to come forward with information. Diana had not come forward. That wasn't even a question in her mind. As far as property went, she hated school. As far as Aidan went, he was no criminal; or if he was a criminal on occasion, he was also a genius, mastering everything he tried. He had been the musical twin, the academic twin, the fantastic test-taking twin. He got the highest scores and he got into the worst trouble. When teachers talked about not fulfilling potential, they were just a little worried about Diana; Aidan was the one who really scared them. The gap between his performance and abilities was so huge.\n\n\"Can I?\" Aidan asked again.\n\n\"No! We'll get in trouble.\"\n\n\"Why? We're not even in the same class.\" Diana had Miss Lazare and he had Mrs. West.\n\n\"What are you talking about? We'll get caught and fail English. I'm not taking summer school.\"\n\n\"We won't get caught,\" Aidan insisted. \"And if we do, I'll take the blame.\"\n\n\"Don't you think Lazare and West compare their students' work?\"\n\n\"How would they have time for that?\"\n\n\"What do you mean? That's like their job. That's what teachers do.\"\n\n\"I always let you copy me,\" Aidan said.\n\nThis was true. More than once in elementary school, when Aidan had finished homework first, he'd handed over his word searches or long-division worksheets to Diana. \"Why do you want my paper now?\" she asked. \"You never asked before.\"\n\n\"I have to turn something in tomorrow.\"\n\n\"Just do it.\"\n\n\"I haven't read the book. I don't have time.\"\n\nDiana thought about the silver river in her brother's room. \"You've been playing that imaginary girl.\"\n\n\"She's not imaginary.\"\n\n\"You have an imaginary friend in a totally imaginary place.\" She spoke mockingly, but she also envied him. She wanted what Aidan had, crazy as that seemed. All through the winter she'd walked and run along the Charles. Panting, she had slogged through snow and ice, and now, in spring, through mud. She ran until her breath came hard and her feet ached, and sometimes even then, she could not outrun her loneliness. \"Let me play,\" she said.\n\n\"No way.\"\n\n\"Let me try.\"\n\n\"You've already tried EverWhen.\"\n\n\"No, the new one.\"\n\n\"I can't. It's secret. It's not even on sale.\"\n\n\"I want to see it.\"\n\n\"Why?\"\n\nShe sprang off her bed. \"I want to see where you live. Come on.\"\n\n\"I can't.\"\n\nShe loved that she could make him nervous. \"I'll let you copy, if you let me play.\"\n\n\u2014\n\n\"You can't tell anyone about it,\" he warned, as he led the way into his room. \"And you can only play a little bit. You'll have to use my avatar. I can't give you a new one. Stand here. Just wait. Stand still.\"\n\nDiana wasn't listening. She was watching the game rise up around her. Great caves shadowed Aidan's walls, dark passageways came into focus, and suddenly a flight of tiny animals. She sprang back as a thousand white bats swooped down upon her.\n\n\"That's you,\" said Aidan, pointing to a ghostly knight, ducking and weaving in the onslaught. \"You can fight off these bats with your sword. Lift your right hand.\"\n\nShe lifted her right hand and saw her weapon. When she slashed her sword, the bats screamed around her, and their red blood spattered. Startled, she stopped moving, and the creatures swarmed her ghostlike body, biting and ripping at her neck, arms, and face. She covered her eyes as Aidan warned, \"Don't drop the sword.\"\n\nToo late. More and more bats attacked her, flying mice with tiny vampire fangs. They covered her entire body. Whenever she moved, the creatures moved with her, a mass of squirming bodies and red eyes. She swatted at her face, and watched herself knocking bats away.\n\nHer stomach lurched when she saw what was left of her avatar. The bats had eaten half the knight's flesh away, but they had not exposed muscle or bone. No, their attack revealed something else, another creature, an elongated nose, black eyes, wide-set, rolling independently. An ear, unfolding like a leaf from the raw patch where the knight's ear had been, and from his forehead, nubs of horns. Doubled over now, she heard Aidan calling to her.\n\nHer image doubled over too, and shook the bats away as human limbs morphed into four legs. She was changing into a deer. She could reach out and almost touch her other self, the doe hovering before her, pale flanks foaming, ears twitching, body quivering with a strange, borrowed life.\n\nAidan said, \"Don't throw up in my room.\"\n\n\"I won't!\" She felt hot and tearful all the same. As she tried to catch her breath, she lifted her head, and saw the deer prick up her ears. Her head was small, her neck long and delicate, her legs slender. How beautiful she was. Heart pounding, adrenaline racing through her body, she couldn't take her eyes off her deer-self.\n\nA clanging echo in the cavern, great footsteps like giants walking. A jolt of fear. How could she escape?\n\n\"Aidan!\" she pleaded.\n\nHe knelt and closed a black box, a console without buttons. As he screwed top to bottom, the deer vanished, along with swirling bats. The bloodstained cavern melted, and Aidan's walls emerged again, his foil-covered window, his bookcase, his floor strewn with dirty clothes.\n\nDiana sank onto the bed.\n\nHe looked at her anxiously. He couldn't copy her essay if she couldn't write. \"Are you okay?\"\n\n\"That was sick.\"\n\n\"I know.\"\n\nShe closed her eyes and leaned back against the wall. \"I'm seeing spots.\"\n\n\"They go away.\"\n\n\"I can see them with my eyes open.\" The spots were small and bright like fireflies, but they didn't last.\n\nShe had a strong stomach. She could read on long car rides. She did fine in boats. After a few minutes, Diana sat up on the edge of his bed. \"That was seriously the most nauseating thing I've ever seen. Can I play again?\"\n\n\"You promised. You can't change your mind now.\"\n\n\"I was kidding. God!\"\n\nHe didn't see the joke. She didn't care about the game, she didn't care about the copying; she cared about him.\n\n\"It's late,\" he said.\n\nShe asked, \"Is this like the first thing you're going to turn in all year?\"\n\nHe opened the door. \"Get started.\"\n\n\"Stop panicking!\"\n\nShe returned to her room, gathered up computer, rubric, paperback, and descended to the kitchen. There, beneath the apple clock, she ate half a bag of pretzels as she pounded out three pages. She was writing with a sense of purpose now, and words came easily. She laid on the quotations. She expatiated on Huck Finn's personal morality. She even threw in Lazare's favorite word, _ironically._ _Huck Finn decided to go to Hell but for a good cause which ironically shows some things are more important than what you believe society wants you to do._\n\nThat year school went on almost forever. To make up for snow days, the district mandated extra class time straight through the end of June. Kids pulled together their portfolios, and, without warning, the weather changed from cold to scorching. Bees flew in through the open windows of Emerson's un-air-conditioned classrooms. Kids brought miniature spray-bottle fans, and Mr. DeLaurentis had to announce that these devices were for personal use only, which caused some snickering. You could spray yourself, but not your girlfriend.\n\nThen, just when it got too hot to do anything, it started pouring. It rained so hard the morning of the annual Antrim Street Block Party that the yard sale had to move indoors to the Presbyterian church. It was still drizzling a couple of hours later, and people carried umbrellas for the garden tour. Maia led neighbors through Antrim's secret gardens, lush oases behind closely built houses.\n\nGazing at her neighbors' crimson roses, their hidden lawns, and flowering ginkgos, Kerry wished that she had time to tend her own overgrown patch, or money to afford a gardener. Long ago she had imagined that her children would help her. Together as a family they would clear away the dead branches and the big weeds and sow new grass. \"Apart from seeing friends, no teenager will go outside,\" Maia had warned her, and Kerry understood that now, as she did so many other things.\n\nWhen evening came and neighbors cordoned Antrim off with orange traffic cones, the street began its transformation. Lois strung sparkling lights through oak branches. Sage set up camping tables. Neighbors carried out their lawn chairs and their salad bowls piled high with fruit or pasta, watermelon slices, bulgur wheat. There were casseroles, and bags of pretzels, and roasting pans filled with deep-fried cauliflower. Greg played his banjo, and his new girlfriend, Nella, joined him on her flute. Preschoolers ran in a pack and were thrilled to draw chalk pictures where they couldn't play on any other day, the middle of the street.\n\nLike moths Aidan and Diana materialized, pale, in the fading light. Diana hovered near the grilled portobello mushrooms and listened to her mother and Maia go on about the year the whole street flooded. Remember that?\n\n\"You and Aidan were just two years old,\" said Kerry. \"The basement filled with water.\"\n\n\"That was the worst flood I've ever seen,\" said Maia. \"That was build-an-ark-type rain. Collin and Darius took a kayak and paddled down the street.\"\n\nLois was testing out her photos for the slideshow, even as Greg fixed the screen, a white sheet strung from the great branches of a maple. \"Oh, God,\" said Diana, because there she was at four, riding her tricycle in a purple satin cape and a gold crown. \"I had to run behind you,\" Kerry said. \"I had to lift your cape, or it would get caught up in the wheels.\"\n\n\"And there's your brother, and there's Liam, and who's that? Jack?\" The boys must have been in kindergarten. They looked so small and delicate, standing shirtless, holding water balloons.\n\n\"Yeah, that was me,\" said Jack. He was helping his father, aka Scienceman, set up a giant gyroscope.\n\n\"I can't believe you still do that,\" Diana said.\n\n\"This is my community,\" Jack told her. \"There aren't a lot of block parties anymore.\"\n\nShe just stared. There was something so horribly sincere about him. She remembered her mother dragging her along with Aidan to watch Jack and his mom perform in the North Cambridge Family Opera as singing insects. What had he been? A dung beetle? Cricket? She concluded, \"You're just weird.\"\n\nJack told her, \"You're just mean.\"\n\nHis directness startled her. When he narrowed his blue eyes to look at her, she wanted to hurt him. \"My brother is completely bored with you,\" she blurted out.\n\nCoolly Jack said, \"Then you and I have something in common,\" and he left her standing there.\n\nPictures in the trees of Lois and her godchild from Uganda, the water fight when five boys got ahold of the Mednicks' garden hose.\n\n\"Hey, baby! Hey, Nina,\" Maia called out.\n\nDiana turned to look, and then she looked again at Nina. Of course teachers had first names and didn't live at school. Miss Lazare didn't sleep under her desk. Diana knew all this in theory, but it was a shock to see her teacher there.\n\nInstinctively, Diana shrank back as Nina and Collin approached the table for their drinks.\n\n\"Hi.\" Collin breezed by, but Miss Lazare gazed into Diana's eyes as though she could see inside of her.\n\n_What?_ Diana demanded silently. Instantly she felt huge and guilty.\n\nShe knows, Diana thought, even as Lazare walked on. She knows!\n\nDiana scanned the crowd. Old guys, couples drinking hard cider, mothers nursing babies in lawn chairs. Kids rumbling up and down in Big Wheels. There he was, sitting alone on their front steps.\n\n\"Aidan.\" She ran up to him.\n\n\"What?\"\n\n\"Lazare knows we cheated.\"\n\n\"No, she doesn't.\"\n\n\"Yes, she does.\"\n\n\"What did she say?\"\n\n\"Nothing. She just looked at me. It's obvious. They're all sitting at school comparing end-of-year portfolios.\"\n\nAidan dismissed this. \"Yeah, I don't think so.\"\n\n\"I'm serious.\"\n\nAidan stood up. \"You don't have to do anything. I take the blame and say I copied you.\"\n\n\"They're not going to believe that.\"\n\n\"They will if you let them.\"\n\nWalking down the street with Maia, Kerry saw her children standing in the soft light of her porch. \"They're really very close,\" she told Maia. She saw the conversation, but she couldn't hear the words.\n\nMaia said, \"And there you were, worrying all winter.\"\n\nQuietly Kerry said, \"You would have worried too.\"\n\n\"They come out of it. They start growing up eventually. Look at Collin!\"\n\nKerry flushed under her freckles. She could not share Maia's joy\u2014not while Collin worked at Arkadia. Yes, it was a full-time job. Yes, he had benefits. Yes, he could earn a living making art, but the thought sickened her. \"It's like working at a munitions factory.\"\n\n\"Kerry.\"\n\n\"I'm sorry. It's true.\" Kerry had known her neighbor almost fifteen years. Maia was just about her closest friend, but she spoke out anyway. \"It's like building bombs.\"\n\nMaia's temper flared. \"First of all, as you'll find out, you don't tell your twenty-four-year-old son where he can and cannot work. Second of all, games aren't bombs.\"\n\n\"Yes, they are. They are! They're weapons of mass destruction,\" Kerry burst out. In cloud, in smoke, in myth, Arkadian games were detonating in a million minds. She had been following the news. She'd read about the kid in Austin caught defacing public property, the kid in Seattle charged with hacking his school website so the banner read CU.\n\n\"Hey, are we fighting about this now?\" Maia asked gently.\n\nKerry was too upset to speak.\n\n\"They're pastimes,\" Maia said. \"They're part of life.\"\n\nDeath is part of life, thought Kerry. Maia's words reminded her of chaplains and hospice nurses at the hospital.\n\nMaia said, \"Games are just like music and art and dreaming.\"\n\n\"Whose dreams?\" Kerry demanded. \"Not _my_ dreams for my children!\"\n\nMeanwhile, on the porch, Diana asked Aidan, \"What are you going to do when they say they want to talk to you?\"\n\n\"If that ever happens I'll just sit there,\" Aidan said.\n\n\"And you'll admit you cheated?\"\n\n\"Yeah.\"\n\nHe opened the glass storm door.\n\n\"But what about Mom?\"\n\nThe question pierced him. If Diana was right and they got disciplined, Kerry would search his room.\n\n\"We have to think.\" Diana followed him inside the house.\n\nBut he was thinking of himself. He had to hide his BoX. \"I want you to do something,\" he told his sister.\n\n\"No,\" Diana said, but she trailed him upstairs to his room, where he rooted in the closet under laundry, worn-out shoes, old schoolbooks, a pair of hockey skates. From the depths he pulled out the scuffed black BoX.\n\n\"It's heavy,\" Aidan warned.\n\nShe started back as if he'd handed her a loaded gun.\n\n\"Don't drop it.\"\n\n\"Your game? You're giving me your game?\" she asked, incredulous.\n\n\"Just hide it for a little while.\"\n\n\"I'm not keeping this in my room.\"\n\n\"Hide it somewhere else, then.\"\n\n\"Why?\"\n\n\"So I won't play.\"\n\n\"You're going to stop?\"\n\n\"Just hide it and don't tell me where it is.\"\n\nHe saw her wavering.\n\n\"I'm taking the blame,\" he reminded her. \"Just keep it somewhere.\"\n\nThe BoX was cold and smooth. She was afraid of it, and at the same time she thought, But he won't play. He's going to stop.\n\nHe looked at her with trust, with urgency. \"Hide it.\"\n\nDon't even touch it, she thought, but she took the BoX.\n\nHe promised, \"You don't ever have to tell me where.\"\n\nAnd she accepted this fiction; she took this lie to heart, even as she said, \"Yeah, so you won't know where it is when Mom comes after you.\"\n\n\u2014\n\nOn the Monday after the block party, Aidan and Diana faced Miss Lazare and Mrs. West and Mr. DeLaurentis and their mother. It was two-fifty in the afternoon, and the last bells had rung. DeLaurentis's first-floor office vibrated with students' feet.\n\nMr. DeLaurentis hung his suit jacket on the back of his chair, and all Diana could think was it took a lot of cloth to sew that blue dress shirt.\n\nThe principal had a whiteboard covered with a grid for days of the week, a poster that said BE THE CHANGE YOU WANT TO SEE. Binders filled his bookshelves, and his phone lay on the desk, along with twin essays on morality in _The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn._\n\n\"It's my fault,\" Aidan confessed immediately. \"I stole her paper without her knowledge.\"\n\n\"You expect us to believe that?\" DeLaurentis asked, and he turned to Diana. \"You had no idea this was happening?\"\n\nShe shook her head.\n\n\"How do you steal a paper from your sister? You found it? You just saw it lying around? What?\"\n\n\"I took it from her computer,\" Aidan said.\n\n\"You just left it there on your computer?\" DeLaurentis asked Diana.\n\nShe nodded. \"That's where I wrote it.\"\n\n\"Don't you have a password?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"But I know it.\" Aidan was way too calm, taking all the blame.\n\nMrs. West said, \"Aidan, this was cheating. You get that, right?\"\n\nHe didn't even blink.\n\nMiss Lazare started talking about what would happen if they were at college, but DeLaurentis cut her off and said, \"Excuse me, one step at a time. The goal is getting into college. Let's get there first.\"\n\nLazare looked hot and flushed, all You can do better, and you know it in your heart. Kerry's eyes filled with tears, and DeLaurentis reached behind him for his box of tissues, but even then\u2014especially then\u2014Aidan sat unmoved.\n\nHe betrayed no emotion as DeLaurentis talked about the Honor Code and pride in end-of-year portfolios and summer school. I knew it, Diana thought; and she was scared, not so much by the situation as by her own psychic powers, the whole thing playing out as she'd imagined.\n\nShe held still, afraid of crying, but Aidan radiated confidence. He was a beautiful liar, his voice unwavering, his details bold and magical, conjured up as though he were remembering. _She was sleeping with her head down on the kitchen table and her computer open._\n\nDiana listened in awe. Her brother was so smart. Nobody, not DeLaurentis, not Lazare, not even their mother could trip him up or force him into inconsistencies.\n\nExcept that his teachers had caught him copying. DeLaurentis would not allow Aidan to forget that.\n\n\"So you're admitting that you plagiarized,\" DeLaurentis said.\n\n\"Pretty much.\"\n\n\"Excuse me?\"\n\n\"I did it.\"\n\nBy the time the meeting ended, the building was deserted. The twins followed Kerry through dank tiled halls. Outside, the field was empty. Kerry led the way and unlocked the car. She said nothing. She let herself in and just stared out the dirty windshield. She wasn't crying anymore. Her eyes were blank, and that was almost worse.\n\nThe twins exchanged glances, and for the first time Diana saw regret in Aidan's eyes. A touch of sadness and embarrassment. Poor Mom. Poor us. Wordless, like little children, they piled in back with all their stuff. Neither would brave the front seat. Diana felt miserable, but more than that, a sense of solidarity, as Aidan untangled his seatbelt from hers.\n\nHow angry was their mother? White-hot. Incinerating. She marched up the porch steps, unlocked the door, and threw her keys down on the kitchen table. In silence, Diana and Aidan watched Kerry open mail, ripping envelopes, tossing junk into the brown paper recycling bag. In silence, they saw her pile up breakfast dishes in the sink, scummy cereal bowls sitting out since morning. Then up the stairs she went, but not to her own room. They heard her slam Aidan's door behind her.\n\nDiana retreated to the living room couch and considered her brother leaning in the kitchen doorway. \"What now?\" she said.\n\n\"What now?\" Aidan echoed, mockingly. He could be so warm. He was brilliant as the sun, and then the next moment he turned his back on you.\n\n\"I feel like we should do something.\"\n\nAidan lashed out. \"You mean like make a card?\"\n\nThere had been a time when the two of them gave Kerry cards after they did something wrong. A drawing of a heart, a portrait of the stray cat they'd adopted. A rainbow and the single word SORY. That wasn't happening now. Kerry was ransacking Aidan's room. Aidan had predicted this, but he was furious at the invasion. He had never been sorry for what he'd done. Now he wasn't even sorry for his mother.\n\n\u2014\n\nUpstairs Kerry collected two joysticks and a headset. Pawing through his laundry, she searched for more. She would do better. She would be stronger. Take Aidan's games away, cut him off from his computer. She had to find a way to punish him\u2014and not just for cheating. He'd dragged Diana into trouble. This was the hold Arkadia had on him.\n\nShe emptied Aidan's closet, piling the floor with childish things, old Legos, outgrown clothes, broken toys. She would fumigate. Burn all his stuff. Attack his computer with a baseball bat. If only it would make a difference. If only she could drown his phone.\n\nStripping his bed and peering under it, she excavated dirty T-shirts and twisted jeans. She dumped all the old papers and candy wrappers from his desk drawers, riffled through the binders piled on the floor. Just two years before, Aidan had blazed through homework every afternoon. He'd aced his tests and writing assignments too. Didn't she have his A paper on the battle of Vicksburg?\n\nJostling his monitor, Kerry saw his screen glow and darken. A silvery pattern, the sheen of water, shimmered and rippled eerily, but she didn't know how to break into his machine.\n\nShe knelt down, peering under Aidan's desk and touched a scar on the wood floor, a deeper gash than other scratches. For a moment she paused, tracing the raw place, but she didn't know the cause.\n\nFeeling for his surge protector, Kerry unplugged the black cord. She had done it before. Now, once again, she would pull up her son's computer by the roots, discontinue cable service, disable the house router. She would stanch the electric river through which games flowed. None of this would frighten Aidan. Last time, he'd simply walked away, surfacing days later at Liam's house. Panicked, Kerry had come running after him. This time she would not negotiate. Don't give in, she told herself, although her child was almost seventeen, and more than six feet tall.\n\nShe sat back on her heels, and sadness overcame her as the monitor went dark. Other kids enjoyed games for a weekend. Jack would play, but he went to Math Circle and competed on the robotics team. Even Liam had his band. Aidan was the one who couldn't stop. For this, she blamed herself.\n\nShe had a good job, but it wasn't good enough. She earned decent money, but not enough. She loved him, but that was not enough. She could not afford a mountain program; she didn't have the cash to send him to some snow-capped wilderness where he might waken from his soul-sucking dream. If she took him to the police, maybe that would scare him. If she found explosives in his closet, if she discovered drugs, or caught him dealing, then she'd have some leverage. What could she do with a son whose drug of choice was legal? Whose weapon was his own imagination?\n\nJust as Kerry despaired of Aidan and his future, he grew quiet, almost docile. He accepted the loss of his computer, along with being grounded every afternoon and weekend. He accepted that he had failed English and would repeat the class next year. He accepted that he had failed biology as well. After the term ended he would return for summer school. When Kerry asked him to wash dishes or take out garbage or bring up the laundry, he did it instantly.\n\nAt first, his compliance made her nervous. She had prayed, but this was more than she had hoped. Aidan returned from school to do his homework. He ate dinner. He even slept at night\u2014he really slept. When Kerry returned from her night shift, she didn't hear a sound. Aidan's behavior seemed to her too good too fast, and yet she wanted to believe in him. Maybe it was true, as she had read, that deep down teens craved structure and authority. Confiscating Aidan's electronics may have been his secret wish!\n\nAidan never asked for his computer and his games. Nor did he run away to play with friends. Day by day, he worked to earn his mother's trust. He held out his open palm for Kerry, and, like a hungry woodland creature, she watched him from a distance. Steadily he made his offering. No sudden movements, no threatening gestures, as Kerry crept closer. Trembling, she circled hungrily. She knew better. Experience told her otherwise, but need trumped fear as she began grazing from his hand.\n\nKerry re-established Sunday breakfast, which she prepared after her Saturday-night shift. She made the children French toast as soon as she came home, and they ate together at the kitchen table, their plates drenched with syrup, their glasses filled with fresh-squeezed orange juice. Aidan was quiet, but his mother didn't mind. Just two weeks after she had confiscated his computer, she saw a calmer manner, a steadier gaze. No longer did he fidget at the table and race away to play. To her mind, he'd hit rock bottom, and now he was rebuilding. She rejoiced, but tried to temper her excitement. On Friday morning, when he said he wasn't feeling well, she took his temperature. Trust but verify. He had a fever of 101, and she allowed him to stay home from school.\n\n\"You rest,\" she told him as she hunted for ibuprofen. \"Take these, and I'll check on you when I wake up.\" Then gratefully, she lay down in her own bed.\n\nComing down with a cold that morning wasn't planned. Aidan's body ached, and his throat hurt when he swallowed, but he didn't care. His heart pounded as he listened to Diana leave for school. Then, when she was gone and all was quiet, he slipped downstairs, supporting himself with his arms on wall and banister, so that his feet scarcely touched the creaky treads. Softly he escaped through the kitchen. Gently, he shut the back door.\n\nGreat trees canopied his street and Maia's roses were all blooming luscious red, but Aidan didn't stop to look. He ran to Central Square to catch the T inbound. Plunged, with his student CharlieCard into dank tunnels and took the rattling train to Boston.\n\nHe had never been to the Seaport World Trade Center. He had hardly been to Boston Harbor except on trips to the Children's Museum when he was small. Now he saw the ferries and the sailboats, the rusty fishing boats, and all the people swarming the gray convention center on the water. A friendly mob had gathered even before doors opened, gamers in costume, entire companies brandishing their spears like shaggy Vikings at the harbor's edge. Hand-sewn Elvish shoes with turned-up toes, custom knives and swords, the glint of chain mail in the sun\u2014this was EverCon.\n\n\"Yo, why aren't you dressed?\" demanded a blue-haired Fire Elf.\n\nShe was a girl from Kansas City traveling with three friends from her company, all dressed in black leather bustiers and thigh-high boots.\n\nAidan did feel undressed in ordinary clothes. He was relieved to see that some Everheads had come in jeans\u2014the buskers selling ouroboros T-shirts, the guys scalping tickets to the evening show. There were jugglers and musicians crowding the door. A man entertained the crowd with a Whennish lute he'd built himself, a seven-stringed instrument inlaid with mother-of-pearl and a twangy sound like a medieval banjo.\n\nThe crowd was joyous. Everheads were eating breakfast harborside in folding beach chairs, trading tips and telling war stories, reuniting with their companies, donning matching T-shirts. After campaigning together for months and years online, qwesters embraced, many meeting in person for the first time. They were college kids and couples, and hordes of hard-core single gaming geeks. They were men and women, Elves, and Gnomes, masters and journeymen. My people, Aidan thought. Arkadian nation.\n\nEven so, he hesitated at the Trade Center doors. At least twenty protesters stood right in front, flanked by police. Christians Against Gaming Exploitation wore matching CAGE T-shirts, and brandished big hand-painted signs for the cameras of Channel 7 Eyewitness News.\n\n> CU IN HEAVEN!\n> \n> BE A PRAY-ER, NOT A PLAYER\n> \n> HELL NO: DON'T GO\n\n\"What are you doing here, son?\" one Christian asked. The man had a round, friendly face, and he wore round, friendly glasses. \"Shouldn't you be at school?\"\n\nAidan flinched, nervous about the cops.\n\n\"Won't you join us?\" a second Christian asked. She had long blond hair, and she wore a little gold cross on a chain. \"Won't you consider reading this?\" She held out a leaflet printed:\n\n> YOU AND CHRIST: WIN WIN!\n\nKeep walking, Aidan thought. He wouldn't take the leaflets offered him.\n\n\"God has other plans for you!\" the picketers called after Aidan as he hurried toward the World Trade Center doors. \"Jesus is waiting, if you let him in!\"\n\nWhat a relief to dash inside without anyone chasing or reporting him. Aidan presented his school ID at the registration table and no one questioned him. His name was on the master list, and he received an all-access pass to wear on a chain around his neck. He fingered that strand of tiny metal beads as though it were a chain of Elvish gold.\n\n\"Straight ahead,\" one of the EverCon staffers said.\n\nAidan entered the blue-carpeted Commonwealth Hall, and it was dark after the June sun. Vast as a theater, dim-lit, draped in black. For a moment Aidan stopped in awe. Thousands of gamers had brought their home computers and powered up, logging in to play EverWhen, together and apart. Rustling, shuffling, clicking, the assembled armchair heroes sounded like cicadas on a summer night as they slayed dragons with trackballs and joysticks. Above them, banners hung from the vaulted ceiling, pennants floating over the virtual fair. There were monitors pimped out with flashing police lights, computers bedazzled with crystals. Aidan saw a PC transformed into a steampunk masterpiece of cherrywood, antique typewriter buttons, and polished brass.\n\nThere were girls dressed like cheerleaders walking the aisles to toss out T-shirts, bumper stickers, free download codes. There was the blue-haired Elf from Kansas City, who had followed him inside. She told him she had legally changed her name to Kalinda, but he had someone else in mind.\n\nDaphne was here somewhere in this mass of people, and she'd promised, after his long days and dangerous nights, after a million refusals, that he could meet her face-to-face. She had arranged his all-access pass.\n\nCurtained off from the gaming hall, vendors sold costumes, crystals, dragon masks, silver ouroboros bracelets, and pendants of amethyst. Some wares were silly, like needlepoint phoenix pillows, or hand-painted eyeglass cases with your company's insignia. Some exquisite, like the swords of tempered steel. You could buy anything, from Elf-inspired candles to prosthetic noses, humps, and wings. At the Arkadian brokerage, you could sit at a bank of computers, log in, and bid real money for an imaginary jewel or weapon or gold ring. You could buy an enchanted sword that would take months to earn in EverWhen\u2014or you could sell your hand-forged virtual armor in an instant.\n\nDaphne had promised Aidan that he'd find her, but the convention was even bigger than he'd imagined. He watched early-round tournament play on giant screens. He saw Viktor Lazare speaking to a thousand Everheads about UnderWorld and its new platform. \"This is official,\" Lazare announced. \"Everything you've heard is true. We're launching in December.\" But even Lazare's keynote couldn't hold Aidan for long. He searched every hall, texting, where ru?\n\nDaphne did not reply, and yet he scanned the crowds. Every blond girl in black leather startled him. He texted again, but his phone didn't even blink. He remembered Diana's words\u2014\"There is no girl.\"\n\nBut his sister was wrong. Daphne was real. She had to be. He had traveled with Daphne; he had fought with her and against her. She had been his guide, his companion, and his closest friend. Even without his headset, he heard her throaty voice, her whisper, and her laughter in his ears.\n\nHe hadn't eaten, and after several hours his body ached in the highly air-conditioned hall. The place began to look fake, with its black drapes and kitschy painted booths. He kept looking for Daphne, but he moved slowly now. He saw spectacular costumes, but others seemed hokey and embarrassed him. So many girls fell short compared to Elvish women. Their arms were flabby, and they were always tugging at their bodices, afraid they would fall down. So many guys were old and bald. They didn't have the physique or hair of warriors. Everheads could not live up to the real thing.\n\nDiscouraged, he drifted through the demo booths, with their banks of computers set up for free trials. EverHeart. EverFlight. He sank into a swivel chair, and a black-shirted Arkadian staffer offered him a headset to play EverSea.\n\nAt first he said no, because he wanted to keep searching, but after a few minutes he slipped the headset on. Logging in as his old Elf, Tildor, he found himself in the Golden Islands, where he came upon a skiff beached on the shore. A fair wind was blowing, and the tide began to rise. The golden ocean swelled, murmuring around him, and he leapt into the skiff and began to play.\n\nThe wind whipped up. Salt spray flew into his face and water roared in his ears, along with the pure voices of mermaids singing on outlying rocks. The mermaids' breasts were full and lovely, their hidden tails serpentine, deadly underneath.\n\n\"Hey, buddy.\" A male voice broke in. \"Five-minute warning before we have to shut this thing off.\"\n\n\"Okay.\" Aidan kept his eyes on the screen.\n\nQuickly, nimbly, he tapped and clicked, approaching the mermaids, but keeping his skiff just out of reach. He kept his distance as each mermaid questioned him in turn.\n\n\"Who are you?\"\n\n\"What are you doing?\"\n\n\"Where have you been?\"\n\nHe froze when he heard the last mermaid. Daphne.\n\n\"Listen, I've really gotta shut you down,\" the EverSea demonstration supervisor said apologetically.\n\n\"Just one second,\" Aidan pleaded as he scanned waves and rocks. Then into his headset, \"What do you mean where have I been? I've been looking for you everywhere.\"\n\nDaphne laughed.\n\n\"You said you'd come here as yourself,\" he said.\n\n\"I _am_ here as myself.\"\n\n\"Yeah, right.\"\n\nThe islands vanished; the singing ended.\n\n\"Sorry.\" The supervisor started packing up the monitor and CPU.\n\nAidan took off his headset, but, strangely, he could still hear Daphne's mocking voice. It took him a moment to realize she wasn't speaking to him from inside the game. \"I'm standing right behind you. Turn around.\"\n\nHe spun around in the swivel chair and there she was, looking nothing like Riyah. No flowing locks, no leather bodice, no heaving breasts. She wore black jeans and a black sweatshirt. She was so covered up, he could barely even see her hands. When she pulled up her sleeves, he saw indigo flowers tattooed on her wrists.\n\n\"What?\" she asked playfully.\n\n\"Nothing. You look different.\"\n\n\"From what you expected?\"\n\nHe looked down, embarrassed. \"I probably look different too.\"\n\n\"No,\" she told him. \"You look exactly the way I imagined you.\"\n\nHer voice was just as he remembered\u2014knowing, teasing. ARKADIA was the word on her hooded sweatshirt.\n\n\"You work here.\"\n\n\"Yeah,\" she said. \"Of course I do.\"\n\nShe wasn't Elvish but elfin, with her slight frame, short hair, and huge blue eyes. The object of his obsession was not an object at all. She was bright, her expression lively, her smile incandescent. He had no idea how old she was, but he figured at least twenty, college age or more. Her voice was condescending, her expression curious.\n\n\"What do you want to play?\" she asked.\n\n\"Nothing. I want to talk to you.\"\n\n\"I don't like talking.\"\n\nHis throat was dry. \"What do you like instead?\"\n\nShe took him upstairs to the Harborview Ballroom, where several hundred champion qwesters were playing EverWhen.\n\nAidan said, \"I thought you have to register for the tournament to play.\"\n\n\"Not if you're with me.\"\n\nShe commandeered two Arkadian workstations, and they sat in swivel chairs across the table from each other. A strange place for gaming, with its sea-green corporate carpeting, but once you started, you didn't notice anything.\n\nCharging on horseback, fighting with broadswords, shooting arrows, casting spells that rained down sparks like fireworks, she played well, but he played better. Trembling, feverish, his reflexes were faster. Jousting, he unhorsed her. He thrust and parried, forcing her down on the leafy forest floor. Again and again he vanquished Daphne. He frustrated and dazzled her. He fought brilliantly, but she would not admit defeat. She sprang up, challenging him in archery. Together they sent arrows flying after moving targets, gold birds darting and wheeling in the bright sky.\n\n\"Once more, once more,\" she urged him on.\n\n\"I won,\" he said. \"Admit it.\"\n\n\"One more round.\"\n\n\"No.\" He scooted his swivel chair to her side of the table.\n\nReluctantly, Daphne turned away from the game.\n\nOnce again he said, \"I need to talk to you.\"\n\nShe felt a prick of fear when she saw Aidan's face, because he looked so serious. To tell the truth, she had considered standing him up. All day she had ignored his messages, and when he texted that he was playing EverSea, she had circled for a long time, watching.\n\nHe was too involved with her. He had revealed way too much about himself. His name, his school, his loneliness. Sad Aidan was sadly predictable, because, of course, Daphne knew exactly what he was going through. Once upon a time she'd been a miserable teenager, shutting herself up and gaming for days. She didn't need to hear about it when she'd lived it. Even so, he'd won the chance to see her. He'd stabbed her through the heart, and she played fair. \"What do you want to talk about?\"\n\nHe was practically shaking, meeting her like this. He had no weapons; he wore no armor. Even so, he forced himself to speak. \"I want to know you.\"\n\n\"You're a kid,\" she said, as much to reassure herself as to remind him.\n\nHe wouldn't let her put him off. \"Who are you?\"\n\n\"I'm exactly what you see.\"\n\n\"No, you're not.\"\n\n\"Stop!\" She brushed his hand with hers. The brief contact, meant as friendly and dismissive, shocked them both. Her touch surged through his body. She felt his heat. \"What are you on?\" She was only half joking. \"I want some.\"\n\n\"I'm not on anything.\"\n\n\"I was kidding!\" Then she added, \"You don't get to know me.\"\n\n\"Why?\"\n\n\"Because it's not good for you.\"\n\n\"How do you know what's good for me?\"\n\n\"Okay, we're done now.\" She sprang out of her chair and began walking.\n\nHe hurried after her. \"Why are you, of all people, talking about what's good for me?\"\n\nShe walked faster. She was nearly running to the mezzanine.\n\n\"Daphne!\"\n\nShe slipped into a crowded elevator going down.\n\n\"Wait!\" Aidan called out as the doors were closing.\n\nShe might have escaped then, but a friendly Water Elf held the door, and Aidan squeezed in with a crowd of costumed Everheads.\n\n\"Going to the show?\" the Water Elf asked Daphne.\n\nShe answered, \"Absolutely.\"\n\nAidan tried to edge closer, but too many sweaty bodies blocked him. Last in, first out when the doors opened, Aidan tried to catch Daphne leaving, but other elevators were opening too. Streams of Everheads were exiting, and she slipped into the crowd, ignoring him, as she race-walked to Commonwealth Hall.\n\nHe followed Daphne into a conference venue transformed into a rock concert. Sparkling light rained down, as Aidan plunged into a sea of bodies. For a moment he couldn't even see. He almost lost Daphne in the darkness and the virtual fireworks, the huge reverb, the thunder of Arkadia's house band, the Velvet Pixels, rocking out onstage, the roar of a thousand Everheads partying. Half blind, he reached out and caught the hood of her sweatshirt.\n\nShe glanced over her shoulder, amazed at his tenacity. Her eyes were mocking; her whole body told him, Catch me\u2014I dare you. Her hood ripped as she tore away.\n\n\"Stop,\" he called. She paused for just a second, and then she raced off again.\n\nHe pursued her from the dance floor to the great hall of gamers, with their glowing monitors. Security tried to block him, but he hardly noticed. If Daphne had stopped here, guards would have caught him, but she kept running through the hall. She tried one door, and then another. When she hit an unlocked exit, he was right there after her.\n\nGasping, laughing, she sprinted down two flights of stairs. His speed was thrilling, actually Elvish. His legs were longer than hers and he jumped the last four stairs at the exit to the parking lot.\n\n\"Okay,\" she said.\n\n\"Okay what?\"\n\nShe kissed him on the lips.\n\nHe was already light-headed, and now he felt like he was floating. For a long moment he was dreaming, flying! But no, he was really standing there with Daphne. That was her tongue pressing against his.\n\nHis hands spread over her shoulders. Still kissing, he unzipped her sweatshirt. He touched her through her ribbed undershirt as he kissed her neck, her collarbone. Then, opening his eyes, he saw her ink. Thick twigs and flowers covered her arms and shoulders, climbing over her shoulder blades. For such a long time he'd fantasized about her Elvish flesh, her pure white character in game. He'd imagined her softness and her nakedness, but she had clothed herself in intricate designs. Black branches, berries, thick leaves tattooed her entire torso.\n\nThe instant he paused to look, she pulled away.\n\nHe reached for her. Just wait, he pleaded with his eyes.\n\nShe glanced at him with a hint of sympathy. \"Ohh,\" she said, as she might speak to a small child. Then she ran upstairs.\n\nHe couldn't follow. His head was pounding. His muscles throbbed. With sheer adrenaline, he'd chased her down, but he had nothing left, and he sank back against the wall. He was so sick, his mind and body racing. He thought his heart would burst. It wasn't fair. He'd caught her, touched her, half undressed her, and still she wasn't his.\n\n\u2014\n\nUpstairs, the Velvet Pixels were performing and the audience was belting out the chorus. _\"Reality! Reality!\"_ Grateful, Daphne slipped into the crowd. People were singing, and they were swaying, and they were holding light sticks. The darkness and the mayhem comforted her. She loved crowds because you had strangers to fall back on when you were bruised and rattled, out of breath.\n\nShe hung back when the Velvet Pixels took their bows and walked offstage, changing from rock stars to programmers and engineers. She did not join her colleagues as they met the band outside to head to Viktor's after-party at the Institute of Contemporary Art.\n\nObi saw her and called, \"Come on.\" Arkadians had been working the conference all day, answering questions, demonstrating features, mingling with fans, and they were ready to escape and celebrate.\n\n\"Later,\" Daphne said.\n\nHer colleagues left without her. All the Arkadians had changed their clothes, because the invitation had suggested evening dress and vintage gowns. They stuffed their jeans and T-shirts into backpacks or trunks of people's cars, and trooped outside into the warm summer night.\n\n\u2014\n\nCollin wondered where Daphne had gone, and then he thought, She's way too cool for this. Leaving with the others, he thought the hellions betrayed their name, dressed up like a bunch of kids at prom. Even so, his heart beat faster as the group crossed parking lots and wove between construction sites to reach the ICA, glowing like a square-cut diamond on the water.\n\nHow strange, coming to a museum as an invited guest. Collin wore a used tux from Keezer's in Central Square, and his black dress shoes echoed on wood planks so that arriving felt like boarding ship.\n\nArkadians had gathered on the deck outside with their guests. Scanning the crowd, Collin saw Akosh's wife, Meta, in a sari of gold silk and Obi with a Russian graduate student dressed in a ballroom dancer's plunging evening gown. There was Viktor, holding forth with his six-foot wife, Helen. There was Peter, with his amber eyes. But where was Nina? It took Collin a moment to recognize her, even as he kissed her. She was wearing a silvery-blue sheath, the lightest, smoothest fabric rippling over her body. A diamond clip was shining in her hair. \"They're just rhinestones,\" she told Collin, but she looked so elegant, he only half believed her.\n\nFor a moment he felt like a stranger. He thought, No way; I don't belong here with Nina and her uncle and her father. Martinis helped. He finished his first and had another. The evening shimmered; the warm summer night caressed him. When Nina introduced him to her stepmother, the museum levitated on the water.\n\nHelen stared at Collin as she offered her cold hand.\n\nCollin gazed back at the dark-eyed, dark-haired woman in her tight dress. Tall as she was, she wore stiletto heels. She enjoyed her height.\n\n\"Good evening,\" Helen said in accented English.\n\n\"Where are you from?\" Collin asked, a little louder than he'd intended.\n\n\"I come from Greece,\" said Helen. Her voice was courtesy itself. Her eyes said, Who the hell are you?\n\nViktor told Collin, \"Now you know what I mean when I say that I'm a Hellenized Jew.\"\n\nCollin smiled, pretending he knew what Viktor meant.\n\n\"Collin draws horses,\" Peter was telling Helen.\n\n\"Oh, good,\" she said.\n\n\"He's better than good,\" Viktor said. \"He's insanely great.\" Showman, technocrat, Gatsby without tears, he told Collin, \"Someday you'll develop games for us.\"\n\nHelen warned, \"My husband likes making promises.\"\n\n\"Predictions!\" Viktor corrected.\n\n\"They're easier,\" Peter pointed out.\n\nViktor waved all this away. Partly flattering, partly self-satirizing, he told Collin, \"We'll make you a star.\"\n\n\"Don't believe him,\" Helen said. \"Don't trust anything he says.\"\n\n\"You're beautiful tonight,\" Viktor told his wife.\n\nHelen was not amused, but Viktor didn't mind. He entertained himself. He was fierce and jovial, voracious and self-satisfied. Announcing UnderWorld's release date in December, he had chosen an audacious path, accelerating development to the deadline. Peter had worried about rushing, cutting corners, cheapening the game. He had protested, \"Don't sacrifice the story for effects. Give us time to build the myth.\" He'd made his case, but Viktor chose December anyway, high risk and high reward. OVID couldn't wait. Arkadia's rival, Urania, was building its own platform for gaming in the round.\n\nOthers called him ruthless, but disruption, quick reversals, and bold decisions spelled leadership for Nina's father. By the same token, escapism and delusion were not problems but products in Viktor's lexicon. He never doubted his profession the way some of his colleagues did. There were those at Arkadia who had trained as researchers\u2014not just computer scientists, but biologists and physicists. There were those nostalgic for their old disciplines and their youthful goals. Once they had studied structures of living things, and pondered laws of the actual universe. Now they spoke wistfully of science as their homeland, and their old religion. Viktor was not among them. He had been and remained a scientist, investigating vision\u2014fundamental questions of perception. Applying his research to gaming did not disappoint him. Consummate player, joyful inventor, he never apologized for the diversions he marketed. Not at EverCon, where players thanked him for bringing them together and granting them such pleasure and such power. Not after that morning's symposium on role-playing as therapy for autism, not after the Q&A, where a gamer in a wheelchair told Viktor, In EverWhen I run, I swim, I fly.\n\n\"Am I glib?\" Viktor asked Nina.\n\n\"Sometimes.\"\n\n\"I thought so.\" Viktor spoke with such satisfaction that she laughed and Collin laughed with her. Even Helen smiled. With few exceptions, Viktor captivated people. When he was happy the whole world glowed. That very moment the sky was deepening from lavender to violet. He might have cast that sunset over his shoulder; it would have been just like him.\n\nPeter was one of the exceptions, and he kept quiet as he watched Nina and Collin basking in his older brother's praise.\n\n\"The point is, you'll go far,\" Viktor told Collin.\n\n\"Promise or prediction?\" Peter asked.\n\nThe question startled Collin, but Viktor was whispering to Nina. No one heard, but she was glowing with her father's words.\n\nShe knew flattery came easily to Viktor. He didn't just say what you wanted to hear. He said what you hardly dared to hope. Even so, he loved talent. He loved youth, and he appreciated art. Nina could have kissed him when he praised Collin.\n\nShe had been to parties at the ICA before. She had watched the waves framed by the glass window on the mezzanine, but when she stood with Collin, it was like holding the ocean in your hands, studying the weave up close, the warp and weft of water. The glass galleries seemed stranger, funnier, far more beautiful. A sofa sank under papier-m\u00e2ch\u00e9 lovers. A woman in a video installation stood gazing out at shimmering water from her balcony. Collin sat on a marble bench, chaste white, funereal, carved with the words PROTECT ME FROM WHAT I WANT. When he opened his arms for Nina, a guard hurried over. \"Sir! I'm sorry\u2014you can't sit there!\"\n\n\"See, that's the big-picture stuff,\" Collin told Nina. \"Guards coming over and acting out the message of the piece! I would never think of that.\"\n\nThey took the glass freight elevator to view a three-story paper pagoda from above. They ate oysters. They drank Champagne. They listened to the jazz trio and they danced together. She didn't know the fox trot or salsa or tango, but Collin whispered instructions in her ear. \"One, two, onetwo, one two onetwo. Look up. Just look at me.\"\n\nHe had told her that his mother taught dancing, but Nina had always imagined him watching the class. Now she realized that he had learned as well.\n\nHe said, \"I had to dance with all the girls who didn't have a partner. I'd be the youngest one, and I was like a foot shorter, so I was staring straight at all these eighth-grade breasts.\"\n\n\"Sh!\"\n\n\"What? It was like the highlight of my childhood.\"\n\nShe was laughing as he spun her out. \"How do you think those girls felt?\"\n\n\"You need more Champagne,\" said Collin.\n\n\"Oh, I don't think so.\"\n\n\"I think you do.\"\n\nThey walked outside to the bar and got two glasses, but she didn't drink from hers.\n\n\"Do you think there's such a thing as too much fun?\" He set his empty Champagne flute on the railing.\n\n\"Well, it depends...\" she began.\n\n\"Okay, just by that answer I can tell you aren't drunk enough.\"\n\nAlready he was more at home than she was. He seemed born for music and Champagne and black-tie parties. He looked dangerously handsome, not tamed, but liberated in formal clothes.\n\nHe was leaning back against the railing and Nina was facing him. This was how Daphne saw them as she walked up the stairs to the deck. Her first thought was, Look at you, Collin, with your tuxedo and your girlfriend. Her second thought: You know I'm here but you're pretending you can't see me.\n\nShe had come only for a quick drink. That's what she explained to everyone who asked. She was still wearing her black Arkadia sweatshirt with the ripped hood.\n\n\"What happened to you?\" Tomas asked her at the bar.\n\nShe said, \"I got held up at EverCon. I had to tear myself away.\"\n\n\"It's almost ten,\" Peter pointed out.\n\nShe shrugged, trying to seem nonchalant, even as he studied her. \"I wasn't going to come at all.\"\n\nDrink in hand, Daphne made her way to the dessert table, where she surveyed lemon tarts the size of silver dollars, chocolate mousse in shot glasses, marzipan fruit, petits fours adorned with candied violets. Collecting one of each, she looked up to see Collin and Nina just ahead of her in line.\n\n\"Is that your dinner?\" Collin asked, and he was not avoiding her. He was expansive, and a little drunk.\n\n\"Definitely.\"\n\nIt was dark now, and they stood in candlelight. Collin with his princess at his side. All around them Arkadians were plucking petits fours like flowers. \"Nina, this is Daphne.\"\n\nDaphne lifted her glass in greeting. \"Hey.\"\n\nNina was confused. She'd heard Daphne's name. She was sure she'd met Daphne somewhere before\u2014but Collin was the one who knew her, demanding playfully, \"Where were you?\"\n\n\"Working! Did you like our protesters?\"\n\n\"What do you mean?\"\n\nDaphne smiled.\n\nNina said, \"You hired them.\"\n\n\"They got great coverage! They were on the news at six, and again at ten. Wait.\" Daphne checked her phone. \"They're on _now._ Look.\"\n\nNina watched Daphne and Collin exclaim over the unfolding newscast on the phone, and the whole evening began to change. She watched the two of them together, and their conversation, spoken and unspoken, seemed familiar. Collin had never mentioned Daphne, but she was not simply an acquaintance. She was his close friend.\n\nDaphne was explaining, \"I had to coordinate the protest, and then I did the giveaway at eight, but the worst was I got chased!\" She rolled up her sleeve and showed off the purpling bruise on her wrist.\n\n\"Who did that?\"\n\n\"A rabid fanboy ran me down. He had me cornered in a stairwell.\" Daphne spoke ruefully, but her eyes were mischievous as Collin examined her. \"And he was _big._ At least sixteen.\"\n\n\"Why would he chase you?\" Nina asked.\n\n\"You need ice.\" Collin pressed his cold glass to Daphne's wrist.\n\nSurprised and hurt, Nina turned to look at him, although he was just being Collin: friendly, flirtatious, drinking too much.\n\n\"Occupational hazard,\" Daphne said.\n\n\"What does that mean?\"\n\n\"It's like sometimes you get bitten. I feed new games to hungry kids.\"\n\n\"Why do they bite?\"\n\n\"Because they get wild.\"\n\n\"Is that the plan?\"\n\n\"No!\" Daphne protested. \"I just want them a little bit obsessed.\"\n\nCollin chided, \"You can't just tell people where to find you.\"\n\nHe was so warm, so playful with Daphne, that Nina took a full step back. He didn't even notice. His concern was all for Daphne as Nina walked away.\n\nShe drifted to the dessert table, then to the bar. The glass freight elevator descended gently, and all the music and all the art and all the laughter of the evening seemed to sink slowly, noiselessly. All of it seemed joyless now.\n\nIdly she watched the waiters carrying their trays. Champagne flutes by the dozen. Chocolates decorated with gold leaf. Nina wanted nothing but to get away. She had nearly disappeared down the wood stairs when Collin caught up with her.\n\n\"Stop and tell me what's wrong.\"\n\nShe kept walking to the parking lot. \"You have to ask. That's what's wrong.\"\n\n\"Daphne offended you.\"\n\n\"No, you did.\"\n\n\"Why?\"\n\n\"Because you were defending her!\"\n\n\"She's the one who got hurt.\"\n\n\"Do you know that?\" she demanded. \"How do you know that? You aren't thinking about that kid.\"\n\n\"This isn't like you,\" he said.\n\n\"Really? How am I supposed to be?\"\n\n\"I don't know. I don't go around telling people how they should be. I know how you are.\"\n\n\"You don't know anything.\"\n\nHe looked into her hurt eyes. \"You're jealous.\"\n\n\"Not true!\"\n\nNina turned her back on him, unlocking her car. She slipped inside and slammed the door. Then she opened the door again because she'd caught her dress.\n\nCollin said, \"Wait\u2014let me come with you.\"\n\n\"No.\"\n\nShe could be so lovely and so delighted with the world, and then she doubted everything. All he wanted was to see her happy, to make her laugh, but she had to find some catch. He could be moody, he had a temper, but hers had this weight, this crushing moral force. Nina wasn't just angry\u2014she had to drag in the whole universe. \"Don't be like this.\"\n\nWhat did that mean? Was she too serious? She couldn't help it. She was serious the way she was left-handed, and she couldn't change. She had been raised on lies and fairy tales, and she hated deception and excuses. She had grown up with games, and she craved truth.\n\nHe repeated, \"Let me come with you.\"\n\n\"No, stay. You want to.\" She nearly caught his fingers as she closed the car door.\n\n\"You know what your problem is?\" he called out as she started the engine.\n\n\"My problem is you,\" she called back. \"My problem is that I'm in love with you.\"\n\nHe could hardly see when he got home that night. Body shaking, teeth chattering with fever, Aidan collapsed inside the door. His mother said, Oh, my God, what happened to you, even as she asked, Where have you been, what did you do? At first he couldn't answer. He was throbbing with pain. He lay on the floor, and when his mother tried to help him up, he vomited. Oh, my God, his mother kept saying. I'm taking you in.\n\n\"No,\" Aidan groaned.\n\n\"Diana!\"\n\n\"I'm right here.\" Diana hovered near the kitchen door. Whenever Aidan got sick, she had a sinking feeling she would be next.\n\n\"Get me the thermometer from my bathroom.\"\n\nDiana raced up the stairs.\n\n\"Don't bite,\" Kerry told Aidan. \"Don't break the glass.\" A moment later, she turned around and told Diana, \"Help me get him to the car.\"\n\n\"Isn't the doctor closed?\"\n\n\"We aren't going to the doctor's office.\"\n\nHe thrashed and fought as they tried to move him.\n\n\"Ow!\" Diana turned to her mother. \"He scratched me!\"\n\n\"Come nicely or I'm calling an ambulance,\" Kerry said.\n\nDiana turned on Aidan. \"What is wrong with you?\"\n\nThey were trying to pull him through the front door, but he clung to the doorframe. \"Let me go! Let go!\" he screamed, and it took all their strength to hold him, even in his weakened state. He demanded, \"Give me my sword.\"\n\n\"Is he high?\" his sister whispered. His eyes were glassy, his face dead white.\n\n\"Hold his arm back,\" Kerry ordered. \"His left arm. I've got his right.\" Pinning his arms back, holding him on either side, they got him through the door, and all the time Kerry spoke to Aidan. Her voice was stern and quiet in his ear. \"You're sick. You're delirious. You're fighting a hundred and four fever and you might have a bacterial infection. I'm taking you to the ER.\"\n\nStep by step, she talked him down the stairs into the humid night. She never took her eyes off him, so he felt her gaze, even though he wouldn't look at her. \"Now we're going to the car,\" she said, for Diana's benefit as much as for Aidan's. \"We're going to the car. I'm going to strap you in.\"\n\nHe stopped fighting. They couldn't tell whether he went limp from exhaustion or in protest, but they knew better than to let go. Half carrying him, they edged into the driveway.\n\n\"Get my purse,\" Kerry told Diana.\n\nNow Aidan cried out and tried to wrest himself away again.\n\nKerry pinned him against the old Subaru. Diana opened the passenger-side door, and he closed his eyes as Kerry strapped him in.\n\n\"Am I coming?\" Diana asked.\n\n\"No, wait here.\"\n\nKerry was already starting the car. She had to concentrate on Aidan. \"You'll be all right,\" she told him as she reached over to adjust his seat, sliding and tilting so he could lie back.\n\nShe touched his burning forehead, and he couldn't move his head away. His neck was like a superheated steel rod. He couldn't bend; he couldn't turn without bursting into flame.\n\nYou can do this, Kerry kept telling herself, as she drove through the night. You can do this. But when she began threading through the maze of Longwood's labs and hospitals, Beth Israel, Joslin, Dana-Farber, she began to cry.\n\nShe pulled up in front of Children's, her own hospital, and she got help with a wheelchair and rushed Aidan inside.\n\nHow many times had she met parents as they rushed in hyperventilating, sick with fear? Take a breath. Sit for just a second. Let me get you a cup of juice. Try to drink this. Just take a little sip. All those years, all the waking hours of her working life, Kerry had nursed other people's children. Now she was the one wheeling her son past fish tanks and patient art, doves and rainbows, painted words: DREAM! HOPE! LOVE! She was the mother printing Aidan's birth date, affirming no known allergies, as children's cartoons laughed, wheezed, screamed. She was like everybody else who came in with a sick baby. The only difference was that Kerry didn't have to wait.\n\n\"I'm taking you to see the doctors,\" she told Aidan, unconsciously simplifying her language. \"They're going to look at you.\"\n\nHe was unresponsive when the nurse spoke to him. He knew vaguely that he was in the hospital, but the voices were too loud, the walls too bright. Docile, he gave over his body, submitting to the doctors' tests. He wasn't trying to cooperate; he was too sick to object.\n\nEveryone was explaining what would happen. Some tests, some blood, some time to rest, some spinal fluid to see if he was cloudy. He knew the answer. He was so cloudy that he couldn't see. A dark moon blocked his vision, but he could hear and he could feel. Jackhammer pain, sharp needles in his neck, and in his head, behind his eyes. Dry heaves and distant voices. A lurching, sickening puncture in his back.\n\n\"They're going to admit you,\" his mother told him, and he thought, Where did I get in? \"They're going to help you heal,\" she said. \"That's why you've got the IV. That's for your antibiotics. Don't pull it out.\" He had not been aware that he was pulling. Those were just hands. Nothing to do with him.\n\nKerry called Diana and told her that Aidan had to stay the night.\n\n\"Okay,\" Diana said.\n\n\"They're doing some tests,\" Kerry said. \"He has an infection.\" She couldn't bring herself to say \"meningitis.\"\n\n\"Okay.\"\n\n\"I have to stay.\"\n\n\"When's he coming home?\"\n\n\"I don't know.\"\n\nShe took this in. \"Could he die?\"\n\nFor a split second, Kerry hesitated. Then she said, \"No!\" as if the very question were offensive, as if from that day forward nobody would ever die again.\n\nA muffled sound at the other end of the line.\n\n\"I need you to stay calm.\"\n\nLong pause. \"Okay,\" Diana said.\n\nAll that night, Kerry stayed with Aidan in the ICU. She envisioned his recovery. She had seen it happen. At the same time, she could imagine losing him; she'd seen that too.\n\nShe watched him in the darkened room; she just sat and watched. She tried to pray, but fear silenced her. The enormity of the situation smothered her. Every thought flew to Aidan. He looked so still, so straight, so narrow, like a beautiful felled tree. His hair stuck out every which way, and Kerry thought, You need a haircut. What a strange idea, when he needed so many other things first. His hands lay quiet on his blanket. Beautiful fingers, long and tapered. Piano fingers, Priscilla always said. Piano fingers, gaming fingers, lightning quick.\n\n\"You were hardly ever sick,\" she told him. \"When you were little, you barely had an ear infection. If you and Diana came down with something you'd be sick for just a day. That's all.\"\n\nHe breathed evenly, but his eyes were only partly closed. She always told parents to assume their child could hear them.\n\n\"You're strong,\" she told him. \"You're very strong, and you're in the right place. This is the place...\"\n\nHe stirred and cried out softly.\n\n\"It's me. It's just me,\" she told him in her low, urgent voice. \"I know we've fought. It doesn't matter now. It didn't even matter then. I love you just the same as I did when you were born. I'm with you now, just the way I was then.\"\n\nNurses came to check on Kerry and Aidan. Robyn, the duty nurse, came in to work, but she and others also came to clasp Kerry's hand, to bring her tea, to promise, I'll watch him if you need to sleep. I'll sit here for you. No, no, Kerry said. I'll stay. But all that long night, as Kerry watched over Aidan, her friends watched over her.\n\nWhile Kerry sat with Aidan in the hospital, Nina paced her apartment. She had changed from her silk dress into a cotton nightshirt, tossed her hair clips onto the dresser. She tried watching a movie on her computer. Then she tried to read her battered Thoreau. She leafed through her students' papers, but all she saw was Collin holding his cold glass to Daphne's wrist.\n\nShe tried to stifle jealousy, or at least outwork it. Sitting on the couch, she stacked and restacked her students' end-of-year portfolios. One by one, she opened composition books. She stared at Brynna's perfect, even printing, Marisol's huge letters, ballooning in blue ballpoint, every _s_ a sail, every dot a circle, round as a full moon. She opened Anton's journal and saw anime drawings, spiky-haired punks with evil grins and inky eyes.\n\nThe sun was rising when Nina fell asleep with her computer and her headphones and her students' journals on the couch. She woke hours later in a jumble of composition books and wires. Bleary, barely conscious, she thought of Collin and she missed him, even as the events of the evening came rushing back to her. Half dreading, half hoping for a message, she checked her phone and found a medical alert from school: ONE OF OUR STUDENTS WAS ADMITTED LAST NIGHT TO CHILDREN'S HOSPITAL. AIDAN O'NEIL IS IN SERIOUS BUT STABLE CONDITION WITH A DIAGNOSIS OF MENINGITIS.\n\nNow she was awake, startled from her own unhappiness. Aidan? She thought about the disciplinary meeting\u2014Aidan's performance in DeLaurentis's office. SOME FORMS OF MENINGITIS ARE CONTAGIOUS. WE ARE WAITING TO LEARN WHETHER...What was it about him? A kind of chivalry as he took the blame, a strange protectiveness, although he had dragged his sister into trouble, copying her work. There was something brilliant and dangerous about Aidan. \"I've had kids like him before,\" Mrs. West had told Nina after the plagiarism meeting. \"I taught a kid named Daniel with an attitude like that. You know where he is now? In jail.\"\n\nAlarmed, uncertain, Nina sat up. She remembered that Diana had written about her brother. He was a liar or a stoner. Diana had written unhappily about him.\n\nNina began searching for Diana's Journal of Discovery. She sifted through her composition books, and eventually she found it in an unread pile in her bedroom. Nina sat in bed and returned to the black-ink thicket of Diana's writing. Entries on _The Scarlet Letter,_ entries on Thoreau. When she'd marked the journal the first time, Nina had been checking to see that Diana had done the reading. Now Nina skipped over Diana's analysis, such as it was, and searched out the places where Diana digressed or misinterpreted or ignored the question.\n\n_Q. How would you characterize Hawthorne's ghost stories? How does he use ghosts to represent the past?_\n\n_Living with my brother its like living with a ghost_. _If you leave out a sandwich it might not be there later but you won't see him, only his shoes. When I see him_\n\nNina turned the page.\n\n_...I'm like who are you because he is inside his game. He is obsessed with this game like he prefers to be there\u2014even though he is not allowed. Hes not supposed to play but he always finds a way to get inside._\n\n_Q. How would you characterize the mood in Whitman's opening line: \"I sing the body electric\"? What do you think about when you read these words?_\n\n_Danger. High voltage! People turning into machines. Instead of blood vessels wires instead of brains circuits chips etc. Or machines turning into people inhabiting people infecting their brains, controlling them so they do whatever the machine wants them to._\n\n_Or what would it be like if a machine controlled the world instead? Like the world is a game and you just live in it? You think you're a player but actually you're getting played?_\n\nOnce again, Nina remembered Aidan in DeLaurentis's office. Clear-eyed, he had countered every question. Such was his confidence. He might have been a patriot captured and questioned by the enemy, or a young saint who heard angelic voices.\n\n_Q. Consider Bartleby's famous line: \"I would prefer not to.\" What is he rejecting? What do those words mean to you?_\n\n_I would prefer not to wake up in the dark that really sucks. I would prefer not to go to school. I would prefer not to be seen. I would prefer not to enter the cafeteria. I would prefer not to eat lunch. I would prefer not to care what anybody thinks. I would prefer not to do my homework. I would prefer not to take out the recycling. I would prefer not to hear squirrels in the attic. I would prefer not to go down to the basement (mice). I would prefer no games, no paint, no lies. I would prefer you to leave since your gone already. CU Aidan. CUCU_\n\nNina stared at that chain of letters linked together. No paint. No lies. He had tagged the school. Diana had confessed it.\n\n_Everybody's got secrets. Whats more interesting is when you find out other peoples. Then the question is do you tell on THEM? For example my twin and I were like blood brothers only moreso. Now its like he moved away. I hear him whispering daphne daphne._\n\nNo, it couldn't be. It was too strange. She reread Diana's words, expecting them to change\u2014but they did not. This was where she'd seen Daphne's name\u2014in the Discovery Journal. And this was how Daphne did her work. Aidan was Daphne's rabid fanboy. Nina could see it even now. Daphne had led him on, although she had not mentioned where she'd led him.\n\nDon't panic. Think. There were rules. There must be rules for this. The school had guidelines for red flags and danger signs. In her capacity as Language Arts Team Leader, Mrs. West had briefed new teachers on calls for help. I think I'm going to drown myself. I fantasize about shooting my parents or my teachers or my classmates. I'm going to set myself on fire in the gym. That kind of thing. \"You'll know it when you see it. And if you see it, report it,\" Mrs. West told the assembled faculty at orientation. \"Do not hesitate!\"\n\nWhat should she do? Go to Mrs. West? Run to Miss Sorentino, the school psychologist? Diana's journal was neither hate speech nor suicide note, but suggested Aidan had committed a crime. The diary revealed this\u2014but could anybody apart from Nina see it?\n\nHer mind raced on, and she imagined Aidan with a new can of paint, then with a dagger, then a gun. Millions play, her father always told reporters. In every population of this size you'll find a couple of crazies. That was what her father said after the mall shooting in Connecticut, the massacre in Norway. Gaming is like the world. No one can prove gaming causes violent crime. It's not what gaming does to you. Gaming is what you bring. Despite this, she imagined Daphne enticing Aidan. She imagined EverCon, and beyond that a bigger marketplace, and she felt responsible\u2014not theoretically, but personally, responsible. Arkadia was not simply property of her father and her uncle. Viktor had given her a share of the company when she was a little child. Nina was a silent partner in more ways than one; she never spoke of this.\n\nShe was implicated. She had not divested herself, but had maintained her position. She had been practical, imagining she could use her money to do good work. She had been loyal to her father's enterprise, despite her doubts. What a hypocrite she'd been.\n\nShe threw off the covers and snatched up Diana's journal. Took the composition book to her desk in the living room and began scanning pages, one after another.\n\nNina? Collin texted Nina on her phone. u there?\n\nno, she typed back.\n\ncan you talk?\n\ncan't.\n\ncant or wont?\n\nwe'll just fight.\n\nA moment later, phone in hand, he was standing in her doorway. \"Let's fight, then.\"\n\n\"You scared me!\" She was pale, exhausted, her hair rough, unbrushed.\n\n\"What are you doing?\"\n\nShe cut him off. \"There's just one thing I want to say to you.\"\n\n\"Say whatever you want.\" He meant, Say you hate me. Say I drink too much. Say that I was out of line.\n\nBut she said none of those things. She stood in front of her scanner and told Collin, \"Daphne can't play with kids. It's wrong, and if you don't see why, then I can never, ever be with you.\"\n\n\"Why don't you just admit you're angry at me?\"\n\n\"You're not thinking what Daphne does to people.\"\n\n\"She's never done anything to me.\"\n\n\"She plays kids. She played Aidan and he chased her and now he's in the hospital.\"\n\n\"What? Slow down! Aidan O'Neil? Kerry's kid?\"\n\nAt last Nina had startled him. She showed Collin the medical alert from school and he said, \"What if he got Daphne sick?\"\n\n\"That's what you're worried about?\"\n\nIt seemed obvious to Nina that nothing bad would ever happen to Daphne. She was the perpetrator, not the victim. \"She led him on. That's her test marketing.\"\n\n\"With one sixteen-year-old. Who could be anyone!\"\n\n\"She uses him to get the word out.\"\n\n\"How would Aidan get the word out?\"\n\nShe spoke with fevered intensity. \"In pranks. On walls.\"\n\n\"What are you talking about?\"\n\n\"He tagged Emerson.\"\n\n\"Prove it.\"\n\nShe almost showed him Diana's journal. She nearly opened to the page\u2014and then she held back, afraid of making a mistake, betraying student-teacher confidentiality, exposing Aidan, helpless in the hospital.\n\n\"You're imagining what _could_ happen,\" Collin told her.\n\nShe took a deep breath. \"I'm not imagining. I know.\"\n\n\"You know for sure? You can say without a doubt?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"How?\"\n\n\"I can't tell you.\"\n\n\"So I just have to trust you.\"\n\nShe nodded.\n\n\"Then can I ask you something?\"\n\n\"What?\"\n\n\"Why can't you trust me?\"\n\nDiana slept on the couch. The air conditioners were too heavy to carry from the basement, and without them, it was too hot to sleep upstairs. Monday morning, she padded to the kitchen and listened to the house creak. The phone rang, and people left messages. Mrs. Solomon called to inform Kerry that Diana was absent from school.\n\nMaia came over with a casserole of vegetarian enchiladas, and Diana said thank you very much, but as soon as Maia left, she slid the whole thing into the freezer. She was too hot to eat. Too hot for anything. She took off her shirt and lay on the living room rug. Then she took off her shorts. Her long hair smothered her neck and shoulders.\n\nWhen her mother phoned that afternoon, Diana roused herself to answer. \"Hello.\"\n\n\"Diana?\"\n\n\"No, this is a robber,\" Diana said.\n\n\"What?\"\n\n\"Yes, Mom. It's Diana. Who else would it be?\"\n\n\"How are you, sweetheart?\"\n\n\"I'm fine,\" Diana said.\n\n\"He's sleeping now. He's stable,\" said Kerry, although Diana hadn't asked.\n\n\"Okay.\"\n\n\"You can see him. I can't leave, but Priscilla says she'll drive you.\"\n\nDiana didn't answer.\n\n\"Are you there? Diana?\"\n\n\"What?\"\n\n\"Just go next door and ask. She's glad to take you. She has to finish a lesson this afternoon but then...\"\n\nEven as her mother spoke, Diana climbed the stairs to the stifling second floor. Her entire body was slippery with sweat.\n\n\"You're breaking up,\" Kerry said.\n\nDiana dropped the receiver into the laundry hamper in the bathroom. Then she peeled off her underwear.\n\nThe bathroom had white penny tiles on the floor. There was a shower curtain printed with yellow rubber duckies, a small sink with a square mirror over it, a glass shelf cluttered with acne wash, toothpaste, and a jar of toothbrushes, combs, and scissors. Diana's blue bathrobe hung on a hook on the door, but it was too hot to wear. For a long time, Diana stood in the cold shower. She stood there until she couldn't stand it any longer. Then she stepped out, shivering.\n\nEven she was surprised by the girl in the mirror. She wasn't thin, but she was sturdy, muscular from so much running, her breasts pink-tipped, her eyes fierce, her hair dripping down her back. She didn't recognize herself at all.\n\nShe took a comb and raked all her hair forward so that it covered her face. She could barely see herself in the mirror through black strands. She took the scissors and held it open in her hand, cool blades against her palm. For a moment she wanted to feel that blade slicing her skin. She imagined her own blood, red-black, spotting the tile floor. She thought about it, but she cut her hair instead.\n\nDeliciously cool to shear off all that heavy hair. She didn't try to cut evenly, just hacked away until she could run her hand through the mop she had left. Her eyes were darker in the mirror, her face paler. She looked almost like a boy.\n\nShe dressed in basketball shorts, a sports bra, and a black mesh shirt, but couldn't find clean socks. She glanced at her bed covered with laundry, her dresser piled high with crap. Pencils and rubber bands, marbles and beads, staplers and the wrong-size staples, a broken alarm clock covered in thick dust. She said aloud, \"I feel bad for whoever lives here.\"\n\nIn the kitchen she found a stack of paper grocery bags. She took them to her room and threw them on the floor. She announced, \"Let's recycle, shall we?\" and swept her dresser clean. She picked up all the stray school assignments and receipts and cardboard boxes from her floor and stuffed them into bags. Stripped her bed of its faded princess sheets and stuffed them into a bag along with her pillowcases. She pulled plush animals from her closet. Duck. Rainbow fish. Black horse with a mane matted from the dryer. There was a small bison, which she had called her \"dison.\" \"Time to get a life,\" she told her childhood elephant.\n\nThe doorbell startled her. At first she didn't answer. Then she heard the bell again. Her mother? No, stupid, your mother has the key. Except she might have lost it! She rushed downstairs.\n\nMiss Lazare.\n\nDiana held the glass storm door open with her body.\n\n\"Diana?\"\n\n\"Yes?\" Forgetting her new look, unconscious of the stuffed elephant in her hands, Diana wondered why Lazare seemed so confused.\n\n\"I was so sorry to hear about your brother,\" Lazare began.\n\n\"What do you mean?\" Diana felt a surge of dread.\n\n\"I heard he's in the hospital.\"\n\n\"Oh.\" Diana could breathe again.\n\n\"I'm sorry,\" Lazare repeated.\n\n\"Thanks.\"\n\n\"I wanted to ask if you're okay.\"\n\nDiana gazed into Lazare's anxious eyes. \"I'm good.\"\n\n\"Because you weren't in school.\"\n\n\"So I hear,\" Diana said.\n\n\"And I have your Discovery Journal.\" Lazare held out the composition notebook. \"And I was wondering...I wanted to know if we could...You wrote some things that made me think you might want to talk, either to me or to someone at school.\"\n\nDiana took the composition notebook.\n\n\"There were some things you wrote about your brother,\" her teacher said in that very gentle voice adults used when they wanted to pry something out of you.\n\nJust a step back, and Diana could retreat inside. The glass door would snap shut again.\n\n\"You seemed worried,\" Lazare said.\n\n\"Not really.\"\n\nDiana's teacher took a deep breath. \"You say he's playing nonstop, and you don't know if you should tell on him.\"\n\n\"Wow,\" Diana said slowly, amazed that her teacher would come out and talk to her like that, not only rereading but repeating written words\u2014dragging Diana's dark, unformed thoughts into the light.\n\n\"I thought you might want to\u2014\"\n\n\"Hey!\" Diana cut her off. \"Are you talking about my family?\" Her face was burning. She had never spoken to a teacher in this way.\n\nLazare said, \"I was afraid you wrote about your brother for a reason.\"\n\n\"No, not at all,\" Diana said. \"Only for the assignment. Educational purposes only!\"\n\nShe stepped inside and the glass door snapped shut. Then she closed the wood door, and locked it too. She was the only one left, and it was up to her to defend the house. Go away, Diana thought. Get the hell away from me.\n\nShe ran down to the basement, which was piled with cartons and moldering window shades. She pushed hard and opened a door to the utility room. There, behind the water heater, she had hidden her doll carriage. Inside the carriage under blankets lay Aidan's black BoX. \"Stay there,\" she said, and stuffed her journal deep inside. \"Sit tight.\" She left her elephant on top.\n\n\u2014\n\nHour after hour, Aidan slept. The sun had set, but he didn't know the difference. He had been moved from the ICU to a regular room, and in two days he had two different roommates, a little boy and then a baby in a hospital crib. Doctors rounded, nurses came to change his bags and check his drips. Janitors emptied receptacles of trash and sharps and linens. At night they buffed and polished the smooth floors. Children tottered outside his door and their parents supported them, one step at a time. A chaplain came and blessed the baby on the other side of the curtain. Aidan slept on. He saw none of this.\n\nSitting at his side, Kerry watched pain, fear, longing flash across his face, and she spoke to him. Sometimes she prayed, \"Please.\" Sometimes she whispered, \"Aidan. Where are you?\"\n\nEven as she sat with Aidan, he fought on. He killed a thousand bats, yet every moment, more attacked. With huge effort he shook them off, and still they flew at him from their caverns until at last he could do no more than kneel, feeling for some tunnel, or some hole in which to hide. If he could get to the river, the great silver river, if he could immerse himself, that dead water would cover him entirely. Nothing could hurt him then.\n\nKerry roused herself to cheer him on. \"You'll be all right. You're breathing on your own. Your body is resting.\" She asked and answered her own questions. \"Tell me, Aidan. Do you know where you are? You're at the hospital. Do you know why you're here? You have meningitis. Do you know what's going to happen? You're going to get better. Can you hear me? Can you squeeze my hand?\"\n\nHe did hear his mother, not all the words, but most of them. Do you know you're at the hospital? Her voice was both close and far away, like the rush when you pressed a seashell to your ear. Can you hear my hand?\n\nTen o'clock at night, Kerry dozed in her chair, and Aidan clawed for some way out, trying to escape the bats feasting on his flesh.\n\n\"Mom?\"\n\nKerry jumped at the light touch on her shoulder. \"Aidan!\" For a split second, she thought he'd risen from his bed. She saw him standing before her in his black shirt, basketball shorts.\n\n\"It's just me,\" Diana said.\n\n\"What did you do to yourself?\" Kerry cried out. \"What happened to your hair?\"\n\n\"I cut it.\" Diana was gazing at Aidan. Her mother was still talking, but Diana could barely hear.\n\nSleep-deprived and overwrought, Kerry felt possessed by her twins' strange reciprocity. Even as she'd told herself Aidan needed a haircut, Diana had chopped off her own hair.\n\n\"You just went at it with a scissors? Diana. _Why?_ \"\n\n\"I was hot,\" Diana answered automatically.\n\n\"I left you all alone.\"\n\nDiana just stared at Aidan, with the needles in his hand and tubes and bags.\n\n\"Where's Priscilla?\" Kerry asked her daughter. \"Did she drive you?\"\n\n\"No.\" Aidan was shrouded in his sheets, his faintly printed hospital gown. His chest seemed empty as he breathed in and out.\n\n\"I don't think you should take the T at this hour of night.\"\n\n\"I didn't take the T. I just ran over. Hey, Aidan.\"\n\n\"He needs to rest.\"\n\n\"It's me,\" Diana told her brother.\n\nKerry broke in, \"Wait. What do you mean you just ran over?\"\n\n\"Look at me,\" Diana said, but Aidan's eyes remained closed. There was something strange about the lids, as though they'd been sealed, gold lashes glued together. His skin was strange as well, almost translucent. Yes, he was breathing, but he wasn't sleeping normally. He was becoming a statue, an icon of himself. She could see the metal in his cheek. \"Open your eyes.\"\n\nHe didn't move.\n\nDiana's voice trembled. \"Open your eyes because you're scaring me.\"\n\nHe stirred, turning ever so slightly toward her.\n\nKerry stood next to Diana. \"Keep talking.\"\n\nDiana's voice sounded hollow, as though someone else were speaking. \"So now that you're here, I figured it was a good time to cut my hair, flunk my exams, and sell your stuff.\"\n\nHis eyelids twitched.\n\n\"Kidding!\"\n\n\"Go on,\" Kerry whispered.\n\nDiana told Aidan whatever came into her head. \"Remember in fifth grade when we had that field trip and all the mummies kept beeping when we stepped too close?\"\n\nNo response.\n\nRemember the bodies in their coffins? Diana thought. Remember their gold masks? She could see Aidan's body; she could see his mask.\n\n\"Remember when Jack caught that bird?\" If Aidan remembered anything, he would remember this. On a different field trip, in Copley Square, Jack had actually caught an obese pigeon with his bare hands. Teachers started screaming, Oh, my God, what are you doing? Don't touch that thing\u2014it's filthy! Drop it! Drop it! The whole time the pigeon kept flapping in Jack's hands.\n\nNothing.\n\n\"Remember when we went on the T into Boston by ourselves and we thought someone was going to kidnap us? Remember when we thought if we clasped our hands together we could cast spells? Remember how I turned into a deer? I ran three miles tonight. I ran across the BU Bridge and followed the signs for Longwood Medical Area. I was like that crazed deer in UnderWorld.\"\n\nWhen she said \"UnderWorld,\" Aidan opened his eyes.\n\n\"Don't stop,\" Kerry whispered.\n\nAidan's irises were bright as coins, expressionless. Looking at him hurt, like staring at the sun.\n\n\"Keep talking,\" Kerry said.\n\nDiana repeated the one word that was working. \"I've been playing UnderWorld on your computer. I've been using your account,\" she added, just to get a rise out of him. \"No, actually, I can't log in.\" She paused. Then asked tauntingly, \"Could I have your password?\"\n\nAidan's voice was hoarse but distinct, as he spoke for the first time in three days. \"No!\"\n\nKerry was crying. She was so relieved. Her tears were falling all over Aidan's pillow. Diana was embarrassed, because her mother always made such a big deal about everything, and because when she started crying she made Diana cry. \"Aidan, make her stop,\" Diana said, brushing away her own tears, but Aidan did nothing. He had no energy to tell his mother what to do. To tell the truth, if he'd tried a stunt like that, Kerry would have cried even harder.\n\nThe nurse came in. Everyone was talking, but Aidan looked up at Diana. The gold was fading from his cheek, and his eyes were human, soft again, slightly amused. Can you believe this? he was asking silently.\n\n\"You're awake!\" Kerry told him, as if he didn't know.\n\nThen Aidan smiled at Diana and she knew exactly what he meant. Their mother was so crazy. Dying was so boring. As soon as I can walk, I'm outta here. He said all this without words, and Diana understood. Kerry could read her children, but only haltingly. They were her second language. Diana was a native speaker; she came from Aidan's country. When he closed his eyes again, she knew he wasn't going anywhere.\n\nNow the air-conditioning rushed over her, and her sweaty T-shirt chilled her skin. The hairs were standing up on her arms, and she could feel each one individually. She could feel everything from the most enormous, overarching joy down to the jagged middle toenail stabbing the toe next to it inside her right shoe. She wasn't just happy, she was thirsty. Actually, she was starving. She realized all this as she watched Aidan drift off to sleep again. Kerry was still tiptoeing around the bed, but Diana said, \"Mom, could we order pizza?\" because everything was good now. Aidan had decided to come back to life.\n\n\u2014\n\nThe next day, he began to look about him. He saw his IV, his plastic bracelet, his scanty gown, his uneaten dinner on the swing arm tray. He began to see the colors of the hospital, grays and muted pinks, the red sharps container on the wall.\n\nHis eyes were fierce, even as he lay crumpled in his bed. He seemed to Kerry like a rescued bird of prey, one of those injured hawks caged with a few dead mice for dinner. He was quiet and obedient and\u2014he even let her touch him\u2014almost tame. Stay like this, she thought, even as she prayed for his recovery. Stay gentle. Please don't fly away.\n\nSlowly his strength returned. He lost track of days, but every morning he limped along, leaning on his mother in the hall. Through open doors he saw other mothers in other patients' rooms. Beds decorated with helium balloons, windows covered with cards and paper flowers. Wasn't he too big for this? At the end of the hall they stopped at a lounge filled with toys and dolls and children's books. There were shelves of children's movies. \"People donate their old stuff,\" his mother said. There was a play operating table as well, where a large teddy bear awaited surgery. Or was it a rabbit? He couldn't tell. He had to rest, and, sinking into a tiny armchair, he felt childish and unsteady. He was growing younger and more wobbly by the minute, even as his mother glowed, telling all her nurse friends, We're so lucky. Look, we're up and around!\n\nHe knew where his mother was going with all this. In her mind, if you were lucky, you were also blessed, and once you were blessed, it was just a tiny jump to everything happening for a reason, and God putting you on this earth for a purpose. He didn't buy any of it, but he didn't argue either. Leaning on Kerry as they walked back to his room, he was simply grateful for his mother, and happy that she didn't have his BoX.\n\nHe was thankful in small ways as well. Glad to wear his own pajamas, grateful to lose his catheter. He felt something else too, a strange curiosity as he observed his own recovery. After four days at the hospital, he closed his eyes and he saw nothing, no spots or sparks, no monsters approaching, just darkness. On the fifth morning, he woke empty, as though he'd run out of dreams. Could that happen? Could your imagination actually run out of things to see? Fascinated, he tried to remember where he'd been last. Caverns? Tunnels? Crevasses? Which circle? Seven or Eight? Briefly his gaming history vanished, and he could not remember where he had left off.\n\nOnly Daphne stayed with him. The kiss, the shock of meeting her, his intense desire, and his humiliation. He wanted to speak to her, wanted very much to hurt her. He imagined ripping her open with his sword. But his fantasy had little heat. His mind drifted away.\n\nHis fingers began tapping. Softly they drummed the edge of the mattress, and he thought he would be a drummer. He would play drums as he had before, in Liam's band. Or he would play keyboard. Scales and sonatinas returned to him as he lay in bed, and he thought, I'll play again.\n\nThe next day this conviction faded. He watched the young resident listening to his heartbeat with a stethoscope. For the first time it occurred to Aidan how strange that was, to listen to another life. The doctor was listening intently, as though he could hear distant hoofbeats, and Aidan thought, I will study medicine.\n\nBy evening this vocation floated off as well. All his ideas were abstract, all his desires theoretical. He observed, he admired, he imagined, but he wanted nothing\u2014not even UnderWorld.\n\nMaybe meningitis had wiped out his gaming life. He knew that this was what his mother hoped. This was what she really meant by lucky. When she said everything happened for a reason, she was praying that fever burned the games right out of you.\n\n\"Aidan.\" She was sitting on his bed, and the sky was dark outside his window. \"I want to ask you something.\"\n\n\"I know,\" he said. She wanted him to start over, to return from the hospital cleansed of all his sins. Then this ordeal would be a blessing, his meningitis actually an act of God.\n\n\"Could you promise?\" She looked so thin. Her hair and hands, her arms, were light as straw. All the color had leached out of her, as though she had taken on his illness for herself. Even Kerry's eyes were ghostly blue. \"Promise you won't play again.\"\n\nHe hadn't touched a computer in what seemed like years. Looking down upon himself, as from a great distance, his own thoughts seemed strange, oddly colorless, like clouds. Not even clouds, but the shadows of clouds on empty valleys. How still it was, how slow. Delicious to lie back powerless, to drop the threads of all your gaming lives. It was a kind of death, an abdication. His kingdom would carry on without him as he lay in state. He would sleep and sleep. It was easy to say yes.\n\nThe heat smothered Collin outside Arkadia's air-conditioned halls. He had been working such long hours, drawing such beautiful and terrible things, that he felt a kind of grief to leave, as though he were giving up his wings to walk the streets. Summer days were white, overexposed. Trees dusty, and all the flowers overblown. Old houses flaked, bricks needed repointing, and you couldn't do the job in one stroke either. You couldn't change colors in an instant, or render different trees, or refresh roses dry and withered in the sun.\n\nNina was waiting for him in her VW bug, and he eased himself in. \"Thank you.\"\n\n\"You're welcome,\" she said, shyly.\n\nQuiet, careful with each other, they drove past Waltham's office parks. Were those tiny birds filling the air? Like aeroflakes, they scattered and then drew together.\n\n\"Where do you want to go?\" she said.\n\n\"Anywhere.\"\n\n\"Let's get lunch.\"\n\n\"No,\" he told her. \"Let's get out of here.\"\n\nThey drove to Walden Woods, just a few minutes away. She wasn't dressed for hiking, and they had no food or water, but they parked at the trailhead and they went walking anyway, taking the dirt path into the shady trees.\n\nThe light was green, the boulders massive. Chartreuse silkworms swayed on invisible threads. Some leaves were bright, some dark and glossy, some dull, some pale, some olive, and all around them, pines grew straight up to the sun.\n\nIt was amazing how fast Arkadia dematerialized in this green light. Mountain ranges and wild horses, brilliant sunsets, Whennish alliances, even UnderWorld's silver river faded away. The lowliest leaf, brown and shriveled, brittle-veined, showed more life and detail than anything in EverWhen. The humblest rock displayed more intricate patterns, lichened, mica-flecked, cool and wet on its underside, sheltering a thousand ants.\n\nCollin helped Nina when the trail got steep. He offered her his hand as they crossed a shallow stream. His shoes squelched, his jeans, her skirt wicked water. Mossy stones slipped under them. No flying here, no bounding over rivers. The stream was slippery and refreshing, but their feet were slow, the whole forest heavy with summer heat.\n\nHer sandals weren't good for climbing, so they didn't get far. They found a leafy knoll, and turned off the trail to rest. Higher and drier than the rocky path, carpeted with pine needles, the knoll was shaded by young trees. Collin sat down, leaning back against a maple. Nina sat on his lap, leaning back against him.\n\n\"What if we were the size of tiny insects\u2014like mayflies?\" he asked.\n\n\"I wouldn't want to live for just one day.\"\n\n\"But it wouldn't seem like just a day to us.\" Collin closed his eyes.\n\n\"I would rather be a bird,\" Nina said.\n\n\"What kind? A little one, or something like an ostrich?\"\n\nShe answered slowly. \"Maybe an owl.\"\n\n\"Are you sleepy?\"\n\n\"Are you happy?\" Nina was so quiet, and so close, the question might have been his own.\n\n\"I am now.\"\n\n\"I went to see Diana,\" Nina told him, \"but she wouldn't talk to me.\"\n\n\"Of course not. You're a teacher,\" Collin said.\n\nShe turned to face him and she wasn't thinking about Diana. She was thinking about Daphne. \"I do jump to conclusions.\"\n\nHe pushed back her long heavy hair. \"It's okay.\"\n\n\"Not really.\"\n\n\"Nina,\" he said, \"it was a million years ago.\"\n\n\"A week.\"\n\n\"That's like a million years in EverWhen.\"\n\n\"I don't like her.\"\n\nHe tried to keep it light. \"She's not your type.\"\n\nShe settled down again, leaning against him. As far as Collin was concerned, their fight was history, and so Nina's next question startled him. \"Do you ever draw her?\"\n\n\"What?\"\n\n\"Do you draw Daphne?\"\n\n\"No!\" Collin lied reflexively. Why was she still thinking that way? How could she mention Daphne in this place, under these trees? \"She's obsessed with Peter,\" Collin added.\n\n\"So are you.\"\n\n\"Not like that.\"\n\n\"He's got you drawing nonstop. He'll get you to the point where you _can't_ stop.\"\n\nCollin frowned.\n\nNina said, \"He's hard to resist.\" She was thinking of the way Peter had driven Julianne, recording her for hours. Julianne had been sixteen when she sang those mermaid voices. She had wilted with exhaustion, but Peter would not let up. He kept her working and he kept watching her. \"I'm afraid he'll crush you.\"\n\n\"Give me a little credit!\"\n\n\"Sorry.\" Nina's face was pink, flushed with heat.\n\n\"You're way too serious,\" Collin said. \"What's the opposite of a martyr?\"\n\n\"A tormentor?\"\n\n\"No. Someone too good.\"\n\n\"A savior?\"\n\n\"Yeah, you think you have to be a savior.\"\n\nShe bent her head. \"I was out of line with Diana.\"\n\n\"And that's the other thing. You think everything is set in stone. You screwed up with Diana. So what? We had a fight. It's over. Just erase and start again.\"\n\nShe almost laughed.\n\n\"You see?\" He caressed her until she licked his neck, salty with sweat, rolled up his shirt, so that his bare skin slid against hers. He had her to himself again.\n\n\"What was that?\" She raised her head.\n\nChildren calling to each other on the trail below. The panting, jingling sound of dogs. \"Let's go back.\" She meant to her apartment, where they could be alone.\n\nThe children's voices faded away. Someone called the dogs, and they ran off.\n\nThey turned toward each other, tousled, pine needles in their hair. \"Do you really want to go home?\"\n\n\"No.\"\n\n\"Then stay.\"\n\nBut already mosquitoes were hovering, grazing their wrists. Nina sprang to her feet and shook them off.\n\nHe wished he could draw Nina then. Her white arms. Her waist, where T-shirt and skirt didn't quite meet. He wished he could do justice to her eyes, not gray but silver in the dappled light. Instinctively he felt in his pockets for a bit of chalk, but he had none. He picked up a stick. \"Pick a tree, any tree.\"\n\n\"What do you mean?\"\n\n\"Just choose one.\"\n\nShe pointed to the pine in front of her.\n\n\"Too close.\"\n\nShe pointed to a bigger pine farther away.\n\nHe flung his stick like a machete, end over end, and hit the pine square on the trunk. \"Another.\"\n\nShe pointed to a maple, even farther off.\n\n\"That's Peter.\" He picked up a second stick and she watched it cartwheeling through the air. It struck the trunk dead center and bounced backward.\n\nShe chose a dogwood, and an oak, another sticky pine, some trees close, and others far away. He threw and threw, and he hit every single mark.\n\n\"How do you do that?\"\n\n\"Pure talent,\" he teased, but it was true. He was outstanding at stick throwing. Fence climbing. Stone skipping. \"I'm good at all the sports nobody plays.\"\n\nShe kissed him and she felt his warmth.\n\nHe cupped his hands around her face, and he admonished himself as well as Nina. \"Remember this.\"\n\nIf Walden Woods banished Arkadia from your mind, the opposite was also true. At work, the outside world felt like a dream, far away and insubstantial. You earned real money, but you barely had the time to spend it. Collin bought himself his dream bike, an Eddy Merckx AX, but he was too busy to shop for other toys. He could afford a new apartment\u2014except he didn't have a day to look. Maybe it was for the best. He didn't want to be materialistic\u2014and he loved having money in the bank. He could pay for dinner. He could go to a movie without thinking.\n\nLong summer days turned into nights, and he slept at Arkadia on the hellions' black couch. He closed his eyes and imagined his hands on Nina's waist, his fingers unbuttoning her shirt, her hair tumbling down her bare back. He wanted her, but woke to work and play again. He drew horses for hours, and then he turned to EverWhen to stoke his imagination.\n\nThere was a cove near the Whennish shore where waves washed into tide pools, and you could search for pearls. There was another place he liked to wander, beyond the tree line on EverRest. The world was white, with craggy peaks of ice, the only shelter crystal caves between the rocks. You had to break your way inside, cutting down icicles, which shattered at your feet. In the deepest cave, a race of Dwarves served a white-haired, white-eyed queen. Her eyes were frosty, her hands translucent, her behavior secretive. You knew that she was hiding a rich jewel. Other gamers told you where. She had a ruby for a heart.\n\nHe played so late and worked so long that his own art raced away from him. His horses ran untamed through the Trackless Wood. Lovely onscreen, they overwhelmed you in the round. First you heard them. Hoofbeats coming closer. Then the sound of branches breaking as they tore the underbrush. Magical, unearthly, they surrounded you with tangled manes and flying legs and dark eyes flashing through the trees. Drawing them apart, he developed each horse as a character, the gentle dapple-gray, the chestnut mare with the scar on its right flank, the black high-kicking stallion. No detail was too small to realize, none too difficult to render. Any line he drew might live and breathe in game.\n\nHe sat with Nicholas in his black padded office, and they tried out sound prints for each animal. Collin had no control over UnderWorld's soundtrack, but it was magic listening to the possibilities.\n\n\"These are for the chestnut.\" Nicholas clicked a file on his monitor and Collin heard a quick light step, a sleek rustling, a whinnying, a single twig breaking. \"These are for the black.\" Nicholas opened another file, and Collin heard the stallion's pounding hooves, its heavy breath, the rip and tear of brambles in its path.\n\n\"What about when they run through water?\"\n\n\"Yeah, I've got this muddy sucking sound, and splashing.\"\n\nEven without visuals, Collin could hear the animals fording a stream. \"What if one of them slips? One of them could slip scrambling up the bank.\"\n\n\"Yeah!\" Nicholas said. \"You hear them slide and then they're struggling. You hear them flailing. And then they scream.\"\n\nNicholas was at least fifty, a veteran of three major games and countless game expansions. His beard was gray and his hair was thin on top, and a lot of times he had to wear reading glasses, but he played all kinds of guitars and he could sing. He was a vocalist of the Bob Dylan variety, singer-screamer-songwriter. \"How's this?\" He opened new files: whinnying, running, and footfalls. Clicking on his computer, he adjusted the volume, and suddenly a horse was screaming, thrashing, dying in a ditch.\n\nCollin flinched, and Nicholas said, \"Okay. We're doing something right.\"\n\n\"That was like the worst thing I've ever heard.\"\n\nNicholas leaned back his swivel chair. \"Thank you.\"\n\nHe looked so supremely satisfied that Collin said, \"You love it here.\"\n\nNicholas thought about this. \"Sometimes I hate it,\" he said at last. \"Sometimes I'm burned out\u2014but I try to stay inspired.\" He held up his phone, flashing a picture of his son.\n\nOf course, Collin thought. You have to support your kid. That changes everything.\n\n\"Sometimes I get bored,\" Nicholas admitted.\n\nUnconsciously, Collin massaged his right hand with his left. \"Then what?\"\n\n\"I keep going anyway.\"\n\n\"You force yourself?\"\n\nNicholas kept clicking at his keyboard even as he spoke. \"Yeah, but you keep going with your own shit too. You keep your little projects going on the side.\"\n\nA sound of bells, no, faint wind chimes, filled the padded room. The sound of wind rustling in the trees, and then soft chords on a guitar, music frayed around the edges, a wordless kind of blues. All this emerged from Nicholas's speakers.\n\n\"What's that?\"\n\n\"That's me,\" said Nicholas. \"That's my stuff.\"\n\nThe music stopped instantly when he closed the file. \"Okay, what else you got?\"\n\n\"I'm drawing the stallion. Again.\"\n\n\u2014\n\nThat night in the conference room called the Keep, Collin presented his latest stallion to the hellions. He touched his slate and transferred his small drawings to the big electronic board.\n\nIn silence, Peter gazed at Collin's creation, a horse scarier than any other, a biter and a kicker with a bold head and hard black eyes. It was crueler than Collin's previous attempts. Each of those stallions had caught Peter's attention briefly, and then, one by one, they wouldn't suit. They had been too heroic or too noble, or simply too beautiful for UnderWorld. Nobody could say that now. The new horse looked like death, with its gaunt body and vicious mouth, its ragged coat, translucent, dirty white.\n\nPeter frowned, and Collin steeled himself.\n\nPeter examined Collin's work in silence. Come on, thought Collin, but Peter didn't speak.\n\nHe took the stylus from Collin's hand. Then, wielding the slender rod like his own wand, Peter touched the stallion's eye. It took only a moment, but the effect was brilliant, ghastly. The horse's bright eye filled with blood. Now the stallion looked possessed. Now Collin's drawing became a character, riveting, repellent.\n\nThe whole room hushed as Peter stepped back from the board. One touch and Peter had transformed Collin's horse entirely.\n\n\"That's sick,\" said Peter, contemplating his own work.\n\nA team player would have rejoiced. A humbler artist might have thanked Peter for the lesson. Collin did neither. His feelings were confused. Awe mixed with anger, a sense that Peter had destroyed something. And yet Peter had not destroyed the horse. He had revealed its full potential\u2014and made it his own. All eyes were on Peter, all praise to him. Even Daphne clapped her hands. It's true\u2014you're obsessed with him, thought Collin. You can't take your eyes off him.\n\nBut the moment passed and Daphne was herself again. She was warmer to Collin than before, staying late, after everybody left, laughing, commiserating, showing off her work. She drew up a chair and revealed her new project, posting on fan forums as an anti-gaming activist named Christian Wench.\n\n\"Listen to this.\" Daphne read from her tablet, _\"Rise up against UnderWorld! It is the work of Satan. Destroy this game before it destroys our children!\"_\n\n\"What's the point of that?\"\n\n\"Rallying the troops!\"\n\n\"More like aggravating them.\"\n\n\"That's publicity,\" she said. \"We got a hundred responses in the first minute.\" Daphne scrolled through furious comments. \"Oh, look. My second death threat. _I'm cuming for u cutting off your..._ \" She seemed amused, if slightly rattled, by the hatred Christian Wench inspired.\n\n\"That's not funny.\" He was reading over her shoulder.\n\n\"Oh, come on. I'm trying to cheer you up.\"\n\nHer words startled him. She had never before acknowledged what he might feel, or admitted any impulse beyond the desire to win.\n\n\"I don't need cheering up.\"\n\n\"You looked crushed in there.\"\n\n\"Fuck you.\"\n\n\"Play with me.\"\n\n\"Why?\"\n\n\"Because no one's here.\" Her tone was light, but her breath was soft and eager. The building couldn't be empty, and yet for now they were alone. Other hellions had gone home. Their idle workstations had passed into dream mode, monitors displaying ARKADIA in stars.\n\nShe took both his hands and he let her pull him to his feet. She reminded him of Noelle when she was high. Eager, sweetly wild. In the pale starlight, Daphne's eyes took on a strange sheen from too much gaming, too much everything. \"Come on.\"\n\nHe wanted her then. Hands on her hips, he pulled her in, but she sprang back, teasing, \"Duel in EverWhen.\"\n\nInsulted, he shot back, \"No.\"\n\n\"What, then?\"\n\nOf course she knew exactly what he wanted. He stepped closer, but, like a boxer in her hooded sweatshirt, she danced out of reach.\n\nHis heart was pounding, but he kept his voice steady. \"I want to draw you.\"\n\nFor once he surprised her. \"You've drawn me before.\"\n\n\"I want to draw you like this.\"\n\nShe held still for just a moment. His gaze unnerved and attracted her. She followed as he wheeled a swivel chair into the conference room where he had presented the ghost horse that afternoon. \"Here. Now.\" With a swipe of his hand, he erased the red-eyed stallion covering the board. \"Sit there.\" He pointed to the chair.\n\n\"What if I say no?\"\n\nHands on her shoulders, he seated her.\n\nNow she looked up at him, curious, mischievous, seriously tempted, but he wouldn't touch her again. He wasn't a child for her to tease. He backed away to draw her on his slate.\n\nHe sketched her short dark hair, her bright face, the soft folds of her sweatshirt. Fierce, efficient, he drew Daphne's picture, and she was amused, slightly disbelieving, as she sat for this formal portrait. Boldly she gazed back at Collin, but he controlled the situation. Her expression, sweet and dangerous, belonged to him.\n\nFinishing his first sketch, he showed her the slate, and she was startled by the likeness. Wonderingly she gazed at her own blue eyes, her parted lips, her body floating in the dark. They stood together looking at her picture and he never touched her, but he had left his mark on her. She was impressed.\n\n\"Once more,\" he said.\n\nHe never asked, but she saw the question in his eyes. She unzipped her sweatshirt.\n\nHe drew her with the sweatshirt open to reveal her undershirt, and the leaves inked on her bare collarbone.\n\nDaphne was serious now, conscious of her emerging image. Her body stilled and her eyes darkened as Collin drew her. Her mood began to match his.\n\nAs before, he showed her the slate. \"Again?\" She let him slip the sweatshirt off her shoulders.\n\nNow he drew her neck, with its intricate design of leaves. He outlined her bare arms inked with stems. With total concentration, he drew her tattooed shoulders and the ribbed cloth of her clinging shirt. He maintained his distance, but he had her in his hands. For her part, she never moved. She never flinched as she gazed back at him.\n\nCollin showed Daphne the slate and then erased it. He erased each drawing and deleted every image for good measure.\n\nThey didn't speak. He didn't need to ask. In silence, she locked the door and took off her undershirt. They were alone, and no one could walk in on them. She sat for Collin and her breasts were white, her nipples small and hard. He stepped back and took a breath, but even then, he didn't think that anyone would ever know.\n\nNo one walked in, but one person saw. Invisible to them, Peter sat in his office, watching Collin's sketch emerge on his own monitor. He could not see Collin, but he knew Collin's line. Only Collin drew like that, with such detail and speed.\n\n\"Careful, Collin,\" Peter said.\n\nEven as Collin deleted Daphne's image, his drawing remained on Peter's workstation. Line by line, Peter watched the next drawing develop. Daphne's face, her short, tousled hair, her patterned arms and shoulders, her bare torso. \"Careful,\" Peter murmured, but Collin couldn't hear.