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+{"text":"\n\nDedication\n\nThis book is written in loving memory of\n\nSara Katherine and Lena Pearl.\n\nAnd it is dedicated to the volunteers: You brought your open hearts and enthusiasm from Australia, Brazil, Cameroon, Canada, England, Finland, France, Holland, Hungary, Ireland, Israel, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States. You survived pit latrines, cold baths, couscous, cockroaches, long exhausting workdays with far too little rest, and candlelit nights for months on end. Sanaga-Yong Chimpanzee Rescue Center was built on your backs. Only a few of you are mentioned by name in the following pages, but with deep gratitude and respect, I dedicate this book to all of you.\nContents\n\nDedication\n\nIntroduction\n\nOne: Road to Cameroon\n\nTwo: Commitment\n\nThree: At the Atlantic Beach Hotel\n\nFour: Mean Streets\n\nFive: The Mbargue Forest\n\nSix: Shackled\n\nSeven: The Village\n\nEight: Nothing Works, but It All Works Out\n\nNine: Forced Seizure\n\nTen: Who's the Boss?\n\nEleven: Fateful Alliances\n\nTwelve: Challenges on My Side of the Fence\n\nThirteen: Pregnancy and Motherhood\n\nFourteen: Dorothy Finds Her Strength\n\nFifteen: The Unspeakable\n\nSixteen: Heroes\n\nSeventeen: Necessary Trade-Offs\n\nEighteen: Farewell to Our Sassy Girl\n\nNineteen: Dorothy's Legacy\n\nEpilogue\n\nAcknowledgments\n\nIndex\n\nPhotographic Insert 1\n\nPhotographic Insert 2\n\nAbout the Author\n\nCopyright\n\nAbout the Publisher\nIntroduction\n\nOn September 24, 2008, beloved elder chimpanzee Dorothy lay down on the grass at the edge of the forest in a somewhat obscure African sanctuary and died. About five decades earlier, when Dorothy was an infant, poachers supplying the illegal ape meat trade killed her mother and took her captive. She spent most of her sad life chained by her neck as a hotel tourist attraction, but she died among friends who loved her at Sanaga-Yong Chimpanzee Rescue Center in Cameroon's Mbargue Forest.\n\nThe morning after Dorothy's death we conducted a small funeral service for volunteers, our African staff, and people from the village community who came to pay their respects. Afterward, Dorothy's longtime caregiver, Assou Francois, pushed her body in a creaky wheelbarrow toward her gravesite, which had been prepared beside the twenty-acre forested enclosure where she had lived. With a small procession of staff and volunteers, I followed behind. As we neared the enclosure, the twenty-five chimpanzees who had lived with Dorothy heard the wheelbarrow and came out of the forest. As they lined up at the fence line, straining to see her body, I instructed Assou to pull the wheelbarrow close to the fence and stop. As I caressed Dorothy's head, and the chimpanzees she loved best gazed at her a final time in silent grief, volunteer Monica Szczupider snapped a photo.\n\nAfter we buried Dorothy, I saw Monica's picture and hardly gave it a second thought, but this snapshot of emotion soon would be seen around the world. After Monica won a National Geographic photo contest and the magazine published the funeral photo in a glossy double-page spread, numerous other magazines and newspapers also published it. Several journalists interviewed me about it. Invariably, they asked me if I had been surprised by the chimpanzees' reactions to Dorothy's death.\n\n\"No, I wasn't surprised in the slightest,\" I always answered honestly.\n\nAfter working closely with chimpanzees for years, I took for granted their capacity for a broad range of deep emotions. I had always been deeply sympathetic to the suffering of animals; their particular vulnerability and innocence awakened the compassionate defender in me, enough so that I had dedicated my career to it even before coming to Africa. But my direct experience with captive adult chimpanzees was something different. They were so much more similar to me than either of us was to any other animal. In these chimpanzees I recognized another kind of people, like me in many ways, unlike me in others. They were also animals, they were also apes, and so was I an animal and an ape. In the face of the chimpanzees' profoundly familiar ape consciousness and in the genuine friendships that grew between us, I became a more fully realized human animal. I knew chimpanzees to be charismatic and complicated. Not all were always nice. I had seen callous cruelty in their hierarchical societies, and I also had seen kindness and compassion. As the founder and director of this African sanctuary, I was equally committed to every single chimpanzee who lived here, but I cannot say I liked them all equally. Dorothy was kind. I admired her, I loved her, and I knew the chimpanzees loved her too.\n\nBecause I knew Dorothy and for years had observed her role in her chimpanzee society, I wasn't surprised by the chimpanzees' grief over her death. The human reaction to Monica's photo was a different matter; it did surprise me. Although we share more than 98 percent of our DNA with chimpanzees, and this genetic similarity had become common knowledge, often cited by popular media, I knew that few human people could really comprehend the intelligence and emotional complexity of chimpanzees any more than I had understood it before I worked with them. That this photo showing a simple expression of grief drew such intense interest around the world told me that many of my kind might have opened their hearts to a real understanding that among us animals there is an evolutionary continuum. My initial inspiration to write this book sprang from the world's reaction to the photo of Dorothy's funeral procession. My memory of her life was a compelling inspiration throughout it.\n\nChimpanzees are still killed for meat, taken captive as pets, and cruelly exploited in biomedical and entertainment industries. The stories of Dorothy and her circle of friends and family need to be told and understood. I tell the stories as honestly as I can, not as an unbiased scientist, but more as a loving ambassador who has attempted to understand them. My personal story, while certainly not as important, is inextricably linked to theirs.\nOne\n\nRoad to Cameroon\n\nI was born to a blue-collar family in Jackson, Mississippi, the heart of social conservatism, racial segregation as a matter of right and wrong, and the Baptist Bible Belt. My mother was a very smart and loving woman who appreciated beauty in nature as much as anyone I've ever known. She had a great sense of humor, but also an underlying sadness that affected her, and her family, throughout her life. Perhaps it was her suffering that also gave rise to her sweet sensitivity for the world's vulnerable and downtrodden, which seemed out of place in the 1960s and 1970s South. My father was a firefighter who anticipated every hunting season with the excitement of a child's countdown to Christmas. Although he brought home the meat of the wild animals he killed many times, I remember him bringing home a whole deer to clean in our backyard only once, when I was quite young. Standing at our back door in my pajamas one winter evening, I watched Daddy, blue eyes twinkling, proud and triumphant, standing over the body of that beautiful buck as he lifted the head by a long antler to facilitate my full appreciation. I took one look at the pretty face and the glazed, lifeless brown eyes and ran to my room sobbing. I would never be a hunter, and as it turned out, my younger brother never took to it very enthusiastically either. I suppose we were a disappointment, but my father tried to make the best of it. He took my mother, my younger brother, and me camping every summer on the Pearl River's sandbars, where we swam, water-skied, built bonfires, and fished. For the sake of parental tolerance and my love of fried fish and hush puppies, I managed to mostly sublimate my tender feelings for fish. We went weeks without baths or telephones while my father's beard seemed to grow longer with every Miller Lite. This was his element, where I thought he was the most competent person in the world. The older I got, the less I liked these escapes from modernity, but they taught me skills and a tolerance for uncomfortable living conditions that would one day be valuable in my travels through rural Africa. Nothing about the outdoors frightened me.\n\nI went to college at Louisiana State University (LSU) in Baton Rouge, three hours from my Mississippi home. During my freshman year on campus, I met an instructor of a Korean martial art called tae kwon do and soon became his student at the school he operated with a partner. Training at the school of these skilled and dedicated teachers awakened the athlete in me. I took my training seriously, and while I was still in college I earned my first-degree black belt; years later I earned my second-degree. Tae kwon do gave me something more than physical fitness and self-defense skills. It taught me to act in the face of fear, including my fear of failure.\n\nThroughout my undergraduate years at LSU, I worked as a waitress to help pay my bills. For a while I made decent tips in country-and-western bars during those urban cowboy days when mechanical bulls became a part of nightlife culture in Louisiana. My parents were delighted when I was accepted into the LSU School of Veterinary Medicine, but it would mean four years of economic hardship for them, as I wasn't able to work much in the face of the rigorous academic program. They struggled to see me through it.\n\nDuring my first year of veterinary school, I witnessed my \"mentors\" cruelly dehorning cows and castrating baby pigs, both without anesthesia, as was standard practice in the agriculture industry. Soon afterward, I swore off eating mammals forever. I wouldn't play a part in that kind of animal suffering, even as a consumer. A few years later I decided that chickens and fish were safe from me, too, thereby coming to my vegetarianism gradually.\n\nAs a young veterinarian I was restless for change and adventure, enough so that I was willing to move with my dogs and cats and few possessions to new places and endure the loneliness of being a stranger to everyone. I'm not sure what I was looking for exactly, maybe just a place where I could really feel at home. I moved from Louisiana to my first job just outside of Nashville, Tennessee, then to a clinic in Santa Fe, New Mexico, and finally landed in a bigger veterinary hospital in Portland, Oregon, where I settled down, or so I thought. I worked very hard proving my worth, and after only a year, the two owners of Pacific Veterinary Hospital offered to finance my buy-in to the practice. I became a one-third owner, making my parents very proud. For a few years I was content saving animal lives and interacting with the humans who loved them. The people who stood before me seeking help for their beloved pets were motivated, at least during the time they were with me, by what was best in them\u2014their love and concern for someone vulnerable who depended on them, someone they chose to care about. After a few years, though, I got thirsty for challenge, for some adrenaline in my life, and I just felt I should be doing something different. Against the advice of my parents and other cooler heads, I sold my interest in the veterinary practice to take a lower-paying job with In Defense of Animals (IDA), a nonprofit animal advocacy organization based in Mill Valley, California. I opened its new Northwest office in Portland and became the first Northwest director.\n\n\"I want to use my credibility as a veterinarian to advocate for animals in a bigger way,\" I said to anyone who asked. Making a decent living\u2014maximizing my earning potential\u2014seemed by comparison a trivial goal.\n\nDuring my first three years with IDA, I benefited from the mentorship and friendship of its founder and director, Dr. Elliot Katz, who was also a veterinarian. I called him frequently for advice, and he was usually a willing sounding board for my ideas. On behalf of the organization, I filed two successful public records lawsuits to get information about biomedical experiments on monkeys, and I led an effort that ended the sale of dogs and cats from an Oregon animal shelter for biomedical research. In addition and perhaps most consequentially in the long run, as a representative of IDA I was able to provide veterinary care to animals in sanctuaries, eventually including primates in Cameroon, Africa.\n\nI met Peter Jenkins and Liza Gadsby, native Oregonians who had cofounded the conservation organization Pandrillus for drill monkeys and chimpanzees in Nigeria and had recently begun a partnership with the government in neighboring Cameroon to convert the dilapidated Limbe Zoo into the Limbe Wildlife Center (LWC). This zoo-turned-wildlife-center, in the pretty but impoverished coastal town of Limbe, served to educate visitors about the endangered status of wildlife while it acted as a primate sanctuary, receiving and caring for orphaned chimpanzees, gorillas, and monkeys. Stretched thin by their bigger project in Nigeria, Peter and Liza needed veterinary supplies and skill in Cameroon, and I was eager to help them. The exoticism of the location and the opportunity to work with chimpanzees and gorillas held a huge attraction for me.\n\nIn January 1997, sponsored in part by Dr. Shirley McGreal and her renowned International Primate Protection League and accompanied by Kathy Pearson, a technician from my old veterinary clinic, I spent one month in Cameroon providing veterinary care at LWC, mostly to young chimpanzees, gorillas, and monkeys who had been orphaned by hunters who'd killed their mothers for the meat trade.\n\nKathy and I landed at the airport in the city of Douala late one afternoon. We descended from the plane along a steep portable metal staircase at the edge of the runway and walked across the tarmac to the interior of the airport. The sun was bright and the air humid, hot, and familiar. While the ambient temperature and air quality were dramatically different from those of Oregon in January, it felt like going home to Mississippi. A long-term LWC volunteer named Lolly, a native of Britain in her late twenties, met us inside the airport. As we were all leaving the baggage area, hordes of aggressive porters bore down on us from every direction, speaking at us in French, all at the same time. When one tried to pry the handle of my roll-on suitcase out of my hand, we engaged in a brief but intense tug-of-war until Lolly ended it by pointing to two other men in the crowd of needy faces. They were the ones we would hire, and it was fair play I supposed, because all the men who weren't chosen fell silent and unceremoniously dispersed to find work elsewhere. When we reached the old Land Rover that Lolly would drive to Limbe, there was a dispute about the amount she would pay the porters. I couldn't follow it, but there was boisterous discussion before it was finally resolved.\n\nAs we rolled along at a snail's pace through the crowded rush-hour streets of Douala, the strange and lively scenes outside our windows absorbed Kathy and me. I was glued to the front-seat window and she to the back, hardly speaking during the trip. Vehicles on the roadway included a few packed minibuses, which I later learned to call bush taxis, a few private cars like our Land Rover, and some motorcycles, but mostly small yellow car taxis filled the road as far as I could see, more Toyotas than anything else. They all pushed forward competitively and managed to create four packed lanes on a roadway built for two. The beeping of their horns created a continual din that puzzled me at first, until I realized that the horns were positioning signals, a necessary part of the driving dance. It was how they managed to keep from hitting each other more often than they did, but judging from the scratches on the sides of all the cars, they hit each other plenty. In addition to the countless crawling cars, pedestrians also claimed the streets. Streams of dark-skinned African people, moving faster than the cars, traveled along the sides of the roadway or squeezed between the packed cars to cross it. A little boy and girl, neither older than ten, held their palms out toward us as they crossed in front of us and navigated the maze of cars to arrive on the other side of the road. How could they be on the streets alone? I wondered silently. Set back a yard or two from the road at various places, women sat on low stools grilling some kind of food on small barbecue pits, and people stopped to buy it. A waitress served huge bottles of beer to customers sitting at open-air tables in front of a wooden building with cracking white paint. From just inside the doors of this bar, large speakers blasted customers and commuters alike with extremely loud African music. A minute later, Dolly Parton took over the speakers with an equally loud and somewhat crackly rendition of \"I Will Always Love You.\" A variety of pungent smells came and went along our route, creeping into the invisible fog of car exhaust. Only a few yards from the road, I saw a huge undulating pile of stinking garbage, several yards wide and five feet high in places. A number of thin dogs scrounged around its periphery.\n\nAfter we broke free from the traffic jam near the outskirts of Douala, military police stopped our Land Rover to ask for Lolly's driving permit, the papers for the car, and each of our passports. Lolly stared silently ahead as she handed documents out the window. I would learn that checkpoints such as this one dot the roadways of Cameroon, manned by officers ostensibly looking for bandits, and certainly looking for bribes. But on this first night I experienced no sense of the intrusion, and when one grim-faced officer looked from my passport photo to my face, I smiled broadly and gave him a little wave. Caught off guard, he smiled back as he returned my passport. And off we went careening down the darkening road toward Limbe.\n\nKathy and I stayed in the Miramar Hotel, located in Limbe's beautiful botanical garden on a low cliff right above the rocky Atlantic coast. Our hotel room was in a row of picturesque royal blue and white cottages, nestled upon a bed of lush green manicured grass, accented here and there with bright tropical flowers. It had two single beds and an oscillating floor fan. On the bathroom wall hung a hot water heater, but it didn't work, and the clerk told us that at the moment none of the other rooms had hot water either. Taking cold showers was the one hardship I couldn't bear without complaint. Each morning we started our day with coffee and bread in the hotel's open-air restaurant, facing the ocean. The wood-paneled restaurant had walls on only two sides, so we had a beautiful panoramic view of the blue-gray sea, the birds gliding gracefully above it and the few fishermen moving quietly in small wooden boats on its surface.\n\nAt LWC, Kathy and I were assisted by a competent African staff who knew how to sedate primates efficiently, so we were able to accomplish a lot quickly. During our month in Limbe, we worked with the African employees and European volunteers to perform health screens on sixty-six primate orphans. Fortunately, Limbe is located in the 20 percent of Cameroon that is English speaking, so we could communicate easily here. We tested for tuberculosis and a battery of viruses, and I sutured a few wounds along the way. During our third week, we took one day off to drive a few miles out of town to the sandy beach with a South African man we met at the hotel. I ran across the dark volcanic sand like a wild thing set free and splashed into the warm Atlantic sea in shorts and a T-shirt.\n\nTwo days later, I traveled with a driver to the city of Yaound\u00e9, six hours away, to pick up a six-year-old chimpanzee named Pierre from a French biomedical research facility that had agreed to release him to LWC. During this arduous round trip, we had to traverse Douala en route to Yaound\u00e9. I became much more familiar with the omnipresent checkpoints and really noticed the oppressive poverty of so many of Cameroon's people. Severely disabled beggars lined the medians, and school-age children moved from car to car, either begging or selling hard candy, boiled eggs, packages of tissue, and other things. Men trying to eke out a living selling sunglasses displayed on placards hanging from their necks, or music CDs, or ties, or T-shirts, or windshield wiper blades, or any number of other things that travelers might need approached me hopefully at the service stations where we bought fuel. A dozen women and men sat under the sun in front of typewriters along a busy business route in Yaound\u00e9, offering cheap, on-the-spot secretarial services with minimal overhead costs. I was touched by the entrepreneurial spirit of these people trying to survive in the city however they could. There were also signs of affluence in both big cities. Tiny stick-and-mud shacks abutted sprawling spacious residences and businesses.\n\nAt the biomedical research facility, we found Pierre in a small outdoor cage near the back door leading to a parking lot, and I had to move him from there to our even smaller transport cage. I had brought a blowpipe and darts with me so I could blow a dart of anesthesia into Pierre, but in the end I didn't need it. I was able to slip my hand through the bars and inject the drug into Pierre's leg with a syringe while a technician at the research facility distracted him.\n\nI sat beside the transport cage in the back of the Land Rover so I was there to comfort Pierre when he woke up only a few minutes outside of Yaound\u00e9. He knew that he had been stuck and I was the one who'd done it, but he accepted the bananas and papaya and peanuts I offered him through the bars of the cage. His grateful grunts of delight over the food, interspersed with his deep, probing gazes into my eyes, told me he was open to friendship, even as his eyes disconcerted me slightly with the obvious intelligence they windowed. His protruding ribs spoke volumes about the callous disregard of the research facility staff, including affluent expats from Europe, and I tried not to let my anger ruin my enjoyment of this sweet time. I hadn't yet learned to mimic the way chimpanzees groom one another, but as I touched and petted Pierre, he leaned toward me against the bars of the cage to maximize my access. When I was tired, we leaned against opposite sides of the same bars so our bodies were touching. During a stop for fuel, I asked the driver to buy some meat from a woman cooking by the station, and this one time I chose not to ask from what animal it came. Pierre relished every morsel with a joy that seemed almost overwhelming, grunting and rolling his eyes heavenward as he ate. When I got out to ease myself, as we say in Cameroon, behind some bushes on the side of the road, a mosquito bit me on my cheek. I only knew it left a mark when Pierre squeezed his fingers through the bars to gently touch the spot on my cheek. This small, subtle exchange, Pierre acknowledging the new lesion on my face, along with my other interactions with him during our long ride to Limbe, narrowed the gap between our species for me in a way that years of academic study and knowledge about genetic similarity could never do. Sadly, this sweet little chimpanzee boy died during an outbreak of pneumonia soon after I left him at LWC. My memories of him and the profound effect our interactions had on me remain vivid so many years later.