\n\nAidan sat at the kitchen table with his thousand-page textbook spread before him. He was sweating it out in summer school, learning cellular respiration. Oxidative phosphorylation. Cast away in the kitchen, without computer, without weapons, without any other voices in his ears, he gazed at the page, and the diagrams meant nothing to him. He waited, closed his eyes, and looked again. It was easy once he got his mind inside the picture. Once there, he could inhabit each cell's tiny factory. The hard part was getting in. Only sheer boredom did the trick. The table was bare except for a bag of pretzels. When those were gone, when he was left with salt dust at the bottom of the bag, he glared at his biology text until, like a sulky cat, his imagination came around again.\n\nHis mother said that he had changed, and she was right. She said life was a miracle, and he could see it. Little things like ice cream, or summer cloudbursts. He would think, Here I am, tasting Toscanini's cocoa pudding. Here I am, with rain streaming down my face. I might have missed all this. He watched sparrows hopping into puddles to wash their dusty feathers, and he thought, How sweet they are; I never noticed.\n\nHe was hungry again. He devoured dinner and then prowled the kitchen late at night, finishing whatever leftovers he could find. His desire to play grew stronger too. As he woke from sickness, regaining stamina and appetite, he dreamed about his spectral life. Even now, under the table, his right foot tapped nervously\u2014but he held back. Thrill seeker, storm chaser, he couldn't qwest a little bit.\n\nHe sat in class three hours a day. He met with the school psychologist, Miss Sorentino, who was pale and strange, with huge eyeglasses and a metallic voice. \"Who's better than you?\" Sorentino would say whenever something pleased her. Patiently he sat at her desk and stared at her collection of miniature turtles. \"This one's soapstone,\" she told Aidan. \"This teeny one's made out of an acorn. This one's marble. This one's glass.\"\n\nHe did his time. He listened to Sorentino talk about his uniqueness and his future. \"What do you think?\" she asked. Sometimes she said, \"It's up to you.\"\n\n\"I get it,\" he told her, and he wasn't lying. When he thought of gaming, he wrote in the margins of his bio notes, _Not now._ He knew how fortunate he was. Plagiarism was minor. As of yet, no one had accused him of his real crimes, and he knew better than to press his luck.\n\nEven so, he felt the tidal pull of UnderWorld. Like water flowing underground, UnderWorld seeped into his ordinary life. How beautiful, how strange, to see dragons in the shadows, and silver in the Charles River. Phantom visions. He could drown in his own thoughts.\n\nDiana was running down the stairs.\n\n\"Where are you going?\" he called out to her.\n\n\"Where I always go.\" She had a summer job across the street. Every afternoon she took care of Sage and Melissa's one-year-old, Henry.\n\n\"Where's the BoX?\"\n\n\"What?\" She thought that she had misheard him, he asked so casually.\n\n\"Where did you put it?\"\n\nShe stood there in shorts and T-shirt and dusty running shoes. \"You said you wouldn't.\"\n\n\"I won't!\"\n\n\"You said you wouldn't even ask.\"\n\n\"I was just curious.\" He turned back to his diagram of leaf and tree. \"You don't have to tell me anything.\"\n\n\u2014\n\nAll afternoon, Diana felt uneasy. She took Henry to Hancock Park with a net bag of pails and shovels dangling from the stroller. She helped the toddler into the sandbox and tried to keep his sun hat on his head, and the whole time she was thinking, \"You don't have to tell me anything.\" Was that supposed to reassure her? Or was it some kind of threat? Did Aidan plan to find the BoX himself?\n\nShe told Henry, \"People as bald as you are should wear hats, or they'll get cancer.\"\n\n\"No,\" said Henry. It was one of his best words, along with \"my.\"\n\n\"He'll never find it,\" she told Henry.\n\n\"No.\"\n\n\"He can't find it.\"\n\n\"No.\" Henry took off his hat.\n\n_\"Yes.\"_ She put his hat back on again.\n\nHe smiled, showing his two teeth, and took off the hat.\n\nStop panicking, she thought. He can't find it, because I don't have it. \"He can look and look,\" she told Henry, as she pushed the stroller back to Antrim Street, \"but I won't tell, and you won't tell.\"\n\nHenry laughed because the ride was bumpy. He loved the jolts where the sidewalk buckled over tree roots.\n\n\u2014\n\n\"It's the little things, right?\" Diana told Brynna that evening, as she laced her shoes. \"Henry gets that.\"\n\n\"You like babies!\"\n\n\"I like money.\"\n\nThey ran together along the river. At first Brynna complained she couldn't keep up, but six weeks into the summer she had lost what was left of her pregnancy weight. Diana burned\u2014she was fair and freckled\u2014but Brynna's body loved the sun. She tanned and her thick hair flew out behind her, streaked with gold.\n\n\"I think I might switch religions,\" Diana said.\n\n\"You can't switch,\" Brynna panted. \"You're Catholic.\"\n\n\"I know, but...not really.\"\n\n\"You go to church,\" Brynna pointed out.\n\n\"My mom goes.\"\n\n\"What would you switch to?\"\n\nDiana glanced at the wind-ruffled river. \"I'd be pagan.\"\n\nBrynna snorted. \"No, you wouldn't.\"\n\n\"I already am.\"\n\n\"Last year you were Wiccan,\" Brynna reminded her.\n\n\"That was different. I was younger then!\"\n\nThey stopped at the light at the Eliot Bridge, and Brynna bent over, laughing. \"Yeah, and now you're almost seventeen.\"\n\n\"I hate you,\" Diana said, although the opposite was true. When she was with Brynna, her uneasy feeling disappeared. When the light changed Diana took off again and her friend followed. Diana said, \"I would be a pagan god.\"\n\nBrynna didn't have the breath to answer.\n\n\"I'd be the god of secrecy,\" Diana said. \"No one could get anything out of me.\"\n\n\"How much farther?\"\n\n\"Just Fresh Pond.\"\n\n\"No way,\" protested Brynna.\n\nStill, Diana pressed on, and Brynna followed.\n\nThey cut away from the river and ran up Brattle Street, and then up Sparks to Huron Avenue, past fancy stores like Graymist, which sold Nantucket baskets, and Marimekko, which sold umbrellas covered with enormous poppies. \"You got this far,\" Diana encouraged her, but when they got to Formaggio Kitchen, Brynna sank down on the old-fashioned park bench out front.\n\n\"Please!\" Diana begged. \"We're almost there. I'll let you take the bus home.\"\n\nDiana knew her friend could run all the way, but Brynna didn't. Brynna's cheeks were scarlet, and her shirt clung to her, soaking wet. Diana had to coax her into the store for air-conditioning and water.\n\n\"Wow.\" Cool air prickled the hair on their arms as they stared at all the treats. Ripe apricots, pluots, and nectarines. Strange pears. Tart cherry scones. Marble tables displaying slabs of sheep cheese, goat cheese, runny cheese, unpasteurized cheese. Brynna said, \"Isn't that against the law?\"\n\nThere were boxes of Belgian chocolate and Italian nougat. Salted caramels from Seattle. Candied violets. Amaretto truffles. You could buy chocolate-covered grapefruit peel. \"Oh, my God, look,\" Brynna said. \"Wild strawberries.\"\n\nTiny berries trailed over green pint-size containers. \"This place is incredible,\" Diana said, in a hushed voice.\n\nBrynna checked the price per pint. \"And everything costs a bazillion dollars.\"\n\nYou couldn't even buy regular water. You had to buy spring water untouched by man. They burst out laughing as they escaped with their single purchase.\n\nDiana took a long swig and handed the bottle to Brynna. \"This water bubbled up through natural aquifers in a volcano.\"\n\nBrynna splashed water on her own face. \"How does that work?\"\n\n\"Come on.\" Diana pulled her by the hand. \"This is the best part of the day. See? The sun is going down.\"\n\n\"Next time.\" Brynna untied and retied her hair. \"I have to take care of Angela.\"\n\n\"Please.\"\n\n\"Come back with me,\" Brynna offered.\n\nDiana shook her head.\n\n\u2014\n\nAlone, Diana ran up Huron Avenue to Fresh Pond, the reservoir, hidden in trees. There was a good trail there all around the pond, and a water fountain where you could splash yourself and dunk your head. Older ladies strolled along, deep in conversation, and every once in a while one of them would look at the water and say, It's so beautiful\u2014look how still the water is. It's like glass; it's like a mirror. Look at the mist! And for a split second they would stop and look, and then they'd go right on talking. Joggers brought their terriers, and big black Labs and goldens, and Irish setters straining at the leash. But if you knew where to go, you didn't run into people so much. There was another pond, a smaller one, all choked with water lilies. The big pond was fenced, but at Little Fresh Pond, you could run right to the edge.\n\nDiana knew a fallen tree, an oak that looked like it had taken its own life, keeling over and trailing its branches in the water. She ran to this tree, pulled off her shoes without unlacing them, and peeled off her sweaty socks. Broken bottles lay scattered on the ground. Frowning, she collected a few of the big shards, but the shore was littered with little jagged pieces. She gave up and climbed the toppled trunk to dangle her legs and soak her feet.\n\nThe sun had set. The first stars began to show themselves, but it wasn't dark. The evening was bright, and the trees stood black against the sky. Diana stretched herself out the length of the tree trunk, her back against the bark. It was good to rest; it was good to be alone, to test the edge of your own loneliness. When she looked up at the night sky she saw how impersonal it was, how big, how changeable. Everything was moving, trees, moon, stars. You tried to keep up, but you couldn't run fast enough.\n\nA scuffling, growling sound.\n\nShe started up and then held still as possible, as she saw two pit bulls, racing through the trees off-leash. Their master called to them, but they scented her immediately and ran for her, barking, red-eyed.\n\n\"Anton!\" she screamed when the dogs' master appeared. \"Get your fucking dogs away!\"\n\nHe ordered them to stay and then to sit. He clipped leashes to his dogs' collars, but they never took their eyes off her, and they growled deep in their throats, even as they obeyed. Anton didn't speak, but he stared as she scrambled off the tree trunk and retrieved her shoes and socks. His eyes traveled down her shoulders, and over her breasts, down the front of her wet shirt to the waistband of her shorts, then lightly over her bare legs to her feet.\n\n\"I didn't recognize you,\" he said.\n\n\"I'm the same,\" she told him flatly.\n\n\"No, you're not.\"\n\n\"You wouldn't know.\" Probably she should have been afraid of him, but she felt a confused kind of power.\n\n\"Did you run here?\"\n\nShe didn't answer.\n\n\"I'll drive you back.\"\n\n\"Yeah, right,\" Diana said. \"Is that what you told Brynna last year?\"\n\n\u2014\n\n\"What happened to you?\" Aidan asked when she got home. She was dirt-streaked, blistered, carrying her shoes.\n\n\"Are you playing?\" Diana demanded. Aidan was sitting just where she'd left him, with the open biology textbook, but she saw that he'd got ahold of their mother's clunky old desktop computer.\n\n\"No,\" Aidan said. \"Why're you in such a bad mood?\"\n\nHow to answer? My feet are bleeding. I had to fight off wild dogs. I'm scared for you.\n\nShe limped upstairs and saw that he had searched her room. Her piles on the floor had toppled. The clean clothes on her chair had shifted. Her closet door was ever so slightly askew. \"Aidan!\" she screamed. She wanted to run downstairs and knock the chair out from under him, but her legs were so sore that she couldn't move. _\"Aidan.\"_\n\nNo answer.\n\nShe threw herself onto her bed and opened her phone.\n\nWTF, she texted him.\n\n?? he replied, as if anybody else would have searched her room.\n\nYou know what u did dont deny it. what is wrong with you??\n\ncalm down, he wrote.\n\nNO\n\nIts been 6 weeks\n\nIdc\n\nI have like one week of summer. By this he meant one week between the end of his summer course and the first day of school. He had seven days of freedom, and he wanted to spend it with his BoX. That would be Aidan's vacation. A week of caves and red-eyed vampire bats. You promised you wont play, she typed.\n\nInstantly his answer appeared. I promised mom not you.\n\nIn the last days of summer Aidan got his class assignments for senior year. Physics, calculus, Spanish, European history, American literature again because he'd plagiarized. He talked his mother into computer access too. Kerry had given him her ancient desktop\u2014safe, she thought, because it was too primitive and slow for gaming. Aidan couldn't play, but he scanned fan forums all day long, following the news. He couldn't enter games, but he could dream about them. He stood in the center of his room and closed his eyes and he could see the leaden river, and the Gates, the dark caverns all around him. He clenched his fist and saw his arm changing to silver. He drew his sword\u2014and yet no caverns rose up around him, no tunnels opened up. He had to live outside of UnderWorld.\n\nOfficial beta testing was beginning, but he had not been chosen. The BoX was to go on sale in the winter, but he couldn't wait until December. The situation maddened him because he had a BoX, but couldn't get his hands on it.\n\nHe searched every room, every closet and cabinet. On Labor Day weekend Diana found him hunting in the basement. Carrying her laundry bag downstairs, she found him rummaging in dusty cartons labeled CHILDREN'S BOOKS; HUMIDIFIER; TENNIS; WINTER CLOTHES.\n\n\"Just stop!\" Diana said, acutely aware of the doll carriage in the boiler room.\n\n\"Tell me where it is.\"\n\n\"No.\"\n\n\"I finished summer school,\" he said.\n\n\"So what?\"\n\n\"I did what I was supposed to do.\"\n\n\"You gave it to me,\" Diana said. \"You said keep this for me.\"\n\n\"Not forever.\"\n\nShe set down her laundry bag as if to stake her claim. \"Yes! Forever. You gave it to me when you were getting sick.\"\n\n\"I wasn't getting sick! I got sick later.\"\n\nHe was always correcting her on that, but in her mind, his illness and the black BoX went together. \"You said I could have it, and now, guess what, Aidan? You don't get it back again. It wasn't like a long-term loan.\"\n\n\"I want it.\"\n\nDiana snapped, \"What makes you think I kept it?\"\n\nHe dipped into the tennis box and hurled a yellow ball at her.\n\nShielding her face, she caught it. \"What the hell is wrong with you?\"\n\nAidan didn't answer.\n\n\u2014\n\nJust an hour later, Diana sneaked into the boiler room, retrieved the BoX, and stuffed it into her backpack. Then she ran across the street.\n\nFor a moment she stood looking up at the third floor of Maia's triple-decker. All she could see were the tomato plants in Sage's window boxes. She had the key from babysitting, but she felt some trepidation as she slipped inside and climbed the stairs. Sage and Melissa had taken Henry to the Cape, and she felt like a trespasser.\n\nStifling hot without AC, airless, dusty, deathly clean, Sage's apartment scared Diana. No, that wasn't true. She brought her anxiety with her, and she was afraid to touch anything, almost afraid to touch the floor.\n\nShe set her backpack on the couch and took out the BoX, so heavy and compact. No lights, no buttons, no electric ports. Not even the words MADE IN CHINA. Just a perfect cube, smooth and mute. Diana felt it now, the strange desire to touch this thing, to open it. She opened the hall closet instead, rooted behind ice skates and hockey sticks, and heaved the BoX in.\n\nDone. She tried to leave, and yet she felt no relief. Hiding the thing was not enough. She took up her burden again, carrying the BoX out in her backpack. Slowly, she walked around the block. Once around, and she felt the BoX hard against her back. A second time, and she felt the weight between her shoulder blades. The third time around, she met Lois returning from the gym with her furled yoga mat. \"Excited about senior year?\" Lois asked.\n\n\"Not really.\" Diana was watching for her mother's car.\n\n\"It's a transition,\" Lois said, all teacherly.\n\n\"Mom!\" Diana saw her mother drive up. \"Mom!\" Diana sprinted across the street.\n\n\"What's wrong?\" Kerry called through the open car window.\n\n\"I have to give you something.\"\n\n\"Okay.\" Kerry was drenched in sweat. Her car's air-conditioning had broken long ago. \"Just let me get inside.\"\n\n\"No. Not inside. Here.\" Diana blocked her mother's way. \"This is Aidan's.\" She unzipped her backpack and unwrapped the BoX.\n\nKerry flinched. \"What is that?\" she asked reflexively, but she knew. She seized the BoX, even before Diana finished explaining.\n\n\"Don't bring it in,\" Diana pleaded, as Kerry marched up the steps. \"Don't let him see.\"\n\nKerry took the BoX into the kitchen and set it on the table. \"Throw it away! Get that thing out of here,\" Diana begged her mother. She was afraid to see it in the open.\n\nKerry was rummaging in the broom closet, but Diana hovered over the black BoX. She had done the thing she'd sworn she'd never do. She had betrayed her twin, and her younger self as well\u2014the girl who'd promised, chanting along with Aidan, We won't tell no matter what.\n\n\"What are you doing?\" Diana cried out when her mother returned with a hammer in her hand. \"Wait, not in the house.\"\n\nKerry didn't hesitate. She took her hammer and she struck again and then again. She hit so hard the salt and pepper shakers jumped. She struck a third time and a jagged hole opened in the smooth black cube.\n\nA cloud of aeroflakes flew up to the ceiling, shrouding the light fixture, clouding the air. Kerry didn't even look. Harder and harder, she kept hammering down blows. This was for UnderWorld. This was for Arkadia. This was for night shifts. For lack of time. For lack of money. For unanswered prayers.\n\nKerry smashed the BoX to pieces, even as Aidan ran downstairs. He watched in silence as the walls of the black BoX shattered. Disoriented, unfocused, the little motes faded, faint as watermarks on the kitchen walls.\n\n\"Stop,\" Diana said, as Kerry hammered pieces into powder.\n\nWith a long, shuddering sigh, Kerry set down her hammer and sank into a chair. Diana was the one who sponged the plastic shards into the trash.\n\n\u2014\n\nAll that afternoon, Aidan kept himself locked upstairs. Diana heard him pacing. She heard him moving furniture. His desk? His bed?\n\nShe knew better than to knock. She texted him just once. I hadto.\n\nHe did not respond.\n\nHer mother tried to comfort her. She sat with Diana on the couch and she kept murmuring, \"You did the right thing.\"\n\n\"Yeah, I can tell,\" said Diana, \"because I feel like shit.\"\n\n\"Don't punish yourself like that.\"\n\nDiana buried her head in the cushions. \"Just get away from me, okay? The only one punishing me is you.\"\n\nIn the heat of the evening, the afterburn of the long summer day, Diana ran all the way down Magazine Street to Cambridgeport to bang on Brynna's door. \"No!\" Brynna protested. \"My feet still hurt. I can't.\"\n\n\"Please, please, please,\" Diana begged, and even as she asked, she kept moving, jogging in place, hopping from one foot to another. \"I need you.\"\n\n\"What happened?\" Brynna asked.\n\n\"Nothing, if you'll come with me,\" Diana said. Her face was tearstained, her body eager, strong.\n\nTogether, they ran along the river. Diana charged ahead, and the sullen breeze riffled her dark hair. Brynna followed, protesting, \"Wait up. You're way too fast.\"\n\nDiana was too upset to wait. She was still too close to home; she had to get away. All she wanted was to run faster, to outstrip the setting sun and plunge into darkness. She wanted to feel nothing, remember nothing, be nothing.\n\nBut even she couldn't keep up this furious pace. Gradually the girls found their rhythm, running up Huron Avenue. Diana wiped the tears from her eyes, and Brynna stopped complaining, gathering her strength, saving her breath until they reached Fresh Pond, the reservoir, fringed with trees.\n\n\"Rest,\" Diana said.\n\nThey stopped at the fountain near the water treatment plant and splashed their faces.\n\nBrynna sighed. \"That feels so good.\"\n\n\"Wait. I'll show you something better,\" Diana said.\n\nShe led Brynna to Little Fresh Pond and showed her the half-drowned tree. \"Watch out. There's glass.\" Together they picked their way around the broken bottles, and climbed up on the fallen trunk. They pulled off their running shoes, peeled off their sweaty socks.\n\nNight fell, sky and water deepening. Barefoot, Diana walked along the fallen tree to the point where the trunk dipped into the pond. She sat there trailing her legs in the waterlogged branches. She reached for Brynna, who hesitated. \"No one's here.\" Diana stretched out her white arms. She was persuasive, confident. Even her voice seemed lower, whispering. She was a different creature in the dark.\n\nBrynna followed Diana and sat next to her. Water lapped the backs of her knees, green-black leaves felt like seaweed on their feet. \"Are you still hot?\" Diana's voice was so soft, Brynna wasn't sure whether Diana was asking her, or talking to herself.\n\nDiana took off her sweat-soaked shirt, balled it up, and tossed it onto the bank. Brynna hesitated a moment and then took off hers. They faced each other in shorts and jogging bras. Fair Diana, and darker Brynna with her hair tied back. The air was heavy, the summer weighed upon them, humming with mosquitoes. They could hear the frogs and the cicadas, the scrabbling claws of unseen animals, the rustling trees.\n\nA branch snapped.\n\nBrynna started. \"What's that?\"\n\n\"Nothing.\" With her thumb, Diana smudged out a mosquito on Brynna's neck.\n\n\"We'll get eaten alive,\" Brynna said.\n\n\"Come swimming then.\"\n\nBrynna glanced at the dark trees. \"We're not supposed to.\"\n\n\"So what? I swim here.\"\n\n\"When?\"\n\n\"I run up here and swim at night.\"\n\nAs they sat side by side, their bare arms were almost touching. Brynna said, \"Isn't that dangerous?\"\n\n\"When you were younger\u2014\" Diana began.\n\n\"You're always saying, 'When you were younger,' \" Brynna said.\n\n\"Okay, before you had the baby, you wouldn't ask.\"\n\n\"I'm not so different.\"\n\n\"Yes, you are.\"\n\n\"Because of Angela?\"\n\n\"Because of Anton, obviously.\"\n\nBrynna said, \"I never even see him anymore.\"\n\n\"Good.\"\n\nBrynna sighed. Her breath brushed against Diana's ear. \"Do you swim in your clothes?\"\n\n\"No,\" Diana whispered. \"I take them off.\"\n\n\"Would you now?\" Brynna asked.\n\n\"If you come with me.\"\n\nBrynna held still, absorbing the suggestion.\n\n\"Do you want to?\" Diana asked, as she unhooked the back of Brynna's bra.\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\nBrynna's breasts were full, her nipples dark. Brynna's heart was racing underneath Diana's hand. \"I just want to touch you,\" Diana whispered, and Brynna didn't pull away. Her skin was soft under Diana's tongue.\n\nThey slipped into the water, and Diana had no twin; she had no mother. She had Brynna alone. They were standing waist-deep, and Brynna glanced back at the water's edge. \"What if someone sees us?\"\n\nFor a moment Diana thought of Anton and his dogs\u2014but no one had followed them. \"No one sees us,\" Diana murmured, as she stroked Brynna. \"No one's here.\" The darkness and the water concealed them.\n\nShe touched Brynna's face. She kissed Brynna's lips and she forgot everything but Brynna's soft mouth. She forgot Aidan and she forgot herself. It was happening. She was becoming someone else.\n\nAidan would not forgive his sister. He wouldn't even look at her. Exiled in the hospital, he had been too weak to care. Now he was strong and restless, and resentful. He had endured days and weeks of summer school, and this was his reward. He had trusted Diana, or so he told himself. He had counted on her to keep his black BoX safe, and then just when he needed it\u2014just when he'd earned it\u2014she turned on him and gave it to their mother.\n\nHis mother had taken back her desktop, and so he had rehabilitated Liam's old laptop to play while she was at work. The laptop was easy to hide but almost useless, because it was so flat and slow. His BoX had spoiled him. As color eclipsed black and white, as computers supplanted typewriters, so OVID overshadowed all the gaming platforms that had come before. Onscreen graphics seemed old as picture books to Aidan. All he wanted now was gaming in the round.\n\nHe tortured himself, inhaling articles on UnderWorld's paradigm-shifting technology. He read about the millions waiting for BoXes in December, and it killed him to think he'd held his own BoX in his hands. i've been inside, he typed on UnderWorld's fan forum. no way, the other Everheads shot back. whats it like? your full of shit. prove it. pix! But he had no proof.\n\nThose last days of summer he swallowed his pride and texted Daphne, he messaged her on fan forums, he emailed her at her official Arkadia address, but she did not reply. At last he did what he should have done first. He logged in to EverWhen and searched for Riyah. He wandered the Trackless Wood and hunted by the shore, he journeyed past the tree line on the slopes of EverRest. The night before school started, he sat in bed wearing his old headset and fell asleep trying to find her.\n\nThe crunch of autumn leaves, the rush of water.\n\n\"What's up, Tildor?\"\n\nHe opened his eyes and heard Daphne speaking to him, although at first all he could see was his screen saver.\n\nHe touched his trackpad, and there she stood on a rough boulder before a thundering waterfall. She was wearing her thigh-high boots and scant bodice of black leather. Her eyes were huge, her blue hair flowed down her back, but her avatar was just that to him, because he'd seen her for real.\n\n\"Sleeping?\" She touched his Elf lightly on the shoulder.\n\nHe shook himself awake. \"I need another BoX.\"\n\n\"Sorry. One per person!\" Riyah folded her arms across her chest.\n\n\"Wait. Listen. My mom took a hammer and destroyed mine.\"\n\nShe threw back her head and laughed.\n\n\"Go to hell,\" breathed Aidan.\n\n\"Excuse me?\" said Daphne. \"Which of us can't get there?\"\n\nShe repulsed him. Much as he'd admired her when they'd met, honored as he had been, qwesting in her company, he hated her now. He knew Daphne was a schemer and a marketer, neither Elf nor ordinary gamer, and he didn't want her anymore. He had one desire. \"I have to play.\"\n\n\"Oh, well.\" Riyah jumped down from her rock and began searching for jewels in the crystalline pool beneath the waterfall.\n\n\"I'll make a deal with you,\" Aidan said.\n\n\"I can't.\" Riyah waded deeper into the water. She looked like a tiny dominatrix, but she sounded like an irritated teacher. \"You have to wait like everybody else.\"\n\nTildor splashed after her. \"I won't wait.\"\n\n\"You have to.\"\n\n\"I'll tell everybody you're breaking the law.\"\n\n\"Vandalizing property?\" Riyah said. \"That would be you.\"\n\n\"You made me.\"\n\n\"Hey. Stop right there.\" She drew her sword.\n\nHe drew his shining weapon and advanced. Steel on steel, the two of them were fighting, waist-deep in the water. \"You tricked me!\"\n\nShe struck and slashed his arm. \"I never tricked you. Think about it.\"\n\nIn a fury, he forced her back toward the roaring waterfall. White water reddened with his blood, but he would not let up. \"You said I could play.\"\n\n\"You did play.\"\n\n\"You promised.\"\n\n\"I kept my promises.\"\n\n\"I need to play now.\"\n\n\"Grow up.\"\n\n\"You owe me!\" He knocked her down into the water and with one massive stroke sliced off her head. The pool was black now with her blood, the water churning with her headless body.\n\n\"Okay, game over.\" Still bleeding, Riyah picked up her head and leapt onto a rock.\n\nHe panicked. \"Please. Just give me a new BoX and I promise you'll never see me again.\"\n\nShe stood there holding her head as casually as a fencer holds her helmet after a bout. \"You won't see me either.\" Riyah replaced her head and turned her back on him.\n\n\"Come back,\" Aidan called out.\n\nAlready she was out of reach, leaping from rock to rock.\n\n\"I did everything you wanted.\"\n\n\"You did what _you_ wanted.\" Those were the last words Daphne ever said to him.\n\n\u2014\n\nHe was in a killing mood that night. He rampaged through the Trackless Wood, murdering animals, one by one. He slew a wild boar, hacking the beast until he was knee-deep in blood. He tracked a golden fox and shot it through the eye. Charged a two-headed dog and killed it twice. A few people from his old company texted, Tildor u back? Or Qwest now? He hunted on, alone and furious.\n\nIn the starlight his Elf shot down a phoenix with a gold arrow. The bird flamed like a falling star, but all Aidan could think was how much better the fire would have been in UnderWorld, with sparks showering down upon him.\n\nIn the distance he could hear Diana rustling across the hall. Far away he heard her knocking at the door. \"You know what day it is, right?\"\n\nHe took off his headphones but he didn't answer. He waited until she left the house to log off and walk to Emerson. Let her wonder whether he'd show up the first day. Let her think he had forgotten. Angry as he was at Daphne, he was angrier at his sister.\n\n\u2014\n\nSchool smelled like paint. A few days before, a troop of City Corps kids had descended on the building to spruce it up. Scuffed floors were lemon-fresh, walls bright with new bulletin boards. A purple banner hung in the lobby blazoned POETRY IN ACTION.\n\nPeople were embracing. Girls were calling to one another like long-lost sisters. Everyone was supercharged with energy. The shoes alone were blinding. Aidan wanted to turn around and leave.\n\n\"Good morning, Aidan.\" Miss Lazare pursued him up the stairs. \"Welcome back!\"\n\nWhat was that about? Aidan ducked into his math class and out of range. Lazare was such a lethal mix of concern and hopefulness.\n\n\u2014\n\nIf I were Mrs. West, thought Nina, I would have demanded a response. \"Excuse me, young man. You look me in the eye and say, 'Good morning,' when I greet you.\" Next time, Nina thought, even as she added a new resolution to her mental list: Don't compare yourself to Mrs. West.\n\nHer list was long. Start off strict and set expectations high. Mean 'til Halloween, as Mr. Allan said. Insist on homework. No lost books, no missing papers, no unexcused absences. Keep track of time. Finish lessons before the bell. She was wearing Collin's old-fashioned watch.\n\nThis year will be different, she thought, as she stepped into her classroom. I'll get it right. I won't fail you, she promised her kids silently, as she shut the door.\n\n\"Good morning,\" she said.\n\nA few kids answered, \"Good morning.\"\n\n\"I'm Miss Lazare, and this is American Literature,\" she announced, just in case someone had wandered into the wrong room. \"I'll take attendance before we get started, and I'll just say,\" she added as a couple of boys walked in, \"I need everybody here on time. Colleen. Matisse. Jared. Australia...\" She tagged each student in her mind with a mnemonic. Colleen, with the eyebrow piercing. Rachelle, with hennaed hair. Candace was chewing gum. \"Take out the gum, Candace. Take these poems. Pass them down.\"\n\nShe watched her photocopied handout ripple from hand to hand. \"As a class we'll study American poets and writers. As a school, we have a new initiative this year. You may have seen the banner.\" She paused and felt a little dumb. The banner was a good twelve feet long and hard to miss. \"Our school will be participating in the national recitation competition.\"\n\nGroans and laughter. Confusion about what recitation might entail. Scuffling in the back.\n\n\"Miss?\" Candace held up the extra photocopies.\n\nKeep it moving, Nina thought. \"So we'll start the year with two American poems. Do I have a volunteer to read the first?\"\n\nSilence.\n\n\"Anyone?\" Nina volunteered a girl named Zena, who had been whispering. \"Right here.\" Nina interposed herself between Zena and Colleen.\n\n_\"I hear America singing,\"_ Zena began, _\"the varied carols I hear, \/ Those of mechanics, each one singing his as it should be blithe and strong...\"_\n\nAs Zena read aloud: _\"The carpenter singing his as he measures his plank or beam...\"_ Nina opened a fresh box of chalk. Was there anything more perfect than new chalk? _\"The mason singing his as he makes ready for work, or leaves off work...\"_\n\n\"How would you describe the mood here?\"\n\n\"Ummm,\" Zena said.\n\nNina waited. Unconsciously, she played with Collin's watch. It was so big, it kept flipping over, buckle up, facedown, rubbing the inside of her wrist.\n\n\"Mmmm.\" Zena considered the words before her.\n\n\"Happy,\" called out a boy named Trey.\n\n\"Okay!\" Nina wrote \"happy\" on the board.\n\n\"Cheerful.\"\n\n\"Yes.\" Nina wrote that too.\n\n\"Full of it,\" Australia suggested, and Nina heard the class cackling behind her.\n\n\"No, that's good. Why do you say that?\"\n\nAustralia did not explain.\n\n\"Does anybody else think Whitman's full of it?\"\n\nNatalie and Mikayla raised their hands.\n\n\"He's too happy about everything,\" said Mikayla, but Natalie forgot what she was going to say.\n\n\"It will come back to you,\" said Nina. \"Let's see how Langston Hughes responds to Whitman. Trey, read the second poem aloud for us.\"\n\nTrey began reading, _\"I, too, sing America...\"_ but a snickering undercurrent accompanied him.\n\n\"Hold on,\" Nina interrupted, and she waited for silence. \"Okay, go ahead.\"\n\n_\"I am the darker brother,\"_ he read, and the other kids burst out laughing, because Trey's skin was darkest in the class.\n\nIn second period Nina repeated the two views of America, Walt Whitman's and Langston Hughes's. Once again she mentioned the recitation contest, which kids were already calling Poetry Inaction. Every student had to choose and memorize a poem from the contest website to recite in class. Then the class would vote for a winner to compete in front of the whole school.\n\nStudents shifted in their seats.\n\n\"What if I have no memory?\"\n\n\"Is it graded?\"\n\n\"Whose idea was that?\"\n\nNina almost said, \"You can thank Mrs. West.\"\n\nInstead she held still, as she'd seen Collin do when he visited as Shakespeare, cool and distant.\n\nKids paused in their conversations when they realized she was no longer talking. They looked up, curious.\n\nLazare had a reputation now. She had a mad-hot, cross-dressing boyfriend, but she was so strict she corrected grammar when you were only talking. Total mind reader, she could tell whether you'd plagiarized just by looking at you. She was confusing. One minute she was all intimidating, and then when people didn't listen, she got emotional, so you couldn't hate her without feeling bad. That was the worst! On the other hand, she was fun to watch. She had a photographic memory, and if you were lucky she'd stop teaching and show what she could do.\n\nAt the end of each class, Nina closed her attendance book and left it on the desk. Then she looked each student in the eye and came up with the right name. \"Darsy, Lalitha, Jean-Albert, Theresa, Cameo, Susannah, Tyrell, Joanna, Sebastian, Yasmin, Aria...\" Without a single mistake, she had identified each kid in her first class, but she faltered now in second period. \"Becca, Jameson, Nico,\" she began. \"Shana, Rafael, Siddhartha, Miles.\" She named each kid correctly until she got to the back of the room. \"Aidan.\"\n\nThe boy shook his head.\n\n\"I'm sorry. I mean Ethan!\" Aidan was missing, although she'd just seen him on the stairs.\n\nAll this happened in a moment, but when Nina turned to the next student, her memory failed her. She looked at the girl's round face. Black eyes, smooth hair, gold hoop earrings, tight shirt. Nina looked into the girl's dark eyes.\n\nAnxious\u2014was she unmemorable?\u2014the girl stared back.\n\nSiddhartha called out, \"It starts with an _S_...\"\n\n\"Sofia,\" Lazare said at last. Gold hoops quivering, Sofia sank back with relief.\n\nNina texted Collin after the bell. I did it! Then, a little later, when he hadn't answered, Are you there??\n\nBlood in his eye, the Ghost Horse raced through caverns, wheeling, screaming, rising up on his hind legs, then crashing down, a beast possessed.\n\n\"Okay,\" Peter said.\n\nThey were sitting in the sound booth. When Nicholas stopped the demo, Peter rose to leave.\n\n\"What about the rest?\" Collin asked.\n\nPeter glanced at the second monitor, where Collin's wild horses streaked across the screen. The Ghost Horse belonged to Peter now, but the herd was Collin's joy. The gray, the chestnut, the palomino, shining pale gold. They stretched their necks and ran together. You could see them close, coming down upon you. On a third monitor you could see them from above, and their tails streamed behind them so they looked like shooting stars. All the time you heard the hoofbeats and the hot breath of those horses.\n\n\"No,\" Peter said.\n\nNicholas clicked once and the room was silent. The horses froze.\n\nPeter said, \"We won't use these.\"\n\nAt first Collin couldn't even hear. He could not absorb the words. He had worked for months. He had spent the entire summer on these horses.\n\nPeter turned back to the horses caught in midair. \"They're pretty.\" Peter bent and clicked on the palomino, highlighting the horse in blue, isolating the creature's body, its slender neck, its little ears and feet. Suddenly the horse _was_ pretty. Peter clicked again and vaporized the animal. Now he touched the chestnut, with its soft eyes and flowing tail. Clicked once, clicked twice. It disappeared.\n\nShocking how cold he was as he killed each of Collin's steeds: the velvet black, the gray.\n\nCollin said, \"You wanted them before.\"\n\n\"No, they aren't right.\"\n\n\"What isn't right about them?\"\n\nPeter looked at Collin, and in that moment he smothered Collin's protest. \"They're like illustrations in a children's book.\"\n\nHe spoke with experience and authority. He spoke with his uncanny insight. The chestnut, the palomino, and the gray were nothing more than wild ponies, lovely, gentle, sweet. They had no edge, none of the Ghost Horse's snarling cruelty. How had Collin been such a fool? He had been too in love with his own work to understand. These horses did not belong in UnderWorld.\n\n\"They're just not interesting.\"\n\nCollin nodded; he could not argue.\n\n\"You'll be okay,\" Nicholas counseled after Peter left. \"It happens all the time. Not everything gets used.\"\n\nCollin nodded, but the verdict cut deep. He had never been sentimental about his art. He had erased his own work with freedom and with joy, but this was different. He had worked so long on these bright horses, invested so much of himself\u2014and he had not been the one to wipe the board.\n\nPhone in hand, he stood that evening in the parking lot and texted Nina, Im fine working late. He was okay, just as Nicholas had said, but he couldn't talk to her. He had to absorb the shock, along with his new assignment.\n\n\u2014\n\nHe would work on UnderWorld's Flamethrowers, evil Amazonian women guarding treasure in UnderWorld's Sixth Circle. Testers had reported that these characters looked too much like elves. Collin had to make them scarier.\n\n\"Condolences,\" Daphne told him the next day. It was as if he'd been demoted to a janitor, cleaning up other people's work.\n\n\"I don't care.\"\n\nShe pretended to believe him.\n\nWith numb determination he drew the Flamethrowers and their fiery arrows. His heart wasn't in it, but he forced himself, working for weeks to make the women nastier, sharpening features, drawing snarling faces. He even tried Peter's trick of bloody eyes. Peter rejected every iteration, and responded to the red eyes with contempt. \"You're painting by number now, and that's just desperate.\"\n\nDiscouraged, Collin took his slate and scrolled through his old work. He saw all the faults that Peter found and more. Crude Flamethrowers and pretty horses, thoughtless cartoons. He was a copyist, just as Peter had predicted. His art was superficial, glib.\n\nNina said, Don't let Peter mess with you. Her uncle was harsh, unreasonable. She pleaded, Don't believe him. None of this meant anything to Collin. In fact, her exhortations made him feel worse. He would rather talk to Nicholas, who said, Shit happens. He would rather play Daphne, dueling late at night with broadswords. For the first time, Collin avoided Nina. He used work as an excuse, and when she asked about Arkadia, he picked a fight or pushed her away. He said, Don't tell me what to do.\n\nOffended, Nina drew back. Her own days weren't easy. Her kids were rowdy, and she had her evaluation coming\u2014observations and online surveys of her students. She wanted to confide in Collin as she had before, but she held back because he had so much going on. This too will pass, she told herself. She would teach and he would find his way. Therefore, she didn't offer help, nor did she come with Collin to the hellions' Halloween party. She didn't trust herself to see Peter without losing her temper, so she stayed home.\n\nCollin's roommates were not so reticent.\n\n\"Take us with you!\" Emma said, as Collin set out for Peter's house.\n\n\"It's hellions only.\"\n\nDarius handed him a stack of Theater Without Walls postcards. \"Disseminate!\" The company was staging _The Importance of Being Earnest_ at South Station, with the audience convening on one platform and then departing on two different trains.\n\nCollin shoved the postcards into his jacket pocket.\n\n\"Seriously. Pass those around.\"\n\n\"It's the least you can do,\" Emma pointed out.\n\nCollin said, \"People at this party don't care about plays.\"\n\n\"What are you talking about?\" Darius exclaimed. \"Videogames are us. Games _are_ plays.\"\n\nCollin began wheeling his bike out the door.\n\n\"Don't be jaded,\" Darius said.\n\n\"I'm not jaded. I'm late.\"\n\nDarius called after Collin, \"If they need actors for UnderWorld, we're available!\"\n\nCollin jumped on his bike. \"They already recorded all the voices.\"\n\nAcross the shining river, through the looking glass to Boston, Collin sped toward Joy Street. The wind was harsh, but it felt good to travel to a new place, neither Cambridge nor Arkadia. He was nervous but curious as well, crossing the bridge into Peter's city, with its gas lamps and cobblestone streets.\n\nPeter lived in a pair of townhouses, catercornered. One faced Joy, and the other faced Myrtle, and they shared a basement, like conjoined twins. There were two sets of windows, and two front doors, but the windows were all curtained, and both doors closed. Locking his bike to a lamppost, Collin eyed the Myrtle Street entrance. A bouncer stood on Peter's steps. He was a massive man with short arms and a little derby hat.\n\n\"Name?\"\n\n\"Collin James.\"\n\nOfficiously, the bouncer scrolled down on his tablet. \"You're not on the list.\"\n\n\"Yes I am. I'm from Arkadia.\"\n\n\"You aren't here.\"\n\nCollin felt a prick of anxiety. Then he said, \"Were you looking under _C_ for _Collin,_ or _J_ for _James_?\"\n\nThe bouncer opened the door, releasing a tidal wave of sound.\n\nWalls pulsed with laughter and with music, and it was dark, the entryway cavernous, shrouded in mist.\n\nAs his eyes adjusted, Collin found himself at the foot of a grand staircase with a body splayed across the bottom. A woman in a ripped ball gown lay quite still, her body painted white, blood trickling from the corner of her mouth. Nimbly, caterers stepped around her. In the next room, guests posed for pictures with another dead body languishing on Peter's velvet couch.\n\nThe furniture was dark and battered, fantastic, unrestored. Velvet upholstery split at the seams, leather crazed and cracked, rough to the touch. A pair of gilt clocks on Peter's mantelpiece stood motionless, hands stopped, but the effect was lively, nothing like a morgue. The whole place thrummed with song and shouted conversation, bartenders in every corner. He saw the Dresden Dolls, the actual Dolls, in matching corsets, pounding drums and electric keyboard.\n\nAnimators crowded the dance floor\u2014colleagues Collin saw each day at meetings, solving problems, scrumming together. They looked ghostly now, in slippery black gowns and feathered masks, black lipstick, fangs. The pudgiest programmers seemed ethereal in flickering candlelight. Like night-blooming flowers, they came into their own, singing together\u2014 _\"Coin. Operated boy. Coin. Operated boy\"_ \u2014louder and louder, with pedantic glee.\n\nDrink in hand, Collin scanned the crowd for Peter, but couldn't find him. Maybe he didn't come to his own parties. Maybe he just wound them up and hid somewhere to watch.\n\nA tarnished mirror leaned against the wall. Collin recognized that mirror, the model or dilapidated cousin of the Magic Glass in EverWhen. When Collin touched the surface he half expected it to dimple and then melt, a watery portal to the Trackless Wood.\n\nPeter was everywhere, even when you couldn't find him. He had changed each room into a theater. Aeroflakes transformed the paneled library into a forest of shifting autumn leaves, and Obi and Akosh were gaming there. Obi was a Fire Elf breaking a path, cutting through underbrush with his ax. Akosh was a falcon. Like a dancer, he gestured with his hands and wrists, flying his avatar above his head. At a little distance, Collin discovered Peter watching every move.\n\n\"Welcome.\" Peter turned to Collin as if he were sharing a particularly lovely view. \"What do you think of falcons in the round?\"\n\nTogether they watched the falcon soaring and dipping between trees. Collin kept thinking Peter would leave, but he was in a rare mood, gazing at the colors haloing Akosh and Obi.\n\nCollin ventured, \"What if Akosh could do more than fly? What if he could see like a falcon too? He'd have this incredible vision where suddenly every detail was magnified twenty times. The whole game would shift to his point of view.\"\n\nIntrigued, Peter glanced at Collin, who seized the moment. \"You'd be swooping through the air but you could see your prey down on the forest floor and every clue, and every crevice. You'd see it all so fast.\"\n\n\"That would be terrifying,\" Peter said.\n\nHe could be gracious, acknowledging your contribution. He could be generous. He had opened his grand home, draping windows with the softest, darkest velvet, adorning his marble mantelpieces with prosthetic limbs, filling each room with a different food or drink, a raw bar in the parlor, a dim sum station in the breakfast room. He had staged this party with corpses that looked real, and flowers that seemed artificial. He'd filled great urns with protea\u2014blossoms spiky green, and curling coral, and deep pink fringed with feathery black.\n\n\"That's beautiful,\" Collin murmured as he watched night falling in the game.\n\n\"You think so?\" Peter pounced. \"What's beautiful about it?\"\n\nCollin gazed at the deepening shadows. Lavender, lilac, indigo. \"The colors.\"\n\n\"They're boring,\" Peter said. \"They're just what you'd expect.\"\n\nOf course Collin saw his mistake. Once again, he'd made the easy, sentimental choice.\n\nPeter kept his eyes fixed on the game. \"Let me give you some advice.\"\n\nCollin waited.\n\n\"Don't rely on clich\u00e9s. You aren't good at them.\"\n\nDappled forest light played on Peter's face, but he looked at Collin now. \"That's why you can't get the Flamethrowers right. Are you tired of them?\"\n\nYou know I am, Collin shouted inwardly, but he said, \"What would you suggest?\"\n\n\"Use your sketches of Daphne.\"\n\nIn all that noise and all that shifting light, Collin stood perfectly still. Peter spoke without rancor. He made his suggestion without heat, but Collin didn't for an instant take Peter's words as artistic advice. He heard them as a casual display of power: I know about your drawings; I know everything about you.\n\n\"You do better when you draw from life,\" Peter concluded as he walked away.\n\nThe party was raging all around, but Collin heard only his own heartbeat. I know you, Peter had told him without words. I know you and I know that you've been drawing Daphne.\n\nBut how did Peter know? Gazing through the doorway where Peter had gone, Collin saw a flash of white. Three steps and he had caught Daphne in the hall.\n\nShe had no idea what was wrong as she laughed up at him. Her blue eyes were dark, almost black in the black shifting light. She was barefoot and she wore a sheer slip of a dress.\n\n\"Come here,\" he said.\n\n\"Why?\"\n\nHand on her back, he steered her away from the dance floor.\n\n\"I'm not drunk enough for this.\"\n\nHe hurried her out to the dark entryway.\n\n\"It's cold.\" The stone floor chilled her feet.\n\nCollin didn't listen. \"You told Peter.\"\n\n\"What?\"\n\n\"You told Peter I drew you.\"\n\n\"I did not.\"\n\n\"Of course you did.\"\n\n\"I never told him anything!\"\n\n\"Tell the truth.\"\n\nPlayground-sincere, she said, \"Cross my heart and hope to die.\"\n\nHer mockery infuriated him. Either she had told Peter, or she had let him watch. He took her by the shoulders and demanded, \"What is wrong with you?\"\n\n\"Nothing!\"\n\nHis hand tightened on her shoulder. \"He saw us and you knew the whole time, and you never warned me.\"\n\n\"You're hurting me.\"\n\nHe heard the fear in her voice and he let go. She saw her chance and slipped into the dark.\n\nThe party burst apart. The corpse in the ripped ball gown sat on the stairs with a plate of calamari. The man impaled near the bar took to the dance floor with his ax protruding from his chest. Other cadavers mingled, dancing, laughing, rolling cigarettes.\n\nHellions crowded the dining room with its massive table and carved chairs. As Peter spoke, those material objects began to change. Above the table a Japanese lantern waxed into a full moon in the gathering mist. Dead water pooled where Peter's table had been. Stalagmites replaced chairs, and UnderWorld's white bats swarmed overhead. In the confusion, it took a moment for the assembled animators to perceive a dead knight lying in the water.\n\nCollin edged closer to hear.\n\n\"Those would have been our maggots.\" Like a surgeon demonstrating in the operating theater, Peter pointed to the corpse with a red-tipped laser. Tiny silver worms were writhing in every open wound and orifice, consuming flesh inside ears and eye sockets, underneath the skin. \"These would have been our rats.\" Peter announced with grim satisfaction. He pointed to a crevice where a blind rat devoured her own pups.\n\nAt first Collin didn't understand. Then, gradually, he saw that Peter was displaying outtakes, gorgeous horrors he had cut from UnderWorld before the launch.\n\nA thundering of hooves, a crashing avalanche of stone, and all bats scattered as Collin's horses broke through virtual stone. Watching his horses run together, Collin felt his heart shift. He was watching his horses and they weren't pretty. They were earth shakers, storm raisers. How had Peter stolen Collin's confidence? He had messed with Collin's mind. He was messing with Collin even now.\n\n\"These would have been our horses. We had to choose just one.\"\n\nThe herd raced past, tails streaming.\n\n\"Look,\" Akosh exclaimed. \"There must be some way to use them.\"\n\n\"Murder your darlings,\" Peter said.\n\n\"Asshole,\" Collin whispered. Fucking vampire. He pushed his way out of the dining room, past hellions deep in conversation. He skirted the dance floor and crossed virtual fields, stubble white with frost. He dodged dart games and turned away from tables of good food. He would not touch any of it. He took narrow stairs into a dark passageway. He kept moving away from the music. Suddenly, he realized he'd passed through to Peter's other house.\n\nThis twin house was grand, but empty and undecorated, dimly lit, with plaster peeling, windows covered with brown paper, floors bare and scuffed. In one room Collin saw mattresses upended and leaning against a wall, in another an old couch draped with a white drop cloth. Doors opened into empty rooms and narrow passageways. Desolate, confused, half dreaming, Collin imagined snow behind those doors, a lamppost in a wintry wood. Instead, he found dark closets and brick walls.\n\n\"Are you looking for the way out?\"\n\nHe turned and saw Daphne sitting all alone in a small straight-backed chair. He had never seen her so quiet or so still. \"I didn't tell him,\" she added.\n\n\"How does he know, then?\"\n\n\"He has the sketches. He has everything.\"\n\n\"I deleted them. They don't exist.\"\n\n\"Deleting doesn't help. The system backs up every image. You know that!\"\n\nHer words chilled him. He had known, but he had imagined some vast dump, electronic compost no one sorted. He had not pictured Peter collecting his discarded work. Every image, every version, every line.\n\n\"I thought you didn't care.\"\n\nPeter hadn't just heard about the drawings. He hadn't just glanced at them. He owned them.\n\n\"What's going on?\"\n\nShe wouldn't even look at him.\n\nHe knelt down at her feet so he could see her face. \"Tell me.\"\n\n\"Nothing to tell.\"\n\n\"Then why are you crying?\"\n\nShe glanced down at her own elaborately inked arms, and it seemed to him that her tears magnified and blurred her leaves.\n\n\"Come on.\" He took her hand. \"It's late.\"\n\nHer words were lively, but her voice was sad. \"No, it's not. It's early.\"\n\n\"You know what I mean. Let's go.\"\n\nShe shook her head.\n\n\"I'll take you home.\"\n\n\"That's just it,\" she said. \"I live here.\"\n\nFear mixed with anger as Collin fought his way through passages and crowded rooms to push open the front door. Confused images flashed before his eyes. His horses and Peter's face, and Daphne's tears. She lived with Peter. She was no longer obsessed or tangentially involved. Nor was she wild or independent, as she pretended. She lived in Peter's house. She belonged to him.\n\nHow different Peter's past behavior seemed. Not just critical, but jealous. Not just impossible to please, but punishing. He had punished Collin with advice. I've got you. That's what he'd been saying. I know what you have and I know what you want.\n\nThere he was even now. Standing outside on the steps, Collin opened a message from Peter on his phone. Subject: Flamethrowers. Attachment, a huge cache of sketches. Not just three or four, but every sketch of Daphne. Dozens of drawings, quick and slow, dressed, undressed. Peter had them all. He had been collecting them.\n\nCollin whirled around to stare at the closed door on Joy Street. This was a threat. This was Peter saying, I have your art\u2014not just your art, but your ideas\u2014and I can send them anywhere. He could send the sketches to Nina. He might have sent the file already.\n\nCollin sprang onto his bike and raced away. It did not occur to him that Peter would protect his niece from these pictures. Collin sped across the bridge with just one idea. He had to get to Nina first.\n\nCold knifing his throat, legs burning, Collin didn't stop to rest. He had to catch her before she left for school.\n\nHe used his own key, took the elevator up, and rushed into her dark apartment.\n\nThe rooms were still. At first he thought he was too late. Then he heard her stirring in the bedroom. \"Collin?\" She appeared in her big Hill School shirt. \"What's wrong?\"\n\n\"I thought I'd missed you.\"\n\n\"Why?\"\n\n\"Aren't you supposed to be at school?\"\n\n\"It's Saturday.\"\n\nHe sank onto the couch, and pulled her down next to him. It was the weekend and he hadn't even realized. They had the whole morning, but she was wide awake now, and her laptop lay there on the table like a bomb.\n\n\"What is it?\"\n\nHe wanted to say, Nothing\u2014I just missed you; instead he forced himself to tell the truth. \"I drew some sketches and I never showed them to you.\"\n\n\"Sketches of what?\"\n\n\"Peter got them, and he says that I should use them.\"\n\nNina looked at him and said, \"You drew her, didn't you?\"\n\n\"The thing you have to understand\u2014\"\n\n\"Show me.\"\n\n\"I just wanted to tell you...they're rough sketches. They weren't...\"\n\nShe wasn't having that. He didn't get to talk about his drawings in the abstract. She handed him her laptop.\n\nGuilty and indignant, hating himself, but hating Peter more, he logged in and opened Peter's message.\n\nThe first image emerged, a line drawing of Daphne in silver. Next, a sketch of Daphne slouched down on the shuttle bus. Daphne leaning over, playing pool. Daphne drinking at a bar. Daphne gaming like a dervish with her arms outstretched. One by one, each image filled Nina's field of vision, and she saw Daphne with her wide eyes and her laughing mouth and her cropped hair. She saw all this and she saw the time Collin and Daphne spent together. Daphne drunk and funny, messed up, impudent.\n\nThen she saw Daphne sitting just for him. Full color, fully shaded, Daphne in her hooded sweatshirt, Daphne unzipped, Daphne in her undershirt, Daphne undressed.\n\n\"How could you draw her like that?\" Nina gazed at Daphne's arched back, her breasts, soft and white, in contrast to her patterned torso, her black-inked collarbone.\n\n\"They're just studies.\"\n\n\"Studies of what?\"\n\n\"They're not important,\" Collin said. \"That's what you have to understand.\"\n\nNina said nothing.\n\n\"I didn't even keep them!\"\n\nShe was remembering the summer day they'd spent together. The pine trees and the heat, the taste of salt. She had asked him, \"Do you draw Daphne?\" And he had lied to her, even at that moment. He'd lied to her then.\n\nNow he told Nina, \"I was practicing. I was just experimenting, and I erased them all.\"\n\n\"I can see why.\"\n\n\"No, it wasn't like that! They were just like chalk drawings. I wasn't trying to keep them from you. I didn't even keep them for myself.\"\n\n\"Is that why you said you didn't draw her?\"\n\n\"I said it because...it wasn't important. And it didn't matter.\"\n\nShe closed the laptop and hugged it to her chest.\n\nHe struggled to explain. \"I want to be open with you. That's why I'm showing you the sketches.\"\n\n\"You're showing them because you're afraid of Peter.\"\n\n\"No! I'm showing them because I won't let him hold this over me\u2014or us.\"\n\nOver days and weeks Nina had dismissed Daphne from her mind; she had fought against distrust. Now all she saw was Daphne's body and her inked arms and her kissed mouth. All this had happened. It was still happening. Collin spent every day with her. \"You see her all the time. You'll see her today.\"\n\n\"No, I won't. I don't want to see her.\"\n\nHe could talk as much as he liked. His drawings drowned him out. They weren't ordinary. They weren't occasional. There were too many.\n\n\"I'm being honest,\" he protested.\n\n\"You _have to be_ honest!\" she shot back. Peter had Collin's art, and Peter had Daphne, and now Peter had Collin too. Because of this, Collin had confessed what he'd been keeping from her. He could say that these were only sketches. He could insist he didn't take them seriously. She knew better. After all, he'd drawn her too. She read a whole relationship in these studies, a second life entirely, overlaying theirs.\n\n\"Nina,\" he said softly.\n\n\"Just get away from me,\" she said. \"Just leave.\"\n\n\u2014\n\nHe left in frustration, but arrived home guilty. There were no little lies for Nina. There was no action without meaning. Wasn't that what he loved about her? Now he had hurt her; he'd misjudged her. He reached for his phone without a plan, without any motive but apology.\n\nToo late. Nina didn't want to talk. She didn't want to see him. When he texted and he called, she didn't answer. All Saturday, he left her voicemails. He wrote emails. He kept starting them, anyway. _Dear Nina, This is such a mess...; Dear Nina, I realize..._ They weren't any good.\n\nDarius said he had to stop. On Saturday night, he took Collin to The Plough & Stars and said, \"Believe me, the only thing worse than cheating is going on and on about it.\"\n\n\"I didn't cheat!\" Collin burst out.\n\n\"Whatever,\" Darius said. \"Stop talking about it.\"\n\nHe began writing on a yellow legal pad. _Nina, I shouldn't have kept those drawings from you. Please believe me when I say they didn't matter. The sketches aren't important. I don't think about them. I think about you._\n\nHis words were colorless. They could never capture what he felt. After all, what could he say? I lied. I should have told the truth when you asked. But also\u2014you're different from anyone I know. A bunch of drawings, a few late nights, a girl taking off her clothes. What did any of it matter? Noelle had worked as a model at the Museum School. Collin never took it personally\u2014but Nina looked inside art, uncovering intentions. She had seen his curiosity, his pleasure, his intense attraction.\n\nLate at night, Collin anguished over Darius's words. He considered his own denials and felt guiltier than before. To be honest, he would have cheated. He would have slept with Daphne, but she didn't let him, so he drew her instead.\n\nLoving Nina didn't mean he'd changed; he was the same guy as before. The same except for his remorse, his growing understanding as the hours passed. She had trusted him. She had risked her heart with him. Why had he taken it so lightly?\n\nHow could you? he kept asking himself. And at the same time that other voice grew stronger. The voice demanding, Why are you surprised? She's way too good for you. You knew it all along and now you've proved it. This was inevitable, his conscience told him. Give up. You don't belong together. He told himself all this, and yet his heart jumped every time he got a message. If only he could reach her.\n\n\u2014\n\nNina turned off her phone. She left her computer closed on the table. She couldn't bear his explanations and apologies, abject but self-serving. His images possessed her, multiplying in her mind, and she filled in the blanks, imagining where his art would lead. Collin was undressing Daphne, touching her, caressing her.\n\nShe didn't eat or drink. She had lessons to prepare, but when she looked at Emily Dickinson's poetry, the words seemed foreign. _It was not Night, for all the Bells \/ Put out their Tongues..._ What did that mean? She had no idea. Only when she was calm and happy had she understood those lines about despair.\n\nAt some point Sunday night, Nina's alarm clock began beeping. She struggled to open her eyes, and did not remember falling into bed. She did not remember anything in those first moments between sleep and waking. Then her disappointment came crashing down upon her. Pinned, she looked out at her shadowy room and saw her laptop blinking, her stacks of papers, Emily Dickinson facedown on the floor.\n\nMonday, she thought, and then, I can't. She had nothing to say, and nothing to give. _I believe that each of you has a unique contribution to make,_ she had typed on her syllabus. _Therefore, I expect you to come to class prepared. I understand that you are very busy, but I am asking you to make this class a priority, as it is a priority for me..._ Had she really written that? God, how insufferable she had been.\n\nShe forced herself to shower. Threw on some clothes, gathered papers, remembered to run a comb through her wet hair. When she took the elevator down, she was surprised to find her car keys in her hand.\n\nIt was street-cleaning day. When she arrived at school she saw the trucks, Phil's Towing\u2014WE MEET BY ACCIDENT\u2014hitching up and pulling the parked cars away. Raindrops beaded on her windows as she drove past the school, looking for a legal space. Then her windows fogged. She was driving in a cloud.\n\nSlowly, she climbed the stairs with the last stragglers. She had had no coffee; she hadn't even brushed her teeth. She hugged her thick copy of Dickinson to her chest. The bell was ringing, but a crowd stood outside her classroom door.\n\n\"Miss! Miss! Check this out,\" her students called to her. Her class was standing room only. As soon as she saw her blackboards, she knew why.\n\nHer double boards had been transformed. Black no longer, they had changed into a pair of landscapes\u2014two views of the Eliot Bridge over the Charles, one in winter, one in summer. The winter river glimmered white. Snow outlined the bridge, bare bushes, and park benches on the icy bank. The world was cold, the sky pale, with just a hint of red suggesting the early-setting sun. Next to this winter scene, the summer river showed the same bridge and trees, but here the dark water danced under a bright sky. The bridge was ruddy, the bank thick with grass and tender leaves. The pictures were huge, but also detailed. In winter you could see a lost mitten on one snowy bench. In summer, a family of ducks clambered up the riverbank.\n\n\"Who _did_ this?\" Trey asked.\n\nRachelle wondered aloud, \"How'd they get in?\"\n\n\"Is this, like, vandalism?\" Tentatively, Candace touched the summer riverbank, smudging the grass. \"It comes off.\"\n\n\"Stupid,\" said Trey. \"You know it's chalk.\"\n\n\"All right, everybody in my class sit down,\" Nina said. \"Everybody else\u2014go where you belong.\"\n\nReluctantly, students from other classes backed out the door. They couldn't take their eyes off those pictures. No one could. Nina gazed at the blackboards and saw the Charles sparkling in white stillness, as it had that first snowy winter night. It hurt, but she could not look away. She saw the scene as if no time had passed, and she was there with Collin and without him, looking at the same river twice.\n\nMeanwhile her kids were taking pictures with their phones. \"Okay,\" Nina said softly. \"You know the rule.\"\n\nReluctantly her students shoved their phones into their pockets and their backpacks. They found their seats, but couldn't settle down.\n\nZachary echoed Trey. \"Who did this?\"\n\nNina took a quick attendance. Colleen, Matisse, Jared, Australia, Candace, Rachelle...\n\n\"Because he's, like, a genius,\" Zachary said.\n\n\"How do you know it's a guy?\" Australia demanded.\n\nFrom force of habit, Nina turned to write, _DO NOW,_ on the board. She stopped. There was no room, and the rivers were too beautiful to erase. Setting down her chalk, she began her lesson. \"Dickinson leaves space for your own imagination. She leaves a space around each word so you can think about it. \" _Memory is a strange Bell..._ What do you associate with the word _bell_? _Memory is a strange Bell\u2014Jubilee, and Knell._ What's a _jubilee_? What's a _knell_?\"\n\nThe kids shifted restlessly. She called on Sebastian, and he just stared at her. She was heartless in her students' eyes, standing with her back to this amazing art.\n\nAustralia was pointing to the footings of the chalk bridge and asking Trey, \"That's the place where the geese live, right?\"\n\n\"No!\"\n\nSeveral kids corrected her at once. \"The geese live at the BU Bridge.\"\n\n\"We're looking at _Memory is a strange Bell,_ \" Nina said, but she was distracted too. How had he gotten in? How many hours had he spent on this? Amazed, she thought, You must have worked all night. Affronted, she thought, And you think that you can color over everything. \"All right, listen up.\"\n\nNobody paid the least attention.\n\n\"I'll wait,\" Nina announced, but she thought\u2014how? How could she get through this lesson and four more classes as well? \"I'm ready.\"\n\n\"Shut up, Liam,\" Tanya responded to some unseen slight.\n\nThat did it. Nina yanked open the file drawer of her Steelcase desk and found her water bottle. At last her students hushed as she unscrewed the cap.\n\nSilence as Nina poured out the water, wetting her industrial-size eraser just as she had seen Collin do. A long horrified sigh as she swiped the center of Collin's winter river. \"Miss,\" they murmured. \"Ohhh,\" they exhaled, as she ruined Collin's beautiful illusion, sweeping it clean. She felt almost criminal, but she didn't stop.\n\nWhen she turned around to face her kids, they sat chastened in their metal chairs. For the first time, they were afraid of her, because her eyes were filled with tears.\n\n\u2014\n\nShe was faster than her students when the bell rang. First out and down the stairs. She would have fifteen minutes to wash her face, to soak paper towels and press them like a rough compress against her closed eyes. She got to the staff restroom, and realized that in her rush, she had forgotten the key.\n\nShe glanced behind her, but she saw Jeff coming. She turned and ran down the hall, took the back stairs to the basement.\n\nIn the therapy room she could close her eyes. She could shut herself inside\u2014but someone else had come down here as well. She saw him at the end of the dark corridor, typing into the keypad on the wall, disabling the alarm.\n\n\"Stop!\"\n\nThe boy shrank back, trying to disappear. Too late. Nina threw herself between Aidan and the door. This is how you do it, she thought. This is how you skip out in the middle of the day. What do I tell him? How do I keep him here? What can I do? The questions tumbled over one another, as her mind woke. Now. Now. Today of all days. \"Aidan!\"\n\nHe turned back, trying to avoid her. He wanted to walk back to class, pretend nothing had happened, but she had caught him and she wouldn't let him go. He knew he was in trouble. She knew this was her chance.\n\nHe was unreachably tall, eyes fierce, head crowned with tangled golden hair.\n\n\"You know you can't leave school.\"\n\n\"I'm not leaving.\"\n\n\"You have class,\" she said. \"You've got _my_ class now.\"\n\nSilence. He didn't move, but she braced herself against the door. \"I know what's going on.\"\n\nThat irritated him, her sad-and-disappointed look.\n\n\"I know you're smart. I know you're capable...\" Standing with her back against the door, she remembered Maia's advice. Be funny. _But I'm not funny._ Be desperate. Now Nina told Aidan, \"I've seen your work.\"\n\nThat surprised him. He had not turned in many assignments.\n\n\"On walls.\"\n\nHe stared in disbelief. She didn't know. She couldn't know. Her accusation made no sense. He searched her pale, tear-streaked face. What was wrong with her? Lazare wasn't an adult anymore; she looked like a kid his age.\n\nEven so, she spoke as his teacher, with authority. \"I know what you've been doing.\"\n\n\"What have I been doing?\" he asked coolly.\n\n\"Playing UnderWorld with Daphne. Tagging the school.\"\n\nThen he went cold. Lazare was a mind reader, just like people said. No, she'd seen him. She'd watched him somehow\u2014at school or in the park. How did she know? He understood, of course, that she was Viktor Lazare's daughter. Neither in school nor in the neighborhood had she flaunted that connection, but it was creepy to consider now. \"You talked to my sister,\" he said in a hushed voice.\n\n\"She didn't let me.\"\n\n\"You came to my house.\"\n\nThe bell was ringing. She was going to be late. \"I haven't told anyone else yet.\"\n\n\"Wait.\"\n\nShe interrupted. \"You have a choice. Meet me in my classroom after school and we'll start working. Or meet me in the office with Mr. DeLaurentis.\" She turned to go.\n\n\"What do you mean\u2014with DeLaurentis?\" Now he was following her through the basement, up the stairs.\n\n\"You know what I mean.\"\n\nHe trailed her to the classroom, where the other kids were waiting. Head down, he slipped inside and sat in back.\n\nAll through her lesson, she sensed Aidan slouching in his chair, but she never spoke to him. She taught around him, calling on Becca to his left and Siddhartha to his right. Becca, could you read aloud? Siddhartha, why does Dickinson use the word _abyss_? Aidan looked up once, but she was careful not to catch his eye. She almost had him, and she wouldn't press her point.\n\n\"Look at Dickinson's dashes,\" she told her class. \"What does she use them for?\"\n\n\"Punctuation,\" said Miles.\n\n\"Yes,\" Nina said. \"What else?\"\n\n\"Instead of commas?\" Miles asked.\n\n\"Look at these lines.\" Nina wrote them on her chalk-smeared board.\n\n> _There is a pain\u2014so utter\u2014_\n> \n> _It swallows substance up\u2014_\n> \n> _Then covers the Abyss with Trance\u2014_\n\nShe repeated her question. \"Why do you think she uses dashes?\"\n\nShana said, \"To show where you should breathe?\"\n\n\"Good! Say more.\"\n\nShana hesitated and Nina had to resist the impulse to rush in and flood the room with questions. Did the dashes allow space for imagination? Could they be like rests in music? A nod to ambiguity? A way to honor the unsaid?\n\nShe said none of this. She held back, calm and quiet. When kids talked in class or rocked their desk chairs back, when they flirted or they fought, she stood between them and pointed silently to the correct line on the page. After her disastrous morning she began to right herself, slowing down and teaching her lesson, class by class. She had thought the day would be impossible, her lessons incoherent. In fact, she made a lot of sense. She saw it in her kids' faces. Less prepared than usual, she didn't try to cover so much ground. She kept it simple, giving students time to think.\n\n\"Thank you,\" she told her fifth-period seniors, right before the bell. Her students looked puzzled, but Nina couldn't tell them what she really meant. Thank you for crowding into my room. Thanks for whispering behind my back. Thanks for reading with me. She was grateful even when her kids refused her. I don't get poetry. I still don't understand. They took all her energy, and all her heart.\n\nWhen the last bell rang, her students thundered down the stairs, and Nina stood alone. Her windows were dusty, but her room glowed in the gold November sun. Washing down the last of Collin's rivers, she thought, I taught more than one hundred kids today\u2014and some of them were listening. She thought, I'm getting better at this. At the same time, she was deeply sad.\n\n\"How do you know Daphne?\"\n\nAidan was standing at her desk.\n\n\"Have a seat.\"\n\nHe remained standing. \"How did you...?\"\n\nShe dragged over a chair. \"I don't want to talk about her. You're here so that we don't have to talk about her. Please.\" She gestured to the chair.\n\nWary, Aidan sat down.\n\nNina took her grade book out, along with her weekly planner. \"Okay. You owe me six vocabulary sheets, three journals, and two expositions. Then for next week you have your analysis, and your poem.\"\n\n\"What poem?\"\n\n\"For Poetry in Action.\" She studied the planner. \"Start with the exposition. You can choose a Dickinson poem to analyze and memorize it at the same time.\" She looked up. \"You'll need to come in every day.\"\n\nHe stared at her in disbelief. First of all, he had never heard of meeting with a teacher every day. Detention, yes. Private tutoring? Nobody did that. And he had work. He was bagging leaves after school. He had begun with his mother's yard. Then he'd cleaned up Maia's place. His mother said that she was proud of him. His sister said nothing. She suspected him, but he ignored her. He wasn't angry with Diana anymore. He barely thought about her.\n\nHe lived alone, he worked alone, raking yards on Fayette and Amory and even as far away as Kirkland Street. He had filled forty giant bags with the fallen leaves of a giant copper beech. His arms were hard, his hands rough and cracked, because he didn't wear gloves, but he was more than halfway to a new BoX.\n\n\"I have a job.\"\n\nNina met his gaze with her gray eyes. \"Adjust your schedule.\"\n\nHe said, \"I have to do my\u2014\"\n\n\"Sorry.\"\n\nHe persisted. \"I have a lot of\u2014\"\n\nShe interrupted, \"I don't care.\"\n\n\u2014\n\nNina wasn't sure that Aidan would return the next day. Even when he showed up in class, she doubted he would meet her after school again. He looked so distant leaning back, his legs stretched out before him. His body told her, I'm here temporarily.\n\nAfter school, she regretted telling him everything at once. She had surprised him, but he wouldn't stay surprised for long. She had presented a stark choice, but on consideration he might not care. If he called her bluff, she would have to go to DeLaurentis. A whole investigation would follow. She would have to explain why she had never mentioned Diana's journal before, and she would have to answer questions about her own behavior, her impulsive visit to Diana, her threat to Aidan, her flouting student privacy. There would be consequences for her as well as him. She stood in her empty classroom and she waited, but Aidan didn't come.\n\nAt last, Nina started loading her bags with student papers. She was about to leave when she saw Aidan's face in the window of her classroom door. Quickly she dropped her bags behind her desk and ushered him inside.\n\n\"You're late.\"\n\nHe didn't answer.\n\n\"Take a seat.\"\n\nThey sat together at two student desks, and she handed him a vocabulary worksheet, the first assignment that he'd missed.\n\nHe looked at her uncertainly. Was she planning to sit there while he did these? That seemed to be her intention. She actually watched him fill in blanks with _misanthrope, jocular, protean, lassitude, inchoate._\n\n\"You know the words.\"\n\n\"Why wouldn't I?\"\n\nShe heard the challenge in his voice and countered, \"I didn't know that you had time to read.\"\n\nHe looked up and she saw a flash of fear in his blue eyes.\n\n\"Just keep working,\" Nina said.\n\nEvery day after that, they met in her empty classroom after school. They sat together at her desk and read Dickinson. She had him type his analysis on the classroom computer, where she could see him. _\"I heard a Fly buzz\u2014when I died\" is an eerily calm poem about death. The narrator is detached from the situation..._\n\n\"What are you saying here?\" She pointed to his opening paragraph.\n\nAidan searched Nina's face for clues, trying to find the words she wanted, hoping to fulfill his obligation fast.\n\n\"You're not interested in any of this.\"\n\n\"Not really.\"\n\nShe was sitting with her elbows on her desk, her chin resting in her hand. She was very serious, and very beautiful. \"What if I say you have to be?\"\n\n\"You can't make someone interested,\" he pointed out.\n\nShe ignored this and handed him his analysis. \"Go ahead and read it to me.\"\n\n\"Aloud?\"\n\nHe caught the hint of a smile and he thought, Oh yeah. Otherwise she couldn't hear me. But when he started reading, she challenged him.\n\n\"Are you sure you want to say death doesn't bother her?\" she asked. \"How do you know? How can anybody know?\"\n\n\"True.\" He considered his own words. \"I'll say it seems like death doesn't bother her.\"\n\nHe kept reading, and she bent her head to listen. It amazed her that he had plagiarized a paper. He wrote clearly, choosing his words well. He was more than capable. What was it then that had compelled him? Gaming in itself, or Daphne?\n\nTears welled up, but she didn't think that Aidan noticed.\n\nHe saw more than she realized. He saw her sadness. He saw her ink-smudged hand, her forearm where her sleeve fell back, her small wrist. He saw her head dip slightly. She was exhausted.\n\nAt first he watched for those moments when she let her guard down, the split second when she almost fell asleep. He willed her to lay down her head so he could rush outside.\n\nGradually, however, Nina drew him in. Shaking off sleep, she had such an edge about her, an intense concentration. She reminded him of someone, and he kept searching his memory. Who was it?\n\n\"Remember the speaker,\" she said of the Dickinson poem. \"Who is speaking?\"\n\n\"Someone dead.\"\n\n\"And what does that sound like?\"\n\n\"Calm,\" Aidan said. \"Numb.\"\n\nNina was leaning forward, intent on every word. When she pulled back, he caught the resemblance. She was like the doctor at the hospital, listening to his heart.\n\n\u2014\n\nDay by day, Aidan began to catch her moods. Sometimes she was sleepy, sometimes miserable, sometimes bored. He forgot about escape. Her determination fascinated him. Her eyes closed for just a moment, but she never put her head down. She sat up straight and she was Miss Lazare again. \"Here,\" she said, \"I think you overstate your case.\"\n\nHer knowledge scared him. Not her knowledge of literature, but her knowledge of his secret life.\n\n\"You need to memorize the poem.\" She passed him her thick book, the complete Dickinson, its paper jacket printed with blue and green leaves.\n\n\"I can memorize it now.\" He read the poem rapidly to himself and then turned the volume facedown on the desk.\n\n\"Don't do that! It's old. You'll break the spine.\" Protectively, she gathered her book up again.\n\nStartled, he blurted, \"Sorry.\" Then, trying to appease her, he recited the poem rapidly all in one breath, _\"I heard a Fly buzz\u2014when I died\u2014 \/ The Stillness in the Room \/ Was like the Stillness in the Air\u2014 \/ Between the Heaves of Storm\u2014 \/ The Eyes around...\"_\n\nShe waited until he'd finished and then she said, \"No. Say it like you mean it.\"\n\n\"But I don't mean it,\" he answered, sullen, because she was not impressed.\n\nShe looked at him steadily, without anger, without reproach. She could have snapped at him. She could have walked out, but she said nothing, and she stayed.\n\nGazing back, he saw his teacher's patience, vast and still, spread out before him like an inland sea.\n\nAt last she ventured, \"You're a good student when you're in school.\"\n\n\"How do you know?\"\n\n\"I've read your transcript, obviously.\"\n\nShe wanted more than anything to bring Aidan down to earth, but that was not the effect she had on him. She seemed to him enchanted, dangerous, a mermaid in the Whennish Sea.\n\nWhen she was dissatisfied, she barely looked at him. When he worked harder, she nodded, as though she'd promised herself she wouldn't praise him. Her determination drew him to her. Lovely and difficult to please, she sent him off to prove himself in thorny fields, and set new tasks as soon as he was done.\n\nShe said, \"When you recite, you have to slow down and think about the meaning of the words.\" But when he recited again, _\"I heard a Fly buzz...\"_ he was thinking about her. He was imagining her elusive smile.\n\n_\" 'I heard a Fly buzz\u2014when I died' is an eerily calm poem about death,\"_ she said, quoting his essay back at him. _\"The narrator is detached from the situation.\"_\n\nBriefly, he felt it. Detached from the situation, he watched Miss Lazare sitting at her desk. He saw himself, looking into his teacher's eyes.\n\nCollin felt as though his world had changed to black and white. He had known magic. Nina had touched his life with gold. Now he could not reach her. He could not get back to where he'd been.\n\nIn games you could redeem yourself with points or jewels. You could trade gold for freedom, or even give an extra life away. In EverWhen you always had some recourse. Collin envied Everheads counting down to Launch Day in their ordered companies, their banners rippling overhead. He wished that he could run away and take his place among them. He wished that he could quit his job and disappear. Such was his guilt, his increasing sense of shame. Then he thought, No. Quitting was just what Peter wanted.\n\nMonday morning, Collin walked to the bus stop, although he thought more than once of turning back. Waiting, he remained uncertain, but when Arkadia's shuttle arrived, he boarded. He would not give up. He had seen his horses thundering through the dining room. He had seen them with his own eyes, and they weren't pretty. They had silenced everybody.\n\nThe other hellions on the bus were quiet. How much did they know? Had they seen him confront Daphne at the party? She was not riding the bus, but had they spoken to her? Maybe they thought he was a coward, crawling back. I can't win, Collin thought suddenly. He's got me to the point where I look like a quitter if I leave and a punching bag if I return.\n\nCollin hunched down alone in a window seat. Just do your job. Just do your work and you'll get paid. He told himself this, but he thought of Peter. His harsh words, his frown, his cold dissatisfaction.\n\nWhen the bus stopped, he roused himself to follow the others, stepped off with furious determination. To do what? He hardly knew. He wanted the impossible, the life he'd had before\u2014his work, his love, his happiness.\n\nExiled from Nina, Collin found himself alone at Arkadia as well. In the next days and weeks, Peter reorganized pods so that Collin worked with all new people on background\u2014texture and detail, condensation on rock faces, mists and shadows, damp stains on stone.\n\nCollin was not the only artist reassigned as the launch approached. Even so, Collin sensed that Peter was isolating him. No one disabused him of the notion. Obi, Akosh, Tomas, and Daphne kept a friendly distance. They smiled and even played Ping-Pong with him on occasion, but they kept the conversation light. No gossip, no commiseration.\n\nDaphne approached with cheerful caution, never once alluding to the drawings or the party or her tears. Only once was she at all real with him.\n\nCollin passed her desk and startled her. She cleared her screen with a quick swipe of the hand.\n\n\"What was that?\" Collin said. \"Was that your new marketing plan?\"\n\n\"New project,\" she admitted.\n\n\"For UnderWorld or something else?\"\n\n\"You don't want to know.\"\n\nOf course new projects cropped up all the time. Stealth mode was common, but Collin understood that he had been excluded once again.\n\n\"You'll get through this,\" Nicholas told Collin in the sound booth.\n\n\"Maybe.\" Collin had been rendering stalagmites in UnderWorld's caverns, and dragon bones, and mountains of slick guano. He was beginning to wonder if he would ever draw a face again, and yet he toiled on, sometimes bitter, sometimes laughing at himself. He was drawing bat shit, after all.\n\nWork got even worse. Peter moved him to color correction. For days he didn't draw at all. He studied sequences at his workstation, analyzing the tint and continuity of dragon scales in the dim light, underground. His hands hovered over the keyboard, and, like a caged panther, his imagination turned and turned upon itself.\n\nHe stood and stretched his arms. He spun around and he saw dragon scales on every surface. Every cubicle glowed silver. He had never been so tired or so bored, and he wanted to bust out of there. Pride prevented him. Don't give up now, he told himself. Don't let Peter win. He forced himself to work, imprisoned in his chair. The days stretched out, hour after hour.\n\n\u2014\n\nOn Launch Day Collin watched news reporters arrive, trailing long black cables. He watched the hallways fill with virtual mist, an atmosphere of mystery advertising aeroflakes. From a distance, he watched Viktor speak.\n\n\"Today we are announcing that OVID will support all Arkadian games. Not just UnderWorld, but EverWhen as well. We are opening portals for world-jumping so that players can move seamlessly from one game to the next.\"\n\nThe metallic kiss of cameras.\n\n\"A world without edges,\" Viktor said. \"No screens, no frames. You go where your imagination takes you.\"\n\nI wish, thought Collin.\n\nHe wandered through the building, and there was food, and there were kegs. There were demos. Reporters standing at the Gates and dueling in the halls. Bright as a harvest moon, a virtual clock was counting down to midnight. The illusion caught Collin's attention, but he could not forget the maze of cubicles beneath.\n\nHe paused for a moment at his desk. On impulse, he pocketed a black pen and five packs of sticky notes. Then he headed outside.\n\nThe wind hit hard. The evening was bitter, and he was glad. It was quiet outdoors. No speeches, no demos, but as he rounded the corner of the building, he heard voices.\n\n\"Hey, hey, ho, ho. UnderWorld has got to go.\" Shoulder to shoulder, members of Christians Against Gaming Exploitation were marching in the west parking lot, a dozen young men and women carrying hand-painted signs. CU IN HEAVEN! JESUS PLAYS FOR KEEPS.\n\nCollin stared at the picketers bundled up like carolers in their knit hats and Christmas sweaters. One in particular, a paunchy guy in rectangular glasses, called out to Collin. \"Hey, man, listen!\"\n\nCollin studied the protestor's round face.\n\n\"The Lord tests the righteous, but His soul hates the wicked and the one who loves violence.\"\n\nWearily, Collin said, \"Hi, Darius.\"\n\n\"Repent!\" cried a young woman in a reindeer sweater. Her long hair spilled out under the brim of her candy-striped hat. Her eyes were bright, her nose and lips and eyebrows ringless.\n\n\"Hey, Emma,\" Collin said.\n\nHe took the early shuttle back to Cambridge, but it was dark when he got off in Harvard Square. He stood for a moment on Mt. Auburn Street, just watching the students, and the construction workers, and the homeless veteran, and the people carrying rolled yoga mats. He glanced at Grafton Street and the Harvard Book Store, where Nina used to meet him.\n\nHis heart rebelled against his loneliness. His body ached from hunching at his desk, and now his fingers flexed. He walked across the Square to Grendel's. He hurried down the stairs to the old dive, and all the green lamps on the tables welcomed him.\n\n\"Collin!\" Sam cried out as he approached the bar. Tiny, sharp-eyed, hospitable, she brought a pint without his asking. \"You never call, you never write.\"\n\n\"Hey.\" Kayte was still waiting tables. \"How's Nina?\"\n\nCollin didn't answer, and she didn't press.\n\nHe sat at the bar and watched Sam mixing drinks as Grendel's music pounded all around him.\n\n\"What's it like there?\" Sam asked.\n\n\"It's just work.\"\n\n\"Come on, give us some dirt,\" Kayte called out as she passed through to the kitchen.\n\n\"I got nothing,\" Collin said.\n\n\"Empty-handed,\" Sam said.\n\n\"No.\" He felt in his jacket pockets and pulled out the sticky notes. He lined them up on the bar along with the pen.\n\nSam said, \"Oooh, exciting. Little pads of paper.\"\n\n\"Pick a color. Any color.\" They were all pale office shades. Pink, blue, green, yellow, white.\n\n\"Green.\"\n\nHe drew a leaf on a green sticky note. A simple maple leaf, outlined in black pen.\n\nSam said, \"You quit your job.\"\n\n\"No.\" He turned back the first sticky note and drew the leaf again. On every page he drew the maple leaf in a slightly different position.\n\n\"So you like it there.\"\n\n_Like_ is not the word, thought Collin. Liking the job didn't enter into it.\n\n\"Nice,\" said Kayte, who was looking over his shoulder.\n\nHe sensed several people watching. Two girls sitting next to him leaned closer as he drew another leaf.\n\n\"Oh, I get it,\" one girl said, as he drew the maple leaf for the twentieth time, edges curling in an imaginary wind. Her name was Emily and her friend was Kira and they were going out for Kira's belated birthday. Emily was bright-eyed and heavy. She had blond hair but dark eyebrows, and she wore a low-cut shirt. Kira was heavy too, but softer and quieter. Her eyes were dark with eyeliner and she had beautiful black hair all down her back. She looked like the girls Collin had known in high school. He drew a leaf on the last sticky note and gave the whole pack to Kira. \"Happy birthday.\"\n\n\"Oh, wow,\" said Kira, uncertainly.\n\nEmily said, \"It's a flip-book.\"\n\nKira held the pack of sticky notes and flipped them with her thumb. The maple leaf drifted, rising and dancing and falling to the bottom of the last page. \"It's so pretty,\" Kira exclaimed. \"How did you learn to do that?\"\n\n\"You're terrible,\" Sam told Collin.\n\nHe was already drawing a flip-book for Emily. This one wasn't nearly as beautiful. It was just an ice cream cone melting in the sun. \"You're so good,\" Emily exclaimed.\n\n\"No, ice cream is boring.\" Collin gave up halfway through. \"I'm doing something else.\"\n\nThe two of them waited quite seriously, and a few others stood behind them. Even Sam leaned over the bar.\n\n\"Okay, let's try this.\"\n\nHe took his black pen and drew a line across a blue sticky note. A line sagging ever so slightly. A telephone wire. Then he drew a bird on the wire. A black bird, alone and hunched. He turned the page and drew the bird again. He turned each page and drew the bird spreading its wings.\n\nWhen Collin finished and thumbed through the book, his audience watched the bird take flight, soaring and swooping in the air until at last it flew off the page.\n\n\"It's yours.\" He gave the book to Emily, and she showed it off to everyone. At one point Kayte came over with her phone and filmed it.\n\nThe girls bought Collin another drink. They invited him to a party later on that night.\n\nHe enjoyed the attention, and then, suddenly, he was tired of it. He started glancing at the door. Actually, he explained, he was waiting for someone. Nobody believed this, but he wasn't lying. He was waiting for Nina, although he knew she wouldn't come.\n\nGold showered down. Autumn leaves so bright that for a moment Aidan covered his eyes. He wasn't used to this anymore, the dazzling colors, the shifting light and shadow. Opening his new BoX, he felt like a figure in a snow globe, wind blowing, leaves swirling all around.\n\nHe heard cheering, tramping in the Trackless Wood\u2014the remnants of his company. Of his sixty-one Elves, only twelve remained. Centuries had passed since they had qwested together, scores of battles had been waged and won. Giants of the dark cliffs had forged an alliance with the Gnomes who toiled underground, and together they'd built an enormous fighting force, the Nord, who had begun raiding Elvish strongholds in an attempt to launch themselves against the Keep.\n\nWe've been waiting, Aidan's comrades said. In real life, the company was scattered in living rooms, bedrooms, and basements all around the world. Some guys were fat, some had bad knees, some were just kids wearing pajamas, but in EverWhen they were all Water Elves, tall and elegant, with flowing hair. They wore chain mail and they carried swords. \"You're late, Tildor,\" chided Dracon, Aidan's second in command.\n\nEven as he spoke, the forest darkened and the wind picked up. No, not the wind. Aidan threw himself to the ground as dragons tore through the wood, blackening every living thing. Moments later it was over, but his ears were ringing with the dragons' screams.\n\nShaking off ash, he struggled to his feet. Close by his side, Aidan's old qwesting friends debated what to do.\n\n\"March on!\"\n\n\"No. Hold back and wait.\"\n\nAlready, moss crept up blackened tree trunks. Ferns sprang up from the ashy forest floor. Withered branches spread and multiplied, sending forth new twigs. Pale folded leaves opened into oak, or maple leaf, or elm, filtering the light and showering charred earth with every shade of russet, gold, and green. The others were appealing to Aidan for orders, but he gazed at the changing leaves, the ever-shifting light, and he thought, How beautiful. How strange the way the woods surrounded you.\n\n\"Let's go,\" Dracon urged him.\n\nAidan lifted his arm and Tildor held his sword aloft. \"Follow me!\"\n\nHe led his Elves to a thousand-year-old beech, a cosmos of its own, with its vast canopy of leaves. The whole company, linking hands together, could not span its massive trunk. \"This is the place.\" Aidan scored the smooth gray tree trunk with his sword, opening a seam that darkened with a sickening sound of splitting wood. \"This is the way,\" Aidan called out as the others followed him inside the tree to UnderWorld.\n\nAll that night, he qwested with his company. They fought their way to the silver river and took a ferry to the far shore.\n\n\"Cover me!\" Aidan shouted as he attacked the Iron Man, striking welded joints and eye slits. Battle-tested, he knew how to move, and how to leap, how to manage spectral weightlessness. He could fend off white bats, and navigate labyrinthine passages carved in stone. Even so, the way was difficult, increasingly complex.\n\nThey came to a cavern he had not yet seen, a crypt where they found Elves disfigured and leprous with mold. Aidan saw cauliflower ears and wobbling jaws, noses melting like candle wax. \"Stand together,\" he commanded.\n\n\"Put up your swords. We have no power,\" a living corpse with blackened fingers said.\n\nWonderingly, Aidan asked, \"Who were you?\"\n\n\"Fire Elves.\"\n\n\"Who did this to you?\"\n\nThe ruined Elf pointed through the archways to a dim-lit chamber, where a rustling creature stirred. Taller than Aidan, a praying mantis whirred, and clicked, and cleaned its folded legs on a dark throne.\n\n\"Watch out,\" the moldering corpses shouted as Aidan approached the insect king. \"Don't let him bite,\" the blackened Elf called after him.\n\n\"Wait here,\" Aidan told his company, and all obeyed, except for Dracon, who followed him.\n\nLike a dying fire, the chamber faintly glowed. The praying mantis turned, and Aidan saw the insect's mandibles working, outer eyes wide-set and swiveling.\n\nAidan drew his sword. \"Reverse your spells.\"\n\nWith a dry, rattling sound, the mantis rose up gigantic on its hind legs.\n\n\"Reverse your spells, or come down and fight.\"\n\nInstantly, the mantis pounced. Aidan sprang back just in time, slashing at the insect's hard body, its whirring limbs, and pointed face. He sliced one antenna. Instantly, the quivering organ grew back. He stabbed the mantis in its thorax and the insect lost its balance, staggering back for just a moment. Then, like a boxer, the mantis rose up and pounced, toppling Dracon with a single blow.\n\n\"Get up. Get up!\"\n\nToo late. Dracon lay on the throne room floor, his neck pinched in the insect's mandibles.\n\nAidan's company rushed the room, even as the mantis bent over its prey.\n\n\"Stay back,\" Aidan shouted, but they didn't listen and mobbed the insect, attacking with their useless swords. Each blow glanced off the insect's back, and the mantis fed until Dracon's body began to swell. His flesh turned white, his face began to curdle.\n\nThe other Elves tried to drag away the body. Fenuel seized one lifeless arm, Lorimar the other. Suddenly these friends were stricken too. Their hands withered where they had touched Dracon's white flesh, their fingers blackened as with frostbite.\n\nAidan knew death in battle. He himself had been dismembered, impaled, decapitated, but that was just a nuisance and a loss of points. After a few minutes, anyone who died in EverWhen could jump back up again. This was something else, a wasting disease. \"Don't touch him,\" warned Aidan as his Elves crowded Dracon.\n\nOnce again, the clicking, rattling sound. The mantis? Alarm clock. \"I have to go,\" Aidan told the others. His mother was still at work\u2014no danger there\u2014but he was on every kind of probation: academic, disciplinary. He had to get to school.\n\nA moment later, he was diving for clean clothes, racing to the bathroom, stumbling down the stairs. After his all-nighter, the house seemed warped and thrown together, the ceiling dangerously low. At the breakfast table, Diana was a headless body. It took Aidan a few seconds to see that she'd buried her head in her arms.\n\nGradually, the kitchen began to right itself. The sink, the chairs, the window, the apple clock, Diana sitting there with bloodshot eyes.\n\nWas she crying? At first it was hard to tell, and then he saw her tearstained cheeks, and it was hard to look. Long ago Diana would cry when their father hit Aidan. Then Aidan would start crying too. He would shut his eyes and turn away, do everything he could to stop, but once he saw her tears, he could not force back his own. \"What happened?\"\n\nShe pushed her chair away from the table, but she didn't speak.\n\nShe had lost Brynna. Not in a day, not over weeks, but gradually, as the days grew shorter, as rain turned to snow, and snow hardened into ice, Brynna had pushed Diana away. At night she went to parties, while her parents watched Angela. She stayed out with Anton and his friends, Khalil, Dmitri, Sevonna. She was actually seeing Anton again.\n\nLate at night Diana had confronted her by text. What ru thinking? Cruelly Brynna had replied, Ur only jealous. After that Diana couldn't sleep. She'd lain awake all night, listening to Aidan qwesting.\n\nLight-headed, Aidan watched his sister dematerialize into dots. He gripped the edge of the table and she was herself again\u2014but much smaller than he'd remembered. He had just put away his sword and there she was, slipping on her parka, shouldering her worn-out backpack. She looked so defeated, he forgot her tattling. After all, it didn't matter anymore. He had his new BoX and he loved Diana again. He had never stopped loving her\u2014but she should have known that.\n\nHe didn't speak, but he felt for her as she stepped into her snow boots. Those boots looked so heavy, they could have been stone.\n\n\u2014\n\nDiana kept her head down and her coat on once she got to Emerson. Her jacket's hugeness shielded her as she made her way upstairs past couples kissing, girls gossiping, guys chest-butting like demented stags. Brynna approached, and Diana looked up, hoping for an instant. Her former best friend swept past her.\n\nAnton arrived, and his blond hair was short and spiky, his eyes hard. He'd nicked himself shaving, so you could see a spot of blood on his neck. Diana tortured herself, watching Brynna drift toward him. She looked so soft and gentle, her thick hair wafting over her shoulders. She was nothing like Anton, and yet she stood with him by the lockers. Hands in each other's back pockets, they were practically married.\n\n\"Congrats,\" Diana said as she walked by.\n\nBrynna pretended that she didn't hear, but Anton snarled, \"Dyke.\"\n\nA moment later, Anton's head smashed into the metal locker doors. It happened so fast even Diana was surprised. She barely understood what she had done when he surged back and seized her shoulders. His fingers clawed through her down coat.\n\nVoices all around her, cheers, and catcalls. Mr. Allan yelling, \"Whoa. Walk away. Walk away.\" She didn't walk. She kicked and scratched. Like a creature shedding her second skin, she slipped from Anton's grasp. Lithe and strong, she left her puffy jacket in his hands.\n\nHe dropped the jacket and she flew at him as he fought her off, ignoring Mr. Allan's threats and Brynna's pleas. The bell was ringing, the hall flooding with students. Teachers were struggling to pull Diana and Anton apart, but it was Aidan who charged between them. He had followed her to school, shadowing her all the way upstairs.\n\n\"You touch my sister and I'll fucking kill you.\" Aidan's cheeks were blazing. He was white light, he was the dazzling sun.\n\n\u2014\n\nTen minutes later, Aidan and Diana sat together at the round conference table in DeLaurentis's office. Anton sat at a little distance on the other side.\n\nMr. DeLaurentis spread his hands. \"Can we work this out?\"\n\nThe three of them sat silent. Anton stretched out, with his chair pulled back from the table. Aidan stole a glance at Diana. Her eyes were bright, her tears gone. She looked taller, as though she had thrown off a crushing weight. And it was strange, but he felt taller too. He had not realized how heavy her sadness had become.\n\nMr. DeLaurentis told Diana, \"We don't tolerate bullying.\"\n\nShe pointed straight at Anton. \"He bullied _me._ \"\n\n\"As for you...\" DeLaurentis turned to Aidan.\n\n\"He didn't do anything!\" Diana interrupted. \"He was protecting me.\"\n\n\"This conflict didn't happen on its own.\"\n\nAidan settled back, preparing for the onslaught. It was always like this at school. The actual fight lasted just seconds. The discussion afterward took hours.\n\n\u2014\n\nDiana was still stuck in the principal's office when DeLaurentis ordered her brother to return to class. Aidan felt guilty about leaving, because he knew exactly what would happen next. She would have to see Miss Sorentino, who made you talk until you would admit anything. You were bored at school, you were tired of your life. She got you to the point where you confessed feelings you didn't even have.\n\nSlowly he made his way to English, arriving in a tide of whispered speculation.\n\n\"Where's Anton?\" Sofia whispered to Aidan, as soon as he sat down.\n\nRafael asked, \"What did you do to him?\"\n\n\"Was he expelled?\"\n\n\"Okay, let's concentrate.\" Miss Lazare handed Aidan a ballot for Poetry in Action.\n\nLazare was calling on each kid, one by one. You had to stand and recite your chosen poem from memory, after which the class would vote for one student to represent them in the school competition. Unless you were into theater like Becca, the whole thing was a nightmare until your turn was over. Then you could sink down and watch other kids rock back on their heels, and forget their lines. Miss Lazare said, \"That's okay, just take a breath,\" and it was torture, but she never let you give up. She made you stand there. Naturally people chose the shortest poems eligible. \"Fog\" by Carl Sandburg. William Blake's \"The Sick Rose.\" \"Do _not_ vote for me,\" they whispered to their friends.\n\n\"I need your attention,\" Miss Lazare told the class. Nico was reciting Roethke's \"My Papa's Waltz.\" _The whiskey on your breath..._ But Aidan was the center of attention; even those who hadn't seen him challenge Anton had heard about the brawl.\n\n\"Did you really break his nose?\" Sofia whispered.\n\n\"Would I be here if I'd actually hurt him?\" Aidan retorted, enjoying his notoriety.\n\n\"Aidan,\" Miss Lazare said, as soon as Nico had finished.\n\nHe waited for the reprimand. Don't talk in class.\n\n\"Get up there.\"\n\nOh. In the excitement, he'd actually forgotten.\n\n\"Your turn.\"\n\nAidan remembered nothing. He had prepared, of course. Lazare herself had practiced with him, but when he stood in front of the blackboard, he could not recall a single word of Dickinson.\n\nCurious, his fellow students stared at Aidan. Their ballots fluttered all around them.\n\nHe glanced at Miss Lazare, who waited in the back of the room with her clipboard in her hands. He didn't care about the others, but he hated himself for letting her down.\n\nNo. He had to think. Back before the lecture in DeLaurentis's office. Before the fight, before Diana at the breakfast table and the long qwest underground. He had to tunnel through all the battles he had fought and won and lost. Mantis king and Iron Man, silver dragons and three-headed dogs.\n\nThe moment stretched too long. Not a moment, but an entire day, a year. The class grew restless, but he closed his eyes and fought to uncover words small as insects, black and quivering.\n\n_\"I heard a Fly buzz\u2014when I died.\"_ His voice was deep and deadpan, eerily calm, even as he searched his memory.\n\n_\"The Stillness round my form \/ Was like the Stillness in the Air...\"_\n\nThe whole class hushed in horror and in sympathy. No one had heard the poem quite that way before. He was struggling but he would not give up. _\"The Eyes beside\u2014had wrung them dry...\"_ Searching for each word, he seemed to be improvising on the spot.\n\nThere had never been such silence in that room. Not a word, not a breath. _\"I willed my Keepsakes\u2014Signed away \/ What portion of me I...\"_ Long pause. _\"Could make Assignable, and then...\"_\n\nHe was like a diver. They could barely see him anymore as he swam deep underwater to retrieve each phrase. His classmates watched as he held his breath and sank into the abyss.\n\nIn a trance, he swam down to his own death, his own body on the hospital bed. _\"There interposed a Fly...With Blue, uncertain...stumbling Buzz.\"_ His voice was strange, not his at all, but cold and numb. _\"And then the Windows failed\u2014and then \/ I could not see to see.\"_\n\nSilence again, and then everyone was clapping, because he had found the words, and brought them back alive.\n\nNina could not stop smiling. All traces of the teacher vanished from her face.\n\nLook at Miss Lazare, kids told each other. Total joy! The little jump you always hoped for, but hardly ever got to see.\n\n\"I knew it,\" Nina told Aidan after school. She had known instantly that he would win the class election. She'd seen it in the students' faces. He would represent them in the assembly.\n\n\"That's crazy,\" said Aidan. He had no interest in reciting for the school, but Miss Lazare's response captivated him. She seemed like an entirely new person, her eyes alight.\n\n\"It's incredible,\" she said. \"Fantastic.\"\n\nShe gave him all the credit, and, at the same time she felt that teaching him was the best thing she'd ever done. Bright, dreamy, obsessed with fantasy, Aidan was a natural, seizing language for himself, inhabiting simile and metaphor. He was born for poetry.\n\nWas it that ability, or was it fear? Was it simply practice? Understanding what she was looking for? He was using what she gave him, making connections, drawing inferences. If she spoke to him about one image\u2014death as a fellow traveler\u2014he found a complementary example: _The Carriage held but just Ourselves\u2014 \/ And Immortality._\n\n\"He listens,\" Nina had told Jeff at their weekly lunch meeting.\n\n\"Of course he does. He has your undivided attention. The bigger question is how you want to use your time.\"\n\n\"I don't think I'm taking anything away from the other students.\"\n\nJeff warned, \"You don't want to play favorites.\"\n\n\"I'm not!\" she protested. \"He's a student at risk.\"\n\n\"He's not alone.\"\n\n\"But he really learns this way.\"\n\n\"Everybody does.\"\n\nShe knew what he was thinking. Another white-middle-class success story. \"I just feel like I'm finally doing something.\"\n\n\"You see him every day; you're spending five hours a week with him. That's an entire class of one.\"\n\nWaiting for Aidan after school, Nina opened her copy of Dickinson on her desk. Jeff cared about metrics. He believed in trying for the greatest impact possible, and by impact he meant reaching the many, not the privileged few. Nina had privileged Aidan, lavishing her time and her attention on him. It was not her mission to run private tutorials at a public high school.\n\nBut what if this was the way she taught best? What if this was how she made a difference? Test scores didn't matter to her in the aggregate. I'm not big-picture, Nina thought. I doubt I'll make an impact on a hundred kids\u2014but I'm teaching one.\n\nShe didn't care what Jeff said or how he warned her; she knew that she was getting something done at last. Listen to Aidan recite. Look at his written work. She had his essay marked good and wonderful, lying right there on her desk.\n\nEven so, her influence was limited. She could hold Aidan's attention for an hour, but she could not control his life. When he was late she worried that he wouldn't come. He arrived exhausted after school and she could only wonder, Are you gaming? Are you running out at night? When he seemed distracted, she imagined he was giving up. Most days he focused, but some afternoons he gazed into the distance and she thought, I'm losing him. I will never change anybody. She had not changed Collin. She had left him as she'd found him, gifted, adventurous, devoted to the chase. She had not changed him, but she missed him.\n\nSometimes she wondered, What if I was wrong? You weren't wrong, Lily assured her. Sometimes Nina thought, He lied to me, but does that mean he'd cheated too? Obviously, Julianne said.\n\nAnd yet Nina doubted herself. She thought, He was not what I had hoped, but I assumed the worst. He disappointed me, but I set him up. What did I expect, bringing him to that place? She wavered and then stopped short. Collin had decided what to draw and how to act.\n\n\"Miss?\"\n\n\"Oh!\" She hadn't seen Aidan come in.\n\nHe apologized for startling her. He didn't know how glad she was to see him. He shook her from her thoughts. He handed her three completed vocabulary worksheets.\n\nShe said, \"Good, and I've graded your essay. We'll go over it.\"\n\nHe looked at her expectantly.\n\nShe thought, You know it's excellent. You can't wait to get it back.\n\n\"Okay, first of all, let's hear your poem.\"\n\n_\"I heard a Fly buzz\u2014when I died.\"_\n\nShe wanted to hear him recite again as he had in class. She craved that magic once again.\n\n_\"The Stillness in the Room \/ Was like the Stillness in the Air...\"_\n\n\"Hold on. Slow down.\"\n\nEmbarrassed, Aidan stumbled over _Heaves of Storm._\n\n\"Why are you rushing?\"\n\nHe thought, Because you're distracting me. She was lovely and he longed to please her\u2014to see pure joy on her face, to surprise her once again. He fantasized about her all the time, but not in the way that he had Daphne. Those visions had been violent. He had chased Daphne into the real world to pin her down. With his teacher, just the opposite. He took her deep into his dreams and gave her his sword.\n\nWhen he remembered his lines, they rushed out all at once, too glib, too fast. Nor could he make his voice cold when Nina was his only audience.\n\n\"The poem has a kind of mordant wit,\" she told him. \"Very dark. Very wry. Remember how you did it before?\"\n\nHe didn't feel mordant. He was the one buzzing. He was the fly, and there was no corpse, only his final paper on Dickinson. His three-to-five-page essay with the final comment, _Aidan, I'm impressed._ He kept glancing at the graded essay on her desk. Her words on his, her pen and his typed paragraphs practically touching. How could he remember dying? He said, \"I think it was a onetime thing.\"\n\n\"No, that's not true!\" She would not accept excuses, nor could he distract her long. \"Slow it down. Slow down even more.\"\n\nHe closed his eyes to concentrate. He tried to find that slow and empty place, to become again the diver underwater.\n\n\"Yes! Better,\" she exclaimed. \"But look at me. Look at the audience. Don't look away.\"\n\nHe said, \"I need to practice that.\"\n\n\u2014\n\nHe practiced all the way home, stepping slowly, brimful of words. _The Stillness round my form..._ He saw Nina's eager look, her shake of the head. He saw her listening to him, and the winter afternoon seemed new and strange. The bare trees standing like upended brooms. Small birds darting together, turning all at once, swooping and gathering in an instant, playing with the wind.\n\n\"Hey,\" Diana greeted him. He didn't even stop for a second as he ran up the stairs. _The eyes beside\u2014had wrung them dry\u2014 \/ And Breaths were gathering sure..._\n\nDiana couldn't hear the poem clamoring in his ears. She had to listen to Kerry berate her on the phone, while Aidan paced his room above her head. _For that last Onset\u2014when the King \/ Be witnessed\u2014in his power._\n\n\"It's one day. Just a one-day suspension\u2014and I wasn't even fighting! I barely touched the guy,\" Diana insisted.\n\nAidan threw himself onto his unmade bed. _With Blue\u2014uncertain\u2014stumbling Buzz..._ He saw Nina's face, intent and serious, her slender arms. The chalk dust on her shirt. _Between the light\u2014and me...Between the light\u2014and me..._ Over and over, he imagined her.\n\nA rattling sound roused him, an insistent scratching. He started up, sensing someone rapping, trying to get in. His room was dark, the winter sun had set. He must have drifted off. He turned on the light and saw a bare tree branch rattling against the windowpane. Checking his watch, he was shocked he'd slept so long, past five o'clock.\n\nShit. He'd promised he would meet his company. He hesitated for a minute, then, scrambling to his feet, he opened his BoX.\n\n\"Where is everybody?\" he demanded as his Elf shape materialized. All he saw was poor, half-crippled Dracon standing on a stone bridge. Vast caverns, vaults of a subterranean cathedral surrounded them.\n\n\"Everybody else gave up,\" Dracon said. \"You were supposed to be here two hours ago.\"\n\n\"Okay, we'll reschedule.\"\n\n\"No. You said the qwest was on.\"\n\nAnnoyed, Aidan kicked the bridge, dislodging a pebble that fell pinging and ricocheting into the ghostly river far below. \"Dude, I have to study.\"\n\nIn her bedroom, Diana heard muffled voices through the wall. _I have to study?_\n\nA car door slammed, and her first thought was, Oh no, Mom's coming home to punish me.\n\nNo. Just a delivery person. She heard someone clomping up the front steps, ringing the bell, dropping a package on the porch. More footsteps, another weight dropped on the porch. Somebody was tramping up and down.\n\nShe slipped into Kerry's empty room and opened the shades to see the street. She found no delivery truck. Only a station wagon in the winter night. She ran downstairs barefoot, wearing her flannel pajama bottoms and a white T-shirt printed DANA-FARBER CANCER INSTITUTE. When she opened the door, she found Jack, with ten battered cardboard cartons stacked up at his feet. \"What are you doing?\"\n\nHe answered in his even way, \"I brought you something.\"\n\nShe glanced at the cartons and then looked away. He must have heard. \"Aidan's upstairs.\"\n\n\"I came to see you.\"\n\n\"I'm busy.\"\n\n\"Doing what?\"\n\nShe thought of Sorentino. \"Processing what happened\u2014supposedly.\"\n\nPolitely Jack said, \"Cool, what did you come up with?\"\n\nWhen she glared at Jack, he didn't even blink. She said, \"You feel sorry for me.\"\n\nHe ignored this. \"Hold the door.\"\n\n\"Why?\"\n\nHe hoisted two cartons. \"Because they're heavy.\"\n\nShe held the glass storm door open with her hip. \"You stole some lame educational props from your father, didn't you?\"\n\n\"Maybe.\"\n\n\"Wait. Are those fireworks? Because my mom's coming home in like an hour.\"\n\nJack knelt on the living room floor, and opened the boxes to reveal thousands upon thousands of black and white tiles.\n\n\"Nooo,\" Diana groaned. Scienceman's birthday party dominoes.\n\nJack looked up at her. \"Come on. You know you want to.\"\n\nFor the next two hours, they dominoed the house, lining up their tiles, spaced at perfect intervals, across the floor and down the hall. They lined up their tiles in all the dusty places, outlining windowsills and baseboards, snaking behind the couch, circling the old upright piano.\n\n\"Who plays?\" Jack asked.\n\n\"Nobody,\" Diana said. \"I mean, Aidan used to.\"\n\nAbove their heads they could hear Aidan's shuffling, stamping feet. He'd put off studying after all.\n\nLike black ants, those tiles marched across that poor piano. They covered the entire living room out to the entrance hall, and then Jack said, \"We still have more.\"\n\nDiana sat back on her heels. \"Let's do the kitchen.\"\n\nThey extended their line onto the kitchen floor, around the kitchen table. They built domino formations on the kitchen counters, an array of black tiles from the toaster oven to the old microwave.\n\n\"I used to think you had a sad, pathetic life,\" Diana said.\n\n\"Why?\"\n\n\"Because you're an only child.\"\n\nOne by one, Jack placed his dominoes along the counter. \"I like being an only child.\"\n\n\"Obviously.\" Diana was thinking that being an only child was all Jack knew. \"It's worse when you become an only child later.\"\n\nJack finished his row and then leaned against the counter, considering her.\n\n\"What?\" she demanded.\n\n\"Is it true?\"\n\n\"What do you mean?\" she asked, although she knew exactly what he meant.\n\n\"Do you like girls better?\"\n\n\"Yeah! Don't you?\" He was making her nervous. \"Actually, I go by the person.\"\n\n\"So you don't know...\" Tile by tile, he was encircling Kerry's coffeemaker.\n\n\"I don't know about you.\"\n\nFootsteps. Their miniature world began to rattle. Aidan was like a giant heading to the bathroom overhead. Every move, a step of doom. They heard the toilet flush, the water running in the sink. They held still as he returned to his room. Their dominoes wobbled as walls and floorboards creaked. Then he slammed his bedroom door.\n\nThe old house absorbed the shock, and all the domino chains tumbled in the kitchen down below, whole regiments collapsing on their bridges, folding onto countertops and floors. Jack and Diana doubled over, laughing.\n\n\u2014\n\n\"Earthquake!\" Aidan shouted, deep in game, but of course Dracon felt nothing on his side.\n\nA flurry of white bats descended.\n\n\"Help me!\" Dracon tried to fight them off one-handed.\n\nAidan drew his sword, but he wasn't fast enough. Already the bats began to feed.\n\nHe pulled Dracon into a cave, reached for his diamond flask, and sprinkled hatchling's blood on Dracon's wounds.\n\n\"What are you doing?\" Dracon protested even as his own flesh healed. \"There's ten more infections in the company and now you've used up the flask. You've wasted it!\"\n\n\"We'll find another dragon's egg,\" Aidan promised.\n\n\"When?\" Dracon asked bitterly.\n\n\"When we get the company together.\"\n\nNow Dracon lost patience. \"You no longer have a company.\" Sword in hand, Dracon turned his back.\n\n\"Where are you going?\"\n\n\"I'm qwesting elsewhere,\" Dracon said with dignity.\n\nFurious, Aidan said, \"I'll go myself.\"\n\nHe stood alone in the dark cavern and lifted his arms so that the bats descended, feasting. They ate his arms to bloody nubs, and bit his body to the bone. They devoured his face, and his knight fell writhing to the cavern floor. Aidan was unafraid. He had trained for transformation, and he chose this metamorphosis, stretching out his torso, trading sword for a long tail. He saw his hind legs lengthening, his bloody flesh resolving into silver scales. Two dark patches on his back began to swell. Black wings opened wet and heavy, then fanned out, shedding sparkling drops of water. His skull had changed to silver, his tongue unfurling with a lick of fire. He lit the cavern as he took flight, exploding through stone walls into the Arkadian sky.\n\nAidan spread his wings and he was soaring, his spectral dragon rising over mountains, flaming over trees and frozen lakes. Now he saw the contours of the Trackless Wood, the distant towers of the Keep. He had jumped worlds to EverWhen.\n\nGliding softly in familiar skies, Aidan saw Elves lying where they had fallen in the snow. Hundreds of qwesters, too weak to move. Had the contagion spread to EverWhen? How many qwesters had jumped worlds before him, carrying the disease? Grimly he turned toward EverSea.\n\nFlying low over crashing waves, he took his place among the other dragons nesting on the coast. He folded his great wings as he slithered into the low cave. Quiet now and smooth, his body undulating, he shed his dragon body. His serpentine form coiled and disappeared with a sucking sound like water down a drain.\n\nA knight again, he crept between mountainous dragons. Clutching his needle sword, he felt his way inside their rocky nest. Softly, laboriously, he carried out an egg the size of a watermelon. The egg was speckled white and brown, and hard to handle, slipping constantly, so he had to stop and readjust his grip. Over rocks, and tide pools, past the open mouths of caves, he carried this burden, until, exhausted, he set it on the sand. He would strike the egg with his sword, and kill the hatchling. Fill his diamond flask with blood, and then...What next? One flask wasn't enough to heal his whole company. He would have to steal another egg and yet another, and even then, all of EverWhen was infested. Working alone, he could not move fast enough. The game was impossible. Not just difficult, but hopeless. He struck the eggshell with his sword, and the fissure widened. Green fluid leaked onto the sand. Chipping at the shell, prying it apart with his bare hands, he found the hatchling curled within. The monster didn't snap or bite. He pulled open the creature's wings, but they fell back, inert. He pried open the dragon's eyes, but they were white and empty.\n\n\"No!\" Aidan shouted. The thing was dead.\n\nHe could not extract elixir, nor could he restore his company.\n\nHe kicked the broken egg and all its contents into the sea. Hurled his sword like a javelin into the waves.\n\nThe surf rose in a fury, swallowing the egg and then the sword. Rising higher, ocean consumed the rocks and drowned Aidan in darkness.\n\nThe shore was gone. The waves had disappeared as well. There was no ocean left. His bed appeared where there had been cliffs and caves. His silent desk displaced the raging surf. His painted ceiling blotted out the stars.\n\nHe had killed the game. For a moment he stood in shock, convinced his anger had destroyed it. His BoX lay inert, an old toy on the floor.\n\nHe felt for his computer, tapped the keyboard, clicked the mouse. A message appeared on his computer screen.\n\n> DUE TO TECHNICAL DIFFICULTIES, WE ARE RESETTING ALL ARKADIAN WORLDS. WE APOLOGIZE FOR ANY INCONVENIENCE. PLAY WILL RESUME AS SOON AS POSSIBLE.\n\nAt first Collin thought the problem was a power outage. Monitors went dark, the great screens on the wall faded and died. The whole building seemed to dim, games ceasing and illusions dissipating, but the problem was not electrical. Viktor had stopped play altogether, ordering a hard reset of all Arkadian games.\n\n\"Two days. Three days at most,\" Viktor told reporters.\n\nHe spoke of the human factor, rogue behavior by a few who spread disease. The UnderWorld infection, designed as a gory interlude, easily reversible, had become a raging epidemic. World-jumpers carried the contagion to EverWhen and EverSea, where unsuspecting players sickened and lost power. Some trained in healing arts had attempted cures. Others had begun spreading the disease on purpose, lying in wait to lay hands on each fresh Elf or Gnome. Millions died, and in many cases, they stayed dead for days. Unaccustomed to disease, the dead logged off as they grew frustrated, waiting for resurrection. Viktor posted a concise explanation on fan forums. \"The epidemic was not a problem we could solve in real time. We thank you for your patience.\"\n\nAs players faced blank screens, Arkadians swarmed their cubicles like frantic bees. Viktor spoke to the media, while Peter rallied the troops in the Atrium. Like militia awaiting orders, hellions mustered among the corporate palms.\n\nHow strange the way an imaginary disease became a real threat, rogue gamers a financial liability. Collin stood among the hellions and the moment seemed to him bizarre, ridiculous. You won't believe what happened, he imagined telling Maia\u2014but he could never explain how surreal this was, the loophole in the game, the sudden rift in the Arkadian cosmos. He could never convey how he felt\u2014bemused, alone, confused. This was what happened when a game consumed itself, the system crashing down. This was the ouroboros devouring its own tail. He saw it now, and all he wanted was to talk to Nina.\n\n\"We have to change the game,\" Peter explained to the assembled. \"We want controlled chaos, not total anarchy. The goal is _simulated_ tragedy.\" Together, they would curtail and streamline UnderWorld's plague so that the disease would run its course with Arkadian speed. The whole cycle, from wasting away and dying to resurrection, would take minutes instead of days. Equally important, hellions would ensure the leprous blight could not travel from one game to another. Contagion 2.0, as Peter called it, would remain in UnderWorld. While artists worked on symptoms, programmers would adjust settings so that if a player jumped to any other realm, the plague would lose its power.\n\nAnd what will I do? thought Collin. The answer came quickly, because every minute counted, every hour offline eroded audience. Collin would have a chance to draw again. He worked with his own pod, and the whole thing was weird, the whole exercise was strange, but the work was so absorbing, that Collin forgot all that. No one shaved, and no one showered, no one went home. Caught up in the collective effort, Collin began to feel like himself again. It was such a relief to do his job.\n\nPast problems seemed to disappear, as hellions worked together. Viktor had food delivered at all hours. Nicholas set up an earthshaking sound system, rocking the building with heavy metal, techno, classic rap. Even as programmers tapped furiously at their keyboards, Daphne reached out with hope and reassurance on fan forums. Sometimes she posted as an impudent insider, Reconnect with family and friends while you still can, because UnderWorld is almost baaack. Sometimes she played fangirl, sometimes she became a spy. Often she assumed her favorite role, the activist who went by \"Christian Wench\" and argued that the contagion had been sent by God to destroy Satan's handiwork. As EverWhen is visited by plague, typed Daphne, so shall the world. Repent! Turn away from darkness. Fast and pray!\n\nNews reporters understood by now that the Christian protest against Arkadia had been a hoax, but Daphne continued posting anyway. She did this to entertain UnderWorld's fans, who loved to hate their Christian enemies\u2014even when they knew they were imaginary. At the same time, Daphne's message boards began to draw in real anti-gamers. It seemed that actual mothers were now posting complaints. I have a 13 year old child I hope and pray that UnderWorld is gone forever. Daphne tried to answer every comment. Amen, Amen, she typed, or May it be thy will.\n\nShe was doing her best work, and she was not the only one. Collin felt a surge of energy. His spirits lifted, even as he drew a crumpling nose, a blackening ear. He caught Peter gazing at his monitor, examining a series of degenerating eyes. Pupils gradually enlarged, eyeballs clouding, one lid drooping, pendulous, elephantine.\n\nPeter said nothing, but Collin didn't care. He no longer waited for a verdict, a word of praise or blame. He no longer worried if Peter would use his work. The fact was, his art was necessary, and it was good.\n\nHe showed off to Obi and Akosh, entertaining them. When they sprawled out on chairs or on the floor exhausted, he drew a couple of flip-books, a dragon hatching, an exploding face.\n\n\"No way,\" Akosh told Collin.\n\n\"What?\"\n\n\"No way are you still drawing now.\"\n\nHe felt alive, awake again. He drew constantly, almost effortlessly. He did more than his share, accomplished even more than Peter asked. When the crisis ended, he was surprised to realize that he had been working three days straight.\n\nWhen Arkadia went live again, Tomas recognized Collin's work, high-fiving him. Collin stood like a hero with his pod, as Viktor climbed atop a desk to speak.\n\n\"May I say?\" Viktor held up a hand to stop the cheering. \"Can I just say? It isn't curing cancer, but it _feels_ that way.\"\n\nGamers flooded EverWhen and UnderWorld. They returned in a great wave, like migrating birds. Caverns rang with players and their avatars, and most Arkadians went home to sleep\u2014but Collin went to O'Riley's with his pod. The pub was warm and crowded, alight with televisions. He kicked back with Akosh and Obi. Even Nicholas came this time. Daphne challenged Tomas to a game of pool, and Peter paid for everyone.\n\nDrunk and almost happy, Collin drew another flip-book at the bar. Careless, he just drew what came to him. Wild horses with necks outstretched and flying feet.\n\n\"Stop.\" Daphne touched his shoulder with her cue. She was trying to warn him, but he didn't understand.\n\n\"I dub you Sir Collin.\" She was chalking up his shirt.\n\n\"Let's have a game.\" Nicholas offered Collin his own cue.\n\nBut Collin had caught Peter's attention. The ink drawings were simple, streamlined, but the horses unmistakable. There was the little gray, the chestnut with the scar on her back. Peter darkened as he watched Collin's pen. \"Where did you get those?\"\n\n\"What do you mean?\" Collin looked up, surprised.\n\nHe doesn't even notice, Peter thought. Collin sat and sketched and people gathered around him as if he were jamming at the piano. He was like a musician sitting down to play by ear. An endless riff, a raw feed of images.\n\nBut Collin spoke out. \"I didn't get these horses from anywhere. They're mine.\"\n\nDaphne held her cue upright, tapping it against the floor.\n\n\"We're using them,\" Peter said. \"They're ours.\"\n\n\"These sketches? These horses in particular?\"\n\n\"We're using these horses for a new game. Elysium.\"\n\nCollin's cheeks burned. This was the game in stealth mode; this was what Daphne had said he didn't want to know. He turned to look at Akosh, and Obi, Tomas. Nobody spoke. Nicholas was playing nervously with his phone.\n\n\"Why didn't you ask me?\" Collin said.\n\n\"Because we didn't have to ask.\"\n\n\"I mean why didn't you include me?\"\n\n\"We had what we needed.\"\n\nRight, thought Collin. As usual, you were collecting my work. \"You said my horses were pretty,\" he reminded Peter. \"You said they just weren't interesting.\"\n\n\"There was work to do.\"\n\n\"You really are a shit,\" Collin said slowly. Even in the crowded bar, he sensed the hellions hush around him. He felt Nicholas's hand on his arm and he looked at the sound engineer and wondered, Are you still warning me? Are you really so afraid? Collin feared nothing at that moment. He said the thing no one was allowed to say. \"My work belongs to me.\"\n\nOf course this wasn't true. Collin had signed a contract. Peter said, \"Your work belongs to Arkadia, as you know.\"\n\n\"I drew those horses,\" Collin countered. \"I have them in my hand. How can they be yours without me?\"\n\nPeter didn't deign to answer this.\n\n\"You try to draw them.\" Collin held out his pen. \"You show me what you know. Show me. Show me now!\"\n\nThe others tried to talk to Collin, but he wouldn't listen. \"Look, we're all tired,\" Nicholas said in his conciliatory voice.\n\nCollin wanted to fight. He wanted to write all over Peter's face, but he would gain nothing by it, except immediate satisfaction. Peter owned his work; he could use it forever, and Collin could not get his drawings back. All he could do was make new art. His fists clenched, but he did not touch Peter. He turned around and left instead.\n\n\u2014\n\nHe had no ride back to the city, but he didn't care. Snow fell lightly, but he brushed it from his eyes and kept on walking, oblivious to slush and cold.\n\n\"Collin!\" It was Daphne coming after him. She was holding his coat.\n\n\"He knows what's good,\" Daphne pointed out. \"You could take it as a compliment.\"\n\nCollin shot her a look.\n\n\"Okay, yes, he was a shit in there,\" Daphne conceded with her impudent smile.\n\nBut Collin did not believe in Daphne's disobedience.\n\n\"Here.\" He took his coat and pulled his slate from the pocket. \"Take this back to him.\"\n\nHe went home and slept until eleven in the morning, and when he woke, he felt entirely empty. He started rummaging for food. Emma and Darius were out, and the refrigerator was nearly empty. Collin ate all of Emma's leftover bulgur wheat salad, although this would infuriate her. He didn't care. Nicholas had texted, but he didn't answer. There were other messages. There were piles of junk mail on the floor, a note from Dawn about people coming to look at the boiler.\n\nThe bulgur salad tasted like nothing. The piles of mail were indecipherable, like relics of some other person's life. He felt numb until he took a shower. Freezing water jolted him awake. That was when he decided he would bike to Emerson.\n\n\u2014\n\n\"Collin, honey? Is that you?\" said Mrs. Solomon from behind her desk.\n\nHe took off his helmet and signed in. Under \"purpose of visit\" he scribbled, _Meeting._\n\nHe wanted to catch Nina at lunch, but Mrs. Solomon said, \"Oh, no, you can't do that. She has her evaluation!\"\n\nUpstairs in the Resource Room, Nina was sitting down with Jeff and Mrs. West, and Mr. DeLaurentis. They were meeting at a wood-grain table and Jeff was looking sympathetic\u2014always a bad sign. He offered Nina a bottle of spring water.\n\n\"No, thanks,\" Nina said.\n\n\"Our goal is objectivity,\" Mr. DeLaurentis explained, by way of introduction. \"This is why we stress the online evaluation system. By looking at the numbers we build a strong foundation.\"\n\nNina gazed at her printed results.\n\n\"One of your strengths would be your knowledge base,\" said Mrs. West. \"As you can see in column one, almost ninety percent of students feel that you show knowledge of your subject area. On the other hand\u2014a full eighty-two percent of students feel somewhat, very, or extremely uncomfortable asking for help.\"\n\nNumbers blurred on the page. Could this be true? Nina's students called her all the time. _Miss? Miss?_ They wanted this, they wanted that. Were they actually afraid of her?\n\n\"Before we dive into the details, I want to look at a couple of other issues,\" Mrs. West continued. \"On page two in classroom management, forty-five percent of students feel somewhat or very distracted by their classmates, which is concerning. Sixteen percent characterize the atmosphere as chaotic.\"\n\n\"Wait,\" Nina said.\n\nMrs. West looked up. Everybody waited.\n\n\"The students are distracting each other and now they're reporting it?\"\n\nJeff said, \"They're reporting on your classroom management.\"\n\n\"We've supplemented the questionnaires with classroom observations,\" said DeLaurentis.\n\n\"I've provided all my notes,\" said Jeff.\n\n\"The question of favoritism,\" Mrs. West said. \"Look at page three.\"\n\nEveryone turned to page three. \"Sixty-four percent of students feel that you occasionally favor some students over others. Twelve percent feel that you often do.\" Mrs. West paused. \"That's high.\"\n\nNow Nina's cheeks began to burn.\n\n\"Are you aware of this perception?\" Mrs. West asked.\n\nNina wanted to say no, but at that moment she was acutely aware of what she had done. She was not only a rookie, but a rule-breaker as well\u2014singling out Aidan, protecting and manipulating him, forcing him to learn.\n\nMrs. West did not mention Aidan. She made no specific accusations. She crushed Nina with simple moral force. \" _All_ our students need us. All the time.\"\n\nAs Nina tried to catch her breath, Mrs. West marched on, plucking startling numbers she had highlighted in yellow. \"Let's turn to the last page.\"\n\nTrembling, Nina turned, and yet even then she hoped for something decent, at least average. What she saw was a composite score of 69 out of 100, and the verdict, FAIR.\n\n\"You look surprised,\" said Mr. DeLaurentis.\n\n\"I just thought...\"\n\n\"You've made progress,\" Jeff consoled her. \"Seriously.\"\n\nShe looked at him and wondered\u2014progress from what? Total disaster?\n\nMr. DeLaurentis said, \"Shall we look at your self-evaluation now?\"\n\n_No!_ Nina screamed inwardly. She couldn't bear the comparison. The process was so humiliating. \"I imagined I was doing better.\"\n\n\"That's why we look at the quantitative results,\" Mr. DeLaurentis repeated.\n\nShe didn't cry. That was her one comfort as the meeting ended: She hadn't let them see her cry, although she had come close. How had she deceived herself all year? Had she mistaken her slow progress for success? Had she imagined knowledge and goodwill would win the day? She was reaching some students. Apparently that was not enough. She had connected with a few, but that was favoritism. She couldn't win!\n\nThese were her thoughts as she walked past Collin in the hall.\n\n\"Nina,\" he said.\n\nStartled, she turned toward him. Was something wrong? Something must have happened. She hadn't seen him in so long. She was concerned and affronted by his presence, but mostly confused.\n\n\"Could I just talk to you?\"\n\nThe bell was ringing and eighty-two percent of Nina's students were afraid to ask for help. Concentrate, she told herself. Do you even remember your lesson?\n\n\"Just for a minute?\" Collin said.\n\n\"I can't.\" She shut the door.\n\nHanding back her students' work, she thought, I'm just a know-it-all. I came here to bestow my knowledge and I've failed classroom management. Even now her kids were talking. Twice she had to tell them, \"Settle down.\" Some quieted. Others kept on talking.\n\nNina shouted, \"What do I have to do to get your attention?\"\n\nSilence. She had never raised her voice like that before. For a moment Nina felt powerful, then she realized that she had miscalculated yet again. Cold and offended, her students gazed up at their desperate teacher. They were not accustomed to this treatment\u2014not from her. Conversations continued in a whisper.\n\nWearily, Nina began passing back vocabulary quizzes. \"Let's start again.\"\n\nHer kids had done well on their tests. Most of them had learned the words. Before her evaluation she would have delighted in these scores. Now she dwelt on her mistakes, current and cumulative. She presented a fair lesson on Walt Whitman because there wasn't anybody else to do it. She tried to spark discussion of _Song of Myself._\n\nFiercely, she taught to the last bell, and as her students streamed out into the hall she called after them, \"Final drafts due Monday! Revise and _proofread_! Don't forget!\"\n\n\u2014\n\nJust outside her door, Collin saw her long hair curtaining her face as she picked up a paperback _Twelfth Night._ For a long moment, she seemed a stranger, tall, elegant, the girl from far away.\n\nShe drew back when he stepped inside. How long had he been watching? She retreated behind her desk.\n\nHurt, he said, \"Don't worry.\"\n\n\"I'm not!\" She was polite, as though she didn't know him.\n\nThe distance seemed to stretch between them. Collin near the door, Nina behind her Steelcase desk. \"I just want to talk to you.\"\n\n\"What do you want to talk about?\" The question sounded like, What else is there to say?\n\nHe approached her desk. \"I know you don't want explanations.\"\n\n\"Collin,\" she said. \"I can't think about this now.\"\n\n\"I just have to tell you something.\"\n\nShe studied his face. He looked so nervous.\n\n\"I miss you,\" he began, but then he stopped. \"That's it,\" he told her. \"That's the whole thing. I miss you. I need to be near you.\"\n\nShe said nothing.\n\n\"I was stupid. I was overwhelmed.\"\n\n\"Don't say that,\" Nina burst out. \"Don't say you were overwhelmed and so you had to hurt me.\"\n\n\"I didn't think that I deserved you.\"\n\n\"So you went out to prove it?\"\n\nHe didn't know how to answer that. \"I've never known anyone like you,\" he said at last.\n\n\"I don't play games,\" she told him. \"I can't play games with you.\"\n\n\"Remember when we went sledding? Remember when we walked down by the river?\"\n\nShe did remember skimming down the hill and walking in the cold. She remembered his hands in her coat pockets.\n\n\"All of that was real.\"\n\n\"It was real at the time.\"\n\nHe wanted to say, No, that day will last forever\u2014but if happiness could last, what of anger? Pain?\n\n\"Remember when I knelt in front of you right here and embarrassed you?\"\n\nHer anger flared. \"How about the time you covered the blackboards with chalk pictures and ruined my lesson?\"\n\n\"I was trying to apologize!\"\n\n\"You picked a hell of a way to do it.\" She turned her back to gaze at the dusty board.\n\n\"I was arrogant,\" Collin admitted.\n\nAlmost inaudibly she said, \"Me too.\"\n\nHe walked over to her side of the desk. She didn't turn toward him, but she didn't ask him to leave either. She blinked back tears, and he pretended not to notice. He just leaned against the desk and they gazed at the board with its vocabulary list. _Trill, defile, nimbus, manifold._\n\n\"I'm sorry,\" he said at last.\n\nShe closed her eyes.\n\n\"Nina?\"\n\nShe leaned against him ever so slightly. Subtly, almost imperceptibly, he felt her weight shift.\n\nHe said, \"You were right about Arkadia. It's crazy there, and I've made such a mess.\"\n\nHer eyes opened. \"What happened?\"\n\n\"I quit.\"\n\n\"Well,\" she said slowly, \"you can still do the thing you want to do.\"\n\n\"Unpaid?\"\n\n\"You can say that you're an artist. I can't say I'm a teacher.\"\n\n\"Yes, you can.\"\n\nNot next year, she thought. Not if I'm looking for a real job. \"My evaluation was so bad.\" Her voice broke a little and she almost laughed, because she had worked so hard and cared so much and failed in so many ways\u2014and it was such a relief to tell him. \"Either they like me and they don't respect me, or they just hate me.\" Softly she admitted, \"I'm just not good at it.\"\n\n\"But that takes years and years.\"\n\n\"Maybe.\"\n\n\"You'll get old like a real teacher. You're already bitter\u2014and you're getting strict. I could hear you from the hall.\"\n\n\"Oh, God. I lost my temper.\"\n\n\"What's wrong with that?\"\n\n\"No, you don't understand.\"\n\nActually he understood pretty well. When she'd lost her temper, she'd done it for real. She didn't know how to lose it theatrically, how to shout and scream and stamp her feet and keep her sense of humor. And now she told him, \"I was terrible.\"\n\nInstinctively he touched her arm, but she shrank back. He began to speak and stopped. What could he tell her? I love you. I worship you. Those were words anyone could use. He wanted to give her something of himself. He pulled a flip-book from his pocket.\n\n\"What is it?\"\n\nHe showed her how to flip the pages with her thumb.\n\nThe drawings were black ink, sharp, and stylized. A horse running riderless, fast and faster, ears back, neck outstretched. The moving picture was so fluid, the running horse so elegant, that without thinking Nina flipped the book again. \"Is this for a new job? Who is it for?\"\n\nHe was surprised she had to ask. He gave her another flip-book, and said, \"Just you.\"\n\nThis time the horse approached a fence, coming at it flying, mane and tail streaming. In one fluid leap he took the jump and landed on the other side. Nina flipped the book again and yet again. The tiny animation was so beautiful, the horse leaping, the line drawing come to life. She felt absorbed in this brief story. Each time the horse swept her away, flying at the jump. \"I like this better than the Ghost Horse.\"\n\nDrawing closer, Collin watched her face. \"You're glad I left.\"\n\nShe glanced up quickly. \"Not if it's on my account.\"\n\n\"Don't worry.\" He was so close. His lips brushed hers. \"I would never do anything for you.\"\n\nHe nearly kissed her, but she pulled away. \"Oh, wait! I have a student coming.\"\n\n\u2014\n\nToo late. Aidan had already spied them through the window in her classroom door. Collin talking, Nina listening. Although they had their backs to him, they were standing too close for ordinary conversation. Aidan could tell they were together, so he kept on walking down the hall, downstairs, and out into the winter day. Zipping his old ski jacket, he started walking home.\n\nAlone in his bedroom he dumped his backpack on the floor. Heavy-hearted, he sat at his computer, and checked his news feed and message boards, U.S. politics, and Arkadian alliances. He followed the news, real and imaginary, but he had not been qwesting since the contagion. His dream life with Nina upstaged all others.\n\nDracon sent bulletins from his new company, but Aidan didn't join them. Hey we're in 8th circle, Dracon wrote in chat. Old and experienced, Aidan replied as Tildor. Watch for scorpion.\n\nA new message flashed on Aidan's screen. Nina Lazare.\n\nWhat r his powers? Dracon typed.\n\nShe had never sent a private message before. Subject: Apologies. Dear Aidan, she began. Dear! To his eyes the opening was intimate, not standard. He didn't get letters, and his friends' messages did not begin like that. I'm sorry we missed our appointment this afternoon\u2014especially because it was our last meeting before the assembly. I wanted to show you these performances by other kids in last year's nationals. Here's the link. They're really excellent\u2014but so are you. He read that last phrase twice, and then twice more. He read it even as he opened the link to the Poetry in Action website. _So are you._ He heard her say it as he watched clips of kids reciting Billy Collins, Gerard Manley Hopkins, H.D., Robert Frost.\n\nDracon was typing, r u there?\n\nAidan minimized Dracon's chat box.\n\nHere was the mission statement of Poetry in Action. The list of past winners. A list of eligible poems. Seasonal poems, nature poems, most viewed poems. He clicked through categories on the website, and hundreds of titles appeared. Love poems. Short poems (under twenty-five lines). Poems about animals, poems about illness, poems about loss.\n\nClicking on LOVE, he scrolled down through page after page of titles and first lines. _How like a winter...How sweet I roam'd...I carry your...I went out to the hazel wood..._ _Sing me a song of a..._ One line jumped out at him, two sentences: _No, No! Go from me. I have left her lately._ He clicked on those words and an entire poem materialized, the story of a knight worshipping a noble lady. _I will not spoil my sheath with lesser brightness, \/ For my surrounding air hath a new lightness; \/ Slight are her arms, yet they have borne me straitly \/ And left me cloaked as with a gauze of aether..._\n\nHe sat back in his chair to stare at the fourteen lines onscreen. Message boards crowded against the poem's white space. Discussion of Arkadian weaponry, shortcuts to the Keep, new mods for EverSea. He hardly noticed. He felt so strange. How did the author know? How did \"Ezra Pound, American, 1885\u20131972\" write so specifically about his life? The poet had it all down\u2014her slender arms, her fair skin, his new lightness, even his sword. These lines scared him. _Oh, I have picked up magic in her nearness._ He felt haunted. A stranger had been telling his secrets, publishing his dreams before he was born.\n\n\"Okay, listen up!\" Mr. DeLaurentis announced. \"Take your seats. We need your full attention.\" Last period, last day before winter break, 450 students filled the auditorium to overflowing. \"Nobody in the aisles. Everybody in a seat.\" The chairs were hard and loud. They dropped open with a satisfying bang.\n\nDeLaurentis planted himself center stage. Square-shouldered, massive in his suit, he looked out at the student body, a sea of legs and arms. \"We're starting now. Shhhh. Settle down. People in the back! Let's move along.\"\n\nBehind him, in folding chairs, sat twenty-one contestants, a daunting number for a competition scheduled to last an hour. Mrs. West had instructed the competitors to sit in rows, to stand and walk to the front as soon as their names were called. That way they could recite, one after the other, without wasting time. On a white screen above their heads, Mrs. West would project title and author as each student recited. She was sitting on one side of the stage to judge the competition along with Mr. Allan and the school librarian, Miss McGahn.\n\n\"Let me start by welcoming all of our guests and visitors.\" Mr. DeLaurentis looked out at the parents peppering the audience. \"And let me express our gratitude to Mrs. West, who brought Poetry in Action to Emerson High School and spearheaded this unit. Let me thank our three judges.\" The judges looked up briefly from numbered printouts of each poem in competition. \"And all our language-arts faculty for taking time out of their busy schedules to hold classroom recitations. Each and every one of our students has memorized and performed a poem this year. I'm waiting...\" he broke off, as the roar of students drowned him out. \"Shhhh. The winner of this competition will go on to represent our school at the district level. But let me say this. Every one of our students up here onstage is already a winner in our book. Win, lose, or draw, you are all, each and every one of you, _victorious,_ for everything you did to get up here and everything we know you will accomplish today. And now, without further ado...\"\n\nMrs. West announced the first contestant: \"Keisha Mori.\"\n\n\"Go, Keisha!\"\n\nScattered applause and whistles as the first contestant took the stage. Mrs. West had to stand up. She took off her reading glasses and said, \"People. We have a lot of poems to get through in a very short time, so please hold your applause until the end.\"\n\nKeisha wore a black skirt and blazer and high heels. In the middle of the auditorium, where she sat with her tenth graders, Nina saw that several of the contestants had dressed like that, as if for church. A couple of boys wore dress shoes. Xavier even wore a tie. These kids were performers, the best in the school. Several sang a cappella in the Emertones. At least five were actors in the drama club. Nina recognized the Stage Manager from _Our Town._ The contestants sat up straight, gracious in the spotlight. All but Aidan, who leaned back in his chair.\n\nHe was wearing jeans and a black sweatshirt that looked too small, and he was stretching in the second row, eyes open, but unseeing. Was he listening to Keisha recite Mary Oliver's \"The Summer Day\"? He didn't even glance at her.\n\nKhalil stood up, shook out his dreadlocks, and recited Rudyard Kipling's \"If\u2014\" A girl named Natalie performed Shakespeare's Sonnet 106: _\"When in the chronicle of wasted time...\"_ and tripped up, stumbling on _the blazon of sweet beauty's best._\n\n_\"The blazon of...the blazon...\"_ She stood for a moment in distress.\n\n\"Go, Natalie. Go, Natalie,\" kids chanted in the audience, as though she were standing in the gym, preparing for a free throw.\n\nNatalie swallowed hard. Once again, Mrs. West had to stand up and shush everyone before the poor girl could finish.\n\nEven then, Aidan leaned back, as in a trance.\n\nIsmail Brown gave everything he had to \"Mending Wall.\" Daniella Kovatcheva performed \"Ozymandias.\"\n\nThey're good, Nina thought, as students jostled restlessly around her. _\"My name is Ozymandias, King of Kings...\"_ Regally, Daniella commanded, _\"Look on my Works, ye Mighty, and despair!\"_ and Nina sat up, entranced. This girl from Emerson owned Percy Bysshe Shelley. But Aidan could do just as well\u2014or better\u2014if he wanted. That was the question. What did he want? He was still staring into space.\n\nShe began dreading Aidan's turn. Other students excelled with Sharon Olds, Robinson Jeffers, Wilfred Owen. Wake up, she pleaded silently. The other kids were known quantities. They smiled, they ran cross-country. They went to prom. They did what teenagers were supposed to do. Aidan was the one in doubt. He could capture the audience if he wanted. He could astonish the entire school\u2014or he could slip away.\n\nShe kept her eyes on him as a girl named Jacqueline Ing recited Amy Lowell. _\"I walk down the garden paths, \/ And all the daffodils \/ Are blowing.\"_ For the first time, Aidan straightened in his chair. He seemed to gather himself. Jackie's voice was soft but intense with repressed emotion. _\"I too am a rare \/ Pattern. As I wander down \/ The garden paths.\"_ Almost imperceptibly, Aidan's right foot jiggled. _\"And the splashing of waterdrops \/ In the marble fountain \/ Comes down the garden paths.\"_\n\nAidan gazed out into the audience and found Nina. In all those hundreds of people, he found her eyes. She smiled at him, hopeful, encouraging, and for a moment he gazed back at her, as if he were starting on a journey and he had to memorize her face.\n\nElegant, tremulous, Jackie painted a word picture with her recitation. She paced her patterned garden in her patterned brocade dress, waiting for news of her lover, who was fighting _in a pattern called a war._ But even this poem couldn't last forever. Just a few moments left, as Jackie built slowly to her anguished cry, _\"Christ! What are patterns for?\"_\n\nScattered applause, despite Mrs. West's injunction, as Jackie returned to her chair. She sat down, ducking her head modestly.\n\nNow Aidan unfolded himself and pulled down his sweatshirt, too tight, too short.\n\nEMILY DICKINSON flashed on the screen as Aidan ambled to the front. He took his time, adjusting the microphone. He was easily a foot taller than Jackie.\n\nHalfway out of her chair, Mrs. West gestured for him to move along. \"Whenever you're ready.\"\n\n_\"No,\"_ Aidan shot back.\n\nThe entire student body gasped in admiration. \"What are you doing?\" Nina murmured in despair. Mrs. West sat down in shock.\n\n_\"No, go from me,\"_ Aidan said. _\"I have left her lately. \/ I will not spoil my sheath with lesser brightness...\"_\n\nNow all three judges were flipping through their printed poems in confusion. Where was Dickinson? This was not \"I heard a Fly buzz\u2014when I died.\"\n\n_\"Slight are her arms, yet they have bound me straitly...\"_ The lines were tender, but Aidan delivered them with a hard, defensive edge. Voice defiant, he seemed to stand alone onstage against his audience, against the world. _\"Oh, I have picked up magic in her nearness \/ To sheathe me half in half the things that sheathe her.\"_\n\nNervous laughter. He ignored it. Whispered conference of the judges.\n\nNina stared at him in disbelief. Why, Aidan? Why choose this poem no one knew?\n\nHe looked out into the audience and kids gazed back, awed by his intensity.\n\nAt the back of the auditorium, Diana's hands clenched as she watched her twin. Her heart was pounding, she was so nervous. She heard rebellion in his voice; she saw him flouting the competition, breaking rules, and she was proud and embarrassed. Her brother was so fierce, so serious. Her palms were sweating. She was afraid everyone would laugh at him.\n\n_\"No, no! Go from me. I have still the flavour, \/ Soft as spring wind that's come from birchen bowers.\"_\n\nStrange, archaic, the words came naturally to Aidan, direct as ordinary speech. _\"Green come the shoots, aye April in the branches.\"_ What a relief to tell his teacher how he felt, to give up his secret in this safe place, an auditorium full of people. The words weren't his, but he gave them breath and life, repatriating them like looted artifacts. Thrumming with the poem's subtle pitch, his body swayed. _\"As winter's wound with her sleight hand she staunches, \/ Hath of the trees a likeness of the savour: \/ As white their bark, so white this lady's hours.\"_ He stopped, and everybody waited. No one knew what would happen next.\n\nEven Diana sat back, mystified. Aidan ambled to his folding chair and Diana felt a pang and then relief to watch like everybody else. He was speaking a language incomprehensible, even to her.\n\nAidan didn't see his sister in the crowd. He hardly noticed anyone. All he knew was that the ordeal was over. He knew he wouldn't win. He'd never won anything before, and Mrs. West hated him for having plagiarized.\n\nWhen all the recitations were done, Mrs. West was the one who led her fellow judges offstage to confer, while competitors shifted in their chairs onstage, and the student audience surged, noise level rising, clock ticking toward dismissal. West was the one who took the microphone to tell everyone to settle down so that she could announce the winners. She raised her hand for silence. \"People? People. Listen up.\"\n\nWhen the other judges filed back onstage a few kids applauded, and one guy whistled in the back. Teachers tried to hush the audience, but the auditorium rustled with impatience and hilarity. Only the contestants' parents gazed at the stage with perfect concentration. Among them, Kerry sat transfixed as she watched Aidan.\n\n\"First, let's have one more round of applause for all of our contestants,\" said Mrs. West. \"We are so proud. We are so very proud of you.\" Once again, Mrs. West made a show of donning reading glasses as she unfolded her list. \"Please come to the front when I call your name. Honorable mention. Claryce Williams for 'Harlem.' Come on up, Claryce. Khalil Watson for 'If\u2014.' Yasmine Singh, for 'Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night.' Congratulations! You three, stand right over here. Now.\" She paused. \"We have three more outstanding performances\u2014and let me just say, we had some debate.\"\n\nWere they debating me? Aidan could not suppress the question.\n\n\"This was such a close competition. Third place. Ranazia Donyon for 'Jabberwocky.' \" Hoots and whistles, applause and foot stamping\u2014not just for the performance but for Ranazia herself, since she was so popular. \"Come here. Take your prize.\" She handed Ranazia a book, a glossy anthology of poetry.\n\n\"Second place,\" Mrs. West continued. \"Daniella Kovatcheva for 'Ozymandias.' \" She got almost as much applause as Ranazia as she took her book.\n\n\"Finally. Our winner. The student who will represent us at the district competition. A student who chose a difficult poem...\"\n\nDifficult! Aidan thought.\n\n\"Which was also very powerful.\"\n\nPowerful!\n\n\"A student who went above and beyond.\" Mrs. West paused, and everybody in the auditorium thought, Oh come on, but Aidan experienced a private agony of expectation. \"Jacqueline Ing, for 'Patterns' by Amy Lowell,\" said Mrs. West. \"Congratulations!\"\n\nOkay, thought Aidan, as Jackie walked to the front, and applause rained down.\n\nHe hadn't won. He stretched his arms above his head and stood up, joining the others crowding off the stage. He hadn't won and he was glad. He was sure of that. The disappointment he felt, the quiet comedown, could not be real. He had never wanted any prize. He didn't take this competition seriously\u2014hadn't then, and didn't now. Therefore, he was more than fine with losing. Only his heart dissented: But you were good; you were really good.\n\nStudents stampeded for the doors, but parents stuck around. His mother appeared, and although he'd known she was coming, he was surprised to see her there. She stood right in front of the stage, stretching out her arms to him. Looking down from the stage, he almost laughed because she reminded him of swimming lessons, those afternoons when she stood in the shallow water, urging him to jump. He took the stairs instead, but he could not escape her. She latched on, pinning his arms to his sides in her embrace.\n\n\"Mom?\" She held him so long that he started worrying about her. \"You're okay,\" he said, extracting himself, and Kerry smiled through tears. Who was this child? So tender and so patronizing? \"You're gonna be okay.\"\n\nWhile Kerry went to shake hands with DeLaurentis, Mrs. West was congratulating all the contestants as they milled around on the floor below the stage. \"I'm proud of you, honey,\" she told Xavier. \"Good job, sweetheart,\" she told Khalil.\n\n\"Aidan.\"\n\n\"What?\" Aidan doubted Mrs. West would say, \"Good job,\" to him.\n\n\"Hey, hold on. Come back.\"\n\nThat wasn't Mrs. West calling him. He spun around and saw Nina standing in her white parka. She had been waiting for him! She was standing underneath the EXIT sign.\n\n\"Aidan! First of all\u2014you were amazing. Second of all...\" For a split second, she took him by the shoulders, as if to shake him. \"What am I going to do with you?\"\n\nDon't stop, he thought, overwhelmed by her brief touch.\n\n\"You realize that the judges disqualified you for switching poems.\"\n\n\"Okay,\" he said.\n\n\"What were you thinking?\"\n\nHe met her eyes, and of course she knew what he'd been thinking. She had known it all along, but she had pretended otherwise, convincing herself that her student was in love with poetry.\n\nInstantly he saw the change to adult concern, a teacher's worried face. Missing her, he couldn't help fishing. \"I'm sorry if I disappointed you.\"\n\nShe shook her head with her old warmth. \"I wasn't disappointed. I was proud. You silenced everyone!\"\n\nShe didn't say how much she'd wanted him to win. Oh, he could have shown DeLaurentis and the whole school\u2014even Mrs. West.\n\n\u2014\n\nSnow was falling when Nina left school. Cement steps, black wrought-iron fence, schoolyard\u2014all turned pure and white. The last few students were leaving the building. The big painted doors slammed behind them.\n\n\"Hey, Shakespeare!\" she heard one of the kids shouting. \"Bard of Avon!\"\n\nCollin was waiting for her. He opened the gate, and when he saw her face, he opened his arms as well.\n\nHis snowy collar brushed her cheek. He clasped her shoulders, and she rested in his embrace.\n\n\"That bad?\" he asked, taking her bag.\n\n\"It wasn't bad,\" she said.\n\n\"What was it, then?\"\n\nShe tried to find the words. \"Exciting, and difficult, and...surprising.\"\n\nHe kissed her ear and when she turned toward him, he kissed her lips. His kiss was sweet and eager, but he was laughing at her too. \"Yeah, that's exactly how I remember assemblies in high school.\"\n\n\u2014\n\nThey drove to Maia's place to bake gingerbread and move furniture around. Collin set up Maia's little white lights to frame the windowsills. Nina saved the empanadas from burning, while he ran out for paper napkins and more wine.\n\nAs the winter light began to fade, Maia's guests and neighbors came bearing brownies, latkes, trays of stuffed portobello mushrooms, for the solstice party. Melissa and Sage arrived. Sage carried a bowl of bulgur wheat salad with dried cranberries. Melissa led Henry by the hand. Lois brought caramel corn. Dawn came with steamed artichokes.\n\nMaia set the food out on the table, and listened to her neighbors ask Collin, Hey, bud, how's Arkadia?\n\n\"It's good,\" said Collin.\n\nMaia said, \"He designed the new game. UnderWorld!\"\n\n\"What?\" Lois exclaimed. \"Collin. Is that true?\"\n\n\"Not exactly!\" he called over his shoulder as he carried coats to Maia's bedroom.\n\nKerry arrived, and Aidan followed, carrying an enormous chocolate cake dusted with powdered sugar. \"I tripled the recipe,\" Kerry said.\n\n\"He was one of the designers,\" Maia told Lois. \"I don't know if you've seen it yet, but you stand in the center, and the whole game showers down on you like fireworks.\"\n\n\"Fireworks! You worked on that technology?\"\n\n\"I was a concept artist.\"\n\n\"What?\" Maia's ears pricked up at the past tense.\n\nMeanwhile, Kerry found Nina in the kitchen, ladling punch. \"This one is spiced,\" Nina explained, \"and this one's spiked.\"\n\nKerry told Nina, \"It was so strange hearing my own child recite.\"\n\nDawn said, \"Remembering all those lines?\"\n\n\"No, just hearing him say so many sentences together. I'd almost forgotten the sound of his voice! I was so surprised.\"\n\n\"I was surprised too,\" Nina told Kerry.\n\nKerry set her glass down on the counter and touched Nina's shoulder. \"Thank you.\"\n\n\"He did all the work. Not me.\"\n\n\"I know that isn't true. You tutored him!\"\n\n\"I mean he did his own thing,\" Nina explained. \"He learned one poem and then at the last minute he just\u2014switched.\" Stop right there, she thought, but she couldn't help adding, \"I think he could have won.\"\n\nMaia swept in, looking fierce.\n\nHe's told her, Nina thought, as Maia unwrapped a tray of baklava.\n\n\"Nina says Aidan could have won,\" Kerry told Maia.\n\nBut Maia was distracted, thinking about Collin. Was he really giving up Arkadia, and all that money, and all that magic, to look for work in Somerville? Was he really looking for some indie-animation thing?\n\n\"I really think he could have done it,\" Nina told Kerry.\n\n\"It doesn't matter,\" Kerry reassured her. \"For me it wasn't about winning.\"\n\n\"I know.\" Nina couldn't help sounding wistful. \"But he's so talented. It's a little hard.\"\n\n\"Just wait 'til you have kids,\" Maia interjected, blessing and cursing Nina, both at once.\n\nAs night pressed against the windowpanes, a new girl slipped inside the door. She wore a silky black shirt, black tights, black boots. She was strange and beautiful, her face pale, her hair and lips dark, her eyes outlined in black. At first, nobody recognized her\u2014not even little Henry. When she bent down and said, \"Hey! Remember me?\" he shrank away from his former babysitter, frightened by her red-black lips, her huge dark eyes.\n\nLois was the first to greet her. \"Diana, honey! How are you?\"\n\n\"Good.\"\n\nAlert and narrow, a greyhound of a boy, Jack appeared behind Diana. \"And what have you been up to?\" Lois inquired, but she had been seventeen once, and she thought she knew.\n\nMaia was playing African music, flamenco music, tangos by Astor Piazzolla. She rolled back the carpet and danced with Greg. The china cabinet rattled; the whole apartment began to hum.\n\nNina had abandoned her post to sit with Collin. No one was watching in the kitchen, so Jack and Diana served themselves spiked punch. Jack had two cups, and Diana had almost three. They laughed together and Diana leaned against the counter.\n\nHe said, \"I know where we should go.\" They got their shoes and slipped out the kitchen door.\n\nIn the living room, Sage was on her knees dancing with Henry, holding both his hands. Collin and Nina sat together on the couch and watched, while, at a little distance, Aidan watched them. Nina rested her head on Collin's shoulder, and Collin stroked her hair. How casual he was. He didn't even need to look at her.\n\nMaia's windows steamed up. Her kitchen overflowed with neighbors in their stocking feet. The front door stood like a green island in a sea of boots. Everyone was drinking, everyone was warm and loud as Aidan slipped outside. It was snowing when he crossed the street to his own house.\n\nHe knew Diana and Jack were in there. He could see their footprints on the steps. They were up in her room, tipsy, kissing, laughing. He hesitated, wondering if he should venture in or return to Maia's house. He didn't want to watch Collin stroking Nina's hair, and he really didn't want to listen to Diana and Jack.\n\nHesitating, he noticed a padded envelope stuffed into the mailbox. He pulled it out and read two words in handwriting he knew. _For Aidan._\n\nHe picked up the box and studied the curve of his own letters in Miss Lazare's writing. How strange to see his name there out of school. He stared at the words and then in a rush he ripped open the envelope and felt the thick book inside.\n\nOh. He knew what she had done. She had bought him his own poetry anthology because he was a winner too.\n\nHe almost threw the thing away. He didn't need anthologies, and didn't want to be consoled. Even so, he pulled the book out, hoping for a card.\n\nNow he discovered something else entirely. This was Lazare's own Dickinson, the one she had carried in the classroom and the hall. The very book he'd turned facedown on the desk. _Don't do that! It's old. You'll break the spine._\n\nHe found no card, no explanation, except for an inscription in blue ink. Not Miss Lazare's compact handwriting, but some other penmanship, pale and spidery. _For Nina Lazare, in recognition of excellence in public speaking, and with kind regards from her teacher, Lawrence B. Rousse..._ She had given Aidan her own prize. She had won it in school, and now she was giving it to him.\n\nHe closed the volume and weighed it in his hands. Then he took a flying leap off the porch. The bare trees tilted, neighbors' Christmas lights flickered around him as he almost fell, but he caught himself and landed on his feet.\n\nClasping the book with one arm to his chest, he raced up Antrim. He had no goal in mind, no destination. All he wanted was to run.\n\nHe stopped at the corner and looked once more at the treasure in his arms. Then, winded, he retraced his running steps, walking down the street again. He was not religious, but, like his mother, he believed in mysteries. Now he realized that Nina had sent him a sign, as Elvish queens bestowed a diamond flask, a gossamer handkerchief, a ring of gold. She had sent him a message with this poetry. He was noble, and he was magic. He was a champion and a prince.\n\nNo, none of that. Not really.\n\nHe saw the lights of the party. He had returned, but he stood out on the sidewalk, too shy to go inside and thank his teacher. Brushing snow from Nina's book, he felt her distance, magnified by kindness. There was nothing he could do, and nothing he could say. He could not explain what he felt, even to himself, the mix of hopelessness and grace. She didn't love him\u2014not the way he loved her\u2014but she had singled him out. She had given him her gift.\nTO MY TEACHERS\n\nDana Izumi\n\nJune Brieske\n\nMabel Hefty\n\nTom Earle\n\nBill Messer\n\nLiz Foster\n\nEileen Crean\n\nLeonard Russo\n\nBetty Sullivan\n\nJerry Devlin\n\nBill Alfred\n\nMichael Anesko\n\nLarry Benson\n\nBarbara Lewalski\n\nGeorge Dekker\n\nDavid Riggs\n\nJay Fliegelman\n\nJohn Bender\n\nSeth Lerer\n\nStephen Orgel\n\n# BY ALLEGRA GOODMAN\n\nThe Chalk Artist\n\nThe Cookbook Collector\n\nThe Other Side of the Island\n\nIntuition\n\nParadise Park\n\nKaaterskill Falls\n\nThe Family Markowitz\n\nTotal Immersion\n\n# ABOUT THE AUTHOR\n\n> ALLEGRA GOODMAN's novels include _Intuition, The Cookbook Collector, Paradise Park,_ and _Kaaterskill Falls_ (a National Book Award finalist) _._ Her fiction has appeared in _The New Yorker, Commentary,_ and _Ploughshares,_ and has been anthologized in _The O. Henry Awards_ and _Best American Short Stories._ She has written two collections of short stories, _The Family Markowitz_ and _Total Immersion,_ and a novel for younger readers, _The Other Side of the Island._ Her essays and reviews have appeared in _The New York Times Book Review, The Wall Street Journal, The New Republic, The Boston Globe,_ and _The American Scholar._ Raised in Honolulu, Goodman studied English and philosophy at Harvard and received a PhD in English literature from Stanford. She is the recipient of a Whiting Award, the _Salon_ Award for Fiction, and a fellowship from the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study. She lives with her family in Cambridge, Massachusetts, where she is writing a new novel.\n\nallegragoodman.com\n\nFacebook.com\/\u200bAllegraGoodman\n\n# _What's next on  \nyour reading list?_\n\n[Discover your next  \ngreat read!](http:\/\/links.penguinrandomhouse.com\/type\/prhebooklanding\/isbn\/9780679605041\/display\/1)\n\n* * *\n\nGet personalized book picks and up-to-date news about this author.\n\nSign up now.\n  1. Cover\n  2. Title Page\n  3. Copyright\n  4. Contents\n  5. Chapter 1: Grendel's Den\n  6. Chapter 2: The Orchard\n  7. Chapter 3: Emerson\n  8. Chapter 4: Everwhen\n  9. Chapter 5: Wait for Me\n  10. Chapter 6: Snow Day\n  11. Chapter 7: Dream\n  12. Chapter 8: No Moon, No Stars\n  13. Chapter 9: Drink Me\n  14. Chapter 10: In Her Eyes\n  15. Chapter 11: Caution\n  16. Chapter 12: The Leopard\n  17. Chapter 13: Crossing Over\n  18. Chapter 14: The Visit\n  19. Chapter 15: Open Door\n  20. Chapter 16: The Interview\n  21. Chapter 17: Arkadia\n  22. Chapter 18: The Gates\n  23. Chapter 19: Deer\n  24. Chapter 20: Very Close\n  25. Chapter 21: Face-to-Face\n  26. Chapter 22: Pursuit\n  27. Chapter 23: Admission\n  28. Chapter 24: Discovery\n  29. Chapter 25: Lucky\n  30. Chapter 26: Walden Woods\n  31. Chapter 27: Half Magic\n  32. Chapter 28: The Question\n  33. Chapter 29: The Kiss\n  34. Chapter 30: Poetry Inaction\n  35. Chapter 31: Joy Street\n  36. Chapter 32: Two Rivers\n  37. Chapter 33: Busted\n  38. Chapter 34: Bird on a Wire\n  39. Chapter 35: In the Hall\n  40. Chapter 36: World-Jumping\n  41. Chapter 37: Contagion\n  42. Chapter 38: Win, Lose, or Draw\n  43. Dedication\n  44. Other Titles\n  45. About the Author\n\n  1. Cover\n  2. Cover\n  3. Title Page\n  4. Contents\n  5. Start\n\n  1. v\n  2. vi\n  3. \n  4. \n  5. \n  6. \n  7. \n  8. \n  9. \n  10. \n  11. \n  12. \n  13. \n  14. \n  15. \n  16. \n  17. \n  18. \n  19. \n  20. \n  21. \n  22. \n  23. \n  24. \n  25. \n  26. \n  27. \n  28. \n  29. \n  30. \n  31. \n  32. \n  33. \n  34. \n  35. \n  36. \n  37. \n  38. \n  39. \n  40. \n  41. \n  42. \n  43. \n  44. \n  45. \n  46. \n  47. \n  48. \n  49. \n  50. \n  51. \n  52. \n  53. \n  54. \n  55. \n  56. \n  57. \n  58. \n  59. \n  60. \n  61. \n  62. \n  63. \n  64. \n  65. \n  66. \n  67. \n  68. \n  69. \n  70. \n  71. \n  72. \n  73. \n  74. \n  75. \n  76. \n  77. \n  78. \n  79. \n  80. \n  81. \n  82. \n  83. \n  84. \n  85. \n  86. \n  87. \n  88. \n  89. \n  90. \n  91. \n  92. \n  93. \n  94. \n  95. \n  96. \n  97. \n  98. \n  99. \n  100. \n  101. \n  102. \n  103. \n  104. \n  105. \n  106. \n  107. \n  108. \n  109. \n  110. \n  111. \n  112. \n  113. \n  114. \n  115. \n  116. \n  117. \n  118. \n  119. \n  120. \n  121. \n  122. \n  123. \n  124. \n  125. \n  126. \n  127. \n  128. \n  129. \n  130. \n  131. \n  132. \n  133. \n  134. \n  135. \n  136. \n  137. \n  138. \n  139. \n  140. \n  141. \n  142. \n  143. \n  144. \n  145. \n  146. \n  147. \n  148. \n  149. \n  150. \n  151. \n  152. \n  153. \n  154. \n  155. \n  156. \n  157. \n  158. \n  159. \n  160. \n  161. \n  162. \n  163. \n  164. \n  165. \n  166. \n  167. \n  168. \n  169. \n  170. \n  171. \n  172. \n  173. \n  174. \n  175. \n  176. \n  177. \n  178. \n  179. \n  180. \n  181. \n  182. \n  183. \n  184. \n  185. \n  186. \n  187. \n  188. \n  189. \n  190. \n  191. \n  192. \n  193. \n  194. \n  195. \n  196. \n  197. \n  198. \n  199. \n  200. \n  201. \n  202. \n  203. \n  204. \n  205. \n  206. \n  207. \n  208. \n  209. \n  210. \n  211. \n  212. \n  213. \n  214. \n  215. \n  216. \n  217. \n  218. \n  219. \n  220. \n  221. \n  222. \n  223. \n  224. \n  225. \n  226. \n  227. \n  228. \n  229. \n  230. \n  231. \n  232. \n  233. \n  234. \n  235. \n  236. \n  237. \n  238. \n  239. \n  240. \n  241. \n  242. \n  243. \n  244. \n  245. \n  246. \n  247. \n  248. \n  249. \n  250. \n  251. \n  252. \n  253. \n  254. \n  255. \n  256. \n  257. \n  258. \n  259. \n  260. \n  261. \n  262. \n  263. \n  264. \n  265. \n  266. \n  267. \n  268. \n  269. \n  270. \n  271. \n  272. \n  273. \n  274. \n  275. \n  276. \n  277. \n  278. \n  279. \n  280. \n  281. \n  282. \n  283. \n  284. \n  285. \n  286. \n  287. \n  288. \n  289. \n  290. \n  291. \n  292. \n  293. \n  294. \n  295. \n  296. \n  297. \n  298. \n  299. \n  300. \n  301. \n  302. \n  303. \n  304. \n  305. \n  306. \n  307. \n  308. \n  309. \n  310. \n  311. \n  312. \n  313. \n  314. \n  315. \n  316. \n  317. \n  318. \n  319. \n  320. \n  321. \n  322. \n  323. \n  324. \n  325. \n  326. \n  327. \n  328. \n  329. \n  330. \n  331. \n  332. \n  333. \n  334. \n  335. \n  336. \n  337.\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}}
+{"text":"\n\nEDUCATION IN   \nNAZI GERMANY\nEDUCATION IN   \nNAZI GERMANY\n\nLisa Pine\n\nEnglish edition   \nFirst published in 2010 by   \n**Berg**  \nEditorial offices:   \nFirst Floor, Angel Court, 81 St Clements Street, Oxford OX4 1AW, UK   \n175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010, USA\n\n\u00a9 Lisa Pine 2010\n\nAll rights reserved.   \nNo part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means without the written permission of Berg.\n\nBerg is the imprint of Oxford International Publishers Ltd.\n\n**Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data**\n\nPine, Lisa.   \nEducation in Nazi Germany \/ Lisa Pine. \u2014 English ed.   \np. cm.   \nIncludes bibliographical references.   \neISBN: 978-1-8478-8764-1   \n1. Education\u2014Germany\u2014History\u201420th century. 2. Education and state\u2014Germany\u2014History\u201420th century. 3. Education\u2014Political aspects\u2014Germany\u2014History\u201420th century. 4. National socialism and education\u2014Germany. 5. National socialism and youth\u2014Germany. I. Title.   \nLA721.8.P56 2010   \n370.942'09043\u2014dc22\n\n2010037203\n\n**British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data**\n\nA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.\n\nTypeset by JS Typesetting Ltd, Porthcawl, Mid Glamorgan.   \nPrinted in the UK by the MPG Books Group.\n\n**www.bergpublishers.com**\n\nFor my parents\nCONTENTS\n\nAcknowledgements\n\nIntroduction\n\n1 The Historical Context\n\n2 Nazi Education Policy\n\n3 The Curriculum and School Textbooks\n\n4 The Nazi Elite Schools\n\n5 The Hitler Youth\n\n6 The League of German Girls\n\nConclusion\n\nGlossary of Abbreviations and Terms\n\nBibliography \nACKNOWLEDGEMENTS\n\nIt is a pleasure to be able to thank the many people who have helped me in the process of researching and writing this book. I am grateful to the staff of the Bundesarchiv in Berlin, the Institut f\u00fcr Zeitgeschichte in Munich, the Georg Eckert Institute in Brunswick, as well as staff at the British Library, the British Newspaper Library, the Wiener Library and the German Historical Institute in London, for their assistance.\n\nI should like to thank the British Academy for a Small Research Grant awarded to me in 2008 for archival research in Berlin. I am grateful to the SPUR Institute and the Research Opportunities Fund at London South Bank University for their generous funding of my research over the last few years.\n\nI should like to thank my very capable and efficient research assistants, Manuel Siebert, Anna Heizmann and Anna Keller for all their hard work. I am very grateful to Stephanie Salzmann and Ulrich Schlie for their wonderful and kind hospitality in Berlin. I should like to express my appreciation to Hans Hahn and Laurence Marlow for reading the manuscript and suggesting improvements. My thanks are also due to my editor, Julia Hall, for her enthusiasm for the project, her patience and her help, and to my copy-editor, Julene Knox, for her hard work.\n\nMy acknowledgements would be incomplete without a note of personal thanks to my wonderful family, who have supported me throughout the writing of this book. My husband, Andrew Fields, who always has faith in my endeavours, and my children, Gabrielle and Sasha Fields, who have consistently encouraged me to write this book and have been very patient in allowing me to do so.\nINTRODUCTION\n\nIn my great educative work, I am beginning with the young. We older ones are used up. Yes, we are old already. We are rotten to the marrow. We have no unrestrained instincts left. We are bearing the burden of a humiliating past, and have in our blood the dull recollection of serfdom and servility. But my magnificent youngsters! Are there finer ones anywhere in the world? Look at these young men and boys! What material! With them I can make a new world.\n\nAdolf Hitler*\n\nThe main objective of this book is to provide a re-evaluation of education and the socialization of youth in the Third Reich in the light of new knowledge, theories and debates about the nature of the Nazi state. This will be achieved by analysing three main areas: education policy, the Nazi elite schools and the Nazi youth groups. Education is fundamental to our entire macro-view of the Third Reich, as the process of shaping the minds of the future generation was such a significant aspect of the Nazi regime. This book addresses a number of important questions, many of which have not been adequately treated in the secondary literature on the Third Reich: What were the aims of Nazi education policy? Was the regime successful in achieving these objectives? Who made Nazi education policy? What changes were made to the education system and to the school curriculum? How did the Nazi regime use school textbooks as propaganda instruments? What was the role and significance of the Nazi elite schools in the Third Reich? How was youth socialization achieved in the Nazi youth groups?\n\nThe Nazi regime sought to win over young people by means of both the schools and the youth groups. Indeed, some Nazi pedagogues believed that schools should play a secondary role to youth groups. This book links the schools and youth groups together conceptually, demonstrating how the Nazi regime utilized both, in order to achieve a 'total education' of German youth. In particular, the Nazi regime used education and socialization to create identity. Whilst recent works have considered the role played by propaganda, the SS, the Nazi women's organizations and other Party formations in the creation of identity, the part played by schools and youth groups together requires more detailed analysis. Education and socialization in Nazi Germany were fundamental to the shaping and forging of national identity, as well as self-perception and the perception of 'others'. This was bound up with the wider issue of inclusion in and exclusion from the _Volksgemeinschaft_ (national community). Education under National Socialism was directed at creating a new awareness, changing the way people thought and eroding traditional loyalties. Propaganda, underpinned by the threat and use of terror, was another integral part of this process. The Hitler regime employed a combination of policies designed to create consensus, as well as censorship, aiming to ensure that access to other sources of information or ways of thought was unavailable. Hence, the specific area of study of education and youth socialization is central to our understanding of the National Socialist state. The shaping of culture and stamping of identity in line with the Nazi _Weltanschauung_ (world view) and the education and socialization of youth to become the ideal future generation of Germans are fundamental to our wider comprehension of the Third Reich.\n\nThe existing literature consists of books that deal with various aspects of education and others that treat the youth groups. The historiography of Nazi education is vast and complex, but much of it also rather dated, having been written between the 1960s and 1980s. Eilers was the pioneer in this field, publishing in 1963 the first post-war account of education under National Socialism. This book was followed by a number of significant works on schools, education and the curriculum in the Nazi era published in the 1970s and 1980s. Since then, a handful of works on education appeared in the 1990s, but even these are now over a decade old. Important research on Nazi youth groups published in the 1980s and 1990s highlighted the significance of youth groups to Nazi education. It is now time to move the subject forward with a fresh approach and to offer a perspective on Nazi education policy that encompasses both schools and youth groups. Indeed, Nazi educationalists believed that 'teachers and HJ leaders are equal partners in the education of German youth'.\n\nRecent debates about the nature of National Socialism necessitate a re-examination of a number of angles and perspectives. Firstly, it is important to consider the continuities and discontinuities in education policy between the _Kaiserreich_ (Second German Empire), the Weimar Republic and the Third Reich. In this way, it will become possible to evaluate the extent to which Nazi policy was novel. Education policy in the _Kaiserreich_ was already falling under the influence of a move towards greater militarization and nationalism in society as a whole. It has been suggested that modern Germany took a _Sonderweg_ (special path) in the nineteenth century that distinguished her development from that of democratic Western European states. This view asserts that the modern German state developed its own 'peculiar' national character, which was nationalist and authoritarian. Was this the case? Was Nazi policy distinctive from that of earlier administrations or the culmination of this 'special path'? There is much evidence to suggest strong similarities to the educational policies of previous governments. In many ways, the Nazi regime built upon existing foundations\u2013yet it often added a more radical slant or direction to educational policy. For example, elite educational institutions had existed throughout previous centuries, but under National Socialism they took on a different ideological mantle.\n\nSecondly, historical debates surrounding the nature of the Nazi state and system of rule itself can be applied to the area of education policy, in order to establish which theoretical approach is the most valid. For example, the 'intentionalist\u2013structuralist' debate has been applied to certain aspects of Nazi policy, most notably foreign policy and anti-Semitic policy, in order to evaluate the extent of Hitler's own role in policy-making. It is necessary to consider this in regard to educational policy too. The evidence suggests that Hitler's ideology and views on education provided a backdrop to education policy. However, Hitler did not take an active role in its evolution. Policy emerged from other initiatives and centres of power. Furthermore, it is necessary to assess the extent to which there was a central focus or command for the making of educational policy.\n\nWas the Ministry of Education necessarily the focal point of policy-making in this sphere? In fact, the primacy of Bernhard Rust's position as Minister of Education in policy-making was not unchallenged by other individuals and agencies. Competing protagonists and organizations struggled over areas of responsibility in educational policy-making.\n\nThirdly, a consideration of how educational policy fits into the overall debate on 'modernity versus reaction' in the Third Reich is important. Was Hitler's policy towards education 'modernizing' (as it claimed to be) or not? Herf has conceptualized the Weimar Republic and the National Socialist eras together as exemplars of 'reactionary modernism'. This highlights the tensions between the embrace of modern technology and the atavistic ideological principles that existed in both the Weimar and the Nazi years. Certainly, the Nazis excoriated the big cities and idealized the countryside. The Nazi _Blut und Boden_ (blood and soil) mythology and its yearning for a return to a pre-industrial idyll conflicted with the reality of advances such as the building of motorways and the impact of mass tourism on German society. Similarly, there were aspects of both modernization and anti-modernism in Nazi educational policy, which were inconsistent in this regard. As was the case in many other areas of social policy, in particular policy towards women and the family, ambiguities abounded. Certain aspects of educational policy appeared modernizing, whilst others were not. For example, the Nazi government rationalized the secondary school system, yet educational standards declined. This was partly because Nazi ideological tenets conflicted with practical considerations, particularly in the wartime period.\n\nDespite inconsistencies and internal conflicts in policy-making, the Nazi regime aimed at a 'total education' of youth that corresponded with Hitler's fundamental ideas on education. Hitler had strong views on the role of the state in education. In the Third Reich, the emphasis of education moved away from the individual to the requirements of the state and the 'national community'. Education through the 'experience of community' was an essential concept, because individuals were not regarded as autonomous, but as part of the entire organism of the _Volk_. This was bound up with the issues of belonging and identity as well. Individuals functioned as members of the 'national community' and as guarantors of its development and strength. Everyday life was conceived of as part of a perpetual struggle for the national cause and against the 'enemies' of the state. The mobilization of youth in this way, as well as the creation of a sense of conformity and uniformity, formed an integral part of the Nazis' overall design.\n\nIt is important to consider why youth was so important to the Hitler regime. Nazi leaders viewed the German youth as a catalyst for change away from what they regarded as the decadent political system of the Weimar Republic towards the new 'national community' of the future. The Nazi education theorist Ernst Krieck described the youth as the bearer of the principle of the German (National Socialist) revolution, from which would develop 'a new nation, a new form of humanity and a new order of living space'. In order to achieve this, the regime's 'total' education and socialization programme encompassed both schools and youth groups. 'Youth organization is to be seen by schools as a linear expansion and deepening of the work of schools'.\n\nNazi 'total education' removed youth from the usual frames of social reference, such as the family, trying to encompass the entire experience of youth. It immersed young people in a completely organized network. It made huge incursions into leisure time and took up the majority of their waking hours. Furthermore, Hitler was keen to place the function of socialization firmly within youth groups and schools, removing it from the family as much as possible. Moreover, Hitler's contempt for intellectual endeavour and his cynicism towards schoolteachers further enhanced the position of youth groups within the Nazi state. This is a large part of the reason why youth groups in the Third Reich had such a significant role designated to them. Schools' and parents' roles were partly undermined by Hitler's idea that 'youth must be educated by youth', a concept taken from the German youth movement.\n\nBefore embarking upon an examination of Nazi education policy, it is important to place the subject within its proper historical context. Hence, this book begins with a short chapter that considers the background to education in the Third Reich by looking at trends in education in the preceding eras. The second chapter analyses the impact of the Nazi _Machtergreifung_ on German education. What were Hitler's views on education and how did they shape Nazi education policy? This chapter goes on to examine the role of the _NS-Lehrerbund_ (NSLB) or National Socialist Teachers' Association in education. It explores educational policy and decision-making. It examines the role of the Ministry of Education and the influence of competing agencies and individuals upon its work. Furthermore, it analyses the changes made by the National Socialist regime to the German education system at all levels\u2013from kindergarten to university.\n\nThe third chapter examines the school curriculum during the Third Reich and the impact of Nazism in the classroom. Many subjects within the school curriculum were used to expound Nazi ideology, most notably biology, physics, chemistry, history, geography, mathematics and German. This chapter analyses the use of school textbooks to disseminate Nazi ideology. In particular, it focuses on political socialization in schools, including the key themes of anti-Bolshevism, the creation of Nazi myths and heroes, as well as the forging of the 'national community'. Furthermore, it considers the introduction of racial science into the school curriculum and anti-Semitism into the classroom. This created a culture of racial hatred and provided an ideological pretext for the Nazis' mass murder of the Jews. In addition, this chapter examines the Nazi emphasis on physical education. This aspect of education was close to Hitler's heart and a subject upon which he had strong views.\n\nChapter 4 examines the role of elite education in the Third Reich. Nazi elite educational institutions performed a special function within Nazi education and socialization processes as a whole. The purpose of elite education in Nazi Germany was to train a leadership cadre for the next generation. The Nazi regime established three main types of educational institutions to train the future elite of German society: the _Nationalpolitische Erziehungsanstalten_ (National Political Educational Institutions or Napolas), the _Adolf Hitler Schulen_ (Adolf Hitler Schools or AHS) and the _Ordensburgen_ (Order Castles). These institutions were a microcosm of the Nazi _Weltanschauung_. They fostered the leadership principle ( _F\u00fchrerprinzip_ ), promoted competitiveness and emphasized life as a struggle and as survival of the 'fittest'. They encouraged physical prowess. They excoriated the 'enemies of the Reich', in particular, Jews, Communists and Socialists. They emphasized racial purity, glorified war and fostered militarism. They underlined the necessity for _Lebensraum_ (living space) and had a role to play in the achievement of a 'greater German empire'.\n\nThe next two chapters deal with the Nazi youth groups. Chapter 5 discusses the _Hitlerjugend_ (HJ) or Hitler Youth and Chapter 6 treats its female counterpart, the _Bund Deutscher M\u00e4del_ (BDM) or League of German Girls. There was an established tradition of youth groups and movements in modern Germany that long pre-dated the Third Reich. The aim of these two chapters is to determine what was distinctive about the nature and purpose of the Nazi youth groups. How did youth identity manifest itself before the Nazi era and how did this change after 1933? The Nazi regime used its youth groups to foster within their members a sense of self-identity and identification with the aims of National Socialism. In addition, the separate youth groups for boys and girls signified distinctive gender roles and expectations.\n\nChapter 5 analyses the aims of the Hitler Youth and their implementation. What activities did its members undertake? How were they socialized? Clearly, in the HJ, as in other Nazi formations, the individual was subordinated to the group. Conformity to the organizational norm was designed to create true believers in the National Socialist system. HJ members were bound to the community of the organization, and above and beyond that, to the 'national community'. The role of youth in National Socialism was to struggle against old traditions and against the enemies of the regime. This chapter examines discipline and training in the HJ, designed to prepare for this fight. It considers a variety of aspects including physical fitness, hygiene and dress codes, as well as education in National Socialist principles.\n\nChapter 6 examines the role of the League of German Girls as an organization for the regimentation and socialization of German girls. What tasks were its members engaged in? What was the impact of the League of German Girls upon its members? This chapter shows how girls were socialized differently from boys. It examines the training and education given to girls, activities and duties of BDM girls before and during the war, as well as attitudes towards sexual behaviour. It illustrates how the BDM formed an intrinsic part of the process of socializing German girls, as part of a blood-binding community, whose members were obligated to serve their 'national community' in any way required of them by the Nazi state. An examination of all these aspects of education and socialization, by evaluating the aims of Nazi 'total education', will enhance our understanding of the Third Reich.\n\n**NOTES**\n\n* H. Rauschning, _Hitler Speaks: A Series of Political Conversations with Adolf Hitler on his Real Aims_ (London, 1939), p. 246.\n\n. R. Eilers, _Die nationalsozialistische Schulpolitik. Eine Studie zur Funktion der Erziehung im totalit\u00e4ren Staat_ (Cologne, 1963).\n\n. K.-I. Flessau, _Schule der Diktatur. Lehrpl\u00e4ne und Schulb\u00fccher des Nationalsozialismus_ (Frankfurt am Main, 1979); M. Heinemann (ed.), _Erziehung und Schulung im Dritten Reich_ (Stuttgart, 1980); H. Kanz (ed.), _Der Nationalsozialismus als p\u00e4dagogisches Problem: Deutsche Erziehungsgeschichte 1933\u20131945_ (Frankfurt am Main, 1984); K.-I. Flessau _et al._ (eds), _Erziehung im Nationalsozialismus_ (Cologne, 1987); R. Dithmar (ed.), _Schule und Unterricht im Dritten Reich_ (Neuwied, 1989).\n\n. B. Ortmeyer, _Schulzeit unterm Hitlerbild_ (Frankfurt am Main, 1996); W. Keim, _Erziehung unter der Nazi-Diktatur_ (Darmstadt, 1997); H. S\u00fcnker and H.-U. Otto (eds), _Education and Fascism: Political Identity and Social Education in Nazi Germany_ (London, 1997).\n\n. M. Klaus, _M\u00e4dchen in der Hitlerjugend. Die Erziehung zur 'deutschen Frau'_ (Cologne, 1980); H. Boberach, _Jugend unter Hitler_ (Dusseldorf, 1982); K. Huber, _Jugend unterm Hakenkreuz_ (Berlin, 1982); A. Kl\u00f6nne, _Jugend im Dritten Reich: Die Hitler-Jugend und Ihre Gegner_ (Cologne, 1982); M. Klaus, _M\u00e4dchen im Dritten Reich. Der Bund Deutscher M\u00e4del (BDM)_ (Cologne, 1983); D. Reese, _'Straff, aber nicht Stramm\u2013Herb, aber nicht Derb'. Zur Vergesellschaftung der M\u00e4dchen durch den Bund Deutscher M\u00e4del im Sozialkulturellen Vergleich zweier Milieus_ (Weinheim, 1989); G. Kinz, _Der Bund Deutscher M\u00e4del: Ein Beitrag zur Au\u00dferschulischen M\u00e4dchenerziehung im Nationalsozialismus_ (Frankfurt am Main, 1990); B. J\u00fcrgens, _Zur Geschichte des BDM (Bund Deutscher M\u00e4del) von 1923 bis 1939_ (Frankfurt am Main, 1994).\n\n. BA NS 12\/1196, 'Die Schulungsarbeit des Amtes f\u00fcr Erzieher (NSLB)', 19 Sept. 1935, p. 2.\n\n. On the _Sonderweg_ argument, see J. Kocka, 'German History before Hitler: The Debate about the German _Sonderweg_ ', _Journal of Contemporary History_ , Vol. 23 (1988), pp. 3\u201316.\n\n. J. Herf, _Reactionary Modernism: Technology, Culture and Politics in Weimar and the Third Reich_ (Cambridge, 1984), p. 220.\n\n. E. Krieck, _Nationalpolitische Erziehung_ (Leipzig, 1941), p. 48.\n\n. BA NS 12\/819, 'Bekanntmachung des Staatsministeriums'.\n1 THE HISTORICAL CONTEXT\n\nThere was a close relationship between pedagogy and politics in modern German history, and the education system was bound up with the development of the dominant political culture. The _Volksschule_ (elementary school) was intended as part of a comprehensive educational system, without reference to social class or background. The German _Gymnasium_ , inspired by Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767\u20131835), was founded as an institution to prepare pupils for higher education. Its syllabus centred on three spheres of education: gymnastics, aesthetics and didactics. Didactics, which included languages, history, mathematics and science, became the most important of the three areas in terms of preparing pupils for university. The _Abitur_ (school-leaving certificate), which had first been introduced in 1788 in Prussia, became the prerequisite for entry to German universities in the 1830s. The _Gymnasium_ created a new dominant role for the middle classes\u2013whose political culture was important in this era\u2013based upon educational ideals.\n\nThe concept of _Volksbildung_ (national education) of the whole nation, as a foundation for national culture, promoted by important German educationalists, such as Adolf Diesterweg, at first had liberal connotations. Social integration was central to developments and reforms in school education. However, in 1854, the Stiehl Ordinance standardized the curriculum, pedagogic forms and the training of teachers. It stymied the attempts of educational reformers, and because of it the state played a much larger role in the content of mass education than in previous decades. Hard work and discipline formed the ethos of schools as educators of subjects, rather than citizens. As Hahn points out: 'By 1870 the term _Volksbildung_ had completely changed its ethos; it had lost its national, liberal and democratic spirit and had become institutionalised as a force for inculcating in the common people an attitude of submission to authority and to the state'. The education system that developed was unable to establish democratic structures or genuine socialization.\n\nHowever, there were still pedagogues who sought to put into place measures in education in response to the economic, social and demographic changes brought about by Germany's unification and industrialization. The educational philosophy of Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776\u20131841) was pertinent to these changes in German society, both giving a professional ethos to elementary education and calling for a greater emphasis on science and a broader curriculum than Humboldt had envisaged in the secondary school system. Vocational education became more significant in this period too. Georg Kerschensteiner (1854\u20131932) founded the _Arbeitsschule_ and influenced a new form of vocational training. He introduced a dual system of vocational education. Male apprentices were to receive technical training as well as a broad general education in subjects such as German, civics, law and commerce. Girls' education was a preparation for motherhood and family life. Whilst Kerschensteiner's system raised the status of crafts and trade in Germany, this separate emphasis on boys' and girls' education did nothing to help moves towards female emancipation. There was also an authoritarian aspect to his method, with its subordination of the individual to state power. In these aspects, we can see elements of an educational philosophy later picked up by National Socialism.\n\nThe liberal ethos that characterized the German bourgeoisie was replaced by a conservative nationalism. Bismarck's _Realpolitik_ had already begun the move away from concepts of liberalism, but the Humboldtian concept of _Bildung_ suffered its most serious crisis after the unification of Germany in 1871 and the establishment of the _Kaiserreich_. The newly unified nation had different priorities and values. The educational system became more reactionary and nationalist, and less liberal and democratic towards the end of the nineteenth century. The true needs of the new German state were deemed to be based upon military and political success. Policy in Germany moved in a different direction from the general western European trend towards greater liberalism and democracy. Wehler suggests that the absence in Germany of the revolutions experienced by Britain, France and America in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries contributed to the _Sonderweg_ (special path) of modern German history. He emphasizes the absence of bourgeois liberalism in the _Kaiserreich_. The militarization of everyday life in the _Kaiserreich_ created an emphasis on hierarchy and obedience to authority. German educators became more nationalistic and defensive, as well as, simultaneously, imperialistic and chauvinistic. The works of nationalist writers such as Paul de Lagarde and Julius Langbehn gained currency. Langbehn urged Germans to liberate themselves from foreign values in order to raise the stature of German cultural life.\n\nDuring this period, irrationalism left its mark upon concepts of education and society. Educationalists regarded themselves as upholders of the nation's culture. A new discipline of _Kulturkunde_ found its way into the school curriculum. This subject integrated German language, literature, history, geography, religion and civics. The Reich School Conferences of 1890 and 1900 saw the adaptation of the education system to meet the requirements of the jingoism of the ruling class. Furthermore, the German Youth Movement, which sought a re-evaluation of 'Germanness', contributed to this rising nationalism. Traditional humanist culture found itself struggling against this strong tide of nationalism and _Realpolitik_. Kaiser Wilhelm II became engaged in the _Schulstreit_ (school dispute) in 1890. He called for more 'character building' and physical education in _Gymnasium_ education, as well as a greater emphasis upon the nation's heritage, history and geography. The traditional focus on education in the classics in the _Gymnasium_ decreased in significance. The result of the school dispute was a considerable expansion of the secondary school system with changes to the _Realgymnasium_ and the introduction of a new type of school\u2013the _Oberrealschule_. These schools favoured a more technological education than the _Gymnasium_ , which was considered to overburden its pupils' minds and to lack practical relevance. These schools fulfilled the real demands of technology and industry. By 1900, the status of the _Realgymnasium_ and the _Oberrealschule_ achieved parity with that of the _Gymnasium_ , although Latin was still needed for university entrance. The _Gymnasium_ came under attack and suffered a decline in status. Friedrich Lange was typical in his assault upon the 'excessive humanism' of the _Gymnasium_ , as well as its education in 'aesthetic idealism'. He asserted the aims of patriotism, duty and 'the idea of Germanhood'. He questioned what the models of classical antiquity could provide in education that Germany's own history could not.\n\nIt is significant to note that there were organizations that demanded female emancipation in education in this period. The _Allgemeiner Deutscher Frauenverein_ (General German Women's Association, founded in 1865) called for entry for women into vocational work and higher education. Helene Lange (1848\u20131930) and Gertrud B\u00e4umer (1873\u20131954) were influential figures in pushing for reforms in girls' education and admission to higher education. Curricular expansion in girls' _Lyzeum_ schools that enabled them to take the _Abitur_ was achieved by 1908. There was co-education at secondary level in some states, but the overall ratio of women to men at this level was still approximately one to three.\n\nAs the First World War approached, 'the ideas of 1914' were chauvinistic, militaristic and bellicose in nature. This development went hand in hand with a victory of nationalist ideas over party politics with the call for a _Burgfriede_ \u2013a truce between political parties for the duration of the war. The impact of the First World War and of the Treaty of Versailles led many German academics and educationalists to seek spiritual renewal and to struggle against Germany's loss of status. They opposed the Weimar Republic and adopted a reactionary position.\n\nHowever, during the Weimar era, modernism made its mark on education as it did on other areas of social and cultural life. Progress and reform were the watchwords of the republican era with a rejection of _v\u00f6lkisch_ and authoritarian trends among reformers. Lamberti argues: 'the Weimar years were a time of exuberant pedagogical innovation and optimistic plans to reform the stratified educational system in the name of democracy and social justice'. Modernism in education policy 'sought to extend compulsory schooling, develop a co-educational system, support the more technically orientated schools and broaden access to higher education'. Thuringia and Saxony led the way in attempting to achieve these aims. Bremen and Hamburg also endeavoured to carry out extensive changes to the education system. Elementary school reform included the abolition of voluntary religious education, the introduction of a collegiate system for teachers, and the establishment of teachers' councils. The most progressive were the 'community schools' in Hamburg, such as the Lichtwark School. Fritz Karsen established a new secondary school in Berlin-Neuk\u00f6lln, which enrolled youths from working-class families. Although such new schools courted controversy, Karsen believed that there was support for modern and experimental pedagogy in Berlin.\n\nThe League of Radical School Reformers, established in 1919 by Paul Oestreich, a schoolteacher from Berlin, also had some influence during the Weimar era. Oestreich called for a move away from the stifling values of the past, towards democratic reform in education. The League of Radical School Reformers was concerned with 'creative education'. It argued that 'our schools merely transmit knowledge in an authoritarian and dogmatic manner and in the framework of a thoroughly militaristic organisation'. It called instead for a system that would help a pupil towards 'the full development of his own particular nature'. It rejected designs to improve the schools within the existing system, calling for a more co-operative and communal approach to achieving its educational ideals. The League of Radical School Reformers also called for reform of the extremely nationalistic and militaristic textbooks of the _Kaiserreich_. Whilst a small amount of headway was made here, the majority of school textbooks, especially in history and geography, continued in the trend of the former era.\n\nThis link between the _Kaiserreich_ and the Weimar Republic was significant in terms of personalities and educational trends too. Otto Boelitz, the Prussian Minister of Education between 1921 and 1925, although not crudely nationalistic, nevertheless asserted that the most important educational task was the renewal of national power and unity. Carl Becker, who succeeded him in this role between 1925 and 1930, took a similar stance. Both had been reared in a nationalist tradition from which they found it difficult to move away. Prince Max von Baden took a conservative, counter-revolutionary stance on education. He founded a school at Salem near Lake Constance in 1920, which reflected his political and social views. During his opening speech, his themes were authoritarian and militaristic. He asserted the need for spiritual renewal, expressing a reverence for the countryside and a disdain for the cities. Prince Max von Baden aimed at a national rebirth led by the traditional military elite.\n\nNevertheless, the Weimar Constitution guaranteed a number of fundamental educational rights, including equal access to education, equality between men and women and free education for eight years. It also advocated compulsory school attendance for the first four years of elementary school and entrance to secondary school based upon merit. It set down the principle of a standardization of teachers' education, in which all teachers had to have a university education and were given civil servant status. The new subject areas _Staatsb\u00fcrgerkunde_ (civics) and _Arbeitsunterricht_ (work instruction) became compulsory. Private preparatory schools were to be abolished. The 1920 School Conference was the high point of the reform plans. There was considerable reluctance in some quarters to implement all these new reforms, and several initiatives were shelved. Indeed, elections in 1920 removed the Majority Social Democratic Party (MSPD)\u2013the party that had spearheaded these educational reforms\u2013from power. In the main, any ideas of removing education from Church control failed to be implemented. The Catholic Centre Party, which succeeded the MSPD, aimed to maintain and extend religious influence over education. Naturally, the Protestant Church accorded with these aims, and both churches rallied against the evils of socialism. As Hahn points out, by the end of the Weimar Republic, 'some 80 per cent of elementary education remained denominational'.\n\nIn secondary education, the _Mittelschule_ , which provided a route into the higher level of secondary education, was expanded. The _Deutsche Oberschule_ was established in 1922. This provided another route to the _Abitur_ and entrance to university education. As well as requirements to study French and English, this school concentrated on German language and German culture. From 1923, the _Oberlyzeum_ for girls allowed entry to university education through the modern languages route, but without Latin. Similar routes to higher education were made available for girls as for boys. By 1930, almost half of the female pupils in secondary education were in the _Oberlyzeum_.\n\nA significant shortcoming of Weimar secondary education reforms, as Hahn demonstrates, was that 'the proliferation of different schools prevented any attempt to integrate the various social strata' within German society. In particular, the four types of secondary schools with their different syllabuses highlighted social divisions. The _Gymnasien_ education centred on the classics, the _Realgymnasien_ on European civilization, the _Deutsche Oberschulen_ on German culture, and the _Oberrealschulen_ on natural sciences. German culture was taught in all these schools, with a particular emphasis on history, geography, civics and religion. The Nazi regime was later able to build upon this strong nationalist, cultural perspective. There was, furthermore, a backlash against emancipation in female education in certain quarters. The _Frauenschulen_ , which sought to teach girls about their 'special tasks' as mothers and homemakers, provided the answer to such concerns and again were a vehicle the Nazi government later used to promote its ideological imperatives in regard to women's position and role in society.\n\nThe Weimar Republic existed for just fourteen years. In terms of educational reforms, this time span was not long enough to bring about a vast amount of progress, especially taking into account the economic and financial problems that beset the Weimar governments. Nevertheless, as Lamberti observes: 'the opening of experimental public schools in many cities and the introduction of the new pedagogy in the urban schools placed Weimar Germany in the forefront of the progressive education movement'. The most progressive period of the Weimar Republic in educational terms were its first two years.\n\nEducational reformers faced an array of hostile anti-modernist groups and organizations. After a small amount of headway in progressive education had been made by 1920, the combination of this reactionary opposition with economic and financial problems impeded a great deal of further progress. Nevertheless, as Lamberti emphasizes: 'In the midst of economic distress and suffering and in the face of powerful adversaries, the progressivist pedagogues fought to realise their ideal of . . . a more open and democratic educational system. The slowing down of the momentum of reform in the later years of the republic should not diminish the significance of what was achieved.' In the early 1930s, Nazi ideologues and propagandists capitalized on the resentment of reactionaries and traditionalists who disliked the progressive nature of Weimar educational reforms and experimentation.\n\nIt is noteworthy that some of the trends in educational progress brought about during the Weimar years continued from those of the _Kaiserreich_. There was already some progress, for example, as we have seen, in female education, during the _Kaiserreich_. However, among some German educationalist circles, there was also a great deal of reaction during the Weimar years, with a continuation of the extreme nationalism that characterized the _Kaiserreich_. For example, the Prussian State Boarding Schools, housed in the former Cadet Institutions, were an expression of ardent nationalism and militarism. Hence, education during the Weimar era spanned the entire gamut from radical left-wing reformism across more moderate ground to authoritarian and nationalist viewpoints. The existence of strong anti-democratic and reactionary elements at work in education during the Weimar Republic meant that the Nazi 'seizure of power' in January 1933 did not mark a sudden, wholesale change. It is important to acknowledge the links that existed between educational developments not only between the _Kaiserreich_ and the Weimar Republic, but also between the Weimar Republic and the Third Reich. It is to educational policies in the Nazi era that we now turn in Chapter 2.\n\n**NOTES**\n\n. H.-J. Hahn, _Education and Society in Germany_ (Oxford, 1998), p. 17.\n\n. Ibid., pp. 30\u201331.\n\n. H. Wehler, _Aus der Geschichte Lernen?_ (Munich, 1988), p. 38.\n\n. Hahn, _Education and Society_ , p. 30.\n\n. On changes in secondary education, see J. Albisetti, _Secondary School Reform in Imperial Germany_ (Princeton, 1983).\n\n. F. Lange, _Reines Deutschtum_ (Berlin, 1898).\n\n. On this, see J. Albisetti, _Schooling German Girls and Women: Secondary and Higher Education in the Nineteenth Century_ (Princeton, 1988).\n\n. Hahn, _Education and Society_ , p. 35.\n\n. M. Lamberti, _The Politics of Education: Teachers and School Reform in Weimar Germany_ (New York and Oxford, 2002), p. 1.\n\n. Hahn, _Education and Society_ , p. 50.\n\n. R. Samuel and R. Hinton Thomas, _Education and Society in Modern Germany_ (London, 1949), p. 12.\n\n. Lamberti, _The Politics of Education_ , p. 119.\n\n. Samuel and Hinton Thomas, _Education and Society_ , p. 32.\n\n. See O. Boelitz, _Der Aufbau des preussischen Bildungswesens nach der Staatsumw\u00e4lzung_ (Berlin, 1925).\n\n. On this, see Samuel and Hinton Thomas, _Education and Society_ , pp. 13\u201314.\n\n. Hahn, _Education and Society,_ p. 56.\n\n. Ibid., p. 57.\n\n. Lamberti, _The Politics of Education_ , p. 246.\n\n. Ibid., p. 245.\n2 NAZI EDUCATION POLICY\n\n**HITLER AND EDUCATION**\n\nHitler's views on education were clearly concerned with a reshaping of values, the creation of national identity and racial awareness. He was contemptuous of intellectual endeavour and scholarly education. This is evidenced by his statement that 'the whole method of instruction in secondary and higher schools is just so much nonsense. Instead of receiving a sound basic education, the student finds his head filled with a mass of useless learning, and in the end is still ill-equipped to face life'. Hitler associated intellectualism with Judaism and decadence. Instead of intellectualism, he called for a greater emphasis upon physical education. In addition, Hitler believed that education and training had to be so ordered as to give the young German 'national comrade' the conviction of 'absolute superiority' to others. Hitler spoke of the need for self-confidence and national pride to be inculcated in German youth: 'The curriculum must be systematically built up . . . so that when a young man leaves school he is not a half-pacifist, democrat or something else, but a whole German.'\n\nHitler's hatred of intellectualism is clear from his statement: 'Put young men in the army, whence they will return refreshed and cleansed of eight years of scholastic slime'. Hitler's contempt for schoolteachers was equally great; he claimed: 'I cannot endure schoolmasters'. He dismissed his own schoolteachers with much disdain, describing his foreign languages teacher as 'a congenital idiot' and asserting that he 'could not bear the sight of him'. He continued: 'our teachers were absolute tyrants. They had no sympathy with youth; their one object was to stuff our brains and to turn us into erudite apes like themselves'. Hitler claimed: 'When I recall my masters at school, I realise that half of them were abnormal; and the greater the distance from which I look back on them, the stronger is my conviction that I am quite right.' It is unsurprising, therefore, that he sought to produce a different breed of teachers in the Third Reich and to train them in accordance with his own educational imperatives for German society. The organization entrusted with this task was the _Nationalsozialistischer Lehrerbund_ (NSLB) or National Socialist Teachers' League.\n\n**THE NSLB**\n\nThe NSLB was established on 21 April 1929. It actively recruited new members in the years before the Nazi _Machtergreifung_. The majority of the NSLB membership at this time was made up of young radicalized teachers, aged between 20 and 40, who felt estranged from the associational life of the teaching profession and disillusioned with the Weimar Republic. Lamberti notes that 'enthusiasm for National Socialism among the students training for the profession in the early 1930s was especially striking'. Nazism's appeal was apparent among low-salaried assistant teachers without permanent positions. However, the NSLB did attract a number of older teachers as well. Approximately one-third of its members recruited before 1933 had entered the teaching profession during the _Kaiserreich_. Whilst the NSLB capitalized on the low morale within the teaching profession at this time, particularly relating to the issue of salaries, its main propaganda themes were 'cultural politics and national pride rather than material interests'. The NSLB promised a change in the image of teachers towards 'a new and more positive perception of themselves as forward-looking activists serving big national goals'.\n\nHans Schemm, the leader of the NSLB, was one of the old guard of the NSDAP, whose ideas were conservative and _v\u00f6lkisch_. Born on 18 October 1891 in Bayreuth, the son of a manual worker, Schemm was fascinated by German cultural traditions and was deeply influenced by the thinking of Johann Fichte, Richard Wagner, Friedrich Nietzsche and Houston Stewart Chamberlain, whom he often quoted in his speeches. In a speech to educators in Bremen on 15 December 1933, Schemm stated: 'in our schools, we must build, mould and educate. Nothing foreign, nothing external, as Fichte said, shall stop us in this task'.