\n\nI was sad to leave Cameroon. During the several days that Kathy and I spent in the beautiful city of Paris afterward, I pined for the raw, pungent, relative squalor of the African environment we had left behind. Cameroon was life and death; Paris seemed boring by comparison.\n\nAnd the animal protection and conservation issues in Cameroon, where bushmeat was so prevalent, were compelling for me as an activist. I came to understand that the colloquial term bushmeat refers to any animal killed in the bush and eaten, including chimpanzees, gorillas, monkeys, forest elephants, various species of antelopes, cane rats, pangolins, crocodiles, and turtles. Cameroon law lists chimpanzees and gorillas as completely protected species because they are in danger of extinction. According to the law that was strengthened in 1994, it's illegal to kill, capture, buy, sell, or possess a chimpanzee or gorilla for any purpose, but in 1997, there was almost no enforcement of this law.\n\nHistorically, Cameroon's mostly Bantu people had lived in the forest, surviving on what they could kill or gather from their habitat, along with some subsistence agriculture. During the five decades that preceded my arrival in Cameroon, the rapidly increasing human population had urbanized to a greater degree than before. While many people still lived in small rural settlements, those who congregated in towns and cities created the demand for a commercial trade in bushmeat. On its way from the forest to urban dinner plates, bushmeat becomes expensive, as various middlemen, or dealers, who transport and sell it cover their costs and make a profit. I was told that the meat of chimpanzees and gorillas is sweet and succulent, and adding to its desirability in some circles is the belief that eating it increases sexual virility. As chimpanzee and gorilla numbers have dwindled, their meat has become more expensive, adding to its status as a delicacy. Some of Cameroon's affluent people serve it on holidays, at weddings, and to honor special guests.\n\nI loved my contact with the primates, but I was keenly aware that my \"opportunity\" to know them was a result of the awful tragedy that had happened to them and their families. Chimpanzee and gorilla and monkey families, including mothers with clinging infants, were slaughtered by the thousands for an illegal (at least where chimpanzees and gorillas were concerned) meat trade, and these sweet captive orphans were a side effect. While the sweet old-world monkeys inspired my compassion and the emotionally subtle, mysterious, and relatively gentle gorillas inspired my awe and admiration, the chimpanzees, more than any species I worked with, inspired my deep empathy. I recognized them as my own. I didn't have a definitive plan when I left Cameroon, but I knew I would be coming back. I knew that their cause had somehow become mine.\nTwo\n\nCommitment\n\nEdmund Stone was a British national who had already lived in the United States for seventeen years when I met him in 1997, soon after my first trip to Cameroon. He was producing a talk show for the local Fox Television station when he saw an article in the Oregonian, our state newspaper, about my recent trip. He recruited me as a guest on his talk show, and soon afterward we began dating. Edmund was six feet tall and slim. He had a perfectly groomed beard and wore his silky, light brown, shoulder-length hair pulled back in a ponytail. He had first gone to Los Angeles from Britain to work as a BBC correspondent for a radio show about the lifestyles of the rich and famous and had developed a profitable r\u00e9sum\u00e9-writing business on the side. Many years later, living in Portland and still writing r\u00e9sum\u00e9s, he maintained his refined BBC accent, which was quite different from the way people talked in his rural England hometown. He cracked me up with his hilarious imitation of how he once talked. He was good company, and with his tendency toward hedonistic pursuits, such as four-olive martinis after work, he was a welcome addition to my unbalanced, workcentric life.\n\nLater the same year, Edmund accompanied me on a working trip to Cameroon. I had agreed to help British national Chris Mitchell set up a veterinary care program for the new and improved Yaound\u00e9 Zoo. Chris was the founder of the Cameroon Wildlife Aid Fund, which would later continue without him, first under the direction of Talila Sivan and the late Avi Sivan, and still later under Rachel Hogan, who oversaw its renaming to Ape Action Africa. I would eventually enjoy the friendship and support of all three of these conservation heroes, but during our trip of October 1997, Edmund and I worked long, grueling hours alongside Chris Mitchell to vaccinate and vasectomize, perform dental work, and tend to various other medical needs of primates at Yaound\u00e9 Zoo.\n\nEdmund and I spent two weeks in the town of Limbe, where I had first worked at LWC. Here we befriended three adult chimpanzees, whom I had noticed during my first trip. Jacky, Pepe, and Becky were on display in three small cages located on the back side of the Atlantic Beach Hotel, a quarter mile down the coast from the less expensive Miramar, where we stayed. Their cages of concrete and metal sat about three feet off the ground, lined up in a straight row under some sheltering trees\u2014built there, I supposed, for the amusement of tourists staying at the hotel, should they tire of the beautiful sea on the other side. Edmund and I visited the three chimpanzees and took them food treats at least two or three times a day during our stay in Limbe. Captured as infants by poachers, the chimpanzees had been in captivity most of their lives. Tormented Jacky, a male in his late thirties, was furious and possibly irrevocably insane. Handsome Pepe, a male in his early twenties, wore his loneliness for anyone to see, anyone who paid attention. Sassy Becky, around twenty years old, was the mischief maker, still a kid in some ways. They came to anticipate our visits. They often recognized us when we were no more than silhouettes in the distance, and they welcomed us long before we arrived with excited vocalizations\u2014crescendos of panting and hooting that climaxed in high-pitched screams. \"They've seen us,\" I said to Edmund more than once, and we always hurried our pace so as not to keep them waiting.\n\nAs the illegal trade in bushmeat thrived, surviving orphans, too small to offer much meat, could be sold as pets or tourist attractions. Gorilla infants, not as hardy as those of chimpanzees, often lost the will to live and refused to eat after their mothers died. Once they were out of their native forest habitat, they were exposed to bacteria, amoeba, and viruses to which they had little immunity, and many died of infections. It was uncommon to see them in captivity. While many chimpanzee infants died too, either during the hunt or soon after their capture, others survived to languish and suffer for years or even decades in strict confinement on chains or in small cages like Jacky, Pepe, and Becky.\n\nMy sense of the injustice of what had been done to Jacky, Pepe, and Becky, and my sadness for the smallness of their lives in these horrible cages, was overwhelming. I pitied them for this fate that was beyond their control, and at the same time I was intrigued by who they were. Edmund and I each developed relationships with the chimpanzees. Pepe stole my heart first and most completely in those first weeks. From the strict confines of his lonely cell, he solicited our interaction with one big arm stretched out through the bars. The first time he beckoned me I closed the gap between us with little hesitation and allowed him to wrap his arm around my back. Somehow, I didn't doubt his gentleness. His muscles were huge and he was fifteen to twenty times stronger than me, but he handled me like a fragile egg. I breathed in his body odor, which was a little like stale sweat but not sharp or unpleasant. I thrilled at being close to him. Although I had read about chimpanzee behavior in natural free-living groups, I hadn't had the opportunity to observe them. I didn't know how to mimic their behavior\u2014to try to communicate with a chimpanzee on chimpanzee terms. On the other hand, living as a \"pet\" for ten years after his capture, before he was dumped at the hotel, had humanized Pepe. He wanted to be close to humans, was comfortable around us. I certainly wanted to know and understand him. Our mutual ape-likeness gave us some inherent ground for communication\u2014we understood each other's gestures. At each of our meetings, Pepe's first business was to groom me\u2014my face, my head, my arms\u2014and the gentle touch of his big fingers was immensely pleasurable. Free-living chimpanzees spend up to 25 percent of their waking hours grooming or being groomed by their companions. What started millions of years ago, probably when chimpanzees first started living in groups, as a useful activity to control insects and keep clean evolved into an important social activity. Through this intimate touching, chimpanzees establish and maintain loyal friendships, comfort and calm children, nurture political alliances, and maintain hierarchies. Maternal grooming from the time of birth imprints the behavior on chimpanzees very early. Even though he was orphaned as a baby, Pepe knew that grooming was an important aspect of any blossoming friendship. By grooming me, he taught me how to groom him\u2014to part his hairs and look for blemishes, dirt, or insects, to scratch or flick his skin as I searched, to move over an area systematically before moving to the next. I used my newfound grooming technique to help cement my friendship with Becky, too, although her receptivity to my overtures varied. Sometimes she was happy to spend a half hour visiting with me at the bars of her cage. Other times she kept her distance and turned her back on me, literally. Jacky was a different story altogether. We had learned about his reputation from people at LWC before we ever visited the three at the hotel. He had injured several people, and we knew not to approach him. We tossed to him the treats we handed to Pepe and Becky, or sometimes I placed them quickly through the bars of his cage while his back was turned. I noticed that he too vocalized excitedly when we approached. Our visits and the tasty treats we brought punctuated with pleasure the long hours of boredom the chimpanzees endured each day. When the time for our departure approached, I worried about their disappointment\u2014imagined them waiting eagerly for visits that would never come. I didn't want to leave them, especially not knowing when we could return, but we had no choice. We had jobs and companion animals awaiting our return to the United States.\n\nBack home, I thought about the three chimpanzees every day. I continued my advocacy work with IDA and worked some shifts seeing my old dog and cat patients at Pacific Veterinary Hospital, but being an animal activist against institutionalized abuses in the United States was like chipping away at a large stone, and I knew that other competent veterinarians could take over my work with companion animals in the veterinary clinic. In contrast, there was a sense of immediacy and possibility for bringing about big changes in Cameroon, and a sense that, at least where Jacky, Pepe, and Becky were concerned, no one else would save them if we didn't.\n\nI simply could not be happy going about my comfortable life while I was aware that Jacky, Pepe, and Becky remained so bored and miserable. Of course it was true that animals all over the world were suffering as much, or even more, than these three chimpanzees, but they had become my friends. My compulsion to save them was personal.\n\nEdmund felt the same, although perhaps with less intensity. He and I made a promise to each other that we would figure out a way to get Jacky, Pepe, and Becky out of those grim cages at the hotel and give them a better life somewhere else, anywhere else. It was a promise that seems almost casual in hindsight, now that I know what fulfilling it would mean. Although Edmund and I were romantic partners, we were also partners in this mission. Without his mutual commitment to the goals, achieving them would have been truly impossible.\n\nLWC was located on the edge of Limbe very near the hotel, but the center's physical space was limited. It had no facility, or even space for us to build a new enclosure, for three adult chimpanzees. The future of the Yaound\u00e9 Zoo was too uncertain for us to think of taking them there. The only way to assure a better life for Jacky, Pepe, and Becky was to start a new sanctuary\u2014a notion that eventually evolved into an actual plan to take the chimpanzees back to some natural habitat forest and protect them within an electric enclosure there. We couldn't move the chimps to a bigger cage somewhere; we would take them back to the forest.\n\nBy the time I knew my calling was with chimpanzees in Africa, IDA president Dr. Elliot Katz had come to believe, at least somewhat, in the power of my determination. Enough so that he agreed to continue to pay my salary while I tried to set up a chimpanzee sanctuary in Cameroon. At the same time, he made it clear that IDA was not in a position to fund a project in Africa from its California office. IDA's contribution was to be my salary, and I would need to raise funds for the Cameroon project.\n\nFortunately, I had Edmund on my side. His commitment to me and to the cause, as much as, if not more than, any other factor, gave us our early successes. During the following year, he and I set up IDA-Africa in a room of my house in Beaverton, Oregon, and raised the seed money to start a new sanctuary for the \"Atlantic Beach Chimpanzees,\" as we called them in our fund-raising drive. Neither of us had any experience in fund-raising, but over the course of a year, with the help of friends in our Portland community as well as some from Seattle, we gradually accumulated money through book sales, plant sales, and small receptions. Edmund in particular played the crucial role of reaching out to individual donors. I knew he was driven by his own passion for the cause, and also by his passion for me.\n\nIn the spring of 1998, I met French national Estelle Raballand, a pretty, curvy twenty-six-year-old with bright brown eyes and very dark brown wavy hair, which she wore short, just below her ears. She had an easy laugh and spoke near perfect English with a charming French accent. She liked to use American expressions, but she could get them wrong. Her funniest that I can remember: \"F you and the horse you wrote it on!\" We met at an annual event of the International Primate Protection League in South Carolina. She had lived in the country of Guinea, West Africa, for five years with her American husband, Dana Ward, who worked for a nongovernmental organization focusing on family planning and HIV prevention. Estelle had worked with the Guinean government to set up a small sanctuary for baby chimpanzees. She was in the United States temporarily before she and Dana would move with their son, Nicholas, to Yaound\u00e9, Cameroon, for his work. Our mutual friends Peter Jenkins and Liza Gadsby were first to suggest that Estelle and I work together on the ground in Cameroon.\n\nIn late 1998, Edmund and I traveled to Cameroon with a plan to stay for a few months to set up the sanctuary. We would then leave it in Estelle's hands and return to the United States to continue fund-raising. Our first goal was to find a sanctuary site, and to that end we used topographical maps to identify areas of interest or we learned about areas during our discussions with other people working in the forests. Sometimes we worked with volunteers from LWC and used their vehicle. Other times we took public transport, renting taxis by the day, to trek through forests of Cameroon's English-speaking Southwest Province looking for a suitable sanctuary site. There were many criteria to consider. We wanted natural chimpanzee habitat where our presence could serve to protect free-living chimpanzees, flat land to make fence building easier, year-round access to the site even during heavy rains, and farming communities of people with the know-how to grow fruits and vegetables to feed the chimpanzees. Location was everything, and finding the right one was essential.\nThree\n\nAt the Atlantic Beach Hotel\n\nCameroon's prominent Muna family owned the Atlantic Beach Hotel. The patriarch of the family, Soloman Tandeng Muna, had served as prime minister of West Cameroon, vice president of Cameroon, and then speaker of Cameroon's General Assembly for fifteen years. His six sons and one daughter were all successful in one profession or another, and the family name was well known throughout Cameroon. In 1998, George Muna, a businessman based in the city of Douala, took over management of the Atlantic Beach Hotel and two other hotels the family owned in Limbe. His move to the coastal town was precipitated by the departure of the family's French hotel manager, who had fled the country with money extorted from the hotel business.\n\nBefore his departure, the French manager had assured us we could take Jacky, Pepe, and Becky to our sanctuary, but we weren't sure what his exodus would mean for the chimpanzees. Now, we needed to get the approval of the Muna family firsthand. Because Estelle and Dana had moved to Cameroon a few months before Edmund and I came back in November 1998, Estelle first went alone to meet with George Muna. To our great relief, George was quick to agree that we could and should take the three chimpanzees away from his hotel.\n\nI met George that November, soon after Edmund and I arrived from the United States, when I approached him in the wood-paneled hotel reception area about the possibility of renting an oceanside house owned by the Muna family. The neglected two-bedroom house, white with blue trim like the Atlantic Beach Hotel located one hundred yards from it, was perched idyllically on a low rocky cliff above the ocean. Edmund and I needed a base of operations, and I wanted to live in this little house badly enough to come knocking on George's door, so to speak. George was slightly overweight and not exactly handsome in a classic sense, but his charisma filled the room and made me self-conscious during our first meeting. He was wearing a dark blue dress shirt and maroon tie, and he spoke to me with the dominant self-confidence of Cameroon's aristocratic class. After I introduced myself and explained my purpose, George led me into his office, past at least ten people who waited outside his door for an audience. I would learn that Cameroonians wait far more patiently and graciously than Americans and that receiving important people first is normal. Businessmen and government officials generally scheduled their day's appointments with everyone arriving at the same time and then received each person in an order appropriate to his status. It took me years to understand that this inefficient system that wasted so much of my and everyone else's time was the only one that could work in a society with so many communication, transportation, and general infrastructure challenges. No one could be expected to \"keep the time\" for precisely scheduled appointments. George sat in a leather chair behind his big wooden desk, and I sat on the edge of a hard-backed chair in front of it while he explained why he was grateful to us for proposing a solution to his chimpanzee problem.\n\nGeorge Muna and I spoke easily to each other, which was surprising considering our vastly different backgrounds and perspectives on the world. My white liberal guilt, vegetarianism, and casual clothes were in stark contrast to George's status consciousness, culturally entrenched carnivorism, and tailored suits.\n\n\"The chimpanzees were here when my family took ownership of the hotel, and they've caused us trouble from the beginning,\" he told me.\n\nRising briefly to pull a cardboard filing box from a room-length shelf that contained dozens, he spoke of insulting letters he had received from European hotel guests complaining about the living conditions of the chimpanzees. Sitting again, he pulled a letter from the box and handed it to me. It was in French, and I couldn't read a word, but scanning the first page and glancing at the second, I nodded knowingly, trying to look sympathetic about the problem of his family's business image with French-speaking Europeans.\n\nGeorge went on to say that his bigger concern was about safety. \"I worry every night that those chimpanzees will hurt a hotel guest,\" he said. \"They've already wounded several employees.\"\n\n\"That's a valid worry,\" I affirmed sincerely.\n\nWhile our motivations for wanting to relocate the chimpanzees were different, George and I could certainly eye the same prize of getting them moved. It was the foundation for an alliance of sorts. Before I left his office, George had agreed to rent Edmund and me the little run-down oceanside house, in the most beautiful location I had ever lived, for the equivalent of $100 per month for three months.\n\nEdmund and I could hear Jacky, Pepe, and Becky vocalizing from the house. When we weren't out in the field looking for a sanctuary site, we visited the chimpanzees frequently. Going to see them was the first thing I did each morning, even before coffee. I hardly ever ate without saving something for them, although they got enough food from the hotel staff, and we were always bringing gifts of fruit juice, tennis balls, which Becky and Pepe liked to toss back and forth with us, clip-on key chains, magazines, mirrors, and anything else we thought might ease their boredom. Becky especially enjoyed the magazines we gave her, and she paged slowly through them, looking at the pictures. Pepe loved the plastic mirrors we brought\u2014most animals cannot recognize their own reflections, but chimpanzees can. Pepe opened his mouth wide to examine his teeth and held it behind himself to examine a scratch on his lower back. He even used it to surreptitiously watch what the other chimps were doing behind him.\n\nJacky, the oldest of the three, was in the middle cage. We knew he had been at the hotel since the late 1960s, possibly earlier. People called him the \"mad chimpanzee\" of Limbe, and it wasn't difficult to see how he earned that reputation. He refused to make eye contact with us, and his various forms of stereotypy, while heart wrenching, did make him appear lost to the sane world. In one of his most disturbing and frequent manifestations, he placed one open hand in his mouth while rapidly and forcefully pounding the top of his head with his other fisted hand. He abused himself like this frequently and for minutes at a time. Jacky was bald on top of his head, and the skin there was thickened, as a result of his head beating. Other times he sat with a fixed upward stare as he rocked back and forth for hours, sometimes masturbating while he rocked. He was unresponsive to the taunts of human onlookers and seemed oblivious to their presence until the fateful moment when a careless person ventured too close to his cage and paid a high price for the mistake. With lightning speed and certain intent Jacky could grab hapless hands, pull them into his cage, and with a single bite inflict irreversible damage. Restaurant employees, careful not to get too close, threw his food to his outstretched hands.\n\nOne evening after we ate dinner in the hotel restaurant, Edmund and I were visiting the chimpanzees just after dark. I was filling bottles of drinking water for the chimps from a freestanding tap when I heard Edmund's terrified scream for help from behind me. I spun around to see him plastered against Jacky's cage, pulling back futilely against the powerful iron grip on his right arm. When Jacky decided to let go, Edmund's own strength propelled him backward and hard to the ground. Before I could get to him, he had rolled over to a kneeling crouch, cradling his hand in pain. During the interminable several seconds that I couldn't see his hand, I feared the worst. I pulled on his arm, trying to see his right hand, which he stubbornly enclosed in his left, frozen by the pain.\n\n\"Let me see your hand!\" I shouted. When he finally opened his left hand to reveal his bloody right one, we saw together in the dim light that all his fingers were intact. \"Thank God,\" I said. While he still clutched his hand in agony, I was grateful he hadn't been permanently maimed.\n\nOne mile away, at the veterinary room of Limbe Wildlife Center (we had to take a taxi to get there because we still didn't have our own vehicle), I stitched a deep bite wound, an inch and a half long, and left open another small but deep puncture. Edmund's right hand and all its fingers would eventually return to full function.\n\nOther people who had been hurt by Jacky were employees of the hotel. Three painted words, MONKEYS ARE SEIZING, on each end of the cage warned visitors to stay away, and it seemed that tourists took the warning seriously. Cameroonians were typically afraid of large animals anyway, but employees were injured because they were doing work around the cage, or because with familiarity, over time, they became too casual in wandering near it. At least two of them lost fingers, and one was left with a permanently frozen knuckle. The terrible injuries caused people a lot of pain and were financially costly for the Muna family, but Jacky could have caused much more damage than he did. With a few well-placed chomps he could have removed a human hand, but in the cases of which I was aware, he bit only once before letting go.\n\nWe wondered whether Jacky could ever be socialized with other chimpanzees. If he were to escape our enclosure at the sanctuary and severely injure or kill someone, not only would it be a horrible and arguably preventable tragedy, but it would endanger the whole project. One consultant told me that euthanasia was the only reasonable solution for Jacky. For me, ending Jacky's life would have been unethical, and leaving him at the hotel alone while we took Pepe and Becky to a better life would have been unfathomably cruel. Jacky was a victim of a terrible injustice, and I wanted to make it right for him. Although I worried about the dangers of taking Jacky to the sanctuary we would be building and went so far as to get some Prozac donated for him (which I never gave him), I never considered any option but giving him a chance to recover at the sanctuary. Edmund and Estelle were my allies every step of the way in this decision. We didn't know of any precedents where chimpanzees as psychologically damaged as Jacky had become well-adjusted members of a chimpanzee society, but we knew we had to try.\n\nPepe and Becky were much easier to love initially. The two of them had been together since they were babies, raised as pets by a French expatriate couple. Although the couple probably didn't start off with terrible intentions, they surely had very limited understanding of Pepe's and Becky's needs. No human home and garden could accommodate normal chimpanzee behavior. When the chimpanzees became adolescents, much stronger than anyone in the household and difficult for the couple to manage, they were left at the Atlantic Beach Hotel, where Jacky already languished in the middle of three cages. Other chimpanzees had lived and died there many years earlier. Pepe and Becky were placed in individual cages on either side of Jacky\u2014deprived of the ability to touch or comfort one another with mutual embraces. Even if anyone thought of it, which they might have, the small mercy of putting Pepe and Becky in cages next to each other couldn't have been accomplished without the ability to anesthetize and move Jacky. The three chimpanzees had lived in their single-file configuration for ten years when we met them in 1997.\n\nPepe always loved my attention. Back and shoulder massages became part of the bargain of my friendship with him. After he groomed me, it was his turn. He turned and plastered his back to the wall of the cage and dropped his arms to his side. I massaged the strong muscles of his arms, neck, and upper back just as I would have liked it, and when my fingers got tired, I groomed his skin using the technique I learned by watching him. Pepe loved my touch and seemed to really enjoy his massages, which I delivered lovingly, but writing this now, so many years later with so much more experience, I can't help but wonder if he would have preferred simple grooming. Whenever I pointed to Pepe's hand, he knew instantly to pass his huge extremity through the bars, and my small hands cradling one of his were dwarfed by the comparison. I cleaned under his fingernails and toenails, cutting them with my large toenail clippers when they got too long. Pepe was always tolerant and trusting.\n\nEstelle warned me to watch him carefully for sudden changes in his temperament. Adult male chimpanzees are emotionally volatile, pushed around to a large extent by their hormones. In the wrong set of circumstances, all can be deadly dangerous. Pepe was locked in a cage behind a hotel, while I was free to come and go. While he himself should have been living free with his own kind in a forest far away from us, he was reduced, in his lonely boredom, to begging for interaction from me on my terms. These were definitely the wrong circumstances. The sadness in the situation was ever present for me. The danger was brought home when Pepe bit a long, deep gash into the upper arm of a volunteer from Limbe Wildlife Center. I wasn't there at the time and never knew the exact circumstances under which the bite occurred, but the man had worked with chimpanzees for years and knew how to behave around them. It was a disturbing incident. Nonetheless, during my sporadic long visits with Pepe in those early years of 1997, 1998, and 1999, the gentle side of this large and powerful chimpanzee was the only side he showed to me.\n\nBecky, on the other hand, was clever and often sweet natured, but also mischievous and prone to mood swings. She had shiny, almost blue-black hair and a beautiful black face, from which her sharply contrasting topaz-brown eyes sparkled.\n\nOne morning when Edmund was hard at work on repairs to our apartment, I was walking home after a meeting with a local businessman from whom I was soliciting donations of metal for the sanctuary. When the chimpanzees saw me passing, they extended their familiar excited greeting of pant hoots and screams. I was wearing a light beige dress that buttoned all the way down the front and fell to within a few inches of my ankles\u2014the only dress I owned that was fit to wear to business meetings with government officials or potential contributors. Ordinarily I would have changed clothes before visiting the chimpanzees, but I couldn't resist their hearty invitation this morning. Something in Becky's bright-eyed expression of anticipation caused me to visit her first.\n\nAs I reached the side of the cage where she sat watching my approach, I realized she was interested in the half-full bottle of drinking water in my right hand. Her eyes traveled from the bottle of water to my eyes and back to the water\u2014a master of efficient communication. I took the screw cap off, although she would have had no problem doing it herself, and handed her the bottle. She took a big swallow and set the bottle upright on the concrete floor. Careful not to tip over the water bottle, she scooted close to the cage bars and rotated her leg to reveal a spot on her wide inner thigh that she wanted me to see. As she pointed to the area, I reached my forearms through the bars to examine it.\n\nAs Pepe had done with me, and as I had watched other chimpanzees at LWC do with one another, I rhythmically opened and closed my mouth with some lip and tongue smacking to assure Becky I only intended to groom her. I did my best to mimic what I had seen, but I've learned since then that the almost universal chimpanzee mouth movement during grooming is highly individualized. It can be subtle and quiet or vigorous and loud depending on who is doing it. Regardless of the exact characteristics, it communicates benign intent with perfect clarity. Even chimpanzees who have been orphaned as young infants tense their lips in concentration and pair grooming with mouth movement as they mature, which implies an innate neurological connection between the nerves used in precision hand movements and those innervating the mouth. My own mouth positioning when I perform a difficult surgery or other truly challenging fine motor task with my hands is of the same quality, although more subtle, as that of the chimpanzees when they concentrate on grooming someone. For us it may be a benign and useless remnant now, but the connection may have played a role in the evolution of human language. Grooming the chimpanzees didn't trigger my unconscious mouth positioning the way performing surgery on them would, the way grooming me did for them. My mouth movements as I groomed Becky were practiced and intentional, but she understood my meaning.\n\nWith her head bowed she watched my fingers part her hairs to reveal a tiny inflamed pink spot\u2014it looked like an insect bite. I flicked at it gently as I raised my eyes to hers reassuringly for just a moment and then proceeded to groom all around the tiny lesion on her thigh. Soon, she too began grooming her own thigh, so the two of us occupied ourselves with this single important task.\n\nIn the cage next to Becky, Jacky pretended to ignore me, but I was aware of Pepe watching and waiting a few yards away in the cage on the other side of Jacky's. I needed to visit him, too, and I wanted to find water bottles to give both Pepe and Jacky in case they were thirsty. Even if they weren't, I always tried to be equitable in my distribution of gifts, however small, to the three of them.\n\nJust as I was preparing to leave, Becky casually grabbed a fistful of the ample beige cloth of my dress and pulled it through the bars.\n\n\"No, Becky!\" I said with alarm and to no effect. Without a hint of real malice, but with unalterable intent, she used both her hands to grab my dress from the bottom. Within moments, three-quarters of my lovely dress was crumpled on the dirty concrete cage floor in front of Becky, and I was struggling to keep the back of the dress stretched down over my behind. At first I thought Becky's primary motive was to keep me with her, but her loving caresses of the dress soon convinced me that she really just wanted to share the special cloth. I had two choices: get out of my dress and leave it with her, or convince her to release the dress and me. Slipping the dress over my head and running in my tattered underwear past the hotel lobby and restaurant, where people had begun to arrive for lunch, was a very unappealing option. Glued against the cage, I had nothing with which to bargain, no way to buy back the dress. I tugged gently on the cloth.\n\n\"Becky, please give it back,\" I begged. Clutching the dress firmly in her left hand, she picked up the water bottle with her right and poured water from it onto the dirty concrete in front of her. After a brief glance at my disapproving face, she set the water bottle down so she could use both her hands to scrub the floor with the never-to-be-beige-again cloth. As she cleaned, she stuck her tongue in her cheek as she sometimes did when she was busy, and miffed as I was over the ruining of my dress, I thought she was adorable.\n\nAs I considered the hopelessness of my predicament, I saw George Muna walking some distance away along the driveway of the hotel with two business associates. I shouted his name, trying to sound calm so as not to upset Becky. She had never been aggressive with me, had never threatened to hurt me, but as I was in a vulnerable situation, I thought it prudent not to irritate her. George waved casually and kept walking. Not a big help!\n\nFortunately, after several more minutes, George came back. When he got just close enough to hear me easily, I asked him to bring me a French red apple from the restaurant so I could try to trade it to Becky for my dress. Expensive red apples imported from France were a delicacy for Becky, and I had seen some in the restaurant that morning. While I waited for the apple, I planned my strategy. I didn't think Becky would try to force the apple from my hand, but just in case she didn't respect the rules of fair trade, I planned to ask George to put the apple on the ground near me, out of Becky's reach. When Becky released the dress, I would deliver the apple to her. I thought she would easily understand the bargain I intended. But when George returned carrying the apple, he stopped on the far side of the cage, out of Becky's reach, and held up the apple temptingly for her. When she saw it, her face lit up. After thinking about it for no more than a few seconds, she dropped the dress, crossed the cage, and reached her arm through the bars for George to throw it to her. Instead he laughed and refused, thinking it funny that he had tricked her into releasing me.\n\nObviously, his sense of fairness did not extend to chimpanzees. Both Becky and I were furious at his outrageous act of betrayal. She barked and spat at him, while I yanked the apple from him and handed it to her. Eventually, as George's many other acts of kindness, some of which helped chimpanzees, overshadowed this injustice against Becky, I forgave him. Becky never did. Thereafter, whenever she saw him, she glared with malice, and I knew he better never wander within her reach.\n\nThese chimpanzee visits were happening when we weren't exploring a forest, or meeting with villagers, or meeting with people in other organizations, trying everything we knew to find a suitable sanctuary site. We spent more time discovering sites to explore than we did actually exploring the sites. Every site we looked at had a fatal flaw\u2014it wasn't accessible in the rainy season, or it had no road access at all, or the politics were too complicated.\n\nAfter three challenging months, during which we did not find our perfect sanctuary site and became seriously worried about whether the money we had raised would be enough, Edmund needed to go back to work in the United States. We decided that he would lease out his house in Oregon and move into mine, to save money and focus on raising funds, while I stayed in Cameroon to find a site and set up the sanctuary. I had never planned to stay in Cameroon after Edmund left, but for me to leave would have meant failure, would have meant leaving Jacky, Pepe, and Becky in their cages at the hotel, probably for the rest of their lives. I wasn't willing to fail.\n\nCommunication, both within Cameroon and internationally, was very difficult in those days before cell phones and reliable e-mail. Landlines were few and far between, and connections were erratic. I knew my communication with Edmund would be limited, and I was sad to see him go, but his crucial fund-raising in the United States would enable Estelle and me to push forward in Cameroon.\n\nI loved Edmund, but after he left, with the distance and loneliness, we began to grow apart. The relationship would change very gradually. In the end, it would be me and my needs that would bring about the end of the romantic relationship, not him or anything he did.\n\nWith all my heart I was dedicated to the mission we had undertaken. I knew that Jacky, Pepe, and Becky were not the only captive chimpanzees living in small cages in Cameroon, and I knew that we would rescue others. My idea was to build a small infrastructure with one or more forested enclosures for older captive chimpanzees. I would work with Estelle, other volunteers, and a local staff to set up the sanctuary and then direct it from afar, coming and going from Cameroon as necessary. The problem with my vision at the time stemmed from a very limited understanding about the scope of the chimpanzee orphan problem in Central Africa and about the difficulty of saving and caring for chimpanzees in a country like Cameroon. Ultimately my love for Jacky, Pepe, Becky, and others would inspire a stronger commitment, by far, than any I had ever made. I could not yet fathom the extent to which it would change the course of my life.\nFour\n\nMean Streets\n\nThe big city of Douala, considered the business capital of Cameroon, notorious for its high crime rate, lay between Limbe and Yaound\u00e9 where Estelle lived with Dana and their son. One morning after leaving Limbe en route to Yaound\u00e9, I took a detour off the main road through Douala to check e-mail at a cybercaf\u00e9 in the Akwa District, near Douala's port. As I approached the door of the business\u2014rather preoccupied as usual and not expecting any surprises, since I had been there several times\u2014I could have tripped over a grisly surprise that literally took my breath away. About three yards from the cybercaf\u00e9 threshold, and equidistant from where I stood with my mouth gaping open, lay a bloody, charred human corpse. Blood spattered the concrete under my feet, and the odor of burning flesh was thick in the air. My eyes instinctively avoided what had been the man's face and fell instead upon two military police officers who chatted casually several yards away. Turning my back on the corpse, I peered through the glass of the cybercaf\u00e9 to see people busy at computers. Business appeared to be going on as usual, and although it was a shocking affair to come across, the murdered man on the sidewalk hadn't negated my need to check e-mail. I entered the cybercaf\u00e9 and glanced around for an empty computer. Long, narrow tables made of plywood that was painted white were positioned along two walls of the room, which was also painted white and measured about fifteen by fifteen feet. Two similar tables placed end to end divided the room down the center. Pieces of vertical plywood about two by two feet divided the tables into narrow computer stations. Seeing that two computers were vacant, I paid the female attendant, who sat at her own small desk by the door, for an hour of Internet time. She handed me a small piece of paper with a password written in blue ink and spoke to me in French as she gestured to the computer I should use. I settled into my station, took a couple of deep breaths to calm my racing heart, and glanced at the man sitting at the station next to me. His hair was very short, and he had a light complexion for an African. It was hard to tell his age, maybe early thirties. He wore jeans, a Polo shirt knockoff, polished brown loafers, and wire-rimmed glasses, which were in good condition. I took his appearance to be a sign of relative affluence\u2014that and the fact that he was sitting beside me in one of Douala's more expensive Internet caf\u00e9s. To use the computer here cost the equivalent of two dollars per hour.\n\nIn 1999, Internet connections were still slow and spotty. The man had pushed his chair back from the table slightly. He seemed to be having a moment of downtime, and my quick glance over the divider at the little hourglass on his computer screen confirmed that he was waiting for his Google search to process.\n\n\"Bonjour,\" I said with a slight nod. \"Good morning,\" he shot back effortlessly, aware from my accent that French wasn't my language and letting me know as he turned slightly to face me that he was willing to talk. We exchanged names and pleasantries. His name was William, he taught at the Anglophone university in the town of Buea, and he was visiting his brother in Douala. He knew details about the deadly drama that had unfolded outside and was willing to share them. Like many Cameroonians, William was an eloquent storyteller.\n\n\"It's a story of criminals who got caught by the people,\" he summarized, before continuing with the details. \"A woman came out of the Standard Chartered Bank, a few blocks away, and flagged a taxi. A minute after she entered the taxi, the driver picked up two more passengers.\"\n\nTaxis in Cameroon are usually shared\u2014drivers pick up as many people as they can who are going the same direction. To flag a taxi in Cameroon's cities, a hopeful passenger simply stands by the road and looks in the direction of any approaching taxi that isn't crammed too full. She might lift her arm forty-five degrees from her side with her index finger extended. As the taxi slows, the flagger shouts her destination through the open window. If the driver intends to accept the new passenger, he simply idles in place to allow time for her to crawl in, or if he is blocking traffic he might pull off to the side of the road toward her, or he might even beep his horn\u2014always a cheerful sound of acquiescence to the flagger on the street. The taxi driver's refusal is made clear if he simply keeps driving. It wouldn't have been unusual for the taxi driver who picked up the woman from the bank to pick up other people as well. In itself that wouldn't have been cause for alarm.\n\nWilliam continued. \"Soon the victim realized she was in the company of three collaborating bandits, including the taxi driver. She managed to get out of the taxi, but she didn't manage to take her purse with her.\"\n\nI interrupted him. \"Did they force her from the car and keep her purse, or did she escape from the car?\"\n\n\"This detail isn't clear to me. What we know is that she landed on the hard concrete sidewalk, and she still sat there as she pointed after the taxi yelling, 'Thieves! Thieves! ' \"\n\nBecause Cameroon's unemployment rate is very high, most people have been victims of crime at one time or another. The legal system rarely offers any justice for victims of property crime, so hatred of thieves in the general population is particularly intense, and vigilantism is common. Shouting \"thief!\" in a crowd is a good way to get someone killed.\n\nAfter giving me a few moments to absorb what he had told me, William continued. \"After the victim fell out of the taxi and sounded the alarm, a growing crowd of angry citizens began running alongside the taxi. When the car had to stop in traffic, the criminals had no escape. The people pulled them out and proceeded to beat them to death,\" William finished matter-of-factly.\n\n\"Where are the other two bodies?\" I asked, trying not to sound as shocked as I felt.\n\nWilliam stood, and I followed suit, as he pointed to two dark spots where the bodies had previously lain on the concrete walkway. \"Their families have already collected them for burial. The military police are waiting for the last one to be claimed,\" William told me.\n\n\"Were they already dead when they were set on fire?\" I asked hopefully, sinking back into my chair.