\n\nThe statutes of the NSLB laid down its duties. The first and most significant was 'education of its members as exemplary National Socialists' so that they could be equipped to carry out their special tasks and obligations inside the 'national community'. The NSLB was to support the national leadership of the NSDAP and its chief educational office. It was to supply proposals and guidelines regarding all questions of education and pedagogy. Its duties further comprised control and surveillance of all German published texts, especially those published for a youth audience, and participation in Party youth and welfare organizations. The NSLB was to provide facilities for further ideological and professional training. The structure of the NSLB was organized along the same lines as the NSDAP, with divisions into _Gau_ , _Kreis_ and _Ort_ groups. Before 1933 the NSLB prided itself upon its struggle against parents' councils and other teachers' organizations.\n\nAfter the Nazi _Machtergreifung_ , the membership of the NSLB grew rapidly to 12,000 in March 1933. Many of the teachers that flocked to join after that were largely motivated by opportunism rather than ideological conviction. They joined because they did not wish to lose their positions or because they saw membership as a way of progressing their careers, once it became clear that _Gleichschaltung_ (streamlining) was an inevitable part of the Nazi scheme. As a result, Schemm transformed the multitude of teachers' organizations and the mass of unorganized teachers into one community and integrated them into the NSLB. There were early calls to eliminate 'Marxists and freemasons' from educational posts. Nazi pedagogues believed that 'only a strict clampdown against the red enemies' of National Socialism could make a difference to the future of German education. Jewish and 'unreliable' teachers were purged from the profession within a few months of Hitler's accession to power. By 1936, there was also a ban on 'double membership' of the NSLB and a confessional teachers' association. By 1937, the NSLB comprised 320,000 teachers (97 per cent of all teachers). Hence, the NSLB played a significant role in the regime's initial process of _Gleichschaltung_ to homogenize the teaching profession.\n\nThe NSLB had two main functions. The first was to provide reports on the political reliability of teachers for appointments and promotions. The second task of the NSLB was to ensure the ideological indoctrination of teachers. The organization saw its purpose as the creation of 'the new German educator in the spirit of National Socialism'. It ran courses for teachers and set up special teacher training camps for this purpose. Teachers were trained in racial knowledge, for example about the supremacy of the 'Nordic race' and the 'pollution' of its purity by 'racial miscegenation'. They were taught about the characteristics of the 'Jewish race'. They were instructed about genetics and hereditary health, as well as the concepts of 'blood and soil', 'living space' and the requirement for German expansion eastwards. Lectures on German prehistory, history and racial ancestry formed part of NSLB teacher training. 'The National Socialist teacher will only be able to live up to the National Socialist future if the idea of National Socialism burns within him'.\n\nIn addition, NSLB 'exchange camps' focused training on the 'border zone' issue. During the school holidays, teachers were sent to particular areas, such as Silesia or Saxony, in order to take a two-week-long course on the history and racial history of the region. The teachers had to pay for the accommodation and travel to the training camps, although there were reduced rail fares for this purpose. If they could not afford the cost, there was a possibility of some transfer of funds to enable them to attend the training camps. Such camps were designed to bring teachers from different regions together in the spirit of National Socialism. For example, NSLB teacher training in the district of Silesia was intended to strengthen the 'border-consciousness' of Silesian teachers by fostering and nurturing the connection to the homeland and the love of the German nation. It aimed to emphasize 'Silesia's location within the pan-German east', covering themes such as the Silesian man and his work in the past and the present and the belonging of Silesians to the German nation. Tasks and training materials presented Silesia as part of the collective land of the German people. Furthermore, in the summer term, there were 'homeland hikes', and in the winter term, workshops and general meetings on specific questions. Teachers were to get to know their homeland under expert guidance through hiking. They used geological maps to introduce the geological history of the area and to consider its contemporary natural landscape. They learned about the history of towns and villages on their hikes. In study groups and workshops they examined the whole of the Silesian region, its family names and demographic circumstances. Once teachers were trained in these subject areas, they could teach them in their schools. They could teach history, geography and biology with reference to the specific training they had acquired about Silesia on these courses.\n\nA report on an NSLB training camp in Silesia in 1936 stated that the training aimed to 'adjust all the teachers to the common foundation of the National Socialist world view'. At the camps, participants worked through _Mein Kampf_ , even if they were already familiar with it, in order to understand its essential points and eliminate any misunderstandings. Group work was used to correct, complete, deepen and encourage an understanding of _Mein Kampf_. The report stated that 'the educators approached the work with eagerness and interest and have attempted to penetrate the spirit of National Socialism in lively conversations'. The camp-supervisor explained the tenets of Nazi ideology and created a sense of community in which 'we' was more important than 'I'. A special emphasis was placed on the 'borderland' issue. Teachers were instilled with the sense that they played an important part in the future of Germany. 'They recognize the overwhelming greatness of the deeds of the F\u00fchrer and his followers, the enormous work that has been done and still needs to be done. They have to realize that everyone, in particular the German teacher, has a long way to go before work is completed'. The report admitted that 'not everyone who has taken part in the camp left as convinced National Socialists', but 'of the large majority of educators it can be said that they wholeheartedly support the F\u00fchrer and are prepared to undertake additional work for the movement and the _Volk_ '. Apart from the 'ideological training work', the camp activities also included compulsory physical training for teachers under the age of 50, an early morning run, gymnastics, flag-raising, recreational time, visits to places of local interest, hikes and marches, visits by Party officials and speeches.\n\nBy 1939, some two-thirds of the teaching profession had attended NSLB camps, whose fundamental objective was to imbue their participants with the Nazi _Weltanschauung_. The aim was to develop a 'way of life which was completely opposed to the liberal teacher conferences and congresses' of the Weimar period. The camps were designed to create a sense of unity and homogeneity among teachers and to remove barriers between them, in particular in relation to status. Participants in these training camps were constantly monitored. The observers and camp-trainers kept personal files on all participants, containing information about their characters, in order to be able to select 'the best National Socialists' from their ranks. These files were used as the basis upon which promotions and requests for school changes were decided. The NSLB called for an exemplary way of life for educators and teachers in the Nazi state.\n\nA participant in one of the ten-day NSLB teacher training camps described his experiences. He talked of the spirit of camaraderie among the camp-participants: 'a communal life began for all of us, in this community . . . in order to find what was to become an adventure for all of us'. He stated that the comradeship and general mood in the camp was 'exemplary'. The camp-participants comprised one camp-leader, four group leaders and sixty-five course participants, aged between 23 and 54. The purpose of the camp was 'to turn educators of different occupational classes and different age groups into one combat community\u2013a community in which all dividing walls are torn down by collective existence and experience'. He described waking up every morning 'cheerfully'. The camp began each day with sports. He recounted how 'a true fighting spirit overcame all who have come to make their body younger not just mentally but also physically'. After washing, tidying up and making beds ('the making of the bed, which at home is done by the beloved wife, had to be done by one's own hand here'), the flag-raising and day's tasks began. Cross-country running was an integral part of the training as it created physical agility and ability, toughness, strength of will, determination and discipline. Such characteristics would endow participants with a readiness to serve and make sacrifices for the nation and educate them to be 'National Socialist fighters'. The participant told of another attendee, who had been disabled in the war and so was unable to do all the exercises; the camp-leader's response was that 'what is important here is not that one or the other exercise is completed successfully but that everyone gives their best and experiences the spirit in this camp, takes it home and carries it on'. The participant stated that 'not being overfed with lectures was important', yet he listed nine lectures, an average of one per day, including the themes of 'The German Space and Defence Problem', 'Racial Fundaments of the Jewish Question', 'Race and Culture', 'The National Socialist Perception of History' and 'Freemasonry and Jewry'. This last lecture in particular made an impression on him. It 'opened the eyes of all participants in a deep and thorough way to how the German people before, during and after the war . . . was lied to and betrayed', until Hitler 'freed the German people from a scourge of mankind'. He left the camp steeped in National Socialist ideology, with a true belief in the _F\u00fchrer_ and a determination to carry out his part in the national task of educating youth. It is difficult to know how typical his enthusiasm was, but certainly his record is a useful first-hand account of participation in a camp, which correlates quite closely with the professed intentions of the NSLB in its aims and claims.\n\nAn activity report for a two-week camp for female teachers aged 23 to 55 from different school backgrounds also described how 'differences were overcome with the happy and sincere comradeship which prevailed'. This camp included one or two daily ideological lectures, with ceremonies, music and song to forge community spirit, as well as visits and a variety of physical training. Camaraderie was also noted in a report from a training camp for female teachers in Parchim: 'From the beginning a comradely feeling of belonging together prevailed, since we knew that all of us were the bearers of one great idea and wanted to help our F\u00fchrer to realize the great idea of the national community'. Political and ideological training as well as physical education were the main aspects of the camp. The reporter comments that 'the training camp was a great success and has brought awareness of the community deep into our hearts'.\n\nThe aim of the NSLB's teacher training was to transform all German teachers into 'National Socialist _Volkserzieher_ ' (people's educators). The ideological training was intended to transform those participating 'totally and in every aspect of their lives'. Ideological training was central to the work of the NSLB. The NSLB's Department of Press and Propaganda played an important role in this regard. It had to eliminate any liberal, ideological hangover from the Weimar era and ensure that all teachers stood together 'in National Socialist solidarity'. Furthermore, by means of propaganda, 'enemies of National Socialism' were identified and challenged. Propaganda outlined the struggle between National Socialist, Nordic and Judaeo-Christian values. In this struggle, 'National Socialism cannot give up its claim of totality unless it wants to bury itself '. The regime noted that participation in the teacher training camps needed to be encouraged through rallies and propaganda at the regional and local levels. 'The camps have to be places which mould fighters, prepared to show complete commitment to the National Socialist world view.' NSLB members who demonstrated any deviance from this were excluded from acting as speakers at these camps.\n\nThe fifty-seven rural teachers who took part in a camp at Herberg from 21 July to 27 July 1935 were expected to play their part in the 'correct education of the German people to a true national community'. 'The teachers are a combat unit for the realization of this aim; the training camp is their training school.' One participant explained his joy upon receiving the letter inviting him to the camp: 'Probably no one sensed what a unique community these strangers, who came from all parts of our fatherland, would become during the one-week camp'. The lectures gave participants an understanding of their homeland. The main success of 'the perfect camp-activities' was that 'all of us would hold each other together'. Other participants commented on this 'comradeship'. A great sense of camaraderie was achieved, underpinned by the ideology of 'blood and soil' and sense of community. This was considered to be especially important for teachers in rural areas, as they were isolated in their villages and so this type of camp gave them a sense of their common purpose and an understanding of what their part was in the building of Hitler's 'national community'.\n\nHowever, not all teachers had such a favourable view of the teacher training camps. The following two examples illustrate this. In the first, participants were offended by the anti-Christian sentiments of the camp-leader. In the second, inadequate organization was identified as a problem.\n\nIn December 1934, German evangelical female teachers wrote to the Minister of Education, Bernhard Rust, about the camp they had attended in Kettwig. They took exception to the trainer, Mr Friedrich, who was anti-Christian in his sentiments. Friedrich told them that 'participants believing in the doctrine of Christian theology in the Old and New Testament had to accept the blasphemy of their Christian belief '. He allowed for no discussion or opportunity for appeal against these attacks on Christian belief. Although they claimed their general allegiance to Nazism, they appealed to Rust 'to protect Christian teachers against such affronts'. An investigation into the complaint, by school inspector Huhnh\u00e4user, suggested that Friedrich indeed gave a lecture at this training camp, without the inspector's knowledge. The report suggested that 'Friedrich must have talked ruggedly, especially in terms of the church, so that a number of Catholic female teachers had to leave crying'. Rust's own response to the teachers was that 'similar situations will not occur again'. He circulated an order to his subordinates that 'a recurrence of such tactlessness' should be avoided.\n\nThe second example of a problematic experience was the tent camp of the NSLB at Heringsdorf in Gau Pomerania in June\u2013July 1935. This was described by one participant as an unmitigated 'disaster', with 'inadequate organization' and much confusion. The report on the Heringsdorf camp described the untidiness, problems with distribution of food and drinks, and unhygienic latrine sites. It stated that many participants behaved badly and got drunk. The speeches and evening party were described as 'enjoyable' despite the unfavourable circumstances in the camp. The official response to this report was one of outrage, although it was impossible to deny all the problems that were raised. The idea of the tent camp was designed to 'pull educators out of old habits and to wake them up'. Despite the problems, the NSLB considered it to be 'a great event for the majority of Pomeranian educators'.\n\nThe content of the schedule for a teacher training camp from 5 to 13 August 1935 was rather typical of NSLB training camps as a whole. Lectures were given on key aspects of Nazi ideology and policy, entitled 'People and State in the Third Reich', 'The Tasks of the NSV in Germany', 'The Woman in the National Socialist State', 'The Goal and Path of the DAF', 'The German Peasantry as the Bearer of the German Population', 'National Socialist Foreign Policy', 'Race: A Central Concept of the National Socialist World View' and 'Education to the National Community'. Such topics were standard fare among teacher training schedules. Furthermore, there was special training for the teaching of biology under National Socialism, for example an NSLB training course on this subject was held in T\u00fcbingen from 11 to 17 October 1936. This covered a variety of topics including 'The Reproduction Battle', medicinal plants, 'Ancestral Biology and Breeding Lore' and 'Biology and the World View', as well as practical exercises and visits. Additionally, there were training courses for 'racial lore', covering topics such as 'Race and Space', 'Race and Language', 'Race and Fairy Tales', 'Race and Art' and 'Race and Musical Education'. This type of 'racial political work' was energetically promoted by the NSLB.\n\nClearly, the role of the camp-leader was very significant in these camps, and leaders were chosen with care. Camp-leaders had to have 'a strong personality' and to act in an exemplary manner. The camp-leader had to rally the participants 'to nurture comradeship and forget all class differences'. Through the experience of the camp, the leader was to create 'an inseparable team and common destiny that lasts much longer than the days in the training camp'. Their influence would enable teachers to go back to their schools ready to imbue their pupils with the spirit of National Socialism.\n\nSchemm called upon teachers to 'stand in front of their boys with a German soul, transparent like glass, keeping no secret from them . . . The boys shall look to their teachers as leaders and comrades'. He passionately maintained: 'the highest ideal for the German teacher must be his awareness of his fortune to be in this position. This joy and fulfilment must come over him everyday on entering the school.'\n\nFritz Waechtler took over the leadership of the NSLB, after Schemm was killed in an accident on 5 March 1935. He was not an engaging successor to Schemm, and the fortunes of the NSLB went into decline. Although it still regarded its role as being at the forefront of the ideological training and indoctrination of all teachers, by this time the NSLB was expending a considerable amount of effort in justifying its continued existence and underlining its own importance. It appears that it was not succeeding in this aim as effectively as it had hoped. It defended its position, stating that the years 1935 and 1936 were those of 'small works and individual struggle', as an excuse for its lack of public visibility at that time. In its publications and its actions, the NSLB glamorized its leaders at every level in keeping with the National Socialist 'leadership principle'. Its members produced propaganda material that justified the organization's role in the National Socialist state, highlighting its struggles alongside those of the Party as a whole. From 1938, as the immediate significance of the ideological training of teachers had diminished by this time and state funds were directed towards other more pressing concerns, the NSLB was attempting to defend its role more than ever. A significant aspect of the NSLB's work at this time was its appeal to its members to help with harvesting. Waechtler emphasized the shortage of agricultural workers on the land and the urgent need for assistance with harvesting. He urged NSLB members to report for harvesting duties for a few weeks during their school holidays.\n\nDuring the war, the NSLB worked harder than ever to justify its position. In 1942, it produced a painstakingly detailed report on all its activities, in particular attempting to highlight its 'important' contribution to wartime measures. The NSLB suggested that its wide-ranging tasks had 'in no way decreased' in importance since the beginning of the war, but on the contrary had become increasingly significant. In addition to its previous tasks, the NSLB engaged itself in an array of wartime measures, under the slogan 'All for Victory!', including the 'collection of healing herbs', the 'collection of scrap materials' and the foraging for 'food from the woods' by pupils and school classes. All pupils were directed to keep war diaries. These types of activities were popular among teachers. In this regard, one of the most dangerous strengths of Nazism was its ability to exploit of apparently innocuous activities and popular sentiments for its sinister aims. Furthermore, under the slogan 'Pupils help Pupils', the NSLB encouraged German schoolchildren and teachers to make 'voluntary donations of books, teaching materials and illustrative material for the construction of a German school system in the East'. The NSLB was involved in the evacuation of children from the cities to the countryside ( _Kinderlandverschickung_ \u2013KLV). The NSLB maintained that it still had a crucial role to play during 'total war', particularly in terms of upholding a cohesive and calm attitude on the home front: 'There is no doubt that the German teacher with his influence over the German youth significantly influences the mood of the German people'. Hence, 'particularly during critical times', the attitude of the teacher was significant in influencing the nation more broadly. The NSLB maintained that it still had duties and responsibilities that were 'decisive for the outcome of the war'. Despite its protestations, the NSLB was closed down in 1943. Having examined the specific role of the NSLB, the next section considers the making of educational policy more broadly.\n\n**NAZI EDUCATIONAL POLICY-MAKINg**\n\nThe broad educational aim of the Nazi state was 'to ensure that a rundown, morally contaminated public . . . robbed of its ethical principles' was 'again made a community of people . . . aware of their inner values, their skills, their duties, their being!' 'At the hour of the new state's birth, a new class was also born: the class of people's educators.' 'People's educators' were more than simply 'teachers'. They formed 'an indispensable pillar of the state'. They were entrusted with the task of producing an unbreakable 'national community', without class, denominational, educational or regional distinctions. This was the educational goal of the new state and teachers were to set an example to the nation by creating their own microcosm of this community throughout the teaching profession.\n\nBernhard Rust was a former schoolteacher. He had been an early member of the NSDAP, joining in 1922, and had become _Gauleiter_ of Southern Hanover-Brunswick in 1925. Rust was appointed Prussian Minister for Education on 4 February 1933 and Reich Minister for Education and Science on 30 April 1934. In August 1937, Rust's Ministry established centralized control over the appointment of all teachers. In 1939, Rust set up a Reich Examination Office to deal with all educational examinations.\n\nHowever, Rust was engaged in a constant struggle to keep control over his sphere of influence. As was the case in so many other areas of policy-making, with no clear policy guidelines from Hitler, different individuals and agencies tried to take the initiative. Rust attempted to prevent incursions into his remit from Josef Goebbels's Ministry of Propaganda, among other competing agencies. In particular, the Ministry of Education found itself in an increasingly defensive position as several branches of the NSDAP tried to extend their influence into school organization and education after 1933. The two main reasons for conflict from the viewpoint of the Ministry of Education were the desire of the Party to lower academic standards in secondary schools and the incursions into schools by the HJ and other Party organizations. Internal quarrels took a considerable amount of time to resolve and they seriously obstructed the work of the Ministry of Education. Rust encountered intervention and challenges to his authority from a number of Nazi leaders, notably Baldur von Schirach, Martin Bormann, Robert Ley, Alfred Rosenberg, Philip Bouhler and Heinrich Himmler. Even civil servants from his own Ministry flouted his authority. Furthermore, the Head of the Party Chancellery read every significant decree by the Ministry of Education before it was issued. This process meant that the Party's standpoint was always included and it also slowed down the work of the Ministry and countered its effectiveness. There was also conflict between the Ministry of Education and the HJ leadership. For example, the HJ leadership proposed to reward those pupils who actively participated in the HJ with good grades. This was one of the most significant and ongoing conflicts between the Ministry of Education and the HJ leadership throughout the Nazi era. In practice, the Ministry of Education had only marginal influence on decision-making on the issue of youth participation in the war effort, although, theoretically, it was entitled to coordinate these efforts. In this sphere, Rust came up against the influence of the HJ leadership. In addition, Rust's position came under continual threat from the Party as a whole.\n\nParty leaders despised the traditional educational system, viewing it as a relic of the earlier times that Nazism had struggled to overcome. They regarded a long-term school policy as undesirable and believed an ad hoc approach to be more desirable. Their chief concerns lay with issues such as the Four Year Plan, rearmament and the preparations for war. It was against these attitudes that Rust had to struggle. Not surprisingly, the Party favoured educational institutions of its own\u2013the HJ, the Labour Service, the NSV and the Party Schools. The Party's own institutions were trusted and respected by Party branches and leaders. Until the end, the Party's own schools, for example, received financial support and had access to the full range of the Party's propaganda apparatus, in a way that the state's institutions under the Ministry of Education did not. Whilst the NSLB as the professional teachers' organization and the official Party organization for school education might have served the Ministry of Education by steering the NSDAP onto a more favourable course with regard to schooling, it was unable to do this, mainly due to the lack of an enthusiastic and able leadership. Hence, the policies of the NSLB undermined the position of the Ministry of Education even further. Hitler was not impressed with Rust's character and achievements. He stated on 29 August 1942: 'we have made progress in the field of education, in spite of having a pedant at the head of the Educational Department. With another in control, progress would have been more rapid'.\n\nThe influence on National Socialist ideology of thinkers such as Heinrich von Treitschke, Oswald Spengler, Julius Langbehn and Paul de Lagarde was significant. Moreover, a clear rejection of the Enlightenment and rationalism influenced cultural life and filtered into the work of Nazi pedagogues, which instead incorporated anti-liberalism, fanatical nationalism and racism. In May 1933, Wilhelm Frick, the Minister of the Interior, attacked liberal values in education, stating that 'the individualistic concept of education has been the main contributor to the destruction of national life within society and state and above all in its unrestrained application in the post-war era has shown its total inadequacy as a guiding principle for German education'. In order to reverse this trend of Weimar education, the aim of Nazi education was to underpin the rebuilding of national life based upon National Socialist principles. Schnurr has conceptualized a change from the Weimar 'welfare state' into the National Socialist 'training state'. The Nazi 'pedagogization of all areas of life' was an attempt at complete social control. The pedagogue Eduard Spranger embraced the 'events of 1933' and the importance of 'a sense of the nobility of blood and of the bond of blood' as well as the need for 'a conscious cultivation of the health of the people'. The aim of schools in the Third Reich was to train and educate the politically aware young German pupil, who 'in all thoughts and actions is rooted in the service to and sacrifice for his _Volk_ and whose history and destiny is completely and inseparably bound to that of his state'. Under National Socialism, 'the Humboldtian concept of education was criticised for its individualism and its emphasis on intellectual aspirations, which were perceived as factors weakening the _v\u00f6lkisch_ community spirit'.\n\n**CHANGES TO THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM**\n\nKINDERGARTENS\n\nBefore examining the changes made by the National Socialist state to schools, it is important to briefly consider the impact of the Nazi regime upon kindergartens. The kindergarten movement, which cared for preschool children between the ages of 3 and 6, had grown since the mid-nineteenth century so that working mothers were able to leave their children in a safe environment whilst they were at work. Friedrich Froebel (1782\u20131852), an eminent German educationalist and founder of the _Kindergarten_ , considered infancy to be the most important period for education. He believed that children could grasp the concepts of harmony, unity and order at a very young age and that they benefited from a sense of community with fellow pupils as well as their family members. By the Weimar era, kindergartens had become part of the wider, nascent welfare programme that was designed to lower infant mortality, to increase the birth rate and to provide recuperation for mothers and household help for pregnant and _kinderreich_ mothers. Despite considerable debate about the issue of making public kindergartens freely available to all mothers who wanted them, during the Weimar years there was no large-scale expansion of kindergarten provision. Many working mothers were still in the position of having to find a relative, neighbour or friend to look after their children. Those who called for an expansion of kindergarten provision argued that this was important for the 'recovery and reconstruction' of the life of the nation. Kindergarten teachers believed that putting children in protected, supervised environments would ameliorate their conditions, in particular their physical health and their safety. In the kindergartens, they would help to raise 'a new generation' of German citizens. Acknowledging the advantages of the kindergartens, a number of private companies and organizations, such as Siemens, ran their own. Apart from these, many municipal authorities, as well as the Protestant and Catholic Churches, ran kindergartens. The Weimar government established guidelines, sometimes providing financial assistance. The state required that doctors visited regularly to check up on the health of the children. Such moves were part of the Weimar concern to improve the welfare of mothers and children. Kindergarten teachers visited children at home to meet their parents and check their home environments. Government officials were pleased that the kindergartens benefited the children of working mothers and offered the possibility of checking up regularly upon children's health, and many mothers were pleased to have the advice and support of kindergarten teachers in bringing up their children. However, tensions did sometimes occur, in cases in which mothers felt there was too much observation and intervention on the part of teachers and the state.\n\nUnder National Socialism, the nature of kindergarten education changed. The Nazi government utilized kindergartens as a space in which it could further its own aims whilst helping to alleviate mothers' burdens, in line with its rhetoric. Of course, the position of kindergartens under National Socialism was inherently contradictory, as the regime's ideology called for women to be stay-at-home mothers. Pragmatically, however, the Nazis could see the benefits of the kindergartens, both as a means of enabling mothers to work when the state required them to, and as an opportunity to raise young children in the spirit of National Socialism. The Nazi state introduced standardized guidelines for kindergartens. They were to be uniform in appearance and organization. A picture of Hitler was to be hung in a prominent position, the swastika flag was to be raised and the Hitler greeting was to be used. Children had to be 'racially pure' and had to undergo a medical examination and to present a certificate of health before attending kindergartens. Compliance with these norms was expected of all kindergartens, including those affiliated to the Catholic Church. However, as Mouton notes, 'the degree to which the Nazis succeeded in imposing uniform standards on kindergartens varied according to local conditions, party leaders, kindergarten teachers, and the local population's acceptance of the changes'. Those kindergartens that worked in the Froebel tradition or that were affiliated to the Churches were less easy for the regime to homogenize.\n\nRather than taking over church kindergartens, the Nazi state allowed them to continue to exist, but placed increasingly stringent guidelines and financial restrictions upon them, in particular by reducing government subsidies, in order to encourage them to fall into line with state policy. The Nazi state also opened its own kindergartens under the aegis of the _NS-Volkswohlfahrt_ (NSV) or National Socialist People's Welfare organization, to compete with the church-run kindergartens, although many parents still chose to keep using the latter. Nevertheless, by 1941, many Protestant and Catholic kindergartens had 'coordinated' themselves with the NSV.\n\nThe Nazi regime also used kindergartens for political expediency. For example, they set up NSV kindergartens in areas in which they felt the population was 'distant from National Socialism' and in rural areas, where previously none had been available, hence creating a sense of benevolence among the people and gratitude to National Socialism for making this provision (see below for more on so-called 'harvest kindergartens'). The National Socialist regime used kindergartens as a means of intervening in families and imbuing young children with Nazi ideals. Furthermore, all kindergarten teachers had to pass a state examination which tested their knowledge of and commitment to National Socialist ideology, in particular with regard to racial purity. Kindergarten teachers were also expected to acknowledge the need for different socialization for girls and boys.\n\nThe NSV kindergartens were clean, bright, spacious and airy, creating a 'healthy environment' for the children. Every day, on arrival, the children washed and cleaned their teeth. They were then separated into different age groups and supervised by nurses and welfare workers as they played, exercised, ate, sang and slept. The 'Guidelines for Day Nurseries' in 1936 set out the following among its tasks: to sponsor the physical, mental and spiritual development of the children, to educate them in National Socialism and service to the 'national community', and to instil a sense of care for the German nation and morality. Hence, the kindergartens clearly socialized preschool children in the spirit of National Socialism. NSV kindergartens were considered to be 'essential bases . . . for the education of young German people'. The number of NSV kindergartens grew from approximately 1,000 in 1935 to 15,000 in 1941.\n\nFurthermore, the Nazi regime established 'harvest kindergartens' in rural areas in order to free agricultural women from their family responsibilities during the day so that they could carry out their harvesting. The 'harvest kindergartens' were regarded as necessary due to the lack of available, satisfactory supervision for children during harvest time. Care for children during the harvest period provided by the most elderly and frail villagers was considered to be inadequate and unsuitable. 'Harvest kindergartens' were first set up in the summer of 1934 to supervise children in rural areas from the age of 2 upwards. They consisted of one or two rooms, simply furnished with tables, benches and chairs, wash basins and a play area outside\u2013either a garden or a sandpit. The kindergartens provided pillows, blankets, toothbrushes and hand towels for the children, but plates, beakers and spoons had to be provided by the parents. Milk was supplied by local farmers. The harvest kindergartens were run by trained kindergarten workers, with the assistance of older schoolgirls and BDM girls, provided that they were not needed for harvest work. The children were medically examined and a health questionnaire was filled out for each child. Oral hygiene and general health were regularly monitored. Children with lice or any infectious diseases were not allowed to attend the kindergartens until they were better. The number of 'harvest kindergartens' rose from 600 in 1934 to 8,700 in 1941 and to 11,000 in 1943. Their duties included the following: to promote the physical, mental and spiritual development of the children, to educate them in the ideas of National Socialism and to maintain contact with the parental home. Hence, parents' evenings were introduced. In the harvest kindergartens, educational work corresponded with the reality of agricultural life. Children were taught to be 'productive'. The significance of the ideological concept of 'blood and soil' was promoted. The Nazis' thoroughgoing socialization of young children thus began in the kindergartens and harvest kindergartens, even before children reached school-going age.\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAt first, the Nazi government initiated a number of ad hoc, yet significant changes to the German school system. A report on the school system in Hamburg suggested changes to the education system and its reorganization to meet the aims of the National Socialist state. It stated that during the Weimar era, the school system in Hamburg had come heavily 'under the influence of the Marxist spirit' and it outlined the setbacks associated with changes undertaken during the period 1918\u201333. As we have seen, the National Socialist state saw questions of schooling and education as an integral part of the whole organic state and 'national community'. It was the school's duty to communicate German culture to its pupils and to develop them as 'German human beings'. Furthermore, the National Socialist state aimed to prevent the 'Marxist' way of thinking from permeating the countryside. The Nazi state believed that families in rural areas had to show commitment and make sacrifices in regard to their children's education, not to leave it entirely to the state. The rural schools were to be state schools and community schools at the same time. In an organic state, the rural school was linked to both the state and the community. Indeed, the Nazi regime attached such significance to rural schools in their relationship to German 'blood and soil' that it established a number of model Party elementary schools in rural areas: the 'Hans-Schemm-Schools'.\n\nIn an organic state, each part was obliged to evolve to its own maximum perfection and play its part in the whole. The education system was an integral part of this entity and had a duty to serve the state to achieve its maximum perfection. It was the obligation of the educational system, under guidance from the state, 'to choose and judge and harvest from the produce and goods of culture: to favour what complies with the authoritative values and goals and to suppress what is perturbing and perverse for education and culture and what could be poisonous for the public body'. Moreover, it was the duty of the educational system under National Socialism to prepare, implement and present these goods in order to develop a positive educative force. This included the production of teaching materials and educational plans. There was a further demand for those in the upper echelons of education, in particular school inspectors, to undergo a thorough selection process for the highest positions within this area. In this way, 'the organ of education can flourish to its maximum potential and the basic questions of the entire educational system can be worked on more thoroughly than ever'. There was a sense that existing school inspectors did not have the correct skills, training and attitude to accomplish this. School inspectors were to be appointed on the basis of character and merit. They were not to be burdened with administrative duties that prevented them from carrying out their most salient tasks.\n\nBetween 1933 and 1937, the Nazi government was concerned with consolidating its power and imbuing the German population with its ideology. In terms of educational policy, this entailed a number of initiatives. In April 1933, all teachers were given civil service status. The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service (7 April 1933), with its 'Aryan' clause, provided for the legal removal of Jewish and 'undesirable' teachers from the profession. A law of January 1934 removed the autonomy of the _L\u00e4nder_ (states) in order to achieve centralized state control over education. The collegiate system among teachers was abolished, and the introduction of the 'leadership principle' in schools meant that all powers in schools accrued to the headteachers. There was a call for the elimination of self-administration practiced by the teachers, the parents' council, the headmaster and the school inspectors in the Weimar Republic. Self-administration was based upon the principle of equality. Nazism considered that this approach lacked the necessary leadership over the entire educational work of a school: 'There cannot be any space for this kind of formal-democratic self-administration in the National Socialist state.' Instead the primacy of the headmaster's authority in a school was to be reinstated. The Nazis rejected the democratic nature of the parents' councils in schools and these were eliminated in 1934. They introduced instead the School Community, consisting of parents, teachers and an HJ representative. This new system gave the impression of continuity with the previous arrangements, but did not interfere with the headmaster's role as 'leader'.\n\nPlans for reforms towards creating the school of the German 'national community' were drafted by Nazi educationalist Weischedel in May 1934. Weischedel had already been engaged with the pedagogic literature on National Socialism and had worked as a teacher and headteacher. National Socialist school reform was 'not about the correction of some detrimental elements' but the arrival at 'a meaningful overall solution'. Weischedel rejected any quick reforms and claimed that organic change was needed: 'National Socialist school reform is a lengthy, continuing process of transformation'. It had to be carried out taking into account the pupils, the family and the transformation of the state and its culture. The Nazi educational programme had to comprise clear guiding principles which were in line with the fundamental ideas of National Socialism. The whole educational system was to undertake a uniform task permeated by the spirit of National Socialism.\n\nIn contrast to these ad hoc adjustments, the most sustained efforts and significant changes in education under National Socialism were carried out between 1938 and 1942. This was the period in which the Nazi regime was at its peak. By 1938, it was ready to make more notable steps in educational reorganization and during the first years of the war, before it became bogged down in its battle against the Soviet Union, the Nazi regime continued to put a significant amount of effort and resources into the 'education' of the _Volk_. After 1942, the demands of the Nazi war effort and the focus on the execution of the 'Final Solution' became so all-encompassing that other aspects of policy, educational policy among them, were overshadowed.\n\nIn particular, the National Socialists wanted to pare down the number of different types of schools that they had inherited from the Weimar era and to separate education for boys and girls. The secondary school system was reorganized and secondary education was shortened by one year. The aim of secondary education was to educate 'the German man in all his strengths' and to prepare him for university and for practical life. The _Aufbauschule_ (feeder school), initiated in the Weimar Republic, was expanded, giving children from rural areas access to secondary education. These schools fed into the _Oberschule_ , giving pupils the opportunity to join the last stage of _Oberschule_ education. The Nazi government reduced the number of existing secondary schools to the _Gymnasium_ and two types of _Oberschulen_ , in which boys and girls were educated separately. The last three years in the _Oberschulen_ were divided into a science\/ mathematics stream or a modern language stream in the boys' schools. School leavers with modern language qualifications also found it hard to gain access to university, as they had not studied Latin, which was an entry requirement for many university courses. The girls' schools offered a choice of domestic science or modern languages. The course in domestic science, popularly termed the 'pudding matriculation', did not qualify girls for university entrance. The 'special task' of the girls' schools was to prepare their pupils for the specific requirements of being 'a German woman and mother in family, home, workplace and national community'. Certainly, this accorded with Hitler's view that 'The goal of female education must invariably be the future mother'.\n\nGirls were harshly discriminated against in the Nazi education system, as entry to the _Gymnasium_ was for male pupils only and it was the only place where classics could be studied. Such policies led to a severe reduction in the number of women in higher education. In 1933, the Nazi government placed a cap on the number of female students who could be enrolled in German universities, setting the maximum at 10 per cent. By 1939, only 6,342 women were registered at German universities. During the war, the Nazis overhauled this policy, partly because young men were conscripted into military service and so university places were freed up. In 1942, approximately 42,000 women were enrolled at university, making up 64 per cent of the student population. Practical considerations had prompted a change in policy away from the reactionary Nazi ideology, which held that women should be discouraged from entering higher education.\n\nThe Nazi regime, with its claims of creating a classless, ideologically comprehensive educational system, placed increasing restrictions on private schools. The Weimar constitution had permitted the existence of private elementary schools run by the Churches, as well as private schools for physically disabled children. The National Socialist government took steps to eliminate private schools altogether, mainly aiming to eradicate separate denominational schools, which stood in the way of building the 'national community'. The _Reichsschulpflichtgesetz_ (National School Law) abolished private preparatory schools. It made attendance at the state _Volksschule_ (elementary school) compulsory, with exceptional cases made for children with mental or physical disabilities. The aim of the _Volksschule_ was to provide education for all German children who belonged to the 'national community', regardless of class or denomination. The _Volksschule_ carried out its educational tasks based on the strength of German _Volkstum_ (national traditions). The aim was to homogenize the composition of German elementary schools. There was considerable concern among Nazi educational leaders that Protestant and Catholic children had been separated in denominational schools. In the Nazi state 'such a division\u2013separation into different schools according to religious belief\u2013cannot continue . . . Children should be together in order to understand and appreciate the further unity of the community, our _Volk_ '. Not surprisingly, these steps led to concerns on the part of the Churches. Rust received letters of petition from Church representatives against these measures. For example, correspondence to Rust expressed 'great concern about the creation of non-denominational schools'. These appeals to preserve the denominational schools met with no success.\n\nThe abolition of confessional or denominational schools under National Socialism breached Hitler's Concordat with the Vatican (20 July 1933), in which Hitler had promised that Catholic schools would be allowed to continue to exist. By mid-1939, all denominational schools in Germany had been replaced with non-religious 'community schools' and all private Church-run schools had been shut down. This was achieved mainly by arranging 'elections' by parents in favour of or against the schools, of which the purported results, claimed by Nazi local party leaders, were that parents favoured their closure. In this way, denominational schools were shut down without the need for a formal order of abolition.\n\nFurthermore, there was a drastic reduction in the amount of religious instruction given in state schools. Stories of the forefathers from the Old Testament were regarded as 'unnecessary', and even Christian education was expressed in terms of the path and culture of 'the Nordic man'. Religious education in schools had to conform to state requirements. In reality, this meant that religious instruction was either eliminated from the curriculum entirely or severely curtailed. Religious symbols and images, such as crucifixes, were banned from schools. Nevertheless, the NSDAP had concerns about the efficacy of these measures, particularly in rural areas. One report from 1938 stated: 'It is shocking to look into the situation of the rural areas, which still seem to be in the firm grip of the black teachers [Catholics]. Bible quotes and church songs are what the pupils know best, while some of the 10-year-olds do not even know the name of the F\u00fchrer, let alone how to spell it.'\n\nThe Nazi leadership believed there was a superfluity of private 'special schools' for mentally and physically disabled children. It sought to reduce the amount of educational resources for 'abnormal people' through its eugenics programme: 'By eugenic measures and the sterilization law, we hope to decrease the education of abnormal people to a minimum'. The regime hoped to achieve the 'purification' of the _Volk_ by regulating the education of 'abnormal people'. Whilst the primary aim was to educate healthy German children with full mental faculties, the Nazi state also believed it had a duty to prevent 'the creation of abnormal people'. It was considered 'an economic waste' to spend time and money on 'the education and upbringing of feeble-minded children'.\n\nThe Nazis had claimed that they would modernize education, with free universal education, streamlining of the school system, provision for talented children from low-income families and a university-level teachers' training programme. The reality, however, was that fewer children from disadvantaged backgrounds benefited from education under National Socialism than had done so during the Weimar era. From 1933, _Hochschulen f\u00fcr Lehrerbildung_ were established with the aim of uniform vocational and practical training of teachers to a higher standard. However, by 1941, these were closed down and as a result poorly qualified teachers were able to enter the profession. Most teachers' training remained below university level. Indeed, the status and image of the teaching profession had declined markedly under National Socialism and Party reports noted these problems.\n\nAt first, the Nazi regime had maintained the Prussian colleges for training teachers and extended the system, for example to Bavaria and W\u00fcrttemberg, which had not changed teacher training during the Weimar era. However, it became clear that more radical changes were needed and that a shortage of elementary schoolteachers loomed. In 1938\/9, in particular, there was a sharp drop in the number of full-time, male elementary schoolteachers. Hitler ordered in 1940 that a different type of institution should be established. This was the _Lehrerbildungsanstalt_ (teacher training institute), which paid greater attention to political socialization. The new scheme was designed to increase the supply of teachers and to bring their training under Party organization. These new institutions had a much more political character. By 1942 there were 233 of them in the German Reich. However, even these did not succeed in making up for the shortage of elementary schoolteachers, and the regime became dependent upon 'school helpers'. School helpers were aged between 19 and 30, having been educated to intermediate school level and then taken a three-month course followed by practical experience. In the end, despite all the training and plans for educational reforms, the Nazi regime demoralized teachers and brought about a decline in standards.\n\nRegarding the Nazis' overall racial aims, it is noteworthy that education in German schools was intended only for 'racially pure' German children. On 25 April 1933, the Law against the Overcrowding of German Schools and Universities placed a ceiling of 1.5 per cent on the number of Jewish pupils permitted within any German educational institution. In November 1938, this law was amended to exclude Jewish children from the German state school system altogether. After that, Jewish children were only permitted to attend separate Jewish schools, at the expense of the Jewish community. They were not part of the 'national community' and were therefore excluded from German schools. In 1942, the Jewish schools were closed down. 'Gypsy' children were also discriminated against in the German school system and various ad hoc attempts were made to prevent them from attending school. On 22 March 1941, the Ministry of Education finally passed a decree that prohibited 'Gypsy' children from attendance at state schools altogether.\n\nIn 1941, Hitler called for the introduction of the _Deutsche Heimschulen_ (German State Boarding Schools). These were mainly intended for children whose fathers were in the armed forces or had died in military action or whose homes had been disrupted by the war or destroyed by air raids. In addition to these schools, there were two _Musische Gymnasien_ (Musical Grammar Schools), one in Leipzig and one in Frankfurt. These were boarding schools for children with exceptional musical talents. The curriculum was similar to that of the _Deutsche Oberschule_ , but with the distinction that ten periods per week were given to the study of music and art. Admission to these schools was strict and privileged. Prospective pupils of these schools had to demonstrate their 'pure' German blood and good character, as well as their outstanding musical or artistic talents.\n\nDuring the war, a programme of _Kinderlandverschickung_ (KLV) was put in place. Children from the cities were sent to the countryside to be removed from the dangers posed by the Allied bombing campaigns. The KLV camps provided an ideal opportunity for the regime to imbue its youth with its ideology, as children were removed from their parental homes. There were approximately 5,500 KLV camps established by 1943. Entire classes and schools moved to KLV camps as schools in the cities were closed down. Many parents reluctantly agreed to send their children away, and there were concerns that the regime was deliberately removing children from their parents in order to take the function of socialization away from the family. At the KLV camps, the children took part in drills and marches. They had to wear a KLV uniform and were educated to be true and valuable members of the 'national community'. They were used for agricultural work and harvesting. By the spring of 1944, they were engaged in pre-military training, run by the HJ, the army or the SS.\n\nNazi changes to education were implemented in the name of 'modernizing' the school system and making it more efficient. However, the true objective of Nazi policies was to ensure centralized state control over education, in particular to eliminate ecclesiastical influence. Although the status of the _Gymnasium_ was actively diminished by the regime, it attracted even more middle-class pupils than before. Hence, Nazi claims to have made the system more egalitarian were unfounded. Furthermore, the carefully designed infiltration by Party influence of the state system was a hallmark of Nazi education policy. In reality, these policies did more to damage the existing educational system than to improve it. Although the Third Reich lasted only twelve years, its policies had a huge impact. It claimed that previous school reforms, which 'evolved from the daily life of urban, Marxist liberalism', signified the 'disintegration and dissolution' of the German educational system. Yet Nazi educational policies did not bring about any improvements in elementary and secondary school education in comparison to those of the Weimar Republic. The next section of this chapter turns to the universities, to examine the impact of National Socialism upon higher education.\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\nWhilst some universities in Germany, such as the University of Heidelberg (1386), were established in medieval times and the development of the universities progressed through the patronage of the territorial princes over several centuries, the modern period of German university development was marked by the creation of the University of Berlin (1810). Wilhelm von Humboldt played a most important part in the development of the University of Berlin, which was steeped in the humanist tradition, and which served as a model for other German universities. He was concerned that the university should not be too narrow in its purpose. Prussia needed visionary and strong leaders and this consideration marked the character of the university. Humboldt was clear that the humanist tradition should be adhered to. The University of Berlin was defined as a 'privileged corporation' with self-government rights.\n\nOne significant aspect of the modern German universities was academic self-government. This was exercised by the faculty professors and elected dean, in faculty boards, which recommended nominations for professorial appointments and gave prospective lecturers the right to teach. A second characteristic was freedom of teaching. Professors and lecturers could teach freely, without political restraints or other limitations. They could choose the subjects they taught. The third salient feature was freedom of study. As there was no fixed syllabus, students could attend lectures of their preference and even move between universities. This system was aimed at developing the initiative and sense of responsibility for learning in students themselves.\n\nAs many of the German universities had developed in close association with the territorial princes, universities were dependent on the state in financial matters. This sometimes led to pressures to submit to state influence, especially as professors were state officials and their salaries were paid by the state. Professors came from a particular level in society and there existed a social snobbishness among them\u2013a 'professorial class' ( _Gelehrtenstand_ ). A mutual relationship existed between the holders of political power and the professors, who became the intellectual bodyguard of the _Kaiserreich_ in return for the privilege, prestige and status associated with their position. Some professors, such as Heinrich von Treitschke, used their freedom to teach extreme nationalism that seemed to negate the purpose of the concept. Nationalism was a key trend in the German universities in the last third of the nineteenth century. Nationalist associations such as the Pan German League and the Navy League, established in the 1890s, were closely associated with university professors, many of whom chose to throw in their lot with the nationalist and imperial ambitions of the era. They became known as the _Flottenprofessoren_ (navy professors).\n\nTurning to the students, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, there were two main types of students' fraternities: the _Landsmannschaften_ , which were made up of students from a particular region, and the _Studentenorden_ , which had associations with freemasonry. Duelling and drinking played an important part in the life of both these types of student organizations. In 1815, a new type of organization\u2013the _Burschenschaft_ \u2013was set up at Jena. In 1817, at the Wartburg meeting, the _Burschenschaften_ of the various universities came together in a general association. At the same time, the _Landsmannschaften_ renamed themselves the 'Corps'. The 'Corps' members were aristocratic, whilst the _Burschenschaften_ members were middle class. The _Burschenschaften_ were closely associated with movements for liberalism and national unity at this time. They also aimed to put an end to the excessive duelling in the universities and to encourage students to live a more moral lifestyle. By the mid-nineteenth century, this trend waned as the _Burschenschaften_ members continued to drink and duel. In the _Landsmannschaften_ and the _Burschenschaften_ , students' individuality was stifled. Student groups became increasingly conservative and anti-democratic by the end of the nineteenth century.\n\nIn 1919, in the new Weimar Republic, the _Deutsche Studentenschaft_ was founded to represent students' interests and to organize welfare. This was politically nationalist in its leanings. The _Deutsche Gildenschaft_ , established in the same year, was even more extremely nationalist and racist. There were also anti-Republican students' groups including the _Stahlhelm-Studentenring-Langemarck_ and the _NS-Deutscher Studentenbund_ (National Socialist German Students' Association). On the other side of the political spectrum, there were the Republican Students' Group, the German Students' League ( _Deutscher Studentenbund_ ) and the Socialist students' associations, all of which supported the Republic. Yet the voices of the nationalist and anti-democratic students' groups became very influential, particularly with the economic problems that beset Germany in the early 1930s. The National Socialist German Students' Association came to have a very large influence within the student movement overall.\n\nThe new social and political circumstances of the fledgling democracy required reforms in the universities. Criticism from left-wing circles called for the universities to expand their socially narrow student base. Carl Heinrich Becker, the Prussian Minister of Education between 1925 and 1930, noted that the universities were in need of reform, yet at the same time described them as 'fundamentally sound'. Although he wrote on the subject of university reform, he vacillated in terms of policy-making. University teaching in Germany tended to attract those from the upper echelons of society. The system was not designed for giving democratic rights to lecturers in terms of how the universities were run and administered. During the Weimar era, some steps were taken to give lecturers a small amount of representation on the faculty boards. However, all this changed again as the Nazi era approached, and authoritarian and nationalist voices came to the fore.\n\nIn the realm of higher education, the Nazi government attempted to clamp down on academic freedom. Its task was made easier by the activities of radical students who had taken over representative student bodies in the majority of German universities eighteen months before the Nazi _Machtergreifung_. The National Socialist German Students' Association had been formed in 1926, under the leadership of Wilhelm Tempel, a law student. In 1929, Baldur von Schirach had succeeded Tempel as its leader. Schirach claimed that the National Socialist German Students' Association had three main tasks: to promote the study of National Socialist ideas, to spread Nazi ideology in the German universities and to train leaders for the NSDAP. But its true ambition was to control the whole student population. The National Socialist German Students' Association quickly and actively set to work printing and distributing posters and pamphlets. Other student groups and organizations were passive by comparison and responded in a way that suggested they did not realize how serious the Nazi student organization was about propaganda and power.\n\nOnce the Nazis came to power, students campaigned against Jewish and 'unreliable' professors and disrupted their lectures. Students organized and participated in bookburning demonstrations on 10 May 1933 in university towns across Germany. This was a public act 'against the un-German spirit'. Students seized 'un-German' books, including those of Marx and Freud, from the libraries and consigned them to flames, whilst shouting out slogans against their authors. Goebbels described the public book burning as a strong, great and symbolic act. The students were clear about their ideological 'enemies' and the National Socialist German Students' Association planned the event carefully in advance so that the actions of 10 May 1933 were coordinated in university towns across the country. Elected students' committees were abolished and students' societies, the Corps and _Burschenschaften_ either dissolved themselves or were closed down in the process of _Gleichschaltung_. The student body certainly recognized its role in the renovation of the scholastic community and participated with eagerness at this time although, as Giles has pointed out, student apathy was a problem for the National Socialist Students' Association later in the Nazi era. From 1936, the National Socialist German Students' Association acquired a new leader, Gustav Adolf Scheel. He held the title _Reichsstudentenf\u00fchrer_.\n\nThe Rectors that ran the universities were checked for reliability and compliance with the dictates of the regime. Those that were not deemed suitable were replaced. Jewish and 'liberal' professors were forced out of their posts. Martin Heidegger, Professor of Philosophy, was elected Rector at the University of Freiburg in April 1933. He claimed that academic freedom now meant service to the 'national community' and talked of 'conquering the world of educated men and scholars for the new national political spirit'. Academic autonomy in teaching and research was subordinated to the interests of the Nazi state. By 1934, approximately 1,600 out of 5,000 university teachers had been dismissed. Many German academics emigrated. The sciences were particularly hard hit. The world-renowned physicist Albert Einstein was among the many scientists who left their posts at German universities to take up positions in America, Britain and elsewhere. Still, most university professors remained in their posts and many of them were supportive of the National Socialist government.\n\nUniversity professors and lecturers had to belong to the _NS-Dozentenbund_ (National Socialist Association of University Teachers). This was initially a part of the _NS-Lehrerbund_ , but it acquired a separate status in 1935. Walter Schultze, as _Reichsdozentenf\u00fchrer_ , ran the _NS-Dozentenbund_. Its main aim was to ensure that university activities conformed to the requirements of the NSDAP. Schultze stated that its main task was 'to make the universities truly National Socialist' and that education needed 'to participate in the National Socialist regeneration of our people's spiritual unity and community'. He continued by claiming that: 'The Association takes into its ranks all the forces at a university whose character and ideology attest to their unconditional loyalty and readiness to serve . . .', aiming 'to give the mission of the German scholar, researcher and teacher the prestige that is expected by National Socialism in the Party and in the state and, last but not least, by the people united by National Socialism'.\n\nAs in the case of schools, with the creation of the Reich Ministry of Education in 1934, there was centralized control of the universities. In April 1935, regulations were passed that established the leadership principle in the universities. The Rectors were no longer elected representatives, but nominees of the Reich government. The powers of the Rectors were significant. The senate and faculty boards no longer had any say in the running of the universities and their function was reduced to that of merely advising. In this way, the rights of the universities to academic self-government were abolished. The concept of freedom of teaching was also eliminated.\n\nIn 1933, the Nazis had imposed a _numerus clausus_ on university entrance admission. Even without this, student numbers dropped considerably, not least because of the derision the Nazis had for academic pursuits and values. In fact, the number of students enrolled at German universities dropped from 95,807 in 1931 to 48,558 in 1936, and fell further to 39,236 in 1939. By this time it was becoming clear to the Nazi leadership that whatever their view was of academia, in practical terms, there was a dearth of academically trained individuals. After 1938, the regime made alterations to university admission requirements in order to try to attract students. For example, after September 1938, it became possible for an adult aged between 25 and 40 to enter university without an _Abitur_ , by taking a special 'examination for great talent' ( _Hochbegabtenpr\u00fcfung_ ). A 'special maturity examination' award from a technical school also counted as an entry qualification to university in certain subjects. In 1934, the Nazis had also introduced 'Langemarck Scholarships' to encourage pupils from lower-class backgrounds to study at university. The NSDAP selected prospective candidates carefully and they attended special courses. In 1940, 800 students were accepted to this particular scholarship of whom 36 per cent were from working-class backgrounds. Nevertheless, these various attempts to raise student numbers did not succeed. The war itself disrupted university life even more drastically and student numbers continued to decline. R\u00fcdiger vom Bruch shows that National Socialism 'severely damaged the German university, its reputation, and its self-understanding'. It 'destroyed the German university as a self-administering corporate body and an independent research community with a functioning system of rules'. Under National Socialism academic independence and autonomy in the universities were renounced.\n\nNational Socialism brought about a root and branch re-engineering of the education system at all levels\u2013from kindergartens, through schools, to universities. At all stages, Nazi education was characterized by its anti-liberalism, anti-intellectualism and irrationalism. The loftier ideals of the _Volk_ took precedence over true scholarship and knowledge. Education policy was underpinned by a desire to disseminate National Socialist ideology as much as possible and in this context other educational aims were subordinated. The next chapter examines this in a more detailed consideration of the curriculum and an investigation of the impact of Nazism on school textbooks.\n\n**NOTES**\n\n. _Hitler's Table Talk 1941\u20131944: His Private Conversations_ , with an introduction by H. R. Trevor-Roper (New York, 1976), p. 547.\n\n. A. Hitler, _Mein Kampf_ , translated by R. Mannheim, with an introduction by D. C. Watt (London, 1992), p. 374.\n\n. Ibid., p. 387.\n\n. _Hitler's Table Talk_ , p. 548.\n\n. Ibid., p. 139.\n\n. Ibid., p. 567.\n\n. Ibid., pp. 547\u20138.\n\n. M. Lamberti, 'German Schoolteachers, National Socialism, and the Politics of Culture at the End of the Weimar Republic', _Central European History_ , Vol. 34, No. 1 (2001), p. 63.\n\n. Ibid., p. 80.\n\n. Ibid., p. 74.\n\n. Ibid., p. 64. See also W. Feiten, _Der Nationalsozialistische Lehrerbund. Entwicklung und Organisation_ (Weinheim and Basel, 1981), pp. 46\u201350.\n\n. On Schemm, see F. K\u00fchnel, _Hans Schemm. Gauleiter und Kultusminister (1891\u20131935)_ (Nuremberg, 1985).\n\n. Feiten, _Der Nationalsozialistische Lehrerbund_ , pp. 40\u201341.\n\n. BA NS 12\/967, 'Der Erzieher', Nr. 1, 1934, p. 7.\n\n. BA NS 12\/263, 'Satzung des Nationalsozialistischen Lehrerbundes', p. 1.\n\n. BA NS 12\/263, 'Satzung des Nationalsozialistischen Lehrerbundes', p. 3. On organization, see also Feiten, _Der Nationalsozialistische Lehrerbund_ , pp. 76\u2013132.\n\n. BA NS 12\/1404, 'Der Nationalsozialistische Erzieher', Nr. 9, 1937, pp. 4\u20135.\n\n. On this, see BA NS 12\/967, 'Der NSLB\u2013seine Geschichte, seiner organisatorische Entwicklung und die daraus resultierende Stellungnahme zur gegenw\u00e4rtigen organisatorischen Lage'.\n\n. For example, see BA NS 12\/641, 'Denkschrift \u00fcber die Misst\u00e4nde im Schulwesen Ostpreussens', 10 March 1933, p. 1.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. BA NS 12\/600, 'Rundschreiben. Betrifft: Verbot der Doppelmitgliedschaft im NSLB und in konfessionellen Erzieherverbanden', 17 December 1936.\n\n. Feiten, _Der Nationalsozialistische Lehrerbund_ , p. 55.\n\n. ibid., p. 19.\n\n. BA NS 12\/1401, Rundschreiben Nr. 11\/33, 'Schulungsplan f\u00fcr den NSLB Untergau Oberschlesien'.\n\n. BA NS 12\/1401, 'Bericht \u00fcber die Durchf\u00fchrung der A-Schulungslager des NSLB\u2013Gau Schlesien 1936', p. 1.\n\n. J. Schiedeck and M. Stahlmann, 'Totalizing of Experience: Educational Camps', in H. S\u00fcnker and H.-U. Otto (eds), _Education and Fascism: Political Identity and Social Education in Nazi Society_ (London, 1997), p. 63.\n\n. See BA R 4901-1\/4607, 'Der Preu\u00dfische Finanzminister an Herrn Oberpr\u00e4sidenten f\u00fcr h\u00f6heres Schulwesen', 31 May 1934.\n\n. G. Pieper, 'Austauschlager: Ihr Sinn und ihre Gestaltung', _Nationalpolitische Erziehung_ (1937), p. 293. Cited in Schiedeck and Stahlmann, 'Totalizing of Experience', p. 63.\n\n. BA NS 12\/1401, 'Schulungsbrief der Gauhauptstelle Erziehung und Unterricht'.\n\n. Ibid., p. 1.\n\n. Ibid., p. 2.\n\n. ibid., pp. 8\u201310.\n\n. BA NS 12\/1401, 'Bericht \u00fcber die Durchf\u00fchrung der A-Schulungslager des NSLB\u2013Gau Schlesien 1936'.\n\n. Ibid., p. 1.\n\n. Ibid., p. 3.\n\n. Ibid., p. 2.\n\n. Ibid., pp. 4\u20137.\n\n. BA NS 12\/1402, 'Denkschrift \u00fcber das Junglehrer Schulungslager in Hassitz bei Glatz, 2. bis 21. Oktober 1933'.\n\n. BA NS 12\/1196, 'Die Schulungsarbeit des Amtes f\u00fcr Erzieher (NSLB)', 19 Sept. 1935, p. 5.\n\n. On what follows see BA NS 12\/41, 'Tagebuch Pappelhof ', p. 386.\n\n. Ibid., p. 387.\n\n. Ibid., p. 388.\n\n. BA NS 12\/41, 'T\u00e4tigkeitsbericht'.\n\n. BA NS 12\/41, 'Bericht \u00fcber das Schulungslager f\u00fcr Erzieherinnen in Parchim'.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. BA NS 12\/1196, 'Die Schulungsarbeit des Amtes f\u00fcr Erzieher (NSLB)', 19 Sept. 1935, p. 1.\n\n. Ibid., p. 3.\n\n. BA NS 12\/1406, 'Abteilung Presse und Propaganda'.\n\n. BA NS 12\/1400, 'Bericht \u00fcber Kreiswaltertagung'.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. BA NS 12\/41, 'Landlehrer im Lager'.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. BA NS 12\/41, 'Als Sachse im Schulungslager Hamberge'.\n\n. BA NS 12\/41, 'Acht Tage Schulungslager des NS-Lehrerbundes'.\n\n. BA NS 12\/41, 'Landlehrer im Lager'.\n\n. BA R 4901-1\/4607, 'Verein Deutscher Evangelischer Lehrerinnen e.V.', 4 December 1934.\n\n. BA R 4901-1\/4607, 'Betrifft: Beschwerde des Vereins deutsch. ev. Lehrerinnen in Barmen', 25 January 1935.\n\n. BA R 4901-1\/4607, 'An den Herrn Oberpr\u00e4sidenten (Abt. f\u00fcr h\u00f6heres Schulwesen)', 22 February 1935.\n\n. BA R 4901-1\/4607, 'Abschrift. Zeltlager des NS-Lehrerbundes, Gau Pommern', p. 1.\n\n. BA R 4901-1\/4607, 'Abschrift. Bericht \u00fcber das 1. Zeltlager des NS-Lehrerbundes Gau Pommern vom 26. Juni bis 1. Juli 1935 in Heringsdorf '.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. BA NS 12\/41, 'Arbeitsfolge f\u00fcr das Schullager der anhaltischen Lehrer aler Schularten vom 5 bis 13 August 1935'.\n\n. BA NS 12\/606, 'Sachgebiet Biologie. Schulungslehrgang des NSLB in T\u00fcbingen vom 11.\u201317. Oktober 1936'.\n\n. BA NS 12\/628, Rundschreiben, 'Betrifft: Reichslehrgang f\u00fcr Rassenkunde', 13 October 1937. See also BA NS 12\/628, Rundschreiben, 'Betr.: Jahresarbeit 1938', 16 February 1938, pp. 1\u20132, which highlights work and achievements on teaching racial lore.\n\n. BA NS 12\/41, 'Acht Tage Schulungslager des NS-Lehrerbundes'.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. BA NS 12\/967, 'Der Erzieher', Nr. 1, 1934, p. 8.\n\n. Ibid., p. 11.\n\n. Feiten, _Der Nationalsozialistische Lehrerbund_ , p. 148.\n\n. BA NS 12\/1404, 'Der Nationalsozialistische Erzieher', Nr. 9, 1937, p. 9.\n\n. BA NS 12\/600, 'Rundschreiben. Betrifft: Erntehilfe der deutschen Erzieher', 29 June 1938.\n\n. BA NS 12\/1438, 'Aufgaben und Leistungen des NS-Lehrerbundes im Kriege', p. 1.\n\n. BA NS 12\/1438, 'Aufgaben und Leistungen des NS-Lehrerbundes im Kriege', p. 2. On the NSLB and the 'homefront', see also Feiten, _Der Nationalsozialistische Lehrerbund_ , pp. 188\u201391.\n\n. BA NS 12\/1438, 'Aufgaben und Leistungen des NS-Lehrerbundes im Kriege', p. 2.\n\n. BA NS 12\/567, 'Stillegung des NSLB'.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. On this, see Feiten, _Der Nationalsozialistische Lehrerbund_ , pp. 197\u2013200.\n\n. BA NS 12\/641, 'Rundschreiben \u00fcber das neue Erziehungsziel', p. 2.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Ibid., p. 4.\n\n. BA R 4901\/708, 'Konflikte zwischen Reichserziehungsministerium und NSDAP', pp. 1\u20134.\n\n. BA R 4901\/708, 'Betr.: Konflikte des Reichserziehungsministeriums mit Dienststellen der NSDAP', p. 1.\n\n. Ibid., pp. 8\u20139.\n\n. Ibid., p. 7.\n\n. On what follows, see BA R 4901\/708, 'Die Schule als Streitobjekt zwischen Partei und Staat', pp. 1\u20132.\n\n. BA R 4901\/708, 'Die Schule als Streitobjekt zwischen Partei und Staat', p. 3.\n\n. _Hitler's Table Talk_ , pp. 548\u20139.\n\n. Cited in H.-G. Herrlitz _et al._ , _Deutsche Schulgeschichte von 1800 bis zum Gegenwart_ (Weinheim and Munich, 1993), p. 149.\n\n. S. Schnurr, 'Vom Wolfahrtsstaat zum Erziehungsstaat: Sozialpolitik und soziale Arbeit in der Weimarer Republik und im Nationalsozialismus', _Widerspr\u00fcche_ , Vol. 8 (1988), pp. 47\u201364.\n\n. S\u00fcnker and Otto, _Education and Fascism_ , p. vii.\n\n. Cited in Hahn, _Education and Society_ , p. 75.\n\n. W. Frick, _Kampfziel der deutschen Schule_ (Langensalza, 1933), p. 24.\n\n. Hahn, _Education and Society_ , p. 83.\n\n. M. Mouton, _From Nurturing the Nation to Purifying the Volk: Weimar and Nazi Family Policy, 1918\u20131945_ (Cambridge, 2007), pp. 164\u20135.\n\n. A. T. Allen, _Feminism and Motherhood in Germany, 1890\u20131914_ (New Brunswick, 1991), pp. 63\u20135. On this, see also A. T. Allen, 'Children between Public and Private Worlds: The Kindergarten and Public Policy in Germany, 1840\u2013Present', in R. Wollons (ed.), _Kindergartens and Cultures: The Global Diffusion of an Idea_ (New Haven, 2000), pp. 16\u201341.\n\n. Mouton, _From Nurturing the Nation to Purifying the Volk_ , p. 166.\n\n. Ibid., p. 179.\n\n. Ibid., p. 180.\n\n. On the Froebel tradition, see F. Froebel, _The Education of Man_ , translated by W. Hailmann (New York, 1887) and N. Isaacs, 'Froebel's Educational Philosophy', in E. Laurence (ed.), _Friedrich Froebel and English Education_ (London, 1969).\n\n. Mouton, _From Nurturing the Nation to Purifying the Volk_ , p. 182.\n\n. BA R 89\/5242, 'Hilfswerk Mutter und Kind und Hitler-Freiplatz-Spende 1936\/37', p. 14.\n\n. L. Pine, _Nazi Family Policy, 1933\u20131945_ (Oxford, 1997), p. 31.\n\n. BA NSD 30\/25, 'Richtlinien f\u00fcr Erntekinderg\u00e4rten im Rahmen des Hilfswerkes \"Mutter und Kind\"', pp. 4\u20135.\n\n. H. Vorl\u00e4nder, _Die NSV. Darstellung und Dokumentation einer nationalsozialistischen Organisation_ (Boppard, 1988), p. 70.\n\n. BA NSD 30\/25, 'Richtlinien f\u00fcr Erntekinderg\u00e4rten im Rahmen des Hilfswerkes \"Mutter und Kind\"', p. 3.\n\n. BA NS 12\/641, 'Die hamburgische Landschule im nationalsozialistischen Staate'.\n\n. Ibid., p. 11.\n\n. On this, see Samuel and Hinton Thomas, _Education and Society_ , p. 39.\n\n. Ibid., p. 16.\n\n. Ibid., p. 20.\n\n. Hahn, _Education and Society_ , p. 79.\n\n. BA NS 12\/641, 'Die hamburgische Landschule im nationalsozialistischen Staate', p. 14.\n\n. BA NS 12\/811, 'Die Schule der deutschen Volksgemeinschaft. Entwurf eines nationalsozial. Schulprograms von G. Weischedel', 22 May 1934, p. 1.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. BA R 4901\/1 4620\/1, 'Betrifft: Neuordnung des h\u00f6heren Schulwesens'.\n\n. BA NS 12\/964, 'Errichtung von Hochschulen f\u00fcr Lehrerbildung und Deutsche Oberschulen in Aufbauform. Neugestaltung der Lehrerbildung in Bayern', p. 3.\n\n. BA R 4901\/1 4620\/1, 'Betrifft: Neuordnung des h\u00f6heren Schulwesens', p. 35.\n\n. Hitler, _Mein Kampf_ , p. 377.\n\n. BA R 4901\/709, 'Private Volksschulen', pp. 1\u20135; BA NS 12\/814, 'Aus dem NS-Lehrerbund', p. 9.\n\n. See BA R 4901\/1 3304\/1, 'Reichsschulgesetz vom Januar 1937'.\n\n. BA R 4901\/1 3304\/1, 'Entwurf eines Reichsgesetzes \u00fcber die einheitliche Gestaltung der deutschen Volksschule'.\n\n. BA R 4901\/1 3304\/1, 'Begr\u00fcndung'.\n\n. BA R 4901\/1 3304\/1, 'General-Vikarait Trier an den Herrn Reichs- und Preu\u00dfischen Minister f\u00fcr Wissenschaft, Erziehung und Volksbildung', 7 April 1937.\n\n. BA NS 12\/41, 'An die Kreisschulaufsichten zur Bekannthabe an alle Schule'.\n\n. On this, see L. Pine, _Hitler's 'National Community': Society and Culture in Nazi Germany_ (London, 2007), p. 88.\n\n. BA NS 12\/1196, 'Ausz\u00fcge aus Berichten der Gauschulungs\u00e4mter', p. 1.\n\n. BA NS 12\/825, '\u00dcbersteigerung der Anormalen-Erziehung\u2013was aber jeder dar\u00fcber wissen sollte'.\n\n. BA NS 12\/825, 'Gutachten zur \u00dcbersteigerung der Anormalen-Erziehung', Wilhelm Neidhardt, 25 November 1934, pp. 1\u20132. See also BA NS 12\/825, 'Heilerziehung und Heilerzieher im Dritten Reich'.\n\n. BA NS 12\/964, 'Errichtung von Hochschulen f\u00fcr Lehrerbildung und Deutsche Oberschulen in Aufbauform. Neugestaltung der Lehrerbildung in Bayern', p. 1; BA NS 12\/964, 'Organisationsplan einer Hochschule f\u00fcr Lehrerbildung'.\n\n. On this, see BA NS 12\/1196, 'Ausz\u00fcge aus Berichten der Gauschulungs\u00e4mter', pp. 1\u20137.\n\n. Samuel and Hinton Thomas, _Education and Society_ , p. 58.\n\n. BA R 4901\/709, 'Private Volksschulen', p. 2.\n\n. On the history of Jewish schools under National Socialism, see J. Walk, _J\u00fcdische Schule und Erziehung im Dritten Reich_ (Frankfurt am Main, 1991).\n\n. M. Burleigh and W. Wippermann, _The Racial State: Germany 1933\u20131945_ (Cambridge, 1991) pp. 214\u201315.\n\n. Samuel and Hinton Thomas, _Education and Society_ , p. 53.\n\n. Ibid., p. 54.\n\n. G. Knopp, _Hitler's Children_ (Stroud, 2002), p. 186.\n\n. BA NS 12\/641, 'Die hamburgische Landschule im nationalsozialistischen Staate', p. 17.\n\n. Hahn, _Education and Society_ , p. 28.\n\n. On this, see K. Jarausch, _Students, Society and Politics in Imperial Germany: The Rise of Academic Illiberalism_ (Princeton, 1982).\n\n. Cited in Samuel and Hinton Thomas, _Education and Society_ , p. 123.\n\n. C. H. Becker, _Vom Wesen der deutschen Universit\u00e4t_ (Berlin, 1925).\n\n. On this, see A. Gallin, _Midwives to Nazism: University Professors in Weimar Germany 1925\u20131933_ (Macon, 1986), pp. 86\u20137. See also F. Ringer, _The Decline of the German Mandarins: The German Academic Community, 1890\u20131933_ (Cambridge, Mass., 1969).\n\n. G. Giles, 'The Rise of the National Socialist Students' Association and the Failure of Political Education in the Third Reich', in P. Stachura (ed.), _The Shaping of the Nazi State_ (London, 1978), pp. 161\u20132.\n\n. G. Giles, _Students and National Socialism in Germany_ (Princeton, 1985). On students under National Socialism, see also M. Gr\u00fcttner, _Studenten im Dritten Reich_ (Paderborn, 1995).\n\n. R. Evans, _The Coming of the Third Reich_ (London, 2004), p. 423.\n\n. Cited in G. Mosse (ed.), _Nazi Culture: Intellectual, Cultural and Social Life in the Third Reich_ (London, 1966), pp. 314\u201315. For a detailed examination of the universities during the Nazi era, see H. Heiber, _Universit\u00e4t unterm Hakenkreuz: Teil 1_ (Munich, 1991) and H. Heiber, _Universit\u00e4t unterm Hakenkreuz: Teil 2_ (Munich, 1992).\n\n. Gallin, _Midwives to Nazism_ , p. 108.\n\n. Samuel and Hinton Thomas, _Education and Society_ , p. 112.\n\n. R. vom Bruch, 'A Slow Farewell to Humboldt? Stages in the History of German Universities, 1810\u20131945', in M. Ash (ed.), _German Universities Past and Future: Crisis or Renewal?_ (Oxford, 1997), p. 23.\n\n. Ibid., p. 24.\n[3 THE CURICULUM AND   \nSCHOOL TEXTBOOKS ](Pine_9781847887641_epub_c16_r1.html#d6e5)\n\nThis chapter examines the school curriculum and school textbooks during the Third Reich. How was Krieck's aim of 'national political education' achieved in schools? In addition to the changes to the educational system discussed in the previous chapter, the main method was the transformation of the curriculum, in order to emphasize certain subject areas in which 'nation' and 'race' could be expounded, and to decrease the significance of other subject areas. For example, a Nazi directive for elementary education from 1940 stated:\n\nIt is not the task of the elementary school to impart a multiplicity of knowledge for the personal use of the individual. It has to develop and harness all physical and mental powers of youth for the service of the people and the state. Therefore, the only subject that has any place in the school curriculum is that which is necessary to achieve this aim. All other subjects, springing from obsolete educational ideas, must be discarded.\n\nIn secondary education, Nazi educationalists believed that 'German, history, geography and biology require a deeper treatment'. This chapter focuses on the key subject areas promoted by National Socialism: biology, physics and chemistry, geography, history, mathematics, German, racial studies and physical education.\n\nThe introduction and use of new school textbooks assisted Nazi pedagogues in their aim of inculcating pupils with Nazi ideology. At first, there were many different textbooks in the curriculum, which displeased NSDAP ideologue, Alfred Rosenberg. He ordered Philipp Bouhler, Director of the Party Censorship Office, to examine all the textbooks in use for their ideological content. Bouhler's work demonstrated the need for a process that entailed more than a simple 'weeding out', and worked towards the creation of a uniform Reich Reader for the entire nation. The Ministry of Education began to actively implement this idea, removing old readers from the curriculum and replacing them with new ones. Ernst Krieck, a prominent Nazi educational theorist and professor at the University of Heidelberg, was involved in the educational theory behind the introduction of these readers. New editions were to include the themes of 'blood and soil', leadership, honour and loyalty, service and sacrifice, struggle and work. Between 1935 and 1940, Bernhard Rust introduced new Reich Readers at different age levels. Editors selected specific reading material for them, based on the themes of 'blood and soil' and the _Volk_. They had to conform to Nazi Party censorship requirements. They included extracts from German and Nordic folklore and sagas, tailoring the selections to the ideological values of National Socialism. Rust defined the purpose of the readers as being to 'serve the ideological education of young German people, so as to develop them into fit members of the national community\u2013members who are ready to serve and to sacrifice'.\n\nThe spirit of _v\u00f6lkisch_ ideology was conveyed through children's books. A strict censorship policy was put into place to screen all books. Josef Goebbels's 'black lists' contained the titles of all 'alien' or 'decadent' works that were to be removed from circulation. In reality, many of the textbooks from the Weimar era did propagate reactionary political and social values. They were nationalistic and militaristic in their ethos. Hence, these ideas were already clearly extant in German school textbooks before National Socialism came to power. Nevertheless, the Nazi regime aimed to achieve a completely regimented and standardized system of school textbooks. By 1941, textbook production became the exclusive preserve of _Deutscher Schulverlag_ , owned by the NSDAP press _Eher Verlag_.\n\n**BIOLOGY**\n\nBiology teaching was of great significance in the Third Reich and was energetically promoted by the regime as a whole and the NSLB in particular. In no other subject area were the Nazi themes of 'blood and soil', 'race' and 'living space' so directly linked to the subject matter. Biology had the task then of instructing pupils about the living nature of German 'living space' as the basic nourishment of the German _Volk_ , as well as the goal of an eternal German _Volkstum_. Laws of heredity and life, fertility, selection and blood purity were central to the teaching of the subject. Paul Brohmer was one of the leading writers of a new biology curriculum under the National Socialist regime. In 1938, after the new curriculum was introduced, new textbooks appeared that took into account the changes. Brohmer utilized 'race biology' as a means of encouraging German children to struggle to maintain racial purity. He underlined the dangers of 'racial miscegenation' and justified the regime's racial, population and eugenics policies in his writings. Biology lessons became vehicles for Nazi racial doctrine, emphasizing themes such as race, heredity and the 'selection of the fittest'. Pupils were instructed in the classification of racial types and craniology. Films and slides were produced as teaching aids. Visual presentations were deemed to be particularly useful in showing the distinctions between examples of 'racially pure' and 'inferior' or 'hereditarily diseased' individuals. Biology was 'assigned a central function in education' with 'two hours of teaching a week in all grades'. As well as racial ideology, biology was to impart other aspects of Nazi ideology, such as love for the homeland and the 'national community', which were linked to the subject. As such, biology as a subject gained considerably in importance and prestige under National Socialism.\n\nFurthermore, biology teaching was also carried over into other subject areas, including mathematics and German, by using biology topics in these other disciplines. Hans Schemm's statement that 'National Socialism is politically applied biology' meant that biology teaching was directed towards educating children in the laws of life and in the ideology of National Socialism. Pupils were to think in both biological and national terms simultaneously. In particular, 'hereditary biology' was a significant part of 'biological thinking' under National Socialism. The realization of the hereditary health of the German people was to be 'drummed into' children in school education so that it became 'second nature to them'. Lore of the family, lore of race, genetics, eugenics and population policy formed the core of 'hereditary biology'. This subject purported to demonstrate that 'racial mixing' and an increase in the number of the 'hereditarily ill' damaged the integrity and value of the German population. The 'hereditary health' of the 'national community' was central to all work in this area. The promotion of 'valuable' hereditary lines and the concurrent prevention of the reproduction of the 'hereditarily ill' were emphasized. Pupils were given an understanding of the need for sterilization and of Nazi eugenics laws. They were shown the power of genetic transmission from one generation to the next. The preservation of the 'Nordic character' and an understanding of racial differences were the central aims of 'hereditary biology' lessons.\n\nNazi pedagogues, as well as Nazi leaders, regarded 'racial miscegenation' and 'bastardization' as serious threats to the German nation. In 1938, Alfred Vogel, a biology curriculum writer and primary school headmaster in Baden, produced a series of anti-Semitic teaching charts designed as teaching aids to the new curriculum. These accompanied a teachers' book designed for the instruction of 'biology' to primary school children. Vogel encouraged teachers to instruct children about the laws of nature and heredity, as well as racial consciousness and the 'blood community' of the German nation. He drew parallels between cross-breeding in plant biology and 'racial mixing' in society. Vogel advocated a 'race corner' in the school grounds that could be used to carry out experiments on plants and allow pupils to see the strength of the 'pure-bred' plant over the mixed-bred one. The inferences from this were applied to human society. Vogel examined 'hidden' inherited tendencies in biology, claiming that it was not correct to judge a living thing from its outwardly visible characteristics. The implication of this was that heredity was the only important signifier of race, so that a Jew posed a danger to the German nation even if he did not look like a Jew or did not practice his religion.\n\nTopics for biology instruction included: 'the heredity of physical characteristics', 'the heredity of mental and spiritual characteristics', 'the heredity of frailties and illnesses', 'the heredity of physical and spiritual characteristics of the German race', 'the care of racial inheritance', 'the law of selection' and 'the Jews and the German people'. Vogel advocated the need to educate young Germans about 'the racial value of our people and the tireless struggle over the preservation of our racial character' and about 'the complete rejection of the Jews'. His illustrated charts, including 'The Racial Composition of the Jews' and 'German Ways\u2013Jewish Ways', were used to show the perils presented to the German nation by the 'parasitic', 'wandering Jew'. His charts stereotyped the Jews, both as stateless intruders and as financial and political dominators. He also linked Jews with Freemasons and suggested that they were engaged together in a conspiracy for world domination. Whilst biology teaching did not propose overtly the policy of the genocide of the Jews, it did provide a legitimization for this policy, as well as for the Nazi 'euthanasia' campaign.\n\nThe 'school garden' was also employed by National Socialist pedagogues as a useful addition to the curriculum. The school garden was to be a true 'community garden' for the entire school, where each child participated for the benefit of the whole school community. This was a microcosm of the concept of the 'national community'. In the school garden, children developed their physical skills, as well as their sense of duty and responsibility. They also gained practical knowledge such as how to grow fruit and vegetables and how to control pests. Pupils learned about seeds, fertilization and soil usage. They undertook experiments on soil, fertilization and genetics, as part of the school garden activities. The topics were exploited to emphasize Nazi ideological imperatives. For example, links were made between particular plants and the 'German nation', the importance for the 'national community' of fruit and vegetable growing was shown, and hereditary transmission as demonstrated in the school garden was used to emphasise racial and eugenic issues.\n\nBiology teaching in girls' schools was particularly concerned with the 'mother instinct'. It emphasized a girl's main responsibility as her role in marriage and family life. Biology teaching included topics such as breeding and rearing animals, genetics, race studies, practical studies on the care of babies and young children, care of the sick and first aid, and preparations for girls' roles as future housewives in relation to both the domestic and the national economy.\n\n**PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY**\n\nOf the three natural sciences, biology clearly took precedence in the Nazi curriculum, as it lent itself most easily to the regime's ideological objectives. Teachers of physics and chemistry had to make more of an effort to show that their subjects were pertinent to the Nazi government and its aims. In particular, the significance of physics for warfare was emphasized, as physics teachers tried to justify their subject by relating it to military objectives. A new branch of physics teaching under National Socialism\u2013'the physics of weapons'\u2013was designed to awaken the ability to bear arms. Military physics increased in significance from 1936 onwards. Pupils were instructed in orientation, measurement, communications, ballistics and military engineering. A new handbook was provided for teachers on this subject. Physics under National Socialism, according to its author, Erich G\u00fcnther, had the purpose 'of awakening not only the ability to bear arms but also the will to do so, and, beyond that, to show the ways and technical means to carry out the decision to bear arms'. Gauging of distance, sighting the line of fire and working out military objectives were all a fundamental part of this.\n\nThe importance of physics as a 'decisive practical factor' for weapons training and defence against enemy attack was underlined as follows:\n\nWe need excellent engineers not only for peace work but also just as much for building fighting and defence equipment of every kind, be it firearms or range finders, be it submarines, airplanes or combat vehicles. We need officers with thorough education in technology and natural sciences, who understand how to take charge of these war materials properly, and it hardly needs mentioning how diverse the knowledge of physics and the abilities are that are necessary for instance to command firing the heaviest artillery or a submarine.\n\nHence, physics was envisaged as a subject to be used for training engineers and military personnel. Physics instruction centred on ballistics, optics and aeronautics. Physics pedagogues fell into line with Nazi requirements in these areas. Willy G\u00f6llnitz, a secondary school teacher in Chemnitz, very clearly stated the need and rationale for practical weapons training: 'Present-day weapon technology requires that the most important concepts of internal and external ballistics be taught particularly to pupils in higher schools, who are destined later to fill leading positions in the army. But fortunately the times of blackboard physics are over'. Practical shooting experiments, including how to determine projectile trajectories and time of flight, were deemed to be 'the only way to arouse the necessary scientific interest in pupils alongside the natural pleasure in shooting'. Optics, including the use of prisms, mirrors, lenses, cameras and telescopes, was another area of physics that had importance in terms of military preparation. Artur Friedrich, a secondary school teacher in Chemnitz, argued for the need to equip pupils with a practical knowledge of these subjects so that they would be 'fit for defence' and able to carry out their future 'duties as soldiers with more understanding and interest'.\n\nPhysics teaching in the Third Reich was aimed at creating an understanding of the importance of technology, defence and the military in the life of the nation. Physics channelled the National Socialist world view. Physics teachers were to instruct pupils in problem solving and provide them with knowledge and practical skills only within the remit and requirements of Nazi educational policy. Furthermore, education in physics in the Third Reich particularly emphasized aviation, and the regime asked its educators to create an enthusiasm for flying among pupils. The objective was to prepare young people for service in the air force. New textbooks on aeronautical physics were produced for this purpose. Aeronautical physics, including topics such as propeller operation and flight dynamics, was deemed an important subject in the preparation of young boys for the air force. Instruction in this area was aimed both at imparting technical and scientific knowledge and at encouraging enthusiasm for flying and for the air force. By 1938, aviation and defence physics formed a significant part of the science curriculum.\n\nPhysics was also employed to teach pupils the achievements of German physicists and the contributions of German research to scientific knowledge. This was intended to enhance national pride and underline the significance of the National Socialist 'Aryan' world view. The work of Jewish physicists was excluded in line with Nazi racial ideology. As the 'racial heredity' of a person directly influenced his work, only the 'Aryan' scientist could be seen to truly achieve and create. Most significantly, this meant that Albert Einstein's name was erased in the physics textbooks of the Nazi era. Einstein's theory of relativity was rejected on the grounds that it was 'theoretical magic' and a 'great worldwide Jewish bluff'. 'Aryan' physicists, in contrast, such as Philipp Lenard and Johannes Stark, flourished under the political system of National Socialism. Their 'Aryan' physics aimed to preserve the 'national community' and express the life of the nation. Stark, in particular, called for there to be 'no Jewish propaganda' in German physics textbooks.\n\nPhysics teaching under National Socialism had 'to contribute to national political instruction and forming willpower'. Furthermore, 'knowledge of the natural conditions and requirements of the national community in the German living space, the ability and the will to do further work on the questions of physics research and technology in this connection, and also teaching to think realistically, which is so important for forming National Socialist willpower, can only be fostered organically on the basis of the pupils' horizon which schools should help to expand gradually'. Although topics such as classical mechanics and electromagnetism continued to be taught, much of the practical emphasis took the form of instruction in physics related to military topics for boys and domestic topics for girls. In the girls' schools in which sciences were taught, over the course of three years, the physics curriculum contained the following subjects: mechanics, thermodynamics and electricity in the first year; thermodynamics and optics in the second year; and electricity, induction and German physicists in the third year. The physics curriculum taught girls about household and kitchen appliances, as well as physics in relation to health and optics, rather than about modern physics per se. Physics, in girls' schools, mainly comprised instruction in the technical and even economic aspects of household management, heating and the practical use of electrical appliances.\n\nChemists likewise attempted to raise the prestige and status of their subject by underlining its significance to German national goals. In particular, they emphasized its importance to German manufacturing and defence. Ilse Beier, a chemistry teacher from Essen, suggested the possibilities of the subject in underlining 'the educational principles of the Third Reich'. Walther Franck, a secondary school teacher from Hamburg, defended chemistry, stating that it would be inopportune to reduce its teaching 'at a time when political and economic leaders in the whole world are struggling with the problem of materials, their production and their processing'. Chemistry teachers appealed to the armed forces and industrial companies such as I. G. Farben, as well as Nazi leaders who could see the benefits of their subject\u2013in terms of economic self-sufficiency and readiness for war\u2013for support. Chemistry education under National Socialism connected the chemical industry to the German people and the German economy. Chemists argued that their subject was significant for the economy and for defence. Furthermore, the history of science in chemistry teaching was aimed at strengthening national awareness and pride. Important German chemists such as Johann Wolfgang D\u00f6bereiner, Carl von Linde and Josef Loschmidt were used to show the importance of German contributions to research and scientific knowledge. Chemistry teachers could also use their subject as an opportunity to discuss 'race' by showing pupils the importance of the Germanic 'race' to the science of chemistry.\n\nFurthermore, the discussion of the Treaty of Versailles in this regard underlined a sense of unfairness that Germany was disadvantaged by the loss of territories rich in raw materials. Connections between raw materials and the national economy were drawn in chemistry teaching. Walter Leonhardt, a secondary school teacher from Dresden, explained that\n\nchemistry has to do with the instruments of power that first make it possible to wage war, with the most important mineral resources, coal and iron ore, from which steel is produced, with the materials for producing gunpowder and explosives, with the fertilizers to ensure the national food supply, etc. In the years since the lost war, chemistry teachers have considered it their duty to make clear to pupils what instruments of power Germany lost by being robbed of the mineral sources in Lorraine, the Saar and Upper Silesia, and most textbooks have not failed to include notes on this. In future, much more space will have to be devoted to such things so that our young learn to assess Germany's endangered situation from this viewpoint.\n\nNew educational guidelines from Rust's Ministry for Education and Science in 1938 stated that chemistry instruction in schools should be aimed at teaching children that 'constant and systematic work on developing natural sciences and technology ensures the high economic and cultural status of our people'. Furthermore, it was to demonstrate 'how chemical science and technology make new, valuable raw materials and synthetics available to German industry from substances found in our native country' and 'how they process and refine imported foreign raw materials'. Moreover, it taught children 'that application of chemical knowledge in agriculture and forestry and in the food industry helps to ensure our food supply, and that chemistry is indispensable for questions of national defence'. These guidelines also indicated that only certain compounds and substances needed to be taught. Pupils were required to learn only about economically significant raw materials, and how they were obtained and processed. New chemistry textbooks that taught in accordance with these stipulations were introduced. In practical terms, pupils worked in groups on chemical processes and analyses. Suggested topics included 'Analyses of Artificial Silks and Rayon', 'Experiments on Producing Artificial Fibres', 'Analysis of a Detergent' and 'Simple Analyses of Soil and Water'.\n\nFor girls, chemistry teaching dealt mainly with the chemistry of foodstuffs, fibres, household objects and detergents. Girls were taught about the need for domestic frugality. Both girls and boys were taught about chemical gases and air raid protection, although for boys defence chemistry was deemed particularly significant. Pupils were taught to become fit for defence in the event of gas attacks. They were taught about the nature of chemical weapons, protection against chemical gas, the effects of poisons on human beings and first aid to victims of gas poisoning. Pupils also undertook related chemistry experiments, for example on making gunpowder, on how oxygen masks worked and on protection from gas poisoning in air raid shelters.\n\nAnother significant topic in chemistry teaching, particularly after the announcement of the Four Year Plan in 1936, was the 'battle' for production and for collecting and recycling waste. The economic importance of metals, fuels, synthetic rubber and synthetic fibres was examined. Pupils were encouraged to collect and recycle waste. They experimented with producing oil from coffee grounds and they conducted experiments using waste metals that they had collected. This kind of teaching dovetailed with Nazi propaganda on the collection and recycling of waste materials. Chemistry under National Socialism was employed to underline the regime's ideological objectives as much as was possible within the perimeters of the subject area. In particular, production, raw materials and defence as aspects of chemistry teaching, along with attempts to employ the subject to enhance national awareness, were the most significant aspects of this phenomenon.\n\n**GEOGRAPHY**\n\nThe key topics in the geography curriculum under National Socialism were: studies of the homeland, which included love of the fatherland, 'blood and soil' and an idealization of bucolic life; political geography, which focused on the Treaty of Versailles, Germans living in border territories and abroad, Germany's 'enemies' and Germany's requirement for 'living space'; race studies, which included differentiations between 'superior' and 'inferior' races and especially an excoriation of the Jews; defence geography, which included security of German borders, defence preparation, descriptions of military topography; and colonial geography, which dealt with the need to reclaim lost German colonies, the history of Germany's colonial achievements and the crimes of other colonial powers. Geography in the Third Reich aimed to generate a political understanding of Germany's position in the world. The term a ' _Volk ohne Raum_ ' or 'people without space'\u2013originally the title of a serialized novel by Hans Grimm\u2013which suggested that the German _Volk_ needed more 'living space', was used to justify Nazi policies of expansionism. Studies of the homeland were a central theme throughout all geography education. The new secondary school curriculum in 1938 allotted two hours per week to geography. It emphasized topics such as the political subdivision of Germany, its racial groups, its 'living space' in Europe, Germans in border areas and abroad, German colonies and culminated in 'German People and German Land: The German Reich and its Position in the World'. There was much emphasis on Germans living in border areas and in territories lost to Germany under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, which aimed at arousing sentiments of nationalism among German schoolchildren. Similarly to physics and chemistry, the regime found a way to introduce the theme of defence into geography teaching. This began as early as 1933 but was accelerated as the war approached. Defence geography included military topography, as well as a discussion of national borders and arenas of war.