\n\n\"We can't know,\" William said with a shrug, as he too sat down and turned his attention back to his screen.\n\n\"It's really shocking and sad for people to be killed so brutally on the streets\"\u2014I tried to maintain an unemotional tone as I stated what I thought would be obvious\u2014\"without benefit of a trial or anything.\"\n\nWhen William didn't respond, I queried, \"Don't you think so?\"\n\n\"Well, criminals should think twice,\" William said. \"At least the victim got her purse back.\" He was busy typing at the computer again.\n\n\"That much is good,\" I said lamely. Our perspectives were clearly different.\n\nThe incident held the distinction of being the first time I saw vigilantism at work in Cameroon. I paid for a second hour of computer use, taking my time, staying long after William left, hoping that the corpse would be removed before I would have to leave the cybercaf\u00e9. I tried to answer e-mails, including one from Edmund, but the violent vignette played over and over in my head. I tried to process the different elements of the tragedy\u2014the tinderbox fury of the crowd, the unimaginable suffering of the men who died, the pain and anguish of the family members, especially the parents, who claimed the bodies, the callous resignation of bystanders like William. It seemed that poverty and hopelessness, born of years of institutionalized corruption at every level of society, were a toxic mix in this country that held so much beauty. Finally, I had no choice but to rush past the body again. I would join Estelle in Yaound\u00e9 to continue our search for a sanctuary site, a place in the forest where I expected life would be far less perilous, at least for humans.\nFive\n\nThe Mbargue Forest\n\nOur search for a sanctuary site had taken Estelle and me out of the Southwest Province and through some beautiful forests in South and Central Cameroon, but our travels served to illuminate how well our mission could have been served by a larger budget\u2014money to build a bridge or a short road could have allowed us to create access to some appropriate but inaccessible sites.\n\nThen Karl Ammann, whose photographs were educating the masses outside of Africa about the horrors of the bushmeat trade, had introduced us to Jean Liboz, the French national who was a director of the Coron Logging Company in Cameroon. Both Liboz and Karl thought the Mbargue Forest, near the eastern boundary of the Central Province, which was in Coron's logging concession, could be a good place for a chimpanzee sanctuary. They especially liked the idea that our presence in the forest could provide some protection for the small populations of free-living chimpanzees and gorillas that remained there.\n\nNow, en route to the Mbargue Forest for our second visit, Estelle and I were responding to Liboz's invitation to sleep for a night in the luxurious hilltop logging camp of the Coron Company. From the camp, built in a clearing on the tallest hill, the multiple shades and textures of the vibrant forest fell away in all directions and as far as the eye could see. The uniformly red-brown village of Pela at the foot of the hill and the red-brown snake of road leading to the camp appeared like wounds inflicted to the luxuriant green. The ten comfortable sleeping quarters of the logging camp were in five prefabricated metal modules of white\u2014each module had two bedrooms with a toilet and shower between them. The modules were lined up along a covered walkway of polished hardwood slats, which connected them to the spacious open-air den and dining room. Modern plumbing throughout the camp was gravity fed from a two-thousand-liter storage tank on tall stilts, which in turn was supplied by a deep borehole well. A muffled generator purred continuous electricity. French cuisine was prepared and served with fine wine by the Cameroonian cook in the dining room. The environment was a stark contrast to the surrounding villages, with their mud huts, cooking pots in open fires, and lack of running water and electricity.\n\nIf we were to choose the Mbargue Forest for the sanctuary, Liboz was agreeing to clear our driveway and campsite with the bulldozer of Coron. Equally important, their logging trucks would transport our metal and other supplies over the 225 miles of mostly dirt road from Yaound\u00e9 to our sanctuary wherever we chose to locate it within the Mbargue Forest. I had very little money to work with, and I knew Liboz's contribution could mean the difference between success and failure.\n\nThe Cameroon government had also pointed us toward the nationally owned Mbargue Forest. The provincial delegate of the Ministry of the Environment and Forestry (MINEF), the branch of government with which we would necessarily collaborate, singled out the area as one deserving of development. President Paul Biya's wife was from Nanga Eboko, a town in the same district, and the local people were strong supporters of the president. It was about politics for them. For me, choosing the Mbargue Forest could be a bow to logistical necessity and political expediency. I really hoped it would meet our criteria.\n\nI never heard Jean Liboz called by his first name, and I never called him by it. He was about my age, but he was Monsieur Liboz or simply Liboz to me, depending on whether or not he was present. To refer to him differently now would be disingenuous. It does not reflect a low regard for the man, but rather a lack of casual familiarity. The language barrier and the short amount of time we were ever in close proximity to each other ensured that our personal conversations were strained and brief. Liboz was a swaggering and handsome roughneck, whose ever-present holstered pistol was visible or hidden, depending on the situation. After decades as a logger, he seemed to be having a twinge of conscience about the role of logging in the demise of apes and other species of wildlife, but the truth is that I never fully understood Liboz's motives for donating his time and company resources to helping our very local and obscure efforts for chimpanzees. He never took photos of our smiling and grateful faces, never publicized the assistance he gave us to promote a greener image for his company. He seemed to genuinely care about wildlife. Perhaps he was motivated by guilt. If so, he didn't seem to harbor any similarly soft sentiments toward domestic animals.\n\nWe had first visited the Coron logging camp two weeks before, just after Liboz had driven us from Yaound\u00e9 for a one-day whirlwind tour around the Mbargue Forest, along the logging road he was still completing. The 225-mile road we took from Yaound\u00e9 to the Mbargue Forest wasn't paved, and he had driven like hell over the rough dirt roads, flying through roadside villages, hitting a chicken, a pregnant goat, and finally a baby pig along the way. The sight of a flopping, then suddenly limp, baby pig in the rear window, following shortly after the other unnecessary vehicular animal carnage, rendered me nearly hysterical in the backseat.\n\n\"He's driving like a lunatic, Estelle!\" I spurted at her, like it was her fault. They were both French, after all. \"I can't take it anymore. Either he quits killing animals, or I want out of the damn car!\" I drew my line emphatically, although I knew getting out of the car on a rural road in Cameroon wasn't a viable option. I also knew that Liboz couldn't understand my English, so my speech wasn't entirely reckless.\n\n\"Les animaux . . . une docteur veterinaire . . . une vegetarienne . . .\" I understood some of Estelle's rapid-fire French descriptions of me as she tried to explain my sensitivity to a confused Liboz. I knew that she too was upset about him hitting the animals, and quite happy to have me to blame for the intervention. Liboz slowed down a little in acknowledgment of my feelings. Although he only maintained the slower speed for about a minute, he used his brake more liberally afterward, meeting my eyes once in his rearview mirror when he did so to spare a goat.\n\nAs my blood pressure normalized, I mulled over the fact that Liboz's thoughtlessness wasn't only toward the animals, but also toward the people in the villages who had so little and who relied on these animals for their livelihoods. I imagined how they felt watching three white people fly so recklessly through their villages. Few white people passed through here, and Liboz was doing his part to establish our bad reputation, I feared.\n\nThis time Estelle and I had come in the little blue 1990 Pajero that I had bought for the project a month earlier when I couldn't find a pickup we could afford. I pampered it across the bumpy washboard road and took twice the time to drive from Yaound\u00e9 that Liboz did. I was delighted to have wheels after taking public transportation for five months, and I was still too naive to realize just how inappropriate the small SUV would be for the construction work we would be doing in months and years to come.\n\nThat night over cocktails, through Estelle's translations, I heard Liboz speak of his efforts to minimize the impact of his company's activities on wildlife. He prohibited his employees from transporting bushmeat in or on his company vehicles, although he knew his policy was ignored in his absence. Even having the policy was somewhat progressive for the time. He told us that he had discovered his employees transporting the body of a forest elephant across the Sanaga River on the company ferry, which he himself had built, and he dumped the dead elephant in the river, depriving everyone involved of financial benefit. Involving Cameroon law enforcement in a wildlife issue\u2014with the inherent delays in production and the police expenses he would be expected to cover, along with local political problems that would stem from it\u2014wasn't something Liboz would have considered.\n\nHe admitted little culpability for habitat destruction. \"Coron takes an average of only one tree per hectare (about 2.5 acres),\" he told us. I knew the number sounded more benign than the practice it described. Each tree the company cut likely brought down others on the way down, and the loggers caused a lot of damage to the forest as they accessed and removed cut trees. Nonetheless, Liboz argued that encroachment by village farmers was much more damaging to habitat than logging.\n\n\"Overpopulation is the real problem. Local farmers are the problem,\" he insisted.\n\nI could see his point. The last few months had provided me with a fast-track education about Cameroon's conservation issues. Estimated birth and death rates indicated that the population here was probably increasing by about four hundred thousand people per year, while job opportunities were not increasing. I had seen firsthand that people were pushing farther and farther into the forests, hunting and farming to survive. Staking a claim to Cameroon's \"free land\" offered a better quality of life for many than trying to survive in urban areas without jobs or government assistance. From a conservation perspective, the burgeoning human population was a big problem, but new human settlements often followed the logging roads into the forests. The roads sliced into pristine forests for which inaccessibility had once afforded protection, and some of the people who eventually settled along the roads came first to work in the logging companies. Others came to hunt and provide meat for the logging company employees. The logging roads came first, then the new settlements and the slashing and burning for subsistence agriculture that followed. Without the logging roads, I speculated that Cameroon's people wouldn't have spread out so much, would have chosen to live closer together in larger rural communities where they might have relied more on farming than on hunting. To be sure, my compassion extended to the Cameroonian people I was meeting, but my perspective was that of a conservationist who saw huge advantages in keeping wildlife habitat inaccessible.\n\nThe increased forest access provided by logging roads also dramatically increased the pressure from commercial hunters, who used the logging roads, and often the logging trucks, as conduits to transport bushmeat to urban centers. These poachers were driving species extinct, rendering forests silent, and creating primate orphans in need of sanctuary. I kept quiet, though. Self-serving logic aside, Jean Liboz was a gracious host to us and was trying to do something good for conservation. I didn't see any advantage in annoying him, and I guess Estelle agreed because she was uncharacteristically diplomatic in the conversation, as far as I could tell.\n\nDuring much of the three or four hours we visited with Liboz that night in the logging camp, he and Estelle chatted away in French. After a while, she quit bothering to translate unless their conversation concerned our work. It was boring for me, and the constant noise of their unintelligible chatter was nerve-racking. My lack of French seemed a ridiculous obstacle, and it was extremely frustrating for me. We had moved out of Cameroon's Anglophone area to begin looking for our sanctuary site in the Francophone zone a couple of months earlier.\n\nIn the late 1800s this geographic area of Central Africa was colonized by the Germans, but British and French troops forced them to leave during the First World War. In 1919, soon after the war ended, the former German Kamerun was partitioned, with France gaining administrative control over the largest share and the United Kingdom getting a smaller section. French Cameroun achieved political independence in 1960, and in 1961 a UN-sponsored referendum allowed the British Cameroons to decide their fate. The southern third voted to unite with French Cameroun to form the Federal Republic of Cameroon, while the northern two-thirds voted to join with Nigeria. A new constitution in 1972 changed the name of the young country, with its eight Francophone and two smaller Anglophone provinces, to the United Republic of Cameroon. While the government claims both French and English as its official languages, and many urban schools now teach both languages, it is still very rare to find anyone who speaks English in the rural Francophone provinces of Cameroon.\n\nI had been trying to pick up the French language, but at the age of forty, the language acquisition part of my brain seemed to be completely atrophied. I was trying to learn from Estelle, sometimes working on pronunciation of words during our long rides, but French wasn't coming easily to me. I would have excused myself from the conversation with Liboz, but I had run out of books to read. At least I was enjoying the gin and tonic, and the cool night air in the open hilltop den was breezy and pleasant. I managed to stay lost in my thoughts for much of the time, but at one point I heard Liboz say \"Americaine,\" and I knew he was referring to an American woman or women.\n\n\"What did he say?\" I asked Estelle.\n\n\"He said French women are much prettier than American women,\" she told me without hesitation and then cracked up laughing at my openmouthed, stunned expression. Evidently, her newfound diplomacy did not extend to me. I chose not to interrupt them again, and we all went to bed soon afterward, as Estelle and I planned to get an early start the next morning.\n\nThere were sixteen small villages around the Mbargue Forest. After stopping briefly in two of them, we arrived by noon in the tiny village of Bikol. Although surrounded by the lush green forest, Bikol itself was another brown village. The houses, the earth upon which they stood, and the new logging road passing through the village's center were various shades of reddish brown. No grass, which could conceal snakes and scorpions, was allowed to grow in the village.\n\nThe infrastructure of Bikol consisted of twelve small rectangular houses, the walls of which were made of sticks and mud. Rain had melted a twenty-inch section of mud plaster from the front wall of one of the houses so I could see its frame\u2014a latticework of wooden and bamboo poles laced together with strips of tough plant fiber. The roofs were made of raffia palm fronds woven together into long shingles. The land and its forest had produced every building material. Like thousands of village houses we had seen in rural Cameroon, they each had one or two rooms with swept dirt floors. Inside some of them, I knew that women would cook over open fires without chimneys, creating a haze of choking wood smoke that would exacerbate respiratory problems in their children.\n\nWe drove slowly through the village, careful not to hit the chickens and goats that lingered casually in the new road and perceived no threat from our approaching vehicle. The village looked mostly deserted. Just when it seemed that we would pass through without seeing anyone, we spotted four men sitting on low bamboo benches around the smoldering embers of what had been a small fire. A roof of woven raffia palm fronds shielded them from the sun. We stopped the Pajero and got out. Two of the men stood and approached us. A handsome man of medium build who looked to be in his fifties introduced himself as Chief Gaspard. He introduced the other man, who was slighter, younger, and missing several of his front teeth, as his brother Colbert. They both wore loose, ill-fitting Western clothes.\n\nThey spoke to us in French, a much slower cadence than Estelle's. Everyone in Cameroon has a local language that they learn at home as their first language. The country has many different ethnic groups and more than 270 local languages. People who live only a few miles from one another can speak different local languages. Although the country claims French and English as its two official languages, French is the language taught in rural schools. Most people who have attended even a year or two of primary school speak basic French. Very young children, orphans who didn't go to school because they had no one to pay for it, and many older men and women speak only their local language.\n\nThe two men invited us to join them under their raffia roof, gesturing for us to sit on one of the three benches that formed an incomplete square around the slender snake of smoke. Small fires were the focal points of family gatherings in the evenings. They provided light and warmth when the temperature dropped after dusk. The people woke up with the rising sun, when it was still cool, and started their fires again. As the days warmed, the fires were allowed to die out. Before sitting, Estelle and I both shook hands with the two other men, who smiled warmly and said, \"Bonjour.\" Estelle explained our mission\u2014that we were looking for a site to set up a new chimpanzee sanctuary. Like rural people in other places we had visited, Chief Gaspard and Colbert agreed that they would be happy to have a chimpanzee sanctuary in their forest. For them, it meant the possibility of development, of income in their village.\n\n\"Are there wild chimpanzees living here?\" Estelle asked them.\n\n\"Yes!\" They all answered at once. \"A lot.\"\n\n\"What about gorillas?\"\n\n\"Yes! There are gorillas, too.\"\n\nI knew they thought we would be happy to hear chimpanzees and gorillas lived here, so I wasn't sure whether to believe them, but Liboz also had told us that chimpanzees and gorillas still survived in the Mbargue Forest, despite intense hunting in the area.\n\n\"How many people live in this village?\" Estelle translated my question.\n\n\"Ten,\" Chief Gaspard answered immediately.\n\n\"How many women and children?\" I knew from my previous exposure to the small village culture that his number probably didn't include women and children.\n\nFor several minutes, the four men spoke unhurriedly among themselves in their dialect. Their language had a lot of \"B\" sounds, which they pronounced emphatically. In years to come, the hard, forceful syllables of Bamv\u00e9le, the main dialect of villages on this side of the Mbargue Forest, would give me the impression that the speakers were angry, until a smile or laugh would put me at ease. At this moment, the men were trying to count the women and children who lived in the village, but they were perhaps disagreeing on whether to classify some as residents or visitors. Men in Cameroon can legally marry up to four women, but in the villages they often took in women they called wives without having a formal ceremony.\n\nEstelle smoked while we waited more or less patiently. I was beginning to wonder whether I should have asked such a complicated question when, suddenly, they seemed to agree that it was not a thing they could know. \"I don't know,\" Chief Gaspard shrugged unapologetically, not even venturing a guess. The topic was finished for them. Estelle and I exchanged confused glances. It was many seemingly nonsensical social exchanges like this one that led us to joke, between ourselves, that Cameroon was a logic-free zone. We adopted the phrase from Peace Corps volunteers we had met in Yaound\u00e9.\n\n\"Where are the rest of the men, and the women and children?\" Estelle moved on.\n\n\"Some of the men have traveled. The women are working in the farms and have the small children with them. The older children are in school.\" Colbert answered this time.\n\nAfter this bit of small talk, we determined that Colbert could be our guide on a trek into the forest. He welcomed the opportunity to make the 2,000 Central African francs (about $3.50) we would pay him. This was well over Cameroon's minimum daily wage for people in rural areas. We left the Pajero in the village and set out walking along the road. Wearing hiking boots, with backpacks of water and snacks, Estelle and I followed Colbert, who wore flip-flops worn very thin at the heels and held his machete like a comfortable appendage near his chest. When he led us onto a footpath into the forest, the noticeable drop in ambient temperature, the receding sunlight, and the symphony of insect song under the tall forest canopy added to my pleasant sense of otherworldliness. Colbert easily outpaced us, and Estelle asked him twice to slow down. It was difficult to keep his pace and appreciate the forest at the same time. At one point he stopped suddenly with some information. \"One of the hunters in our village shot a gorilla right here in this spot last year,\" he boasted matter-of-factly, clearly proud that his village was the home of such prowess. He didn't yet understand where we would be coming from on the issue.\n\n\"How many people in the village have guns?\" Estelle asked him.\n\n\"None.\" He shook his head as he answered, without hesitation or explanation.\n\nI was still registering the inconsistency, wondering how someone shot a gorilla without a gun, when he started walking again. I wondered if he had lied about one or the other of his statements. Another option, which I wasn't knowledgeable enough to consider and which was probably the truth, was that a bushmeat dealer had placed a command and provided a gun temporarily to an experienced village hunter who did not himself own a functional gun.\n\nWhen we returned to the village in late afternoon, it was much more populated. Some women came to greet us, smiling as they shook our hands. They wore traditional wraparound skirts, pieces of cloth called pagnes, the swirling blues, oranges, yellows, and greens of which, despite years of wear and harsh soap, lent some faded color to the drab surroundings of the village. Chief Gaspard approached and introduced a pretty woman standing among the others as his wife, Christine.\n\nI noticed some young children peeping at us from the corner of a house, smiling and giggling, staying mostly hidden. One boy of about six years came out and sauntered bravely toward us, head high and arms swinging. I turned to face him with my big reassuring smile, from which he turned abruptly and ran screaming back to the cover of the house where his cowering comrades squealed and giggled in excitement.\n\n\"They've never seen white women before,\" Chief Gaspard explained. \"Only white loggers.\"\n\nHe told us we could stay the night in a room of one of his houses, and we gratefully accepted. We had been prepared to set up a tent, but we were tired and happy to be spared the exertion. He issued a command in the dialect and two teenage boys appeared, each carrying a narrow bamboo cot, and indicated for us to follow them. We followed the boys and beds into a small windowless room, the only light entering behind us through the door. The boys left, and we laid out our sleeping bags on the hard cots and unpacked candles, flashlights, mosquito spray, toilet paper, soap, towels, and wine to share in the village. We had mosquito nets but couldn't see a way to easily hang them in the mud house, so we didn't use them. We were both on malaria prevention at that point so we weren't too worried.\n\nAs we were about to go out, we peeked out the door and realized that the people were eating dinner. I would learn later that the people of Bikol ate only once a day. Six men and older boys, under the roof where we had joined some of them for conversation earlier, huddled around a communal pot of gooey green stew\u2014this mix of cassava leaves and peanuts would later become one of our staples\u2014while eight women and several young children circled another pot several houses away. Each person had a heaping glob of \"couscous de manioc,\" a doughy white mix of cassava flower and water. They used their fingers to pinch off bite-size morsels of the couscous to dip into the pots of stew. Hovering and patient fingers waited their turns at the pots, and between mouthfuls people chatted happily. Mothers pinched smaller morsels from their plates for young children.\n\n\"The family dinner, village style.\" I said to Estelle. I was surprised at how the men and women ate separately in this village. For us to join either group now would have been an awkward intrusion into an affair that impressed me for its sweet casual intimacy. Village people generally shared everything among themselves and were typically generous to outsiders, too. The people of Bikol didn't make an effort to offer us food, and I felt sure they thought it wouldn't be good enough for us. It was certainly true that we would not have eaten it from the communal pots. After a nasty case of dysentery a few months earlier, I had tried to avoid eating in villages. Estelle and I agreed to wait in the house until they were finished eating. We lit a candle and filled up on olives, bread, and peanuts we had brought with us from Yaound\u00e9.\n\nWhen we were sure the dinner ritual was over, we went out to join the men's group, carrying with us six liters of Casanova boxed wine. It was the men with whom we needed to speak. The women held no power, and we didn't even consider approaching them first. Estelle handed all the boxes to Chief Gaspard, who was clearly pleased and gestured for us to sit on a bench opposite him. As two teenage boys scooted down to make room for us, Chief Gaspard shouted a command to Christine in their local language. Momentarily she appeared, leading several other women. They carried three glasses and plastic cups of various shapes and sizes.\n\nChief Gaspard handed a box of wine to Christine for her to serve. She first filled the three glasses and passed one to Chief Gaspard and one each to Estelle and me, before filling the plastic cups for the other people. She and the other women shared two or three cups between them. As night approached and the temperature cooled, one of the women started a fire. A chorus of insects and animals from the surrounding forest, which were much louder at night, provided an enchanting acoustical accompaniment for our little meeting by the fire. The cheap boxed wine became more tolerable with every sip.\n\nEstelle explained that we were a very small project with a small budget, not at all like Coron, the logging company. If we decided to locate the sanctuary here, we would bring some jobs, buy fruits and vegetables for the chimpanzees from the village, contribute to the economy in this way, but our organization would not be bringing a lot of money. We didn't want to give them false expectations. I didn't need her to translate what she was saying, because we had discussed what she would say.\n\nChief Gaspard and Colbert nodded a lot as Estelle spoke. When the dialogue turned more personal, I made Estelle translate every word.\n\nOne of the women asked if we had children. It was considered more respectable to be married, especially at my age, and the village people gave us the courtesy of first assuming we were married or had been. Many unmarried women in Cameroon have children, but the state of matrimony confers a higher status.\n\n\"I have a son, named Nicholas,\" Estelle answered. \"He's with my husband in Yaound\u00e9.\" Estelle had married Dana when his son, Nick, was five. Since then she and Dana had raised him, living much of the time in Africa.\n\nWhen eyes turned to me, I shook my head. \"No, I don't have children.\"\n\nEveryone looked sad, almost embarrassed, about my plight of childlessness. There was a moment of silence as everyone looked at the ground in sympathy. It was a momentary conversation stopper.\n\n\"How many children do you have?\" Estelle finally asked Chief Gaspard, a little too cheerfully.\n\n\"Twelve, with nine living.\"\n\nEstelle and I nodded. It was another conversation stopper. I didn't know whether to congratulate him on the nine who lived or give condolences for the three who died, but I knew he must have suffered. When Chief Gaspard yawned, we excused ourselves and said good night.\n\nLater I would learn that two of the other women around the fire were also Chief Gaspard's wives, and they were the mothers of some of his children. Christine was his youngest and favorite wife at that time in 1999. High-ranking men in the villages usually had many children with multiple women. Children were evidence of virility and power. For a man who had little property, his progeny could be the only evidence. In this particularly impoverished area of Cameroon, people rarely had legal marriage ceremonies. Some had traditional ceremonies in the village, while others just moved in together and called each other husband and wife. If they had children while they were together, and the man acknowledged and managed to support the woman and her kids to some extent, he would be considered the husband and the woman his wife, even if he moved on to another woman. Chief Gaspard had a mud house where he and Christine were staying, and his two older wives had houses nearby.\n\nBack in our mud house I lay awake on the bamboo cot listening to the animal sounds of the village night. Animals that I imagined were rats, and now know were just as likely to have been geckos or huge cockroaches, crawled noisily across the raffia roof above us. Eventually, thanks to my exhaustion and a fair share of cheap wine, I dozed off.\n\nWe awoke at dawn and packed our belongings. When we emerged from the hut, a group of women carrying machetes and balancing empty baskets on their heads, many with babies on their backs, were leaving the village to work their farms\u2014plots of land in the national forest that they had claimed, cleared, and planted. Three young children followed closely behind them. The bellies of the children were distended from protein deficiency, and even from a distance, in the bright morning sunlight I could see bald patches on their small heads from fungal \"ringworm\" infections. We waved to them, and the women and children smiled and waved back. One of the younger women called \"Bye-bye\" to me, maybe the only English she knew. I replied \"bye-bye.\"\n\nAs we approached Chief Gaspard and Colbert, again sitting on the bench where we first encountered them, they rose to bid us farewell. With a smile, Chief Gaspard accepted the money I handed him for the room, the same amount I paid Colbert for his services as a guide. As we turned to walk toward the Pajero, Estelle assured the chief that we would see them again.\n\nWe drove about a half a mile from the village and parked along the dirt road where a small trail cut into the forest. Overconfident and eager to get a feel for the forest at our own pace, we set out on foot, equipped with my compass and a machete. We followed the tiny trail, which intersected other tiny trails. I thought the paths must have been used by village people for hunting and for gathering things they needed. The great variety of trees, undergrowth, colorful insects, and strange sounds in the African forest were fascinating, exotic. The Mbargue Forest was drier than some we had explored. It was actually a mosaic of savanna and forest, with the forest especially dense along the routes of small streams. Natural habitats for chimpanzees include both rain forests and drier forests like this one.\n\nEstelle and I walked happily for over an hour, sticking to the trails. When we started trying to make our way back to the dirt road where we had parked the Pajero, we were confused about which trail to take. We knew we needed to walk northwest to get to the road and our compass pointed the way, but none of the winding trails were going our way. We would need to use our machete to cut a straight track back to the road. As I gazed upward, trying to see the direction of the sun through a combination of dense canopy and cloud cover, unnecessarily double-checking the accuracy of our compass, I heard Estelle scream something unintelligible. By the time I turned and saw her retreating backside, she was barely visible on the narrow trail, running fast away from me. All at once, dozens of painful bites on my legs, and in my underwear, added misery to my confusion.\n\n\"What the hell! \" I shouted to no one in particular, since Estelle was long gone.\n\nAt exactly the same moment, my eyes focused on the sea of insects teeming across my shoes and my ears finally registered what Estelle had said: \"Ants!!\" I squealed and cussed and bolted after her, trying to reach a part of the trail without ants. Looking down at the trail, I didn't notice as I rounded a bend that Estelle was standing right in the middle of the path, practically naked, picking off ants. I crashed into her, sending her stumbling forward. She caught herself against a tree trunk and cushioned my fall as I clutched at her and stayed on my feet.\n\nEstelle was not the type to suffer this clumsy slapstick silently, but it was no time for useless scolding. As soon as she was solidly on her feet again, she turned her attention to the ants still biting her.\n\nWithin seconds I too was mostly naked and picking at little clinging flesh eaters, which refused to be flicked off easily. I soon learned to squash them quickly between my fingernails, so they couldn't cling to a finger and bite again. Like virtually everyone else working in Central African forests, I came to know these carnivorous ants well. They don't sting like the fire ants of Mississippi that I knew as a child, but they attack by the millions and literally eat their victims. They can quickly kill an injured or trapped animal. For healthy humans walking in the forest, they are merely a painful annoyance, but people who are accustomed to the forests don't take their eyes from the dirt for long.\n\nWe finally managed to wander out of the Mbargue Forest onto the road and find the Pajero by four o'clock. We headed toward the small town of Minta, where we planned to spend the night. Our map showed us that the road was unpaved all the way\u2014the kind of narrow red dirt track that connected towns and villages in much of rural Cameroon\u2014and we knew it was too late to be starting out. We would be finishing the drive at night, which could be dangerous. Bandits could stop a vehicle on a rural road by laying down a long two-by-four with nails sticking up from it. Cars that didn't stop couldn't go far on four flat tires. Police also used the nails-across-the-road technique to stop cars at checkpoints, which sometimes seemed impromptu and in the middle of nowhere, so it could be hard to tell who was trying to stop you. It was best to avoid traveling at night. When we were two hours into the drive and the clouds darkened, I suspected that our misfortunes of the day were not quite over. As twilight descended, so did a torrential rain, and the combination limited my visibility to only a couple of yards. Within a few minutes the road was slick and the Pajero's four-wheel drive didn't seem to be working at all. I managed to slip and slide slowly forward until I was forced to stop at a pond of water that stretched across the road.\n\nI had seen rain-filled basins making travel difficult on Cameroon's roads. During rainy season, heavy logging trucks made deep basins in the soft mud roadways, and rain accumulated in them. But this basin of water, extending two yards beyond the road on both sides, was a small pond that completely blocked the road. The road was too narrow and slippery to turn around. I tried to back up, but immediately realized that backward driving afforded me even less control than I had going forward. I was sure to slide off the road and get us stuck if I didn't stop. I turned off the car. The rain wasn't letting up, and it was getting dark quickly. We didn't know what lay ahead of us, on the other side of the pond, but the last village we had passed, where people might have welcomed us, lay many miles behind us.\n\n\"We have to stay here in the car until morning,\" I announced to Estelle.\n\n\"No way!\" Estelle exclaimed. She was one of the bravest, most capable people I knew, but she had a little quirk about sleeping in the dark. She needed light to sleep. I knew that was going to be problematic. There was no light at all from the sky. No way our flashlight batteries would last until morning. I felt badly for Estelle, but I secretly thanked the invisible stars that she had used the last of our candles in the village the previous night\u2014at least I wouldn't worry about the car catching fire, as I often had in hotel rooms when she left candles burning.\n\n\"There's nothing else to do,\" I stated. \"When it's light, we'll figure out how to get out of here. We'll be safe. With all this rain, no one else will be able to come this way in a car, and no one will walk here tonight.\" Since I had been a child I had always reassured people compulsively. One Saturday evening as a teenager in Mississippi, I was driving on Interstate 55 with my cousin Denise in the passenger seat when a drunk driver hit us hard from behind. Completely out of control, my mother's car completed two 360-degree turns and crossed a wide median before finally coming to a stop facing oncoming traffic. During the terrifying spin, as Denise screamed, I struggled to raise my voice above hers to reassure her over and over, \"We're okay! We're okay!\" Now, stranded on this dirt track in Central Africa, I told Estelle, perhaps a little too casually, \"We'll be fine!\"\n\nWe were out of drinking water and already thirsty, so I used my pocketknife to cut two plastic water bottles in half and put them on top of the Pajero to catch some rain. Estelle crawled onto the backseat and through the long, dark night we talked\u2014mostly adding up the pros and cons of the Mbargue Forest as our new sanctuary site.\n\n\"The forest itself is beautiful, the villagers are nice, and once the bridge across the Yong River is finished, the train going to B\u00e9labo will give access year-round,\" I said, cheerfully pointing out what Estelle already knew. Jean Liboz was building a bridge across the river to facilitate movement of Coron's logs. When it was finished, the town of B\u00e9labo, which had train service from Yaound\u00e9, would be only fifteen miles from Bikol. Two of the other potential sanctuary sites we had looked at were inaccessible during rainy season, which ruled them out.\n\n\"There are enough villages to grow food,\" Estelle said. \"Farming is part of their culture, which is really good.\" Down south in Campo, another place we had explored, the people lived off the sea and did little farming.\n\n\"There aren't enough people in Bikol to hire for all the positions we'll eventually need to fill,\" I said.\n\n\"But it'll be better to hire from different villages,\" Estelle said. \"For one thing, when someone in the village dies, we won't lose the whole workforce for the funeral.\" I laughed, but Estelle wasn't kidding. If I had known then what I did a few years later, when I had seen how many funerals there were in the village\u2014how often young people who shouldn't have died in the twenty-first century did, indeed, die\u2014I wouldn't have laughed.\n\nWe agreed that the Mbargue Forest met our criteria better than any other place we had explored. Our conversation, as usual, touched on personal issues too\u2014difficult childhoods, families, lost loves. Estelle was a strong and capable woman, wise beyond her twenty-six years in many ways, but she was fourteen years younger than I was. When we spoke of personal relationships, when her emotional vulnerability showed through her tough-girl fa\u00e7ade, I often felt maternal toward her. I never told her this though, because I thought she would have found it condescending.\n\nAt one point, after dozing off, I woke to the suffocating stink of heavy cigarette smoke. I could see the glow of Estelle's cigarette. The rain had stopped, but it was still black outside\u2014no trace of moonlight or starlight filtered through the persisting clouds. I rolled down my window and breathed in the cool, clean air.\n\n\"You're giving me cancer,\" I said grumpily.\n\n\"Sorry.\" She took another long drag on her cigarette and rolled down her own window a little more.\n\nAt dawn, the pond looked even bigger than it had the night before. The road was still too slippery to back up. We had two options: wait at least half a day for the sun to dry the road a little, then try to back up until we could find a place to turn around, or try to drive through the pond. I took off my shoes, rolled up my pants, and walked out into the water, soft mud squishing through my toes. The water was up to the middle of my thighs at its deepest part.\n\n\"It's definitely too deep to drive through,\" I said.\n\n\"Maybe we can drain it,\" Estelle said hopefully.\n\nBy the time I had waded out of the water, she had brought out the machete, our only tool that could be used for digging, from the back of the Pajero. This was the beginning of my understanding to always carry a shovel when I traveled on bush roads. Estelle strode purposefully toward the banked mud that formed the wall of the pond off the side of the road and started hacking at the mud with the machete, slinging reddish-brown globs everywhere. Soon she had made a shallow V-shaped trough across the top of the bank, finding that the deeper she cut, the more solid was the mud. By removing chunks of it with the blade of the machete, she was trying to make a trench in the bank of the pond deep enough for the water to drain off to the side.\n\n\"You're brilliant!\" I encouraged her. By this time her clothes, face, and hair were dappled with mud.\n\nIt was slow going and after about five minutes of swinging the machete, Estelle was exhausted. I took over until my own arms stopped cooperating and she took the machete back. Before I got another turn with it, the sludgy brown water was flowing slowly through our trench. We deepened the trench several times when the water flow slowed to a trickle. Then we labored another half hour to make a second trench on the other side and drained more water there.\n\nWhen I waded out again, the water was just below my knees.\n\n\"I think we should go for it,\" I said, and Estelle nodded her agreement. If we got stuck, we might be in real trouble. We were out of drinking water, and I figured we were at least fifty miles from Minta.\n\nI cranked the Pajero, we prayed silently, and I started through the water, slow and steady. Where the water was deepest the wheels started spinning and the Pajero fishtailed, creating waves that lapped the walls of the mud banks. For a second I thought we would get stuck, but I kept my foot lightly on the accelerator, and we kept inching forward until the wheels found traction again. After what seemed like much longer than the few seconds that it was, we arrived on the other side.\n\n\"Yeah!!\" We both cheered loudly with relief.\n\n\"Good driving!\" Estelle complimented me.\n\nBy 10:30 A.M. we had stopped at an auberge (small hotel) in the town of Minta. There was no running water, but we paid the attendant to bring us each a bucket of water from the well to clean the dried mud from our hair and bodies. We had decided to detour through Minta on our way to Yaound\u00e9 in hopes of meeting with the divisional officer (D.O.) for this district in which the Mbargue Forest stood. It was an important step. He was one of the local representatives of Cameroon's many-tiered national government, and we would need his support if we were to build a sanctuary in the district.\n\nMinta had no phone lines, so we took a chance that the D.O. would be there, and we got lucky. We found Mr. Ndang Ndang Albert, a stocky, slightly balding man in his midthirties, in his home just behind his office. His house was made of plastered concrete blocks and was cool and comfortable inside. In the living room, where he received us, the maroon-colored concrete floor was partially covered by a large, pretty Asian-style rug, which was a subdued hue of dark blue with swirls of small multicolored flowers. He invited us to sit on an upholstered brown couch, while he sat kitty-corner to us on a chair covered with the same fabric. I imagined the effort he, or someone, had expended to get the furniture and rug to Minta. He offered us Cokes, which were room temperature and still tasted like nectar of the gods to us. In a meeting that lasted no more than half an hour, he promised that he would welcome our sanctuary as a form of development in his impoverished rural district.\n\nHappy with our accomplishment, Estelle and I headed toward Yaound\u00e9 under clear, blue skies. We had found our sanctuary site.\nSix\n\nShackled\n\nEn route from the Mbargue Forest, we decided to make a stop at Luna Park Hotel in the town of Obala, just an hour outside of Yaound\u00e9. Karl Ammann had told us that two adult female chimpanzees were held on chains there. It was shortly before dusk when we crept up the long dirt driveway of the hotel in the 1990 blue Pajero, which in spite of its age would have been shiny and pretty without the thick coating of dried red-brown mud that clung to the lower half, and the same-colored dust that coated the rest. We stared out in wide-eyed anticipation through the half circles that had been cleaned by recently replaced windshield wipers and most of a reservoir of wiper fluid.