\n\nFurthermore, geography teaching was employed by National Socialism in order to expound its racial ideology. In particular, geography pedagogues exploited both traditional and new forms of anti-Semitism in their publications. For example, the image of the eternally wandering Jew was a favourite theme. Walter Jantzen was one of the most prominent geography educationalists in the Third Reich. He integrated Nazi ideology into the geography curriculum, particularly racial concerns about Jews, Blacks and Gypsies. He addressed the subjects of 'living space', 'blood and soil' and the decline in Germany's birth rate since the end of the First World War. Konrad Olbricht and Hermann K\u00e4rgel highlighted the ideological distinctions between National Socialism and 'Jewish Bolshevism' in their geography textbook. They juxtaposed their values on a number of themes and issues. For example, whilst National Socialism stood for leadership and loyalty, Judaeo-Bolshevism was characterized as the tyranny of a foreign national authority under the guise of democracy. Whilst Nazism advocated a healthy peasantry, a love for the soil and a dislike of urbanization, Judaeo-Bolshevism stood for the crushing of the peasants and the expansion of big cities.\n\nHence, geography in the Third Reich was employed to create a sense of love for the fatherland among schoolchildren. Hitler's achievements for Germans everywhere were glorified. The curriculum was very much focused upon topics about the German land. Phrases such as 'people without space' and 'blood and soil', which were really propaganda slogans, found their way into the classroom, as did anti-Semitism.\n\n**HISTORY**\n\nHitler was clear in his views about history teaching:\n\nParticularly in the present method of teaching, a change must be made . . . The result of our present history instruction is wretched in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred. A few facts, dates, birthdays and names remain behind while a broad clear line is totally lacking. The essentials which should really matter are not taught at all . . . The main value lies in recognising the great lines of development . . . For we do not learn history in order to know the past, we learn history in order to find an instructor for the future and for the continued existence of our nationality.\n\nThe history curriculum was subjected to considerable change under National Socialism. For example, Hans Schemm stated that 'the prehistory of German history must have a more prominent position in our curricula'. Defence history and frontier studies were also added to the history curriculum. The subject area 'local history' was to include not only knowledge about the local area, but also information about the whole _Volk_ and fatherland. It was concerned with the destiny of the nation and an understanding of the homeland. The lore of race and its prehistory, as described in the works of Houston Stewart Chamberlain and Hans G\u00fcnther, were also significant to this subject area. Local history under National Socialism was, in these ways, different to our understanding of what this subject usually comprises.\n\nA meeting of the NSLB in Eger on history teaching reported that the field of history was unable to keep up with the pace of National Socialist change in terms of its ideological and political world view. It bemoaned the lack of a history book that satisfied the National Socialist view in its evaluation and organization of historical events. National Socialist historians re-examined single chapters of world history anew. Even before new textbooks were available, history teachers were urged to teach their subject in the spirit of National Socialism: 'It is the duty of every history teacher to teach with his National Socialist\u2013trained conviction, even if new teaching material is not yet available'. There was a call for the transformation of the old historical interpretation into a National Socialist interpretation. The great National Socialist revolution needed to situate itself within the course of German history. The current struggle was of a historic nature and had to be understood as such: 'The new self-display of National Socialism . . . will be seen in sharp contrast to the democratic era'. Alfred Rosenberg stated: 'I am well aware that this is a huge educational task for our movement. Our task is to write world history anew, and this will take many years, even decades'. Although many of the Weimar history books contained the themes of earlier nationalist thought, the Nazi regime nevertheless aimed to replace them. Nazi history textbooks fostered nationalistic themes more extremely than ever before.\n\nHistory was interpreted as a struggle for existence between nations. History lessons were used as an opportunity to demonstrate to pupils the greatness of Germany. They were intended to awaken and excite children's sense of national pride and concern about the continued existence of the German state and nation. Hitler believed that: 'From all the innumerable great names in German history, the greatest must be picked out and introduced to the youth so persistently that they become pillars of unshakeable national sentiment'. History under National Socialism was further used to highlight the leadership principle, emphasizing Germany's 'great leaders' and their 'world-historical' achievements. For example, great historical leaders, such as Frederick the Great, were used to illustrate heroic leadership, tireless service to the state, military achievements and parallels to Hitler. The great triumphs of National Socialism were given considerable attention in the history textbooks of the Nazi period. History was an integral part of 'national political' education.\n\nA history textbook for secondary school pupils devoted part of its section on German culture to the position of women in the 'national community'. This outlined Nazi views on women's role in society and stressed the need to reawaken women's desire to have children and indeed to have large families. It underlined the role of mothers in educating their children, claiming that there was no task more noble or more beautiful than a mother making the developing soul of her child receptive to all the goodness and beauty of its nation. Various aspects of the theme of 'national renewal' were indeed common in the history textbooks of the era. Historical atlases illustrated Germany's greatness in her most historically important and expansive periods, and especially in the Third Reich. Furthermore, they employed maps, graphs and charts to highlight population policy issues, such as the declining birth rate and the age make-up of the population to demonstrate that Germany was becoming 'a nation without youth'. Hence, history books were implemented to explain the nature of Nazi population policy.\n\nThere was a flurry of activity in writing a new history curriculum in Nazi Germany. Publishers, university professors, teachers and school administrators became involved in this process, often in the pursuit of professional advancement. Dieter Klagges was one of the key history curriculum writers of the Nazi era, underlining the significance of German blood in history teaching. He developed the themes of racial purity and anti-Semitism in his writings. Johann von Leers used history stories as a means of portraying anti-Semitic ideas to young children, stressing the profiteering of Jews at the expense of Germans and depicting Jews as 'swindlers' and 'crooks'. History textbook writers of the Nazi era, such as Hans Warneck and Willi Matschke, portrayed the Jews as 'enemies of the Reich'. In his children's history textbook Johannes Mahnkopf wrote about the historical connection of Jews and Freemasons as a negative force. Such texts aimed to increase children's sense of attachment and loyalty to National Socialism in its struggle against 'the Jewish enemy'. Whilst the Nazi regime was not the first to use _v\u00f6lkisch_ ideas in history teaching, Wegner has shown that it was 'the first and only regime to fully institutionalise a racist and anti-Semitic history curriculum'. The glorification of militarism and nationalism that were already extant in the history textbooks of the _Kaiserreich_ and the Weimar Republic reached their peak in the history textbooks of the Third Reich.\n\n**MATHEMATICS**\n\nNazi maths books seized the opportunity to socialize children through pervading the curriculum in a well-established tradition. Maths questions dealt with 'national political problems'. Calculations of sums were based on examples of bullet trajectories, aircraft, cannons and bombs. For example, pupils were given the following statement: 'A bombing plane can be loaded with one explosive bomb of 35 kilograms, three bombs of 100 kilograms, four gas bombs of 150 kilograms, and 200 incendiary bombs of one kilogram'. The questions that the pupils had to answer were: 'What is the load capacity? What is the percentage of each type of bomb? How many incendiary bombs of 0.5 kilograms could be added if the load capacity were increased by 50 per cent?' Such arithmetic and mathematical problems were not uncommon in the textbooks of the Third Reich.\n\nNumerical problems based on state expenditure on 'hereditarily ill' and 'inferior' people exemplified the way in which Nazi ideology pervaded the school curriculum. In one exercise, pupils were presented with the following information: 'Every day, the state spends RM. 6 on one cripple; RM. 4 1\/4 on one mentally ill person; RM. 5 1\/2 on one deaf and dumb person; RM. 5 3\/5 on one feeble-minded person; RM. 3 1\/2 on one alcoholic; RM. 4 4\/5 on one pupil in care; RM. 2 1\/20 on one pupil at a special school; RM. 9\/20 on one pupil at an ordinary school.' It then asked questions such as 'What total cost do one cripple and one feeble-minded person create, if one takes a lifespan of forty-five years for each?' and 'Calculate the expenditure of the state for one pupil in a special school, and one pupil in an ordinary school over eight years, and state the amount of higher cost engendered by the special school pupil'. The implications of such questions were that state funds were being squandered on 'unhealthy' or 'undesirable' people. This was typical of the way in which data regarding state expenditure on 'hereditarily ill' or 'inferior' people was utilized in 'education'.\n\nExercises using data based upon the birth rate and other issues relating to population policy were also common in school textbooks of the Nazi era. For example, one exercise was based on the marriage loan scheme, introduced by the Nazi regime in 1933 to promote early marriage and the founding of _kinderreich_ families. It gave the figures of the number of loans given each year between 1933 and 1937, together with the value of each loan, and required pupils to calculate the yearly state expenditure on these loans. The association of these figures in the minds of schoolchildren doing these exercises was to indicate to them that money spent on maintaining 'hereditarily ill' people or on children attending special schools could be better spent on other things, such as marriage loans for 'healthy' and 'valuable' families. Furthermore, pupils were given figures relating to the number of Jews ('aliens') living in Germany as compared to the total population and asked to work out 'What is the percentage of aliens?' living in Germany.\n\nAnother maths textbook familiarized children with large numbers by using figures relating to the First World War. It stated that 13,250,000 men were called up by Germany, 11,250,000 by her allies, and 47,500,000 by Germany's enemies. The children, whilst doing addition and subtraction exercises, were simultaneously made aware of the 'heroic struggle' of Germany in the conflict. These examples all highlight the way in which Nazi educators used textbooks to disseminate Nazi ideology.\n\n**GERMAN**\n\nThe remit of the Nazi school curriculum was extremely broad and this subject in particular lent itself to the promotion of Nazi ideals. German language and literature found a prominent place in the Nazi school curriculum, teaching children the language of National Socialism. The preface of a German grammar book from the Nazi era states:\n\nWhatever moves the soul of a people, in joy and sorrow, in meditation and battle, in creation and festivity, vibrates in unison with the entire curriculum, and by no means least in the teaching of language. Here, too, it is a matter of coinciding with life itself! Proximity to the present! Relation to the people! For that reason let us also give utterance to the mighty events of the time in our lessons in German! That which fills the heart of the people is spilled by the tongue of youth! The stream of strong blood-folk thought, feeling, and will must be permitted to flow, warm with life, into the form of the word. The result will be a teaching of folk-culture in the mother tongue; we must make this live and be watchful in the growing generation, so that this may, with its own treasure of words belonging to our day and age, express the new treasure of thought, gather it into itself, and let it root ever deeper in the German essence, growing ever more deeply rooted, growing ever more into the German mode of thought, the German mode of living, and the German view of the world.\n\nStudies of German folklore were regarded as a 'central educational point' in the Third Reich. A document on this subject prepared by Friedrich Dehmlaw argued that no other _Volk_ had experienced such change from greatness to profound collapse in its history. Dehmlaw claimed that Germany had been 'internally decayed'. The solution was to create clear goals for future development. He described the historical development of Germany in earlier eras, with a neglect of German traditions and culture. Nevertheless, Germany transformed herself again and again and developed a new folklore. 'In order to bring German qualities to the German mind, the _Volk_ must be educated'. It had to be educated to love the nation and 'to be the German people'. Dehmlaw decried the influence of the Jews on Germany and called for their exclusion from German culture, as they were 'foreign' to it. He called for schools to subordinate all their activities to 'the national goal of the making of the German _Volk_ '. German folklore was an integral part of education. The great value of German culture and language was emphasized. Whilst Dehmlaw's essay was criticized by other educationalists, the basic premise that German folklore was an important aspect of _Volk_ education remained valid throughout the Third Reich.\n\nLessons in German were designed to foster a sense of 'Germanness' and of national pride and unity among pupils. Nationalist and irrational aspects of German literature were extolled. Poems such as Dietrich Eckart's 'Germany Awake!' were used to ignite a sense of nationalism in German schoolchildren:\n\nGermany Awake!   \nStorm, storm, storm!   \nLet the bells ring from tower to tower,   \nRing till the sparks begin to shower,   \nJudas appears, to win the Reich's power.   \nRing till the bell-ropes redden with blood.   \nRing for the burning, the martyred, the dead.   \nRing out the storm, and let the whole earth shake,   \nRevenge to the rescue, and thunder overhead!   \nWoe unto those who dream today!   \nGermany, awake\n\nFurthermore, Kamenetsky has pointed out, many classics were adjusted to the requirements of the Nazi regime by means of 'slanted abridgements or reinterpretations', whilst others that did not fit into the Nazi 'world view' were simply banned. For example, attempts were made at an 'Aryan' reinterpretation of Goethe. Literature was rewritten, with rationalist, enlightened or cosmopolitan influences removed. 'Non-Aryan' writers, such as Heine, were rejected. Individualistic aspects of literature were removed or ignored in favour of the promotion of _v\u00f6lkisch_ ness, with its themes of belonging and identity. Teachers of German language and literature were urged to stress the nation as 'a community of blood', 'a community of fate and struggle', 'a community of work' and 'a community of mind'. Traditional German tales and sagas were supplemented with Nazi myths and war stories. Hero worship of National Socialist heroes such as Horst Wessel found their way into school textbooks. Furthermore, there was much emphasis on _Blut und Boden_ (blood and soil) literature, as well as the glorification of war. Considerable attention was given to the war of 1914\u201318, in particular. The subject matter of Germans living outside the nation's boundaries was also treated in reading books. Such books bemoaned the loss of 'ethnic' Germans, who through 'blood' and 'race' belonged to the German nation, but who were citizens of foreign states\u2013'Germans across the borders'. Schoolchildren were taught the need 'to make Germany whole again'.\n\nSchool textbooks were employed widely to represent Nazi ideals. Primers introduced very young children to aspects of Nazi ideology such as faith in the _F\u00fchrer_ , love of the fatherland, and service and sacrifice for the German 'national community'. Initially, primers represented a mixture of old and new values. Publishers reprinted pre-1933 texts with small alterations, such as the addition of Nazi Party slogans or images of swastika flags. By the mid- to late 1930s, primers represented Nazi ideology more distinctly as censorship increased and a greater number of new texts and illustrations became available. They dealt, 'in word and picture, with camp life, marching, martial drums, boys growing up to be soldiers, and girls to take care of soldiers'. An image of Hitler often appeared on the page inside the front cover, before the start of the book. A page consisting of the words _Heil Hitler_ followed, with children shown raising their arms in the Hitler salute. Hitler was portrayed as benevolent, friendly and generous. For example, the story 'A Happy Day' depicts scenes of great excitement and anticipation, as children prepared for the _F\u00fchrer's_ visit to their village. Nazi symbols were depicted in textbooks for very young children. For example, there were illustrations of children waving swastika flags. There was a poem in the form of a short prayer, in which children expressed their hope to become 'strong and pure . . . German children' of their _F\u00fchrer_. This theme of making the _F\u00fchrer_ happy was common in school textbooks of the Nazi era. In addition, there were texts and illustrations of Nazi organizations, in particular the SA and the Hitler Youth. One textbook showed two small boys proudly marching alongside their SA fathers. The combined impact of striking illustrations with simple primer language conveyed the National Socialist message boldly. Primers became more concerned with doing this, than with preparing children to read. Letters of the alphabet were introduced in conjunction with an aspect of Nazism, for example, the letter H for ' _Heil, Heil'_. Political socialization in readers took the form of stories about 'helping the _F\u00fchrer_ ' and the 'national community', for example by taking part in the regime's _Winterhilfswerk_ (Winter Relief Agency) and _Eintopf_ (one-pot dish) campaigns to help needy 'national comrades'. The 'one-pot dish' campaign encouraged families to give up their usual meal on one Sunday each month, for a cheap 'one-pot dish' and to donate the money saved to a state-sponsored charity. In one story, illustrated with a family sitting around their dining table, a child told her parents that she had thought the _Eintopf_ meant that there was a large dish outside the town hall, and that all the people went there to eat. Her brother laughed at her, but their father admonished him, saying that at least now the girl had understood what the _F\u00fchrer_ meant. After that, there was a knock at the door and the collector appeared. One of the children was instructed to fetch the money, and to give double that day, as it was the father's birthday. This story explained the significance of the _Eintopf_ , using the family context as a basis for political socialization. Another story told of a mother asking her daughters to fetch potatoes from the cellar in baskets to fill up a sack for the Winter Relief Agency, whose motto was 'no one shall go hungry, no one shall freeze'. They brought up three baskets and asked if that was enough. Their mother told them to bring up another basket, as the sack was not yet full, emphasizing that they should be pleased to make sacrifices for the Winter Relief Agency.\n\nPolitical socialization was evident too in the way in which family life was portrayed and in stories and images of 'the German mother', which mirrored the Nazi idealization of motherhood. For example, the choice of adjectives employed to describe family members accorded exactly with National Socialist ideals\u2013the 'goodness' of the mother, the 'strength' of the father, the action and 'pride' of the son, the passivity of the daughter were depicted in a description of 'a good type of family'. Illustrations of a mother surrounded by four or five loving children were common. These reflected the Nazi aim of the _kinderreich_ family. Short texts and poems about the mother and her tireless work for her family accompanied these images. They listed all the tasks and duties that the mother happily undertook, without becoming fatigued or morose. In readers for younger children, there were stories of children preparing a special treat for their mother on her birthday or on Mother's Day, but in reading books for older children, depictions of the mother were found under the subheading 'heroes of everyday life'. This elevation of 'the German mother' to a heroic status closely reflected Nazi ideology.\n\nA play for Mother's Day was included in one school textbook, portraying four councillors engaged in a discussion of ways to relieve the 'mother' of her many burdens and duties. Just as they were considering the possibility of finding someone to take over some of the duties of the mother, a woman appeared at the door. They asked her if she was a wife and mother, to which she replied affirmatively. Then they asked her if she took care of her family, to which she responded that she did so from dawn to dusk. However, when asked about the possibility of having assistance to lighten her burden, she firmly rejected the idea, claiming that mothers loved their domain and were happy to toil from early in the morning until late at night for their families. The councillors, after she had departed, concluded their meeting by deciding that 'mothers do not want to be relieved' of their duties and tasks. This clearly reflected the Nazi view that German mothers should be willing to work hard and make sacrifices for their families.\n\nExamples of blatant political socialization are found in stories depicting 'the enemies of Germany', in particular Jews, Bolsheviks and Slavs. Such negative stereotypes were used to underline the differences between 'national comrades', who belonged to the 'national community', and 'community aliens' and 'enemies', who did not. For example, in secondary school readers, anti-Semitic quotations from Hitler, Himmler or other Nazi leaders were interspersed with folklore and literature that sought to highlight nationalism. The German need for 'living space' explained in history and geography books also found its way into storybooks.\n\n**RACIAL STUDIES**\n\n'No boy and no girl must leave school without having been led to an ultimate realisation of the necessity and essence of blood purity'. Many textbooks of the Nazi era focused on this theme. One story that related specifically to Nazi racial ideology told of a cuckoo that met a nightingale in the street. The cuckoo wanted to sing as beautifully as the nightingale. He claimed that the only reason he could not do so was because he had not been taught to sing when he was young. The nightingale laughed and said that nightingales did not learn to sing, but were born with the ability to sing. The cuckoo, nevertheless, believed that if only he could find the right teacher, his offspring would be able to sing as beautifully as the nightingale. His wife had a clever idea. She decided to lay her eggs in the nest of another bird, so that their young would grow up together with those of another type of bird than the cuckoo, and would therefore learn how to sing. She laid an egg in the nest of a hedge sparrow. When the mother hedge sparrow returned to her nest, she was surprised to see the strange egg, but she decided to take care of it as if it were her own. When the eggs hatched, a young cuckoo emerged among the young hedge sparrows. He was nourished and cared for in exactly the same way as them, but he did not grow into a hedge sparrow. In fact, the older he grew, the more noticeable his differences became. He did not fly like the others, but flew like his real parents, that is, like a cuckoo. When he tried to sing, he could not do so. The only sound he could make was that of his own species. Hence, despite being reared in the nest of a hedge sparrow, he grew up to be a true cuckoo. This story was used to pose the questions: 'What is more important? The race from which one stems, or the nest in which one grows up?' The issues raised in this fable are particularly salient, reflecting both the debate about inherited versus acquired characteristics and the fundaments of Nazi racial ideology.\n\n_Rassenkunde_ (racial studies) was a new subject that formed an integral part of the curriculum under National Socialism. 'The battle about _Rassenkunde_ is not a matter of theoretical debates, but a battlefield on which, without a doubt, the most important battles of our century are fought out.' The strength of the nation was conditional upon 'pure' blood, and Nazi ideology consistently expounded the evils of 'racial miscegenation'. The NSLB stressed that 'at primary schools in particular we have to work on only the Nordic racial core of the German _Volk_ again and again and have to contrast this with the racial composition of foreign populations and the Jews'.\n\nRacial studies became an obligatory subject in all classes. The importance of race and heredity for the future of the nation and the aims of the government was impressed upon pupils. Their sense of responsibility towards their nation was awakened. _The ABC of Race_ outlined the following as Germany's main problems: too little territory, the Germans living abroad, the menace of the Jews and the falling birth rate. 'A nation without territory in time becomes a nation without people . . . If, however, we all fight together under our mighty National Socialist leadership and under the protection of the new racial laws, then the glorious Nordic future of Germany is assured'. In Nazi textbooks, 'Aryan' and Jewish 'racial types' (often in the form of caricatures) were juxtaposed so that German children would positively identify with the former and reject the latter as 'enemies'. This offered a pedagogical foundation and legitimization to the persecution of the Jews.\n\nNazi pedagogue, Fritz Fink, called for anti-Semitism to pervade the entire curriculum, at all age levels, in order to disseminate it in the classroom. He furnished educators with information about the Jews that they could use in their lessons, even if they had little experience of the subject. He integrated pictorial distinctions between Jews and 'Aryans' for teachers and school administrators. His work encompassed both traditional and radical anti-Semitism, using economic, religious and racial arguments against the Jews.\n\nAnti-Semitic storybooks were specifically dedicated to propounding Nazi ideology to children and they played a significant part in this regard. Indeed, the publishers of anti-Semitic literature aimed to disseminate their messages in the most direct and appealing way, by incorporating artwork using the most up-to-date techniques in colour printing. The most notable of these was the publishing house of _Der St\u00fcrmer_ , based in Nuremberg. _Der St\u00fcrmer_ was the anti-Semitic newspaper founded by Julius Streicher, the ardently anti-Semitic _Gauleiter_ of Franconia; it was characterized by a crude writing style, caricatures and cartoons. _Der St\u00fcrmer_ published an anti-Semitic textbook for young children, written by Elvira Bauer in 1936, entitled _Trau keinem Fuchs auf gr\u00fcner Heid und keinem Jud bei seinem Eid_ ( _Trust no Fox on the Green Heath and No Jew Upon his Oath_ ), designed to show children that Jews could not be trusted. It portrayed the Jews as inferior, untrustworthy and parasitic. _Der St\u00fcrmer_ put out a further anti-Semitic children's book entitled _Der Giftpilz_ ( _The Poisonous Mushroom_ ), written by Ernst Hiemer, in 1938. It portrayed the Jews, through a text containing seventeen short stories, as the antithesis of 'Aryan' humanity. 'The Jew' was dehumanized and conceptualized as 'the poisonous mushroom'. This book included the entire spectrum of anti-Semitic allegations against Jews, encompassing strands of both religious and racial anti-Semitism. The contents included the following themes: 'How to Tell a Jew', 'How Jewish Traders Cheat', 'How Jews Torment Animals', 'Are there Decent Jews?' and finally 'Without Solving the Jewish Question, No Salvation for Mankind'. _Der St\u00fcrmer_ published another work by the same author two years later, which propounded racial anti-Semitism and decrying the evils of 'racial miscegenation'. In this text, Hiemer portrayed Jews as 'bloodsuckers'. He equated Jews with tapeworms, claiming that: 'Tapeworm and Jew are parasites of the worst kind. We want their elimination. We want to become healthy and strong again. Then only one thing will help: Their extermination'. The aim of texts such as this was to justify the Nazis' mass destruction of the Jews. _Der St\u00fcrmer_ itself was also used in schools as part of Nazi 'education'. As well as salacious gossip, scandalous stories and its overtly anti-Semitic content, the paper published letters from approving teachers and children.\n\n'The whole of education must be subordinate to the new principle which aims at every young German person becoming a conscious political bearer of German blood.' Indeed, much use was made of genealogy and family trees in school textbooks of the era, in order to establish 'racial purity'. On this theme, a piece entitled 'You and your Ancestors!' asked pupils: 'Do you know what kind of blood runs through your veins? Do you know your father and your mother, and have you yet seen the ancestry of your forefathers?' This text urged children to be proud, not ashamed, of their ancestors, in their old-fashioned clothes. The writer stated that he had traced his own family tree back to 1500 and that he knew, therefore, what kind of blood ran through his veins. He wrote that ancestors had a bearing upon one's own talents and distinguishing features, a conviction firmly held by the Nazi leadership. Beyond forming a family tree, the author made up a genealogical table, so that instead of simply naming his ancestors, he recorded each one's date of birth and death, as well as details of marriages, professions and titles. The writer made this ancestral knowledge sound very important, exciting and colourful. He encouraged pupils to take an interest in their own ancestry, asking them to consider that one day they would be the ancestors of a future family, and that they were part of a family tree that would continue to grow. The implication was that the reader was culpable if he was ignorant about his line of descent. In addition to pupils' books, there were a number of teaching aids that suggested to teachers the ways in which these issues could and should be taught. Through genealogical activities, children were made aware of their membership of the 'blood community' of the German nation.\n\nApart from involving children in their own ancestry, numerous poems and stories about heredity, blood and kinship were presented in the textbooks of the Third Reich. These kinds of texts highlighted the sense of continuity between children, their parents, grandparents and great-grandparents back over the generations. They emphasized the flow of blood from the past, into the present and through into the future of a line of ancestry, and of blood flowing through the veins of a family generation after generation.\n\nOne textbook demonstrated the transmission of family characteristics through the generations by considering the composer Johann Sebastian Bach. It illustrated Bach's family tree, in order to show that there were no fewer than thirty-four 'musically competent' people in his family, of whom approximately half were 'outstandingly gifted'. This particular example was part of a comprehensive chapter dealing with heredity, race and family. Within this context, blood was the most significant and penetrating symbol, as 'German blood' was the guarantor of the future of the nation. However, there were other symbols too, such as the family home and traditions. Old furniture was regarded as a representation of continuity, so that the 'old chest' or the 'old table' linked together different generations of a family. The values of kinship were expressed through such symbols, which further represented the desirability of a good German family.\n\nIn relation to this theme, the rural family, in particular, was accorded a special significance during the Nazi era. Nazi ideology regarded the rural family to be pure and ideal, untainted by the depravities of urban life. It excoriated many aspects of life in the big cities, not least the tendency of young couples to limit the size of their families. Urbanization leading to the death of the nation was a recurrent theme. This came across especially vehemently in textbooks aimed at pupils in rural areas, designed to demonstrate to them their importance and value in maintaining a healthy nation. Such books showed that what was regarded as a family in the big cities was not a true family, but a distorted image of one. A husband and wife, living in the city, without children, but with domestic pets instead, could be described at best as a 'household', but not as a 'family'. The rural family was portrayed as the 'archetype of a true family'. Children were key components of a true family in Nazi ideology, the greatest blessing for a couple and, more significantly, for the nation. Another aspect of rural family life deemed positive by the Nazi regime was the inclusion of the grandparents in the home. In this way, children were more aware of their family history and ancestry.\n\nNazi teachers took their role in teaching on the subject of 'blood and soil' very seriously: 'We educators are the proclaimer and communicator for the coming generation, therefore it has to be our holy duty to plant blood and soil as something alive into the hearts and souls of German children.' This argument underlined the role and importance of the German peasantry, for 'only a hereditarily healthy people is capable of passing on the acres from generation to generation'. Peasant poems symbolized the working and struggling German peasantry that formed one of the foundations of Nazi ideology. The oak tree symbolized the eternal, stable German nation.\n\nNazi family ideology was treated in sections entirely devoted to this theme in schoolbooks for older children. Under the subheading 'the essence of the family; its biological position; its legal establishment', key aspects of Nazi ideology and policy were examined. This began with the statement that the family was the smallest but most important unit of the German nation, followed by an explanation that a true family consisted not just of a married couple, but of children too. It was the duty of parents to provide protection and care for their children, and of children to honour and respect their parents. Among the tasks or obligations of the family were the development of a sense of awareness of the 'national community' and the preservation of the nation through the creation of 'healthy' children. Only spouses who were free of physical and mental disabilities or illnesses were to reproduce. Furthermore, the obligation to know about heredity in general and one's own ancestry in particular was explicitly stated. Textbooks of this period explained why and how the National Socialist state promoted 'healthy' families, as well as its laws, such as the Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring and the Nuremberg Laws. As the 'germ cell' of the nation, the family was central to the attainment of blood purity and hereditary health.\n\n**GIRLS' EDUCATION**\n\nAs we have seen, education for girls in Nazi Germany was differentiated from boys' education through its emphasis on motherhood and the family. The Nazi pedagogue Alfred B\u00e4umler stated that under National Socialism there was not to be a general education, but a separate male and female education. Hence, girls' education was considered to require a distinctive character, rather than being part of the overall education of both sexes. The essence of the female nature and its significance to the future of the nation was underlined. The role of motherhood and family life was central to girls' education. To this end, textbooks devoted lengthy chapters to the subjects of cleaning and household care, as well as cooking and nutrition. Some of this education on hygiene and home economics was very practical. For example, one textbook gave detailed nutritional advice. It examined the nutritional value of meat, which differed according to the age of the animal and its diet, and explained the health risks of uncooked meats and liver or blood sausages if they were not properly cooked. It advocated the valuable contribution of fish to the diet, in particular cod, herring and shellfish. It explained the food poisoning risks from fish and how to tell if a fish was going off. It gave nutritional guidance on milk, butter, cheese, eggs, pulses, fruit, vegetables and sugar. It explained how beers, wines and spirits were made and highlighted their lack of nutritional value, as well as their effects upon the mind and body. In particular, the effects of alcoholism on the individual, the family and the state were explained\u2013the illness of the alcoholic, his expenditure of his family's income on alcohol and the costs involved for the state in maintaining chronic alcoholics in hospitals, prisons and asylums. Tea, coffee and cocoa were shown to have little or no nutritional value. The dangers of smoking tobacco were explained. This type of nutritional information was provided in order to promote an awareness of health, as part of the Nazis' comprehensive aim of creating a 'fit' race.\n\nAdvice on cleaning and household care followed this nutritional guidance. The daily cleaning of the kitchen, living room, bedrooms, floors and stairs was explained in great detail. Weekly cleaning of the rest of the house was considered to be sufficient. Instructions were then given for a thorough annual cleaning of the house, including all the woodwork, skirting boards, windows, window frames and sills. Instructions were given for cleaning floors, bringing back colour to faded carpets, cleaning china and glass and polishing furniture, as well as on which type of cleaning materials to use. The book gave advice on washing-up and kitchen hygiene. It claimed that the sign of a good housewife was a scrupulously clean kitchen. It gave further advice on washing bed linen, dealing with vermin and cleaning shoes, as well as heating and lighting the home. Another textbook that treated the subject of 'the work of the housewife' examined similar topics, but additionally dealt with the subject of clothing for the family and the part played by the housewife in saving and collecting old material. Such texts aimed to ensure that young women would not stumble into marital life unprepared. In particular, education on hygiene and the prevention of disease was considered to be very important. This was practical and even quite progressive. The advice and instruction in textbooks of the era, sometimes obvious, sometimes over-detailed, demonstrates the seriousness of the intentions of the Nazi regime to educate girls in accordance with its ideological imperatives.\n\n**PHYSICAL EDUCATION**\n\nAn emphasis on physical education was not new to Hitler's Germany. Physical education in Germany had its antecedents in the _Ritterakademien_ of the seventeenth century, in which the sons of the aristocracy were educated. Gymnastics also had a long history associated with and developing from the work and writings of Friedrich Jahn in the early nineteenth century. By the second half of the nineteenth century, gymnastics festivals and gymnastics societies were an established feature of German life. The Kaiser had stressed the importance of physical education at the Reich School Conference in 1890 and its significance was emphasized again in the Weimar Republic at the School Conference in 1920. During the Weimar era, the Prussian State Boarding Schools and Salem School exemplified the glorification of militarism in their physical training curricula. The Reich Youth Badge and Reich Youth Sports Competitions were introduced in the Weimar Republic. Hence, Hitler's concerns with physical education were not out of line with certain extant trends.\n\nHitler emphasized the importance of physical education claiming that the state had to adjust its entire educational work primarily 'to the breeding of absolutely healthy bodies'. He further stated that 'sport does not exist only to make the individual strong, agile and bold; it should also toughen him and teach him to bear hardships'. Nazi educationalists devoted considerable attention to this aim. The NSLB was keen to work to achieve Hitler's goals in this area. It argued that the bias towards intellectual education must be counteracted. Furthermore, racial-biological knowledge and an understanding of its requirements were built on the realization of the worth of the body and its entire development. To this end, physical development and achievement were regarded as very important. 'Where there is no will to defend, there is no ability to defend': this was an argument for inspiring willingness and ability to defend at school, primarily through physical education. The concept of the subordination of the individual to the whole was connected to physical education too, as it led to an understanding of collective effort and comradeship. A sense of responsibility and duty to the nation was encouraged through physical education, which created will and character. Hence, Hitler regarded physical education as fundamental to education as a whole.\n\nThe accomplishment of the regime's aims to increase physical education entailed greater demands on all teachers, including older ones. The advancement of physical education was a requirement 'in the interest of the toughening and increased fortification' of the nation. School inspectors were required to 'pay the greatest attention to and support this undertaking' through enquiries about participation, as well as tightened surveillance and monitoring of the lessons. Teachers who showed particular commitment to this goal were compensated by means of their schedules, such as being spared the duty of standing in for sick colleagues. Teachers were advised to become members of the SA, unless they were too old or had a physical infirmity. Otherwise, they were trained in sports courses. Teachers who were members of the SA were at a considerable advantage.\n\nIn reforms proposed to the secondary school system in 1936, it was argued that more hours for physical education had to be accommodated in the curriculum. Physical education took on a prominent role within schools, with five hours per week devoted to it, in the secondary school curriculum. In order to achieve the desired position for physical education within the National Socialist state, it was suggested that entry to university be based not only upon an examination of intellectual capacity, but also on the gaining of an official medical certificate pertaining to physical eligibility. There were also calls for grades awarded in physical education to be used for evaluating whether or not pupils advanced to the next higher class. In addition, individual physical performances, effort, discipline and leadership qualities could be assessed and these assessments could be taken into account with regard to entry to university. There was also a suggestion that if a pupil were exceptionally accomplished in terms of physical education this should balance out poor marks in academic subjects, which attracted some controversy among teachers. Additionally, it was to be made much harder for pupils to get exemptions from mandatory physical education. They had to be examined by a public health official or the school doctor. Many of these suggestions were implemented in Nazi education policy.\n\nCurriculum development in the area of physical education was an area of considerable attention during the Third Reich. Nazi educators believed that it was the duty of schools in the National Socialist state to educate the German nation to faith, obedience, strength and glory. Physical education had a new and important role in this: 'Physical exercises are for us no longer empty forms . . . but the means for the education of youth to National Socialism'. No other form of education was considered 'to give such possibilities for the education of the character of young people, than the various areas of physical education'. In physical education, 'we have the opportunity to guide the youth away from the \"I\" sports of past times to the \"We\" sports of the National Socialist state'. This was part of the process of inculcating youth with a sense of community of spirit and a move away from care for the self to concern for the group. In this way, a National Socialist society could be created.\n\nIn primary schools for boys and girls (years 1\u20133), children were to participate in movement stories based on the curriculum, such as Hansel and Gretel, The Wolf and the Seven Goats, Visit to the Easter Bunny, Strolling, Travels of a Family, exercises based on traffic and imitating the clock. They were to do moving exercises based on the theme of the forest, such as running between trees, jumping, hopping, jumping up to branches, stretching to imitate the height of trees, moving around in the woods and imitating animals in the forests. Other themes around which exercises were based included the river, winter, street life and building a house. Then there were simple songs and simple games such as 'Come and Run', 'Run after Numbers', 'Cat and Mouse', 'Fox and Geese'. In year 4, physical education included walking, running, jumping, imitation games and group activities. These sessions included push fights, pull fights, crawling and wrestling for boys. There was also use of equipment and obstacles, as well as ball exercises and first attempts at high jump and long jump. Gymnastic games and singing games were also part of the curriculum.\n\nIn years 5\u20136, there were more walking and running exercises, including endurance runs. There were balancing and skills exercises, as well as exercises to form the body, without equipment. This was supplemented with exercises using equipment, such as pushing and pulling bars, high bars, parallel bars, ladders and gymnastic rings. In years 7\u20138, walking and running exercises were intensified, with the use of hurdles and, additionally, the acceleration of training runs over 100 metres. Balance and skills exercises continued from the previous years, with the addition of skipping rope activities. There were more exercises for toning the arm and leg muscles. Exercises with equipment took the form of a more intense progression of bench, bar, ladder and gymnastic ring activities. In school years 9\u201310 and 11\u201313, a similar format and concept of physical training was given. The exercises were adapted according to the age groups and became progressively more difficult and demanding from year to year. Exercises for the formation of muscles became more important as the children grew older.\n\nThere was also a call for schools to establish an effective _Volkssport_ (national sport) in order for a strong German people to emerge. By participating in the national sport, pupils placed themselves in the 'national community' and were willing to make sacrifices for the _Volk_. As the timetable was already full of other physical education, national sport activities took place on field days, exercise marches and play afternoons. For years 5\u20137, these exercises included 'order exercises' (commands for individuals and groups), 'marching exercises' (duration one to three hours), cross-country games, wrestling, swimming and floor exercises. For years 8\u201310, there were 'order exercises', 'marching exercises' (duration four hours), country exercises which included orientation, assessment and use of terrain, and camouflage. In addition, there were waving and flashing exercises, pitching of clubs, aerial defence and gas defence exercises, swimming, floor exercises, wrestling and fist-fighting. For years 11\u201313, the activities were of a similar nature, but order and marching exercises were intensified, and country exercises were extended to include reconnaissance patrol training. In addition to this, at all age levels, there were _Volk_ exercises (running, jumping, pitching and hitting) aimed at achieving increased performance and accuracy. These _Volk_ exercises included stamina training and relay races, long jump, high jump, triple jump, pole vault, ball, javelin, discus, shot-put, gymnastics and swimming.\n\nStructured games and contact sports were important aspects of physical education. They promoted team spirit and co-operation, as well as self-discipline. These were considered to be perfect for character formation. In addition, hiking expeditions on field days were intended to enable children to get to know their homeland. By hiking and experiencing their 'homeland soil', the Nazis believed that pupils would learn to appreciate their folklore and to love their homeland with all its beauty. For younger children, hiking was intended as a pleasurable experience. Getting to know the homeland was associated with marching and singing songs. Whilst the duration and distance of the hikes varied according to age, there was nevertheless the intention to expose boys to a certain amount of strain. It was believed that enduring heat and cold, as well as hunger and thirst, would make older German boys tougher. In years 10\u201313 camp-duties were added to hiking exercises, in order to 'strengthen the community of the pupils', in a way deemed impossible at school. A tightly organized camp-structure with a strong leader was aimed at making pupils obedient, as well as ready for action and responsibility. In the winter, field days were based around winter sports, including skiing, tobogganing and ice-skating.\n\nThe physical education curriculum for girls was different to that for boys. Girls' gymnastics were aimed at educating German girls to become 'healthy, happy German women and German mothers'. All 'un-German' characteristics were to be avoided and eliminated. There was a particular emphasis on games and dance. There was to be contest and competition among girls, in order to encourage both productive efficiency and a sense of responsibility towards competitors. Responsibility towards the _Volk_ would be encouraged in this way. Classes were carefully planned so that all parts of the body were exercised. The aim of gymnastics was the development of a high degree of control of the body. In years 5\u20136, girls participated in 'order exercises', gymnastics, walking, running, skipping, relaxation exercises, swing exercises, muscle-strengthening exercises, dry swimming exercises, activities with balls and skipping ropes. They learned to use gymnastic equipment including the swinging rope, jumping vault, ladder, climbing pole, horizontal bar, swing rings and parallel bars. In years 7\u20138, they undertook similar 'order exercises' and a more intensive gymnastics training. As the school years progressed, they continued to follow a prescribed gymnastics programme, but with more demanding exercises. Girls took part in _Volk_ exercises similar to those of the boys. Their games lessons began as simple singing and dancing games and developed so that girls acquired the ability, discipline and knowledge to play contact sports competently in years 11\u201313. Games afternoons were designed not only for the games themselves, but also to further pupils' commitment to their school community. Hiking for girls was intended to create a strong love for the homeland and nation. The girls' marches were not as arduous as the boys' marches. The length and duration of hikes in primary school were based on the pupils' age and ability. Older pupils participated in longer hikes. In secondary school, two-day hiking trips were organized, with pupils staying overnight at a youth hostel. Such activities played an important part in creating a sense of the importance of the homeland and in developing camaraderie among participants. They were designed to encourage a sense of belonging to the national community and a concern for 'we' rather than 'I'.\n\n**FILM AND RADIO PROPAGANDA IN SCHOOLS**\n\nNew compulsory film courses were incorporated into the German school curriculum, and teachers under National Socialism enthusiastically supported the use of film as a supplement to the instruction they gave their pupils. The Nazi propaganda machine carefully and deliberately exploited film propaganda, both in schools and in youth groups, to disseminate Nazi ideology. The Reich Centre for Educational Films was established in June 1934 to oversee the production and distribution of educational films for schools. Furthermore, Rust advocated the showing of political propaganda films in all German schools. He stated that:\n\nThe leadership of Germany increasingly believes that schools have to be open to the dissemination of our ideology. To carry out this task we know of no better means than the film. The film is particularly important for schoolchildren. Film education must not only clarify contemporary political problems but also it must provide children with a knowledge of Germany's heroic past and a profound understanding of the future development of the Third Reich.\n\nThe films were silent and typically lasted between ten and twenty minutes. Teachers were provided with a teacher's guide, in the form of a printed lecture, which they were to present to their pupils before the film screenings. Much propaganda was contained in these lectures, which accompanied the films. The pupils were tested on the content of the films by means of a written examination. The content was overtly political, extolling the virtues of discipline, camaraderie and self-sacrifice, as well as the key themes of Nazi propaganda. In particular, military educational films that dealt with the subject of war and the army were very significant in treating important themes. In addition, the School Radio was employed as a further way of disseminating Nazi ideology and propaganda in the classroom. Typical themes included 'Germany, Land of Beauty', 'A People without Territory', 'The German Spirit of Unity and Will to Sacrifice' and 'Unity of Blood in the German People'.\n\nNazism used the concept of 'integrated instruction' as a tool for the dissemination of its ideology in schools. It sometimes blurred the boundaries between subject areas in order to achieve an organic curriculum. It emphasized the teaching of particular subject disciplines, especially physical education, and the reduction or exclusion of others, especially religious education. Those subject areas it deemed the most important were those through which it could permeate the curriculum with its ideology. These were biology, physics, chemistry, geography, history, mathematics and German. A new compulsory area of racial studies was introduced. Through school textbooks, Nazi educators sought to develop in children a sense of identity with the nation, the Nazi regime and its policies. The emphasis was placed upon the selection of politically valuable material, with the implementation of a system of strict censorship _. V\u00f6lkisch_ education was directed at the promotion of the German nation. Other educational aims were subordinated to this end. Certain aspects of the curriculum were practical and even progressive; others were not limited to Germany but were comparable to those of other countries. Although there were some similarities to earlier periods, the Nazi curriculum was distinctive from the curricula that preceded it and the curricula that followed it, in particular in its specifically racial and anti-Semitic aspects. The next chapter moves away from the general curriculum to examine the very specific subject of the Nazi elite schools.\n\n**NOTES**\n\n. Krieck, _Nationalpolitische Erziehung_.\n\n. Cited in Samuel and Hinton Thomas, _Education and Society_ , p. 83.\n\n. BA R 4901\/1 4620\/1, 'Betrifft: Neuordnung des h\u00f6heren Schulwesens', p. 5.\n\n. C. Kamenetsky, _Children's Literature in Hitler's Germany: The Cultural Policy of National Socialism_ (Athens, Ohio, 1984), p. 187.\n\n. Cited in ibid., p. 188.\n\n. See, for example, P. Brohmer, _Biologischer Unterricht und v\u00f6lkischer Erziehung_ (Frankfurt am Main, 1933).\n\n. On this, see \u00c4. B\u00e4umer, _NS-Biologie_ (Stuttgart, 1990), pp. 152\u20134.\n\n. \u00c4. B\u00e4umer-Schleinkofer, _Nazi Biology and Schools_ (Frankfurt am Main, 1995), p. 238.\n\n. ibid.\n\n. BA NS 12\/41, 'Erbbiologie in der Praxis des biologischen Unterrichts', p. 1.\n\n. Ibid., p. 2.\n\n. Ibid., p. 5.\n\n. A. Vogel, _Erblehre und Rassenkunde f\u00fcr die Grund- und Hauptschule_ (Baden, 1937).\n\n. G. Wegner, 'Schooling for a New Mythos: Race, Anti-Semitism and the Curriculum Materials of a Nazi Race Educator', _Paedagogica Historica_ , Vol. XXVII (1992), p. 197.\n\n. Ibid., p. 198.\n\n. Cited in ibid., p. 200.\n\n. On this, see G. Knoblauch, 'Der Schulgarten als Erziehungsst\u00e4tte', _Der Biologe_ , Vol. 4 (1935), pp. 76\u20138 and A. H\u00f6fner, _Der Schulgarten in der Unterrichtspraxis_ (Munich, 1937).\n\n. On this, see R. Br\u00e4mer and A. Kremer, _Physikunterricht im Dritten Reich_ (Marburg, 1980), pp. 51\u201376 and J. Willer, 'Physikunterricht unter der Diktatur des Nationalsozialismus', in R. Dithmar (ed.), _Schule und Unterricht im Dritten Reich_ (Neuwied, 1989), pp. 187\u2013204.\n\n. E. G\u00fcnther (ed.), _Wehrphysik\u2013Ein Handbuch f\u00fcr Lehrer_ (Frankfurt am Main, 1936).\n\n. E. G\u00fcnther, 'Die Bedeutung des Physikunterrichts f\u00fcr die Erziehung zur Wehrhaftigkeit', _Unterrichtsbl\u00e4tter f\u00fcr Mathematik und Naturwissenschaften_ , Vol. 45 (1939), p. 231.\n\n. W. G\u00f6llnitz, 'Die Schie\u00dflehre im neuzeitlichen Physikunterricht', _Unterrichtsbl\u00e4tter f\u00fcr Mathematik und Naturwissenschaften_ , Vol. 43 (1937), p. 133.\n\n. M. Pongratz, 'Schie\u00dfversuche in der Oberstufe der Oberschule', _Unterrichtsbl\u00e4tter f\u00fcr Mathematik und Naturwissenschaften_ , Vol. 46 (1940), p. 161.\n\n. A. Friedrich, 'Wehroptik', _Unterrichtsbl\u00e4tter f\u00fcr Mathematik und Naturwissenschaften_ , Vol. 46 (1940), p. 148.\n\n. _Erziehung und Unterricht in der h\u00f6heren Schule. Amtliche Ausgabe des Reichs- und Preu\u00dfischen Ministeriums f\u00fcr Wissenschaft, Erzeihung und Volksbildung_ (Berlin, 1938), pp. 173\u201386.\n\n. J. Stark, 'Zur Neuordnung des physikalischen Unterrichts', _Unterrichtsbl\u00e4tter f\u00fcr Mathematik und Naturwissenschaften_ , Vol. 45 (1939), p. 82.\n\n. O. Brandt, 'Die neuen Lehrb\u00fccher', _Unterrichtsbl\u00e4tter f\u00fcr Mathematik und Naturwissenschaften_ , Vol. 46 (1940), p. 152.\n\n. R. Fricke-Finkelnburg, _Nationalsozialismus und Schule_ (Opladen, 1989), p. 202.\n\n. On this, see for example, H. Oden, 'Hauswirtschaftliche Physik an Oberschulen f\u00fcr M\u00e4dchen', _Unterrichtsbl\u00e4tter f\u00fcr Mathematik und Naturwissenschaften_ , Vol. 45 (1939), pp. 27\u201330.\n\n. I. Beier, 'Zur Schulreform. Chemieunterricht und Erziehung im Dritten Reich', _Unterrichtsbl\u00e4tter f\u00fcr Mathematik und Naturwissenschaften_ , Vol. 40 (1934), p. 252.\n\n. W. Franck, 'Zur Schulreform. Chemieunterricht und Erziehung im Dritten Reich', _Unterrichtsbl\u00e4tter f\u00fcr Mathematik und Naturwissenschaften_ , Vol. 40 (1934), p. 68.\n\n. K. G\u00f6lz and W. Jansen, 'Der Chemieunterricht im NS-Staat. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Chemiedidaktik', _Gesellschaft Deutscher Chemiker, Fachgruppe Geschichte der Chemie Mitteilung_ , Vol. 4 (1990), p. 31.\n\n. W. Leonhardt, 'Chemieunterricht und Wehrhaftigkeit', _Unterrichtsbl\u00e4tter f\u00fcr Mathematik und Naturwissenschaften_ , Vol. 39 (1933), p. 235.\n\n. _Erziehung und Unterricht_ , p. 165.\n\n. G\u00f6lz and Jansen, 'Der Chemieunterricht im NS-Staat. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Chemiedidaktik', p. 28.\n\n. H. Heske, _\". . . und morgen die ganze Welt\". Erdkundeunterricht im Nationalsozialismus_ (Gie\u00dfen, 1990), p. 206.\n\n. W. Jantzen, _Die Geographie im Dienste der nationalpolitischen Erziehung_ (Breslau, 1936).\n\n. K. Olbricht and H. K\u00e4rgel, _Deutschland als Ganze. Der Erdkunde Unterricht in der Volks- und Mittelschule_ (Berlin, 1938).\n\n. Hitler, _Mein Kampf_ , pp. 382\u20133.\n\n. BA NS 12\/967, _Der Erzieher_ , Nr. 1, 1934, p. 8.\n\n. Hahn, _Education and Society_ , p. 82.\n\n. On what follows, see BA NS 12\/824, Dr. Gerhard Endriss, 'Beitr\u00e4ge zur Heimatkunde'.\n\n. BA NS 12\/327, 'Wandel des geschichtlichen Weltbildes', _V\u00f6lkischer Beobachter_.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. BA NS 12\/327, _K\u00f6lnische Zeitung_.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. On this, see G. Blackburn, _Education in the Third Reich: A Study of Race and History in Nazi Textbooks_ (Albany, 1985). See also, H. Genschel, 'Geschichtsdidaktik und Geschichtsunterricht im nationalsozialistischen Deutschland', in G. Schneider and K. Bergmann (eds), _Gesellschaft, Staat und Geschichtsunterricht_ (Dusseldorf, 1982).\n\n. Hitler, _Mein Kampf_ , p. 387.\n\n. See, for example, D. Klagen (ed.), _Volk und F\u00fchrer: Deutsche Geschichte f\u00fcr Schulen_ (Frankfurt am Main, 1943).\n\n. D. Klagges, _Geschichtsunterricht als nationalpolitische Erziehung_ (Frankfurt am Main, 1936).\n\n. W. Hohmann, _Volk und Reich. Der deutschen Geschichtsbuch f\u00fcr Oberschulen und Gymnasien, Klasse 8. Von Bismarck bis zur Gegenwart_ (Frankfurt am Main, 1941), pp. 236\u20138.\n\n. See, for example, W. Gehl, _Geschichte f\u00fcr h\u00f6here Schulen Mittelstufe, Heft 4_ (Breslau, 1936), pp. 145\u20139.\n\n. B. Kumsteller, _Werden und Wachsen. Ein Geschichtsatlas auf v\u00f6lkischer Grundlage_ (Braunschweig, 1938), p. 60.\n\n. For example, see Klagges, _Geschichte als nationalpolitisiche Erziehung_.\n\n. J. von Leers, _F\u00fcr das Reich: Deutsche Geschichte in Geschichtserz\u00e4hlungen_ (Leipzig, 1940).\n\n. H. Warneck and W. Matschke, _Geschichte f\u00fcr Volksschulen_ (Leipzig, 1942).\n\n. J. Mahnkopf, _Von der Uhrzeit zum Grossdeutschen Reich_ (Leipzig, 1941).\n\n. G. Wegner, _Anti-Semitism and Schooling under the Third Reich_ (New York and London, 2002), p. 126.\n\n. See L. Pine, 'The Dissemination of Nazi Ideology and Family Values through School Textbooks', _History of Education_ (1996), Vol. 25, No. 1, p. 105.\n\n. Cited in E. Mann, _School for Barbarians: Education under the Nazis_ (London, 1939), p. 62.\n\n. _Allgemeinbildender Grundlehrgang, 1. Teil_ (Breslau and Leipzig, 1941), p. 226.\n\n. Ibid., p. 227.\n\n. Mann, _School for Barbarians_ , p. 63.\n\n. Cited in Samuel and Hinton Thomas, _Education and Society_ , p. 87.\n\n. Cited in Mann, _School for Barbarians_ , pp. 64\u20135.\n\n. On what follows, see BA NS 12\/824, 'Deutsche Volkstumkunde als Erziehungsmittelpunkt im neuen Reich'.\n\n. BA NS 12\/824, 'Gutachten \u00fcber Fr. Dehmlaw: Deutsche Volkstumkunde als Erziehungsmittelpunkt im neuen Reich', 22 June 1934.\n\n. Cited in Mann, _School for Barbarians_ , p. 71.\n\n. Kamenetsky, _Children's Literature_ , p. 149.\n\n. Pine, _Hitler's 'National Community'_ , p. 47.\n\n. Mann, _School for Barbarians_ , pp. 66\u20137.\n\n. Kamenetsky, _Children's Literature_ , p. 174.\n\n. Mann, _School for Barbarians_ , p. 50.\n\n. See, for example, _Mein erstes Buch_ (Dortmund, 1935).\n\n. E. Frank, _Fr\u00f6hlicher Anfang. Ausgabe f\u00fcr Th\u00fcringen_ (Frankfurt am Main, 1943), front cover, and _Bei uns in N\u00fcrnberg. Erstes Lesebuch_ (Nuremberg, 1934), p. 3.\n\n. _Deutsches Lesebuch f\u00fcr Volksschulen II_ (Frankfurt am Main, 1936), p. 9.\n\n. _Fibel f\u00fcr die Volksschulen W\u00fcrttembergs_ (Stuttgart, 1937), pp. 1\u20133.\n\n. W. Kohler, 'Gebet', in _Deutsches Lesebuch f\u00fcr Volksschulen, 3. und 4. Schuljahr_ (Berlin, 1937), p. 275.\n\n. See _M\u00fchlenfibel. Erstes Lesebuch f\u00fcr schleswig-holsteinisches Kinder_ (Braunschweig\/Berlin\/Hamburg, 1935), p. 65.\n\n. _Fibel_ , p. 80.\n\n. _Von Drinnen und Draussen. Heimatfibel f\u00fcr die deutsche Jugend_ (Frankfurt am Main, 1942), p. 17.\n\n. _Fibel f\u00fcr Niedersachsen_ (Hanover, 1939), pp. 80\u201381.\n\n. Ibid., p. 81.\n\n. _Hand ins Hand f\u00fcrs Vaterland. Eine deutsche Fibel von Otto Zimmermann_ (Braunschweig, 1943), p. 65.\n\n. See, for example, _Fibel f\u00fcr Niedersachsen_ , p. 51. See also 'Muttersorgen', in H. Dreyer _et al._ (eds), _Deutsches Lesebuch f\u00fcr Mittelschulen. Klasse 1_ (Frankfurt am Main, 1942), p. 28.\n\n. See, for example, _Lebensgut. Ein deutsches Lesebuch f\u00fcr h\u00f6here Schulen. Dritter Teil_ (Frankfurt am Main, 1937), pp. 152\u20133. See also, K. M\u00fcllenhoff, 'Das brave M\u00fctterchen', in _Deutsches Lesebuch f\u00fcr Volksschulen, 2. Band, 3. und 4. Schuljahren_ (Kiel, 1937), pp. 249\u201350.\n\n. On what follows, see 'Die Mutter mu\u00df entlastet werden!' in _Von neuen Deutschlands. Erg\u00e4nzungshefte zu deutschen Lesebuchern. Heft 1, 3\u20135. Schuljahr_ (Frankfurt am Main, 1935), pp. 38\u201340.\n\n. Pine, _Hitler's 'National Community'_ , p. 48.\n\n. Kamenetsky, _Children's Literature_ , p. 195.\n\n. Hitler, _Mein Kampf_ , p. 389.\n\n. On what follows, see M. St\u00e4mmler, 'Was ist wichtiger?', in H. Dreyer _et al._ (eds), _Deutsches Lesebuch f\u00fcr Mittelschulen. Klasse 1_ (Frankfurt am Main, 1942), pp. 27\u20138.\n\n. For example, see H. G\u00fcnther, _Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes_ (Berlin, 1938) and J. Graff (ed.), _Vererbungslehre, Rassenkunde und Erbgesundheitspflege: Einf\u00fchrung nach methodischen Grunds\u00e4tzen_ (Munich, 1933).\n\n. BA NS 12\/327, _Die Zeit_.\n\n. BA NS 12\/628, Rundschreiben 'Betr.: Jahresarbeit 1938', 16 February 1938, p. 2.\n\n. Cited in Mann, _School for Barbarians_ , p. 77.\n\n. F. Fink, _Die Judenfrage im Unterricht_ (Nuremberg, 1937).\n\n. See Wegner, _Anti-Semitism and Schooling_ , p. 66.\n\n. E. Hiemer, _Der Giftpilz_ (Nuremberg, 1938), pp. 1\u20132.\n\n. E. Hiemer, _Der Pudelmopsdackelpinscher und andere Erz\u00e4hlungen_ (Nuremberg, 1940).\n\n. Ibid., p. 83.\n\n. Mann, _School for Barbarians_ , p. 81.\n\n. BA NS 12\/16, 'Rassenpolitische Erziehung'.\n\n. See, for example, P. Petersen, _Landvolk und Landarbeit. Lehrbuch f\u00fcr l\u00e4ndliche Berufsschulen. Erstes Berufsschuljahr_ (Breslau, 1939), pp. 22\u20133.\n\n. L. Finckh, 'Du und deine Ahnen!', in H. Dreyer _et al._ (eds), _Deutsches Lesebuch f\u00fcr Mittelschulen. Klasse 1_ (Frankfurt am Main, 1942), pp. 25\u20137.\n\n. For example, F. Hayn, _Politische Sippenkunde in der Schule_ (Leipzig, 1936).\n\n. P. Hasubek, _Das deutsche Lesebuch in der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus. Ein Beitrag zur Literaturp\u00e4dagogik zwischen 1933 und 1945_ (Hanover, 1972), p. 54.\n\n. See, for example, N. Maaken _et al._ (eds), _Ewiges Deutschland. Schroedels Lesebuch f\u00fcr Mittelschulen f\u00fcr den Gau Schleswig-Holstein, 3. Band, Klasse 3\u20136_ (Halle an der Saale, c. 1942), pp. 153\u201365, on 'ancestors and descendants'.\n\n. See H. Stellrecht, 'Das Erbe der Vater', and L. Finckh, 'Heilige Ahnenschaft', in H. Kickler _et al._ (eds), _Dich ruft Dein Volk. Deutsches Lesebuch f\u00fcr Mittelschulen, 4. Band, Klasse 5 und 6_ (Bielefeld, 1942), pp. 229\u201330.\n\n. L. Kahnmeyer and H. Schulze, _Realienbuch enthaltend Geschichte, Erdkunde, Naturgeschichte, Physik, Chemie und Mineralogie_ (Bielefeld, 1938), p. 148.\n\n. Ibid., pp. 139\u201360.\n\n. Flessau, _Schule der Diktatur_ , pp. 150\u201351.\n\n. Petersen, _Landvolk und Landarbeit_ , p. 7.\n\n. Ibid., pp. 7\u20138.\n\n. BA NS 12\/41, 'Acht Tage Schulungslager des NS-Lehrerbundes'.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Kamenetsky, _Children's Literature_ , p. 192.\n\n. F. Sotke, _Deutsches Volk und deutscher Staat. Staatsb\u00fcrgerkunde f\u00fcr junge Deutsche_ (Leipzig, 1936), pp. 83\u20136.\n\n. J. Fischer, _Volks- und Staatskunde, 1. Teil_ (Selbstverlag, 1938), pp. 76\u20139.\n\n. A. Waetzig, _Volk, Nation, Staat. Ein Beitrag zur staatspoliticshen Schulung unserer jungen Volksgenossen_ (Stuttgart, 1937), pp. 5\u20137.\n\n. A. B\u00e4umler, _M\u00e4nnerbund und Wissenschaft_ (Berlin, 1934).\n\n. On what follows, see _Kamps Neues Realienbuch f\u00fcr Schule und Haus_ (Bochum in Westfalen, 1937), pp. 151\u20136.\n\n. On what follows, see ibid., pp. 158\u201367.\n\n. Kahnmeyer and Schulze, _Realienbuch enthaltend Geschichte, Erdkunde, Naturgeschichte, Physik, Chemie und Mineralogie_ , pp. 46\u201355.\n\n. Hitler, _Mein Kampf_ , p. 371.\n\n. Ibid., p. 373.\n\n. See for example, H. Eckhardt, _Die K\u00f6rperanlage des Kindes und ihre Entwicklung. Ziel und Weg einer biologische K\u00f6rpererziehung_ (Stuttgart, 1935), which advises on the physical development of children from birth until the age of 18.\n\n. On what follows, see BA NS 12\/814, 'Denkschrift f\u00fcr die Fachschaft f\u00fcr k\u00f6rperliche Erziehung'.\n\n. BA NS 12\/1400, 'An alle Volks- und Hilfeschulen'.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. BA R 4901\/1 4620\/1, 'Betrifft: Neuordnung des h\u00f6heren Schulwesens', p. 5.\n\n. BA NS 12\/814, 'Denkschrift f\u00fcr die Fachschaft f\u00fcr k\u00f6rperliche Erziehung'.\n\n. BA NS 12\/813, 'Lehrplan f\u00fcr die K\u00f6rperliche Erziehung in den Th\u00fcringer Schulen (Jungen und M\u00e4dchen)', 1934.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. BA NS 12\/813, 'Lehrplan f\u00fcr die K\u00f6rperliche Erziehung in den Th\u00fcringer Schulen (Jungen und M\u00e4dchen): Die Leibes\u00fcbungen in der Grundschule. Jungen und M\u00e4dchen 1.\u20134. Schuljahr'.\n\n. On what follows, see BA NS 12\/813, 'Lehrplan f\u00fcr die K\u00f6rperliche Erziehung in den Th\u00fcringer Schulen (Jungen und M\u00e4dchen): Lehrplan f\u00fcr Knaben-Schulen 5.\u201313. Schuljahr'.\n\n. On this, see BA NS 12\/813, 'Lehrplan f\u00fcr die K\u00f6rperliche Erziehung in den Th\u00fcringer Schulen (Jungen und M\u00e4dchen. Volkssport)'.\n\n. On this, see BA NS 12\/813, 'Lehrplan f\u00fcr die K\u00f6rperliche Erziehung in den Th\u00fcringer Schulen (Jungen und M\u00e4dchen). Spiele'.\n\n. On what follows, see BA NS 12\/813, 'Lehrplan f\u00fcr die K\u00f6rperliche Erziehung in den Th\u00fcringer Schulen (Jungen und M\u00e4dchen). Wandern und Lagerdienst'.\n\n. On what follows, see BA NS 12\/813, 'Lehrplan f\u00fcr die K\u00f6rperliche Erziehung in den Th\u00fcringer Schulen (Jungen und M\u00e4dchen). Lehrplan f\u00fcr M\u00e4dchen-Schulen. 5.\u201313. Schuljahr'.\n\n. D. Welch, 'Educational Film Propaganda and the Nazi Youth', in D. Welch (ed.), _Nazi Propaganda: The Power and the Limitations_ (London, 1983), pp. 66\u20137.\n\n. _V\u00f6lkischer Beobachter_ , 23 June 1934.\n\n. Mann, _School for Barbarians_ , p. 99.\n4 THE NAZI ELITE SCHOOLS\n\nNazi elite educational institutions performed a special function within Nazi education and socialization processes as a whole. In the 1960s and 1970s German scholars carried out some excellent pioneering research into Nazi elite educational institutions. However, developments in the historiography of the Nazi era have necessitated a reconsideration of these establishments in the light of current knowledge. It is important to underline the significance of these institutions in the Third Reich, particularly as they have received very little scholarly attention in the English-language historiography. In order to achieve its aims of creating a greater German empire, the Hitler regime was committed to a policy of elite education that would provide the Third Reich with future leaders. In order to try to comprehend how the Nazi system consolidated its power and advanced its imperial ambitions, it is useful to look at the institutions in which the new ideal National Socialist man and leader was created. As Scholtz has pointed out, the regime described these schools as _Ausleseschulen_ (selection schools), rather than elite schools. This referred to the 'selection' of a certain type of pupil who had the capacity to become part of the future elite leadership of the nation. The concept of elitism was fundamental to the way in which the Nazi regime sought to organize and refashion German society, with the SS at the pinnacle of the Nazi elite. Far from creating a 'classless society', not only did the Nazis fail to eliminate class distinctions, but also they imposed a different type of hierarchical structure upon German society, based on race and fitness, in which some sectors were valuable and others were expendable. Hence, whilst Nazi policy appears ambivalent, on the one hand claiming to advocate 'classlessness', and on the other hand fostering elitism, its true concern was to try to create a new kind of elite identity. This was based upon race rather than class or social status. The Nazi leadership, with Hitler at the helm, represented the elite of the German 'national community'. The purpose and function of elite education in Nazi Germany was to train a leadership cadre for the next generation. The Nazi elite schools claimed to be meritocracies, but in reality they only selected pupils from within a racially defined framework.\n\nAs Baumeister has shown, the Nazi elite institutions were formed to recruit the future Nazi elite and to prepare them for their leadership tasks. The Nazi regime established three main types of educational institutions to train the future elite of German society: the _Nationalpolitische Erziehungsanstalten_ (National Political Educational Institutions or Napolas), the _Adolf Hitler Schulen_ (Adolf Hitler Schools or AHS) and the _Ordensburgen_ (Order Castles). These institutions represented a microcosm of the Nazi _Weltanschauung_ by fostering the leadership principle, promoting competitiveness and emphasizing life as a struggle and survival of the 'fittest'. They encouraged physical prowess. They excoriated the 'enemies of the Reich', in particular the Jews, Communists and Socialists. They emphasized racial purity, glorified war and fostered militarism. They underlined the necessity for _Lebensraum_ and had a role in the achievement of a 'greater German empire'. Hitler took a strong personal interest in the elite institutions, particularly during the war, when their functions were linked to expansion and the conquest of _Lebensraum_. He was determined that 'our future elite must be given a tough upbringing'.\n\nInstitutional and personal rivalries played a significant role in the development of Nazi elite educational institutions. In particular, competition and antagonism between Bernhard Rust, the Minister of Education, Robert Ley, the leader of the German Labour Front and Baldur von Schirach, the leader of the Hitler Youth, as well as their overlapping areas of competence in relation to the Nazi elite educational establishments, served to underline the tensions between Party and State. This created a lack of coordination in educational policy-making as in many other areas of Nazi policy-making. As functionalist historians have shown, this wrangling created problems in terms of inefficiency and lack of coordination; however, it also demonstrated the status and significance attached to the elite institutions by the Nazi leadership.\n\nElite consciousness was central to securing the eternal life of the German _Volk_ , as exemplified by the Nazi elite formation, the SS. These aims were also found in the Nazi elite educational institutions, which were designed to shape the destiny of the best and most valuable of the nation's stock. Did Nazi elite schools represent anything novel or unique to National Socialism? In one sense, they did not, because elite educational establishments already existed both in Germany and elsewhere. Elite schools were not an invention of the Nazis. On the contrary, special establishments for elite education had existed in many forms long before the Nazi era, such as boarding schools for young members of the German aristocracy set up in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and the military schools set up for officer cadets in nineteenth-century Prussia. There were some similarities between the cadet schools and the Nazi elite schools in educational aims, such as the inculcation of strength, courage, discipline and awareness of duty. However, there were also marked differences between the cadet schools and the Nazi elite schools, in terms of both organization and educational aims. The cadet schools took in only the sons of officers as pupils; the Nazi elite schools took in pupils from all walks of life, providing that they were 'racially valuable'. The cadet schools prepared their pupils only for careers as officers; the Nazi elite schools prepared their pupils for a variety of careers. Most significantly, in the cadet schools there was no political training; in the Nazi elite schools political training was an integral part of life, as pupils were reared in National Socialist ideology.\n\n**MODELS OF ELITE EDUCATION IN THE USR AND BRITAIN**\n\nA contemporaneous example of a similar type of educational institution was provided by the educational colonies established by Anton Makarenko in the USSR in the 1920s. The Nazi elite schools and Makarenko's colonies shared the objective of creating bearers of their respective totalitarian ideologies. Both types of institution aimed at forming the ideal members of their societies, through discipline and collective consciousness, the use of symbols, uniforms, military drills, marches and physical education. However, there was also a very significant distinction between the Soviet and Nazi institutions. Makarenko was involved in re-educating _besprizorniki_ \u2013outlawed, homeless and delinquent youths\u2013with the aim of turning them into model Soviet citizens. His objective was to direct these youths to meaningful and purposeful tasks of re-education and to create 'the new Soviet man'. Makarenko was engaged in a type of social engineering programme. By contrast, the Nazi elite schools accepted only their 'ideal' entrants as pupils. Hence, what differentiated the Nazi elite institutions was a specific understanding of 'elitism' in terms of social Darwinist principles. The most significant prerequisite of Nazi elitism was 'racial blood purity'. In this sense, the Nazi elite schools were unprecedented and unparalleled. The Nazis utilized their own version of elite schools for their own ends, for a particular function that was distinctive from previous or contemporaneous examples.\n\nIt is important to recognize that Nazi elite education consciously took on the examples of English public schools in its aims, and yet, simultaneously, it shunned them ideologically. In order to consider this, a brief overview of the English public school tradition is helpful. Public schools had a long history in England, dating back to the fourteenth century when William of Wykeham (1324\u20131404) founded Winchester College. From the start, such institutions aimed 'to socialise future members of an elite'. By the nineteenth century, many prominent public schools had been established, at which pupils boarded and a classical curriculum featured strongly. English public schools underwent a transformation during the course of the nineteenth century in response to the changing structure of society, and education at a public school became the defining mark of a 'gentleman'. The sons of the aristocracy, gentry and the professional and mercantile classes were educated at the public schools and this trend gradually replaced the status of the gentleman being based purely on ancestry.\n\nThe English public schools sought to create a political and administrative elite. Whilst the historical and structural features of the schools were not changed, they did begin to function in new ways. They have been described as 'incipient total institutions'. Whilst the traditions of both boarding and education in the classics were maintained, moral and religious expectations were inculcated in a new way, with sets of rules for behaviour and conduct. Boys were often isolated in these institutions\u2013the advent of the railway meant that it was possible for schools to be located at some distance from their homes\u2013which served the purpose of elite education in 'total institutions'. Self-indulgence and self-interest were to be eliminated. Organized games were introduced to instil obedience to a leader, restraint and self-control. As well as their classical education, the games these pupils played (notably rugby, tennis and cricket) integrated the new elite and distinguished them from the rest of society. These were the hallmarks of their public school education.\n\nThe authoritarian structure of the schools as total institutions was established by the accretion of powers to the headmaster. The headmaster directed the activities of the boys in minute detail through the prefect system, which worked directly under his control. The prefect system itself fitted with the responsibility of public schools to educate an elite. Boys were trained to wield power from an early age. The 'fagging' system\u2013in which junior boys were menials for prefects\u2013was another element of power relationships. In addition, public schools took over much of the responsibility for education and socialization that belonged to the family. In many senses, the closed community of the public schools eclipsed the role of the family. Hence, the English public school became an impregnable total institution and an enduring and 'powerful device for insulating and socialising an elite'.\n\nIn the Nazi elite schools, the ethos of English public schools was imitated in certain respects. There was a distinct attempt by Nazi educationalists to emulate British public school traditions as they perceived them. However, the Napolas did not imitate the class distinctions that were the hallmark of the British public school system. Instead, they sought to take in the best of German youth, regardless of their social status. Nazi educationalists compared their Napolas with British public schools in terms of their ethos and aims:\n\nThe boy is removed from the spoiling influence of the parental home at an early age, and at first has difficulty in establishing his own position among his fellows. But as a rule, the need to survive wakens the necessary forces in him, which toughen him and provide him with security and a firmness of will . . . Public schools are explicit instruments for shaping the individual pupil into a uniform national type, with an equally uniform system of values. Our most recent educational endeavours in the Napolas . . . run along the same principles. Like the public schools in England, they are meant to train an elite, a reservoir for leadership.\n\nThe emphasis on competition and compulsory participation in sports was particularly strong. Furthermore, 'Through the strengthening of historical consciousness, German consciousness . . . an awareness of the national community, perspectives are being created which ultimately culminate in an organic view of the whole. As in public schools, the authoritarian principle is indispensable'. The aim was to create a new leadership elite drawn from across the social spectrum in Germany to rule the greater German empire. In a speech to armaments workers in Berlin on 10 December 1940, Hitler extolled the greatness of the Nazi elite schools in comparison with the English public schools, which he scorned as perpetuating the English moneyed aristocracy. He stated that 'we take the gifted children of the masses, sons of workers, of peasants' into the Napolas and AHS.\n\nThus we have created great opportunities to rebuild the state from below. This is our aim. It is a marvellous thing to be able to fight for an ideal like this . . . We imagine a state in which in the future every position will be occupied by the ablest sons of our people, irrespective of their origin, a state in which birth means nothing and achievement and ability everything.\n\nIn comparison, he described Britain as 'a state governed by a thin crust, the upper class, who send their sons automatically to specific educational institutions like Eton College'. Hitler described two different worlds, in which he clearly praised the Napolas and AHS and denigrated the British public schools: 'in the one case the children of the people, in the other only the sons of a financial aristocracy'.\n\n**NAPOLAS**\n\nThe Napolas were designed to educate future top-ranking government and army personnel. They were state-run boarding schools under the aegis of the Ministry of Education. They were not affiliated to either the Party or the Hitler Youth. The first three Napolas were established in April 1933 in Pl\u00f6n, K\u00f6slin and Potsdam, in former cadet school premises. In 1934, five further Napolas were set up in Berlin-Spandau, Naumberg an der Saale, Ilfeld, Stuhm and Oranienstein. In 1935, another five Napolas were established. They were housed in either renovated or newly constructed buildings that corresponded to Nazi ideals, with exacting standards of hygiene in the living, sleeping and washing areas. Communal rooms were designed to strengthen the sense of spirit and value of the young men. Sports facilities and equipment were comprehensive, including a gymnastics hall, a swimming pool, a boathouse and stables. As boarding schools, the Napolas offered the possibility of extensive control of the education and socialization processes of their pupils.\n\nAugust Hei\u00dfmeyer, the SS Napola inspector, declared that the Napolas represented 'something different from the mere transformation of any type of school within the framework of the old secondary school system'. He described the aims of the Napolas as follows:\n\nAll true education is education for real life in its full extent; it is political education. The purpose of political education, however, is the education of a posterity carrying its own community of life into the future. It is formative education, education designed to mould a type, and such education is achieved in our nation today through community and team education. The National Political Educational Institutions have the aim of removing the education of youth from the plane of intellectual education to that of true education, that is to say, of total education in a tightly-knit community, of education which embraces, as far as possible, all human powers and which, as political education, is always education which moulds the individual and forms the team.\n\nAdmission to the Napolas was very strict. Entrants had to pass a double selection process, consisting of a pre-inspection and an entrance examination. In order to be admitted, a prospective pupil had to be of 'Aryan' descent, a member of the Hitler Youth, physically fit, healthy and sponsored by his _Gauleiter_. In a series of endurance tests, over the course of one week, Napola selectors checked prospective pupils for courage, stamina and physical ability. In October 1937, Bernhard Rust, the Minister of Education, stated: 'It is of the utmost importance that the Napolas receive those German boys who by their attitude and ability meet the special requirements of these institutes'. Once admitted, pupils had a six-month probationary period, during which time they could be expelled from the institution if they failed to fulfil the expectations of them. The Napolas were 'total institutions', designed to give a complete National Socialist education to their pupils, who would then be able to provide exemplary service to the _Volk_ and state. In addition to the usual school syllabus, there was education in National Socialist principles, for example, through daily discussions about the editorials in the _V\u00f6lkischer Beobachter_ , as well as a great emphasis upon physical activities, including boxing, war games, shooting, rowing, sailing, riding, gliding and motorcycling. Physical education was considered to be crucial to character formation. Pupils had to undertake 'toughening up exercises' such as grappling with Alsatian dogs. Hans M\u00fcncheberg, a former pupil of the Napola school at Potsdam recounts: 'If anyone showed weakness he was considered a wet, a weakling, a coward, a disgrace to the whole platoon or the whole company'. In the Napola at Pl\u00f6n, recalls Napola student Theo Sommer, 'physical stamina was driven to the limit'.\n\nThe Napola pupils spent six to eight weeks on a farm and a further six to eight weeks working in a factory or coalmine as part of their training. This was designed to give the pupils an inside view and experience of the workers and their lives. Placement in agriculture and industry was not a new phenomenon, but a tradition that could be traced back to the earlier youth programmes. However, the highly political aspect of the programme designed to prepare the pupils for service to National Socialism was novel. Scholtz has described the training in the Napolas as a mammoth programme. A Napola pupil was referred to as a _Jungmann_ (young man). School classes were called 'platoons'. Pupils engaged in manoeuvres and field exercises, military marches and war games, as well as learning orientation skills. The pupils were to have 'soldierly' characteristics and leave the Napolas with a capacity to lead and an in-depth knowledge of National Socialism.\n\nIn his autobiography, Peter Neumann, a junior SS officer, who received a Napola education at Pl\u00f6n, describes it as 'gloomy, icy and horrid'. He outlines the racial instruction there and tells of his gliding experiences: 'I am a little giddy from this first solo flight and my ears are buzzing slightly. But what will one not do to gain the admiration of one's friends?' There is some suggestion here of the need to behave in a particular manner and to appear courageous. Other former pupils recollect the prestige associated with belonging to the elite school and the opportunities it afforded. Hans-Georg Bartholom\u00e4i, a former pupil of the Napola at Naumburg, recalls: 'There was a wide range of travel and \"manoeuvres\", as we used to call them. We could go skiing and gliding. We went to the Alps, we went to the lakes. That was pretty unusual for any boy in those days . . . People made a fuss of us. And of course we picked up on that.' Yet the Napolas removed young boys from their families and friends into a strict, unfamiliar, military environment, to which they had to adapt swiftly, showing no signs of personal weakness or homesickness. Simultaneously, the tough demands placed upon the boys made them feel special and chosen.\n\nRust called for 'total education' in the Napolas. Pupils were educated with a consciousness of racial selection of the German _Volk_. Their education was not aimed at the development of individual or critical thought, but at service to the _Volksgemeinschaft_. Indeed, this was noted by a foreign observer of the Napola at Bensberg, a Dutch educationalist, Dr Goedewaagen, who reported that: 'In the Napolas the foundation is laid out for the education of personality free of any individualistic attachment'. Goedewaagen was impressed with the ethos and _modus operandi_ of the Napolas and recommended their replication in the Netherlands.\n\nAnother significant feature of Napola education in the period before 1939 was the organization of exchange visits abroad. Exchange programmes were arranged in German Southwest Africa, America and Britain. They were designed to confirm to Napola pupils their own superiority and to consolidate Nazi doctrines. Napola pupils were instilled with the main tenets of Nazi ideology\u2013anti-Bolshevism, anti-Semitism and nationalism. The _F\u00fchrer_ stood at the centre of the _Weltanschauung_. The pupils were taught that life was a struggle and that a militaristic spirit was necessary in order for the German _Herrenvolk_ to survive and create a new ruling order. As the political soldier of the _F\u00fchrer_ , the _Jungmann_ had to become an unconditional and ardent advocate of the Nazi _Weltanschauung_. The regime also attached significance to the training of teachers in the Napolas. Special training courses were set up for this purpose and records kept of the performance and outlook of Napola teachers.\n\nThe conception and aims of the Napolas changed during the course of the war. Physical training was extended more specifically to weapons training. The Napolas became part of the process of building, consolidating and securing a 'greater German empire'. They became 'forts of the F\u00fchrer for the protection and strengthening of the Reich'. They came increasingly under the direction of the SS, which exerted its influence upon them by claiming the monopoly on political education. Even before the war, as Kogon has shown, the SS intended to create a new generation of leaders through the Napolas. Between 1936 and 1939, under a new SS Napola inspector, August Hei\u00dfmeyer, the Napolas had already become increasingly influenced by the disciplinary and racial ideas of the SS. During the war, Heinrich Himmler, the head of the SS, clearly wanted to subordinate the Napolas to the SS entirely and to use them to further his expansionist aims. With the military successes of the Third Reich, a role developed for the Napolas in securing its racial and ideological goals. Rust explained their function and task as education of the imperial idea. They were linked to the concept and goal of _Lebensraum_. Between 1941 and 1944, new Napolas were established across the occupied territories to educate those young people that were considered to be 'racially valuable'. Himmler discussed specific plans with Hitler to create Napolas in Holland and Norway. By 1944, there were thirty-seven Napolas. Hitler supported the expansion of the Napolas during the war and the Nazi regime aimed to establish a total of 100. Whilst the Napolas were scarcely able to carry out the new task assigned to them, it is significant to note how different this mission was from their original conception and _raison d'\u00eatre_.\n\nHence, the Napolas combined some of the traditions of the earlier cadet schools and the English public schools in their brand of elite education, but blended them with a National Socialist ethos that was distinctive from both models. The Napolas were based upon the overriding idea of 'political soldierliness' and the fight for National Socialism. They combined elite consciousness and leadership education for all professions, with political training in the Nazi _Weltanschauung_ , racial awareness and an emphasis on physical education as a means to character formation. The Napola has been described as truly 'a National Socialist institution _sui generis_ '.\n\nNot surprisingly, elite education for girls was not deemed as significant as for boys; nevertheless, three Napolas for girls were established in the Third Reich. The first Napola for girls was set up at Hubertendorf-T\u00fcrnitz in Austria following the Anschlu\u00df in 1938. In 1941 and 1942 respectively, two further Napolas for girls were founded at Achern in the German state of Baden and at Castle Kolmar in Luxembourg. The existence of these three Napolas for girls appeared as an anomaly in a state in which ideological values placed girls in the role of mothers and guardians of the hearth and home. Yet, ideological tensions existed between the majority of the Nazi leadership, who maintained that girls should remain in the domestic sphere, and a small group of women in the Nazi power structure, who viewed elite schooling for girls as a means of access to the professions for capable girls. There was a lengthy struggle over the _raison d'\u00eatre_ and aims of Napolas for girls. Hitler was clear in his view that women's role as mothers was the most important.\n\nIf today a female jurist accomplishes ever so much and next door there lives a mother with five, six, seven children, who are all healthy and well brought up, then I would like to say: From the standpoint of the eternal value of our people, the woman who has given birth to children and raised them and who has given back our people life for the future has accomplished more\n\nAlfred Rosenberg also firmly believed that leadership roles in the state belonged to men. Why then did the Napolas for girls come into being?\n\nWegner argues that the elite schools for girls 'grew out of changing economic realities that challenged Nazi assumptions about gender and the workplace'. By the late 1930s, a shortage of technically skilled and professionally qualified workers led to a need for the Nazi leadership to compromise its ideological beliefs and to allow elite educational institutions for girls to be established. Hence, practical concerns overcame ideological tenets about the suitability of women working in the professions. Yet those calling for the opening of Napolas for girls, among BDM leaders and from the Ministry of Education, envisaged them as institutions in which girls could be educated 'in body and soul to become wives and mothers'. Whilst Hei\u00dfmeyer stated that girls would eventually take on leadership roles in Nazi organizations, he equally stressed the expectation that they would give birth to many children. Hence, the girls' Napolas had an ambivalent position from the outset.\n\nThe selection process, like that in the Napolas for boys, was based upon 'blood' and 'race', rather than class or parental income. Girls also had to be actively involved in the BDM. As in the boys' Napolas, classes were called 'platoons' and the curriculum included drills, marching and education in key aspects of Nazi ideology. The curriculum at the Austrian Napola consisted of a combination of academic subjects with domestic science. It had space for between 200 and 250 girls, but only 123 girls enrolled there, half of whom were Austrian. The contradiction remained apparent between schooling them for motherhood and schooling them for the professions. The same type of tensions existed at the German girls' Napola at Achern in 1941. Indeed, due to financial constraints, this institution shed its elite status after only one term, becoming a _Heimschule_ (home-making school) instead. At Castle Kolmar too, the curriculum was a blend of home economics to prepare pupils for motherhood and academic subjects that would allow pupils to enter university, along with physical education and performing arts. In 1942, Castle Kolmar enrolled 192 female pupils from all parts of the Reich. This Napola lasted for two years.\n\nThe Napolas for girls were a short-lived experiment, ambivalent from the start in terms of their existence and their goals. The nature of the Nazi state and the ideology that underpinned it did not lend itself to girls' elite education. Although the girls' Napolas came into existence for pragmatic reasons, ideological concerns about girls' roles in Nazi society never really left them to the task of training girls for professional or leadership roles. The girls' Napolas did not receive a comparable level of funding and status to the boys' Napolas.\n\n**ADOLF HITLER SCHOOLS**\n\nThe Adolf Hitler Schools (AHS) were established in 1937, as conscious and direct rivals to the Napolas, which had been formed during the first year of Nazi rule. They were set up, with Hitler's approval, under the aegis of Robert Ley and Baldur von Schirach, in order to train future political leaders. Hitler ordered that they should take his name and he continued to show an interest in their development throughout their existence. The AHS were purely Party schools and remained outside the realm of the Ministry of Education and therefore outside Rust's jurisdiction. Ley's office, the German Labour Front (DAF), was in charge of the initial organization and administration of the AHS. Schirach appointed an Inspector of the AHS, within his National Youth Leadership, who was directly responsible to him. Rust had initially agreed to the foundation of the new AHS on the condition that his Ministry would participate in the selection of pupils and teachers. However, Ley and Schirach deliberately bypassed Rust, presenting the foundation document to Hitler without any mention of this agreement. Hence, Hitler signed the foundation document which granted neither Rust nor his Ministry any control in the AHS. Rust's subsequent protestations were ignored.\n\nSignificantly too, with their status as purely Party schools, the AHS were unprecedented as educational institutions in Germany. Indeed, in his speech given at the laying of the foundation stone of a new AHS on 14 January 1938, Schirach clearly stated: 'We have not reformed something extant, but begun something new'. The AHS deliberately and consciously distanced themselves from the Napolas, exalting their own status and significance as 'Party schools'. They were designed to educate the youth who would take over and secure National Socialist power in the future by working in the offices of the Party. The principal purpose of the AHS was to develop a 'leadership corps' that was devoted to the Party with unconditional loyalty and obedience.\n\nOn 10 December 1940, in a speech to armaments workers in Berlin, Hitler spoke about the purpose and aims of the AHS:\n\nWe are bringing talented youngsters, the children of the broad mass of our population. Workers' sons, farmers' sons, whose parents could never afford to put their children through higher education . . . Later on, they will join the Party, they will attend an Ordensburg, they will occupy the highest positions. We have a goal which may seem fantastic. We envisage a state in which each post will be held by the ablest son of our people, regardless of where he comes from. A state in which birth means nothing, but performance and ability mean everything.\n\nIn total, there were twelve AHS. Each _Gau_ (Party region) selected prospective AHS pupils from all 12-year-old boys who demonstrated distinctive _F\u00fchrereigenschaften_ (leadership qualities or characteristics). Prospective pupils had to be selected from the _Deutsches Jungvolk_ (the Hitler Youth group for boys aged 10\u201314). Applications made by parents were automatically rejected. The AHS prided themselves on offering opportunities for social advancement, as social class was not a barrier to entry. The Party allocated funding to the Adolf Hitler Schools, and, in principle, the parents of AHS pupils were not obliged to pay for their education, although, in practice, many did contribute towards its cost. In reality, the majority of pupils came from middle-class backgrounds. Almost half of the pupils (49.7 per cent) who joined the AHS in the first two years stated that their fathers were civil servants, teachers, office workers or officers, whilst a considerably smaller percentage (19.5 per cent) stated that their fathers were craftsmen, agricultural labourers or industrial workers. The percentage of Party officials' sons in the AHS was also significant. The national average was 2.3 per cent, but in the _Gau_ of Munich-Upper Bavaria, the early stronghold of the NSDAP, 11.7 per cent were the sons of Party officials.\n\nThe AHS admitted pupils that had been pre-selected in the Hitler Youth, but with the additional 'sifting' process of a two-week selection camp, which took place at the beginning of each year. This was preceded by a 'racial examination'. Boys who did not pass this examination were not allowed to take part in the camp. The proportion of prospective candidates who failed to get through this stage was quite high. For example, of forty-eight candidates in Baden in 1940, fourteen failed the first medical examination. The _Gau_ youth camps allowed the Party to assess and observe the physical and mental capacities of the AHS candidates. The candidates were split up into groups of six to eight boys. Each group was monitored and observed by a Hitler Youth group leader. The leader spent the whole time with the boys for the duration of the camp in order to observe not only their performance in their tasks, but also their behaviour during their leisure time. At the end of the two-week camp, the candidates were assessed according to character and competence ratings. Strength of character and toughness were tested by a range of activities including war games, gymnastics, marches and tests of courage.\n\nHereditary health and racial purity were the fundamental criteria for admission. 'Proof of absolute health, without physical disabilities or deformities', as well as 'hereditary health of family' and 'proof of Aryan descent' were the essential conditions for admission to the AHS. To this end, prospective pupils had to include in their application a photograph, hereditary health certificate and genealogical table. Their parents were responsible for writing the genealogical table, with help from the Party. In addition, prospective pupils had to be able to demonstrate physical toughness, a strong character and an instinct to dominate others. Bravery was another significant characteristic that was required by the assessment panels, as indicated by instructions for selectors, which stated: 'We can only use boys who have courage'. A number of exercises and activities, particularly boxing and wrestling, were used as tests of courage. The daily schedule of the selection camps included a full day of mainly physical activities, starting at 7 am with an hour of early sport before breakfast and ending at 8 pm. The selection camps placed much greater emphasis upon physical capacity than mental ability. After 1938, when the AHS boys came under increasing criticism for their lack of intellectual capability, the admission process was amended to include academic criteria. New selection guidelines introduced in 1938 attached greater significance to the level of intelligence of prospective pupils. Furthermore, a new requirement stipulated that only teachers who were qualified to teach at the _Gymnasien_ were allowed to teach at the AHS after 1938. By 1941, more than half of the pupils selected for the AHS had passed the _Gymnasium_ entrance examination. From 1942 onwards, the search for intelligent boys continued and intensified and by the end of the war, physical and intellectual entry requirements had become more or less equal. However, the initial stigma of intellectual inferiority remained with the AHS throughout their existence.\n\nThe Party demanded a new type of educational institution to train the future leading class. The architectural style of the school buildings, as well as the timetable, was to express this desire, with new methods of education for the leadership class. The AHS had three main goals in the education of its pupils: the pupils were to be politically moulded in the National Socialist _Weltanschauung_ ; they were to be physically fit; and they were to be trained to become future Party functionaries. The superiority of the 'Aryan' race was emphasized in textbooks provided specially for the AHS. History, literature and biology were all taught within the context of the Nazi _Weltanschauung_ in order to imbue pupils with its tenets. The incompatibility of the National Socialist world view and Christianity was emphasized in AHS education. Themes in literature included heroic death, the struggle for the fatherland and the significance of the German landscape. In this way, the _Blut und Boden_ myth was propagated. The glorification of war was another popular theme. Between 1941 and 1944, new textbooks were issued on the subject of Germany's need for the conquest of _Lebensraum_. As well as National Socialist ideology, the AHS placed great importance upon physical education, particularly combat sports such as boxing, wrestling and fencing, as well as pre-military training. Physical education took up a high proportion of timetabled hours: for example, in the AHS weekly timetable in 1941, it took up fifteen out of thirty-seven hours. Slavic languages were taught with the aim that AHS pupils would be able to give orders to subordinated people in the Nazi-occupied eastern territories during the war. Foreign languages, mathematics and the natural sciences were taught at a basic level, but not in depth. A former AHS boy, Harald Grundmann, recalls his education with regret: 'I am ashamed how little we knew about German poets and men of letters\u2013from Thomas Mann to Gottfried Benn; how scanty our knowledge of mathematics was . . . our qualifications were pretty miserable'. The AHS considered it to be 'timewasting' to teach these subjects in detail to pupils who were destined to become political functionaries and Party 'large-capacity administrators' (i.e. those with wide-ranging functions). It was more important for them to be imbued with the Nazi _Weltanschauung_. The pupils were to be turned out confident in Nazi ideology and its legitimacy. The method of teaching employed was designed to ensure this. Furthermore, the AHS had no grading system or school reports. Instead, there were written assessments of the pupils, which focused in particular on the development of the students into 'leader' personalities.\n\nThe AHS pupils spent time undertaking practical work in different Party offices, in order to round out their skills and give them an insight into jobs they might undertake in the future. In addition, there was handicraft instruction. Practical work was designed to broaden competence and knowledge, as well as to enhance economic understanding. 'Working with material' was intended to broaden the outlook of the boys and to give them respect for people who worked in handicrafts. The aim was not to create 'ready-made locksmiths or carpenters', but 'men who can be useful in the workforce, in the army and in the battle for life', who have acquired a feeling for handicrafts and technical aspects of their environment. As with the Napolas, the education of boys in the AHS played a significant role in the Nazis' long-term plans for a New Order in Europe, creating an administrative corps of enthusiastic and trained Party leaders, with an unconditional belief in the Nazi _Weltanschauung_.\n\n**_ORDENSBURGEN_**\n\nThe _Ordensburgen_ (Order Castles) were intended to be the finishing schools for the Nazi elite. Scholtz has described them as a 'characteristic product' of the Nazi era. The decision to begin the construction of the Order Castles originated with a discussion between Hitler and Ley, in July 1933, on a visit to a workers' school in Berlin. Ley 'intuitively' began to plan four 'Education Castles' based on Hitler's ideas to establish institutions to train Party officials. The building of the first Order Castle began in February 1934. Alwin Seifert, the construction supervisor, stated that the Order Castles were to display 'superhuman magnitude' and to inspire 'knightly actions'. However, the completion of the four Order Castles was never achieved and Ley's plans were not fully realized.\n\nThe _Ordensburgen_ attracted much attention from German and foreign observers, both during the Third Reich and in the early historiography of the Nazi era. However, there has been no recent analysis of the role of the _Ordensburgen_ in the Nazi state. The _Ordensburgen_ were to be set up in four locations across Germany: Cr\u00f6ssinsee in Pomerania; Vogelsang in the Eifel Mountains near the Belgian border; Sonthofen near Lake Constance in Bavaria; and Marienburg in East Prussia, near the Polish border. Having completed their AHS secondary education, a six-month period of compulsory Labour Service, two years in the army and entered their chosen profession, selected future political leaders were to be trained on a four-year programme, one year at each Order Castle. At Cr\u00f6ssinsee, students underwent pre-military training, took part in parachute jumping and learned about German history and race. They were educated about the dangers of 'racial pollution' and trained to view themselves as racially superior, as 'the aristocracy of the earth'. At Vogelsang, they were instilled with bravery and heroism. At Sonthofen, they were to study Hitler's _Mein Kampf_ and the works of other Nazi ideologues, such as Alfred Rosenberg. Extended skiing and mountaineering expeditions here were designed to test their physical capacity and endurance. By the end of 1939, Peter Neumann, a junior SS officer, writes that: 'The training is getting more and more tough, cruelly tough'. He describes the rise in the number of accidental deaths at Sonthofen: 'The weak must go to the wall here. Only those who survive will have the right to form part of the National Socialist elite'. Finally, at Marienburg, the students were to learn about Nazi foreign policy, _Ostpolitik_ (policy towards the East) and the need for 'living space'. Here the students would complete their political education. The four-year programme was designed to equip students for their role as leaders of the Third Reich. During the course of their _Ordensburg_ training, the students were obliged to spend three months of each year working in Party organizations in order to accrue practical experience.\n\nThe _Ordensburgen_ were not spartan, but, on the contrary, provided comfortable accommodation to their students. The buildings were lavish in design and immense in scale. The students had their meals served to them in the large dining halls. They were allowed visits from their wives at certain times. Funds were made available to them for theatre trips and other visits, even abroad. They enjoyed special privileges and distinctions, whilst being educated for their 'elite function'. Ley promised the _Ordensburg_ students that 'we open doors to the highest positions in the Party and in the State'. In return, he expected total obedience and trust.\n\nA paean to the Order Castle Vogelsang in _The Order_ magazine evokes the sentiments inspired by the _Ordensburgen_ :\n\nRuins surrounded by tales of sentimental knighthood romance,   \nThe wanderer shall not search, your tower greets him from far away.   \nYour walls are represented through Nordic strength,   \nLike a stone finger of vow you stretch above the Eifel and Urft   \nYour staggered building issues from the bitterness of the landscape,   \nNo petty ornaments ruin the praise of clear lines.   \nYou are appointed to announce heroic loyalty and strength:   \nDeep into the hearts of youth may the F\u00fchrer's law descend.\n\nA number of interesting metaphors have been applied to the _Ordensburgen_. The one most consciously and deliberately employed by the Nazis was that evoked by their name\u2013Order Castles. This had obvious associations with medieval knights, and there was symbolic significance attached to the mission of this new generation of 'knights' as creators and leaders of the Nazi empire. A contemporary foreign reporter commented on this: 'The young men are told that they form a Nordic Crusading Order like that of the Knights Templar of old'. A great sense of the historical past and its connection with a grandiose current mission was conveyed. The careful selection of their location and the grandeur of the _Ordensburgen_ buildings underlined this. Their interiors were grand and lavish. Vogelsang, designed by the architect Clemens Klotz, boasted both a dining hall and a lecture hall for 1,000 people. On a platform at the front of the lecture hall stood a massive statue of an idealized Aryan male\u2013'powerful, muscular, saluting with a raised right arm'. The communal rooms at Sonthofen included a vast dining room for 1,500 people, with marble walls and floors, a 'hall of the community' for 2,500 people, lecture halls for 1,500 people, as well as a ceremonial council room. The _Ordensburgen_ were also associated with the Valhalla, the palace of Norse mythology, in which the souls of slain heroes lasted for eternity. A foreign commentator described the _Ordensburgen_ pupils as prospective leaders of 'the Hitlerite Valhalla'. In this way, the students of the _Ordensburgen_ were conceived of as 'heroes' and the grandiose plans of the Nazi leadership for the longevity of the Third Reich as an empire to last a thousand years were evoked.\n\nAnother foreign commentator conceived of the _Ordensburgen_ in different terms, however. He saw them as pagan, anti-Christian institutions, in which 'monks of a new kind' were trained. Reporting on his visit to Vogelsang in November 1937, a correspondent for _The Manchester Guardian_ wrote that 'the keepers of the consciences of these monks direct them to the worship of blood, of the soil'. He added too that he left Vogelsang 'profoundly disturbed, astounded at the emptiness of the teaching given there'. He described the pupils as 'impeccably aligned' as they marched and sang. Peter Neumann recounts his experiences at Vogelsang in his autobiography: 'Combat training is terrifying'. He describes animal combat sessions and, in particular, fighting between specially trained Alsatian dogs and the _Ordensburg_ students: 'This is the kind of exercise which contributes to the \"character forming\" process at Vogelsang'.\n\nAnother student at Vogelsang gave his view of the institution:\n\nWe have gathered from all regions of the German _Volk_ , to spend a year together here. We are at an age, at which the learning period is generally assumed to be over, in which most have started to work independently. A majority of us has already founded a household . . . Now that we have left profession and family and gathered here, it shows the awareness that there is a duty beyond our individual lives\u2013the duty towards the people.\n\nWhat were the expectations of these 'leader candidates'? The foremost expectation was obedience and the knowledge that they had to learn to listen and obey in order to be able to lead. Obedience training required a 'constant hardness' of the individual on himself and a battle against the inclination to let himself go. The students knew that this was not easy, but hoped to emerge from the year strengthened through this training. The next expectation was ideological training. They required a deep and enhanced knowledge of National Socialist ideology and of the _Volk_ to prepare them for their future role as leaders. Their living together in comradeship 'in a small people's community' would prepare them for future lives and tasks in the real _Volksgemeinschaft_. Hence, the comradeship at Vogelsang was 'not just a pleasant way of living together', but also 'the highest duty' of daily lives. The students realized that their year at Vogelsang would not be easy, but its 'beauty' lay in that very difficulty, as they felt their mental and physical powers tighten and they learned how to overcome all obstacles to their goal.\n\nThe students of the _Ordensburgen_ were called Junkers. This was a term deliberately adopted by the founders of the _Ordensburgen_ , as the term Junker referred to the Prussian aristocracy. The _Ordensburgen_ 'Junkers' were groomed to be 'the aristocracy of the earth'. Scholtz has argued that the _Ordensburgen_ were proof of Hitler's will to create a 'New Order' in society. They were conceived of as part of the SS state, whose aim was to rule over a great German empire. Together with the _SS-Junkerschulen_ (Junker Schools or SS elite schools), the _Ordensburgen_ were to be 'the real colleges of the future National Socialist aristocracy'. In Hermann Rauschning's conversations with Hitler, the relationship between Hitler's will to create a new man and the _Ordensburgen_ is established. Robert Ley, who was in charge of the organization of the _Ordensburgen,_ stated that the curriculum represented 'four years of the hardest possible physical and mental exertions'. He was very clear about the main aims of elite education at the _Ordensburgen_ : 'Firstly, we want to test the initiative, courage and daring of a man and to promote these qualities where they exist. Secondly, we want to know whether these men are fired by an overweening ambition to become leaders of men, to dominate, to become masterful . . . Thirdly, anybody desiring to govern over others must be able to rule himself '. There were obvious echoes here of Friedrich Nietzsche's concepts of the _\u00dcbermensch_ (superman) and the 'will to power'.\n\nHowever, in reality, the academic standard of education in the _Ordensburgen_ was not particularly high. There was no fixed educational schedule. Indeed, there was a popular perception and some official criticism of the _Ordensburgen_ that the educational standards were low and that their pupils were not necessarily clever. One headteacher reported that the knowledge of his _Ordensburgen_ pupils was limited and that it took them a lot of time to process the material they were being taught. Indeed, Scholtz has shown that education became a secondary function of the Order Castles, which increasingly became used as 'drinking halls' for Party comrades, in which they could relax, feel 'at home' and 'remember the old times'. At one point, Ley even envisaged a role for the _Ordensburgen_ as 'Strength through Joy' hotels with 2,000 beds to enable German workers to use them for weekly holidays. This was a gross deviation from their original purpose. Scholtz argues that only occasionally were the buildings used for their original design as 'Education Castles'. Furthermore, the outbreak of the war prevented the possibility of the _Ordensburgen_ training being completed, as their students and prospective students were called into the armed services. After the invasion of Poland, the _Ordensburgen_ were used to 'educate members of the Party about tasks in the _Ostgebieten_ ' (eastern regions). In addition, the _Ordensburgen_ were used to accommodate pupils from the AHS, as the latter were running out of space.\n\nThe role of the _Ordensburgen_ extended beyond the initial and main function of training future Party leaders. They were also to be 'the spiritual and ideological centres' of the NSDAP. The _Ordensburgen_ were used for training courses for existing political leaders, including _Gauleiter_ (regional leaders) and _Kreisleiter_ (district leaders), who were evaluated and assessed. The training courses, with a maximum number of 200 attendees, were split into working groups of twelve to eighteen political leaders. The rationale for this was mainly personnel planning for the future leadership of the party, based on the example of selection processes that already took place for the AHS and the _Ordensburgen_ pupils. The aim was to check 'if each political leader is appropriate in terms of his performance and his whole attitude, if shortcomings can be eradicated by further training courses, if he has to be posted somewhere else, or sacked due to ineptitude'. This would help the Party to make good choices in the efficient and effective selection of leaders, from among whom the best could be cultivated if they showed the correct aptitude and performance:\n\nA high degree of racial value and faultless characteristics, matched with determination, will power and readiness for action are requirements which have to be met by each political leader. Furthermore, a disposition for above-average performance and good appearance which compliments and rounds off the personality is absolutely essential, so that the political leader, through the combination of his inner and outer attitude, can lead the _Volk_ and have its absolute acceptance.\n\nBy pursuing these goals, the Party would not have to worry about future leadership.\n\nFurthermore, the _Ordensburgen_ were used during the wartime period for short residential courses for various other groups. For example, a training course was held at Sonthofen between 12 August and 4 September 1940 for 'ethnic Germans' from the former South Tyrol. Once they were resettled and trained, they would be used for Party work, as _Blockleiter_ (block leaders) and _Zellenleiter_ (ward leaders). The course of instruction included daily lectures on themes including: 'Greater Germany'; 'The Party as the F\u00fchrer's Tool'; 'The Organizational Composition of the Party'; 'Jewry'; 'The Biological Principles of National Socialism and the Struggle for the Conservation of the German _Volk_ '; 'National Socialist Economic Policy' and 'National Socialist Social Policy', as well as lectures on the duties of the key organizations of the Party including the DAF, the NSF, the HJ, the NSV, the KdF, the SS and the SA. In this way, the participants learned intensively about all aspects of National Socialism and the workings of the NSDAP. The course also included film screenings, working groups and an excursion.\n\nAn exploration of the lecture themes, which were designed to cover all aspects of the Party and its policies, gives a good indication of the ideological training given at Sonthofen. In each case, a Party member with an expert knowledge of the particular theme was appointed to give the lecture. A lecture given by Danninger on 'The Duties of the Great German Farming Community' explained Walther Darr\u00e9's agricultural ideology and National Socialist agricultural policies. It emphasized the connection of 'German blood' to 'German soil' and the need for German farmers to settle and cultivate the land. Danninger described the farming community as 'the ultimate bearer of the German people'. This lecture was supplemented by one from H\u00f6rgenrode on the theme of 'The Agricultural Production Battle', which further stressed the significance of 'blood and soil', as well as the need for autarky. It concluded with the principle that 'the Reich should be like a great farm, which should produce everything it needs for itself '.\n\nLectures on Party organizations, such as the SA, the SS, the HJ, the NSV, the KdF and the DAF, examined the duties of each organization. Kulisch, who spoke on the subject of the DAF, emphasized the 'common duties' of German workers and concluded that: 'the strength of a nation lies in its readiness to make any sacrifice . . . The enjoyment of leisure time would not be of any value, if it were not preceded by the achievement of duties. Adolf Hitler has taught us over and over again that work is the blessing of the German _Volk_ '. Helmreich's talk on a similar theme described 'work duty' as 'an essential expression of the German people'. Not surprisingly, lectures on racial ideology formed an important part of the training. In particular, W\u00f6lpl's lecture on the 'biological foundations of National Socialism' examined the essence of German blood purity, the evils of 'racial miscegenation', the 'danger of hereditary disease', and the need for the German nation to reproduce and to have large families. Hartlieb's lecture on 'Jewry' described the perils of Jewish 'world power' as well as the National Socialists' 'ideological war' against Judaism.\n\nA course was put on at Cr\u00f6ssinsee for South Tyrolese settlers in November 1940. This course included speeches and lectures on a number of themes, particularly relating to folklore and border issues. Party members addressed participants on a variety of subjects, for example 'The Tasks and Aims of the SA'. The programme of the training courses held at the _Ordensburgen_ reveals much about their purpose and structure. A course held at Sonthofen in August 1941 was based around the theme of national folklore and tradition. Each day began with a wake-up call at 7 am, with flag-raising and breakfast at 8.15 am. The morning session consisted of singing and then either rehearsal of a play or a lecture. Lectures were on topics such as 'Folklore Work as a Political Task' or 'Practical Folklore Work'. After lunch, there was a film, play rehearsal or preparation for the social evening. After dinner, there were 'folklore evenings', puppet shows or a folk play. Hence, the aim was to promote a sense of national affinity.\n\nThe _Ordensburgen_ were also used to hold special courses for 'resettlers' wives'. For example, a course at Cr\u00f6ssinsee held from 14 January to 4 February 1943 schooled 196 women. It covered all aspects of National Socialist life through a series of thirty-seven lectures. Themes included political subjects, such as 'The Structure and Composition of the NSDAP' and 'The Foundations of the National Socialist World View', as well as practical topics such as 'Healthy Food' and 'Hygiene Care'. The report of the training course written up by its leader concluded that 'the resettlement women were open and positively joyous towards the tasks of our time after the three weeks of the training course'.\n\n**OTHER ELITE INSTITUTIONS**\n\nThere were two other attempts at the creation of elite institutions in Nazi Germany: the _Hochschule der NSDAP_ and the _SS-Junkerschulen_. Alfred Rosenberg's _Hochschule der NSDAP_ (High School of the Party) at Chiemsee in Bavaria was intended as the ultimate stage in the selection of elite leaders. However, despite gaining Hitler's approval for the project, the circumstances of the war stymied Rosenberg's plans. Himmler established _SS-Junkerschulen_ in Bad T\u00f6lz (1934) and Braunschweig (1935) for men designated for high office by the SS. The _SS-Junkerschulen_ were the academies within which Himmler 'strove to create a \"professional\" SS officer corps by means of the establishment of a standardised military training system and the creation of the \"political soldier\"'.\n\nDuring the war, three other _SS-Junkerschulen_ were established at Posen-Treskau (1943\u20134), Klagenfurt (1943) and Prague (1944). However, in the war the aims of the _SS-Junkerschulen_ changed from their original purpose. Between 1934 and 1945, the _SS-Junkerschulen_ existed as political institutions to serve National Socialism, in particular, the SS elite armed vanguard the _SS-Verf\u00fcgungstruppe_ and during the war, the _Waffen-SS_. Himmler considered it to be very important that a standardized, professional educational process was developed for his elite troops. The SS elite sought to project itself as a highly disciplined and well-trained racial _F\u00fchrerkorps_. As Hatheway has argued: 'it was essential that the leadership corps of the armed SS consist of \"professionally\" trained SS officers who would have the physical, mental and \"moral\" courage necessary to carry out whatever needed to be accomplished in order to further the goals of the National Socialist Revolution'. Himmler's new, elite man was the political soldier of the armed SS who would be trained in the _SS-Junkerschulen_ , the new SS institutions established for that very purpose. Racial selection was the pre-eminent elite characteristic for the SS. The cadets were encouraged to see themselves as future leaders and the academies were constructed 'to create an air of privilege befitting a new elite', with the symbolism of German historic grandeur. They combined modern technology with the traditions of 'Teutonic' aristocracy. The curriculum included in-depth instruction in National Socialist ideology. As well as Nazi ideology, military training and sports\u2013in particular riding because of its associations with aristocratic elites\u2013were the key elements in the _SS-Junkerschulen_ education. It was at the _SS-Junkerschulen_ that Himmler built his elite leadership corps aimed at ruling the 'New Order' Nazi empire. The bulk of the cadets were not of noble birth, but they constituted what the SS regarded as 'an aristocracy of blood'.\n\nThe Nazi elite schools had a specific political task allotted to them\u2013to train a new generation of leaders. They were significant institutions in the Third Reich and Hitler took a personal interest in them. They were a microcosm of the Nazi _Weltanschauung_ as a whole. They fostered the _F\u00fchrerprinzip_ (leadership principle) and promoted physical fitness and prowess. They purported to be meritocracies and to advocate classlessness, but, in reality, the concept of racial superiority underpinned them. The most significant prerequisite of Nazi elitism was 'racial blood purity'. The ideology taught in the elite institutions promoted National Socialism and excoriated the enemies of the regime. The Nazi elite educational institutions, particularly the Napolas, had a specific role assigned to them in the war\u2013a function in the achievement of a 'greater German empire'. As boarding schools, these institutions offered the possibility of a 'total education' to their pupils, giving the opportunity to the regime to extensively control the socialization process. The pupils were removed from the influence of their parents, and the institutions replaced the family as their focus of socialization. However, the Nazi elite schools placed too much emphasis upon physical training and ideological education, to the detriment of academic subjects. As Evans has pointed out: 'Eclectic and often contradictory in their approach, they lacked any coherent educational concept that could serve as the basis for training a new functional elite to rule a modern technological nation like Germany in the future.' In the end, as Koch has stated, none of them 'produced an elite that outlived their creators'. Furthermore, once the regime collapsed so too did the value system of all these young pupils. This came as a great shock to those educated to be the future Nazi elite, who had been inculcated with Nazi ideology. Hans Buchholz, a former pupil at the Napola in Naumburg, sums this up aptly: 'Everything that had worth and value for me was suddenly no longer worth anything. The men I had looked up to were branded as criminals. The ideas by which I had lived, and for which I had been prepared to die, had become the products of criminal minds.'\n\n**NOTES**\n\n. Important early works on the Nazi elite schools included the following: D. Orlow, 'Die Adolf-Hitler-Schulen', _Vierteljahrshefte f\u00fcr Zeitgeschichte,_ Vol. 13 (1965), pp. 272\u201384; H. Scholtz, 'Die \"NS-Ordensburgen\"', _Vierteljahrshefte f\u00fcr Zeitgeschichte,_ Vol. 15 (1967), pp. 269\u201398; H. Ueberhorst (ed.), _Elite f\u00fcr die Diktatur. Die Nationalpolitischen Erziehungsanstalten 1933\u20131945. Ein Dokumentarbericht_ (D\u00fcsseldorf, 1969); and H. Scholtz, _NS-Ausleseschulen. Internatsschulen als Herrschaftsmittel des F\u00fchrerstaates_ (G\u00f6ttingen, 1973).\n\n. There have been a number of significant German studies including: H. Arntz, _Ordensburg Vogelsang 1934\u20131945. Erziehung zur politischen F\u00fchrung im Dritten Reich_ (Euskirchen, 1986); S. Baumeister, _NS-F\u00fchrungskader. Rekrutierung und Ausbildung bis zum Beginn des Zweiten Weltkriegs 1933\u20131939_ (Konstanz, 1997); J. Leeb (ed.), _'Wir waren Hitlers Elitesch\u00fcler': Ehemalige Z\u00f6glinge der NS-Ausleseschulen brechen ihr Schweigen_ (Hamburg, 1998); B. Feller and W. Feller, _Die Adolf-Hitler-Schulen. P\u00e4dagogische Provinz versus Ideologische Zuchtanstalt_ (Weinheim and Munich, 2001).\n\n. Scholtz, _NS-Ausleseschulen_ , pp. 9\u201310.\n\n. Pine, _Hitler's 'National Community'_ , p. 227.\n\n. Baumeister, _NS-F\u00fchrungskader_ , p. 2.\n\n. _Hitler's Table Talk_ , p. 394.\n\n. On this, see K. Demeter, _The German Officer-Corps in Society and State 1650\u20131945_ (London, 1965), pp. 66\u201370. See also, G. Craig, _The Politics of the Prussian Army 1640\u20131945_ (Oxford, 1955), p. 79 and C. Barnett, 'The Education of Military Elites', _Journal of Contemporary History_ , Vol. 2, No. 3 (1967), pp. 15\u201335. The cadet schools were officially closed down on Allied orders in 1920 in the aftermath of the peace terms of the Treaty of Versailles.\n\n. On this, see J. Bowen, _Soviet Education: Anton Makarenko and the Years of Experiment_ (Madison, 1962). On Makarenko, see also W. Goodman, _Anton Simeonovitch Makarenko: Russian Teacher_ (London, 1949).\n\n. On distinctions between Nazi and Soviet ideals, see R. Overy, _The Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia_ (London, 2004), pp. 261\u20134.\n\n. On other elite educational systems, see R. Wilkinson (ed.), _Governing Elites: Studies in Training and Selection_ (Oxford, 1969), which examines the different criteria by which elites are selected and the ways in which they are trained.\n\n. I. Weinberg, _The English Public Schools: The Sociology of Elite Education_ (New York, 1967), p. 26. On this, see also, G. Brauner, _The Education of a Gentleman. Theories of Gentlemanly Education in England 1660\u20131775_ (New Haven, 1959) and N. Orme, _From Childhood to Chivalry: The Education of the English Kings and Aristocracy 1066\u20131530_ (London, 1984).\n\n. Weinberg, _The English Public Schools_ , p. 38.\n\n. On what follows, see ibid., pp. 42\u20136.\n\n. Ibid., p. 52. On the ethos and development of English public schools, see also B. Simon and I. Bradley (eds), _The Victorian Public School: Studies in the Development of an Educational Institution_ (Dublin, 1975); J. Honey, _Tom Brown's Universe: The Development of the Victorian Public School_ (London, 1977): G. McCulloch, _Philosophers and Kings: Education for Leadership in Modern England_ (Cambridge, 1991).\n\n. H. Heuer, 'Englische und deutsche Jugenderziehung', _Zeitschrift f\u00fcr neusprachlichen Unterricht_ , Vol. 37 (Berlin, 1937), pp. 215 ff.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. H. Koch, _The Hitler Youth: Origins and Development 1922\u20131945_ (London, 1975), p. 182.\n\n. Ueberhorst (ed.), _Elite f\u00fcr die Diktatur_ , p. 93.\n\n. Cited in Koch, _The Hitler Youth_ , p. 191.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Ueberhorst (ed.), _Elite f\u00fcr die Diktatur_ , p. 64.\n\n. Cited in Samuel and Hinton Thomas, _Education and Society_ , p. 52.\n\n. Koch, _The Hitler Youth_ , p. 185. On the selection process, see also Ueberhorst (ed.), _Elite f\u00fcr die Diktatur_ , pp. 77\u20139.\n\n. Cited in Koch, _The Hitler Youth_ , p. 183.\n\n. Ueberhorst (ed.), _Elite f\u00fcr die Diktatur_ , p. 12.\n\n. Cited in Knopp, _Hitler's Children_ , p. 116.\n\n. Cited in ibid., p. 146.\n\n. P. Neumann, _Other Men's Graves_ (London, 1958), p. 48.\n\n. Ibid., p. 52.\n\n. Cited in Knopp, _Hitler's Children_ , p. 132.\n\n. BA NS 15\/205, Dr Goedewaagen, 'Die Nationalpolitischen Erziehungsanstalten in Deutschland', p. 8.\n\n. Ibid., p. 13.\n\n. Koch, _The Hitler Youth_ , p. 188.\n\n. Ueberhorst (ed.), _Elite f\u00fcr die Diktatur_ , p. 12.\n\n. C. Schneider, C. Stillke and B. Leineweber, _Das Erbe der Napola: Versuch einer Generationengeschichte des Nationalsozialismus_ (Hamburg, 1996), p. 34.\n\n. BA NS 15\/107, 'Schulungslehrgang der Referendare der nationalpolitischen Erziehungsanstalten vom 19 Oktober bis 19 Dezember 1937 in Berlin'.\n\n. Ueberhorst (ed.), _Elite f\u00fcr die Diktatur_ , p. 93.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Schneider, Stillke and Leineweber, _Das Erbe der Napola_ , p. 33.\n\n. E. Kogon, _Der SS Staat_ (Stockholm, 1947), p. 20.\n\n. Ueberhorst (ed.), _Elite f\u00fcr die Diktatur_ , p. 28.\n\n. Koch, _The Hitler Youth_ , pp. 192\u20133.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. J. Noakes (ed.), _Nazism: A Documentary Reader, 1919\u20131945_ , Vol. 4 (Exeter, 1998), p. 415.\n\n. Schneider, Stillke and Leineweber, _Das Erbe der Napola_ , p. 48.\n\n. G. Wegner, 'Mothers of the Race: The Elite Schools for German Girls under the Nazi Dictatorship', _Journal of Curriculum and Supervision_ , Vol. 19, No. 2 (2004), p. 171. On the Nazi elite schools for girls, see also, U. Aum\u00fcller-Roske, 'Weibliche Elite f\u00fcr die Diktatur? Zur Rolle der nationalpolitischen Erziehungsanstalten f\u00fcr M\u00e4dchen im Dritten Reich', in U. Aum\u00fcller-Roske (ed.), _Frauenleben-Frauenbilder-Frauengeschichte_ (Pfaffenweiler, 1988), pp. 17\u201344 and U. Aum\u00fcller-Roske, 'Die Nationalpolitischen Erziehungsanstalten f\u00fcr M\u00e4dchen im Grossdeutschen Reich: Kleine Karriere f\u00fcr Frauen?', in L. Gravenhorst and C. Tatschmurat (eds), _T\u00f6chter-Fragen: NS-Frauen Geschichte_ (Freiburg, 1990), pp. 211\u201336.\n\n. Cited in _V\u00f6lkischer Beobachter_ , 13 September 1936.\n\n. A. Rosenberg, _Der Mythos des 20. Jahrhunderts: Eine Wertung der seelisch-geistigen Gestaltenk\u00e4mpfe unserer Zeit_ (Munich, 1934).\n\n. Wegner, 'Mothers of the Race', p. 178.\n\n. Cited in ibid., p. 179.\n\n. Ibid., p. 181.\n\n. Ibid., p. 182.\n\n. Orlow, 'Die Adolf-Hitler-Schulen', p. 273.\n\n. Koch, _The Hitler Youth_ , p. 196.\n\n. BA NS 22\/889, 'Abschrift der Rede des Reichsjugendf\u00fchrers anl\u00e4sslich der Grundsteinlegung der neuen Adolf-Hitler-Schulen. Ver\u00f6ffentlicht im R. J. P. vom 14.1.38.', p. 2.\n\n. Scholtz, _NS-Ausleseschulen_ , p. 11.\n\n. Cited in Knopp, _Hitler's Children_ , p. 124.\n\n. BA NS 22\/889, 'Arbeitsanweisung zur Auslese und Musterung der Adolf Hitler-Sch\u00fcler', 12 October 1938, p. 2.\n\n. Orlow, 'Die Adolf-Hitler-Schulen', p. 277.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Ibid., p. 276.\n\n. BA NS 22\/889, 'Anweisung f\u00fcr den Ausleselehrgang 1938 f\u00fcr die Adolf-Hitler-Schulen', 9 February 1938, p. 2.\n\n. BA NS 22\/889, 'Richtlinien f\u00fcr die Auswahl, Ausmusterung und Einberufung der Adolf-Hitler-Sch\u00fcler', 15 October 1938, pp. 4\u20135.\n\n. ibid., p. 1.\n\n. Ibid., p. 2.\n\n. BA NS 22\/889, 'Anweisung f\u00fcr den Ausleselehrgang 1938 f\u00fcr die Adolf-Hitler-Schulen', 9 February 1938, p. 2.\n\n. BA NS 22\/889, 'Anweisung f\u00fcr den Ausleselehrgang 1938 f\u00fcr die Adolf-Hitler-Schulen', 9 February 1938, Anlage 1, 'Vorschlag eines Tagesplanes'.\n\n. Koch, _The Hitler Youth_ , p. 197.\n\n. Orlow, 'Die Adolf-Hitler-Schulen', p. 282.\n\n. Cited in Knopp, _Hitler's Children_ , p. 116.\n\n. BA NS 22\/997, Franz Albert Schall, 'Grundgedanken zum Aufbau des Werksunterrichts an den Adolf Hitler Schulen', 9 August 1938.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Scholtz, 'Die \"NS-Ordensburgen\"', p. 269.\n\n. Ibid., p. 272.\n\n. Cited in ibid., p. 274.\n\n. E. Lengyel, 'Incubators for Heroes', _The Daily Herald_ , 13 July 1938, p. 8.\n\n. On Vogelsang, see Arntz, _Ordensburg Vogelsang_.\n\n. Neumann, _Other Men's Graves_ , p. 71.\n\n. Lengyel, 'Incubators for Heroes', p. 8.\n\n. R. Evans, _The Third Reich in Power_ (London, 2006), p. 287.\n\n. Scholtz, 'Die \"NS-Ordensburgen\"', p. 289.\n\n. Ibid., p. 290.\n\n. BA NS 22\/998, Neumayr, 'Ordensburg Vogelsang', in _Der Orden: Bl\u00e4tter der Ordensburg Vogelsang_ , Jahrgang 1, Folge 1, p. 1.\n\n. W. Teeling, 'Training for Life', _The Listener_ , 10 November 1937, p. 1,003.\n\n. '\"F\u00fchrers\" of the Future: The Chosen Few', _The Manchester Guardian_ , 17 November 1937, p. 12.\n\n. E. Hearst, 'Ordensburgen: Finishing Schools for Nazi Leaders', _Wiener Library Bulletin_ , Vol. XIX, No. 3 (1965), p. 38.\n\n. Lengyel, 'Incubators for Heroes', p. 8.\n\n. '\"F\u00fchrers\" of the Future', p. 11.\n\n. Ibid., p. 12.\n\n. On education at Vogelsang, see Arntz, _Ordensburg Vogelsang,_ pp. 102\u201335.\n\n. Neumann, _Other Men's Graves_ , p. 59.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. BA NS 22\/998, P. Waiblinger, 'Ein Jahr Ordensburg: Ausblick', in _Der Orden: Bl\u00e4tter der Ordensburg Vogelsang_ , Jahrgang 1, Folge 1, p. 4.\n\n. Ibid., p. 5.\n\n. Ibid., p. 6.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Scholtz, 'Die \"NS-Ordensburgen\"', p. 270.\n\n. Kogon, _Der SS Staat_ , pp. 21\u20132.\n\n. Rauschning, _Hitler Speaks_ , pp. 241\u20132.\n\n. R. Ley, _Schmiede des Schwertes_ (Munich, 1942), p. 134.\n\n. Scholtz, 'Die \"NS-Ordensburgen\"', p. 284.\n\n. Ibid., p. 278.\n\n. Ibid., p. 274.\n\n. BA NS 12\/1196, Robert Ley, 'Die Burgen der Partei und die Erziehung des F\u00fchrernachwuchses', p. 2.\n\n. BA NS 22\/27, '\u00dcber personelle Auswertung der Schulung zur Personalpolitik', 18 Jan. 1941.\n\n. Ibid., p. 3.\n\n. Ibid., pp. 3\u20134.\n\n. BA NS 22\/284, 'Betrifft: Schulung von Volksgenossen aus dem ehemaligen S\u00fcdtirol', 26 July 1940. For full course content and rota, see also BA NS 22\/280, 'Dienstplan'.\n\n. BA NS 22\/281, 'Schulungslehrgang der S\u00fcdtiroler Politischen Leiter auf der Ordensburg Sonthofen vom 12. 8. bis 4. 9. 1940', pp. 1\u20135.\n\n. BA R 49\/2219, Ordensburg Sonthofen: Schulungsthemen, 'Aufgaben des grossdeutschen Bauerntums', 2 September 1940, p. 1.\n\n. BA R 49\/2219, Ordensburg Sonthofen: Schulungsthemen, 'Die Landwirtschaftliche Erzeugungsschlacht', 2 September 1940, p. 3.\n\n. BA R 49\/2219, Ordensburg Sonthofen: Schulungsthemen, 'Betriebsgemeinchaftliche Aufgabe der Arbeitsfront', 29 August 1940, p. 3.\n\n. BA R 49\/2219, Ordensburg Sonthofen: Schulungsthemen, 'Arbeitsdienst', 28 August 1940, p. 1.\n\n. BA R 49\/2219, Ordensburg Sonthofen: Schulungsthemen, 'Die biologische Grundlage des Nationalsozialismus und der Kampf f\u00fcr die Erhaltung der Rasse', 21 August 1940, pp. 1\u20133\n\n. BA R 49\/2219, Ordensburg Sonthofen: Schulungsthemen, 'Das Judentum', 21 August 1940, pp. 2\u20133.\n\n. BA NS 22\/282, 'II. Lehrgang f\u00fcr S\u00fcdtiroler vom 4. November bis 24. November 1940 auf der Ordensburg Kr\u00f6ssinsee', 4 November 1940.\n\n. BA NS 22\/282, 'Auszug aus dem Vortrag des Pg. Dr. Luig, \u00fcber das Thema: \"Volkstums- und Grenzlandsfragen\"'.\n\n. BA NS 22\/282, 'Auszug aus dem Vortrag des Pg. Bennecke, SA-Obergruppenf\u00fchrer, \u00fcber \"Aufgabe und Ziele der SA\"'.\n\n. BA NS 22\/950, 'III. Lehrgang Volkstum\/Brauchtum auf der Ordensburg Sonthofen. Allg\u00e4u vom 6.-16.-8.-41.'\n\n. BA NS 22\/938, 'Reichslehrgang f\u00fcr Umsiedler Frauen auf der Ordensburg Die Falkenburg am Kr\u00f6ssinsee vom 14\/1 bis 4\/2\/1943'.\n\n. BA NS 22\/938, 'Bericht \u00fcber den 1. Reichslehrgang f\u00fcr Umsiedlerfrauen auf der NS-Ordensburg \"Die Falkenburg am Kr\u00f6ssinsee\" vom 14.1 bis 4.2.1943', p. 6.\n\n. On Rosenberg, see E. Piper, _Alfred Rosenberg: Hitlers Chefideologe_ (Munich, 2005).\n\n. J. Hatheway, _In Perfect Formation: SS Ideology and the Junkerschule-T\u00f6lz_ (Atglen, 1999), p. 7. See also R. Schulze-Kossens, _Milit\u00e4rischer F\u00fchrernachwuchs der Waffen SS: Die Junkerschulen_ (Osnabruck, 1982).\n\n. On this, see Hatheway, _In Perfect Formation_ , pp. 109\u201324.\n\n. Ibid., p. 10.\n\n. Ibid., p. 83.\n\n. ibid., pp. 92\u2013103.\n\n. Ibid., p. 132.\n\n. Evans, _The Third Reich in Power_ , pp. 288\u20139. See also p. 502.\n\n. Koch, _The Hitler Youth_ , p. 203.\n\n. Cited in Knopp, _Hitler's Children_ , p. 171.\n5 THE HITLER YOUTH\n\nIn his speech at the Nuremberg Party Rally in September 1935, Hitler stressed his requirements for the new image of German youth. He stated that: 'In our eyes, the German youth of the future must be slim and slender, swift as the greyhound, tough as leather, and hard as Krupp steel'. Hitler firmly believed that the education and socialization of German youth should not be limited to the schools, but extended to incorporate the activities of the youth groups. The Nazi youth groups were accorded a very significant task in Nazi educational aims and in Nazi society as a whole. This chapter examines the role and ethos of the _Hitlerjugend_ (HJ) or Hitler Youth as an organization for the regimentation and socialization of German boys. It analyses the aims of the HJ and their implementation. First, however, in order to place the Hitler Youth movement into its historical context, a brief examination of the German youth movement is necessary.\n\n**GERMAN YOUTH GROUPS BEFORE NATIONAL SOCIALISM AND THE ORIGINS OF THE HJ**\n\nThe _Wandervogel_ (birds of passage) came into existence at the end of the nineteenth century. In these groups, young people endeavoured to create for themselves an alternative to the formal education and discipline in schools. They roamed the German countryside, dressed in traditional costumes and sang folk songs. They cherished the landscape, exploring forests, hills, villages and castles. Most of the groups were against authority and discipline. In 1913, representatives of the Free German Youth met on the Hoher Mei\u00dfner mountain near Cassel to proclaim the aims of the German youth: 'to mould its own life, in accordance with its own nature, on its own responsibility and in inner integrity'. German youth leader Gustav Wyneken stated that:\n\nyouth, hitherto merely an appendage of the older generation, excluded from the life of the community and given only the passive role of learning and with opportunities only for a dilettante form of social life, is beginning to become conscious of itself . . . It is striving for a way of life which corresponds to the nature of youth, but which at the same time will enable it to take itself and its activity seriously.\n\nWyneken regarded youth not only as a time of transition, but also as a time which had 'its own unique value' and 'its own beauty'. The _Wandervogel_ movement reacted against suppression and lack of freedom. It proposed the right of youth to independence. As Hahn states, it was 'both nostalgic and utopian, celebrating simple country life and folklore while working for the development of the individual within free communities'. It made a statement that youth should have its own sphere and, in this period, it stood against _v\u00f6lkisch_ and nationalist sentiments. Not surprisingly, both the state and the Churches regarded the youth groups with distrust and dislike. The state, in particular, attempted to undermine these youth movements by expanding its own programme of youth welfare.\n\nThe approach and outbreak of the First World War stymied the attempts of the youth movement at independence, anti- _v\u00f6lkisch_ ness and 'youth for youth's sake'. The war brought to the fore feelings of nationalism and chauvinism. After the war, German youth groups moved towards a more reactionary and conservative position. By the late 1920s, the _B\u00fcndische Jugend_ came to emphasize more organized and formalized activities than the carefree wanderings of the earlier _Wandervogel_ movement. Leadership and uniform came to play an increasing role. The _B\u00fcndische Jugend_ rejected the Weimar system and everything it represented, including modernity and urbanization. It became increasingly concerned with nostalgia for a 'national community', as well as more exclusively middle-class, Protestant and increasingly nationalist in its orientation. New groups sprang up for Catholic youth, Jewish youth and working-class youth. Youth groups representing all political parties and the Churches existed before the advent of the Nazi _Machtergreifung_. During the Weimar Republic, some five to six million young Germans belonged to this assortment of youth groups.\n\nYouth had come to attract more public awareness and a more prominent role during the Weimar years through social change and the proliferation of youth movements that shaped the image and cult of youth in the 1920s. The Weimar era gave youth a new prominence, yet the economic and social situation from the late 1920s presented German youth with problems too. Faced with an array of difficulties and tensions, many young Germans felt alienated from the Republic. Radical youngsters turned increasingly to the youth groups of the parties on the two political extremes, the NSDAP and the KPD, both of which appealed to them. The NSDAP was able to capitalize on the crisis of youth, as well as the tensions that existed between the older and the younger generations, and made many recruits among young Germans.\n\nThe earliest National Socialist youth group was organized by Adolf Lenk. Lenk had wanted to become a member of NSDAP in 1920, but was denied entry as he was not yet 18 years old. He had asked Anton Drexler, the first leader of the NSDAP, if he could found a youth group. First Drexler, and then Hitler in 1921, encouraged him in this aim. Lenk started his movement with seventeen boys gathered in the B\u00fcrgerbr\u00e4ukeller in Munich on 5 May 1921, where Hitler came to address them. Lenk stated: 'Starting with the seventeen, more people joined, then further local groups grew out of the Munich group, it developed quickly'. The Youth League of the NSDAP was publicly announced and its statutes were proclaimed in March 1922. Most significant among its points were Clause 3, which stated that the purpose of the movement was 'to awaken and nurture those values within our youth which have their roots in Germanic blood' and Clause 5, which stated that 'foreigners and Jews cannot be members'.\n\nThe next year, at the Party conference, the youth group was given its own flag. In May 1923, at the youth group's first conference, Lenk addressed the boys as follows: 'As boys we appeal to the blustery, thunderous youth, who does not doubt and is not afraid, but hopes and believes, who wins, as it dares. We need a youth which believes in the mission of National Socialism . . . the German youth must be trained intellectually, morally and physically, only in this triad will we achieve our goal'. Lenk's youth group engaged in clashes with the Communist youth and courted the displeasure of the authorities. It had a very short lifespan, surviving only until the fiasco of the Munich Beer Hall Putsch in November 1923 when Hitler's attempt to seize power failed, after which Lenk was arrested and imprisoned. After his release, Lenk tried to continue his work and was arrested again for his activities in a banned organization. Despite this, he claimed: 'We, the old fighters, only knew one goal: \"Germany\". For this we sacrificed life, blood, freedom, existence and wealth . . . we were proud to have served our country'.\n\nA National Socialist youth group was resurrected in 1925, by Kurt Gruber, a law student from Saxony. He introduced a uniform and established an administrative apparatus for his organization, the Greater German Youth Movement. At first, it attracted mainly working-class youth. Gruber's organization gradually evolved into the official youth group of the NSDAP and in 1926, it took on the name Hitler Youth. But Lenk was careful to ensure that his formative youth group was not forgotten in the history of the Party and that Gruber did not take all the credit for the creation of the National Socialist youth movement.\n\nWhen the roots of today's magnificent tree were laid in the year 1921, the thought ruled me to serve this movement in its young years, as this movement, for which back then blood was flowing from our heads on a daily basis, was nothing else for us than Germany itself. Only pure dedication and continuous preparedness was for us, who were only a few back then, the most sacred task.\n\nLenk stated that Hitler subsequently appointed Gruber to become leader of the National Socialist youth 'on my request'.\n\nFollowing a protracted power struggle between Gruber and Baldur von Schirach, who had in the meantime become prominent in the National Socialist German Students' Association, Hitler appointed Schirach as head of all youth activities for the NSDAP in 1931. On 17 June 1933, Schirach was made Youth Leader of the German Reich, within the Ministry of the Interior. By 1 December 1936, Schirach had succeeded in persuading Hitler to let him have his own headquarters in Berlin, at which time he was no longer responsible to Wilhelm Frick, the Minister of the Interior, but directly to Hitler. He retained his position as Youth Leader of the German Reich until August 1940, when Artur Axmann replaced him.\n\nFrom a very early date, even before the regime came to power, the _Jungvolk_ (for boys aged 10\u201314) was determined to be an organization not of words, but of action: 'How can we win those who we care about and whom we need? Again, not through words, but through actions! . . . Only achievement and action can prove authenticity and truth.' According to the _Jungvolk_ bulletin, the organization and each new boy within it had to go through three steps. The first and foremost stage was to create and become part of a community. The second step was the consolidation of the community. The third stage was attack and outward struggle. Team spirit and commitment to the community was to be fostered through common experiences, in particular, hiking trips. Consolidation was to be achieved through the boys adopting 'an unrelenting acerbity' towards themselves. Through this, they would develop 'a clear conscience' with regard to their 'inner judgement' and 'true and insuperable strength' would grow within them. This, in turn, would drive them to attack and success. At the heart of all this was 'the experience of the German _Volkstum_ '. This was demonstrated in a variety of ways, not just in daily politics and political struggle. The organization emphasized the spirit of German life, in terms of dance, games, songs, music and clothing, as well as language, land and national heroes. This is why a wide range of activities was suggested to _Jungvolk_ leaders for its members to undertake, including theatre, puppet shows, circus, dancing and singing, music recitals, handicrafts, drawing, woodcutting and photography. And so, the movement emphasized the creation of a 'new community', 'not with words, but with actions', at the heart of which lay the _Volkstum_. Its task was to create 'a new Nordic youth'. Furthermore, it called for 'a link to the countryside, which has seen the birth of the soul of our _Volk_. . . we have to be rooted with the oak and the fir tree!' This love of the countryside was significant to National Socialist youth and something it picked up on and followed from the traditions of the _Wanderv\u00f6gel_. These excerpts from the early bulletins of the _Deutsches Jungvolk_ are useful sources as they are indicative of the direction in which the movement was intended to develop as it grew. Indeed, the new exemplary man it sought to create would become 'the primary type' of the Third Reich.\n\nAt the end of 1932, the Hitler Youth had a comparatively small membership of 107,956. At this time, in the months before the Nazi _Machtergreifung_ , HJ members actively took part in propaganda campaigns, distributing leaflets, putting up posters and engaging in street fights with their counterparts in the Communist youth group. Schirach's main objective in 1933 was to build a state youth organization and to try to consolidate all Germany's youth into the Hitler Youth. At first, the Hitler Youth appeared attractive and exciting. It presented young boys and teenagers with the opportunity to take part in a new movement, to escape from parental control and boredom at home. It offered them a sense of purpose, belonging and unity. The Hitler Youth also provided a new opportunity for participation in youth activities to some youngsters, particularly in rural areas, who had not previously had access to youth movements. By the end of 1933, the Hitler Youth had more than two million members. In order to join, young boys had to present a statement of application for admission, which included details of the name and occupation of their parents, their religion, as well as a confirmation that they were of 'German origin', which they had to sign. The young boys who joined the HJ at this time were motivated by a sense of excitement, peer camaraderie and the youthful enthusiasm of its leaders. In addition, many enrolled in order to become involved in the national cause and to gain more independence from their parents.\n\n**THE HJ AFTER JANUARY 1933**\n\nOnce the NSDAP gained power, with its radical ideas for state and society, its youth group acquired a new status and new tasks. The HJ became involved in a host of activities in building the National Socialist state, including health care of the youth, recreation, labour service and the _Winterhilfswerk_ (Winter Relief Agency), as well as career counselling and apprenticeship procurement. In particular, its health remit meant that its doctors had to ensure the health of all HJ members and leaders. All HJ (and BDM) members had to undergo a health check before they were admitted into the movement. Furthermore, HJ doctors were to educate the youth in 'hereditary biological and racial thinking'. HJ doctors and leaders were to encourage German youth to understand the importance of choosing a 'racially valuable' partner and furthering the nobility of the German _Volk_ through their offspring in the future.\n\nHitler addressed the first National Socialist Youth Day in Potsdam:\n\nThe German must once again learn how to feel like one _Volk_. . . our _Volk_ fell from its proud height as it forgot that, and you, my German boys and girls should learn it again in the National Socialist movement, to feel as brothers and sisters in one nation. You shall, beyond all professions and social classes, beyond everything which threatens to splinter you, search and find the German community; you shall preserve and hold on to it and no one shall rob it from you . . . At the moment there might be quite a lot of Germans who deny the value of ideals. But National Socialism educates you, young people, to become believing idealists; as only ideals can forge together the German _Volk_ to unity\n\nHe sparked great enthusiasm for the National Socialist movement among those gathered. Axmann underlined this theme of national unity and the elimination of class barriers in the Nazi youth movement in a radio lecture on 3 May 1933: 'We do not ask about coincidences of birth and origin, but we ask about character and achievement. We do not ask: \"Where do you come from?\" but we ask \"What is your will and where are you going?\"' Youth was encouraged to play its part in the future of the national movement.\n\nWhilst part of the explanation for the rapid growth of the movement was its attraction to youth after the Nazi 'seizure of power', a large part of the reason was the process of _Gleichschaltung_ (coordination) of youth by the Nazi regime. The Communist Youth Association of Germany (KJVD), the Social Democratic Socialist Working Youth (SAJ) and the German Socialist Youth Association (SAP) were all dissolved. In December 1933, Bishop Ludwig M\u00fcller agreed to sign over the members of the Evangelical youth movement into the Hitler Youth. The autonomy of the Catholic youth groups was temporarily protected (until 1936) by the July 1933 Concordat between Hitler and the Vatican. In 1936, the Gestapo banned any remaining youth groups outside the Hitler Youth, and the Catholic youth groups were dissolved. By the end of 1936, the Hitler Youth had 5.4 million members.\n\nOn 1 December 1936, the Law on the Hitler Youth stated that: 'The future of the German nation depends upon its youth and German youth must therefore be prepared for its future duties.' It decreed that:\n\n1. The whole of German youth within the borders of the Reich is organized in the Hitler Youth.\n\n2. All German young people, apart from being educated at home and at school, will be educated in the Hitler Youth physically, intellectually, and morally in the spirit of National Socialism to serve the nation and the community.\n\n3. The task of educating German youth in the Hitler Youth is being entrusted to the Reich Leader of German Youth in the NSDAP. He therefore becomes the 'Youth Leader of the German Reich'. His office shall rank as Supreme Governmental Agency with its headquarters in Berlin and he will be directly responsible to the F\u00fchrer and Chancellor of the Reich.\n\n4. All regulations necessary to execute and supplement this decree will be issued by the F\u00fchrer and Reich Chancellor.\n\nThe Hitler Youth Law was significant because it officially and legally gave the Hitler Youth an equal status to the home and the school in educating German children. However, in spite of its first provision, membership of the Hitler Youth organization was not yet compulsory. Nevertheless, there was much social pressure to join after 1936. Schirach proclaimed 1936 to be 'the year of the German _Jungvolk_ ' and orchestrated a huge propaganda campaign, as well as pressure on schoolteachers, in order to initiate as many 10-year-olds as possible into the movement in that year. On 19 April 1936, the eve of Hitler's birthday, Schirach proudly presented Hitler with the 'gift' of this cohort of young boys, who took their oath of loyalty to Hitler at Marienburg Castle in West Prussia. In his radio broadcast, Schirach claimed that 90 per cent of all 10-year-olds were members of the Nazi youth movement. However, even despite this immense pressure and compulsion to join, it is noteworthy that a substantial number of young people managed to remain outside the Hitler Youth movement.\n\nThe organizational briefs and guidelines for the _Jungvolk_ and its leaders were circulated by the National Leadership of the HJ department. The _Jungvolk_ was organized into three different types of organisational unit. The _Jungenschaft_ comprised 8\u201316 boys; the _Jungzug_ was made up of two to four _Jungenschaften_ and comprised 32\u201364 boys; and the _F\u00e4hnlein_ was made up of two to four _Jungz\u00fcge_ and comprised 128\u2013250 boys. The uniforms for both the _Jungvolk_ members and the _Jungvolk_ leaders were carefully designed. The members' uniform consisted of an open brown shirt, a black neck scarf with a leather knot, brown knee breeches, a belt, with brown leather buttons. Two leather buttons affixed to each other were to be worn as cufflinks. The _Jungvolk_ emblem was to be worn on the left chest pocket below the button. The emblem could only be worn once the boy had passed his probation period and had been admitted officially into the _Jungenschaft_ with a handshake. There was also a _Jungvolk_ cap, with stripes in colours according to region. Leaders' uniforms were marked out by their leadership badges. The _Jungenschaft_ leader wore a green disk on the left arm, the _Jungzug_ leader wore a blue disk and the _F\u00e4hnlein_ leader a white disk. This appealed to young people who wanted to wear the uniform and the badges and therefore tried to excel within the movement.\n\nLeaders were given careful guidelines for training and educational work in the _Jungvolk_. They were called upon to educate their boys in 'love of the country' and through group work to eliminate the gap between 'the proletarians and the bourgeois'. This intention was part of the National Socialists' wider aim to destroy class barriers in German society. In the youth group, this was to be achieved through a weekly meeting called the _Heimabend_ , in which boys came together to read, sing, listen to stories and do handicrafts. In good weather, this was supplemented with outdoor activities in the form of games and exercises to strengthen the body. In addition, a key activity was the excursion. This was particularly favoured by the Nazi leadership as there the boy was 'totally cut off from home' and could really show 'whether he is a man and knows how to help himself ' and 'whether he is a good comrade'. There he learned how to put up tents in different ways and how to secure and heat a camp\u2013'in short, everything that a good German boy can, will and must know'. German boys acquired knowledge of their homeland and of nature on these excursions. They also learned the group rule that the common good took precedence over self-interest. Beyond these excursions, which took place once a month for a day and a half, were the longer camps that took place in the school holidays. Each month, the _Jungvolk_ published a booklet for its members, which included excursion reports, experiences, poems, stories, photographs and drawings. At parents' evenings, exhibitions of _Jungvolk_ work were shown, as well as group songs, music recitals, games and exercises. These evenings were designed to show parents what the boys were doing at the youth group and to encourage their support of it. In addition, it was hoped that parents whose boys were not already members might be encouraged to enrol them once they had been to the parents' evenings. Hence they had to be appealing, with no 'feeling of boredom' for the audience.\n\nOn 25 March 1939, a further Youth Ordinance decreed that: 'All young people are obliged from the age of 10 to their 19th birthday to serve in the Hitler Youth'. Boys aged 10\u201314 were to join the _Deutsches Jungvolk_ (DJ), whilst boys from 14 to 18 were to join the Hitler Youth. German girls were to join the corresponding Nazi girls' organizations, the _Jungm\u00e4del_ (JM) for girls aged 10\u201314 and the _Bund Deutscher M\u00e4del_ (BDM) for girls aged 14\u201318, which are examined in the next chapter. It was the responsibility of the parent or legal guardian to register the children or young people in the Hitler Youth and they could be fined or imprisoned for deliberate failure to do so. Furthermore, the decree stated that: 'anyone who maliciously prevents or attempts to prevent any young person from serving in the Hitler Youth will be punished by fine or imprisonment'. Hitler Youth members were obliged to swear an oath of loyalty to Hitler.\n\nAfter the Hitler Youth had established itself as the 'state youth', three other influences on children's education and socialization came to stand in opposition to its power: the Church, the school and the parental home. Tensions increased between HJ members and traditional figures of authority, in particular clergymen, teachers and parents. HJ members considered the movement as their 'world . . . and not school, nor church nor home could offer competing alternatives'. In HJ newspapers and journals, as well as its training manuals for HJ leaders, the presentation of arguments against the Churches was a significant and recurring theme. HJ leaders encouraged their members to flout the authority of conventional figures and even to scorn them. The Hitler Youth made some attempts to get parents on its side, for example introducing HJ parents' evenings and broadcasting radio programmes on parenthood to secure the loyalty of parents. However, HJ members were encouraged to spy on their families and friends for anti-Nazi activities, which increased tensions between the HJ and the parental home. Furthermore, tension increased between the NSLB and the HJ leadership. The main source of concern for the NSLB was the lack of respect for the teaching profession displayed by HJ members. There was a growing number of complaints by teachers that pupils ridiculed them and undermined their authority. Yet, from the perspective of a young HJ boy, this position was not necessarily so clear-cut. Jurgen Herbst writes in his memoir: 'Did we leaders of boys leave our parents and teachers, or did our parents and teachers leave us? We could not have said.' Nevertheless, in the KLV camps during the war, the regime came closest to achieving its aim of total education\u2013for here the influence of parents was eliminated, the influence of schoolteachers was reduced and the influence of the HJ became the decisive factor.\n\nBy the time membership became compulsory, the Hitler Youth had lost some of its original appeal. The initial enthusiasm for the movement waned as military drills took precedence over hikes, camps and sporting activities, and the dissemination of Nazi propaganda became more pronounced. The HJ was becoming an instrument of authoritarianism and indoctrination. The initial enticement of the slogan 'youth leads youth' wore off. There was also a growing number of duties, including collecting money for the Winter Relief Agency and picking berries and herbs. Land Service involved Hitler Youth members in helping with harvesting, milking cows and chopping wood. This was aimed at emphasizing the 'blood and soil' doctrine and at providing experience of life in the countryside to young people from the cities. It fitted in with the Nazi view of the cities as asphalt jungles, which engendered an unwholesome lifestyle. A Hitler Youth circular dated 8 January 1940 stated: 'Land service is a political task of National Socialism. Its purpose is to bring back boys and girls from the cities to the land, to create new recruits for the agricultural occupations and thus secure their continuous existence. The best of them should be given an opportunity to settle. The Hitler Youth is the sole executor of the land service.' From February 1940, Hitler Youth members had to report for duty on two Sundays each month. Some young people came to see the Hitler Youth as a restriction on the freedom of their leisure time, as it took up more and more of their waking hours outside school. State control had replaced parental control. Parents too expressed concern about the amount of time their children were spending on Hitler Youth activities.\n\nIndeed, HJ members recall how busy their HJ schedules were. Erich Loest remembers: 'Twice a week we had HJ service and as soon as I became a leader, there were extra leadership duties on Mondays; and on Sundays we had shooting, or we went bicycling somewhere, or we had a parade. So for four or five days a week I was busy with the Hitler Youth. We had no time to think about what we were actually doing. The next thing was always coming up. It was non-stop action.' However, it is also worth remembering that in many senses, boys living through the Nazi era were still just boys as in other places and times. Herbst makes this point clearly in his memoir:\n\nAs we boys lived our lives, day by day and week by week, they moved along in all the ordinariness of daily existence as ordinary lives unfold everywhere. Dramatic and traumatic events did not occur every day. When they did, they broke into and interrupted the ordinariness of everyday life, but then they were absorbed in the rhythm of our daily doings and became themselves ordinary parts of it.\n\nHow were HJ members socialized? As Kl\u00f6nne has suggested, the HJ boy was characterized as outwardly active, capable of physical achievement, fit for work, used to organizational discipline and bound to the norms of the organization. Certainly there was a significant distinction between the socialization of girls and boys. There were specific gendered expectations of boys as boys. Training in the HJ involved a variety of aspects including physical fitness, discipline, adherence to the organization and its dress codes. Physical fitness was one of the most important attributes of the HJ. Its members had a 'duty' to be physically fit. In order to be accepted into the organization, the new recruits of the _Jungvolk_ had to pass a physical assessment, which included running and long jump, as well as 'tests of courage'. The boys had to demonstrate their strength and bravery. Once they joined, they took part in physical exercises and military drills. They did roll calls and marched in columns. They participated in numerous sporting events and competitions. The 'HJ National Sports Contest' was the culmination of these events. It showed off the strength and fortitude of the German youth. At the 1937 Party Congress Hitler addressed his youth as follows: 'In place of young people who were previously brought up to enjoy themselves, a generation is now coming of age, brought up to privation, self-sacrifice and above all to the development of a healthy, resilient physique'.\n\nThe desire to belong to the Nazi youth movement and to wear the uniform was a significant factor in the appeal of the HJ. The younger boys recall their haste to join and desire to reach the age of 10 so that they could do so. For example, Hans J\u00fcrgen Habenicht describes his agonizing wait to be admitted into the _Jungvolk_ : 'I really longed for the day and was proud when it finally arrived. My elder brother was already in the Hitler Youth. I too wanted to belong one day to that organization, which was bound up with ideas like comradeship, Fatherland and honour. In uniform, you felt you were taken more seriously. Now I was one of the big boys'.\n\nThe Hitler Youth uniform consisted of brown shorts with a brown shirt, a black kerchief, a leather belt, leather shoulder straps, white socks, brown shoes and a brown cap. The boys took pride and pleasure in wearing the HJ uniform, which signified their belonging. Jobst-Christian von Cornberg recalls that 'to wear the uniform was an honour'. The membership of the movement and its uniform appealed to the boys' self-esteem and their desire to be recognized as important to the national cause. Werner Hanitzsch remembers: 'The uniform was first and foremost a symbol of belonging. And for us that was actually the most important thing. We were a community. We were a blood brotherhood and the uniform was the external symbol of this'.\n\nIdeology was presented in a thoroughgoing manner in the HJ _Heimabend_. The HJ leaders were primed with training manuals about what to include and how to run these sessions. They told the boys legends of German heroes and read battlefield literature to them. They were taught about the need to preserve 'the purity of German blood', the menace to Germany presented by the Jews and the importance of gaining 'living space in the East'. The Third Reich would rightfully subjugate its 'inferior', 'sub-human' eastern neighbours and be heroic in battle. Rudolf Hiemke remembers that 'the pattern of the _Heimabend_ was strictly laid down, all creativity was suppressed. There was no debate, everything was dictated and organized on military lines. We had absolutely no opportunity to express ourselves freely and dared not offer any criticism.' Herbst recalls the _Heimabend_ :\n\nWe listened to our leaders telling us over and over again of the history of the Nazi party, of the exploits of its heroes . . . we viewed rows of pictures showing the heads and bodies of men and women who were supposedly representatives of various racial groups. We soon learned that the blond, tall, slender, and straight figures were the Nordic, Aryan types that we all were supposed to be. The dark, small, thick, and bent bodies, on the other hand, belonged to undesirable . . . and less worthy races. We should look down on them as inferior beings.\n\nHence, the Nazi racial stereotypes were clearly and firmly established during the HJ _Heimabend_ sessions.\n\nThe camping trips excited more enthusiasm among HJ members. They took part in leisure activities that previously had been available only to the children of affluent families. They escaped the monotony of their homes during the long summer holiday to hike through the countryside and camp. The communal spirit formed a great part of the popularity of the HJ camps. Peter L\u00f6hrer recalls: 'In the evening we all sat around the fire. And then we sang together. It was dark. The stars shone above us. It was a thrilling feeling.'\n\nThe Hitler Youth socialized German youth in militarization and the ultimate aim of acquiring new _Lebensraum_ (living space) in the east. Its members played war games, studying maps and spotting enemies. They learned how to master their terrain, as well as orientation skills in darkness. They camped in tents, sang _v\u00f6lkisch_ songs, marched and engaged in rifle practice. Boys aged 10 to 18 were taught how to shoot as part of their pre-military training, which also consisted of sports, including boxing, strenuous hikes, marches and drills. Pre-military training of the HJ was carried out by the Reich Youth Leadership in conjunction with the high command of the _Wehrmacht_. These activities prepared them for active combat in the field once the war began. Herbst recalls a memorable night in 1944 on his annual skiing camp when he and his _Jungvolk_ comrades had to climb the 3,040-foot-high Achtermann peak on a stormy night. He describes his immense joy on reaching the summit: 'We felt proud and elated. We had proved ourselves, had shown that we knew how to follow orders and that we were ready to move and persevere as soldiers'. In addition to their physical training, Hitler Youth members were inculcated with a militaristic spirit during their _Heimabend_ sessions. Topics included great soldiers of Germany's past and the war itself. These sessions were supplemented with films and pamphlets that treated the subject. In addition, soldiers visited the Hitler Youth groups and told them about their experiences at the front. Military preparation camps trained youth in map reading, reconnaissance activities, shooting, guard duty and camouflage.\n\nHerbst describes his time as a _Jungvolk_ leader as 'most exhilarating'. He recalls: 'The _Jungvolk_. . . gave me responsibility at a young age and taught me what it meant to become a leader of men. It was the comradeship of us boys and the awareness of the duties the war imposed upon us that sustained my enthusiasm and made life meaningful.' Yet, when he recounts his military training at the Labour Service camp at Rodewald in early 1945, the enthusiasm and exhilaration are no longer in evidence:\n\nThe weeks at Rodewald were cold, wet and miserable. We sixteen-year-old recruits were drilled in the basics of infantry combat. From mid-January to mid-March we were sent out day and night through swampy meadowlands that made us sink knee-deep into mud. Every ditch, hidden under snow-crusted ice, had us plunge into freezing water. We were taught how to storm make-believe enemy trenches with drawn bayonets and how to fire bazookas at haystacks. We were doused with tear gas and sent through billowing clouds, sometimes crawling and sometimes running at full speed, with our gas masks on our faces until our lungs gave out and we collapsed in the icy mud. Our barracks were cold, and we suffered from diarrhoea and fevers.\n\nAnd still this was easy compared to what awaited the HJ boys at the front.\n\nAnother significant aspect of training in the HJ was through the medium of film. From 20 April 1934, the HJ organized the _Jugendfilmstunde_ (Youth Film Hour) for its members. At first, these took place once a month, but by 1936 they were organized every week. With the help of the Ministry of Propaganda, the HJ was able to make these screenings an integral part of its members' activities. Most of the feature films that were designated 'valuable for youth' were commissioned by the Ministry of Propaganda. These films were either overtly political or underpinned National Socialist objectives in a less direct manner. They included: _Heimkehr_ ( _Homecoming_ , 1941), _Der grosse K\u00f6nig_ ( _The Great King_ , 1942) about Frederick the Great, and _Die Entlassung_ ( _The Dismissal_ , 1942). In 1942\u20133, the HJ screened more than 45,290 Reich Film Hours, with an attendance of 11,215,000. These screenings supplemented the film education that was given in schools. During the war, films with themes such as self-sacrifice, camaraderie and heroic death were regarded as particularly valuable. These films included _Stukas_ ( _Dive Bombers_ , 1941), _Himmelhunde_ ( _Sky Hounds_ , 1942) and _Junge Adler_ ( _Young Eagles_ , 1944).\n\nIn addition, the HJ taught its members film making, as part of its educational work. The argument for films created by the young for the young was that HJ members shared their comrades' experiences and therefore knew what kind of themes to portray and what would be of interest to them. The films made by the HJ between 1939 and 1942 tended to be on the subject of youth, war and sacrifice. They included _Einsatz der Jugend_ ( _Youth's Mission_ , 1939), _Der Marsch zum F\u00fchrer_ ( _The March to the F\u00fchrer_ , 1940), _Unsere Kinder\u2013Unsere Zukunft_ ( _Our Children\u2013Our Future_ , 1940) and _Soldaten von Morgen_ ( _Soldiers of Tomorrow_ , 1941).\n\nThe HJ also commissioned eight documentary films entitled _Junges Europa_ ( _Young Europe_ ) between 1942 and 1945. These showed the work carried out by the HJ during the war, from collecting the harvest to working in armaments factories. Their main purpose was to highlight to the civilian population the role of the HJ in the war. They showed their discipline, organization, obedience, camaraderie and self-sacrifice. They depicted the many activities of the HJ and the ideological commitment to National Socialism of its members. Hence, film was widely used for propaganda purposes by and within the HJ. The advocates of Nazi film propaganda in the HJ claimed that: 'Thanks to the National Socialist film educational work, youth is directed towards the heroic and is therefore psychologically prepared and entirely capable of withstanding all pressures'. Nazi film propaganda played a significant part in the activities of the HJ and formed part of the reason for which German youth was willing to sacrifice itself until the very end of the Nazi regime.\n\nThe HJ laid down strict regulations for its leaders. Boys appointed as HJ leaders had to be aware that this was not a 'privilege' but an 'obligation'. The honour and status of the HJ had to be at the centre of a leader's thoughts and actions and he had to advance this through his own impeccable behaviour both 'in service and in leisure time'. In service, he had to be appropriately attired in a clean and orderly uniform. Those promoted to leadership in the HJ had to be loyal and devoted to the organization and 'must never leave for frivolous or futile reasons'. In the HJ, the will of the individual had to take second place to that of the movement as a whole. Orders were to be given 'with personal responsibility' on the part of the person giving the order and were never to 'lack tactfulness and comradeship spirit'. Orders were to be 'short, clear, necessary and easy to understand'. Leaders themselves as subordinates to others at a higher level were to follow orders and directives given to them in an accurate and obedient way, thus setting the best example for their own subordinates. Leaders had to maintain a calm and professional manner and to keep their nerve, 'even in critical moments'. They were to maintain discipline among and care for their subordinates. They were to ensure that their boys wore the appropriate clothing for any weather and that they ate and drank enough during hikes and marches. In addition, every leader was obliged to follow the service regulations and guidelines of the HJ organization.\n\nHowever, despite its attempts at thoroughgoing socialization and leaders' obligations, Kater has shown that the Hitler Youth 'was not always an expression of monolithic cohesiveness'. Inadequate training and leadership structure gave way to much incompetence, abuse and corruption on the part of the youth leaders. Schirach and Axmann tried to limit incompetence and abuse by establishing leadership courses and sessions for Hitler Youth leaders, such as the Academy for Youth Leadership in Brunswick, set up in 1939. In 1942, an Office for Leadership Training and Instruction was established to deal with all aspects of leadership within the HJ organization. Nevertheless, leadership problems remained and indeed were exacerbated when older leaders were conscripted for military service. By 1940, 25 per cent of all Hitler Youth leaders were at the front, and by 1944 boys in their mid-teens were being commanded by boys of the same age.\n\nDid all German youths participate and willingly so? Certainly, some boys were very enthusiastic about the movement and the leadership positions and experiences it offered to them. They were trained for command and ardently supported the regime and its aims. Erich Loest recalls: 'They enticed us for their own ends, but we were glad to go along with it. Many like me did absolutely nothing to resist, we saw no reason to resist, and in turn, when we became leaders, we enticed the others'. Many others went along with HJ membership without being particularly committed to its ideology, but because it was necessary to belong for apprenticeships and other work opportunities, as many craft guilds and businesses would only take on young boys and girls if they belonged to the Party youth groups. Many had unexpressed reservations or misgivings, despite their outward conformity. There was also a relatively small group of dissenting youth. As Kater points out, even after membership became compulsory, 'too many teenagers came and went or did not enrol at all'. Some disliked the monotony of the drills and routine; others were individualistic enough to reject the norms of the organization as a whole. Many cliques and bands of youth sprang up across the Reich.\n\n**GERMAN YOUTH OUTSIDE THE HJ**\n\nDissenting youth included those who belonged to the Hitler Youth, but did not turn up regularly to its meetings, those who had left the Hitler Youth, bored or disillusioned with its requirements, or those who had never enrolled in the Nazi youth movement in the first place. In Munich, the _Blasen_ (Bubbles) were made up of anti-authoritarian workers and apprentices. They resisted the limits placed upon their personal freedom by the Hitler Youth. They remained aloof from the official youth group and engaged in theft, sabotage and other transgressions of the law. Similar cliques existed in other cities. In Hamburg, working-class gangs such as the Jumbo Band wore distinctive clothing and attacked the Hitler Youth. Other dissident youth groups sprang up that had ideological affinities to the outlawed Communists and Socialists, such as the _Meuten_ (Packs) in Leipzig, which had approximately 1,500 members. They were blue-collar workers and apprentices who met at local cinemas and bars. They went on hikes, listened to Radio Moscow, dressed in unconventional clothes and wore red handkerchiefs. Moreover, they engaged in open confrontations with the Hitler Youth.\n\nThe Edelweiss Pirates sprang up spontaneously in many German cities. These young people were typically aged between 14 and 18. In Cologne, the Navajos, in Dusseldorf, the Kittelbach Pirates and in other cities in the Rhineland and Ruhr, other groups of Edelweiss Pirates all attracted the animosity of the Hitler Youth because of their nonconformity. They represented a challenge to the authority of the Hitler Youth and sought conflicts with its members and patrols. In contrast to the state youth groups, the Edelweiss Pirates mixed groups of girls and boys and their sexuality was open. The Hitler Youth and the Nazi government frowned upon this. The Edelweiss Pirates congregated in gangs at local parks, bars, squares or street corners. At weekends, they hiked and camped in the countryside, where they chatted, sang traditional youth songs or adapted the words to reflect their own experiences. During holidays, they undertook longer journeys to assert their independence from both their parents and the regime. The existence of these dissenting youth groups and bands within the totalitarian system of the Third Reich\u2013with all its pressures to conform\u2013is significant.\n\nAnother type of non-conformist youth, from a middle- and upper-middle-class background, belonged to the Swing Youth. The Swing Youth listened to jazz and swing music in private or at carefully selected nightclubs and caf\u00e9s. They dressed distinctively and ostentatiously, wore their hair long and imitated American or British attitudes and styles. The Swing Youth originated in Hamburg, but groups established themselves in other cities including Frankfurt and Berlin. They attracted the attention of the authorities, both for their open sexuality and for their rejection of National Socialist cultural norms.\n\nThe Hitler Youth _Streifendienst_ (Patrol Service) had been established in July 1934 to police German youth. Its original function had been to combat crime, delinquency and undisciplined behaviour within the Hitler Youth. Its service regulations stipulated that 'the _Streifendienst_ has to keep watch that the manner of all members of the National Socialist youth groups is in keeping with the dignity and honour of the NSDAP'. The _Streifendienst_ reported any criticism of the regime to the Gestapo. By 1937, however, the remit of the _Streifendienst_ had been extended to dealing with former Hitler Youth members that had left the organization and members of the numerous cliques and bands of youth outside the Hitler Youth.\n\nThe Hitler Youth and the Gestapo regarded all these groups as a challenge to their authority, and the regime clamped down upon them more and more as the war years progressed. On 9 March 1940, Himmler issued a police ordinance for the 'protection of youth'. This was aimed at repressing cliques and gangs. It prohibited young people from meeting in bars or on the streets after dark. Many young people who failed to comply with this restriction were arrested and placed in youth custody camps, such as Moringen. On 25 October 1944, Himmler issued an ordinance for the 'combating of youth cliques':\n\nIn the last few years, and recently in increased numbers, gatherings of youths (cliques) have formed in all parts of the Reich . . . Cliques are groupings of juveniles outside the Hitler Youth, who lead a separate way of life, whose principles are irreconcilable with the National Socialist worldview. Collectively, they reject or are indifferent to their duties towards the national community, or towards the Hitler Youth, and in particular evince a lack of will to conform with the dictates of wartime.\n\nIn November 1944, the leaders of the Edelweiss Pirates were publicly executed in Cologne.\n\nThe White Rose movement was a resistance group that appeared in Munich during 1942 and 1943, centred round Hans and Sophie Scholl. Together with fellow students Alexander Schmorell, Christoph Probst, Willi Graf, and Professor of Philosophy at Munich University, Kurt Huber, Hans and Sophie Scholl wrote and circulated a series of leaflets that openly told of the murder of Jews in Poland and called for popular mobilization against Hitler. Between the summer of 1942 and February 1943, the White Rose distributed a series of six pamphlets at night in a number of German cities, including Cologne, Essen, Stuttgart, Frankfurt and Nuremberg, as well as Munich. The first leaflet urged Germans to resist the regime. The second leaflet told of 300,000 Jews already killed in Poland. The third asked Germans to sabotage the war industry. Moll has argued that 'their will to topple the system and their ingenuity drove them to ever more reckless campaigns'. On 18 February 1943, Hans and Sophie Scholl distributed their leaflets around Munich University for the last time. Having thrown between 1,500 and 1,800 leaflets down the staircase of the main entrance at Munich University, they were caught by the caretaker and arrested. Willi Graf was arrested later the same day. The remaining three members of the White Rose were arrested within the next ten days. A Special Court was set up under Roland Freisler on 22 February 1943, which sentenced Hans Scholl, Sophie Scholl and Christoph Probst to death, and they were executed the same day. Schmorell and Huber were executed on 13 July 1943 and Graf on 12 October 1943. Sophie Scholl had said to a fellow prisoner on the day of her execution: 'What does our death matter if thousands will be stirred and awakened by what we have done? The students are bound to revolt'. But they did not. On the contrary, the National Socialist German Students' Association organized a demonstration of 3,000 students to show their loyalty to the regime.\n\nLess well known than the White Rose movement, the members of the H\u00fcbener group were among the youngest Germans to resist the Nazi regime, acting independently, without the guidance of adults. This group of four teenagers from Hamburg\u2013Helmuth H\u00fcbener, Karl-Heinz Schnibbe, Rudolf Wobbe and Gerhard D\u00fcwer\u2013took a moral stance against the Nazi dictatorship. In contrast to the majority of German Mormons who accepted the Nazi regime, Helmuth H\u00fcbener, a 16-year-old Mormon, distributed anti-Nazi leaflets with the aid of his three co-conspirators. They continued to do this for approximately six months before they were reported to the Gestapo. Arrested in February 1942, H\u00fcbener was given the death penalty for committing treason, whilst his three comrades received prison sentences of between four and ten years for their part in the conspiracy. H\u00fcbener was executed in October 1942.\n\n**THE HJ DURING THE WAR**\n\nDuring the war, HJ duties became increasingly time-consuming and dangerous. At first, Hitler Youth members served in auxiliary positions on the home front. They made door-to-door collections of paper, cloth and scrap metal for the war effort and foraged for medicinal herbs and mushrooms. Later, they worked as couriers and messengers. Herbst recalls his time as a courier and how it raised his self-esteem: 'Here I was, a sixteen-year-old boy, having an official pass for any railroad train I chose to enter, carrying important messages\u2013it all seemed very exciting and flattering to me'. HJ members distributed ration cards and propaganda leaflets. They also worked as air raid wardens and firefighters. As the war progressed, their obligations increased, not just on the home front. Hitler Youth members were sent to the newly conquered Polish territories to re-educate the _Volksdeutsche_ (ethnic Germans) who lived on the land there. At first, this was a voluntary service. Tens of thousands of young Germans went to the borderlands where they both taught proper German to the _Volksdeutsche_ and worked in the farms and fields. They helped in the process of 'settling' young people who were 'worthy of Germanization' and prepared them for agricultural work. By 1942, it became compulsory for Hitler Youth members to serve for a six-week period in this duty.\n\nAs the HJ became increasingly involved in war duties, tensions sometimes arose with their parents. Herbst remembers his experiences: 'I had war duties to carry out, I told my mother, such as standing fire watch during air raids and helping with clean-up work thereafter. Such tasks made it seem somehow inappropriate that I ask her for permission or promise to be back home at a certain time in the evening . . . I also grew increasingly on edge listening to my mother's daily questions of whether I had done my school work. I became less and less willing to accept her directions for how I should spend my time out of school'. These types of intergenerational tensions were commonplace and, as we have seen, they were often deliberately fostered by the HJ movement.\n\nThe HJ became involved in anti-aircraft work and its members were drafted into fighting units as the tide of the war turned against Germany. Most Hitler Youth members joined the _Wehrmacht_ feeling optimistic that Germany would achieve a speedy victory and with a determination to defeat their 'inferior' enemies. They were convinced of their own superiority. Once serious setbacks and defeats occurred, however, these feelings changed to disillusionment. Young soldiers were also frustrated by the duplication of their Hitler Youth drills and training when they entered the _Wehrmacht_. Physical injuries, fatalities and inadequate food provision, as well as psychological scarring, all had a damaging impact on morale. Some HJ members came to have doubts about the war and about the honourableness of their country's cause. They soon came to realize that this 'was not the war of the textbooks, the war of glory and heroic death, but the war of blood and gore, of terror and shame, and of bodies torn and mutilated'. The young soldiers began to question the Nazi stereotype of the cowardly, 'sub-human', 'swamp Russian', once they encountered their Soviet counterparts. Difficulties faced by young soldiers even before Stalingrad led some of them to doubt their own function and to question the regime. Deserters experienced the SS's 'emergency justice' in the form of summary executions and hangings.\n\nBetween 1943 and 1945, some 200,000 teenagers served as canoneers to destroy enemy planes. The anti-aircraft artillery training, which showed the boys how to handle searchlights and anti-aircraft guns, lasted just four weeks. After that, the flak helpers (as young as 15) experienced active combat, at first in their own localities, but then in destinations far from their homes. Obliged to work during the night, as well as during the day, they were deprived of sleep, as well as terrified. Casualties were heavy. Despite this, the boys continued to fight, driven on by a sense of duty to the _F\u00fchrer_ and fatherland. Bloodshed was a symbol of valour and heroism. This experience was also difficult for them in terms of their identity and status. These young people saw themselves as outgrowing the Hitler Youth and parental control, yet they were not accepted as 'soldiers'.\n\nOn 19 October 1944, the _Volkssturm_ was established to draft all men aged between 16 and 60 that were capable of bearing arms to defend the homeland. In many cases, entire HJ groups enlisted together. They were given tasks such as digging trenches, guarding, and defending towns and villages. Dietrich Strothmann recalls: 'I was just a very ordinary kid, obedient, docile, compliant . . . ready for duty at all times, available and, ultimately, willing to die'. Despite the insistence that these young boys and old men were imperative to the war effort, they were given inadequate equipment and weaponry. In the last months of the war, the Hitler Youth formed anti-tank brigades against the Soviet advance and units to secure strategic bridges. They greatly feared revenge by their enemies and this made them more determined to keep fighting. The spirit of boys as young as 15 in these circumstances was driven by a determination to destroy as many Soviet tanks as possible. Gerd H\u00e4ffner remembers:\n\nThey went for the tanks with a fearlessness that is simply indescribable. And they really were just children. I was seventeen, but they were fifteen or younger. Without a thought for themselves, they walked into certain death. And at many points they actually forced the Russians to pull back. But then the children in their HJ uniforms were left lying in the street.\n\nHitler's youth was required to take its part in the struggle\u2013in the face of death\u2013until the very end of the war. Herbst recalls mid-March 1945, when he was 'being groomed to enter the fight in the war's last, decisive hour . . . No matter how sombre the outlook was . . . we were going to live up to our oath and fight for Germany'. In April, he describes how his platoon came under attack from enemy fire for the first time: 'Artillery shells hurled towards us with unnerving shrieks . . . Dirt, stones, tree branches, and shrapnel hurled through the air. I tasted sulphur between my teeth . . . My stomach turned, my knees trembled. This then, was . . . the baptism of fire, I thought.' In April 1945, HJ members engaged in street battles with Soviet soldiers in Berlin. Beevor describes how HJ detachments desperately held on to the Pichelsdorf and Charlotten bridges over the Havel. The HJ boys were cheated of their youth, their humanity and, in many cases, their lives.\n\n'Never before in German history had the young been so courted\u2013and never so abused'. In the HJ, young Germans were seduced by the Nazi regime and ultimately betrayed by it. Young Germans gave up their independence to the greater cause of the 'national community'. In certain ways, the HJ was similar to youth groups that had preceded it, in terms of encouraging a love for the German countryside and for German folklore. Like its predecessors, the HJ engaged German youth in peer camaraderie and popular activities like camping and hiking. This accounted for much of its attraction, particularly in its early years. The most significant difference was that it imbued its members with Nazi propaganda and increased their duties. The other important distinction was that once enrolment into the HJ became compulsory, youth group membership was not a matter of desire or choice, as it had been in the past, but one of obligation. The sense of belonging and of duty to the organization and its demands were central to the nature of the HJ. Clearly in the HJ, as in other Nazi formations, the individual was subordinated to the group. Conformity to the organizational norm was designed to create true believers in the National Socialist system. HJ members were bound to the community of the organization, and, above and beyond that, to the 'national community'. Indeed, the continued commitment, involvement and service of the HJ contributed to the prolonging of the war. Paul Kehlenbeck recalls the war years: 'Anyone fighting for Germany was also fighting for Adolf Hitler, of course. It was almost the same thing. Only towards the end of the war did these attitudes begin to change and lose their hold, but Hitler retained his authority right to the end.' Ultimately, Nazi 'total education' was intended to create such strong devotees to the regime that they would be willing to sacrifice their lives for it\u2013and many did. After the capitulation on 8 May 1945, Peter Boenisch recalls: 'We were really in a state of total physical and psychological exhaustion. Then, when the growing realization came to us that it had all been pointless and in vain, that one's friends had died for nothing, that one's brother had died for nothing, we were utterly embittered'. In the end, the youth of the Third Reich were the victims, as well as the perpetrators, of its bestial criminality.\n\n**NOTES**\n\n. Cited in J. Noakes and G. Pridham (eds), _Nazism 1919\u20131945: A Documentary Reader_ , Vol. 2, (Exeter, 1984), pp. 416\u201317.\n\n. Cited in Samuel and Hinton Thomas, _Education and Society_ , p. 18.\n\n. Cited in ibid., pp. 29\u201330.\n\n. G. Wyneken, _Der Gedankenkreis der freien Schulgemeinde_ (Leipzig, 1913), p. 10.\n\n. Hahn, _Education and Society_ , p. 39.\n\n. On this, see P. Stachura, _The German Youth Movement 1900\u20131945: An Interpretative and Documentary History_ (London, 1981) and W. Laqueur, _Young Germany: A History of the German Youth Movement_ (London, 1981).\n\n. BA NS 26\/336, 'Der Wimpel des Jungsturms Hitler!', Rundfunkvortrag des ehem. F\u00fchrers A. Lenk am 8. November 1933, p. 2.\n\n. BA NS 26\/331, 'Satzungen des Jugendbundes der NSDAP', March 1922. See also Koch, _The Hitler Youth_ , p. 47.\n\n. BA NS 26\/333, 'Satzungen des Jugendbundes der NSDAP', March 1922, in 'Das Werden der nationalsozialistischen Jugend'.\n\n. BA NS 26\/336, 'Der Wimpel des Jungsturms Hitler!', pp. 3\u20134.\n\n. BA NS 26\/332, 'Anerkennung des Jungsturms als Vorl\u00e4ufer der Hitler-Jugend'.\n\n. BA NS 26\/336, 'Der Wimpel des Jungsturms Hitler!', p. 8.\n\n. BA NS 26\/336, 'Das Werden der nationalsozialistischen Jugend', II. Teil, 14 May 1934, p. 1.\n\n. BA NS 26\/336, 'Das Werden der nationalsozialistischen Jugend', Teil 1, 10 April 1934, pp. 3\u20134.\n\n. On Schirach, see M. Wortmann, _Baldur von Schirach: Hitlers Jugendf\u00fchrer_ (Cologne, 1982).\n\n. BA NS 26\/353, 'Bundesbl\u00e4tter des Deutschen Jungvolkes, Bund der Tatjugend', Folge I, no date, p. 1.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Ibid., p. 2.\n\n. BA NS 26\/353, 'Bundesbl\u00e4tter des Deutschen Jungvolkes, Bund der Tatjugend', Folge II, Weihnachten, 1930, p. 3.\n\n. Ibid., p. 6.\n\n. Koch, _The Hitler Youth_ , p. 101.\n\n. BA NS 26\/331, 'Hitlerjugend Aufnahme Erkl\u00e4rung'.\n\n. BA NS 26\/336, 'Die Aufbauarbeit der Hitlerjugend im Staat', pp. 1\u20133.\n\n. BA NS 26\/336, 'Hitlerrede auf dem 1. Nationalsozialistischen Reichsjugendtag in Potsdam', no date, pp. 1\u20132.\n\n. BA NS 26\/336, 'Deutsche Arbeiterjungen unter Hitlers Fahnen', Artur Axmann, 3 May 1933, p. 9.\n\n. Cited in Noakes and Pridham (eds), _Nazism 1919\u20131945,_ p. 419.\n\n. Hahn, _Education and Society_ , pp. 78\u20139.\n\n. BA NS 26\/353, 'Richtlinien f\u00fcr den Jungvolkf\u00fchrer', 24 March 1932, p. 1.\n\n. Ibid., pp. 1\u20132.\n\n. Ibid., p. 4.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Ibid., pp. 5\u20136.\n\n. Cited in Noakes and Pridham (eds), _Nazism 1919\u20131945_ , p. 420.\n\n. A. Kl\u00f6nne, _Jugend im Dritten Reich: Die Hitler-Jugend und ihre Gegner. Dokumente und Analysen_ (Cologne, 1984), p. 50.\n\n. J. Herbst, _Requiem for a German Past: A Boyhood among the Nazis_ (Madison, 1999), p. 95.\n\n. BA NS 12\/1438, 'Verh\u00e4ltnis HJ.\u2013NSLB'.\n\n. Stachura, _The German Youth Movement_ , p. 148.\n\n. Herbst, _Requiem for a German Past_ , p. xv.\n\n. Kl\u00f6nne, _Jugend im Dritten Reich_ , p. 55.\n\n. Cited in Koch, _The Hitler Youth_ , p. 231.\n\n. Cited in Knopp, _Hitler's Children_ , p. 11.\n\n. Herbst, _Requiem for a German Past_ , p. xiv. See also M. von der Gr\u00fcn, _Wie war das eigentlich?: Kindheit und Jugend im Dritten Reich_ (Darmstadt, 1979).\n\n. Kl\u00f6nne, _Jugend im Dritten Reich_ , p. 82.\n\n. Cited in Knopp, _Hitler's Children_ , p. 16.\n\n. Cited in ibid., p. 12.\n\n. Cited in ibid., p. 12.\n\n. Cited in ibid., p. 30.\n\n. Cited in ibid., p. 18.\n\n. Herbst, _Requiem for a German Past_ , pp. 44\u20135.\n\n. Cited in Knopp, _Hitler's Children_ , p. 19.\n\n. BA NS 26\/336, 'Vormilit\u00e4rische Wehrert\u00fcchtigung der Hitler-Jugend', 17 December 1941.\n\n. Herbst, _Requiem for a German Past_ , p. 98.\n\n. Ibid., p. 81.\n\n. Ibid., p. 174.\n\n. D. Welch, 'Educational Film Propaganda and the Nazi Youth', p. 73.\n\n. Ibid., p. 77.\n\n. Ibid., p. 80.\n\n. C. Belling and A. Sch\u00fctze, _Der Film in der Hitlerjugend_ (Berlin, 1937), p. 36.\n\n. On what follows, see BA NS 26\/353, 'F\u00fchrerordnung'.\n\n. M. Kater, _Hitler Youth_ (Cambridge, Mass. and London, 2004), p. 15.\n\n. Stachura, _The German Youth Movement_ , p. 130.\n\n. Cited in Knopp, _Hitler's Children_ , p. 2.\n\n. Kater, _Hitler Youth_ , p. 25.\n\n. See E. Boesten, _Jugendwiderstand im Faschismus_ (Cologne, 1983) and D. Peukert, _Die Edelwei\u00dfpiraten. Protestbewegung jugendlicher Arbeiter im Dritten Reich. Eine Dokumentation_ (Cologne, 1980).\n\n. Kater, _Hitler Youth_ , p. 137.\n\n. On this, see Peukert, _Die Edelwei\u00dfpiraten_ and M. von Hellfeld, _Edelwei\u00dfpiraten in K\u00f6ln_ (Cologne, 1983).\n\n. D. Peukert, _Inside Nazi Germany: Conformity, Opposition and Racism in Everyday Life_ (London, 1987), pp. 156\u20137.\n\n. BA NS 26\/338, 'Vorl\u00e4ufige Dienstvorschrift f\u00fcr den HJ-Streifendienst', 15 May 1936, p. 8.\n\n. Cited in M. Burleigh and W. Wippermann, _The Racial State: Germany 1933\u20131945_ (Cambridge, 1991), p. 238.\n\n. On the White Rose, see H. Siefken (ed.), _The White Rose: Student Resistance to National Socialism 1942\u20131943_ (Nottingham, 1991) and I. Jens (ed.), _At the Heart of the White Rose: Letters and Diaries of Hans and Sophie Scholl_ (New York, 1987).\n\n. C. Moll, 'Acts of Resistance: The White Rose in the Light of New Archival Evidence', in M. Geyer and J. Boyer (eds), _Resistance against the Third Reich 1933\u20131990_ (Chicago, 1994), p. 200.\n\n. On this, see B. Holmes and A. Keele (eds), _When Truth was Treason: German Youth against Hitler_ (Urbana and Chicago, 1995).\n\n. Herbst, _Requiem for a German Past_ , p. 164.\n\n. Ibid., pp. 88\u20139.\n\n. Kater, _Hitler Youth_ , p. 178.\n\n. See, for example, Herbst, _Requiem for a German Past_ , pp. 116\u201317.\n\n. Ibid., p. 128.\n\n. Kater, _Hitler Youth_ , p. 199.\n\n. Ibid., pp. 206\u20137.\n\n. Cited in Knopp, _Hitler's Children_ , p. 240.\n\n. Cited in ibid., p. 276.\n\n. Herbst, _Requiem for a German Past_ , p. 177.\n\n. Ibid., p. 181.\n\n. On this, see R. Bessel, _Nazism and War_ (London, 2004), p. 148; A. Beevor, _Berlin: The Downfall 1945_ (London, 2002), pp. 281 and 316; N. Stargardt, _Witnesses of War: Children's Lives under the Nazis_ (London, 2005), pp. 313\u201314 and 316.\n\n. Beevor, _Berlin_ , pp. 340 and 356.\n\n. Knopp, _Hitler's Children_ , p. ix.\n\n. Cited in ibid., p. 174.\n\n. Cited in ibid., p. 276.\n[6 THE LEAGUE OF GERMAN   \nGIRLS ](Pine_9781847887641_epub_c16_r1.html#d6e8)\n\nThis chapter examines the role and function of the League of German Girls (BDM) as the Nazi organization for the regimentation and socialization of girls. It analyses the aims of the BDM and their implementation. Since 1980, when Klaus published his pioneering book on the BDM, there has been a proliferation of books and articles on the subject. In addition, the memoirs of girls who grew up in the Third Reich and were affiliated to the BDM enhance our knowledge and understanding of the movement by providing accounts of their personal experiences. Within the secondary literature on the BDM, a number of issues remain disputed and others inadequately addressed. Reese's contribution to the historiography of the BDM highlights some of these controversies, such as whether or not motherhood was the overriding objective for German girls and what 'type' of girl the regime aimed to create within the BDM. Furthermore, Reese indicates that the question of the extent to which the BDM had a modernizing effect on German girls has not been adequately treated. She notes that 'in the early 1930s girls were often drilled to march in formation and trained in field exercises and sometimes marksmanship with air rifles'. This was not the traditional gender expectation for girls. The purpose of this chapter is to analyse the role of the BDM in the training and socialization of girls. An analysis of BDM training manuals and guidelines, as well as its magazine, _Das Deutsche M\u00e4del_ , and other literature, gives a clear indication of the norms, values, expectations and political ethos of the organization and the way in which it imbued German girls with the National Socialist _Weltanschauung_. Before embarking upon an examination of the BDM, it is useful to contextualize this subject with an overview of the girls' youth movement before the Nazi 'seizure of power'.\n\n**YOUTH GROUPS FOR GIRLS BEFORE THE NAZI ERA AND THE ORIGINS OF THE BDM**\n\nThe development of youth movements and girls' leagues in Germany had its cultural, socio-economic and ideological foundations in Germany's particular, modern history, with its 'late' industrialization and rapid pace of modernization, its demographic change and urbanization. The _Wandervogel_ movement incorporated girls as well as boys from 1905 onwards. Young men and women explored the German forests, hills and villages and hiked through the countryside. It is important to note, however, that the defining image of the youth culture was male. Whilst sports clubs and youth groups admitted girls as members, there were 'no independent forms of leisure for girls'. Nor yet was there the type of distinctive girls' leisure subculture that defined the youth groups and subcultures for boys. Girls joined mixed groups of girls and boys. They gradually began to establish their own single-sexed girls' groups. The groups and organizations for girls came to be characterized by a number of significant aspects, as girls came to establish a culture of their own.\n\nBetween 1918 and 1928 girls were expelled from the male youth movement and they established their own autonomous leagues and groups. In particular, as a result of the First World War, girls came to call for a realm of their own, distinctive from that of boys. Girls constructed separate, new identities for themselves for the first time during this period. A gender polarization occurred between _Wandervogel_ boys and _Wandervogel_ girls. Girls opened up social, geographical and political 'space' for themselves, which they had never claimed before and which had never before belonged to them. These girls sought role models in legendary and historical figures, such as Brunhilde and Queen Luise. De Ras has typified this 'new breed of girls and young women from the youth movement' as 'the New Gretchens'. These girls expressed loathing and disgust for 'modern' girls. They disliked metropolitan girls, Jewish girls, 'French' girls, 'Gypsy' girls, 'unhealthy' girls, and lesbians, as these 'types' went against their conservative conceptions of what a 'German' girl should be. The idyllic, rural past formed the core of their world view.\n\nThe girls differentiated their identity with concepts such as 'female culture' and 'sacred island' within their girls' leagues and communities. The 'sacred island' was a phase representing a search for 'the link between \"nature\" and \"femininity\", of romancing the German female body, soul and mind, a desire for wholeness'. It was outwardly expressed by the wearing of a loose, white dress\u2013the 'island dress'. A number of girls' leagues retreated into country homes whilst others were secret societies, hidden in the countryside. Settlements of young women and girls, such as those at Schwarzerden and Loheland, became islands of female culture and activity, entirely independent from and impenetrable to male influence. In terms of constructions of the body within the girls' leagues, the 'body culture' that was idealized was neither a 'motherly' body, nor a 'Lolita figure'. Rather, the body type that was advocated was 'androgynous' and as de Ras writes, 'a closed off and closing off young female body'. Lust and sexuality were frowned upon.\n\nThe period between 1928 and 1934 was characterized by the growth of extreme nationalist youth groups and leagues, such as the _Jungnationaler Bund_ (Young-National League), the _Freischar Junger Nation_ (Free Band of the Young Nation) and the _Gro\u00dfdeutscher Bund_ (Greater German League), which attracted girls as members. Girls' groups continued to be semi-autonomous within these organizations. Whilst the girls groups were not homogeneous, they did have a number of common aspects: 'the idealisation of _Kultur_ ; the worship of wholeness and aversion to fragmentation; the love for and glorification of German history, tradition, folklore, language; the emphasis on the importance of soil, nature, landscape, the rural and a dislike of modernity . . . and the wish to remain physically, psychologically, and racially pure and natural'. Their vitality and patriotism came increasingly to be bound up with anti-Semitism and 'racial' exclusivity. As the Nazi _Machtergreifung_ approached, these 'new radical nationalist girls', who were eager to become part of the state, were ripe to become 'absorbed' into the National Socialist movement.\n\nIn the meantime, the National Socialists' own girls' league, the BDM, emerged in 1930 after a number of previous attempts to set up a youth group for girls within the Nazi movement had failed. Adolf Lenk had set up the first group in the early 1920s. This was followed by a number of sororities or sisterhoods within the HJ in 1927. However, these groups had little popular appeal. Groups for girls began to be created within the context of local National Socialist women's associations. They tended to put the emphasis upon girls' duties, such as mending and cooking. Before 1930, there was a large number of small Nazi and _v\u00f6lkisch_ groups for girls, such as the _Deutscher M\u00e4del Ring_ , set up in Bavaria in 1927, that competed with each other for membership. In 1930, the BDM came to prominence. As part of the HJ, it had a stronger bureaucratic structure and it was marked out by its uniform. On 7 July 1932, Gregor Strasser and Baldur von Schirach dissolved all the other girls' groups that were part of the Nazi women's associations and ordered their membership to be transferred directly into the BDM. Hence, the BDM became the only National Socialist association for girls. However, prior to the Nazi _Machtergreifung_ , the BDM was just one of many youth groups for girls in Germany. By the end of 1932, it had a membership estimated at between 10,000 and 15,000 girls.\n\n**BDM MEMBERSHIP**\n\nAfter Hitler came to power on 30 January 1933, the BDM rose to a much more significant position. This was partly the result of the process of _Gleichschaltung_ or 'streamlining', by which other girls' youth groups were dissolved, and partly due to the desire of girls who had never been in a youth organization before to take part in the National Socialist movement. Both of these factors led to a substantial increase in the membership of the BDM after 1933. In many cases, schools and teachers were encouraged to put pressure on girls to join. Between 1933 and 1936, the BDM experienced a vast expansion in its membership, encompassing almost half of all German girls aged between 10 and 18. The BDM considered the old youth movement to be uncreative and lacking in true value. It came to regard the _Wandervogel_ girl as an 'anti-type'.\n\nMany girls were attracted to the BDM because it gave them the chance to do 'what hitherto only boys were allowed to do', for example, to have more independence from their parents, go on trips and take part in group activities. Others joined because they wanted to feel important, and not to be excluded from the world of adults. Entry into the BDM allowed girls to escape from their tedious home lives, where they were usually under the constant scrutiny of their parents. The BDM gave girls the chance to be independent from their parents and to play a role within an organized, hierarchical social institution. They had the opportunity to become leaders within the organization. Reese argues that this led to 'an enhanced sense of female self-esteem'.\n\nGirls from middle-class families, in particular, often eagerly seized upon the opportunities offered to them by the BDM, because of their childhood experiences. In the aftermath of the Wall Street Crash, shattered prestige and finances were strongly felt by all members of middle-class households. In addition, the children of such families were subjected to very strong parental discipline, and girls felt especially intimidated by their fathers. Consequently, they felt insecure, useless, unconfident and insignificant. The BDM gave girls an opportunity to break out of this pattern and style of their lives at that time. Indeed, some girls joined the BDM as a sign of their rebellion against the authority of their parents. The BDM gave young girls a sense of peer camaraderie, involvement in their national cause and independence from their parents. Melita Maschmann has described how she wished to escape from her 'childish, narrow life' and 'to follow a different road from the conservative one prescribed . . . by family tradition'. Many of her contemporaries joined the BDM for similar reasons. In this respect, there is some indication that the BDM had a modernizing and liberating effect upon German girls. However, in the place of maternal and paternal influence came societal authority and state force.\n\nAn important reason for the popularity of the BDM was the sense that girls were participating equally within the German youth movement. The BDM had its own role, and the Nazi regime exploited a sense of competition and rivalry between the sexes. As a girls' organization, the BDM offered a range of roles and career paths for girls. A mass organization that grew quickly in size, the BDM needed leaders and many girls were appointed as leaders. Leaders had to exhibit the correct type of personality and characteristics. Through their active commitment, leaders had the opportunity of rising up through the hierarchy of the organization to higher leadership positions. Whilst many leaders on the lower levels were volunteers, those at the top end of the leadership scale were paid a salary for their work. Such career possibilities led to increased enthusiasm for the organization.