\n\n\"Can you see them?\" I asked Estelle. As I drove toward the cluster of buildings at the end of the driveway, Estelle scanned the landscaped lawn for two chimpanzees.\n\n\"There's a big baboon on a chain,\" Estelle answered. Then, moments later, \"There's one of the chimpanzees! A big adult.\" Estelle looked to the right through a place she had cleaned on her window. \"And there's another smaller chimp behind her.\"\n\nAs I steered the slow-rolling Pajero, I took a quick look. The two chimpanzees, chained in the shadows, were separated from each other by an expanse of grass. They were much too far apart to touch each other.\n\nFifty yards ahead I parked the Pajero in the gravel parking area to the right of the driveway, and we walked across the driveway to the hotel office to rent a room. Adjoining the office was an open-air restaurant, and on the opposite side of the restaurant was a covered sunken veranda. As we approached the office, we veered casually toward the veranda to count seven skinny juvenile monkeys of several species tied by short ropes around their waists to the vertical supporting columns of the veranda's roof. Diners in the restaurant could look down to see the monkeys, and the monkeys could see them eating. As we watched, some monkeys sat despondent and others darted about anxiously in all directions as far as their ropes would allow.\n\nLuna Park Hotel was the only visitor attraction in the small town of Obala. We had learned that a Senegalese family owned the hotel, and that it had been a popular destination for well-to-do Cameroonians for decades. On weekends, wealthy politicians and businessmen brought wives and children to have lunch, fish in the small river that ran through the center of the vast, manicured hotel grounds, and laugh at the monkeys. Most people didn't distinguish between monkeys and chimpanzees, although the contrast was stark. As tailless great apes, chimpanzees are much closer to humans than they are to monkeys.\n\nWe rented a room and found our number on a door in the long, narrow, single-story building. The room was starkly furnished with two single beds, two wooden bedside tables, and a simple wooden wardrobe for clothes. The baby-blue walls were bare of anything but a few dirt smudges, and the only light came from a single bulb in the center of the ceiling. The bedding looked clean, and the bathroom had cold running water and a flushing toilet. I hated cold showers, but any running water seemed a luxury, and it was enough to satisfy us. We dropped our backpacks on the beds and rushed back out, eager to see the chimpanzees.\n\nWe hurried back to the Pajero to pick up two big plastic shopping bags of bananas and papayas, and another of unshelled peanuts, all of which we had bought from several small villages en route from Minta. With our heavy loads of fruit and peanuts distributed between us, we walked back down the driveway of the Luna Park Hotel to meet the two chimpanzees before dark.\n\nWe walked toward the bigger chimpanzee, closest to the driveway, depositing the bags in the grass before going as close as we dared. The chimpanzee was overweight and sat almost motionless within the barren circle of dirt, where no grass would grow, at the base of a big moabi tree. In the dusk, it was hard to see her dark face clearly, and my eyes were drawn to the heavy-gauge chain with its oversize padlock shining in the twilight against the black hair of her neck. The chain led from her neck to the trunk of the tree, the end looped around the tree and linked back to itself with another padlock.\n\nI tried to guess the length of the chain from the coil on the dirt, wanting to get as close as possible without going within her reach. We didn't know her temperament.\n\n\"I'm guessing about three yards of chain,\" I said to Estelle. She nodded and we walked a few steps closer before we squatted about four yards from the chimpanzee. We could confirm that she was female, and we could make out the features of her face. Her fully alert brown eyes met mine and held them. Her long black face was beautiful.\n\n\"Hey, girl. We're here to help you,\" I called to her.\n\nEstelle panted softly in greeting, and the chimp's gaze shifted to her. She was curious, but she didn't move. She didn't seem to expect much good to come her way from us, but after a few moments she looked away from Estelle's face and cocked her head to look directly at the plastic bags in the grass two yards behind where we now squatted.\n\n\"What's in the bags?\" the chimpanzee seemed to ask. Her meaning was obvious.\n\nEstelle walked back to retrieve a bag of bananas. When she pulled out several, the chimpanzee moved quickly toward us, causing us to jump back reflexively, although we were already out of her reach. Standing upright on her two legs, she looked even bigger than before. She grimaced in excitement, baring her teeth, as her high-pitched, pleading vocalizations stuck wet and garbled in her throat, almost like she was choking. She reached out both arms toward the bananas, but before Estelle had time to give them to her, she pulled her hands back in close to her chest and began flopping them rapidly up and down. Chimpanzees can be quite melodramatic in their expressions of need and frustration, but there was a quality of hysteria and desperation in this chimpanzee that was heart wrenching and scary at the same time. It spoke of needs unmet for far too long. Estelle tossed her the first banana, which she caught easily in her right hand. Immediately silent, she held out her left hand to catch another that Estelle threw. It was a practiced skill. As she sat down to peel the first banana quite delicately and deliberately, in stark contrast to her urgent, frenetic appeal just moments before, her sweet grunts of contentment relaxed and delighted Estelle and me. When she was eating her second banana, Estelle walked closer, stretching out her arm to offer her two more. Without getting up, momentarily holding the banana she was eating between her lips, she used both her hands to gently accept the bananas from Estelle's hand.\n\nFrom the time we arrived with the bags of fruit, I was aware of the other, smaller chimpanzee moving left and right, back and forth close to the brick wall that bordered the hotel, about twenty yards from where we were standing. I noticed that a few pieces of zinc roofing material extended from the brick wall over her head to provide some minimal shelter from the sun and rain. As I approached the chimpanzee with four bananas connected by a single stalk, she stretched her shackle to its limit, holding out one begging hand toward me, while the fingers of her other hand encircled the loop of chain around her neck to relieve the pressure. The chain, only about four feet long, tethered her to a two-foot-diameter concrete slab, level with the dirt in which it was anchored. Staying out of her reach, I held out the bananas. She snatched them from my hand and retreated slightly to gain some slack in the chain before sitting and peeling one. While she ate, I walked a little closer and squatted to get my head on a level with hers and get a better look. I saw that this chimpanzee was an adult, too, but she was tiny compared to the first\u2014small of stature and painfully thin, with grayish hair. After she devoured the first two bananas, she paused for a second or two to look at me. Her bottom lip hung open, revealing pale gums, and brown, stained teeth. It was clear that she was anemic and malnourished. The light was dim, but I could see what appeared to be diarrhea smeared across the concrete and in the surrounding wet dirt. There was no food debris, which made me suspect she was given very little to eat.\n\nWalking back to the bags for more fruit, I saw the big chimp politely take half of a big papaya from Estelle's hand and place it neatly beside the small banana pile in front of her\u2014grunting and smacking happily as she peeled and ate another banana.\n\nI took four more bananas and the other half of the papaya and returned to the small girl. She sat with her knees bent, her feet pidgin-toed and flat on the ground, chewing on the last of the four bananas. When I approached her with the additional fruit, she placed a protective hand over the banana peels she had collected in a pile close to her outer thigh. She must have been saving them for later. Without getting up, she reached out her bony arm three times in quick succession to twice take two bananas and then the papaya as I held them out for her. She placed the bananas in the protected small space between her feet while she started on the papaya\u2014my first indication that papaya was her favorite.\n\nFinally, Estelle and I put neat piles of peanuts within reach of each chimp, careful not to scatter them, since the rapidly approaching darkness would make foraging difficult.\n\nWe had saved bananas, a papaya, and some peanuts for all the monkeys. Estelle took food to the skinny adult baboon, whom we could see pacing frantically on his chain closer to the driveway entrance, and I took some back to all the small monkeys tied on the veranda.\n\nThe monkeys, who were all too thin, snatched the fruit I held out for them as though I might change my mind about giving it to them. As they gobbled the fruit, they used their small hands and feet to protect the peanuts I placed in front of them. I so wished we could get these monkeys out of here, too, but I knew that none of their species were considered to be in danger of extinction and that laws protecting them were much more lax. Although there had been little enforcement, it was illegal under Cameroon law for private individuals or businesses to keep endangered species, including chimpanzees, in captivity. On the other hand, it was legal for them to keep these monkeys as long as they bought permits. As sad as the plights of these monkeys were, we were building a chimpanzee sanctuary, and we would focus on rescuing the chimpanzees. At least for now.\n\nAfter all the food was distributed, I hurried into the bar of the hotel to buy two bottles of water, because the chimps didn't have water containers near them and it was too dark for us to search about for any. After pouring a small amount of water into a chewed-up plastic bowl Estelle had found for the adult baboon, and a small amount into seven bowls I found scattered around the veranda for the small monkeys, we gave one half-full bottle to each chimpanzee. They both lifted the bottles and drank eagerly.\n\nBy this time, it was too dark to see without our flashlights. Dusk in this part of the world is short, and night comes quickly. Cameroon is located just north of the equator, which means we have close to twelve hours and thirty minutes of light every day, with little variation. Estelle and I were exhausted and hungry. I sensed, rather than actually saw, the chimpanzees watching us as we walked along the dimly lit driveway toward the hotel restaurant. For the first of many times to come, I felt an aching pang of guilt in my freedom to walk away and leave them.\n\nAt the restaurant Estelle and I split a big, slightly chilled bottle of 33 Export, one of the heavily advertised beers brewed by a company owned in part by Cameroon's president, and ate spaghetti omelets and French fries. We learned from the waiter that the bigger chimpanzee was Dorothy, and the small one Nama. He told us the manager of the hotel, who was one of the sons of the owner, would be there the next morning.\n\nWe ate fast and went to our room. Estelle braved a cold shower, but I decided to skip it and go straight to bed, despite feeling dirty from the long drive. I was exhausted. Being prone, even on the worn, lumpy foam mattress, was a relief, although sleep didn't come to me until hours later. I obsessed about Dorothy and Nama sleeping on the hard dirt outside. Would we manage to take them away from here? We hadn't even built the sanctuary yet, and I didn't know how long it would take. Could we move quickly enough to save Nama, who was obviously sick? Could I help her with medical treatment even before we would be able to move her? Would this Senegalese family that was actively collecting primates agree to let us take the chimpanzees from here? What kind of struggle could we face with these hotel owners? Would the Ministry of the Environment and Forestry be willing and able to stand up to them? The patriarch of the family had ties to Cameroon's former head of state and was considered politically powerful. However, I thought with a glimmer of optimism, the former head of state died in exile after the current president took power. I wondered if the family was connected in any way to the present administration. On and on my thoughts ran, until sometime after two o'clock I finally fell asleep.\n\nEstelle woke me early. We dressed quickly, grabbed bottles of Coke from the restaurant because we didn't want to take the time for coffee\u2014we knew the restaurant wouldn't have paper to-go cups\u2014and said a quick hello to Dorothy and Nama before rushing to the market in Obala to buy food for them. Someone had given them each a pile of palm nuts, which are high in saturated fat and therefore not good for them. Dorothy's pile was much bigger than Nama's, but neither chimp ate them with much relish.\n\nObala's open-air market was about three-quarters of a mile from the turnoff to the Luna Park Hotel driveway and only a block from the paved road that led to Yaound\u00e9. Its fa\u00e7ade was a row of ten gray ancient-looking wooden stalls perched side by side on packed brown dirt. Each was crammed with a variety of colorful fresh produce, hawked by cheerful, mostly female vendors. Behind the first row of stalls were several additional rows of tables, made of the same worn gray wood, but without walls. A patched, rusting corrugated zinc roof hung over the tables, with gaping open spaces that let in light. Estelle haggled in French over the prices of fruit with the women along the first row, and since my presence was providing no benefit to the process, I wandered through the back alleys of the market.\n\nThe back rows had less of the fresh fruits and vegetables and more dried foods\u2014big metal basins of corn for grinding into flour, shelled peanuts (called groundnuts in Cameroon), red beans, white beans, soybeans, and melon seeds. Table after table had the same things. Laid out beside the basins on some of the tables was an assortment of dried spices I hadn't seen outside of Africa and didn't have any idea how to use. Most of the women spoke to me as I browsed their tables, trying to convince me I needed to buy one thing or another. \"No, merci. Je ne parle pas fran\u00e7ais.\" No, thank you. I don't speak French. Accompanied by a smile, it was my standard response. However, I had practiced this one phrase enough that it sounded like I really did know how to speak a little French, so people kept talking to me. \"Je ne comprende pas!\" I don't understand! It was my other practiced phrase.\n\nThe last row of Obala's market was dedicated to meat. Several tables were covered with the smelly fly-covered flesh and bone of domestic animals. A table on the end had stacks of smoked bushmeat\u2014blackened body parts of various forest animals, many unrecognizable. Perusing the table, I identified several limbs of small monkeys, but nothing that looked like chimpanzee or gorilla parts. On the dirt beside this table was the freshly killed bushmeat. Laid out on their sides were two putty-nosed monkeys\u2014sweet-looking little guenons with gray-black hair and brightly contrasting white noses\u2014who had been shot and probably died quickly. Beside the monkeys was the body of a small dark-gray antelope called a blue duiker, who had suffered long\u2014one delicate leg, broken and twisted, told the story of his panicked, futile thrashing in a trap. And beside the duiker was the freshest bushmeat of all. A juvenile dwarf crocodile, slightly more than a yard long with his short front legs tied tightly behind his back, was still breathing. His legs were already swollen and purplish from lack of circulation. As I squatted beside him, he opened his eyes slightly wider, and I was careful not to get close to his mouth. I wanted to help him, but how? Even if I could free him, he would lose his legs. He could not survive now. I could buy him and show him the mercy of a quick death, but I didn't really know how to kill a crocodile. I remembered the machete in the truck, but I wasn't even sure where to hit him. The underside of the neck would be best, I supposed, but how many strikes would it take? I surely didn't trust my aim with a machete, and while my intention would be to end the crocodile's suffering, I might end up causing him more. Also, I knew very well that it wasn't wise to reinforce the hunting trade by purchasing bushmeat. Stand up and walk away, I willed myself. In the United States, most animal cruelty was hidden from public view behind locked doors. In this country, where it was overt and ubiquitous, I needed discipline and a more callous heart to stay focused on my mission. Wishing him a fast death and reassuring myself that his brain was very small, I left the crocodile to whatever his fate would be.\n\nSince I had taken the keys with me, Estelle was forced to wait for me outside the Pajero. \"What the hell were you doing? It's hot out here,\" she complained loudly and legitimately. She couldn't come find me, carrying all the heavy fruit she had bought.\n\n\"I'm sorry,\" I said, and I was. Sorry for keeping her waiting in the heat. Sorry for leaving the crocodile to a slow death, choosing the easy route for myself.\n\n\"What were you doing?\" Estelle repeated.\n\n\"Nothing,\" I said. \"Just looking at the market. What did you buy?\"\n\nEstelle had bought bananas, papaya, mangoes (the first of the season), corn on the cob, peanuts, and long baguettes of white bread\u2014enough of everything for all ten primates at Luna Park. We stopped at a small supermarket to buy two plastic cups of yogurt for Dorothy and Nama. Estelle and I both had read about the diets of free-living chimpanzees, but the wild fruits and leaves they ate weren't available to us. The fruits and vegetables and peanuts that Estelle bought were staples of the chimpanzees at LWC and also were part of the diet of the chimpanzees at her sanctuary in Guinea. In addition to all kinds of fruits and vegetables, we had seen Jacky, Pepe, and Becky enjoying bread from the hotel restaurant, and yogurt was a special treat I often bought for them. We knew we had food that Dorothy and Nama would like.\n\nBack at Luna Park, as we carried the food toward Dorothy and Nama, an attendant approached us.\n\n\"The chimpanzees are very dangerous. The big one can be vicious,\" he informed us. \"I am the only one who can go near them. I'm the one who cleans after them and feeds them.\" While I waited for him to speak and Estelle to translate, I watched Dorothy and Nama. They were watching us and waiting impatiently\u2014Dorothy sitting at the limit of her chain and Nama pacing jerkily back and forth.\n\n\"What do they normally eat?\" I asked him, through Estelle.\n\n\"Palm nuts and bananas,\" he said. \"They will also drink beer and smoke cigarettes. If you have cigarettes, I'll show you.\" Estelle explained to him that I was a veterinary doctor, that we worked with chimpanzees, that cigarette smoking was bad for chimpanzees, and that we did not want to see them smoke. I suggested that we could write a list of appropriate foods so he could try to get a variety of them to feed the chimpanzees and other primates every day. We showed him that we had food in our bags and informed him that we would now give it to the chimpanzees ourselves. He looked skeptical, hesitating as he formulated his objection. Without waiting for it, we turned and walked quickly with our several bags of food to a patch of manicured grass between Dorothy and Nama. Dorothy grimaced and bounced on her back feet in excitement, but her extreme anxiety of the previous day was absent. Nama, too, was calmer as she watched us remove food from the bags. Estelle doled out the fruit, while I handed each of them yogurt and bread. We approached the chimpanzees less cautiously than we had the day before. We were now acquaintances, with a positive record\u2014albeit short\u2014of benevolence.\n\nWhile they were enjoying their food, I fed the baboon, collected the water bottles to get fresh water, and distributed some food and water to the small monkeys on the veranda. When I came back out, Estelle was sitting close to Dorothy, grooming her outstretched leg. At the same time, Dorothy gently groomed the top of Estelle's head. How sad it was that the attendant and others at the hotel had misunderstood Dorothy so completely. How many years had it been since anyone touched her in a loving way? How long since she was allowed this simple pleasure of grooming someone else? As I watched the sweet scene between Dorothy and Estelle, which I knew represented a blossoming friendship, I longed to change places with Estelle.\n\nI turned toward Nama, who also was watching Dorothy and Estelle. As I walked slowly within her reach, she took my arm, and I allowed her to pull me in close to her. I sat down beside her in the wet dirt, trying to avoid the diarrhea. She looked at my face curiously for a few moments, glancing at my eyes but not really looking into them. She was inspecting me, rather than trying to communicate. After a minute or two, her hand hovered in front of my face, her lips grew taut in concentration, and her mouth smacked open and closed rhythmically. Understanding that she was about to groom me reassured and relaxed me, but then her fingers on my face were not really so gentle. She was digging at the corners of my eyes in a way I didn't enjoy. I turned my face away. When I looked back at her, she perused my face again briefly, and then tried picking my nose with a finger that smelled of feces. I turned away again. I clacked my own mouth and tried to groom her face, but she didn't like it either. She turned her head to escape my hand as I had done with hers. This wasn't going perfectly.\n\nFinally, when I lowered my hands to groom her chest, she pushed her shoulders back and straightened her neck to give me good access. I moved both my hands over her chest the way I thought another chimpanzee would\u2014parting the grayish hairs, flicking off dirt particles, gently scratching at blemishes on skin stretched tautly over easily discernible ribs. After about ten minutes, Nama lowered her head and returned her chest and shoulders to normal posture. When I looked up to see what she wanted to do next\u2014not more face grooming, I hoped\u2014her eyes were seeking mine with a desire to communicate that startled me. While she held my gaze, she took my right hand and placed it purposefully on the chain around her bony neck, rubbed bare of hair by the shackle. Her lower lip hung open, and her eyes were steady, beseeching. She was requesting the freedom she needed most of all and was expecting no less than simple action as an answer from a friend. All I could give her was a promise that she couldn't understand, although I meant it with all my heart.\n\n\"Nama, I will take that chain off you, just as soon as I am able to. I will never rest a single day until I do.\"\n\nSuddenly, Estelle's voice surprised me in its proximity to us. She had approached without me noticing her. She was saying that a group of three men, including the attendant, were watching us.\n\n\"One of them might be the manager. We should go talk to them,\" Estelle said.\n\nI agreed that I should accompany Estelle to speak with the men. I had become totally relaxed with Nama, but when I tried to stand up, the emotional tenor changed abruptly. Nama grabbed my arm tightly and pulled me back down, causing me to fall hard on the dirt. While I was thinking about how to handle the situation, she took my hand and stood upright on her two legs. When I managed to get on my feet, she started walking me in tight circles around the concrete slab to which the end of her chain was attached. She mostly walked upright, only occasionally putting down one hand on the dirt. With her other hand, she held on to my hand tightly, stubbornly. Around and around we went. She may have looked frail, but she was clearly a lot stronger than I was. I wasn't sure what she might do if I tried to pry her hand from mine or spoke harshly to her. I really wanted us to be friends, and I really didn't want her to bite me. The loss of control frightened me.\n\n\"Nama won't let me leave at the moment,\" I told Estelle, who had seen what was happening. I tried not to sound nervous about my capture.\n\n\"Do you want me to try to help you now?\" Estelle asked.\n\n\"Go talk to the people first,\" I said. \"I don't want them to get annoyed that we're ignoring them.\"\n\nSince I couldn't speak French, we had already planned what Estelle would say, which was basically just the truth. We were starting a sanctuary in the forest for adult chimpanzees, and we wanted to take Dorothy and Nama there so they could have a better life. She would also try to find out how long Dorothy and Nama had been at the hotel.\n\nNama quit walking me in circles, and we sat back down. She released my hand, and once, I tried to scoot away. I hoped that by staying on her level, instead of standing up abruptly, I would be able to slip out of her reach, but when the space between us increased to a few inches, she grabbed my arm tightly. Stay with me! Minutes earlier Nama had owned my heart, and now I hated being subjugated by her. She would no longer meet my gaze or even look at my face, but she could not let me go and face being alone again. Suddenly, my empathy for her smothered every other emotion. If I so detested the loss of my free will for even a few minutes, how unimaginably horrible it must have been for Nama, and for Dorothy, to be so cruelly deprived of even the slightest autonomy and choice. I scooted closer to her to entwine my arm through hers. She could have her way, in this at least. I would stay as long as I could.\n\nSitting arm in arm with Nama, I watched Estelle talking to the three men. Soon, she and one of the men strolled away from the rest. He towered over Estelle and appeared comfortable as they talked. He was casually dressed in Western clothes, but he carried himself with the poise of Cameroon's affluent class.\n\nEstelle gestured toward me. I waved stupidly, and he nodded. In a few minutes, Estelle and the man shook hands, and he walked back toward the office of the hotel, the other two following.\n\n\"How did it go? Was that the managing son?\" I asked her when she approached.\n\n\"It was. According to him, Dorothy has been here over twenty-five years, and Nama came in 1984. He said he will talk to his family about letting us take them.\"\n\n\"Did he seem opposed to the idea?\" I asked.\n\n\"He wasn't particularly negative about it. I told him you were a veterinarian examining the chimpanzees, and we would bring back some medicine for them,\" Estelle said. \"He seemed to like that.\"\n\nUnfortunately, Estelle needed to get back to Yaound\u00e9 to attend a play that evening at her son Nick's school. As we were discussing my captivity and deciding what prize\u2014something the restaurant had for sale\u2014we might barter for my freedom, Nama suddenly moved away from me to the opposite side of the concrete slab. She glanced across at me one time, quickly, and then stared out past me, to the left of me. As simple as that, she told me I was free to go, and her resolve broke my heart again.\n\n\"Nama, look at me,\" I called to her. \"I'll be coming back soon.\" But she had retreated into herself, done with me for the day.\n\nI had no idea how much of a fight it might be, or how long it might take, to rescue Nama and Dorothy from Luna Park, but I intended to give Nama some medical treatment within days. I collected a sample of her feces in a plastic bag I had carried in my pocket for that purpose. I would have it checked for parasite eggs when we were back in Yaound\u00e9. Intestinal worms could be at least partly to blame for Nama's diarrhea, anemia, and wasting away. I would run the tests and come back soon with medicine. I would spend time with Dorothy next time.\n\nAs we walked to the Pajero, I stopped and looked back at Dorothy and Nama for a minute or so\u2014from one to the other. Their loneliness and boredom were palpable. I tried to comprehend the aching, crazy-making frustration in such extreme confinement, but I could not even imagine the depth of despair that such a life must bring. How had they maintained their sanity? A painful, burning lump of fury formed and expanded in my chest and burned my throat, seeking escape. I wanted to sob. I longed for the release that tears might bring, but my eyes were dry. Anything but effective action seemed self-indulgent. My aching fury was as trapped in me as Dorothy and Nama were trapped.\nSeven\n\nThe Village\n\nSoon after our search for a sanctuary site in Cameroon ended at the Mbargue Forest, Estelle took over operation of a chimpanzee sanctuary in the West African country of Guinea. When she and her husband, Dana, had left Guinea two years earlier, she had taken the eight baby chimpanzees in her care to a larger sanctuary in Haut Niger National Park. Now the director of that sanctuary had just resigned, and the government of Guinea asked Estelle to come back and fill the position. It was a position that would give her a great deal of autonomy in decision making, but also included raising all the necessary operational funds.\n\nEstelle moved back and forth from Cameroon to Guinea. When she was in Cameroon, she was busy raising funds for her Center for Chimpanzee Conservation in Guinea. Her availability to help me set up the new sanctuary was limited, although she really came through as a friend and collaborator at some crucial moments.\n\nOn May 31, 1999, the minister of the Ministry of the Environment and Forestry in Yaound\u00e9 signed an official letter giving us permission to establish a chimpanzee sanctuary on government-owned land in Cameroon. Until that point, we had been moving forward with verbal assurances and a letter from a lower official in the ministry. Getting the signed letter from the minister gave us real authority from the national government to move forward.\n\nI had just hired Kenneth Fonyoy, a twenty-eight-year-old Anglophone from the Northwest Province of Cameroon, to be my driver and translator. Kenneth was smart. He had a good sense of humor, but his handsome face often wore a solemn expression. His smile was pretty, but not quick. He wasn't a big man, but his cocky attitude made him seem larger than he was. I thought he was chauvinistic, and his fast driving got on my nerves. My monitoring of the speedometer, like a mother with a teenaged son, undoubtedly got on his nerves. I got the distinct impression that he thought this job of driving me around was beneath him, and I was quite sure he thought I was a little crazy.\n\nWhen he threw a Coke can out the window, I insisted he stop the car and go collect it.\n\n\"We don't litter from this car!\" I explained a little too emphatically, faced with the glaring evidence that everyone except me, and perhaps other people riding in this particular car, did indeed litter in Cameroon. When he picked up his Coke can, he pointed to three others on the ground within view and asked sarcastically, \"Would you like me to pick up those, too?\"\n\nWhen he captured a stunned and frightened quail that he had accidentally, although fortunately from his perspective, hit with the Pajero, he was thanking God for the free dinner until I thwarted his plans. I insisted he place the bird on the grass, and as we watched her lying almost lifeless before us, Kenneth assured me, \"She will die here in the grass, a benefit to no one.\" When she suddenly flew away as if nothing had happened, he rolled his eyes and walked silently to the car. For him, I was unreasonable and annoying, but he needed the job more than he wanted me to know. I needed him even more.\n\nBy the time I hired Kenneth and we received the minister's letter, we had decided to locate the sanctuary in a particular section of the Mbargue Forest near the village of Bikol. It met the essential criteria we had established, and Liboz would make our driveway, clear our camp, and transport our supplies. Although Cameroon's national government favored our selection of the Mbargue Forest, the section we had chosen was considered the traditional territory of the village of Bikol. The current national government, led by President Biya since 1983, encouraged people to \"help themselves\"\u2014as in \"God helps those who help themselves.\" This meant eking out their existences on free land in remote forests where they were free to hunt, gather, and farm. As a result of the \"free land\" policy and the burgeoning human population, new settlements of squatters were continuously springing up, especially along logging roads that created access. However, like hundreds of other small, isolated villages scattered throughout Cameroon's forests, Bikol had predated the existence of the Republic of Cameroon as an independent country with its current boundaries and its national government, and it preceded Liboz's logging road by four decades.\n\nBikol was created in 1958 when two men who were natives of the larger village of Mbinang decided to break off from it. About two and a half miles from Mbinang, the founders of Bikol found the small Ndian River, running through the bottom of a steep ravine, on its way to the Sanaga River. They perched their two houses on level land about a half mile up an incline from the little river, which would be their water source. The name Bikol means \"the King\" in their Bamv\u00e9le dialect. The two men brought relatives to join them in Bikol, and with multiple wives, they swelled the population with descendants. Their sons brought wives, and new genes, from outside villages. When we arrived in 1999, one of the founders, \"Pa\" Michel, still lived in Bikol, but he spoke no French and had gotten quite old. Chief Gaspard, the prominent voice of the village when we first arrived in Bikol, was the son of the other founder. His father's tomb was prominently displayed in front of his house.\n\nAlthough the people of Bikol did not possess a deed to the land, which officially belonged to the national government, no one disputed their \"traditional rights\" to use it. We would have to negotiate with them if we wanted to put a chimpanzee sanctuary here. We would need to convince them that the chimpanzee sanctuary would improve their lives, and we would need to make it true.\n\nKenneth drove Estelle and me from Yaound\u00e9 to Bikol for an official meeting with the village community. We pulled into Bikol with every available space in the Pajero crammed with bags and boxes of food and drinks. We brought a hundred pounds of rice, a Styrofoam ice box of mackerel, large bags of bitter greens and peanuts for a local dish called ndol\u00e9, ripe plantains, and basins of tomatoes, hot peppers, and other spices for making sauce. I had wanted the feast to be vegetarian, but Kenneth, and even Estelle, insisted it would insult the community and the local government officials who would attend. Kenneth argued that we should take live chickens so we wouldn't have to worry about the meat spoiling. Estelle thought it was a practical idea, which even I could concede, but she couldn't bring herself to argue for traveling with and getting to know chickens that we would kill in Bikol. I finally compromised on bringing the dead fish in a cooler. To drink we brought several cases of boxed red wine, crates of beer, and soft drinks. There was also candy for the children. We decided it was prudent to keep the drinks locked in the Pajero, but we handed over all the food to the women of Bikol so they could begin preparing the feast that would top off the next day's big meeting.\n\nChief Gaspard gave us permission to set up Estelle's small tent, which she and I would share, near one end of the village on a bumpy patch of dirt in a clearing between the last two stick-and-mud houses. For Kenneth's accommodation I had planned to rent a bamboo bed in one of the mud houses, like Estelle and I had done previously, but he preferred to sleep on the reclined front seat of the Pajero instead. The village of his youth was in a more affluent area of Cameroon's Northwest. The house where he grew up was made of mud bricks that had been formed in a brick press, not just mud plastered on a stick frame. The floor of his village home was made of concrete. For sleeping, Kenneth preferred the car seat to Bikol's dirt-floored huts.\n\nAt six o'clock on the morning of the meeting, when Estelle and I came out of our tent to meet the day's new light, we found the men of Bikol already congregated on their benches around a small fire, which was serving to chase away the slight chill of the early morning. They were joined by some of the younger children gnawing on cassava tubers that had been roasted on the fire. Meanwhile, the women were already at work. Using wood they had collected from the forest the previous day, they had already built two open fires in front of adjacent houses across the road from our tent. They were organizing various food items around the fires. They spoke to one another and gave commands to older, helping children in the Bamv\u00e9le dialect, or maybe it was Bobilis, which had been brought to the village by some of the wives. They sounded exactly the same to my ear. All the women worked, but no one rushed about. It was a calm but serious atmosphere in this important women's sphere of Bikol.\n\nThe women generally did a disproportionate share of the work in the villages. They cooked, washed clothes, cared for children, and farmed. The men hunted and worked beside their wives on the farms, but it was clear they had much more leisure time.\n\nEstelle, Kenneth, and I left early for the town of Minta to pick up the divisional officer, Mr. Ndang Ndang Albert. His presiding over the meeting would legitimize it for the village people and make it legal for the government. Because we wanted to meet with the D.O. before the community meeting, Estelle and I both accompanied Kenneth on the four-hour drive to Minta. We wanted to make sure he understood that we were a very small nongovernmental organization (NGO), and our primary mission was conservation, not community development. I was very concerned about leaving people in the village with the impression that we would provide more for them than we could actually deliver. I would be the one answering to people in years to come.\n\nSoon after Estelle and I had found the D.O. in Minta six weeks earlier, we had sent Kenneth by public transport to deliver a letter requesting his attendance at our community meeting. In his reply letter, which Kenneth had carried back to us, Mr. Ndang had selected this day to fit his schedule. When we arrived at his office, we found him waiting. He wore the short-sleeved, smartly pressed, khaki-colored uniform provided by the government to officials of his level. During a quick meeting in his office, Estelle reiterated the limitations of what we would be able to provide the community, and he assured us he understood the importance of not overstating our case during the community meeting. As we all headed for the Pajero where Kenneth waited, I had my first introduction to a Cameroon cultural requirement I hadn't considered before.\n\nThe D.O., like any self-respecting government official, would be obliged to go to Bikol with an entourage, the members of which were already waiting with Kenneth. As was the tradition, the uniformed captain of the military police, who was based in Minta, would go along to provide security. Mr. Ndang's assistant, in a starched white shirt and dress pants, would be necessary to record minutes of the meeting. Minta's \"chief of post\" for the Ministry of the Environment and Forestry (MINEF), a younger man in the hunter-green coveralls provided by the ministry, would come because the issue of a wildlife sanctuary was in his domain. The mayor of Minta, in suit and tie, would complete the D.O.'s entourage (for prestige, I supposed).\n\nNo one but Estelle and I seemed the least bit concerned that we would be packed like sardines in our smallish SUV for the long, bumpy ride back to Bikol, and other than glances of dread at each other, we didn't express our mutual annoyance over it. I directed the D.O. to the front seat, the place of honor, which left six of us in the back half of the car. Estelle opened the rear door to the small compartment behind the backseat, revealing our store of drinks still hoarded there. She shifted them around to maximize space for sitting and explained that someone would have to sit on a crate of beer. No one from the D.O.'s entourage spoke, but all heads turned toward the slim, young MINEF man. To show concern for his comfort and to emphasize Estelle's point, I slid out a flattened cardboard carton wedged against the side of the compartment, placed it on top of the beer crate, and smiled at him. He shrugged good-naturedly and crawled in. The remaining five of us tried to crawl onto the backseat, but it wasn't going to work. The D.O. called his assistant to squeeze into the front with him, which I worried would interfere with Kenneth's driving, but I couldn't see another alternative. Estelle and I hugged each of the back doors with the two men sandwiched between us. Ours was an unpleasant ride on the very bumpy road, wedged tightly against the unforgiving plastic of the doors, but we arrived back in Bikol just before three o'clock to greet a delighted population. A few people from the neighboring villages of Bikol 2 (Mr. Ngong Bipan Antoine was a relative of Chief Gaspard who had at one point joined him to settle in Bikol, but some disputes arose that caused the current chief, Chief Antoine, to found his own village of Bikol 2 a mile and a half down the road) and Meyene also came for the meeting. The attendees totaled about fifty, not including children.\n\nFor all the time and trouble it took to prepare, the community meeting was surprisingly short and simple. We met in Chief Gaspard's small house, where the five guests from Minta, Estelle, Kenneth, Chief Gaspard, Pa Michel, and I sat on bamboo benches arranged along three walls, with the D.O. sitting opposite the open wall. People squeezed into the room to stand facing the D.O., or they listened from just outside the house. Mr. Ndang spoke in French, and Pa Michel's son Samuel translated what he said into Bamv\u00e9le for people who didn't speak French\u2014primarily older people\u2014while Kenneth translated for me. During the meeting, it was decided that we would work with the Bikol community to delineate the sanctuary boundaries. Villagers would abandon any farms located inside the boundaries, and we would give individual farmers \"symbolic\" compensation, which meant that they would accept whatever we offered to relocate their farms. There would be no hunting with guns or traps inside the sanctuary boundaries. We, in turn, would provide jobs and buy fruits and vegetables from village farmers to feed the chimpanzees, thereby benefiting the community. Mr. Ndang explained that we were a small NGO, which could not solve all the problems of poverty in the community, but he added that our presence might bring tourists and other NGOs\u2014which could, in time, bring more benefit. Several of the villagers gave speeches expressing the hope and belief that they would be better off with us in the community than they had been without us. Chief Gaspard thanked us for choosing Bikol over any other village. In conclusion, Samuel, the translator, thanked God for bringing us to them. And that was it!\n\nAfter the meeting, the women delivered food on metal plates to the guests from Minta and the others of us seated inside. Kenneth acted as our drinks waiter\u2014fulfilling the requests for wine, beer, or Coke from the special guests first, then staying outside to oversee the distribution of drinks to the population. The free flow of alcohol helped guarantee everyone's patience while they waited for food. It was Cameroon tradition that the important people should eat first, but I knew there would be enough food for everyone.\n\nAround six P.M., Estelle and Kenneth left to return the D.O. and his entourage to Minta, where they would pass the night in the small hotel where Estelle and I had stopped for a bucket bath weeks earlier. The next day, Kenneth would drive Estelle back to Yaound\u00e9. That night with the village population, I drank boxed wine and danced barefooted in the mud to an African beat pounded on cowhide drums by two young men from a neighboring village. Still unable to have even the simplest conversation with the people of Bikol, I nodded and smiled when anyone spoke to me. A burst of laughter often followed, and I wondered to what in the world I was agreeing. I didn't remember many names at that point, but people seemed genuinely happy to have me there. A group of several women joined forces to coach me on how to properly pulsate my hips to the drumbeat. My lighthearted but sincere efforts, emboldened by the wine, fell woefully short until I concluded that one had to be born to the special talent. However, in years to come, I would get a lot closer to this pulse of Africa and feel flattered when anyone said I danced like an African. When I realized I was quite drunk, I bade farewell with a wave to my strange fellow merrymakers, crossed the couple dozen yards to my tent, and zipped myself inside. The drumming soon stopped, and I drifted off to the sound of conversation and laughter.\n\nForty-eight hours after he left, Kenneth returned to Bikol. He and I camped in the village for the rest of June. Kenneth may have been a \"city boy\" as I teased him, but somewhere along the way he became committed to our cause, or to me, or to both\u2014I was never sure what really inspired him most, but whatever it was, he worked beside me in the forest like the project was his. Few drivers or translators in Cameroon, or anywhere else in the world, would have done the same. With Kenneth by my side, we explored many acres of forest behind Bikol. I tucked my pants in my socks, just above my ankle-high hiking boots, as some protection against ants, and Kenneth wore a pair of green rubber boots I had bought him in Yaound\u00e9. There were several species of poisonous snakes in the forest, and I tried to watch where I put my feet so I didn't step on one. We saw the molted skin of a snake that I recognized from books as belonging to a deadly Gaboon viper. We both wore long sleeves as protection against mosquitoes and the ubiquitous small black biting flies, which swooped silently and relentlessly around our faces and sometimes got into our eyes. Once when I put my hand against a tree for balance, a piercing pain in my palm caused me to pull it back quickly. I never saw what stung me, but I watched where I put my hands after that. I had hiked a lot in the temperate rain forests of Oregon, but this African forest, while incredibly beautiful for its diversity of plants and animals, was a more hostile environment for humans. But we frequently saw small monkeys in the trees above us, and it punctuated the tedium of tiny annoyances with an exciting sense of exoticism. Through it all, I tried to envision the future chimpanzee sanctuary and plan its layout while Kenneth wielded a machete, cutting just enough to clear our access to various vantage points. Our goal was to choose our future campsite and the exact location of our first chimpanzee enclosure.