\n\nReese argues that girls were influenced and shaped by their 'living practice in the National Socialist organization'. The BDM allowed them to take part in activities that were beyond the horizons of their social milieu and to have access to a variety of new experiences. This accounted for much of its initial popularity. However, the appeal of the BDM differed across areas, as well as social and cultural milieus. There was sometimes significant parental resistance to the membership of their daughters into the BDM, on grounds of political or social outlook. Furthermore, in 1936, once membership became compulsory, apathy and disinterest came to replace the earlier enthusiasm among girls to join the BDM. As the years passed, it became increasingly difficult to evade service in the BDM, particularly after the second HJ decree of 1939.\n\n**THE NORMS AND REQUIREMENTS OF THE BDM**\n\nThe National Socialist regime claimed that youth autonomy and the principle of self-leadership of youth were central to the BDM. However, there is much evidence to show that the BDM did not foster true independence among either its members or its leaders. Trude Mohr, the first BDM _Reichsreferentin_ , appointed in June 1934, had the following expectations for behaviour in the organization: 'Don't talk, don't debate, live a National Socialist life in discipline, composure and comradeship!' As was the case in all Nazi formations, the ethos of the BDM entailed a loss of individuality for its members. They were bound to a community of peers, and, above and beyond that, to the community of the nation. The BDM, therefore, was not an aggregate of the individual personalities of its members, but rather a community into which individuality was dissolved. As Maschmann's memoir describes: 'Everything that was \"I\" had been absorbed into the whole!' This community ethos, which was a central part of the character formation of the group's members, was closely tied to National Socialist ideology. There may have been a degree to which the individuals involved believed that they were acting on their own initiatives on behalf of the nation, but this feeling was manufactured. They were, instead, being manipulated and were very much a part of the socialization process. The objectives of the BDM were in no way directed at fostering the individual development or independence of its members. Maschmann has described how: 'No one made us think for ourselves or develop the ability to make moral decisions on our own responsibility. Our motto was: The _F\u00fchrer_ orders, we follow!' Hence, the BDM attempted to create devoted 'believers' in the system. A foreign observer noted about both BDM and HJ members that 'their attitude of mind is absolutely uncritical . . . They are nothing but vessels for State propaganda'. The network of social control became ever tighter and the grip of the National Socialist movement on its youth members increasingly comprehensive.\n\nThe first prerequisites of a BDM member were that she had to be of German origin and of sound heredity. The model German girl had to be prepared to work hard to serve the 'national community', to recognize National Socialist norms and values, and to accept them unquestioningly. She was to be physically fit, healthy, clean, dressed in an orderly manner and domestically capable. Characteristics of cleanliness, rectitude, faith and honour were to be formed by means of discipline. Above all, the BDM girl was to be aware of her future duty as a woman, to become a mother. She had to be well-versed in German culture and music. As a future mother, she was to develop a knowledge of traditional German songs, tales and dances, so that she could be a 'culture bearer' to the next generation. It was important, therefore, that girls took advantage of their 'natural' closeness to their homeland and understood the 'laws of nature'.\n\nGirls in the BDM were educated and socialized quite differently from their male counterparts in the HJ, especially, of course, in terms of ideals and aims. There was, however, one main similarity in the way in which they were trained, and this was that both boys and girls had to be prepared to fulfil their obligations\u2013albeit different obligations\u2013towards their nation and fatherland. In the first place, both had 'the duty to be healthy' and 'to remain pure'. Both were trained to be capable of physical achievement, fit for work and compliant to organizational discipline. Industriousness, hygiene and obedience were expectations in both male and female youth groups. These values appealed to the lower middle classes in particular. Nazi youth group members were, in effect, unthinkingly and unquestioningly bound to the norms of their respective organizations, developing initiatives only within the framework of these norms, not independently. As Maria Eisenecker recalls, 'our own opinions were not asked for'. Apart from that, comparisons of the ideal boy and girl, and of their duties, showed marked differences.\n\nEven the kind of language in which role models were described gives a strong indication of the dissimilarities between the expectations of girls and boys. Girls were to react to circumstances with their emotions, whereas boys were to react with their minds; girls were to store their experiences internally, whilst boys were to use theirs actively and creatively; girls were to be docile and to give of themselves, whilst boys were to affect others, gain victories and conquer; girls were to be passively content, whereas boys were to be active builders or destroyers of cultures; girls were to care for the family and household, whilst boys were to lay the foundations for the state; girls were to view life as a gift, whereas boys were to consider it as a struggle; for girls 'motherliness'\u2013not femininity\u2013was the ultimate aim, whilst for boys it was very clearly 'manliness', in a militarized sense. In certain respects, this kind of language portrayed a very passive role for girls as compared to that for boys, which does not seem surprising considering the ideological tenets upon which the Nazi state was founded. However, this only gives a partial picture, for girls were not to be totally passive. Indeed, the anti-image of the ideal BDM girl was that of the feminine 'young lady', an idea that was taken from the _Wandervogel_. Frivolity and luxury were frowned upon by BDM leaders, who wanted to create strong and hardy young women. Indeed, the BDM even went as far as promoting the books of certain authors, such as Marie Hamsun and Erika M\u00fcller-Hennig, who wrote about young people that led 'brave and courageous lives', whilst discouraging the reading of 'sentimental' writers, to the extent of recommending to parents which books to buy for their children. It also made recommendations of 'books that you should read' to its members. These largely comprised German _v\u00f6lkisch_ literature, the works of 'blood and soil' novelists, such as Josefa Berens-Totenohl, and those that gave a sense of the German past. Similarly, special recommendations of books were made for the BDM camps. For the summer camp in June 1937, for example, Hitler's _Mein Kampf_ and Alfred Rosenberg's _The Myth of the Twentieth Century_ headed the list of recommended reading.\n\n**TRAINING AND ACTIVITIES IN THE BDM**\n\nHow were girls in the BDM trained and educated? Jutta R\u00fcdiger, the BDM _Reichsreferentin_ from 1927 onwards, retrospectively claimed that:\n\nIn the education of girls . . . we rarely spoke about \"motherhood\". Rather, we educated the girls in their own interest and that of the nation, preparing them to lead wholesome lives, to take an active role in the world of work and society. But first and foremost, what we wanted was to educate them to have a bright and cheery life as young girls.\n\nHowever, this statement is not consistent with the documentary evidence. There is nothing in the written documents and pamphlets of the BDM that indicates that the aim of the movement was simply 'to educate them to have a bright and cheery life as young girls'. R\u00fcdiger also talked of forming 'politically aware' girls. By this, she meant not girls who would 'debate and discuss in parliament', but girls and women who would know about the necessity of the life of the German _Volk_ and act in accordance with this.\n\nThe aims of the BDM to create 'the German woman and mother' ruled out political engagement. The training of girls entailed a variety of components, including physical fitness, health, hygiene, dress codes and sexual attitudes. The body itself no longer remained in the private sphere of the individual, but was subordinated to the national interest. Physical training was very closely linked to health and to racial-biological ideas. To this extent, sport was not an end in itself, but a means of training German youth in accordance with National Socialist ideals. Its goal was inner discipline. Consequently, no free or spontaneous sport or dance was allowed. Any expression of individualistic movement that went against the National Socialist sense of order was proscribed. Instead, regulation and discipline were emphasized. Many dance and exercise routines were structured within a certain form, such as a circle, a square or simply in rows. Girls were to keep their bodies firm and healthy by means of exercise, in order to be able to reproduce for the nation in the future. They were instilled with the sense that they were responsible for the preservation of the nation. Girls had to pass a special fitness test in order to enter the _Jungm\u00e4del_ (JM). This meant they were all able to meet a certain required standard of physical fitness. Fit girls would develop into healthy women, bear healthy children, and therefore preserve the health of the nation in the future. Notwithstanding the Nazi ideological imperatives behind physical training, the sporting activities were very popular with BDM girls, and games and competitions generated interest and enthusiasm for the organization.\n\nIn 1934, in order to promote the idea of unity of body, soul and spirit, Baldur von Schirach, the leader of the National Socialist youth movement, introduced an achievement badge for physical prowess. By 1940, 60,000 such badges had been awarded. But the objective of sport was not personal achievement. Sports prizes were not awarded for the sake of individual merit per se, but as part of the overall attempt of the regime to create an entire generation of healthy girls, within the framework of its racial programme. Physical training was important for health and for the 'pure' preservation of the race. Indeed, this was so central to Nazi beliefs, that the BDM broke down the old taboo that girls ought not to take part in sporting activities in public, by organizing sports festivals in villages and towns, as well as hikes and camping trips. Schirach recognized the fact that this was rather revolutionary. Sports galas and competitions, such as the National Sports Gala, held for the first time in Bamberg in 1938, became important occasions. They opened with songs, a speech and flag-raising. Gymnastic displays and races formed the main part of such events, which closed with formation dancing and a parade of all the participants.\n\nSpecial training manuals elaborated on physical training for the _Jungm\u00e4del_ (JM), girls aged between 10 and 14. JM members had to take part in a wide variety of physical activities including running and swimming. The full range was illustrated in the manual, including ball-throwing games, gymnastics and floor exercises. There was also formation dancing, for example, in concentric circles, with an accompanying musical score. A similar book was designed for the physical training of girls in the BDM. This manual illustrated sports activities and formation dances. It stressed that there could be no ideological education without physical education, for physical training was the most important and effective means in the educational programme of the Nazi youth groups. Sport was considered to be important because it strengthened the will, created camaraderie and exercised each part of the body. Such books dedicated to physical education illustrate the great importance attached to sport by the regime and its youth groups. They had the clear intention of creating a whole generation of healthy and fit German girls. Schirach continually emphasized the need for a 'synthesis between body and spirit' as the aim of the BDM.\n\nHealth education was considered to be especially important for girls, as they would become the bearers of the next generation. 'You have the duty to be healthy' was the motto for the BDM in 1939. To the BDM, beauty was nothing other than the expression of physical and spiritual health, the harmony of body, soul and spirit. BDM leaders had to care for the health of their members by ensuring the correct nutrition, clothing, way of life, physical exercise, leisure and relaxation. Health was of paramount concern, for as natural selection showed, the sick and unfit perished. This could not be allowed to happen to the German _Volk_ , for only healthy nations could survive and a successful nation needed to be 'pure' and 'fit'. Hence, the National Socialist state had to promote and strive for health and fitness, in order to secure the future stock of the race. The German nation had to be healthy, capable of achievement and able to cope with life.\n\nThe BDM educated its members about how the health of the nation was to be achieved. For example, the sending away of children to the countryside served the aims of the health of the nation. Each year, hundreds of thousands of children were sent into the countryside, pale and weak. They returned home healthy, tanned and strong. Whilst away, they learned to appreciate the beauty of the German homeland. The BDM also taught girls the importance of the measures and laws introduced by the National Socialist government to preserve and protect the hereditary health of the German _Volk_ , such as the Marriage Health Law and the Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring. This highlighted to the BDM girls their personal responsibility for their health, as their own health was an integral part of that of the whole nation. Therefore, they had the duty to protect their own health and to refrain from associating with the 'inferior', in order that future generations would be strong and fit. It was repeatedly stressed that 'to be healthy and to remain healthy is not our private concern, but our duty!'\n\nEach BDM girl was to be 'the founder and protector of a healthy, fit German family'. BDM girls were to be 'the expression of the harmony of health and beauty'. Care of the body, skin, hair and nails were of great importance, as was dental care. Directions for such care were given in great detail. Sufficient sleep was also important\u2013at least ten hours per night\u2013and the value of sleep for overall health was to be enhanced by sleeping in an airy room with the window open. Care for clothes was also significant, as were living conditions, with the right amount of air, light and heat. Correct nourishment was necessary too, not just for personal health, but for the health of the nation. Girls had to eat regularly and to have the right balance of vitamins and minerals in their diet. In addition, the use of alcohol and nicotine was strongly rejected.\n\nDress was another important aspect of girls' training in the BDM. Girls were expected to wear their BDM uniform on all national holidays, on Party days, and on all special family and school festival days. The uniform, which consisted of a white blouse and a dark-blue skirt, was practical and simple. Wearing the uniform, with its distinctive kerchief and knot, was, of course, an outward sign of being part of the rank and file of the movement. The uniform had to be washed and ironed properly, and was to be worn 'with pride'. It was not to be embellished with jewellery or accessories. Cleanliness and an orderly appearance were part of the requirement too. Simplicity and orderliness were criteria that applied to ordinary clothes as well as to the uniform. There was much antagonism towards international fashion. There was a call for the introduction of a German fashion, quite separate from French, British or American styles. German fashion was to be based on simple lines and forms, with the added advantage of using new materials such as the synthetic silk and spun rayon being produced by the German textile industry in the mid-1930s. Nazi fashion excoriated the former styles of the 'vamp', who wore bright nail polish and plenty of make-up; the 'sweetheart', who was petite and blonde, with a 'warbling little voice'; and the 'boyish girl', who had very short hair, wore men's clothes, smoked, drank and told jokes. Indeed, all these stereotypes\u2013even the 'blue stocking' for her intellectualism\u2013were viewed with 'unmitigated contempt'. They did not match up to the ideal type\u2013the BDM girl. Girls and young women were to be clean and tastefully dressed, without having to owe their good appearance to cosmetics or jewellery. This sense of Nazi fashion held some popular appeal and there was a certain amount of desire to belong to the BDM in order to be able to wear the uniform, which was practical, yet not unattractive. Stargardt has cited the example of a Berlin girl who 'bitterly rued her parents' refusal to buy her an outfit when her whole class at school was admitted to the _Jungm\u00e4delbund_ '.\n\nThe attitude towards sexual behaviour in the BDM paralleled that in the rest of society. Essentially, sexual life had its main task in serving the preservation of the race and nation. By and large, the National Socialists' 'new morality' reduced sex to its biological function of reproduction. The ideal, primary aim for BDM girls was childbirth and motherhood within marriage. Early marriage, in particular, was seen as a way of both discouraging promiscuity and encouraging large numbers of legitimate children. Marriage was considered to be a dutiful, moral obligation by the youth group leaders. The demand that sexual activity should be carried out within a marriage remained the overall belief in the BDM. Its leaders were convinced that 'the family should be the only place for children to grow up in and that the destruction of monogamy must be prevented by women'. Hence, the desire in the BDM was not to encourage a child 'at any price', but rather to promote very specific norms of motherhood, in line with the regime's aims of 'selection' of the 'desirable' and 'elimination' of the 'undesirable'. Apart from these attitudes, sexuality was not an issue that was discussed in the BDM. Both the BDM and HJ were essentially non-sexual in their orientation. Hitler Youth boys were expected to treat BDM girls as comrades and to be chivalrous towards them. Nonsexual camaraderie and friendship were the general expectations about behaviour with fellow members of the youth movement. However, 'there was very probably a good deal of flirting during youth group activities, especially when boys and girls were working together'. Lust and desire were not acceptable, and physical training and diversion were partly designed to pre-empt or substitute them. The satisfaction of sexual urges was regarded as shameful, reprehensible and biologically and medically unnecessary. 'Fresh, clean, clear German air' was the alternative to sexual education. To this extent, sexuality was mysticized and was almost completely a taboo area, although girls were warned about the dangers of sexual disease. Whilst clear guidelines were given about punishment for homosexual activities in the HJ, it appears that the issue of lesbianism was not raised at all in the official guidelines of the BDM.\n\nExpectations about sexual behaviour did not always correspond to reality, as exemplified by cases of girls having sexual relationships with soldiers and SS men, and of their having illegitimate babies in order to present the F\u00fchrer with children. The lack of explanation about sexual behaviour partly explains this phenomenon. Some girls also had relationships with 'racially inferior' men from the eastern occupied territories, which was partly a response to the allure of the exotic, but was, of course, anathema to the regime. Hence, there was some conflict between the emphasis on moral purity within the BDM and the popular perception of the organization. Promiscuous behaviour on the part of BDM girls became even more pronounced during the war. Popular jokes included the following interpretations of the initials BDM: _Bubi Dr\u00fcck Mich_ ('squeeze me, laddie'); _Bedarfsartikel Deutscher M\u00e4nner_ ('requisite for German men'); _Brauch Deutsche M\u00e4del_ ('make use of German girls'); _Bald Deutscher M\u00fctter_ ('German mothers to be'); _Bund Deutscher Milchk\u00fche_ ('League of German Milk Cows'). Such jokes clearly reveal the popular response to the BDM, suggesting both doubts about standards of morality within the organization and some displeasure at its emphasis on procreation.\n\nThe most important vehicles for socialization in the BDM were the weekly _Heimabend_ and the summer camps. The main purpose of the _Heimabend_ was ideological education or training in the National Socialist _Weltanschauung_. Punctuality played a part in the overall creation of discipline, so that girls who arrived late were obliged to pay a small fine. The girls sang old Germanic songs and learned new ones. They received instruction on a number of subjects, such as National Socialism, the work of the BDM, German history and race. Instruction often took the form of stories, for example about loyalty, honour, courage and obedience, and such sentiments were underlined with appropriate songs. The girls then did handicrafts or watched a puppet show, and the activities ended with a final song. The _Heimabend_ lasted two hours. It took place in the afternoon for JM girls and in the evening for BDM girls.\n\nThe content of _M\u00e4delschaft_ , which was a series of guidelines for BDM leaders on the structuring of the _Heimabend_ , gives a clear indication of the type of activities and training involved in these sessions, and especially the themes taught. For example, the April 1938 edition was a special issue on Bismarck. After considering Bismarck and his achievements, a number of pages were dedicated to Hitler and his creation of a new great German empire. This was followed by a large section showing BDM leaders the types of activities they might use for the _Heimabend_ , such as speeches by Hitler and songs. The May 1938 edition took the First World War as its main theme, including the sense of camaraderie among the soldiers and a number of soldiers' letters which showed their unity, determination and love for their fatherland. After the Anschlu\u00df of March 1938, the June 1938 issue was designed to teach BDM girls about Austria, by means of a combination of history, poems, short stories and illustrations. The November 1938 issue was dedicated to the rise of the National Socialist Party, its 'time of struggle' and its heroes, such as Horst Wessel and Herbert Norkus. The April 1939 edition was on the theme of 'The Struggle against Bolshevism'. It showed the evils and perils of Bolshevism, for example how it destroyed marriage and the family, and explored Germany's role as a bulwark against the spread of Bolshevism. This edition also had a section entitled 'You have the Duty to be Healthy!', which underlined the importance of regular exercise, sufficient sleep and care of the body. It also stated that girls who sat in stuffy and crowded cinemas or overcrowded and smoky bars were behaving irresponsibly and not living the lifestyle that was expected of them in order to fulfil their duties as future mothers of the German nation.\n\nThe June 1939 special edition for the BDM summer camp placed an emphasis on nature and the struggle for survival, underlining that only the healthy survived, whilst the weak and the sick perished. The final part of it summarizes activities in the summer camp and gives a clear indication of the socialization of girls in the BDM. This starts with a section on the orderliness and cleanliness of the camp. It was the responsibility of the camp-leader to ensure this from the start, for example, by confiscating anything the girls left lying around and only returning such items after the collection of a fine. The camp-leaders then had to arrange the times for flag-raising, meals and training, and to ensure the punctuality of the girls for each of these activities. Each morning, on waking, after cleaning their teeth and brushing their hair, the girls would either go on a march or sing a song. The method of flag-raising and procedures for meal times were given in minute detail. Set speeches were included that were to be used at flag-raising and meal times. One of the main functions of the summer camps was to give systematic instruction on contemporary political events. The participants were to acquire an understanding of the political life of the German _Volk_ and its 'living space'. It was the task of the camp-leader to clearly and simply explain the political situation to the participants. The themes and topics included the shame inflicted upon Germany by the Treaty of Versailles, Hitler's foreign policy successes and the struggle of the German nation for its 'living space'. Camp-leaders were instructed about what songs to sing in the camp and when to sing them. For example, it was optimal to use songs when marching through a village or town, when the girls were tired, in order to raise their spirits, on rainy days when the girls had to remain in the camp, or on evenings in the village squares to encourage local people to join in the singing. The guidelines included ten compulsory songs that had to be used in the summer camp. These could be supplemented with others, but had to be the main ones sung. Instruction was given about what entertainment to use for the 'children's afternoon' and the 'village evening', such as songs and plays. Books for the summer camp were also recommended. Finally, instructions were given on how to end the camp. This was to be done by discussing a particular theme\u2013such as the glory of nature\u2013and then summing up the purpose of the camp, a greeting to Hitler and a final song. Hence, the whole camp was very carefully orchestrated and planned out, from start to finish, with the clear objective of the political socialization of its participants.\n\nThe JM _Heimabend_ and camps had similar imperatives, as can be seen from the guidelines for leaders. In 1936, for example, the themes covered included the life of Adolf Hitler, nature, the _Winterhilfswerk_ (Winter Relief Agency), motherhood and heredity. In 1937, the Four Year Plan, the 'Jewish Question', Hitler's achievements and the homeland featured as important topics for education. Much instruction was carried out by means of short stories. The girls in the JM were encouraged to be brave, devoted, comradely, obedient and honourable. Camaraderie was the foremost quality expected from the JM. She was asked: 'Can you make personal sacrifices in order to help a comrade? And if you can, do you then ask for thanks or public recognition? Is your camaraderie still there when there is no one to observe it?' JM honour was also highly valued. There was no room in the organization for dishonesty, deceit, scandal or envy.\n\nIn January 1938, a new BDM agency, the _Glaube und Sch\u00f6nheit_ (Faith and Beauty), was formed for 17- to 21- year-old girls, under the leadership of Clementine zu Castell. By February 1939, the organization had some 500,000 members. Physical and ideological training formed the core of its work. Its members took part in activities for two to three hours per week. For the purpose of training, the young women were formed into working groups for different themes or subjects including sport, gymnastics, national tradition, plays and culture, handicrafts, music, foreign news, health, and household and agricultural competence. There were also groups on fashion design and anti\u2013air raid protection. This arrangement enabled girls to take part in activities in which they were particularly interested. Physical education was at the forefront of _Glaube und Sch\u00f6nheit_ training, for 'a healthy and beautiful body' was considered to be the prerequisite of 'a healthy and beautiful spirit'. Beyond this, the main task of the _Glaube und Sch\u00f6nheit_ was to form 'self-assured young women', rooted in the National Socialist spirit and capable of taking their part in the creation and maintenance of their _Volk_. The _Glaube und Sch\u00f6nheit_ organization allowed girls to take part in the elite sports of tennis, fencing and horseriding, as well as home design. In 1943, 'the ideal of the lovely, beautiful and proud girl' of the _Glaube und Sch\u00f6nheit_ was considered to be an elite type of woman. By the time she reached the age of 28, she would take the title of _Hohe Frau_ , according to Himmler, the ultimate expression of the racially pure, physically fit and accomplished German woman.\n\nAn important factor in girls' socialization in the BDM was the creation of a new ethos regarding their working or professional life. National Socialist ideology certainly attached value to work, as service to the 'national community', and as a 'moral duty' for both males and females. Manual labour, in particular, was considered important, as it would ensure that the nation would comprise physically fit, healthy and hardy individuals, who would transmit these attributes to future generations. For boys, all the physical training and drills in the HJ would serve them in the future as workers in heavy industry, on the land or, ultimately, in the armed forces. For girls, physical education would prepare them for their work placements and, of course, ultimately to become mothers. It was generally accepted that girls would give up their jobs once they were married, in order to take care of their households. The work ethos, and therefore the training given to girls, was to be understood in this sense. Household instruction had been of prime significance in girls' training since the genesis of the BDM. Even then, Adolf Lenk, the founder of the National Socialist youth movement, had claimed that members of the girls' groups had the task of becoming good German housewives. Subsequent measures carried through by the youth leadership of the regime aimed to give girls a broader knowledge of household skills and abilities. Indeed, they were part of a wider attempt at the rationalization of housework under National Socialism, bound up with the Nazi policy of autarky and the duty of women to support the Nazi economy through their household economy.\n\nWhilst boys' training in the HJ took on a more militant nature between 1937 and 1939, with a greater emphasis on pre-military preparation, in the BDM a development towards preparation for 'female' activities was evident in this period. As early as 1936, the first BDM 'household school' had been set up, in which girls could gain experience and training in household activities. Specific training in household management and child care was given in the BDM household schools. Here, a one-year course provided its participants with everything they would need to know as future mothers. The teaching plan at the household schools involved four main areas of work: practical teaching, which included cookery, baking, gardening and needlework; theoretical training, which consisted of lessons about nutrition, health, care for infants and for the sick; studies about the 'national community', which dealt with issues of nation, race and the national economy; and sport, which included hiking as well as activities such as singing and dancing.\n\nA further development in this respect was the _Pflichtjahr_. This was a one-year compulsory work placement for girls which came into effect from 1 January 1939. The rationale behind the _Pflichtjahr_ was twofold\u2013to give girls necessary experience and training and to help mothers of _kinderreich_ families and farmers' wives. It was deemed especially important that those girls who had spent their whole lives in towns and cities should serve in the countryside, so that for at least a year they could do farm work and get to know about rural life. This measure was intended to create a sense of connection and closeness to the homeland. Agricultural service had started out as a voluntary task. In 1934, 7,000 girls had begun farm work and by 1937, 43,000 girls had taken part in the scheme, mainly working on farms in Silesia, East Prussia and Pomerania. Most of the girls doing agricultural service lived in a camp with their leader and from there went to help on individual farms, starting their work at 6 am each day. Other girls stayed on a farm with the farmer's family. Farm work was considered to prepare girls for marriage and motherhood. Those doing their _Pflichtjahr_ in towns were required to help in the households of _kinderreich_ families, with housework, washing, cooking and shopping. Work was a preparation for the tasks and requirements of motherhood. Apart from agricultural labour and household work, jobs in the 'caring professions' were deemed suitable, especially because skills could be acquired\u2013such as looking after newborn babies\u2013that were directly applicable to family life. Hence, whether in connection with familial or professional situations, girls in the BDM had to learn that the state allocated specific obligations to them, and demanded self-discipline and duty fulfilment from them. By 1940, there were 157,728 girls working in agriculture and 178,244 in domestic service for their _Pflichtjahr_. Kater describes this as 'a ruthless exploitation of unpaid menial labour'.\n\n**THE BDM IN WARTIME**\n\nDuring the war, the term 'domestic training' was applied more widely, ultimately changing its meaning to a total preparation to serve in any manner required by the state. Short training courses were run, teaching girls to make 'new out of old' and to help soldiers with washing and mending clothes. BDM members were faced with new duties and obligations. In the first year of the war, over nine million girls were mobilized, especially for agricultural work. Youth mobilization involved a wide variety of activities, including the distribution of propaganda material for the Party, the distribution of food ration cards, the harvesting of crops, the collection of money for the War Winter Relief Agency, looking after the wounded, caring for children, and gathering herbs and wild fruit. Kater estimates that in 1939\u201340, 'over a million BDM members spent 6.5 million work hours on the collection of various herbs and tea'. BDM girls were to be proud to help German soldiers, for example by setting up washing and mending centres for soldiers' clothes. They sewed slippers for soldiers out of woollen blankets or plaited them out of straw. They did agricultural work, looked after children, helped out in kindergartens and schools, and were also involved in active war service, for example as employees in armaments factories. BDM girls were also required to work as tram conductors and postal workers in the towns and cities during the war. They helped civilians at train stations, handing out food and drinks to passengers, as well as assisting the victims of air raids. They worked in kitchens to prepare sandwiches and soup for people who had been rendered homeless by the Allied bombing campaigns and collected and distributed everyday items such as toothpaste, toothbrushes and hairbrushes to them. The BDM girls became increasingly involved in first-aid duties for both soldiers and civilians. They assisted in nursing the wounded in hospitals. Towards the end of the war, in the bleakest and most hopeless days, many girls continued to show a willingness to make sacrifices for their nation, even when their lives were in danger.\n\nHence, the scope and range of duties expanded considerably throughout the duration of the Third Reich and especially during the war. The BDM girls became involved in _Osteinsatz_ (Eastern Service). From mid-1940 onwards, in conjunction with the SS, BDM girls were sent into the eastern occupied territories to clean and prepare the houses for German settlers, once the SS had removed the former inhabitants. Some BDM girls assisted the SS in evicting Poles from their homes. After their initial duties in the eastern territories, which lasted approximately four to six weeks, many BDM girls had to remain in these territories for up to one year, in order to help the newcomers to settle there, offering assistance in the homes and schools. The BDM girls were sometimes shocked and appalled at the demeanour and lack of hygiene of the 'ethnic Germans'. The reality they were presented with was somewhat different from their expectations. Nevertheless, the BDM girls carried out their tasks, going into the villages where they sang German songs and played German games with the children, so that they could learn German, as well as showing them maps of greater Germany and teaching children the basics of how to write and read German. _Osteinsatz_ had become an increasingly large part of BDM activities as the war progressed. The carefree days of rambling and camping had long gone.\n\nThe BDM was an integral part of a blood-binding community, whose members were called upon to serve their nation and take responsibility for the future of their race under National Socialism. The BDM played a significant role in the Nazi process of socializing and training German girls. In doing so, it borrowed much from the traditions of the earlier _Wanderv\u00f6gel_ movement, but it added its own National Socialist ideals and ethos. As noted above, after 1933, many young girls were obliged to become members of the BDM, once other youth organizations had been dissolved or merged into the Nazi youth movement. However, it must be noted that the swell in the BDM membership between 1933 and 1936 was also the result of voluntary entry into the organization. Many girls were initially attracted to the BDM for a variety of reasons, such as to gain independence from their parents and to take part in activities previously inaccessible to them. They were attracted by the sport, singing and handicraft activities on offer to them in the organization. They could go on adventurous trips and have opportunities for careers as youth group leaders that broke the limits of their social, regional or family boundaries, but they were not free or independent in reality. Parental authority was simply replaced by state force and discipline. BDM members, and even leaders, were individually unimportant, as part of a larger formation. The BDM did not aim at the individual development and independent thought of its members, but instead at making them true believers in the National Socialist system. Once membership became compulsory and ideological training became more pronounced, the allure of the BDM waned. Girls became increasingly subordinated to the organization and limited by the restrictions it placed upon them.\n\nMotherhood was important both ideologically and in practice. The type of training the girls underwent within the BDM was aimed at future motherhood. As BDM leaders were told, the purpose of BDM activities was 'to create a generation of girls that will become a generation of healthy women and mothers'. Hence, the emphasis upon physical education was not for its own sake, but had the purpose of creating fit bodies to reproduce healthy, strong offspring. As future mothers, BDM girls were to become protectors and preservers of the German race. The centrality of motherhood and race to the organization and to the state is plainly evident from the literary output of the BDM. Yet, at the same time, in practice there were modernizing effects resulting from BDM activities. These were functional and were a product of the circumstances of the war and the necessity of using BDM girls in roles related to it. Measures that appeared modernizing were simply pragmatic attempts on the part of the regime to prevent the collapse of the agricultural workforce and to meet the requirements of state efficiency. But reactionary ideology continued to underpin the regime's intentions, even though it could not adhere to this as rigidly as its leaders would have wished. This ideology should not be ignored or negated. The ideological education and training of girls remained central to the aims of the Nazi regime. Hence, pragmatic concerns that created a tendency towards modernity and a concurrent conventionalization of girls' pursuits corresponding with the regime's ideology were both evident in the BDM. Girls were obliged to fulfil their roles in the Nazi state until its demise. Ultimately, Hilde Seffert, a former BDM member claims, 'we were cheated of our youth'; whilst another former BDM girl, Gudrun Pausewang, talks of the hurt 'having to admit to oneself that one had believed in a false ideal, that the whole thing had been a lie and that one had been abused'.\n\n**NOTES**\n\n. The most important contributions on the subject include: D. Reese, 'Bund Deutscher M\u00e4del\u2013Zur Geschichte der weiblichen deutschen Jugend im Dritten Reich', in Frauengruppe Faschismusforschung (ed.), _Mutterkreuz und Arbeitsbuch: Zur Geschichte der Frauen in der Weimarer Republik und im Nationalsozialismus_ (Frankfurt am Main, 1981); D. Reese, _'Straff, aber nicht Stramm\u2013Herb, aber nicht derb'. Zur Vergesellschaftung der M\u00e4dchen durch den Bund Deutscher M\u00e4del im Sozialkulturellen Vergleich zweier Milieus_ (Weinheim and Basel, 1989); Klaus, _M\u00e4dchen in der Hitlerjugend_ ; Klaus, _M\u00e4dchen im Dritten Reich_ ; G. Kinz, _Der Bund Deutscher M\u00e4del. Ein Beitrag zur Au\u00dferschulischen M\u00e4dchenerziehung im Nationalsozialismus_ (Frankfurt am Main, 1990); B. J\u00fcrgens, _Zur Geschichte des BDM (Bund Deutscher M\u00e4del) von 1923 bis 1939_ (Frankfurt am Main, 1994); G. Miller-Kipp (ed.), _'Auch du geh\u00f6rst dem F\u00fchrer': Die Geschichte des Bundes Deutscher M\u00e4del (BDM) in Quellen und Dokumenten_ (Munich, 2002). See also A. B\u00f6ltken, _F\u00fchrerinnen im 'F\u00fchrerstaat'_ (Pfannenweiler, 1995); F. Niederdalhoff, _'Im Sinne des Systems einsatzbereit . . .': M\u00e4dchenarbeit im 'Bund Deutscher M\u00e4del' (BDM) und in der 'Freien Deutschen Jugend' (FDJ)\u2013Ein Vergleich_ (M\u00fcnster, 1997); R. Strien _, M\u00e4dchenerziehung und-sozialisation in der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus und ihre lebensgeschichtliche Bedeutung_ (Opladen, 2000), pp. 80\u201389.\n\n. For example, see M. Maschmann, _Account Rendered: A Dossier on My Former Self_ (London, 1964); R. Finckh, _Mit uns zieht die neue Zeit_ (Baden-Baden, 1979); M. Hannsmann, _Der helle Tag bricht an\u2013Ein Kind wird Nazi_ (Hamburg, 1982); G. Herr, _Inhaltsreiche Jahre\u2013aus dem Leben einer BdM-F\u00fchrerin 1930\u20131945_ (Lausanne, 1985).\n\n. D. Reese, 'M\u00e4dchen im Bund Deutscher M\u00e4del', in E. Kleinau and C. Opitz (eds), _Geschichte der M\u00e4dchen- und Frauenbildung_ , Vol. 2 (Frankfurt am Main, 1996), pp. 271\u201382.\n\n. D. Reese, _Growing up Female in Nazi Germany_ (Ann Arbor, 2006), p. 4.\n\n. D. Peukert, _The Weimar Republic: The Crisis of Classical Modernity_ (London, 1991), p. 93.\n\n. M. de Ras, _Body, Femininity and Nationalism: Girls in the German Youth Movement 1900\u20131934_ (New York and London, 2008), pp. 6\u20137.\n\n. Ibid., p. 41.\n\n. Ibid., p. 193.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. Ibid., pp. 187\u20139.\n\n. Reese, _Growing up Female_ , p. 31.\n\n. Hannsmann, _Der helle Tag bricht an\u2013Ein Kind wird Nazi_ , p. 34.\n\n. Finckh, _Mit uns zieht die neue Zeit_ , p. 81.\n\n. Reese, _Growing up Female_ , p. 7.\n\n. C. Leitsch, 'Drei BDM-Biographinnen', _Dokumentationsstelle zur NS-Sozialpolitik: Mitteilungen_ , April 1986, p. 77.\n\n. Maschmann, _Account Rendered_ , pp. 10 and 12.\n\n. D. Reese, 'Emanzipation oder Vergesellschaftung: M\u00e4dchen im \"Bund Deutscher M\u00e4del\"', in H.-U. Otto and H. S\u00fcnker (eds), _Politische Formierung und soziale Erziehung im Nationalsozialismus_ (Frankfurt am Main, 1991), p. 212.\n\n. Reese, _Growing up Female_ , p. 8.\n\n. See Reese, _Growing up Female_ , which uses case studies of Minden in Westphalia and Wedding in Berlin to show the different attitudes towards the BDM, pp. 102\u201357 and pp. 158\u2013246.\n\n. Reese, 'M\u00e4dchen im Bund Deutscher M\u00e4del', p. 280.\n\n. Cited in L. Becker, 'Der Bund Deutscher M\u00e4del', in R. Benze and G. Gr\u00e4fer (eds), _Erziehungsm\u00e4chte und Erziehungshoheit im Grossdeutschen Reich als gestaltende Kr\u00e4fte im Leben des Deutschen_ (Leipzig, 1940), p. 95.\n\n. Maschmann, _Account Rendered_ , p. 61.\n\n. Kinz, _Der Bund Deutscher M\u00e4del_ , pp. 126\u20137.\n\n. S. Roberts, _The House That Hitler Built_ (London, 1937), p. 208. On the impact of the BDM upon its members, see Miller-Kipp (ed.), _'Auch du geh\u00f6rst dem F\u00fchrer'_ , pp. 303\u201323.\n\n. J. R\u00fcdiger, 'Der Bund Deutscher M\u00e4del in der Hitler Jugend', in P. Meier-Benneckenstein (ed.), _Das Dritte Reich im Aufbau_ (Berlin, 1939), Vol. 2, p. 398. On discipline in the BDM, see also IfZ Db 44.92 _, Die Dienstform des BDM_ (1941).\n\n. S. Rogge, '\"M\u00e4del, komm zum BDM!\"', in _Hart und Zart. Frauenleben, 1920\u20131970_ (Berlin, 1990), p. 154.\n\n. This difference in socialization was also noticeable in Mussolini's Italian Fascist youth groups. On this, see T. Koon, _Believe, Obey, Fight: Political Socialization of Youth in Fascist Italy, 1922\u20131943_ (Chapel Hill and London, 1985), pp. 97\u20138.\n\n. On this, BA NSD 43\/151-5, 'Du hast die Pflicht, gesund zu sein!'\n\n. Cited in Knopp, _Hitler's Children_ , p. 99.\n\n. On what follows, see H. Rahn, 'Artgem\u00e4\u00dfe M\u00e4dchenerziehung und Rasse', _Nationalsozialistische M\u00e4dchenerziehung_ , 12, 1940, p. 224.\n\n. A. Kl\u00f6nne, _Hitlerjugend. Die Jugend und ihre Organisation im Dritten Reich_ (Hanover and Frankfurt am Main, 1955), p. 69.\n\n. 'Eltern, schenkt nur gute B\u00fccher', _Das Deutsche M\u00e4del_ , November 1936, pp. 22\u20133.\n\n. IfZ Db 44.102, 'BDM-Werk Glaube und Sch\u00f6nheit. Schulungsdienst', October 1941, pp. 65\u20138.\n\n. Cited in Reese, _Growing Up Female_ , pp. 43\u20134.\n\n. Klaus, _M\u00e4dchen im Dritten Reich_ , p. 48.\n\n. On this, see G. Pfister and D. Reese, 'Gender, Body Culture, and Body Politics in National Socialism', _Sport History_ , No. 1 (1995), pp. 91\u2013121.\n\n. See _Das Deutsche M\u00e4del_ , March 1938, pp. 4\u20135.\n\n. See E. Zill, 'Die k\u00f6rperliche Schulung im BDM', in H. Munske (ed.), _M\u00e4del im Dritten Reich_ (Berlin, 1935), p. 27.\n\n. Reese, _Growing Up Female_ , pp. 71\u20132.\n\n. See Klaus, _M\u00e4dchen im Dritten Reich_ , p. 49.\n\n. IfZ Db 44.65\/2, _M\u00e4del im Dienst. BDM-Sport_ (Potsdam, 1940), p. 14.\n\n. B. von Schirach, _Die Hitler-Jugend, Idee und Gestalt_ (Leipzig, 1934), p. 101.\n\n. IfZ Db 44.65\/2, _M\u00e4del im Dienst. BDM-Sport_ (Potsdam, 1940), pp. 13\u201314 and 17.\n\n. IfZ Db 44.65\/4, _M\u00e4del im Dienst. Jungm\u00e4del-Sport_ (Potsdam, 1942).\n\n. IfZ Db 44.65\/2, _M\u00e4del im Dienst. BDM-Sport_ (Potsdam, 1940).\n\n. IfZ Db 44.32\/8, 'Dienstvorschrift der Hitler-Jugend', p. 3.\n\n. IfZ Db 44.43, _Die M\u00e4delschaft. Bl\u00e4tter f\u00fcr Heimabendgestaltung im BDM_ , May 1939, p. 2.\n\n. Ibid., pp. 6\u20138.\n\n. Ibid., p. 8.\n\n. On what follows, see ibid., pp. 10\u201324.\n\n. BA NS 28\/83, 'Richtlinien f\u00fcr den Bund deutscher M\u00e4del in der Hitlerjugend', no date.\n\n. _Das Deutsche M\u00e4del_ , April 1939, p. 22.\n\n. See, for example, _Das Deutsche M\u00e4del_ , August 1937, p. 30, which talks about the foolishness of fashion.\n\n. _Das Deutsche M\u00e4del_ , January 1937, p. 11.\n\n. _Das Deutsche M\u00e4del_ , January 1938, pp. 29\u201332.\n\n. C. Kirkpatrick, _Nazi Germany. Its Women and Family Life_ (Indianapolis and New York, 1938), p. 103.\n\n. BA NSD 47\/6-1933, 'Sch\u00f6nheitspflege?!', _Amtliche Frauenkorrespondenz_ , p. 8.\n\n. Stargardt, _Witnesses of War_ , p. 33.\n\n. BA NSD 47\/19, _Jugend und Elternhaus. Beitr\u00e4ge zur Jugenderziehung unserer Zeit_ (1944), pp. 40\u201341.\n\n. Maschmann, _Account Rendered_ , p. 150.\n\n. Reese, 'Straff, aber nicht Stramm\u2013Herb, aber nicht Derb', p. 44.\n\n. R\u00fcdiger, 'Der Bund Deutscher M\u00e4del', p. 397.\n\n. Maschmann, _Account Rendered_ , p. 150.\n\n. Klaus, _M\u00e4dchen in der Hitlerjugend_ , p. 109. On attitudes towards sexual education, see also BA NSD 47\/19, _Jugend und Elternhaus_ , pp. 17\u201328.\n\n. Klaus, _M\u00e4dchen im Dritten Reich_ , pp. 56\u20137. On Nazi policy towards lesbianism, see C. Schoppmann, _Nationalsozialistische Sexualpolitik und weibliche Homosexualit\u00e4t_ (Pfannenweiler, 1997) and C. Schoppmann, 'National Socialist Policies towards Female Homosexuality', in L. Abrams and E. Harvey (eds), _Gender Relations in German History: Power, Agency and Experience from the Sixteenth Century to the Twentieth Century_ (London, 1996), pp. 177\u201387.\n\n. On this, see H. Bleuel, _Strength through Joy: Sex and Society in Nazi Germany_ (London, 1973), p. 136, and Klaus, _M\u00e4dchen in der Hitlerjugend_ , p. 104.\n\n. IfZ Db 44.17, _M\u00e4del im Dienst. Ein Handbuch_ (Potsdam, 1934), p. 219.\n\n. Ibid., p. 220.\n\n. See IfZ Db 44.28, 'Sommerlager- und Heimabendmaterial f\u00fcr die Schulungs- und Kulturarbeit, Sommer 1941, Jungm\u00e4del', as an example of this.\n\n. IfZ Db 44.43, _Die M\u00e4delschaft. Bl\u00e4tter f\u00fcr Heimabendgestaltung im BDM_ , April 1938.\n\n. Ibid., pp. 29\u201332.\n\n. IfZ Db 44.43, _Die M\u00e4delschaft. Bl\u00e4tter f\u00fcr Heimabendgestaltung im BDM_ , May 1938.\n\n. IfZ Db 44.43, _Die M\u00e4delschaft. Bl\u00e4tter f\u00fcr Heimabendgestaltung im BDM_ , June 1938 and November 1938.\n\n. IfZ Db 44.43, _Die M\u00e4delschaft. Bl\u00e4tter f\u00fcr Heimabendgestaltung im BDM_ , April 1939, pp. 19 and 25\u20138.\n\n. Ibid., p. 46.\n\n. IfZ Db 44.43(a), _Die M\u00e4delschaft. Sonderausgabe f\u00fcr die Sommerlager_ , June 1939, pp. 23\u20138.\n\n. On what follows, see ibid., pp. 51\u201379.\n\n. For another example of instruction for a three-week summer camp plan, see IfZ Db 44.17, _M\u00e4del im Dienst. Ein Handbuch_ (Potsdam, 1934), pp. 284\u201390.\n\n. On what follows, see IfZ Db 44.41, _Die Jungm\u00e4delschaft. Bl\u00e4tter f\u00fcr Heimabendgestaltung der Jungm\u00e4del_.\n\n. For example, IfZ Db 44.41, _Die Jungm\u00e4delschaft. Bl\u00e4tter f\u00fcr Heimabendgestaltung der Jungm\u00e4del_ , June 1936, includes the story of 'Das M\u00e4dchen Helge', whose moral was 'to be brave is good', pp. 6\u20138.\n\n. On what follows, see IfZ Db 44.28, 'Sommerlager- und Heimabendmaterial f\u00fcr die Schulungs- und Kulturarbeit, Sommer 1941, Jungm\u00e4del', pp. 6\u20137.\n\n. On this, see S. Hering and K. Schilde, _Das BDM-Werk 'Glaube und Sch\u00f6nheit': Die Organisation junger Frauen im Nationalsozialismus_ (Berlin, 2000).\n\n. On this, see IfZ Db 44.43, _Die M\u00e4delschaft. Sonderausgabe f\u00fcr die Schulung zur Berufswahl_ , August 1939, pp. 38\u201342.\n\n. IfZ Db 44.07, _Das Deutsche M\u00e4del_ , June 1938, p. 5.\n\n. Ibid., p. 7.\n\n. On this, see Kater, _Hitler Youth_ , pp. 96\u20137.\n\n. On this, see _Das Deutsche M\u00e4del_ , November 1940, p. 7.\n\n. _Das Deutsche M\u00e4del_ , February 1938, p. 7.\n\n. D. Reese, 'Bund Deutscher M\u00e4del', p. 166.\n\n. See Pine, _Nazi Family Policy, 1933\u20131_ 9 _45_ , pp. 81\u20136. See also, J. Stephenson, 'Propaganda, Autarky and the German Housewife', in D. Welch (ed.), _Nazi Propaganda: The Power and the Limitations_ (London, 1983), pp. 136\u20138.\n\n. On what follows, see _Das Deutsche M\u00e4del_ , January 1937, p. 9.\n\n. On this, see BA NSD 47\/16-1, I. Berghaus, 'Das Pflichtjahr. Wegweiser und Ratgeber f\u00fcr M\u00e4del, Eltern und Hausfrau'.\n\n. On what follows, see IfZ Db 44.43, _Die M\u00e4delschaft. Sonderausgabe f\u00fcr die Schulung zur Berufswahl_ , August 1939, pp. 6\u20139.\n\n. Kater, _Hitler Youth_ , p. 84.\n\n. See R\u00fcdiger, 'Der Bund Deutscher M\u00e4del', p. 401.\n\n. See Schirach, _Die Hitler-Jugend, Idee und Gestalt_ , p. 97.\n\n. Kater, _Hitler Youth_ , p. 85.\n\n. Ibid.\n\n. BA NS 26\/358, 'M\u00e4delerziehung im Kriege', pp. 116\u201317.\n\n. See IfZ Db 44.61, _Wir schaffen. Jahrbuch des BDM_ (1941), pp. 157\u201377. On the activities of the BDM during the war, see also Reese, 'Bund Deutscher M\u00e4del', pp. 174\u201380.\n\n. BA NS 26\/358, quoted in Reese, 'Bund Deutscher M\u00e4del', p. 175.\n\n. Kater, _Hitler Youth_ , p. 91.\n\n. _Das Deutsche M\u00e4del_ , January 1940, p. 6.\n\n. Stargardt, _Witnesses of War_ , p. 33.\n\n. See Knopp, _Hitler's Children_ , p. 110.\n\n. Stargardt, _Witnesses of War_ , p. 120.\n\n. Kater, _Hitler Youth_ , p. 89.\n\n. _Das Deutsche M\u00e4del_ , April 1940, pp. 10\u201311.\n\n. For an autobiographical account of _Osteinsatz_ , see H. Fritsch, _Land mein Land: Bauerntum und Landdienst BDM-Osteinsatz Siedlungsgeschichte im Osten_ (Preu\u00dfisch Oldendorf, 1986).\n\n. Special BDM pamphlets were issued on questions of race and racial obligations. For example, see IfZ Db 44.104, _M\u00e4del voran!,_ pp. 193 ff.\n\n. IfZ Db 44.17, _M\u00e4del im Dienst. Ein Handbuch_ (Potsdam, 1934), p. 9.\n\n. Ibid., p. 8.\n\n. Cited in Knopp, _Hitler's Children_ , pp. 112\u201313.\nCONCLUSION\n\nThe education and socialization of youth by the Nazi regime to become the ideal future generation of Germans in line with its ideology are central to our wider understanding of the Third Reich. The Nazi government attempted to achieve both complete social control and a 'total education' of German youth. This incorporated a root and branch reshaping of values. Education under National Socialism was used to disseminate the key components of Nazi ideology\u2013in particular the creation of national identity and racial awareness. Both formal education in schools and socialization in youth groups formed very significant aspects of this process.\n\nThere were significant historical links between the _Kaiserreich_ , the Weimar Republic and the Third Reich in terms of education. It is important to treat the Third Reich in the context of earlier administrations and to consider both similarities and differences. The extreme nationalism and authoritarianism that characterized the end of the nineteenth century was never fully eliminated during the Weimar years despite attempts at introducing progressive educational policies. In certain ways, the Nazi regime built upon the foundations from previous eras, but it often added a more radical direction to educational policy. Nazi education policy consciously donned an irrational character, based upon the power of suggestion and emotional impact rather than upon the power of reason. The educational philosophy of National Socialism was fundamentally irrational. It echoed earlier ideals, such as pan-German nationalism from the days of the _Kaiserreich_ , and pushed irrationalism to its most extreme limit. However, the Nazis had to take into account the realities of the need to develop a high level of technology and industry in order to prepare for war, and hence had to temper this irrationalism. In addition, the war itself occasioned changes to the essence and direction of Nazi educational policy.\n\nBoth the nature of Nazi policy-making and the tensions that existed between modernization and reaction in the Third Reich led to inconsistencies and ambiguities in education policy. Nazi policy-making was such that initiatives came from a number of different arenas. Hitler's fundamental beliefs about education provided the backdrop to Nazi education policy and its ethos. They were a strange blend of concepts taken from dominant contemporaneous ideas, as well as resulting from Hitler's own educational experience. Educational policy-making should have been the responsibility of the Ministry of Education, led by Bernhard Rust. However, Rust encountered intervention and challenges to his authority from a number of Nazi leaders, notably Baldur von Schirach, Martin Bormann, Robert Ley, Alfred Rosenberg, Philip Bouhler and Heinrich Himmler. Furthermore, even civil servants from his own Ministry flouted his authority. This was quite typical of the way in which the Third Reich functioned. This chaotic nature of government, as emphasized by 'structuralist' and 'functionalist' historians, meant that there was much competition between different individuals and agencies and sometimes contradictions in policy-making.\n\nOverall, the Nazi leadership disliked and distrusted the _Gymnasium_ with its humanist tradition, its emphasis on classical education and its academic snobbery. Historically, the _Gymnasium_ emerged in the tradition of classical humanism. It subsequently became quite strongly nationalist, but, nevertheless, under National Socialism, it was to lose its academic and elite status. The Nazi government aimed both to decrease the significance of the _Gymnasium_ and to reduce the influence of the Churches in German education. It claimed that these policies were designed to rationalize and modernize the education system. However, the truth of the matter was that the regime despised the traditional _Gymnasien_ because they were too academic, whilst it closed down the Church schools because it regarded them as a threat. Hence, the promises and claims made by the Nazi government to 'modernize' education remained unfulfilled in reality. Nazi anti-liberalism and anti-intellectualism in education produced a series of measures that failed to modernize the German educational system.\n\nThe Nazi education system had a short lifespan lasting just twelve years, half of them during wartime conditions. The brevity of the period was significant in terms of the capacity of the regime to push through the changes it desired, and the outbreak of the war engendered changes in its priorities. The years 1933\u20138 were spent mainly in the process of 'coordinating' teachers and trying to ensure their loyalty to the regime. The NSLB provided reports on the political reliability of teachers for appointments and promotions and attempted to achieve the ideological indoctrination of teachers. The main alterations to the school system and to the curriculum came in the years 1938 and 1939. New curricular changes found form in the publication of new textbooks between 1939 and 1942. The introduction and use of new school textbooks greatly assisted the Nazi regime in its aim of inculcating pupils with Nazi ideology. The spirit of _v\u00f6lkisch_ ideology was conveyed through children's books. Specific subjects such as biology, history, geography, mathematics and German were all utilized to this end and the new subject of _Rassenkunde_ was added to the curriculum. Through school textbooks, Nazi pedagogues sought to develop in children a sense of identity with the nation, the Nazi regime and its policies. The Third Reich did not have a clear and coherent concept of education beyond indoctrination. Political attitudes played a central role in the shaping of Nazi education policy. Education was linked with racial values. Anti-Semitism and racism in the curriculum represented a unique contribution of the Nazi regime to the history of education in Germany.\n\nThe Nazi elite educational institutions performed a special function within the Third Reich and within the Nazi education system. Certainly they challenged the traditional _Gymnasien_ in terms of status. They entailed a new kind of ideological elitism. The three main types of educational institutions to train the future elite of German society\u2013the Napolas, the Adolf Hitler Schools and the _Ordensburgen_ \u2013represented a microcosm of the Nazi _Weltanschauung_ by fostering the leadership principle, promoting competitiveness and emphasizing life as a struggle and as survival of the 'fittest'. They encouraged physical prowess, excoriated the 'enemies of the Reich', in particular the Jews, Communists and Socialists, emphasized racial purity, glorified war and fostered militarism. They underlined the necessity for _Lebensraum_ and had a significant part to play in the achievement of a 'greater German empire'. They were typically National Socialist institutions aimed at the ideological training of a new elite.\n\nIn the Hitler Youth and the League of German Girls, the Nazis created comprehensive youth organizations that were unparalleled in the history of German youth movements. Nevertheless, the Nazi youth organization in many ways did follow in the footsteps of the earlier German youth movement, which encapsulated elements of German romanticism and folklore, Nietzschean philosophy and traditional concepts such as _Heimat_. The Nazi youth groups deviated from earlier traditions and developed their own distinctive ideology. The pedagogic activities of the Nazi youth groups strove towards the creation of the 'national community' and they encouraged their members to be willing to make sacrifices for the state. Furthermore, through its anti-intellectual stance and its taking up so much of the free time of its members, the Hitler Youth contributed to the reduction in academic standards in the Third Reich. This led to tensions between the youth organizations and the schools. In particular more conservative teachers of an older generation found the youth groups problematic. Children and young people were encouraged to challenge conventional figures of authority, such as schoolteachers, priests and even their parents, enhancing the role of the youth groups, whilst simultaneously creating an anti-intellectual climate and eroding many of the traditional socialization functions of the family.\n\nUnder the circumstances of 'total war', the Nazi regime was unable to make all the educational changes it had hoped to introduce. Education had come to a virtual standstill by the end of the war. The Allied bombing raids had resulted in the mass evacuation of schoolchildren from the cities to the countryside in the _Kinderlandverschickung_ scheme. Older children were conscripted as auxiliaries. Universities were emptied of male students in 1944 following the order for the creation of the _Volkssturm_. In May 1945, the Allies faced a grave problem in Germany, a country in disarray. As far as education was concerned, a variety of difficulties presented themselves. The existing textbooks were all unsuitable. There was a severe shortage of trained teachers and a lack of school buildings. Many schools had been destroyed or were being used to accommodate displaced persons. Most significantly, there was a need for a comprehensive 'denazification' and 're-education' of Germany's citizens. The regime and its ideology were discredited. The atrocities committed in the name of the German population became more widely known as the public was confronted with the full truth about the concentration camps and the death camps.\n\nAn understanding of education in the Third Reich illustrates the dangers of political ideology determining which subjects are taught in schools and how they are taught. In a system in which Party organizations determined what was to be taught, 'national political' education had been prioritized under National Socialism. Furthermore, the sophistication and complexity of the whole system made it even more dangerous in its impact. In both the schools and the youth groups, National Socialism tapped into the deep-rooted desire of many young Germans to be part of a larger group and to belong. Nazi ideology defined and underlined all pedagogic activity\u2013knowledge of the Party and its leader, the 'national community' and racial awareness formed the core of education in the Third Reich. Educational content in the Third Reich largely comprised Party propaganda. Nazi 'total' education in the schools and youth groups together aimed to create a new young generation of Germans committed to Nazi ideology and able to carry out their obligations to the state. Ultimately, of course, this entailed a willingness to lay down their lives for it.\n[GLOSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS   \nAND TERMS ](Pine_9781847887641_epub_c16_r1.html#d6e10)\n\n**AHS\u2013** _Adolf Hitler Schule_ (Adolf Hitler School)\n\n**BDM\u2013** _Bund Deutscher M\u00e4del_ (League of German Girls)\n\n**_Blut und Boden_ \u2013**blood and soil\n\n**DAF\u2013** _Deutsche Arbeitsfront_ (German Labour Front)\n\n**_F\u00fchrer_ \u2013**leader\n\n**_F\u00fchrerprinzip_ \u2013**leadership principle\n\n**_Gau_ \u2013**region; the largest unit of the NSDAP's territorial organization\n\n**_Gauleiter_ \u2013**regional leader\n\n**_Gleichschaltung_ \u2013**coordination or streamlining\n\n**_Herrenvolk_ \u2013**master race\n\n**HJ\u2013** _Hitlerjugend_ (Hitler Youth)\n\n**_Kaiserreich_ \u2013**Second German Empire\n\n**KdF\u2013** _Kraft durch Freude_ (Strength through Joy)\n\n**_kinderreich_ \u2013**literally 'rich in children'; term used to describe 'valuable' families with four or more children\n\n**KLV\u2013** _Kinderlandverschickung_ (sending children to the countryside)\n\n**KPD\u2013** Kommunistische Partei Deutschland (German Communist Party)\n\n**_Kreis_ \u2013**district; the second largest unit of the NSDAP's territorial organization\n\n**_Kreisleiter_ \u2013**district leaders\n\n**_Lebensraum_ \u2013**living space\n\n**_Machtergreifung_ \u2013**seizure of power\n\n**Napola\u2013** _Nationalpolitische Erziehungsanstalten_ (National Political Educational Institute)\n\n**NSDAP\u2013** _Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei_ (National Socialist German Workers' Party)\n\n**_NS-Deutscher Studentenbund_ \u2013**National Socialist German Students' Association\n\n**NSF\u2013** _NS-Frauenschaft_ (National Socialist Womanhood)\n\n**NSLB\u2013** _Nationalsozialistischer Lehrerbund_ (National Socialist Teachers' Association)\n\n**NSV\u2013** _Nationalsozialistiche Volkswohlfahrt_ (National Socialist People's Welfare)\n\n**_Ordensburg_ \u2013**Order Castle (Nazi elite educational institution)\n\n**_Ort_ \u2013**local branch; the smallest unit of the NSDAP's territorial organization\n\n**_Osteinsatz_ \u2013**Eastern Service\n\n**RM\u2013** _Reichsmark_ (unit of currency)\n\n**SA\u2013** _Sturmabteilungen_ (Stormtroopers)\n\n**SS\u2013** _Schutzstaffeln_ (Nazi elite formation led by Heinrich Himmler)\n\n**_Volk_ \u2013**nation; people\n\n**_v\u00f6lkisch_ \u2013**nationalistic\n\n**_Volksgemeinschaft_ \u2013**national community; people's community\n\n**_Wehrmacht_ \u2013**armed forces\n\n**_Weltanschauung_ \u2013**world view\n\n**WHW\u2013** _Winterhilfswerk_ (Winter Relief Agency)\nBIBLIOGRAPHY\n\nPRIMARY SOURCES\n\n_Unpublished_  \nBundesarchiv, Berlin (BA)\n\nNS 12|  | Hauptamt f\u00fcr Erzieher\/ NS-Lehrerbund  \n---|---|---  \nNS 15|  | Der Beauftragte des F\u00fchrers f\u00fcr die \u00dcberwachung der gesamten geistigen und   \nweltanschaulichen Schulung und Erziehung der NSDAP  \nNS 22|  | Reichsorganisationsleiter der NSDAP  \nNS 26|  | Hauptarchiv der NSDAP  \nNS 28|  | Hitler-Jugend  \nNSD|  | Drucksachen der NSDAP, ihrer Gliederungen, angeschlossenen Verb\u00e4nde und betreuten Organisationen  \nR 49|  | Reichskommissar f\u00fcr die Festigung deutschen Volkstums  \nR 89|  | Reichsversicherungsamt  \nR 4901|  | Reichsministerium f\u00fcr Wissenschaft, Erziehung und Volksbildung\n\nInstitut f\u00fcr Zeitgeschichte, Munich (IfZ)\n\nDb 44.07, Db 44.17, Db 44.28, Db 44.32, Db 44.41, Db 44.43, Db 44.61, Db 44.65, Db 44.92, Db 44.102, Db 44.104\n\n_Published_\n\nB\u00e4umler, A., _M\u00e4nnerbund und Wissenschaft_ (Berlin, 1934).\n\nB\u00e4umler, A., _Politik und Erziehung_ (Berlin, 1937).\n\nBecker, C. 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(ed.), _'Wir waren Hitlers Elitesch\u00fcler': Ehemalige Z\u00f6glinge der NS-Ausleseschulen brechen ihr Schweigen_ (Hamburg, 1998).\n\nLeitsch, C., 'Drei BDM-Biographinnen', _Dokumentationsstelle zur NS-Sozialpolitik: Mitteilungen_ , April (1986).\n\nMcCulloch, G., _Philosophers and Kings: Education for Leadership in Modern England_ (Cambridge, 1991).\n\nMann, E., _School for Barbarians: Education under the Nazis_ (London, 1939).\n\nMaschmann, M., _Account Rendered: A Dossier on My Former Self_ (London, 1964).\n\nMiller-Kipp, G. (ed.), _'Auch du geh\u00f6rst dem F\u00fchrer': Die Geschichte des Bundes Deutscher M\u00e4del (BDM) in Quellen und Dokumenten_ (Munich, 2002).\n\nMoll, C., 'Acts of Resistance: The White Rose in the Light of New Archival Evidence', in Geyer, M. and Boyer, J. (eds), _Resistance against the Third Reich 1933\u20131990_ (Chicago, 1994).\n\nMosse, G. (ed.), _Nazi Culture: Intellectual, Cultural and Social Life in the Third Reich_ (London, 1966).\n\nMouton, M., _From Nurturing the Nation to Purifying the Volk: Weimar and Nazi Family Policy, 1918\u20131945_ (Cambridge, 2007).\n\nNeumann, P., _Other Men's Graves_ (London, 1958).\n\nNiederdalhoff, F., _'Im Sinne des Systems einsatzbereit . . .': M\u00e4dchenarbeit im 'Bund Deutscher M\u00e4del' (BDM) und in der 'Freien Deutschen Jugend' (FDJ)\u2013Ein Vergleich_ (M\u00fcnster, 1997).\n\nNoakes, J. (ed.), _Nazism 1919\u20131945: A Documentary Reader_ , Vol. 4 (Exeter, 1998).\n\nNoakes, J. and Pridham, G. 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+{"text":"\n\n\n\nProduced by Stephen Hutcheson\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n                          _Morning and Evening\n                                Prayers\n                       for All Days of the Week_\n\n\n                                   By\n                          DR. JOHN HABERMANN.\n                             Together With\n\n                  _Confessional, Communion, and Other\n                     Prayers and Hymns for Mornings\n                           and Evenings, and\n                            Other Occasions_\n\n                            Done in English\n                                   By\n                            EMIL H. RAUSCH.\n                        _Editor Lutheran Herald_\n\n                           Chicago, Illinois.\n                       WARTBURG PUBLISHING HOUSE.\n\n\n  March, 1918, 3M.\n  September, 1918, 5M.\n  January, 1920, 5M.\n\n\n\n\n                          Translator's Preface\n\n\nThis little manual of prayers herewith offered to English speaking\nChristians in their own language, has long been one of the treasures of\nthe German people. With the exception of a few prayers, as hereinafter\nnoted, it was originally written by one of God's noblemen, by one who\n\"lived and moved and had his being\" in the things of the Kingdom of God.\nDr. John Habermann (known also as Avenarius, Latinized form of Habermann)\ndied 1590 as superintendent at Zeitz, was a famous preacher and a\ndistinguished scholar of his day. He was noted for his profound knowledge\nof oriental languages especially of the Hebrew. Still it is not this but\nthe fact of his little prayer book that has endeared him to his fellow\nChristians. And this manual of prayers is the mature product of an inner\nlife rich in the grace of God. On every page it bears the stamp of one\nfor whom the communion with the eternal Father in heaven through the\nfaith in Jesus Christ, the Savior, is a blessed reality. Nothing more\nnatural therefore also than that he should \"live and move and have his\nbeing\" in the language of the Word of God. And this is quite apparent in\nhis prayer language. God's Word give him the terms to express his\nthoughts. Especially the Psalter, the prayer and hymn book of Israel,\nproves a veritable thesaurus of prayer terms and of these he makes a\ncopious use.\n\nThe present little volume presents the Englished edition of \"Wachet und\nBetet,\" as issued by the Synod of Iowa and other States. Owing to the\nexigencies of the times, with the great world war raging in all its fury,\na special set of prayers for times of war has been added by the\ntranslator, in the hope that they will add to the usefulness of the book.\nThese are found on pages 131-138. The hymns as far as possible are given\nin the form as found in the new Common Service Book with Hymnal. Many of\nthem however are new translations that here appear in print for the first\ntime. For these we are indebted especially to Prof. Alfred Ramsey of the\nLutheran Theological Seminary, Maywood, Chicago, and the Rev. H.\nBrueckner of Iowa City, Iowa, a fact which is here gratefully\nacknowledged.\n\nThe labor of clothing these little gems of prayer into the language of\nthe land has been done as a labor of love, albeit the stress of other\nwork often precluded the continued effort. The work was done a bit at a\ntime. This little volume is herewith issued with the fervent hope and\nprayer, that it may long continue on its course of blessing, and lead\nmany lives into the closer communion with God, through Jesus Christ. Soli\nDeo Gloria!\n\n                                                            E. H. R.\n\nWaverly, Iowa, during the blessed season of Epiphany, 1918.\n\n\n\n\n                         EXHORTATION TO PRAYER\n\n\nArise, dear soul, and carefully reflect who He is with whom thou speakest\nand before whom thou standest when thou prayest. Behold, thou speakest\nwith God, thy Maker, and standest in the presence of Him, the eternal\nMajesty, whom thousand times thousand holy angels and arch-angels attend.\nTherefore, O Christian, enter thou into the closet of thy soul, and\nbeware, lest thou failest to put from thee all sluggishness of heart, and\nliftest up to thy God a countenance free from blame. Then wilt thou\ndelight in the Lord and have power with Him, and prevail. Yea, thou wilt\nconquer the unconquerable God and bear away the blessing through Jesus\nChrist. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                           The Lord's Prayer\n\n\n_Our Father, who art in heaven; Hallowed be Thy Name; Thy kingdom come;\nThy will be done on earth as it is in heaven; Give us this day our daily\nbread; And forgive us our trespasses, as we forgive those who trespass\nagainst us; And lead us not into temptation; but deliver us from evil;\nFor Thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory, for ever and\never. Amen._\n\n\n\n\n                            The Benediction\n\n\n    _The Lord bless thee, and keep thee._\n    _The Lord make His face to shine upon thee,_\n      _and be gracious unto thee._\n    _The Lord lift up His countenance upon thee,_\n      _and give thee peace. Amen._\n\n\n\n\n                      Morning and Evening Prayers\n\n\n\n\n                       Prayer for Sunday Morning.\n\n\nLord, our Heavenly Father, Eternal God! Blessed be Thy divine power and\nmight; magnified Thy fathomless goodness and mercy; praised Thine eternal\nwisdom and truth. For Thou hast shielded me with Thy hand against the\nperils of this night, and hast suffered me to rest and slumber in peace\nunder the shadow of Thy wings. Thou hast kept and safeguarded me with a\nfather's care against the Evil One and all his wicked designs and\npurposes. Therefore, I magnify Thy goodness and the wonders which Thou\ndoest for the children of men. I will exalt Thee in the congregation. Thy\npraise shall evermore be in my mouth. My soul shall bless Thee, O my\nLord, all that is within me shall bless Thy holy name, and nevermore will\nI forget Thy benefits. May the praises of my lips, which in singleness of\nheart I bring before Thee at this early hour, be acceptable in Thy sight.\nI call upon Thee with all my heart to preserve me this day against all\ndanger of body and soul. May Thy holy angels have charge over me and keep\nme in all my ways. Encompass me with Thy shield and lead me on the paths\nof Thy commandments that, like the children of light, I may be blameless\nin Thy service, to Thy good pleasure. Stay the Evil One and all\nwickedness of this world. Restrain mine own flesh and blood that I be not\novercome by them. Lead me with Thy Holy Spirit that I attempt, do, speak,\nor think nothing except what is well-pleasing in Thy sight and conducive\nto the glory of Thy divine Majesty. Behold, O God, I consecrate and\ndedicate myself entirely to Thy holy will, with body and soul, all my\npowers and abilities, inwardly and outwardly. Make me a living sacrifice,\nholy and acceptable unto Thee, so that I may render Thee a reasonable and\npleasing service. Therefore, Most Holy Father, Almighty God, let me be\nwholly Thine. Govern Thou my heart and soul, and all my emotions that I\nknow and understand none but Thee. O Lord, in the morning wilt Thou hear\nmy voice. Early will I seek Thee and look up to Thee. Early will I praise\nThee, and will not cease when evening comes. Through Jesus Christ. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                    Gott des Himmels und der Erden.\n\n\n    God, Who madest earth and heaven,--\n    Father, Son, and Holy Ghost,\n    Who the day and night hast given,\n    Sun and moon, and starry host,\n    Thou Whose mighty hand sustains\n    Earth and all that it contains;\n\n    Praise to Thee my soul shall render,\n    Who this night has guarded me,\n    My omnipotent Defender,\n    Who from ill doth set me free;\n    Free from danger, anguish, woe,\n    Free from the infernal foe.\n\n    Let the night of my transgression\n    With night's darkness pass away;\n    Jesus, into Thy possession\n    I resign myself to-day.\n    In Thy wounds I find relief\n    From my greatest sin and grief.\n\n    Let my life and conversation\n    Be directed by Thy Word;\n    Lord, Thy constant preservation\n    To Thy erring child afford.\n    Nowhere but alone in Thee\n    From all harm can I be free.\n\n    Wholly to Thy blest protection\n    I commit my heart and mind;\n    Mighty God! to Thy direction\n    Wholly may I be resigned.\n    Lord, my Shield, my Light divine,\n    O accept, and own me Thine.\n\n                                                  Heinrich Albert, 1643.\n                                        Tr. John Christian Jacobi, 1720.\n                                             Arthur Tozer Russell, 1848.\n                                              Catherine Winkworth, 1855.\n\n\n\n\n                       Prayer for Sunday Evening.\n\n\nEternal God, Merciful Father, I lift up my hands unto Thee as an evening\nsacrifice, and render Thee most hearty thanks, praise, and glory, that\nThou hast protected me this day and all the days of my life from all evil\nand calamity, and through the ministrations of Thy holy angels hast\ngraciously guarded me against the Evil One. I pray Thee to forgive me all\nmy sins, wherever I have done wrong. Surround me this night with Thy holy\nangels. May thou compass me round and cast a trench about me, that I may\nescape the snares and evil cunning of the enemy. I commend myself to Thy\ngoodness and mercy. Protect me with Thine outstretched arm; for from my\nheart do I pant after Thee in the nightwatches, and with my spirit within\nme do I watch for Thee at all times. I wait upon Thy goodness, and my\nsoul trusts in Thee, the living God, for Thou art my refuge and my\nSavior. Behold, O Lord, whether we sleep or wake, we are Thine: whether\nwe live or die, Thou art our God who hast called us into being.\nTherefore, I cry unto Thee: let Thy grace be not far from me. Shelter me\nwith Thy shield. Keep me, that I lie in quiet, sleep in peace, and awake\nagain in health. Hide me in Thy pavilion in the time of trouble, in the\nsecret of Thy tabernacle hide me, set me upon the rock, and I will fear\nno evil. Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I\nwill fear no evil: for Thou art with me; Thy rod and Thy staff they\ncomfort me. Grant me grace, that though my body sleep, my soul may ever\nwake for Thee, that I may ever have Thee in my heart and before my mind,\nand be not overcome by the night of sin. Keep me from all wicked and evil\ndreams, from restless wakings and useless anxieties, from depraved and\nhurtful thoughts, from all grief. My Lord and God, into Thy gracious care\ndo I commend my body and soul, my brothers and sisters, and all my kin\nand loved ones. May it please Thee, O Lord, to save us, and turn not Thy\nmercy from us. May Thy grace and fidelity protect us alway. Cover us this\nnight with Thy goodness, and encompass us with Thy mercy, that we be\nsafe-guarded in body and soul. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                    Christe, du bist der helle Tag.\n\n\n    O Christ, who art the sun-lit day,\n    Before Thee night must flee away,\n    Thou dost reflect the Father's light\n    And teachest us His will aright.\n\n    Dear Lord, as night is drawing near,\n    Fill Thou our hearts with light and cheer,\n    Let us securely rest in Thee\n    And from the foe's attacks stay free.\n\n    And while our eyes in slumber close,\n    Grant that our hearts may find repose;\n    But let them be to Thee awake\n    And of Thy saving grace partake.\n\n    Protect us from the wily foe\n    Who seeks to harm our souls, we know.\n    Be Thou our shield, our staff, and stay,\n    Lord Jesus Christ, for this we pray.\n\n    For Thou hast made us, Lord, Thine own,\n    We as Thy heritage are known.\n    Thy blood was shed, that we might be\n    The Father's precious gift to Thee.\n\n    So let Thy holy angel stay\n    Around us both by night and day.\n    Place Thou a watch beside our bed,\n    And guardian angels overhead.\n\n    Thus in Thy name we fall asleep,\n    While angels o'er us watch must keep.\n    To Thee, O Holy One in Three,\n    Be praise to all eternity.\n\n                                                       Latin, 7 Century.\n                                                    Erasmus Alber, 1555.\n                                                 Tr. H. Brueckner, 1918.\n\n\n\n\n                       Prayer for Monday Morning.\n\n\nO Thou Eternal and Merciful God! Thou hast commanded Thy people in Thy\nlaw each morning to offer Thee a burnt offering, thereby to praise and\nthank Thee for Thy merciful protection: thus I too would bring unto Thee\nmy offering of praise, that is the fruit of my lips, and magnify Thy holy\nname. For by Thy grace and mercy Thou hast kept me this night from all\nevil and harm in body and soul, and hast graciously protected me. If Thou\nhadst not been my shield and my help, manifold calamities would have\nengulfed me, and I could not have risen in health and safety. Therefore,\nI thank Thee for Thy protection. But I continue to call to Thee from the\ndepths of my heart, and my supplication ascends to Thee in the early\nhour. Early do I seek Thy countenance and pray Thee to safeguard me and\nmine from the wiles and power of the devil, from sin and disgrace and all\nwickedness. Visit Thou me in this early hour with Thy grace, as without\nThee I can do nothing, and grant that I may this day begin all my work in\nThy name and end it joyously, to the glory of Thy divine majesty and the\nbetterment of my neighbor. Preserve my soul, mind, reason, senses, and\nthoughts, all that I do and leave undone, that the prince of darkness do\nme no injury. Safeguard me against the destruction that wasteth at\nnoonday. Defend me against mine enemies that neither secretly nor openly\nthey harm or injure me with their craft and cunning, violence or malice.\nO God, Father and Lord of my life, shield me from all impurity and\ndisorderly conduct. Keep me from all intemperance and unchastity, and\nturn from me shameless thoughts. Help me by Thy grace to pluck out the\neye that offends me and cast it away, and renounce all wicked and impure\ndesires of the heart. Grant whatever is pleasing to Thee and useful to\nme, that I may serve Thee in the true faith. Look upon me with the eyes\nof Thy mercy, Thou Savior of the world, and enlighten my heart and eyes,\nthat I may walk in the light of Thy grace, which rises above me, and\nnever lose Thee, the Eternal Light. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                      Ach bleib mit deiner Gnade.\n\n\n    Abide with grace unbounded,\n    Lord Jesus, with us still,\n    That Satan's craft confounded\n    May no more work us ill.\n\n    Abide with us, dear Savior,\n    Both with and in Thy Word:\n    To us both now and ever\n    Thy saving health afford.\n\n    Abide with all Thy brightness,\n    Thou brightest Light of all;\n    And lest we stray from rightness,\n    Make Thou Thy truth our wall.\n\n    Abide with us and bless us,\n    Thou Lord whose riches 'bide;\n    With growing grace possess us\n    And all things best provide.\n\n    Abide with Thy protection,\n    Great Captain, clothed with might;\n    O'ercome our world affection\n    And vanquish Satan's spite.\n\n    Abide with care untiring,\n    Our God and Lord indeed;\n    All steadfastness inspiring,\n    Help, Lord, our every need.\n\n                                                   Josua Stegmann, 1630.\n                                                    Tr. A. Ramsey, 1916.\n\n\n\n\n                       Prayer for Monday Evening.\n\n\nO Thou Mighty and Everlasting God, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, I\nthank Thee that by Thy divine power Thou hast this day preserved me from\nall injury and danger of body and life. I owe it to Thy mercy alone that\nThou didst protect me on all my paths. I pray Thee to forgive me all my\nsins which I have committed against Thee, and this night and during our\nentire lives mercifully to defend me and my loved ones against all sorrow\nand anxiety, and against the craft and power of the devil, wherewith day\nand night he seeks to ensnare us. Preserve us from the deadly pestilence\nthat walketh in the darkness, and deliver us from the snare of the enemy.\nProtect us from the temptation and terror of Satan, from all evils of\nbody and soul. For Thou art our strong fortress, our sword and buckler.\nAll our hope and trust rests in Thee. Therefore, O faithful God, may\nThine eyes be upon us and we be safeguarded this night against all\nviolence and assault of the enemy. Be Thou our keeper and protector.\nEncompass us with Thy shelter, for in Thee is our salvation. Unto Thee\nonly, from whom cometh my help, do I lift up mine eyes. My help cometh\nfrom the Lord, who made heaven and earth. Behold, as the eyes of servants\nlook unto the hands of their masters, and as the eyes of a maiden unto\nthe hand of her mistress; so our eyes wait upon the Lord our God, until\nthat He have mercy upon us. Have mercy upon us, O Lord, have mercy, for\nwe are poor and needy. Lift upon me the light of Thy countenance lest I\nsleep the sleep of death. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                        Nun ruhen alle Waelder.\n\n\n    Now under night's dark shadow\n    Rest woodland, field, and meadow,\n    The world in slumber lies.\n    But thou, my soul, awake thee,\n    To song and prayer betake thee,\n    Give praise to Him who rules the skies.\n\n    The sun's fair light hath vanished,\n    The night its rays hath banished,\n    The night, the foe of day.\n    'Tis well: my heart containeth\n    A sun whose light ne'er waneth,\n    Since Jesus there holds constant sway.\n\n    The reign of day is over,\n    And golden stars now cover\n    The canopy so blue.\n    Thus I shall shine in heaven,\n    Where golden crowns are given\n    To all who faithful stay and true.\n\n    My body is divested\n    Of garments that have rested\n    Upon its form of clay.\n    Thus I at heaven's portal\n    Shall lose all that is mortal\n    And with the Lord forever stay.\n\n    Head, feet, and hands are taking\n    Sweet rest from toil and waking,\n    Released from ev'ry pain.\n    O heart of mine, why borrow\n    The troubles of tomorrow?\n    Thou rest from sin and woe shalt gain.\n\n    Ye members weak and tired,\n    By joy no more inspired,\n    Betake yourselves to bed.\n    The time and hour for sleeping\n    In God's own faithful keeping\n    Will come when you are cold and dead.\n\n    My tired eyes are closing,\n    And while I am reposing,\n    Where doth my soul remain?\n    To Thee be it commended\n    Until the night is ended,\n    Let me Thy gracious favor gain.\n\n    Lord Jesus, who dost love me,\n    Spread both Thy wings above me,\n    Thus shielding me from harm.\n    If Satan should draw near me,\n    Let angels come to cheer me\n    And so the wily foe disarm.\n\n    My loved ones, rest securely,\n    Since God will guard you surely\n    From pain and perils sore.\n    May you in safety slumber,\n    While angels without number\n    Attend you now and evermore.\n\n                                                    Paul Gerhardt, 1648.\n                                                 Tr. H. Brueckner, 1918.\n\n\n\n\n                      Prayer for Tuesday Morning.\n\n\nBlessed be God, the maker of heaven and earth, blessed be the Lord, who\nonly doeth wondrous things, and blessed be His glorious name for ever who\nhath made both day and night through His glorious wisdom, and so ruled,\nthat while the earth remaineth, they shall not cease, that man may rest\nby night, and proceed again to his labors by day. O Lord, how manifold\nare Thy works! In wisdom hast Thou made them all: the earth is full of\nThy riches. For such Thy gifts we should thank Thee ere the sun rises,\nand come into Thy presence when the light breaks forth. Therefore I bless\nThee now also, for Thou hast suffered me securely to rest and sleep this\nnight, and again awakened me to the joy of living. Thou hast mercifully\nsheltered me from the assaults and malice of enemies. I supplicate Thy\ngrace: grant that my soul may repose in Thy hands, my body continue in\nhealth according to Thy good pleasure, and be kept from all injury and\nperil. Be Thou my mighty protection and strong stay, a defence from heat,\nand my cover from the sun at noon, my preservation from stumbling, and my\nhelp from falling, that no harm may come unto me. O Merciful God, knowing\nthe hour is come to awaken out of the sleep of sin and iniquity, for now\nis our salvation so near, the night is far spent, the day is at hand: so\nhelp us to cast off the works of darkness, and put on the armour of\nlight, that we may walk honestly as in the day; not in rioting and\ndrunkenness, not in chambering and wantonness, not in strife and envying,\nbut putting on the Lord Jesus Christ in the true faith and a Christian\nconduct. Thus awaken us each morning. Open Thou my ears that I may hear\nThy holy Word with a believing heart and keep the same in my memory. Let\nmy ears incline to the entreaties and prayers of the needy, not to\nforsake them in their distress. And when in my distress I cry unto Thee,\nhear Thou the voice of my supplications, and despise not my sighings in\nthe hour of death. Let my prayers come before Thee early. Incline Thine\nears to my entreaties. Satisfy us early with Thy mercy; that we may\nrejoice and be glad all our days. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                    Wach auf, mein Herz, und singe.\n\n\n    Awake, my heart, rejoicing,\n    Thy Maker's praises voicing,--\n    The Giver, good gifts sending;\n    Their Shield, His folk defending.\n\n    All night while darkness 'bound me\n    In deepest gloom around me,\n    By Satan craved while sleeping\n    God had me in His keeping.\n\n    Thou spak'st me words endearing;\n    Sleep now, my child, unfearing;\n    Sleep well, night's terrors spurning;\n    Thou'lt see the sun returning.\n\n    Thy word performed, now waking,\n    I see the bright dawn breaking,\n    Safe kept from ills unnumbered\n    While 'neath Thy care I slumbered.\n\n    An off'ring Thou desirest.\n    Behold what Thou requirest.\n    Nor lamb nor incense bringing,\n    I come with prayer and singing.\n\n    Nor wilt Thou now despise them,\n    But in Thy heart wilt prize them,\n    Well knowing, yea, and surely\n    My best I offer purely.\n\n    Approve my works when shown Thee.\n    Help Thou good councils only;\n    Beginning, middle, closing,\n    Lord, for the best disposing.\n\n    With blessings guard me waking,\n    My heart Thy dwelling making,\n    And with Thy Word, Lord, feed me\n    Whilst heavenward Thou dost lead me.\n\n                                                    Paul Gerhardt, 1648.\n                                                    Tr. A. Ramsey, 1916.\n\n\n\n\n                      Prayer for Tuesday Evening.\n\n\nLord, Merciful God, Holy Father, in the daytime do I cry unto Thee with\nmy voice, in my distress I call upon Thee, and at eventime I remember Thy\ngoodness and mercy, which Thou hast wrought for me. And especially do I\nmagnify Thee now, that purely out of fatherly grace and mercy, without\nany merit or worthiness on my part, Thou hast this day preserved me from\nall harm and danger and kept me from sudden death. Therefore do I now and\nat all times render unto Thee praise and thanksgiving, and pray Thee, for\nthe sake of the bitter sufferings of Jesus Christ, to forgive me wherever\nI have sinned against Thee this day. Mercifully protect me during the\nnight against my adversary, the devil, and against the fears and terrors\nof the night. Suffer me to rest without anxieties and worries, and may\nthe eyes of my faith ever behold the lustre of Thy countenance even\nduring the shades of night. For Thou art that shining and true light,\nwhich dispels all darkness that surrounds us. Thou, O Lord, art ever with\nme. Thou art my rock, and my fortress, my deliverer, my strength, in whom\nI will trust, my buckler, the horn of my salvation, and my high tower.\nLord, my God, at eventime do I lift up my hands unto Thee. Come unto me\nas the latter rains that make the earth fruitful. Abide with us, for the\nday is far spent and in the darkness there is none to defend us save Thou\nalone, our God. Hasten to uphold us. Defend us this night, lest our souls\nfall into the sleep of sin and our bodies be overcome with evil. Awake us\nagain in due time, and make us to hear joy and peace, for we love Thy\nword and Thy testimonies, which are the delight of our souls. May our\nears be saved from all messages of sorrow, and all anguish be turned from\nour souls; for Thou canst prosper all that liveth, and fill my life with\nThy blessing; in Jesus Christ, our Lord. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n              Die Nacht ist kommen, drin wir ruhen sollen.\n\n\n    Now God be with us, for the night is closing;\n    The light and darkness are of His disposing;\n    And 'neath His shadow here to rest we yield us,\n    For He will shield us.\n\n    Let evil thoughts and spirits flee before us;\n    Till morning cometh, watch, O Master, o'er us;\n    In soul and body Thou from harm defend us,\n    Thine angels send us.\n\n    Let holy thoughts be ours when sleep o'ertakes us;\n    Our earliest thoughts be Thine when morning wakes us;\n    All day serve Thee, in all that we are doing\n    Thy praise pursuing.\n\n    As Thy beloved, soothe the sick and weeping,\n    And bid the prisoner lose his griefs in sleeping;\n    Widows and orphans, we to Thee commend them;\n    Do Thou befriend them.\n\n    We have no refuge, none on earth to aid us,\n    Save Thee, O Father, Who Thine own hast made us;\n    But Thy dear presence will not leave them lonely,\n    Who seek Thee only.\n\n    Father, Thy name be praised, Thy kingdom given;\n    Thy will be done on earth as 'tis in heaven;\n    Keep us in life, forgive our sins, deliver\n    Us now and ever.\n\n                                                   Petrus Herbert, 1566.\n                                                     St. 5, Anon., 1627.\n                                          Tr. Catherine Winkworth, 1863.\n\n\n\n\n                     Prayer for Wednesday Morning.\n\n\nAlmighty, All-gracious God! All Thy creatures should praise and glorify\nThee. The birds under the heavens magnify Thee with lovely songs early in\nthe morning as their Lord and Maker. So will I too heartily thank Thee,\nthat Thou hast preserved me under Thy shelter and protection during the\nnight now past, and all my life even to the present hour, and awakening\nme from the sleep of the darkness of this night, hast suffered me to\narise again in health and joy. I pray Thee for the sake of the saving\nresurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead, that Thou wouldst ever keep\nme together with all my loved ones from all danger and evil. O Lord, save\nThy people, and bless Thine inheritance: feed them also, and lift them up\nfor ever. Fill me also at this early hour with Thy grace, that I may pass\nthis day rejoicing in Thy commandments, and free from mortal sin. Let me\nexperience Thy grace as a dew from the womb of the morning, and as the\nrefreshing moisture that diffuses at the break of day, making the land\nfruitful. Thou wouldest spread Thy goodness over me, that I may gladly\nand zealously do Thy will. Govern me with Thy Holy Spirit that I may\nserve Thee in righteousness and holiness of truth, well pleasing in Thy\nsight. Guard me that I sin not against Thee, nor defile my conscience\nwith carnal lusts that militate against the soul. Keep my tongue from\nevil, and my lips from speaking guile. Foolish talking or jesting,\nunbecoming of Christians, be ever far removed from me. Grant, that I\noffend none with my lips, nor backbite, judge nor condemn, defame nor\nvilify. O that I might put a lock to my lips and seal them with a strong\nseal, that they bring me not to naught, nor my tongue destroy me. Give me\ngrace that I may know my shortcomings and correct them, and not fall into\nThy righteous judgment and condemnation. Grant my prayer, O Eternal God,\nfor the sake of Thy dear Son, Jesus Christ. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                       Morgenglanz der Ewigkeit.\n\n\n    Dayspring of Eternity,\n    Light from endless Light proceeding,\n    Let Thy beams upon us shine\n    As the shadows are receding;\n    And dispel by Thy great might\n    Our dark night.\n\n    As the soft refreshing dew\n    Falls upon the drooping flower,\n    So our fainting hearts renew\n    By Thy Spirit's quickening power;\n    Ne'er Thy bounteous grace withhold\n    From Thy fold.\n\n    Let the glow of Thy pure love\n    All our icy coldness banish;\n    In the radiance from above\n    May our doubts and fears all vanish,\n    That ere dying we may be\n    Found in Thee.\n\n    O Thou glorious Sun of grace,\n    May Thy light be ne'er denied us!\n    Till we reach the heavenly place\n    Shine upon our way to guide us,\n    That at last among the blest\n    We may rest.\n\n                                     Christian Knorr v. Rosenroth, 1684.\n                                                    Tr. J. F. Ohl, 1915.\n\n\n\n\n                     Prayer for Wednesday Evening.\n\n\nMost Holy Trinity, One in essence, Three in person, who art my life,\nsalvation, and eternal joy, I praise and thank Thee with mouth and heart\nthat Thou hast so graciously protected me throughout this day. I pray Thy\ndivine goodness to cover up all my shortcomings, and especially where\nthis day, with my tongue, with vain and unprofitable words, slander or\notherwise, I have sinned against Thee and Thy holy commandments.\nAccording to Thy name, O God, so is Thy praise unto the ends of the\nearth: Thy right hand is full of righteousness. Therefore I commend my\nbody and my soul into Thy hands. Thy divine Majesty bless me; Thy holy\nTrinity shelter me; Thy eternal Unity preserve me. May Thy unbounded\nmercy protect me; Thy inexpressible benevolence defend me, the sublime\ntruth of God cover me; profound knowledge of Christ strengthen me; the\nunfathomable goodness of the Lord keep me. The grace of the Father govern\nme; the wisdom of the Son refresh me; the power of the Holy Spirit\nenlighten me. My Creator aid me, my Redeemer quicken me, my Comforter\nabide with me. The Lord bless me and keep me. The Lord make His face\nshine upon me and be gracious unto me. The Lord lift up His countenance\nupon me and give me peace. The protection and blessing of the one and\neternal Godhead be between me and all mine enemies, visible and\ninvisible, today and always, that they may not approach nor injure me. As\nthe pillar of the cloud went between the army of the Egyptians and the\narmy of Israel, so that they could not come together, and no harm befall\nthe children of Israel, so mayest Thou be a pillar of fire and a wall of\nseparation between me and mine enemies, that no harm come over me. Keep\nme also in my last hour. When mine eyes no longer see, mine ears no\nlonger hear, my tongue no longer speak, be Thou with me, O blessed\nTrinity, that the Evil One have no power over me. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                          Hirte deiner Schafe.\n\n\n    Shepherd never sleeping,\n    In Thy gracious keeping\n    I have been today.\n    Thou art my Defender,\n    So in mercy tender\n    Come and with me stay;\n    All this night\n    Keep me in sight,\n    Send Thine angels to attend me\n    And protection lend me.\n\n    While I lie and slumber,\n    Let Thine hosts outnumber\n    All my raging foes.\n    Be of grace the Giver,\n    And Thy child deliver\n    From guilt's painful throes.\n    For Thy Son\n    My soul hath won;\n    By His wounds, so sorely stricken,\n    He my heart doth quicken.\n\n    Shield Thou from all danger\n    Ev'ry lonely stranger\n    And my dear ones, too.\n    Tenderly embrace us\n    And with mercy grace us,\n    Be our Father true.\n    Thou with me\n    And I with Thee,\n    Thus shall I, mine eyelids closing,\n    Be in peace reposing.\n\n    Close the door behind us,\n    Let no evil find us,\n    Keep all ills away.\n    Be our shield and cover,\n    Let Thine angels hover\n    O'er us now, we pray.\n    By sweet rest\n    Let us be blest,\n    Ev'ry fear of Satan's raging\n    In our hearts assuaging.\n\n    What if death should take me\n    And no light awake me\n    From my sleep and rest?\n    If Thou hast intended\n    That my life be ended,\n    Let Thy name be blest;\n    As for me,\n    I yield to Thee.\n    In the wounds of Jesus lying,\n    I am daily dying.\n\n    By no cares encumbered,\n    Though my hours be numbered,\n    I now fall asleep.\n    All to Thee commending\n    Who Thine hosts are sending\n    Watch o'er me to keep.\n    Through the night\n    Be my delight,\n    And if I should see the morrow,\n    Thou wilt cure all sorrow.\n\n                                               Benjamin Schmolcke, 1715.\n                                                 Tr. H. Brueckner, 1918.\n\n\n\n\n                      Prayer for Thursday Morning.\n\n\nJesus Christ, Thou art the eternal light, which dispelleth the darkness\nof night and the shadow of death: I magnify Thy name, I glorify and thank\nThee. For Thou hast so graciously kept me during this night, and hast\nbrought me out of the darkness to the light of day. Thou hast shielded me\nagainst the terrors of the night, the snares of the devil, the noisome\npestilence, that walketh in the darkness, manifold illness and disease.\nThou hast guarded and watched over my soul, even as the shepherd watches\nover his flock. And all that I possess is kept from harm through Thy\ngreat mercy. Praise and thanks be said unto Thee for Thy gracious\nprotection and all Thy gifts. I will speak of Thy power and magnify Thy\ngoodness, when the day breaks. For Thou art my refuge, my strong tower,\nmy present help, my faithful God, in whom I trust. Thou makest glad my\nheart and my countenance rejoiceth. I pray Thee, for the sake of Thy holy\nbirth and incarnation, suffer Thy grace to rise in my heart and break\nforth even as the beauty of the morning, and come over me as the early\nrain. Illumine me with Thy radiance, and be Thou the light of my heart,\nfor Thou art the right day star and the true light, that lighteth men to\nthe eternal life. Be merciful unto me, O Lord, for in Thee do I put my\ntrust. My soul waiteth for Thee, more than they that watch for the\nmorning, yea more than they that watch for the morning. Be Thou mine arm\nin the morning, my salvation also in the time of trouble. Protect me in\nbody and soul, that no evil befall me and no plague come nigh unto my\ndwelling. Keep from me all wicked spirits. Defend me from evildoers.\nStand up for me against the workers of iniquity and shield me, that the\nhands of mine adversaries may not touch me. O Lord, our God, establish\nThou the work of our hands upon us; yea, the work of our hands establish\nThou it, and strengthen our hands, and teach us that we may keep Thy\ncommandments and sin not against Thee this day. Grant us this for the\nsake of Thy mercy, which endureth for ever and ever. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                Wach auf, mein Herz, die Nacht ist hin.\n\n\n    Awake, my soul; the rising sun\n    Dispels the night of mourning;\n    Awake, with songs of praises run\n    To greet the Lord returning.\n    He burst the gates of death today\n    And left the gloomy grave for aye\n    While all the world rejoices.\n\n    Arise, my soul, from sin and death,\n    To thee new life is given;\n    Arise and run the race of faith;\n    Fix thy desires on heaven\n    Where Jesus, thy Redeemer reigns,\n    And seek the things that it contains,\n    If thou with Him be risen.\n\n    Art thou distressed by weight of care?\n    Thy Savior will remove it.\n    Believing, thou with joy canst bear\n    Thy cross and learn to love it.\n    Cast all thy burden on the Lord;\n    Fear not; for He will help afford,\n    For now He hath arisen.\n\n    Now Judah's Lion, true and tried,\n    The victory obtaineth;\n    The Lamb of God, the Crucified,\n    For us salvation gaineth,\n    And giveth righteousness and life;\n    For after all the dreadful strife,\n    O'er every foe He triumphs.\n\n    Then up, my soul, begin the fight,\n    For Christ, the Victor, leadeth.\n    He arms thee with a victor's might;\n    With Him thy cause succeedeth.\n    Now thou can'st rise and live anew\n    And righteousness and peace pursue\n    And be a faithful servant.\n\n    Fear not the angry jaws of hell,\n    Nor world, nor death, nor devil.\n    Thy Savior lives and all is well,\n    Though sore has been His travail.\n    A Victor crowned, He as a Friend\n    The mean and feeble doth attend,\n    And therefore thou shalt conquer.\n\n    Ah, Lord, whom death could not defile,\n    Who from the dead hast risen,\n    Free us from Satan's might and guile\n    And save us from his prison.\n    O grant, that, as one body, we\n    May enter that new life in Thee\n    Which Thou for us hast gotten.\n\n                                              Laurentius Laurenti, 1700.\n                                                          Tr. A. Ramsey.\n\n\n\n\n                      Prayer for Thursday Evening.\n\n\nPraise be to Thee, O God, our Father, through Jesus Christ in the Holy\nGhost, one, eternal God, who through Thy manifold compassion hast kept me\nthis day, a poor sinner and miserable creature, from the fiery darts of\nSatan that fly by day, from the destruction that wasteth at noonday, and\nhast graciously protected me from a sudden and evil death. Thy mercy, O\nLord, is in the heavens; and Thy faithfulness reacheth unto the clouds.\nThou art gracious and merciful, and all Thine acts are glorious. I pray\nThee, O merciful God, graciously to forgive me all that I have done\nagainst Thee this day, in thought, word, or deed. Turn Thy mercy toward\nme, that I may slumber and rest during this coming night, and that I may\nnever turn from Thee, who art the eternal rest. Suffer me ever to abide\nin Thee in the true faith, and safely to sojourn under Thy protection, so\nthat the enemy may never come nigh unto me, nor do me injury. Lord, Thou\nart my light and my salvation; whom shall I fear? Thou art the strength\nof my life; of whom shall I be afraid? My heart trusteth in Thee, and I\nam helped. Thou art my strength and my great shield. Thy right hand\nstrengtheneth me. Thy right hand gladdeneth my heart, and in the shadow\nof Thy wings will I make my refuge. Behold, my God, in the daytime do I\ncry unto Thee, and Thou hearest me, and in the night season I am not\nsilent, and Thou answereth my prayer. I remember Thee on my bed, and\nmeditate on Thee in the night watches, because Thou hast been my help.\nTherefore in the shadow of Thy wings will I rejoice. My soul cleaves unto\nThee, for Thy right hand defends me. When darkness comes over me, then\nThou, O Lord, art my light and my salvation. O gracious God, vouchsafe\nunto me Thy grace, so that when that last hour cometh, and I lay me down\non my deathbed for the eternal rest, through Thy help, in the true faith,\nin all confidence and trust, I may happily fall asleep for the eternal\nlife. Meanwhile keep me in Thee, that I may ever watch and pass my days\nin all sobriety and moderation, and be found in Christian readiness,\nsince I can not know the hour when Thou comest, O God, to call me hence,\nso that I may be worthy to stand before the Son of Man, and be not put to\nshame; who liveth and reigneth with Thee and the Holy Ghost, world\nwithout end. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                      Nur in Jesu Blut und Wunden.\n\n\n    Now in Jesus' wounds reposing,\n    I my tired eyes am closing.\n    For His love and pardoning grace\n    Are my only resting place.\n\n    Through the day His mercy holds me,\n    And by night His arm enfolds me.\n    Of Thy strong protection sure,\n    Jesus, I shall rest secure.\n\n                                                 Tr. H. Brueckner, 1916.\n\n\n\n\n                       Prayer for Friday Morning.\n\n\nBlessed be God, my Maker! Blessed be God, my Savior! Blessed be God, my\nComforter! Who giveth unto me my health, my life, and every blessing; my\nvery present help and my protection. Thou hast kept me according to Thy\ngreat and most blessed compassion during this night now past against the\nonslaughts of Satan, and preserved me in health. I beseech Thee, Heavenly\nFather, through Jesus Christ, Thy dear Son, take me this day also into\nThy divine protection, and shield me that no evil may assail my life. For\ninto Thy hands do I this day and all days commend my body and soul, my\nthoughts, words, and deeds, all that I do or leave undone, my going out\nand my coming in, my walks and ways, my rising up and my lying down, my\nwill and counsel, my thoughts and desires, my faith and profession, the\nend of my life, the day and hour of my death, my passing away and my\nresurrection. O Lord God, do Thou with me as Thou wilt: for Thou knowest\nwhat serves best Thy glory and my salvation. Keep me in Thy fear and in\nthe true knowledge of Thee. Protect me from the deeds of unrighteousness.\nAnd if perchance and by reason of my frailty I sin against Thee, I pray\nThee take not from me Thy mercy; turn not from me Thy grace; withdraw not\nThy help. For there is none other God nor Helper but Thee, and as there\nis none before Thee, there is none after Thee. Thou art the first and the\nlast, Alpha and Omega, and there is none other God beside Thee. Therefore\ndo I call only upon Thee: may Thy goodness rule over me. Cause me to hear\nThy loving kindness in the morning; for in Thee do I trust. Lead me on\nthe paths of righteousness, that I may not walk in the counsel of the\nungodly, nor stand in the way of sinners, nor yet sit in the seat of the\nscornful, but that my heart may ever delight in Thy word and\ncommandments, and meditate upon them day and night; through Jesus Christ,\nour Lord. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                  Die helle Sonn leucht jetzt herfuer.\n\n\n    The morning sun shines in the skies,\n    And we from peaceful slumbers rise.\n    All praise to God who hath this night\n    Protected us from Satan's might.\n\n    Lord Jesus, shield us now by day\n    From sin and error on our way.\n    To us Thy holy angels send,\n    And let them to our wants attend.\n\n    Make Thou our hearts obedient,\n    To use Thy word and sacrament,\n    To do Thy will whate'er betide,\n    Thus pleasing Thee, our trusty guide.\n\n    Bless Thou the labor of our hands\n    And help us keep Thy law's demands,\n    That all our work, begun in Thee,\n    May to Thy praise and glory be.\n\n                                                 Nicolaus Hermann, 1560.\n                                                 Tr. H. Brueckner, 1918.\n\n\n\n\n                       Prayer for Friday Evening.\n\n\nBlessed be the Lord God, who only doeth wondrous things! And blessed be\nHis glorious name for ever: and let the whole earth be filled with His\nglory! Daily will I praise the Lord, and at eventime my mouth shall thank\nHim while I have any being. For when I cry with my voice, He hears me,\nand gives ear to my supplication. When I pray, He attends to my voice.\nThe Lord is my refuge and strength, a very present help in trouble.\nTherefore do I laud and magnify Thee, Eternal God, that Thou hast this\nday so mercifully kept me from every harm and evil. My heart is glad and\nmy soul glorifies Thee for Thy goodness and mercy. Ever shall my tongue\nspeak of Thee and say, Blessed be the Lord, and blessed be Thy holy name!\nI pray Thee, graciously pardon, wherever I have this day sinned against\nThee, and grant me and mine Thy protection during the coming night. Be\nThou my shield, and my shade upon my right hand. O Lord, preserve me from\nall evil, preserve my soul. Be gracious unto me, for in Thee do I put my\ntrust. I trust in the Lord, and cry to God, the Highest, to God Who\nendeth all mine affliction. Behold, He that keepeth Israel shall neither\nslumber nor sleep. He will guide my steps on the paths of righteousness,\nthat I slip not and my feet do not falter. He will not suffer my feet to\nbe moved, and His word is a light unto my path. Therefore as I lay me\ndown, I will not be afraid of sudden terror, neither of the desolation of\nwicked people, when it cometh. For Thou keepest my foot from being taken,\nand deliverest me from the snares of death. O Lord God, lift upon me the\nlight of Thy countenance, that I may lie down and sleep in peace, and\ndwell in safety under Thy protection. For Thou alone, O Lord, can help\nme. In Thy name will I lie down to rest and let my eyelids slumber. Thou,\nO Lord, wilt again awaken me with rejoicing, to the glory and praise of\nThine eternal majesty; through Jesus Christ, our Lord. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                    Hinunter ist der Sonnen Schein.\n\n\n    Sunk is the sun's last beam of light,\n    And now the world is wrapt in night.\n    Christ, light us with Thy heavenly ray,\n    Nor let our feet in darkness stray.\n\n    Thanks, Lord, that Thou throughout the day\n    Hast kept all grief and harm away;\n    That angels tarried round about\n    Our coming in and going out.\n\n    Whate'er of wrong we've done or said,\n    Let not the charge on us be laid;\n    That, through Thy free forgiveness blest,\n    In peaceful slumber we may rest.\n\n    Thy guardian angels round us place\n    All evil from our couch to chase;\n    Our soul and body, while we sleep,\n    In safety, gracious Father, keep.\n\n                                                 Nicolaus Hermann, 1560.\n                                        Tr. Frances Elizabeth Cox, 1841.\n\n\n\n\n                      Prayer for Saturday Morning.\n\n\nO Thou Very and Eternal God, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ. To Thee\ndo I lift up my heart in dutiful gratitude. I will not hide Thy\nrighteousness within my heart. I will declare Thy salvation. I will not\nconceal Thy loving kindness and Thy truth from the great congregation,\nand all the good that Thou hast shown me will I not keep silent. For it\nis a good thing to give thanks unto the Lord, and to sing praises unto\nThy name, O Most High: to shew forth Thy loving kindness in the morning,\nand Thy faithfulness every night. Therefore my soul doth magnify Thee,\nthat Thou in Thy immeasurable grace hast kept me during the night now\npast. Blessed be Thou, Lord God Sabaoth, who art merciful unto all, that\nseek Thee and love Thy salvation. Blessed is Thy holy name in all the\nearth, who art our refuge and our help! Blessed are all Thy works which\nThou doest for the children of men! I beseech Thee, protect me this day,\nthat the Evil One may not harm me, and the hands of the wicked touch me\nnot. Lord God, my Savior, early will I seek Thee, early do I cry unto\nThee. Grant, that I may fulfill the duties of my calling and all that is\ncommitted unto me with diligence and trust to the glory of Thy name and\nthe betterment of my fellowman, so that I may not misuse the light of\nthis day, neither any of Thy creatures in the service of sin and vanity,\nneither grieve Thee, nor transgress the covenant of my Baptism with\nanything I do or leave undone. Vouchsafe unto me Thy grace, that I may\nguard myself against the six things which Thou dost hate, yea, seven\nwhich are an abomination unto Thee: a proud look, a lying tongue, and\nhands that shed innocent blood, a heart that deviseth wicked\nimaginations, feet that are swift in running to mischief, a false witness\nthat speaketh lies, and he that soweth discord among brethren. From such\nand the like vices preserve me, O God, that I may nevermore be led nor\nconsent to them, but teach me to do Thy will; for Thou art my God: Thy\nSpirit is good. Lead me into the land of uprightness, that I may serve\nThee in a life that is without blame, and my deeds and all my conduct be\npleasing in Thy sight; for Christ's sake. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                           Die gueldne Sonne.\n\n\n    The sun, ascending,\n    To us is lending\n    Bliss, joy, and gladness,\n    Cure for all sadness,\n    Filling the world with its rich, golden light.\n    I was reclining\n    When no light was shining;\n    But the sun's beauty\n    Now calls me to duty,\n    As I behold it so fair and so bright.\n\n    Mine eye beholdeth\n    What God unfoldeth:\n    Heaven's bright glory\n    Tells me the story\n    Of His unlimited power and love,\n    And how the sainted\n    In beauty untainted,\n    Free from things mortal,\n    Beyond death's dark portal,\n    Dwell in the heavenly mansions above.\n\n    To God in heaven\n    Be praises given;\n    Come, let us offer\n    And gladly proffer\n    To the Creator the gifts that we prize.\n    He well receiveth\n    A heart that believeth,\n    Hymns that adore Him\n    Are precious before Him\n    And to His throne like sweet incense arise.\n\n    At the day's ending\n    Sweet slumbers sending,\n    And in the morning\n    All things adorning,\n    These are His works and His blessings so true.\n    When night descendeth\n    Protection He lendeth\n    When morn appeareth\n    Our spirits He cheereth,\n    Causing His mercy to crown us anew.\n\n    Father above me,\n    Thou who dost love me,\n    Bless my beginning,\n    Keep me from sinning,\n    Move ev'ry hindrance well out of my way.\n    Strength ever lend me,\n    From Satan defend me,\n    Spare me temptation,\n    So that in my station\n    I may Thy holy commandments obey.\n\n    Let me with pleasure\n    See the full measure\n    Which upon others,\n    Who are my brothers,\n    Thou of Thy blessings dost richly bestow.\n    Bid envy vanish!\n    All greediness banish!\n    Make me Thy dwelling,\n    Sin's darkness dispelling.\n    Grant that in virtue I daily may grow.\n\n    What is man's being?\n    It is like seeing\n    Autumn's bleak shadows\n    Sweep o'er the meadows\n    When the cold winds drive the clouds on their way.\n    All that we cherish\n    Must crumble and perish.\n    Plants must stop growing,\n    And stars must cease glowing;\n    Heaven and earth are not destined to stay.\n\n    All else decayeth,\n    God only stayeth,\n    He of creation\n    Is the foundation.\n    His will and word must forever abide.\n    His grace endureth\n    And for us secureth\n    Comfort in sorrow\n    And help for the morrow,\n    Keeping us cheerful, whate'er may betide.\n\n    God of creation,\n    Be my salvation!\n    Calm all my terrors,\n    Blot out my errors,\n    Grant that Thy pardon I fully may share;\n    Withal attend me,\n    Rule, guide, and defend me\n    In mercy tender,\n    Because I surrender\n    Soul, will, and all to Thy fatherly care.\n\n    Whilst Thou art giving\n    What for a living\n    Seems very needful,\n    Oh, make Thou me heedful\n    Of this great truth and commendable thought:\n    God, like a tower,\n    Transcends all in power;\n    Good beyond telling,\n    In beauty excelling,\n    He doth suffice me, all else counts for naught.\n\n    If grief and sadness\n    Temper my gladness\n    If for the morrow\n    Thou send me sorrow\n    Do as Thou wilt, for my trust is in Thee.\n    Thou surely knowest\n    That what Thou bestowest,\n    E'en though distressing,\n    Must bring me a blessing;\n    Thou wilt not deal too severely with me.\n\n    Ills that still grieve me\n    Soon are to leave me;\n    Though waves may tower\n    And winds gain power,\n    After the storm the fair sun shows its face.\n    Joys e'er increasing,\n    And peace never ceasing,\n    These I shall treasure\n    And share in full measure\n    When in His mansions God grants me a place.\n\n                                                    Paul Gerhardt, 1666.\n                                                 Tr. H. Brueckner, 1918.\n\n\n\n\n                      Prayer for Saturday Evening.\n\n\nPraise be unto Thee, Thou great and unchangeable God! Praise be unto Thy\ngoodness and mercy! Praise be unto Thy eternal wisdom and truth, that\nThou hast preserved me during the day now past from all danger and harm.\nI pray Thee, graciously perfect Thy goodness which Thou hast begun in me,\nand suffer me to rest this night under Thy protecting shield, and cover\nme with Thy wings. Suffer me to put my trust under the shadow of Thy\nhands, that I fear no evil. Keep me, O God, as the apple of the eye. Hide\nme under the shadow of Thy wings. Lord, Thou art the portion of mine\ninheritance; my salvation is in Thy hands. Grant unto me, according to\nThy goodness, that neither fear nor trembling come over me, and no\nterrors of the night overwhelm me. Be merciful unto me, for in Thee do I\nput my trust, and under the shadow of Thy wings do I find my refuge. I\nseek the Lord in the time of need; my hand is outstretched in the night\nwithout ceasing; for my soul has none other comfort; and I know of none\nother helper in heaven or earth but Thee alone. At midnight when I\nawaken, I meditate upon Thy name, so altogether lovely, upon Thy goodness\nand fidelity, vouchsafed unto me, and I praise Thee because of Thy\nrighteous judgments. When I am troubled I remember God, when my spirit is\noverwhelmed I speak of my Savior. For He redeemeth my life from\ndestruction and saveth me from the snares of death. Lord God, my Savior,\nby day and by night do I cry unto Thee, pardon all my transgressions,\nwhich during this day and the week now past I have committed against\nThee. O Lord, deliver my soul for Thy mercy's sake. Thou art gracious and\njust, and our God is merciful. The Lord preserveth the simple. I was\nbrought low, and He helped me. Therefore will I rejoice and praise Thee,\nand sing aloud upon my bed. For the days of my life will appear as\nnoonday, and darkness as the morning's light, and I will rejoice that\nThou, O God, art my hope and my rest in life and death. I lay me down,\nand none will terrify me. Thus do I commend my body and soul into Thy\nhands, Thou Faithful God. Thou hast redeemed me through Jesus Christ, our\nLord. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                      Werde munter, mein Gemuete.\n\n\n    Soul of mine, to God awaking,\n    And ye senses, ev'ry one,\n    Come, your quiet haunts forsaking,\n    Tell what God to me has done.\n    How He this entire day\n    Has been with me on my way,\n    To my many wants attending\n    And from ills protection lending.\n\n    Praise and thanks to Thee I render,\n    Father Thou of mercies great.\n    Thou hast been my strong Defender,\n    And Thy love does not abate.\n    Thou hast shielded me from woe,\n    Lent me strength and quenched the foe,\n    So that I, such help beholding,\n    Rest secure in Thine enfolding.\n\n    If from Thee I have departed,\n    I return again to Thee,\n    Knowing Thou art tender-hearted,\n    Since Thy Son has died for me.\n    I can not deny the guilt,\n    But for me His blood was spilt,\n    And Thy grace, all sin exceeding,\n    Lends forgiveness at His pleading.\n\n    O Thou Light, with brightness filling\n    Ev'ry true and pious soul,\n    Into me Thy grace instilling,\n    Make my troubled spirit whole.\n    Deign this night to stay with me,\n    And let me abide in Thee,\n    That, while darkness may enthrall me,\n    Yet no evil may befall me.\n\n    Grant that I in peace may slumber,\n    Finding sweet and quiet rest.\n    Let no cares my soul encumber,\n    Keep it by Thy presence blest.\n    Mind and body, child and wife,\n    All my goods and all my life,\n    Friends and foes (again befriended)\n    Be this night to Thee commended.\n\n    Let no terrors overtake me,\n    Shield me well from base attack.\n    Let no grievous pain awake me,\n    War and pestilence keep back.\n    Ward off fire, water, death,\n    All that threatens life and breath.\n    Spare me violence, extortion\n    And, withal, a sinner's portion.\n\n    O immortal God, endue me\n    With the gifts for which I ask.\n    Jesus, lest some ill pursue me,\n    Prosper me in ev'ry task.\n    Holy Spirit, comfort, friend,\n    On whose counsel I depend,\n    Listen to my earnest pleading,\n    Amen. Thou my prayer art heeding.\n\n                                                      Johann Rist, 1642.\n                                                     H. Brueckner, 1918.\n\n\n\n\n                            A Daily Prayer.\n                   To be spoken mornings or evenings.\n\n\nDear God and Lord! I live, yet know not how long. I die, yet know not\nwhen. Thou, O Heavenly Father, knowest. Lo, dear Lord, is this hour, this\nday (this night) the last of my life: Thy will be done! Thou alone\nknowest best. As Thou wilt I am willing through the true faith in Jesus\nChrist, my Redeemer, to live or die. But, O God, do Thou grant me this\npetition, that I may not suddenly pass away in my sins, and be lost.\nVouchsafe unto me true knowledge, repentance and sorrow over my passed\ntransgressions. Set them before my sight in this life, that they may not\nat the last day be set before me, and I be put to shame before angels and\nmen. Grant me sufficient time and opportunity for repentance, so that\nfrom all my heart I may know and acknowledge my transgressions, and from\nThy saving word obtain forgiveness and comfort for the same. O Merciful\nFather, forsake me not, and take not Thy Holy Spirit from me. My heart\nand my heart's trust, O Thou Searcher of hearts, is ever known to Thee.\nKeep me in such trust to the life eternal. May I die, when Thou wilt,\nonly grant me a peaceful and blessed End. Amen.\n\n    Lord Jesus Christ, Thou highest good,\n    I pray Thee, through Thy precious blood,\n    Grant, that my final end be good. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                  At the Beginning of the Week's Work.\n\n\nRule Thou, O God the Father, who hast made us, and like all other\ncreatures ordained us not to indolence but to work, and bless each one in\nhis calling. Thou who rulest the universe also rule our own dear\ngovernment and graciously vouchsafe to it Thy wisdom and strength.\n\nRule Thou, O God the Son, who hast redeemed and ransomed us from sin.\nTake from us the burden of sin committed during the week now past, and\ngraciously grant us Thy peace. Thou the Supreme Bishop and Archshepherd\nof our souls, help all servants of Thy word in this and all Thy\ncongregations on earth to labor and bring forth much fruit unto eternal\nlife.\n\nRule Thou, O God the Holy Ghost, who hast sanctified us and born us again\nin Holy Baptism. Create in us a clean heart and renew a right spirit\nwithin us, that we carry no evils of the past into the new week, but put\naway all purpose and inclination of the old Adam still in us. Govern Thou\nour hearts with power; and if this week mark for any of us the end of\nlife, help Thou in the last bitter hour. Fill the heart with that grace\nwhich is better than life. Teach the hands to battle and vanquish the\nlast enemy, and grant for Christ's sake, the rest and triumph of the\nsabbath everlasting.\n\nThou, the Triune and Immortal God, be and abide with us and Thy Church\nforever. Unto Thee be glory, laud, and honor, world without end. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                              At the Table\n\n\n\n\n                           Grace Before Meat.\n\n\nThe eyes of all wait upon Thee, O God, and Thou givest them their meat in\ndue season. Thou openest Thine hand and satisfiest the desire of every\nliving thing. Amen.\n\nO Lord God, Heavenly Father, bless us and these Thy gifts, which we\nreceive from Thy loving kindness, through Jesus Christ, our Lord. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n    Come Lord Jesus, be our guest,\n    And let Thy gifts to us be blest.\n        Amen.\n\n\nGracious Father, who feedest and nourishest every living creature, feed\nand nourish our souls and bodies that we may not abuse Thy gifts, but\nthat we be rather quickened by the same unto the glory of Thy Name, unto\nall honest toil and every good work, to live and move before Thee in\nrighteousness and innocence. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                                 1562.\n\n\n    Be present at our table Lord;\n    Be here and everywhere adored.\n    Thy people bless, and grant that we,\n    May dwell in paradise with Thee.\n        Amen.\n\n    Heavenly Father, bless this food,\n    To Thy glory and our good.\n        Amen.\n\n    Jesus, bless what Thou hast given,\n    Feed our souls with bread from Heaven;\n    Guide and lead us all the way,\n    In all that we may do and say.\n        Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                           Grace After Meat.\n\n\nO give thanks unto the Lord, for He is good; for His mercy endureth\nforever. He giveth food to all flesh; He giveth to the beast his food;\nand to the young ravens which cry. The Lord taketh pleasure in them that\nfear Him, in those that hope in His mercy. Amen.\n\nWe thank Thee, Lord God, Heavenly Father, through Jesus Christ, our Lord,\nfor all Thy benefits; who livest and reignest for ever and ever. Amen.\n\n    Dearest God, for meat and drink\n    Accept our praise. Thy Name be blessed.\n        Amen.\n\nBless the Lord, O my soul, and all that is within me, bless His holy\nName. Bless the Lord, O my soul, and forget not all His benefits. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n    We thank Thee, Lord, for this our food,\n    We thank Thee more for Jesus' blood,\n    Let manna to our souls be given,\n    The bread of life sent down from heaven.\n        Amen.\n\n    Praise God from whom all blessings flow,\n    Praise Him all creatures here below;\n    Praise Him above ye heavenly host;\n    Praise Father, Son, and Holy Ghost.\n        Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                          For Hearth and Home\n\n\n\n\n                        Prayer of a Housefather.\n\n\nGracious and Eternal God! Who Thyself in Paradise hast ordained holy\nmatrimony, vouchsafe unto me Thy grace and help in my married life, that\nI may ever maintain the true Christian love and fidelity toward my\nspouse. Grant, that I may dwell with her, as with the weaker vessel, in\nkindness and harmony according to knowledge, giving honor unto her, as\nbeing heirs together of the grace of life, and guide her together with my\nchildren and servants to the true knowledge of Thy divine glory, and to\nmodesty and honesty. Grant to them also, O Lord, that they follow Thee,\nand suffer themselves to be guided. Preserve us, O Thou God of Peace,\nfrom strife and dissensions, and the calumnies of the enemy, from undue\nsuspicion, which the devil sows as a seed of perdition, and for the\ndestruction of conjugal love and faith. Grant, that as Thy children we\nmay suffer and forgive each other in love and charity. Give us faithful\nservants and keep them in good health. Bless our labor and all that\ncontributes to the wants of the body. Enable us to bear our cross with\npatience, and grant that we be together again in the after-life. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                        Prayer of a Housemother.\n\n\nO God Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, Thou giver of all blessing and\nconsolation, behold me, whom Thou hast placed in the estate of holy\nwedlock and made me the mother of this family, with the eyes of Thy\nmercy. Vouchsafe unto Thy handmaiden Thy grace, that I may love Thee\nabove all things, seek Thee, and ever be diligent in Thy service. And\ngrant that next to Thee I may honor, fear, and love my husband, and obey\nhim with patience and kindness, in pure and modest conduct, in piety and\nhumility well pleasing to Thee, and that the hidden life of my heart be\nconstantly adorned with a meek and gentle disposition and every virtue,\neven as in former times the consecrated women, who trusted in God and\ncontinued in subjection to their husbands. Enable me to train my children\nand servants with meekness, to the honor and glory of Thy holy name. Give\ngrace, that they follow me with gentleness, and grant, that I with my\nhusband and family may satisfy the wants of this life in good health and\naccording to Thy divine will. Protect us from harm and from enemies.\nEnable us so to use this world that we be not hindered in our salvation,\nbut in all things seek Thee, O Lord, and endeavor to be well-favored in\nThy sight. May we not despise the cross neither murmur against it, but\nbear it in patience, and thus remain in Thy keeping unto the end. May we\nas servants of God bring forth abundant fruitage, live holy lives in this\nworld, and attain to the everlasting inheritance in the world to come.\nAmen.\n\n\n\n\n                           Prayer of a Child.\n\n\nAlmighty and Eternal God! Thou hast commanded me to honor my parents, and\nin all things, which are not contrary to Thy word, to obey them. I\nbeseech Thee, for the sake of the obedience of Thy dear Son, Jesus\nChrist, my Lord, grant unto me, that I may duly honor my father and\nmother, serve them, obey, love, and esteem them, so that their blessing\nmay dwell with me to the end of my days. Keep me from sin and evil\ncommunications, that I may not anger or grieve my dear parents with\nhatred, sadness, scornfulness, disobedience, or obstinacy, and thus bring\nupon myself on this earth already their and Thy curse, and in the\nafter-life Thy eternal wrath. And since I have sinned many times through\nweakness, I beseech Thee, work in me sorrow and true repentance, through\nJesus Christ, my Savior, who gave to me the example of true obedience.\nGrant, that according to His example I may ever grow, and increase in\nwisdom, stature, and grace before Thee, O God, and all men. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                     Prayer of a Youth or a Maiden.\n\n\nLord, Almighty and Holy God, who lovest a pure heart, a chaste mind, and\na holy life: I pray Thee, create in me also a clean heart, and renew a\nright spirit within me, so that I may serve Thee with sincere faith and\ntrue fear, and love Thee with all my strength. And keep me from all\nimpure communications. Subdue the evil lusts in my heart, and extinguish\nthe fires of fleshly desire. Preserve me from unchaste and dissolute\nassociations, from rioting and drunkenness, which lead to excess. May all\nfilthiness, and foolish talking, unbecoming a Christian, be ever foreign\nto my life. Keep me from arrogant pomp, or idleness and lounging, from\nthe snares and nets of the devil. Grant, that I may serve Thee with a\npure soul and an undefiled body in true faith, as did pious and chaste\nJoseph in Egypt, and graciously take me into Thy safekeeping against all\ntemptations and seductions of life, for the sake of Jesus Christ, Thy\ndear Son. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                          Prayer of a Servant.\n\n\nMerciful God, Who through the precious suffering and death of Thy dear\nSon, Jesus Christ, hast redeemed and made me free from eternal servitude,\nfrom the power of sin, from the dominion of darkness, from the cruel\ntyranny of the devil, and the mastery of death and hell: I beseech Thee,\ngrant me grace, so that in my present station and calling, in which Thou\nhast placed me on earth according to Thy good pleasure, I may not be\ndissatisfied, nor murmur impatiently against Thy ordinance, nor yet envy\nothers in their more exalted stations, but help me to do such Thy will\nfrom the heart, with good will, ever thinking that I serve Thee, O God in\nHeaven, and not men. Help Thou, dear Father, that I serve Thee, the\nsupreme Lord of heaven and earth, in true knowledge and upright fear,\nlove Thee above all things, put all my hope and salvation in Thee, and\ncontinue in Thy commandments without blame. May I also be subject to my\nmasters and mistresses according to the flesh, not only to the good and\ngentle, but also to the froward, and patiently obey them in everything\nthat is not contrary to Thy pleasure, with fear and singleness of heart,\nas unto Christ my Lord, not with eye-service, as man pleaser, but from\nthe depths of my heart and for the sake of Thy will and commandment.\nGrant me grace that I may be found faithful in all things committed and\nentrusted to my care, not neglect nor bring them to naught, suffer no\nharm to come through carelessness on my part; also that I may not covet\nnor fraudulently appropriate to my own use the possessions of another\nentrusted to my care. Preserve my health, strengthen my limbs and all the\npowers of my body. Endow me with wisdom and understanding, that I may\nperform the labor of my masters and mistresses, with Thy help improve\ntheir living. May they be blessed through my industry; and all that I do\nand perform, may it redound to Thy divine glory and a blessed exercise of\nmy faith. For Christ, Thy dear Son's sake, who liveth and reigneth with\nThee and the Holy Ghost, world without end. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n             Prayer of a School Child for the Holy Spirit.\n\n\nO my dear Lord, Jesus Christ, I thank Thee, that to the present day, Thou\nordainest church and school ordinances and regulations, and hast given\nunto my parents and me grace, that I too may be thus trained. I beseech\nThee, fill me with Thy Holy Spirit, that I may ever obey my dear parents\nand teachers, who only seek my welfare. Give unto me a docile heart, that\nI may learn my catechism, noble arts and language, and thus increase in\ngodliness, wisdom, understanding, and every virtue. O my dear Lord Jesus\nChrist, create in me a pure, chaste, and modest heart. May I ever serve\nThee in upright faith and true fear, and love Thee from all my heart.\nSubdue in me all evil lusts. Endow me with Thy Holy Spirit. Help me to\ncontinue in true humility. Grant me an obedient heart, to honor my\nparents according to Thy commandment, and neither anger nor grieve them.\nMay they live long on this earth, and protect Thou and preserve them from\ndisease, evil, and harm. Be gracious unto us and merciful. Bless us in\nbody and soul, now and forevermore. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                     Prayer During a Thunder Storm.\n\n\nMost Mighty God! All the powers of the earth shall honor Thy holy name,\nand worship Thee, Eternal Father, in the beauty of holiness. For Thou art\nthe Lord, who reigneth over all. Thou showest Thy might and power\nthroughout the universe. The voice of the Lord is upon the waters. The\nLord of glory thundereth. The Lord is upon many waters. The voice of the\nLord is powerful and full of majesty. The earth shook and trembled. The\nfoundations also of the hills moved and were shaken. There went up smoke\nout of Thy nostrils, and fire out of Thy mouth devoured: coals are\nkindled by it. Thy pavilion round about Thee are dark waters and thick\nclouds of the skies. The Lord thundereth in the heavens, and the Highest\ngave His voice. All things are subject to Thee. All things acknowledge\nThee as their maker, and tremble before Thy divine majesty. The mountains\nand the depths of the abyss are sore vexed when Thou art wroth, the earth\ntrembleth, and the sea and the waters flee because of Thy wrath. The\nvoice of the Lord divideth the flames of fire. The voice of the Lord\nshaketh the wilderness. The Lord is king forever. The Lord will give\nstrength unto His people. The Lord will bless His people with peace. O\nmerciful God, preserve us from Thy wrath, which is beyond endurance!\nForgive us our sins! Make Thy face shine upon us! Cause this grievous\ntempest to pass by without harm to us! Protect us in body and soul, our\nhouse and home. Keep the fruits of the fields from hail and storm, from\ngreat inundation by water and all harm. O Holy God, preserve us from an\nevil death, and protect us, that no disaster befall us. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                   Thanksgiving After a Thunderstorm.\n\n\nAlmighty God, our Heavenly Father, who has said, Call upon Me in the day\nof trouble: I will deliver thee, and thou shalt glorify Me; we praise and\nthank Thee most heartily. For Thou hast graciously heard our prayer and\nhast made this storm to pass that no harm befell us in life and property.\nThus hast Thou again revealed to us Thy fatherly compassion, and that\nThou wouldest not deal with us after our sins, neither reward us\naccording to our iniquities. Grant us, O Merciful Father, for the sake of\nThy only begotten Son, Jesus Christ, that we may take heed of Thy earnest\nand fatherly admonitions, improve our lives, and live in the fear of\nThee. May we constantly prepare and make ready ourselves for the coming\nof Thy dear Son, when the elements shall melt with fervent heat, and the\nearth also, and the works thereof, shall be burned up, and may we meet\nHim with rejoicing and enter the new heaven, wherein dwelleth\nrighteousness, and forever be with Thee; through the same, Thy dear Son,\nour Master and Redeemer, Jesus Christ. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                    Prayer on the Eve of a Journey.\n\n\nAlmighty and Gracious God and Father, Thou protector of all that trust in\nThee from their hearts! In Thy name will I proceed and undertake this\njourney. For Thou art my God and preservest my going out and my coming\nin. Thou leadest my feet in right paths and wilt not suffer them to be\nmoved. I heartily beseech Thee to be my gracious guide and companion on\nthis present journey. Send Thy holy angels, and command them, in all my\nwanderings, to keep me from all evil in body and soul. Lead me on the\npaths of the righteous and bring me safely to my destination, that I may\nlaud and magnify Thee, here in time and in eternity forever. And now, O\nLord God and Father, into Thy hands do I commit my body and soul and all\nthat I possess. Thy holy angel be my safe guard. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                        Prayer During a Journey.\n\n\nAlmighty and Most Merciful God! We are always in Thy sight wherever we\nbe. Thou preservest our coming in and our going out, and leadest us on\nthe right paths that we slip not. I pray Thee, that as Thou didst lead\nThy servant Abraham from the land of the Chaldees and kept him unharmed\nin his pilgrimage, and didst say to his grandson Jacob when he journeyed\nto Mesopotamia, I am with thee, and will bring thee again into this land;\nand as Thou also didst lead the Children of Israel through the Red Sea\nand through the desert, and didst go before them, by day in a pillar of a\ncloud and night in a pillar of fire: thus wouldst Thou also be with me on\nmy wandering, protect me on land and sea, by day and by night, and keep\nme from all harm and danger. And when my business is completed bring me\nhome again in full health of body and soul. And as Thou didst accompany\nyouthful Tobias through Thy angel Raphael, likewise do Thou accompany me\nin all my ways, so that when I, too, have happily returned to my home, I\nwith all mine own may have the greater reason to laud and praise Thee as\nmy true and faithful guide. Meanwhile I commend to Thy care all that I\nleave at home, and beseech Thee to have charge concerning them, and\nsuffer me to find them unharmed when I return. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n       Prayer of Children for Their Father Engaged on a Journey.\n\n\nO Eternal Son of God, Thou Savior of all who call upon Thee in faith! We\nThy children, baptized into Thy blood, consecrated by Thy Spirit a royal\npriesthood, and ordained Thy brethren and co-heirs with Thee in grace,\ncall upon Thee with innocent tongues, and earnestly pray Thee, graciously\nto safeguard our dear father now journeying over land for the sake of his\ncalling and to gain the means of livelihood. Help him to discharge his\nduties with favor and despatch, and return him to us in health and joy,\nas Thou through Thy angels didst preserve and guide Thy servant Jacob on\nhis journeys, for Thou art the faithful guide and companion of all who\nfear Thee and trust in Thy mercy. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                Thanksgiving After a Completed Journey.\n\n\nGracious God and Father! Most heartily do I thank Thee that Thou hast\nenabled me to bring my journey to a happy end. Through the ministrations\nof Thy dear angels Thou hast again brought me to my home, guarded and\nkept me from all evil, preserved me from the murderous and robbing hands\nof evildoers, and the teeth of wild beasts, and kept me from all other\ndangers of body and soul. In short, that I have been led to and fro in\nhealth and happiness: I owe it altogether to Thy fatherly goodness and\nalmighty care. And I beseech Thee from all my heart, continue to keep me\nand mine under Thy protection, and preserve us, body and soul, to the\neternal life, for Jesus' sake. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                           A Birthday Prayer.\n\n\nDear Father in heaven, I thank Thee from all my heart, that Thou hast put\nme into this world and made me a rational being. I am born of Christian\nparents and made a member of Thy holy Church. Today the anniversary of my\nbirth hath come, and since I have been permitted to reach this day and\nthus complete another year of my pilgrimage, I thank Thee from all my\nheart and joyfully reiterate the thanksgiving of Thy servant David,\n\"Bless the Lord, O my soul, and all that is within me bless His holy\nname. Bless the Lord, O my soul, and forget not all His benefits: who\nforgiveth all thine iniquities; who healeth all thy diseases; who\nredeemeth thy life from destruction; who crowneth thee with loving\nkindness and tender mercies.\"\n\nSince every day of my life, however, is one step nearer to death, which\ncan strike me this hour, yes, this very minute, I beseech Thee so to\nshape and rule every day of my life, that I may walk according to Thy\npleasure as in the day, that is circumspectly in Thy sight, honestly, and\nconscious of my responsibility, in short as a true Christian and in\nconformity with the promise made by me to Thee, my dear God, in my\nbaptism. And if this prove my last year and my last birthday, I place all\nthings into Thy gracious keeping. If it is Thy will that I should cease\nto live, then I have lived enough. For if it is sufficient for Thee, it\nis sufficient for me. Am I old enough for Thee, I am old enough for me.\nHere I again put myself under Thy shield and protection, into Thy sublime\nand eternal power. If I live this year, may I live in Thee; if I die, may\nI die in Thee, so that I may live, and move, and have my being in Thee,\nand whether living or dying I may be Thine to all eternity. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                       Prayer for Temporal Peace.\n\n\nEternal God, Everlasting Father! Thou art a God and lover of peace. From\nThee all true unity cometh. We pray Thee graciously to protect Thy\nChristendom on earth against all its enemies, so that we may be kept in\npeace, and ever serve Thee gladly in faithful doctrine and a pure\nconduct. Grant us grace, so that all estates and rulers of Christendom\nmay live peacefully and harmoniously in perfect piety and godliness, so\nthat discipline and order prevail, churches and schools be not destroyed,\nand the country be not devastated nor grievously oppressed. Grant us\ngrace, so that men will content themselves with what they have, and will\nnot for the sake of avarice or lusting after foreign lands and peoples,\nnor yet because of pride, vain ambitions, and arrogance, enmity, hatred,\nenvy, nor any other cause, incite war, sedition, or revolution in this\nour country. Hinder all evil counsel and purpose of unstable men, who\nthink only of that which is not good. Put them to naught in their\npurposes, so that they must retreat and are utterly consumed with\nterrors. Stretch forth Thine arm to protect us who are named after Thee,\nso that Thy heritage be not destroyed. Support Thy faithful who rely upon\nThee and call upon Thy name. Hear us in our distress, and Thy holy name\nprotect us. Send us help from Thy sanctuary, and strengthen us from on\nhigh. Bless the country and the cities in which Thy holy word dwelleth.\nProsperity must dwell within their palaces! O merciful God, incline the\nhearts of all men to a Christian peace and concord, to the which Thou\nhast called us through Thy word and gospel. And if bitterness prevail\namong some, help that it be done away with, to the glory of Thy holy\nname, the spreading of Thy word, and the betterment of Christendom, and\nthat the poor and distressed in the land may rejoice in Thee and praise\nThy holy name, for Thou only performest wonders and provest Thy powers\namong the nations. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                          A Prayer for School.\n\n\nWe pray Thee, everlasting God, Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, Thou eternal\nand inseparable Trinity and inexpressible Unity, that Thou wouldest\nfaithfully take under Thy protecting wing the flock of Thy Christendom,\nand ever abide in our midst with Thy grace and truth. Be Thou with us, O\nLord, our God. Be Thou a wall of fire round about us, and destroy them\nwho hate Thee and are hostile to Thy name. So rule us, O God, that we may\never be guided by Thy clear and pure word and are not seduced by the\nexternal appearance of things. Keep us, Lord Jesus, from error and false\ndoctrine, and send us faithful teachers who take heed unto Thy\ncongregation, purchased with Thy blood, and are anxious to perform Thy\nwill. Grant us obedient hearts, so that we, as lambs of Thy flock, may\nobey Thy voice, and be filled with fruits of righteousness. Teach us ever\nto do Thy will, for Thou art our God: Thy spirit is good. Lead us into\nthe land of uprightness, to the end that we, too, through a blessed\ndeparture from this life may attain to Thee and the everlasting joy and\nblessedness, and behold Thy glory to all eternity. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                             Church Prayers\n\n\n\n\n                      Prayer When Going to Church.\n\n\nAlmighty God, Heavenly Father, because of Thy great mercy I will go to\nThy house and worship Thee in Thy temple in Thy fear. Lord, lead me in\nthe paths of righteousness, and make Thy way straight before my face.\nGuide me on the paths of Thy commandments, for Thou art my God, and the\nLord of my salvation. I delight in Thy sanctuary and rejoice in the\ncongregation of Thy saints, who confess and glorify Thee. How amiable are\nThy tabernacles, O Lord of hosts! My soul longeth, yea, even fainteth for\nthe courts of the Lord. O come, let us worship and bow down: let us kneel\nbefore the Lord our maker. For He is our God; and we are the people of\nHis pasture, and the sheep of His hand. Magnify the Lord our God, adore\nat His footstool; for He is holy. I worship Thee, O God, in the accepted\ntime through Thy great mercy. Hear me according to Thy grace. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                     Prayer for Sincere Repentance.\n\n\nMerciful and Gracious God, Thou art slow to anger and plenteous in mercy!\nThou callest us daily through the gracious preaching of Thy word to\ndevout conversion, and in Thy name causest repentance and remission of\nsins to be preached. And Thou showest Thy forbearance with us through Thy\nlong suffering and inexpressible mercy, and dost not suddenly come upon\nsinners in the midst of their evil deeds with Thy righteous wrath and\njudgment to punish them, but giveth place and time for repentance, so\nthat no one can justly charge or accuse Thee. For Thou art not willing\nthat any should perish, but that all should come to repentance and have\neverlasting life. O dear God, Thou knowest the sluggishness of our flesh\nand the hardness of our hearts, that we through inherited sin are thus\nfar deranged and so deeply sunk in sin, that of our own accord we can not\nrise or return. Therefore, for the sake of the wounds of Jesus Christ, my\nLord, I beseech Thee, convert Thou me, and I am converted. For Thou art\nmy God, and where I am converted I will truly repent. Save Thou me, O\nLord, and I am saved. Help me, and I am helped. Behold, I am like an\nerring and lost sheep. Seek Thou Thy servant, that I forget not Thy\ncommandments. Circumcise the foreskin of my heart. Purge me, and I shall\nbe clean. Wash me, and I shall be whiter than snow. Create in me a clean\nheart, O God; and renew a right spirit within me. Cast me not away from\nThy presence; and take not Thy Holy Spirit from me. O dear God, look upon\nme, as Thou didst look upon Mary Magdalene, the repentant sinner, as she\nlay at Thy feet and wept over her transgressions; and the publican in the\ntemple, as he smote his breast and besought Thy grace. Vouchsafe unto me\nsincere sorrow and contrition over my sin, and a true faith with firm\nconfidence in Thy grace, and also worthy fruits of repentance. Let me\ndiscern the day of Thy visitation, and not despise the riches of Thy\nmercy, so that I may not neglect the accepted time, and the day of Thy\nsalvation, and not fail to turn to Thee, my Lord and God. May I not\npostpone my repentance from one day to another, nor yet to the last hour,\nbut rather turn to Thee this day and repent. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                  Prayer for the Forgiveness of Sins.\n\n\nMerciful Father, Eternal God, my sins are grievous, many and great my\ntransgressions, and mine iniquities are innumerable, for the imaginations\nof my heart are evil from my youth. O Lord, who can understand his\nerrors? Behold, I acknowledge my transgressions: my sin is ever before\nme. Against Thee only have I sinned, and done evil in Thy sight: that\nThou mightest be justified when Thou speakest, and be clear when Thou\njudgest. I beseech Thine infinite mercy, enter not into judgment with Thy\nservant: for in Thy sight shall no living man be justified. If Thou,\nLord, shouldest mark iniquities, O Lord, who shall stand? Behold, if Thou\ncontendest with man, he can not answer Thee one of a thousand, for all\nour righteousness before Thee is as the filthy rag. Have mercy upon me, O\nGod, according to Thy loving kindness: according to the multitude of Thy\ntender mercies, blot out my transgressions. Wash me thoroughly from mine\niniquity, and cleanse me from my sin for Thy name's sake. Lord, have\nmercy upon me, save my soul, for, alas! I have sinned against Thee.\nRemember, O Lord, Thy tender mercies and Thy loving kindnesses; for they\nhave been ever as of old. Remember not the sins of my youth, nor my\ntransgressions: according to Thy mercy remember Thou me for Thy goodness'\nsake, O Lord. Remember that we are flesh, as the wind which bloweth and\ndoth not return, and cease in Thy anger and wrath against us. O merciful\nGod, I acknowledge that my virtues and my deeds can never blot out my\nsins, nor yet merit Thy grace. Only the innocent suffering and death of\nJesus Christ, the Lamb without spot or blemish, is the true offering for\nour iniquities, and His blood, shed for the remission of our sins, is the\ncleansing and purification of our souls. In such confidence and hope I\nsupplicate Thee: forgive Thou the transgressions of Thy people. Cover our\nsins. Impute not our iniquities, for Thou art merciful. Cleanse Thou me\nfrom secret fault. Let my sorrowing soul and my vexed bones again\nrejoice, for with Thee there is mercy and plenteous redemption. O Lord,\nhear the voice of my supplication, and despise not the groanings of my\nheart, for Christ's sake. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                         Prayer for True Faith.\n\n\nLord, Almighty God, Thou Father of lights, with whom there is no\nvariableness, neither shadow of turning, from whom every good and perfect\ngift cometh, I pray Thee, since all men have not faith: implant and\nmaintain in my heart through the workings of Thy Holy Spirit the true\nknowledge of Thy dear Son Jesus Christ, and increase it from day to day,\nso that I, too, may be filled with the knowledge of Thy will in all\nwisdom and spiritual understanding, that I may walk worthy of Thee unto\nall pleasing, being faithful in every good work, and increase in such\nknowledge according to Thy glorious power in all patience and long\nsuffering with joy. Grant unto me, according to the riches of Thy glory,\nthat I may be strengthened with might by Thy Spirit in the inner man,\nthat Christ may dwell in my heart by faith. O dear God, since no man\nknoweth the Son but Thou, O Father, and no man knoweth Thee, the Father,\nbut only the same Thy Son, and he to whom the Son will reveal Thee, I\npray Thee, draw Thou me unto Thee. Grant me the knowledge of salvation,\nwhich is the forgiveness of sins. Strengthen my weak faith, which is\nsmall as the mustard seed, so that it may increase, and I be rooted and\ngrounded in Thee, and may stand steadfast and unmoveable. Gracious God,\nThou hast kindled the spark of faith in my heart and has begun this good\nwork in me, I cry to Thee, perfect it until the end, that we may ever\nincrease in knowledge and understanding, and be sincere and without\noffense till the day of Christ, being filled with the fruits of\nrighteousness, which are by Jesus Christ, unto the glory and praise of\nGod. Preserve what Thou hast begun, that we might war a good warfare,\nholding faith and a good conscience, and not waver or succumb in trial\nand temptation and make shipwreck concerning faith. Therefore protect me,\nmy God, that I am not led astray among the errors, schisms, and heresies\nof the world. Preserve me from superstitions and all false doctrine, that\nI may neither err nor doubt in any article of faith. And vouchsafe unto\nme Thy grace, that my faith be not lifeless, inactive, or without good\nfruits, but active and energetic, serving in love, so that I, too, may\ncarry off the end of faith, which is the soul's salvation. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                       Prayer Before Confession.\n\n\nLord Jesus Christ, Thou my Redeemer, Thou hast given unto Thy dear Church\non earth and its faithful servants the sacred office of the keys, and\ninvested it with the promise, that whatsoever by virtue of the same they\nshall loose or bind on earth shall also be loosed or bound in heaven: I\nthank Thee, and eternally praise and glorify Thee, for such Thy gracious\ngift. And, since I a poor and bound sinner need this blessed key which\nlooseth, so that I may not be kept under the bonds of the infernal\njailer, I beseech Thine infinite mercy, that I may receive its comfort\nthrough my spiritual father, my pastor, and for the sake of Thy holy,\nprecious blood and Thy innocent offering and death be loosed from all my\nsins. Grant me Thy Holy Spirit, so that I may grasp this holy absolution\nin heartfelt contrition and undoubting trust, firm resolve, brotherly\nlove and gratitude, and inherit the eternal life. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                     Thanksgiving After Absolution.\n\n\nO Blessed, Merciful, and Gracious God! I thank and praise Thee from all\nmy heart, that through Thy servant Thou hast again forgiven me, a poor\nsinner, all my sins, again received me in grace, and promised me eternal\nlife. I earnestly pray Thee, vouchsafe unto me Thy Holy Spirit, and\ncreate in me a pure heart, so that I may joyously trust that all my sins\nare forgiven me through Jesus Christ. As an earnest and surety of this\nblessed fact, I will now eat and drink the true body and blood of Thy\ndear Son Jesus Christ, under the bread and wine, to my soul's salvation.\nGrant me also, O faithful God, that henceforth I may earnestly avoid all\nsin and better my life. This Thou wouldest graciously grant me for Thy\nname's sake. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                  A Morning Prayer for Communion Day.\n\n\nArise, my soul, this is the day which the Lord hath made. We will rejoice\nand be glad in it. Give thanks unto the gracious and merciful God for His\nblessings and say:\n\nAlmighty and Merciful God and Father, I thank Thee from all my heart for\nthe protection of this night, for the refreshing rest, and for the joyous\nmorning, which Thou hast granted unto me. I praise Thee with all my soul\nfor Thy wonderful mercy which blesses me with the forgiveness of my sins.\nPraised be Thy grace, which is new each morn, and which on this day also\nbids me to Thy house, and calls and invites me to Thy altar.\n\nO Lord, since I, too, would come to Thy Supper with the throngs which\ncelebrate, do Thou Thyself make me ready. As Thou wouldest find a pure\nresidence in me, do Thou cleanse and consecrate my body and soul. Guide\nme with Thine eye, and lead me with Thy hand to the riches of Thy mercy.\nComfort me with Thy countenance, and do not forsake me. As the hart\npanteth after the water brooks, so panteth my soul after Thee, O God.\n\nAnd, that my sacred resolve may not be hampered, I commend to Thee my\nbody and soul, reason, senses, and thoughts, whatever I do or leave\nundone, my coming in and going out, my walking, standing, sitting, and\nresting, my imaginations and aspirations, my faith and confession, and\nwhatever internally or externally I may be or do. O God, preserve in me a\ndevout spirit, and hinder whatever might disturb or hamper me. Receive me\ninto the especial care of Thy grace, and increase in me the work that is\nnow begun. Perfect and complete it according to Thy power and grace to\nThy glory and my salvation. Keep me from evil thoughts, from idle\nimaginations, from all uncleanliness, so that in Thy fear I may begin a\nconsecrated life and continue therein. May the light of my faith shine\nbefore men. May I give offense to none, but rather in Christian conduct\nedify the brethren and direct them to all virtue.\n\nHoly Jesus, do Thou unite with my body and soul on this day. Nourish me\nwith Thy flesh and refresh me with Thy blood, so that my weak faith be\nstrengthened, and receive the assurance of Thy grace, the remission of my\nsin, and eternal salvation. Invest me with the pure silk of Thy\nrighteousness. Clothe me in the true wedding garment, that I may appear\nat Thy heavenly board a worthy guest.\n\nNow, Lord God and Father, be my help and my protection! Lord Jesus Christ\nbe my bread, my light, and life! And Thou, O Holy Ghost, illumine and\npreserve me in the true sanctification, so that in that estate, into\nwhich I again am permitted to enter, I may remain for the course of my\nlife. Let me be enveloped in Thee. Without Thee there is only grief. O\ndear Savior, let me ever be with Thee. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                     Prayer Before Holy Communion.\n\n\nLord Jesus Christ, Eternal Son of God, I am not worthy to open my lips\nand receive the most precious sacrament of Thy body and blood. For I am a\nsin-stained man, but Thou art the Lord whom the heavens can not\nencompass. How then can a human being who is but dust and ashes be worthy\nto receive Thy most holy body and precious blood! I well know and\nacknowledge that my sins are many and that for that reason I am an\nunworthy guest at Thy table. But I also sincerely believe and confess it\nwith my lips that by Thy grace Thou canst render me worthy. For Thou art\nomnipotent and gracious. Thou only canst cleanse and make holy whatever\ntook rise in unclean seed. Thou canst transform sinners into true and\nholy men, when by Thy grace Thou forgivest sin and renewest us with Thy\nHoly Spirit. Therefore I pray Thee, by Thy power and love grant me grace,\nthat I may worthily approach Thy altar, and not become guilty of Thy body\nand blood by unworthy eating and drinking, so that I may not receive\ndeath in place of life. Grant me grace, that I may know and test myself\nas a poor sinner, my heart filled with sorrow over mine iniquity, and may\nproperly discern Thy tender and noble body, and Thy holy, precious blood.\nMay my reason, senses, and intellect be ever submissive to Thy word, and\nmay I be earnestly resolved to better and improve my life with Thy help,\nso that in this precious sacrament, I may not only with my mouth receive\nThy body and blood, but also in true faith accept Thee, my Savior and\nRedeemer, enthrone Thee in my heart, and find in Thee my life and\nblessedness. For Thou art the living bread which cometh down from heaven\nand bringeth life to men. Whoever cometh to Thee shall nevermore hunger,\nand he that believeth on Thee shall nevermore thirst. Whoever eateth Thy\nflesh and drinketh Thy blood dwelleth in Thee and Thou in him, and shall\nnever die. O beloved Lord, my spirit and my mind yearn for Thee. As the\nhart panteth after the water brooks, so panteth my soul after Thee, O\nGod. My soul thirsteth for God, for the living God: when shall I come and\nappear before God? Fill me with Thy grace. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n        A Sigh When About to Receive the Sacred Body of Christ.\n\n\nLord Jesus Christ, Thy holy body strengthen and preserve me in the true\nfaith unto eternal life. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n        A Sigh When About to Receive the Sacred Blood of Christ.\n\n\nLord Jesus Christ, Thy holy blood strengthen and preserve me in the true\nfaith unto eternal life. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                     Prayer After the Holy Supper.\n\n\nLord Jesus Christ, with all my heart I thank and glorify Thee, that Thou\nhast again cleansed me, a poor sinner, from all my sin, and as an earnest\nof such cleansing and forgiveness of my sin, hast nourished me with Thy\nbody and blood, and like an unclean child, after such purification, hast\nreceived me into the fatherly arms of Thy grace and mercy, and put me\npure, reproachless, and without blemish before Thy Father.\n\nI earnestly pray Thee with all my power, in addition to such blessing,\ngrant me Thy grace through the workings of Thy Holy Ghost, so that I may\nsufficiently understand such blessing and grace, gratefully accept it,\nand glorify and praise Thee with all my heart. Grant me strength from\nabove by Thy Holy Spirit, that I may heartily forgive my neighbor\nwherever he hath sinned against me, even as Thou hast fully and richly\nforgiven me my great and manifold transgressions, yes, entirely blotted\nthem out and wilt never remember them. Help me to love my neighbor and\ngladly show him every good, as Thou hast done unto me, and hast shown me\nmore than I can ever sufficiently thank Thee for. Praise and glory be to\nThee, O faithful God, together with the Father and the Holy Ghost, world\nwithout end. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                        Prayer for a Pious Life.\n\n\nO my dear Lord Jesus, illumine me today and evermore, that I may shape\nthe course of my Christian life and direct it toward the eternal\nJerusalem, my eternal home. And as Thou yearnest for me, may I also have\nall my delight and thirst in Thee, seek Thee early, yearn for Thee, and\nmake of Thee, the bread of life, the companion of all my ways. Keep me, O\nunchangeable, everlasting God, from the inconstancy of the children of\nthis world, that I may not fall into hypocrisy as they do, but today and\nalways, in all my calling, prove myself constant in godliness, so that my\nlife may decrease in vice and increase in virtue. May I always faithfully\nserve Thee, my Lord, disdain the worldly, be exalted in Thee, experience\nThy grace and protection, and eternally thank Thee, for Christ's sake.\nAmen.\n\n\n\n\n              Prayer for Faithful Teachers and Preachers.\n\n\nThe harvest truly is plenteous, but the laborers are few; pray ye,\ntherefore, the Lord of the harvest, that He will send forth laborers into\nHis harvest.\n\nMerciful God, who hast commanded us through Thy only begotten Son to pray\nThee for laborers in Thy harvest: I earnestly beseech Thee, grant us, Thy\nsheep, pastors according to Thy heart, to feed us with doctrine and\nwisdom. Put learned bishops, Christian pastors, pious teachers over Thy\ncongregation, faithfully to show the true way to eternal life. Fill them\nplenteously with Thy Holy Spirit, so that they may fruitfully proclaim\nthe holy and precious word of the gospel, and sincerely perfect Thy work.\nGrant them a courageous heart, that without fear or favor they may lift\nup their voices and put the adversaries to silence. Open the door for\ntheir word, that they may be blessed and go from strength to strength.\nMay they also be shining examples for the flocks entrusted to their care.\nGrant me and all listeners a grateful heart, that we may communicate in\nall good things unto them that teach us the word, rejoice in them,\nforsake them not, so that we may be blessed of Thee according to Thy\npromise in all the works of our hands. Preserve us from hirelings,\ntime-servers, unfaithful laborers, and hypocrites, who falsely deceive\nthe hearts of the righteous, whom Thou hast never grieved, and fortify\nthe hands of the wicked, that they will not turn from their evil ways.\nLet us never be robbed of our faithful preachers for the sake of our\ningratitude, but rather look upon the glory of Thy holy name, yea, behold\nthe Kingdom of Thine Anointed, that it may prevail among us to the end of\nthe world. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                     Prayer for the Kingdom of God.\n                     (Meeting of the Congregation)\n\n\nGracious and Blessed God, who hast taught, and commanded us above all\nthings and first to seek the kingdom of God and His righteousness: I pray\nThee, grant us grace, that Thy holy word may be preached in all the world\nin all its truth and purity, and we submit our reason to the obedience of\nfaith, and live holy lives according to it as behooves the children of\nGod to Thy pleasing, so that Thy kingdom may come to us, and increase,\nand many of them, who do not yet believe in the word, be won through a\nChristian conduct. Help us, dear God, who are delivered from the power of\ndarkness and are translated into the kingdom of Thy dear Son Jesus\nChrist, in whom we have redemption through His blood, even the\nforgiveness of sin, that we may remain in His kingdom, faithfully\ncontinue in the wholesome doctrine, and live worthily as children of\nlight in all piety and godliness. And since the kingdom of God cometh not\nwith outward shew, neither consists of mere words, but is power and\nspirit: grant us grace, that we may be born again from above through Thy\nsaving word and Thy Holy Spirit, co-heirs of life, so that with our\nhearts we may dwell above where Christ sitteth, and constantly seek the\ninheritance incorruptible, and undefiled, that fadeth not away. Enable us\nto be poor in the spirit and humble, and such who sorrow over their sins.\nLet us be anhungered and athirst, and heartily yearn after righteousness.\nMay we ever be meek, and suffer and overcome whatsoever of persecution\nand tribulation may assail us, and revilings and undeserved malignings\nwith patience and longsuffering. Keep us from all offenses, whereby Thy\nholy name is blasphemed and outraged, Thy kingdom hindered and weakened.\nGrant us grace to practice our faith in works of love and mercy, feeding,\nclothing, harboring, visiting, comforting the poor and distressed of this\nworld, so that when that great day dawns we may hear the blessed and\njoyous voice of Thy dear Son: Come ye blessed of My Father, inherit the\nkingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                          Prayer for Missions.\n\n\nI pray Thee, my heavenly Father, through Jesus Christ, Thy dear Son, our\nLord, have mercy upon the unbelievers, whoever and wherever they are, who\nstill walk in darkness, and do not yet possess the light of Thy gospel.\nThey are stricken with blindness by the evil one. Their foolish heart is\ndarkened. They are alienated from the life that is of Thee, through their\nnative ignorance, carried away to the dumb idols, even as they are led,\nand in their blindness curse and blaspheme Thy dear Son, Jesus Christ,\nthe mercy seat. For that reason, O faithful God, take away the veil,\nwhich is upon the heart of the Jews, who stumble at the stone of\nstumbling and the rock of offense. Illumine their eyes that they may know\nthe true Messiah, the Savior of the world. Gather the heathen and all\nunbelievers, who look upon Thy word as foolishness, into the true fold\nand the true assembly of Christians, the congregation of saints, so that\nwith us and all the faithful they may honor, glorify, and worship Thee,\nthe Father in the Son, and the Son with the Father and the Holy Ghost,\never one God and Lord. Open the understanding of all men, who do not put\ntheir salvation and their confidence solely and alone on the true\nfundament and cornerstone, even Jesus Christ, so that they know Him, whom\nThou hast sent, and in the true faith and a sincere trust of their hearts\nmay acknowledge and accept Him as their Savior and Redeemer, who through\nHis obedience and fulfillment of the law, and through His bitter death,\nhath merited an eternal salvation. We pray Thee also, to return to the\ntruth of Thy word all of them who have defected from the Christian faith,\nor err in sundry other things and are cumbered with false doctrines. Thou\nGod of grace, have mercy upon those, who are not of the true faith, who\ndwell in the shadow of death, and in the darkness of their minds walk on\nuneven paths. Seek the lost, lead aright the erring, illumine the blinded\nand infatuated, open the ears of the deaf, unloose the tongues of the\ndumb, who do not confess Thee, raise the fallen, bring back the corrupt,\nassemble the dispersed, lead aright the erring and seduced, for Thy\nmercy's sake. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n               Prayer Against False Doctrines and Sects.\n\n\nGracious God! Thou hast warned us, that we should beware of false\nprophets who come in sheep's clothing, but inwardly are ravening wolves.\nAnd since in these latter days, in which we now live, evil times will\ncome, in which Satan clothes himself in the livery of heaven, and false\nteachers and fraudulent laborers dissemble as though they were the\napostles of Christ, who have the form of godliness but deny the power\nthereof; and since the defection from the pure doctrine, and the man of\nsin, the son of perdition, who opposeth and exalteth himself above all\nthat is called God shall be made manifest, help us, eternal God, that we\nmay be filled with the love for truth, and avoid the spirit of lies and\nall falsehoods and errors, abstain and flee from all appearance of evil,\nso that we may not be moved from the true faith, nor yet beguiled from\nour reward, but may continue steadfast by Thy word unto the end. May we\nnever be led astray, neither through deceiving powers, signs, and\nmiracles, nor through any temptation to unrighteousness, so that we be\nnot tossed to and fro, and carried about with every wind of doctrine, by\nthe slight of men, and cunning craftiness, whereby they lie in wait to\ndeceive. Preserve Thy elect in this evil world, O God, that they may not\nbe led into error. Shorten the days in these evil times. Destroy the\nAntichrist, the wicked child of perdition and temptation, through the\nspirit of Thy mouth. Put an end to his days through the appearance of Thy\ndear Son. Preserve us also from unruly spirits and schisms, from the\nravenous wolves who have no mercy for the flocks, from men who speak\nperverse doctrines and draw the disciples to themselves, from men of\ncorrupt minds who sow offense and bring about separation, from the tares\nwhich the enemy scatters, from thieves and murderers of the soul. Let us\nonly hear Thy voice, and follow it from our hearts in true faith and\nupright obedience, so that your word may be our only rule and norm,\naccording to which we measure all doctrine, flee the evil teaching, and\nall unrighteousness. Then will we, too, have boldness and be not brought\nto naught on that day when Jesus Christ, our Savior, shall appear. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n               Prayer Against the Enemies of Christendom.\n\n\nO Lord God, why do the wicked rage without cause? and the mighty set\nthemselves and take counsel against Thee and Thy Son, Thine Anointed? O\nLord, how numerous are Thine enemies, and great the number of those who\nconspire against Thy word to destroy it, and put their own evil idolatry\nin its place and introduce false doctrines into Thy Church. They invent\nsecret artifices and practices, to destroy the confessors of Thy word.\nThey counsel what is evil, pregnant with calamity. They lie in wait for\nus like the lion seeking his prey. Thus they waylay our souls. They open\nwide their jaws, like a gaping sepulchre, to devour us. O Lord God,\ncommit us not to their will, for behold, the wicked mob speaks in its\nheart, Thou, O Lord, hast forgotten us. Thou hast concealed Thy\ncountenance. Arise, therefore, O Lord. Lift up Thy hand, forget not the\ndistressed. Awaken, O Lord, why sleepest Thou! Awake, and do not quite\nreject us. Why dost Thou hide Thy face, and forget our misery and\ndistress? Arise, and help us, and deliver us for Thy mercy sake, that the\nenemy may not injure us, nor the children of Belial harm us. Save us from\nthe hands of aliens, whose teaching is useless, and their works evil. For\nthey will not be guided to do good. They will not regard Thee, the Lord\nof hosts, nor yet the works of Thy hands. Thou wilt destroy and not build\nthem. O Lord God Sabaoth, militate Thou against our assailants. Give\nvictory to our Christian government, and conquer the enemies of Thy name.\nFor victory cometh from heaven, and is not brought about by the great\nmultitude. Thou canst as readily help through the few as through the\nmany. Therefore destroy the arm of the wicked. Make their counsels of no\naccount, that they can not accomplish them, but must be brought to naught\nwith shame. They must return, who hate Thee, and seek to annihilate Thy\nholy word. They must be as chaff before the wind. Thy holy angel brush\nthem aside, that they may not boast against Thee and say our hand hath\ndone this. Therefore safeguard Thy honor among men, and help us for Thy\nname's sake, that it may not be desecrated and blasphemed. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                      Prayers During Times of War\n\n\n\n\n                           Prayer During War.\n\n\nO Lord God, who art righteous in Thy judgment, and plenteous in mercy,\nwhose faithfulness endureth from generation to generation, who rulest\neven above the din of war: may all nations learn to know that Thou alone\nart God, that Jesus Christ is Thy Son, and that all who truly confess Thy\nname are the people of Thy pasture and the sheep of Thy hand. Thou hast\npermitted the nations to rise up in war against each other and our own\nbeloved country to become engulfed in its throes. O Lord God, our Father,\nwe know that war is a punishment for sin and that we, too, have justly\nmerited Thy punishment through our sins. Therefore we humbly confess our\nsins, and supplicate Thy pity and compassion, lay not our iniquities\nagainst us, but graciously forgive us our sins and shortcomings for the\nsake of our Lord Jesus Christ. To Thy fatherly goodness and care we\ncommend our people, and especially our soldiers and sailors now in the\nservice of their country. They are absent from their loved ones, beset by\ndangers on all sides. Be Thou ever near. Keep them from all evil. O Thou,\nwithout whose consent not even a sparrow falleth to the ground and who\nhast numbered the very hairs of our heads, take them under the shadow of\nThy wings. Give them courage and obedience, fortitude and valor in the\nhour of danger, and compassion and mercy in the flush of victory. Prosper\ntheir arms to the establishment of justice, peace, and truth among all\npeoples. Lead them safely back to their homes and their loved ones,\nbetter citizens, better Christians than before. And to Thy holy name be\nglory, laud, and honor, world without end. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                     Prayer for the Army and Navy.\n\n\nAlmighty and Eternal God, Thou King of kings and Lord of lords, who\nrulest and governest all things in heaven and earth: we beseech Thine\ninfinite mercy to bless the officers and men of our army and navy.\nPreserve them against all dangers and temptations which may assail their\nlives. Help them manfully to battle against and overcome the powers of\nevil, the world, the devil, and the flesh. May they ever be filled with\nThy Holy Spirit from on high, and in courage, manliness, and truthfulness\nprevail in the hour of danger and when the battle rages. May they ever\nlook to Thee, who art the succorer of those in peril, as to their only\nhelper, and in Thy name fight a holy fight to maintain the country's\nhonor and keep the flag unsullied, that truth and righteousness may\nprevail. Put to naught all evil designs and devices of their enemies,\nboth spiritual and temporal. Guide Thou and direct them that they may\never fight the good fight of faith and in the end overcome and attain to\ntheir soul's salvation, to the glory of Thy holy Name; through Jesus\nChrist, our Lord. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                      Prayer on the Eve of Battle.\n\n\nO Lord God of hosts, Thou the Highest of the high and the Holiest of the\nholy, who rulest and shapest all things to the glory of Thy name and the\nbetterment of Thy people: we humbly beseech Thine infinite mercy in this\nhour of our peril, judge Thou between us and our enemies. Be Thou our\nsure defense. Stir up Thy might and hasten to our help. Lay not our sins\nto our charge, but for the sake of Thy dear Son, our only Lord and\nSavior, Jesus Christ, manifest Thy mercy toward us and blot out our\niniquities, and sanctify and guide us by Thy truth. We Thy poor servants\ncall upon Thy holy name, and implore Thy grace. Have mercy upon us. Lead\nus safely through the blood and carnage. Make it appear that Thou art our\ndeliverer. Make us strong with the assurance that it is Thy cause, that\nwe are Thy children, that Thou holdest our destiny in Thy hand. And if it\nis Thy will that we should lay down our lives--Thy will be done! Help us\nthen that our last day on this earth may be the first in Thy paradise.\nBless our loved ones at home, and comfort them with the hopeful\nassurances of Thy word. May they and all of us rightfully know and\nappreciate, whether we live, we live unto the Lord. And whether we die,\nwe die unto the Lord. Therefore whether we live or die we are the Lord's.\nThrough Jesus Christ, our Lord. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                        Prayer for the Wounded.\n\n\nLord God, our Heavenly Father! We implore Thy eternal compassion for all\nwho are this day wounded, suffering, or dying. Be Thou nigh unto them in\ntheir affliction. Comfort them with Thy grace and with the hopeful\nassurance, that, though kindred and friends be far away, Thou art ever\npresent and hearest even the faintest sight of all who seek Thy succor.\nIf it be Thy pleasure, restore to them their former health and vigor.\nHelp them to bear their pains without murmuring against Thy grace. Give\nthem patience and strength and faith in Thee. May they rest assured, that\nThou wilt never leave nor forsake them. Deliver them from the assaults of\nthe enemies of their souls. O God and Father in heaven, bless them and\nall of us, and may we ever seek those things that are acceptable to Thy\nsight. Forgive us our sins, not because of any merit or worthiness in us,\nbut solely because Thou art merciful for Christ's sake. And to Thee, the\nFather, Son, and Holy Ghost, be glory and honor forever. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                         Prayers for the Dying.\n                          (St. Paul's Prayer)\n\n\n\"The time of my departure is at hand. I have fought a good fight, I have\nfinished my course, I have kept the faith: henceforth there is laid up\nfor me a crown of righteousness, which the Lord, the righteous judge,\nshall give me at that day: not to me only, but to all of them also that\nlove His appearing.\" 2 Tim. 4:6-8.\n\n                                 * * *\n\nO Lord, on Thy cross Thou didst cry, \"Father, into Thy hands I commend My\nSpirit!\" I, too, commend my spirit into Thy hands now when my end is\nnear. Thou hast redeemed me, O faithful God. Amen.\n\n                                 * * *\n\nLord Almighty God, Heavenly Father! My time has come to an end, my life\nis slowly ebbing away. Be Thou with me. O Lord, I suffer much and Thou\nonly canst help me. Be Thou my succor, and shorten and soften my pain.\nDarkness comes over me and I cry for comfort and strength. Have mercy\nupon me. Take my soul under Thy protecting wing, that I perish not. Take\nmy sins from me, and blot all my guilt; for Christ's sake, my Savior and\nmy Lord. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n    Abide with me! fast falls the eventide.\n    The darkness deepens: Lord, with me abide!\n    When other helpers fail and comforts flee,\n    Help of the helpless, O abide with me!\n\n    Hold Thou Thy cross before my closing eyes,\n    Shine through the gloom, and point me to the skies:\n    Heaven's morning breaks, and earth's vain shadows flee:\n    In life, in death, O Lord, abide with me!\n\n\n\n\n                     Prayers for the Sick and Dying\n\n\n\n\n                          Prayer of a Patient.\n\n\nLord God, Heavenly Father! Thou art a faithful God, and wilt not suffer\nany one to be tempted beyond what he is able, but rather with the\ntemptation wilt also make a way to escape, that he may be able to bear\nit. I supplicate Thee in my great suffering and pain, so shape the cross,\nthat it may not lay too heavily upon me, and strengthen me that I may\nbear it with patience, and nevermore despair of Thy mercy. O Christ, Thou\nSon of the living God! Thou hast endured the agony of the cross for me,\nand hast died for my sins, I beseech Thee with my whole heart, have mercy\nupon me a poor sinner, and forgive me my transgressions, wherever I have\nsinned against Thee. Let my faith in no wise diminish. O God Holy Ghost!\nThou true comforter in all times of need. Keep me ever in the spirit of\npatience and supplication. Sanctify me in my reliance upon Thee. Turn not\nfrom me in the hour of my death, and lead me from this vale of sorrow to\nThyself in heaven. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                       Prayer for a Blessed End.\n\n\nO Merciful God, Thou hast put a limit to man's life, which no man can set\naside. For he has his definite time, the number of his months rests with\nThee. Thou hast numbered all our days, which pass away like a stream, as\nthough we flew away. Man is like grass, which soon withereth, like the\nflower of the field, which passeth away. Teach me, O merciful God, to\nknow and take to heart, that I, too, must pass away and that my life has\na limit, and I must go hence. Behold, my days are as a handbreadth before\nThee, and my life as nothing in Thy sight. Every man at his best is\naltogether vanity. Lord, so teach us to number our days, what it is, that\nwe may apply our hearts unto wisdom. Lord, teach me to remember that I\nmust die, and have no continuing city in this pilgrimage. Make known unto\nme my short and transient being, that I may often think of my end, so\nthat in this world I may not live unto myself, but live and die unto\nThee, so that I may bravely and joyously await the day of my translation\nand the appearance of Thy dear Son, Jesus Christ, and with a consecrated\nlife and a pious conduct hasten to Him. Bless me, O God, with a blessed\ndeparture, and when my hour cometh, that I may joyously die, find a\nrational end in true knowledge, and that my reason and intellect be not\nderanged, and I speak no arrogant words or blasphemies against Thee, my\nLord, or against my salvation. Preserve me from an evil sudden death and\nfrom eternal damnation. Let me not be suddenly overcome by my last hour\nwithout warning, but that I may prepare myself with true repentance and\nsincere faith. And when it comes make me joyous and brave for my temporal\ndeath, which only opens the door to the eternal life. May I then, as Thy\nservant, depart in peace. For mine eyes have seen Thy salvation, which\nThou hast prepared before the face of all people; a light to lighten the\nGentiles, and the glory of Thy people Israel. Grant that my last word may\nbe that which Thy dear Son spoke on the cross, \"Father, into Thy hands do\nI commend My spirit!\" And when I can no longer speak, hear Thou my last\nsigh through Jesus Christ. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                      Prayer in the Hour of Death.\n\n\nAlmighty, Everlasting, and Most Merciful Lord and God! Thou art the\nFather of our Lord Jesus Christ, and I know that Thou art willing and\nable to fulfill whatsoever Thou hast said. Thou canst not lie. Thy word\nis truth. Thou hast from the beginning promised me Thy dear Son Jesus\nChrist. And He is come, and has redeemed me from the devil, death, hell,\nand sin. And in Thy gracious providence Thou hast for a greater surety\nestablished the sacraments of Holy Baptism and Holy Communion in which\nHis true natural body and blood are given me in, with, and under the\nbread and wine, thus offering and assuring me of the forgiveness of sins,\neternal life, and every heavenly gift. And because of this Thy assurance\nI have made use of these means of grace, and firmly relying upon Thy word\nhave received them. And now I do not doubt but that I am secure from the\npower of the devil, death, hell, and sin. And if now my hour hath come,\nand this is Thy divine will, I will gladly and willingly depart hence and\nbe with Thee in peace. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n               Prayer of the Bystanders for the Sick One.\n\n\nAlmighty, Merciful God, who keepest our life in death, we pray Thee, turn\nthe eyes of Thy mercy to this sick person, strengthen him in body and\nsoul, and forgive him all his sins through Thy grace. Take the sacrifice\nof the innocent death of Jesus Christ, Thy dear Son, as a propitiation\nfor his transgressions, since he, too, is baptized in His name, washed\nand cleansed with His blood. Save him from the pains and agonies of his\nbody. Shorten his sufferings. Keep him from the accusations of his\nconscience and all temptations of the enemy, so that in faith he may\ntruly battle and conquer. Grant him a blessed translation to the eternal\nlife. Send Thy holy angels, that they accompany him to the blessed\ncompany of all the elect in Christ Jesus, our Lord. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n             Prayer When the Patient Has Died in the Lord.\n\n\nJesus Christ, Thou Lord of glory and Prince of life, we glorify and thank\nThee now and always, that Thou hast so mercifully helped this now blessed\none, and hast taken his soul into Thy holy keeping. And when the last day\ncometh Thou wouldest reunite his soul with his body in heavenly radiance,\nand grant us altogether, when the divinely appointed hour cometh, to\nfollow him in blessedness. Meanwhile grant us a Christian conduct,\nrefresh all sorrowing hearts with heavenly solace. Keep us in Thy eternal\ngrace, for the sake of Thy inexhaustible mercy and goodness. Amen. O Thou\nmost holy, most glorious Trinity. Amen.\n\n\n\n\n                                 Hymns\n\n\n\n\n                     Du Volk, das du getaufet bist.\n\n\n    Ye baptized people, one and all,\n    Who know your God in heaven,\n    Who have received a holy call,\n    To whom Christ's name is given,\n    Do not forget, but ponder well,\n    The gifts that now within you dwell,\n    The blessings of baptism.\n\n    This washing cleanseth us from sin\n    And lends a sacred beauty,\n    It makes us white and pure within,\n    Incites to love and duty,\n    From Satan's prison sets us free,\n    Enables us the sons to be\n    And heirs of God, our Father.\n\n    Our sinful nature is renewed,\n    The curse of God is lifted;\n    By choicest blessings thus endued\n    And with the Spirit gifted,\n    We unto sin are pledged to die\n    And by the pow'r of God on high\n    The gates of hell can conquer.\n\n    Here we with Jesus Christ are clad,\n    His righteousness receiving,\n    Which covers what in us is bad,\n    Our rescue thus achieving;\n    His holy blood, for sinners spilt,\n    Releases us from sin and guilt,\n    And we with God find favor.\n\n    O wondrous work, O sacred bath,\n    O water thou of blessing,\n    The world nowhere thy equal hath,\n    Such healing grace possessing.\n    Thou hast indeed a pow'r divine,\n    According to God's own design,\n    And with His word connected.\n\n    Thou art no water such as we\n    Can draw from well or river.\n    In thee the life of God we see,\n    Who is of grace the Giver.\n    His Holy Spirit in thee dwells,\n    Who ev'ry evil lust dispels\n    That in our hearts would linger.\n\n    O Christians, bear this well in mind,\n    And thank the Lord sincerely\n    For all the gifts that here you find,\n    And that you prize so dearly.\n    When nothing else can soothe the soul,\n    These gifts lend comfort till the goal\n    Of life on earth appeareth.\n\n    Use well the things you have in store,\n    That are for you intended,\n    And, cleansed by Jesus, sin no more\n    Until life's course is ended,\n    When you, in yonder happy land,\n    Before God's radiant throne shall stand,\n    In heaven's festal garments.\n\n                                                    Paul Gerhardt, 1667.\n                                                 Tr. H. Brueckner, 1918.\n\n\n\n\n                   Ich bin getauft auf deinen Namen.\n\n\n    Father, Son, and Holy Spirit,\n    I am baptized in Thy name;\n    In the seed Thou dost inherit,\n    With the people Thou dost claim,\n    I am reckoned:\n    And for me the Savior came.\n\n    Thou receivest me, O Father,\n    As a child and heir of Thine;\n    Jesus, Thou who diedst, yea, rather\n    Ever livest, Thou art mine\n    Thou, O Spirit,\n    Art my Guide, my Light divine.\n\n    I have pledged, and would not falter,\n    Truth, obedience, love to Thee;\n    I have vows upon Thine alter\n    Ever Thine alone to be,\n    And for ever\n    Sin and all its lusts to flee.\n\n    Gracious God, all Thou hast spoken\n    In this covenant shall take place;\n    But if I, alas! have broken\n    These my vows, hide not Thy face;\n    And from falling\n    O restore me by Thy grace.\n\n    Lord, to Thee I now surrender\n    All I have, and all I am;\n    Make my heart more true and tender,\n    Glorify in me Thy Name,\n    Let obedience\n    To Thy will be all my aim.\n\n    Help me in this high endeavor,\n    Father, Son, and Holy Ghost!\n    Bind my heart to Thee for ever,\n    Till I join the heavenly host.\n    Living, dying,\n    Let me make in Thee my boast.\n\n                                             Johann Jacob Rambach, 1734.\n                                      Tr. Chas. William Schaeffer, 1860.\n\n\n\n\n                     Wir danken dir, o Jesu Christ.\n\n\n    We thank Thee, Jesus Christ, our Lord,\n    For all the help Thou dost afford.\n    Thou art the Lamb for sinners slain,\n    And this is our eternal gain.\n\n    Thy holy supper doth prepare\n    For us a precious fountain where\n    Salvation flows for ev'ry soul,\n    To make the wounded spirit whole.\n\n    This covenant Thou, Lord, didst make:\n    \"Receive my body and partake\n    Of mine own blood which flowed for thee,\n    That thou a ransomed soul mightst be.\"\n\n    I eat Thy body, which for me\n    Was made to die upon the tree,\n    I drink Thy blood and thus receive\n    Life for my soul, as I believe.\n\n    And though I die, yet shall I live;\n    Thy body and Thy blood will give\n    To me eternal life above,\n    The fruit of Thy redeeming love.\n\n    Let me be numbered with the blest,\n    Who on Thy loving bosom rest,\n    Thy worthy guest, to sup with Thee\n    And praise Thy name eternally.\n\n                                               Nicolaus Selnecker, 1572.\n                                                 Tr. H. Brueckner, 1918.\n\n\n\n\n                   Aus tiefer Not schrei ich zu dir.\n\n\n    Out of the depths I cry to Thee,\n    Lord, hear me, I implore Thee!\n    Bend down Thy gracious ear to me,\n    Let my prayer come before Thee!\n    If Thou remember each misdeed,\n    If each should have its rightful meed,\n    Who may abide Thy presence.\n\n    Our pardon is Thy gift; Thy love\n    And grace alone avail us.\n    Our works could ne'er our guilt remove,\n    The strictest life must fail us.\n    That none may boast himself of aught,\n    But own in fear Thy grace hath wrought\n    What in him seemeth righteous.\n\n    And thus my hope is in the Lord,\n    And not in mine own merit;\n    I rest upon His faithful word\n    To them of contrite spirit.\n    That He is merciful and just,--\n    Here is my comfort and my trust,\n    His help I wait with patience.\n\n    And though it tarry till the night,\n    And round till morning waken,\n    My heart shall ne'er mistrust Thy might,\n    Nor count itself forsaken.\n    Do thus, O ye of Israel's seed,\n    Ye of the Spirit born indeed,\n    Wait for your God's appearing.\n\n    Though great our sins and sore our woes,\n    His grace much more aboundeth;\n    His helping love no limit knows,\n    Our utmost need it soundeth.\n    Our kind and faithful Shepherd, He,\n    Who shall at last set Israel free\n    From all their sin and sorrow.\n\n                                                    Martin Luther, 1524.\n                                          Tr. Catherine Winkworth, 1862.\n\n\n\n\n                Eines wuensch ich mir vor allem andern.\n\n\n    One thing I above all others cherish,\n    For one thing I long and pray.\n    Though in sorrow's vale fond hopes may perish,\n    This will prove my staff and stay:\n    To behold the Man who, deeply sighing\n    And upon earth's bosom prostrate lying,\n    Drank the bitter cup of woe\n    Since the Father willed it so.\n\n    Ever shall my soul retain the vision\n    Of that Lamb, for sinners slain,\n    Pale and wounded, held in deep derision,\n    Hanging on the wood of pain,\n    Wrestling there in thirst and mortal anguish,\n    Lest my soul eternally should languish,\n    Being mindful, too, of me\n    When He died the world to free.\n\n    O Lord Jesus, keep me mindful ever\n    Of my guilt and of Thy grace.\n    Be it Thou all bonds of sin dost sever\n    And all blots of guilt efface.\n    Thou of night the brightest daylight makest,\n    And Thy lamb into Thy bosom takest,\n    As the Shepherd good and fair,\n    Nursing it with tender care.\n\n    I am Thine! Wilt Thou reply by saying,\n    \"Thou forever shalt be mine!\"\n    Cause Thy precious name, all fears allaying,\n    Brightly in my heart to shine!\n    Be with Thee all things begun and ended,\n    Who from earth to heaven hast ascended.\n    Yea, this shall, till life is spent,\n    Be our law and testament.\n\n                                              Albert Knapp, 1829 (1823).\n                                                 Tr. H. Brueckner, 1918.\n\n\n\n\n                       Meine Seel, ermuntre dich.\n\n\n    Come, my soul, again inquire\n    If the love of Christ constrain thee.\n    To His cross again retire;\n    See Him give Himself to gain thee.\n    Search His faithfulness and try Him,\n    Glad in Him and gladdened by Him.\n\n    See Him there, God's only Son\n    On the tree for thee suspended,\n    Crowned with thorns, by grief undone,\n    Crimson stains with crimson blended,\n    Pierced for thee, transfixed, forsaken:\n    Deathless love by death o'ertaken.\n\n    Thou, yea thou hadst known the rod,\n    Endless pain thy sole possession;\n    Thou hadst been cast off by God\n    For thy multiplied transgression;\n    But the Lord thy cause defended;\n    By His grace thou art befriended.\n\n    When in mighty woe He died\n    Vengeance ceased and wrath abated;\n    Sinai was satisfied;\n    All things old were new-created;\n    Sin and death and hell were thwarted;\n    Life and health and heaven imparted.\n\n    Jesus, grace sufficient give\n    That this mind be ever in me:--\n    Thine I am; to Thee would live;\n    Naught from Thee shall ever win me.\n    Thou wilt not forsake nor leave me;\n    Let me, Lord, in love receive Thee.\n\n                                             Johann Caspar Schade, 1692.\n                                                          Tr. A. Ramsey.\n\n\n\n\n                       So nimm denn meine Haende.\n\n\n    Take, then, my hands, O Father,\n    And lead Thou me\n    Until my journey endeth,\n    Eternally.\n    Alone I will not wander\n    One single day.\n    Be Thou my true Companion\n    And with me stay.\n\n    O cover with Thy mercy\n    My poor, weak heart!\n    Let ev'ry thought rebellious\n    From me depart.\n    Permit Thy child to linger\n    Here at Thy feet\n    And blindly trust Thy goodness\n    With faith complete.\n\n    Though naught of Thy great power\n    May move my soul,\n    With Thee through night and darkness\n    I reach the goal.\n    Take, then, my hands, O Father,\n    And lead Thou me\n    Until my journey endeth,\n    Eternally.\n\n                                                    Julie von Haussmann.\n                                                 Tr. H. Brueckner, 1916.\n\n\n\n\n                            Jesu, geh voran.\n\n\n    Jesus, still lead on,\n    Till our rest be won;\n    And although the way be cheerless,\n    We will follow, calm and fearless,\n    Guide us by Thy hand\n    To our fatherland.\n\n    If the way be drear,\n    If the foe be near,\n    Let not faithless fears o'ertake us,\n    Let not faith and hope forsake us;\n    For through many a foe\n    To our home we go.\n\n    When we seek relief\n    From a long-felt grief,\n    When temptations come alluring,\n    Make us patient and enduring;\n    Show us that bright shore\n    Where we weep no more.\n\n    Jesus, still lead on,\n    Till our rest be won;\n    Heavenly Leader, still direct us,\n    Still support, console, protect us,\n    Till we safely stand\n    In our fatherland.\n\n                                    Nicolaus Ludwig v. Zinzendorf, 1721.\n                                            Tr. Jane Borthwick, 1846. a.\n\n\n\n\n                         Befiehl du deine Wege.\n\n\n    Commit thy ways and faring\n    With all that grieves thy soul,\n    To His e'er faithful caring\n    Who doth the heavens control;\n    Who giving course and highway\n    To clouds and winds and breeze,\n    Will find for thee a byway\n    Where thou canst fare at ease.\n\n    But thou must trust Him wholly\n    To make thy welfare sure;\n    And look to His work solely\n    To have thy works endure.\n    God lets none snatch a blessing\n    By fretful grief and care\n    Nor one's own self-distressing;\n    It must be got by prayer.\n\n    Thy faithfulness unfailing,\n    O Father, and Thy grace\n    Mark good or ill prevailing\n    Amongst this mortal race;\n    Then what Thou wilt decreeing\n    And pressing on with ease,\n    Thou bring'st to pass and being\n    Whate'er Thy counsels please.\n\n    All ways do Thine possessing,\n    Thou lack'st not means nor might.\n    Thy deed is purest blessing,\n    Thy path serenest light.\n    And none Thy work can hinder,\n    Nor can Thy labors rest\n    Whenever Thou wouldst render\n    Thy children what is best.\n\n    Though devils all endeavor,\n    And fain would work defeat,\n    Beyond all doubt soever\n    The Lord will not retreat.\n    Whatever He proposes,\n    Whate'er He takes in hand,\n    Whene'er His set time closes\n    Will come to pass as planned.\n\n    Hope on, poor soul, and bravely;\n    Hope on, no more perplexed.\n    God from those deeps will save thee\n    Where thou by griefs art vexed.\n    With grace will He secure thee;\n    But wait His time as thine,\n    And thou wilt see most surely\n    The sun of gladness shine.\n\n    Up! Up! Away with grieving.\n    Bid anxious fret begone,\n    Thy heart its sadness leaving,\n    Its woes ne'er dwelt upon.\n    Though thou, who dost not govern,\n    Canst naught at all compel,\n    God sits enthroned and sov'reign\n    And doeth all things well.\n\n    Let Him, a Ruler knowing,\n    Arrange for thee, and do.\n    Thou'lt see with wonder growing\n    How He will bring thee through;\n    And how, by means most seemly,\n    By counsels wondrous deep,\n    He bears Himself supremely\n    In works which thou dost weep.\n\n    True, He awhile will tarry,\n    His comforting delayed,\n    And seem Himself to carry\n    As minded not to aid;\n    May seem to turn Him from thee,\n    Nor e'en, though o'er and o'er\n    Thy cares and griefs o'ercome thee\n    To ask about thee more.\n\n    But though thou seem neglected,\n    And yet believing be,\n    When least by thee expected\n    Will He deliver thee.\n    Thy heart will He deliver\n    From all its burd'ning woe\n    Which thou, unharmed however,\n    Hast carried hitherto.\n\n    And well with thee thereafter,\n    Child of the Faithful, found\n    Midst praise and thanks and laughter,\n    A conqueror, and crowned.\n    The palms in hand before him,\n    Which God Himself bestows,\n    With glad songs thou'lt adore Him\n    Who turned aside thy woes.\n\n    Make end, O Lord, good ending\n    To all our woes ere long.\n    With strength on us attending,\n    Our hands and feet make strong.\n    Thy faithful care bestowing,\n    Till death, our ways attend;\n    Then surely, heavenward going\n    Our ways in heaven will end.\n\n                                                    Paul Gerhardt, 1656.\n                                                    Tr. A. Ramsey, 1916.\n\n\n\n\n                     Alle Menschen muessen sterben.\n\n\n    Man is but a transient being\n    And a pilgrim here below,\n    Like a shadow, swiftly fleeing,\n    Like the days that come and go.\n    He must pass through death's dark portal,\n    To obtain that life immortal\n    Which on yonder blissful shore\n    Blooms in glory evermore.\n\n    So I willingly surrender\n    To the Lord my fleeting breath,\n    Knowing that His love so tender\n    Will allay all fear of death.\n    In His wounds there is redemption\n    And His death assures exemption\n    From the punishment of sin\n    And the sense of guilt within.\n\n    Jesus died upon the mountain,\n    There His precious blood was spilt.\n    Now an ever flowing fountain\n    Cleanseth me from all my guilt.\n    Hence my soul, endowed with pinions,\n    Leaves for heaven's fair dominions,\n    There in blissful joy to see\n    God, the holy Trinity.\n\n    In those fair celestial regions\n    All is life and peace and joy.\n    Souls are there in countless legions,\n    Happy in the Lord's employ.\n    There bright Seraphim are dwelling,\n    Who, in majesty excelling,\n    Praise with heaven's mighty host\n    Father, Son and Holy Ghost\n\n    There the patriarchs are living,\n    There the prophets all abide.\n    There, to Jesus homage giving,\n    His apostles, too, reside.\n    There the Lord's whole congregation\n    Has a place of habitation.\n    There, to honor God, their King,\n    All their hallelujahs sing.\n\n    O thou city of the sainted,\n    Heavenly Jerusalem!\n    How thy beauty is untainted,\n    Sparkling like a precious gem!\n    What soft music there is sounding,\n    What sweet joys are there abounding!\n    Night shall never follow day,\n    But the sun shall reign for aye.\n\n    Ah, mine eyes have seen the glory\n    Of that city fair and high,\n    And mine ears have heard the story\n    Of those mansions in the sky.\n    Now the pure white robe of heaven\n    And a crown to me are given,\n    Now that light of joy is mine\n    Which shall never cease to shine.\n\n                                                  John G. Albinus, 1652.\n                                                 Tr. H. Brueckner, 1918.\n\n\n\n\n                    Jerusalem, du hochgebaute Stadt.\n\n\n    Jerusalem, thou city built on high,\n    Would God I were in thee!\n    My eager spirit hath so yearned to fly\n    And bides no more with me.\n    O'er hill and valley mounting\n    High, high o'er fields and wastes,\n    O'er all, all worthless counting,\n    Afar from earth it hastes.\n\n    O lovely day, O hour more lovely still,\n    When wilt thou be revealed,\n    When blissfully, my voice with joy athrill,\n    My soul to God I yield,\n    His pledge ordained, unfailing\n    In His all-faithful hand,\n    That haven waits my hailing\n    In yonder Fatherland?\n\n    'Twill mount in e'en the twinkling of an eye\n    Beyond the firmament,\n    So wondrously, so gently laying by\n    Its outworn earthly tent;\n    Midst chariots ascending\n    While bright angelic bands,\n    Around it safe attending,\n    Will bear it in their hands.\n\n    All hail to thee, O glorious city, now!\n    Lift up thy gates of grace\n    How long the time I yearned for thee, and how,\n    Before I reached this place\n    From yonder life of grieving,\n    Of vanity and strife,\n    From God at length receiving\n    The heritage of life.\n\n    What folk is this now drawing near to me,\n    This throng of worthies blest?\n    These, one time of th'elect on earth, I see;\n    The noblest crown and best\n    Which Christ, with grace compelling,\n    Sent me in other years\n    When still far distant dwelling\n    In mine own land of tears.\n\n    Lo, patriarchs renowned and prophets great\n    And gathered saintly folk,\n    Who while on earth endured the tyrant's hate\n    And wore the Savior's yoke!\n    But soaring now in freedom,\n    With honor clothed upon,\n    Midst radiant light I see them,\n    And shining like the sun.\n\n    Then when at length I enter in a thrill\n    That Paradise of God,\n    My every sense with rapturous joy will fill,\n    My mouth with praise and laud.\n    Hosannas there ascending\n    Make holy minstrelsy,\n    With Alleluiahs blending\n    For all eternity.\n\n    With instruments and with a joyful noise\n    Are choirs unnumbered singing,\n    Till by the sound and shoutings set apoise\n    The courts of joy are ringing.\n    With ten ten-thousand voices\n    And tens of thousands more,\n    The heavenly host rejoices\n    As ever from of yore.\n\n                                         Johann Matthaeus Meyfart, 1626.\n                                                    Tr. A. Ramsey, 1916.\n\n\n\n\n                      Unter Lilien jener Freuden.\n\n\n    Midst the lilies blooming yonder\n    Thou shalt wander,\n    Oh my soul, and be at home.\n    Rise, then, as on eagle-pinions--\n    Thy dominions\n    Are above where angels roam.\n\n    Guide my ship, Thou First-born Brother,\n    To no other\n    Than that peaceful haven where,\n    Sheltered from all storms forever,\n    I shall never\n    Know of sorrow, sin or care.\n\n    Thou canst fill our mouths with laughter,\n    And hereafter\n    Make our tongues to sing Thy praise.\n    Thou canst softly lead us mortals\n    Through death's portals\n    And above all evils raise.\n\n    For our sins and grievous errors\n    All the terrors\n    Of the cross Thou didst endure.\n    Death, thy sting for aye has vanished,\n    Thou art banished,\n    And I rest from thee secure.\n\n                                               J. L. K. Allendorf, 1731.\n                                                 Tr. H. Brueckner, 1917.\n\n\n\n\n                 Die wir uns allhier beisammen finden.\n\n\n    Gathered here, we join our hands, O Savior,\n    And upon Thy death unite,\n    Ever to be true in our behavior\n    Unto Thee, eternal Light.\n    And as here Thy praises, Lord, are spoken,\n    Enter Thou into our midst in token\n    Of Thy love so pure and true,\n    Saying, \"Peace I give to you!\"\n\n                                                 C. R. Zinzendorf, 1754.\n                                                 Tr. H. Brueckner, 1916.\n\n\n\n\n                                 Index\n\n\n\n\n  Translator's Preface                                                  3\n  Exhortation to Prayer                                                 6\n  The Lord's Prayer and Benediction                                     7\n  Morning and Evening Prayers                                           9\n      Prayer for Sunday Morning                                        11\n      Prayer for Sunday Evening                                        14\n      Prayer for Monday Morning                                        18\n      Prayer for Monday Evening                                        21\n      Prayer for Tuesday Morning                                       25\n      Prayer for Tuesday Evening                                       29\n      Prayer for Wednesday Morning                                     32\n      Prayer for Wednesday Evening                                     35\n      Prayer for Thursday Morning                                      40\n      Prayer for Thursday Evening                                      44\n      Prayer for Friday Morning                                        47\n      Prayer for Friday Evening                                        50\n      Prayer for Saturday Morning                                      52\n      Prayer for Saturday Evening                                      59\n      A Daily Prayer                                                   64\n      At the Beginning of the Week's Work                              65\n  At the Table                                                         67\n      Grace before Meat                                                69\n      Grace after Meat                                                 70\n  For Hearth and Home                                                  73\n      Prayer of a Housefather                                          75\n      Prayer of a Housemother                                          76\n      Prayer of a Child                                                78\n      Prayer of a Youth or Maiden                                      79\n      Prayer of a Servant                                              80\n      Prayer of a School Child for the Holy Spirit                     82\n      Prayer during a Thunder Storm                                    83\n      Thanksgiving after a Thunder Storm                               85\n      Prayer on the Eve of a Journey                                   86\n      Prayer During a Journey                                          87\n      Prayer of Children for Their Father Engaged on a Journey         89\n      Thanksgiving after a Completed Journey                           90\n      A Birthday Prayer                                                90\n      Prayer for Temporal Peace                                        92\n      A Prayer for School                                              94\n  Church Prayers                                                       97\n      Prayer When Going to Church                                      99\n      Prayer for Sincere Repentance                                   100\n      Prayer for Forgiveness of Sins                                  102\n      Prayer for True Faith                                           104\n      Prayer before Confession                                        107\n      Thanksgiving after Absolution                                   108\n      A Morning Prayer for Communion Day                              109\n      Prayer before Holy Communion                                    112\n      A Sigh when about to Receive the Sacred Body of Christ          114\n      A Sigh when about to Receive the Sacred Blood of Christ         115\n      Prayer after the Holy Supper                                    115\n      Prayer for a Pious Life                                         116\n      Prayer for Faithful Teachers and Preachers                      117\n      Prayer for the Kingdom of God                                   119\n      Prayer for Missions                                             122\n      Prayer against False Doctrines and Sects                        124\n      Prayer against the Enemies of Christendom                       126\n  Prayers During Times of War                                         129\n      Prayer during War                                               131\n      Prayer for the Army and Navy                                    132\n      Prayer on the Eve of Battle                                     134\n      Prayer for the Wounded                                          135\n      Prayers for the Dying                                           136\n  Prayers for the Sick and Dying                                      139\n      Prayer of a Patient                                             141\n      Prayer for a Blessed End                                        142\n      Prayer in the Hour of Death                                     144\n      Prayer of the Bystanders for the Sick One                       145\n      Prayer when the Patient has Died in the Lord                    146\n  Hymns                                                               149\n      Abide with grace unbounded                                       20\n      Abide with me! Fast falls the eventide                          138\n      Awake, my heart, rejoicing                                       27\n      Awake, my soul, the rising sun                                   42\n      Be present at our table Lord                                     70\n      Come, my soul, again inquire                                    158\n      Commit thy ways and faring                                      161\n      Dayspring of Eternity                                            34\n      Father, Son, and Holy Spirit                                    153\n      Gathered here, we join our hands, O Savior                      171\n      God, who madest earth and heaven                                 13\n      Heavenly Father, bless this food                                 70\n      Jerusalem, thou city built on high                              167\n      Jesus, bless what Thou hast given                                70\n      Jesus, still lead on                                            160\n      Man is but a transient being                                    165\n      Midst the lilies blooming yonder                                170\n      Now God be with us, for the night is closing                     31\n      Now in Jesus' wounds reposing                                    46\n      Now under night's dark shadow                                    23\n      O Christ, who art the sun-lit day                                16\n      One thing I above all others cherish                            157\n      Out of the depths I cry to Thee                                 155\n      Praise God from whom all blessings flow                          71\n      Shepherd never sleeping                                          37\n      Soul of mine to God awaking                                      62\n      Sunk is the sun's last beam of light                             52\n      Take, then, my hands, O Father                                  159\n      The morning sun shines in the skies                              49\n      The sun ascending                                                55\n      We thank Thee, Jesus Christ, our Lord                           154\n      We thank Thee, Lord, for this our food                           71\n      Ye baptized people one and all                                  151\n  Index of Translated Hymns\n      Ach bleib mit deiner Gnade                                       20\n      Alle Menschen mueszen sterben                                   165\n      Aus tiefer Not schrei ich zu dir                                155\n      Befiehl du deine Wege                                           161\n      Christe, du bist der helle Tag                                   16\n      Die gueldne Sonne                                                55\n      Die helle Sonn leucht jetzt herfuer                              49\n      Die Nacht ist kommen, drin wir ruhen sollen                      31\n      Die wir uns allhier beisammen finden                            171\n      Du Volk, das du getaufet bist                                   151\n      Eines wuensch ich mir vor allem andern                          157\n      Gott des Himmels und der Erden                                   13\n      Hinunter ist der Sonnenschein                                    52\n      Hirte deiner Schafe                                              37\n      Ich bin getauft auf deinen Namen                                153\n      Jerusalem, du hochgebaute Stadt                                 167\n      Jesu, geh voran                                                 160\n      Meine Seel, ermuntre dich                                       158\n      Morgenglanz der Ewigkeit                                         34\n      Nun ruhen alle Waelder                                           23\n      Nur in Jesu Blut und Wunden                                      46\n      So nimm denn meine Haende                                       159\n      Unter Lilien jener Freuden                                      170\n      Wach auf mein Herz, die Nacht ist hin                            42\n      Wach auf mein Herz, und singe                                    27\n      Werde munter, mein Gemuete                                       62\n      Wir danken dir, Jesu Christ                                     154\n\n\n\n\n\nEnd of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Morning and Evening Prayers for All\nDays of the Week, by John Habermann\n\n*** ","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}}