\n\nMy r\u00e9sum\u00e9 in no way qualified me for the job. My training was in veterinary medicine. The most complicated structure I had designed and built was a rabbit cage for my backyard in Beaverton, Oregon. Somewhere I had grabbed on to the audacious conviction that I could and would construct a chimpanzee sanctuary from the ground up in this remote part of one of Africa's most difficult countries. I hid a fear of failure that lurked just beneath my fa\u00e7ade of self-assurance. From my fear, and from my constant awareness of the intolerable consequences of failure, grew a single-minded determination. The chimpanzees I had grown to love would not end their lives where they were. I would give them a different story if it killed me.\n\nAt the end of each day in the forest, Kenneth and I dragged our sagging, dirty selves back to Bikol. Madame Beatrice, one of the older women in the village, usually carried water from the river for me to use for my bucket bath and even heated it over her fire. We couldn't speak to each other, but her simple act of kindness to me in those early days spawned affection between us that lasted until she left the village years later to go back to the village of her childhood. Each afternoon, Kenneth disappeared for half an hour and came back looking clean. I wondered if he had a woman who was helping with his bath, but as far as I knew he always slept in the Pajero alone.\n\nI hired Colbert, who had been Estelle's and my guide during our first trip into the forest, to make a bamboo bench. I placed it a yard away and perpendicular to the vertical zippered entrance to my tent, a psychological blockade of sorts. On the other side of the bench, I arranged rocks, recently unearthed when the bulldozer made the road through Bikol, in a circle to create a small hearth. Each night Kenneth and I quickly built our fire using borrowed wood embers from one of the other village fires. With three larger rocks, we made a triangular shelf over the fire on which to set our cooking pot. We cooked instant Ramen noodles or boiled yams with eggs. Dessert was an avocado or a banana. We were both too exhausted to be creative in the realm of campfire cooking. We usually ate silently, gazing at the crackling fire.\n\nI was comfortable enough on the foam mattress in my tent, until one night about ten days after we arrived I woke to the sound of heavy rain and noticed water accumulating in the corners of my little domed room. As the downpour continued, water kept seeping in, occupying more and more space around the edges of my tent floor, pushing me to a smaller and smaller island in the center. I was desperate to the point of tears for sleep and could no longer lie down because my mattress was soaked on both ends. My raincoat was in the Pajero, but finally I made a run through the still pouring rain to cover the seven or eight yards from tent to car. I yanked at the front, passenger-side door handle, only to find that the door was locked, and had to pound and shout at the window through the noise of the rain to awaken a soundly sleeping Kenneth. Soaked to the skin, I entered the car and finally slept in wet clothes on the folded-down passenger seat beside him.\n\nThe next day, while I worked to dry out the tent\u2014over and over soaking up water with a towel inside and wringing the water from it outside\u2014Kenneth and some of the men from the village organized themselves to erect a roof of palm fronds over it. Others dug a trench around the tent, which would drain water away from me during future rains.\n\nOne of the village latrines was located about twenty yards behind my tent. It was a hole about seven feet square, crossed by a number of sticks on which a person could stand. It was among the trees at the edge of the forest, but there were no walls, or even dense foliage, around it. Early one morning I rushed out of my tent and headed to the latrine, preoccupied as I often was, and somehow neglected to actually look at the latrine until I was within ten feet of it. A young man from the village was squatting over it. His smile and casual wave were spontaneous and relaxed.\n\n\"Bonjour,\" he said.\n\n\"Bonjour,\" I parroted, as I jerked my head away. In my one-sided embarrassment, I made a hasty retreat to wait behind a tree until he had finished his business and gone. My concept of privacy and my need for it were out of place in the village.\n\nWhen all the items in my forest wardrobe became as dirty as I could stand, I accompanied a young woman called Emilienne, who was the wife of Samuel and daughter-in-law of Pa Michel, and her eight-year-old son, Mesmin, down the steep slope of a ravine to the small Ndian River. The people of the village washed their clothes and bathed in the Ndian. They also collected water from it for drinking and cooking. Grasping the thin metal wire handle looped across the top of my black bucket, I carried down my dirty clothes and square of brown soap, just like Emilienne did. When I saw her dipping a dirty item of clothing directly into the stream, I did the same with a pair of pants. This is where our aptitude diverged sharply. With clumps of cloth in each fist, I rubbed sections together, trying to remove the considerable amount of visible dirt, spot treating the fabric with my block of soap as I deemed necessary. Aware that it was polluting the stream, I was trying to minimize my use of soap. Meanwhile, I saw that Emilienne was vigorously pummeling her clumped-up, soapy article of clothing on the smooth top of a large gray rock, which protruded from the shallow water near the edge of the stream. She had stripped down to a thin tank top, and though she was a tiny woman, I could see the well-developed muscles of her back and arms ripple and shimmer under her chocolate-brown skin. Her fitness came not from a gym, but from hard work, and her competence from years of uncomplaining repetition. I thought she was beautiful, and I couldn't help watching her. She rotated and pounded sections of cloth, splattering thick white lather all over the rock and into the stream.\n\nWhen her glance met mine, she smiled and gestured to another big rock in the stream, near where I sat. Okay, I nodded; I would try it her way. My necessity for clean clothes was trumping my conscience on the use of soap. However, when my futile effort soon ended with two of my knuckles scraped and bleeding, I went back to my method, the way I had very successfully washed bras in the sink all my adult life without injury. When Emilienne had finished her load of clothes, twice as many as I had brought, she gathered my remaining two dirty items, and, seemingly without judgment, she washed them for me.\n\nWhen all the clothes washing was accomplished, she and Mesmin stripped and she used her block of soap to thoroughly lather both of their bodies from head to toe. My bath in the cold stream was less thorough. When the three of us had dressed, Emilienne filled with water a big aluminum basin Mesmin had carried down from the village\u2014first dipping it in the shallow stream to scoop up as much water as possible, then splashing in water with her cupped hand to fill it almost to the top. She squatted down, and Mesmin helped her heft the basin onto her head without spilling a drop. She struggled only slightly to straighten her knees and stand under the heavy weight of water. As she stood balancing the water-filled basin with one raised hand, Mesmin placed a bucket of clean clothes in her other hand. He filled one of the much smaller black buckets with water to place on his own head, then carefully bent to pick up their remaining bucket of clean clothes. They worked in perfect, practiced collaboration without speaking a word. With their loads of water and clothes equitably and practically distributed, they started up the steep incline. I followed with my bucket of relatively clean clothes, embarrassed that I hadn't brought an extra bucket to even try to carry water. Even without the weight of water, my legs ached from the exertion of the ascent.\n\nAfter that first trip to the Ndian, I hired Emilienne to wash my clothes when they were dirty, an arrangement with which we were both delighted.\n\nTo Kenneth's relief, and mine, too, I finally selected a mostly abandoned cassava farm about a mile into the forest behind Bikol as our campsite. Madame (\"Ma\") Clementine, an elderly woman from Bikol, had managed to slash and burn away the trees from the site many years before, but she was no longer able to work the farm. It was mostly overgrown with weeds and small trees, but I would give her compensation for it anyway.\n\nNext we had to make the path that would become our driveway. With our compass and machete, Kenneth and I cut a mostly straight track from a point on the road about a quarter mile from Bikol through the forest to our future campsite. As I referred to the compass and pointed the way with my outstretched arm, Kenneth walked a few paces ahead of me, cutting the track with his machete. I struggled to watch for ants and snakes and to keep my footing on the uneven forest floor, while keeping my arm pointed in the right direction for Kenneth, who looked back every few seconds to see where my arm was pointing. It was exhausting work for both of us, undoubtedly more so for him. I frustrated him by shifting the line several times to minimize the number of trees that would come down when the bulldozer blasted through.\n\nWhen I was satisfied, we spent a whole day marking trees along the route with a big red X using paint I had brought from Yaound\u00e9. Again and again, with a deep sense of the wrongness of it, I marked for destruction beautiful trees of many species\u2014some huge and ancient, others young and perfect. In the cool, oxygen-rich forest, I could feel the life in all these trees\u2014so benevolent and giving.\n\n\"In the long run our presence will be good for the forest and the animals who live here,\" I told Kenneth, justifying as best I could both to him and myself.\n\nKenneth began to tease me unsympathetically. \"We may be 'In Defense of Animals,' but we're 'In Destruction of Trees,' \" he said, making an unfunny joke.\n\nI fought momentary compulsions to drive away from this place and leave these innocent trees as I was finding them. But of course, my empathy ran deeper for the chimpanzees, and I knew that even if we left, the forest would not remain exactly as we were finding it. Jean Liboz would be logging this area if we weren't here.\n\nWhile we were camped in Bikol, Liboz and his crew were working five miles away building a bridge across the Yong River, close to where the train tracks crossed. His bulldozer had cleared a dirt track wide enough for a vehicle to pass from Bikol to the bridge, and another ten-mile track on the other side of the river to the town of B\u00e9labo. On sunny days when it had not rained the night before, our Pajero could cross the unfinished bridge and pass to B\u00e9labo for supplies. When it did rain, even four-wheel-drive vehicles bogged down in the mud on the fresh raw track.\n\nThe small town of B\u00e9labo hosted the only market within reasonable walking distance where the people from villages on our side of the Mbargue Forest could sell the produce they grew. Many years earlier, the government had built a wooden bridge across the Yong and a road from it to B\u00e9labo. However, termites had destroyed the bridge, and foliage and trees had recaptured the road long ago. When Liboz arrived on the scene, only remnants of the old bridge and a well-worn human footpath remained. The women and older children walked from the villages all the way to B\u00e9labo carrying plantains or basins of cassava, yams, or peanuts on their heads, traversing the river on the train tracks. Not surprisingly, the village community was happy about Liboz's logging road and bridge, because it meant access to public transport\u2014motorcycles and bush taxis\u2014and maybe other kinds of development in the community.\n\nOne day around noon, Kenneth and I came into Bikol from the forest to have some lunch. He wandered away toward the opposite end of the village, probably seeking a few minutes of anyone's company but mine. I was alone on my bamboo perch in front of my tent when I saw Chief Antoine, the leader of the village of Bikol 2, to whom I had been introduced at our official meeting with the divisional officer, limping rapidly down the center of the road. During our first meeting, the chief had shown me what remained of his left foot; about a third of it had been destroyed by a Gaboon viper bite ten years earlier. He said it was the reason he had requested a job at the sanctuary for his son-in-law and not himself. When Chief Antoine spotted me on the bench, he veered rapidly toward me. It seemed he had come to find me. I stood and shook his hand, trying to smile in a welcoming way, until I realized that he was extremely upset. He spoke rapid French, unintelligible to me, gesturing frantically to his crotch as he spoke. When I bent over to get a closer look at the problem with his blue polyester-clad crotch, he stepped back abruptly, stopped gesturing to his crotch, and increased the volume and emotional intensity of his indecipherable plea. He was on the verge of tears, and now he was waving his hands in the direction of his village, the direction from which he had walked. At this point in the futile exchange, I turned my head toward my last sighting of Kenneth, circled my mouth with my hands, and shouted his name as loudly as I could, not knowing if he was within earshot. He was not, but I heard a man's voice several houses away echo \"Kennet\"\u2014the village people never pronounced the h in his name\u2014much louder than I was capable, and then another fainter voice shouted it again, farther away down the village communication grapevine. Within a few seconds, I was relieved to see Kenneth running our way, across the bare dirt that fronted the row of tiny houses. As he neared and saw that I was still standing and appeared well, his pace slowed and his face relaxed visibly.\n\n\"I need translation!\" I sputtered at him before he had come to a complete stop. I briefly regretted alarming him, imagining him imagining me bitten by a snake or attacked by a wild animal. He told me later that, knowing I was clumsy, he only feared I had fallen in the latrine.\n\nAs Kenneth translated, Chief Antoine explained, obviously exerting great effort to stay calm, \"My daughter walked to B\u00e9labo to sell our coco yams six days ago. Five days ago on the way home, she gave birth to her baby daughter on the trail. My daughter was fine until this morning when she started bleeding.\" Again he made large flowing gestures with both his hands in the vicinity of his crotch to show where his daughter was bleeding a lot.\n\nI absorbed the fact that this girl, nine months pregnant, had walked from Bikol 2 to B\u00e9labo (seventeen miles) carrying a heavy basin of produce on her head and had given birth on the ground on her way back to the village.\n\n\"Is the baby okay?\" I asked incredulously.\n\nChief Antoine shouted in teary exasperation at my obtuseness, \"The baby is fine! It's my daughter who is dying!\"\n\n\"Let's go,\" I said to Kenneth.\n\nWe bumped and slid through the mud from Bikol to Bikol 2, about a mile and a half, as fast as we could risk going. Fortunately, it hadn't rained in more than twenty-four hours, and the sunny morning had helped to dry the roadway, but without caution we could have easily slid into the mud bog along the sides. When we reached his village, Chief Antoine led us into a house, past an expectant throng of village women gathered near the portal. Along one wall of the ten-by-ten-foot room of the little mud house, I saw a young woman lying on a thin foam mattress atop a narrow cot of bamboo. An older woman, obviously her mother, who was sitting on a small bamboo stool beside the cot, moved out of my way as I approached. Kenneth stood with Chief Antoine against the opposite wall. I sat on the stool vacated by the mother and looked at the girl, who was barely conscious. She looked like a teenager, or at most in her early twenties.\n\n\"Fait \u00e7a (Make this),\" I said in bad French, and opened my own mouth wide to model what I wanted her to do. She slowly opened her mouth as wide as she could manage. Her tongue was white. I nodded, and she closed her mouth. I lifted her upper lip with my finger to see her gums, hoping for a comforting hint of pink. Instead, her white gums rattled my nerves. The girl really was dying.\n\n\"What is her name?\" I asked Kenneth, buying time while I considered what to do.\n\n\"Vivian,\" her mother answered.\n\nI sighed and stood up slowly, willing myself to project a calm demeanor.\n\n\"We'll try to get her to the hospital in B\u00e9labo,\" Kenneth began to translate, but they had already understood me say B\u00e9labo.\n\n\"Merci Dieu! (Thank God),\" the chief said, bowing his head in relief. Other than Liboz and his men, who were working five miles away, we had the only vehicle in the area.\n\nThere was a government hospital in B\u00e9labo, and it sometimes had a doctor. The facility was poorly equipped and dirty, but it offered the best chance of survival for this young woman. A month earlier, before Liboz had opened the road to B\u00e9labo and before we were there with a vehicle, Vivian would have died here in the village. Even now, I didn't think there was much hope for her. First, she would have to survive long enough for us to get her to B\u00e9labo, and the chances of that would be much better if we could avoid getting stuck in the mud on the way. If we got as far as B\u00e9labo, there were a number of grim factors pertaining to the quality of care that would be available. That I was pessimistic didn't matter. We had to try.\n\nKenneth carried Vivian and gently placed her on the backseat of the Pajero. Chief Antoine and his wife, whose name I learned later was Cressance, entered on either side of their daughter. Cressance carried a zippered plastic market bag, which she had evidently packed earlier in desperate hope that her husband would find transport to a doctor. Another middle-aged woman carrying an open-top plastic bag with plantains sticking out\u2014they would need to eat at the hospital\u2014entered the car beside Chief Antoine. I decided that Kenneth would drop me off in Bikol and proceed to B\u00e9labo without me.\n\nWhile Chief Antoine relocated to the front seat, I ran to the tent and brought 10,000 CFA, about $20, back to Kenneth in case he needed it. The subject of money had not come up with Chief Antoine, and I assumed, naively, that he had the money to pay for Vivian's care. Our contribution would be the transport. Standing out on the dirt beside the car, my eyes locked on those of Cressance, who turned her head to continue meeting my gaze as the Pajero pulled away. She was amazingly stoic, and other than to tell me her daughter's name, she had not spoken to me. It was through her eyes she showed me her pain. I was not religious, but as I watched the Pajero pass out of sight I said a silent prayer to God that this woman would not lose her child.\n\nKenneth returned to Bikol around eight o'clock that evening. They had found the doctor at the hospital, and Vivian was admitted for treatment. Chief Antoine ran out of money in their first hour at the hospital\u2014all medications had to be purchased prior to treatment\u2014leading Kenneth to donate my 10,000 CFA before he left. Kenneth had other bad news.\n\nEn route to B\u00e9labo, he had seen Liboz. We had informed him a few days earlier that we had finished marking the path of our future driveway and were waiting in Bikol for the bulldozer. He had just informed Kenneth that the machine was broken, and it would take at least a week to get it repaired. This was distressing news for me. We needed to finish the first enclosure and bring Jacky, Pepe, and Becky before the heavy rains in September would make some of the roads impassable. I hoped to bring Dorothy and Nama soon afterward, although we still didn't know what the proprietors of the hotel would decide. In our part of Cameroon, the rainy season extended from April to mid-November, but July and August usually saw less rain. This was our opportunity to move forward with construction, and I constantly felt the pressure of the ticking clock.\n\nWe could accomplish no more in the forest until we could transport building materials to a cleared campsite, so I decided that we would return to Yaound\u00e9 for a few days. Kenneth and I were both tired, and I dreamed of a warm shower. More important, I wanted to check on Dorothy and Nama, which I could do on the way to Yaound\u00e9. With nothing urgent to accomplish in the forest, we were eager to go. We packed out at dawn, leaving the tent in place for when we returned.\n\nUnfortunately, it had rained the night before. The truck slid precariously along the mud-slick road, the accumulated slime on the tires effectively obliterating the usefulness of the tread. I welcomed the frequent water puddles because they washed mud from the tires, but unfortunately gave us only short-lived advantage. About two miles from Bikol, Kenneth lost control going down a hill and the truck slid into the mud bog along the edge of the road. We had a shovel and a machete, with which the two of us worked for over an hour trying unsuccessfully to dig ourselves out.\n\nFinally, a young man pushing a bicycle through the mud met us coming from the opposite direction. He introduced himself as Assou Francois, Vivian's husband and Chief Antoine's son-in-law. We were delighted to learn that Vivian was still alive in the hospital and doing better. Assou wholeheartedly joined our effort to liberate the Pajero, and soon two other men from the nearby village of Mbinang pitched in too. With another hour of digging and pushing, the five of us were able to free the car. During the meeting with the D.O. several weeks earlier, Chief Antoine had requested a job at the sanctuary for his son-in-law. This happy young father with the surviving wife must be the one of whom he had spoken. I hoped this spirit of collaboration between us was a sign of things to come.\nEight\n\nNothing Works, but It All Works Out\n\nRolling down the Luna Park Hotel driveway always brought on the same nauseating anxiety. Would Dorothy and Nama both be alive, no worse than I had left them? I sighed in relief to see Dorothy, and then a few moments later Nama, who was standing on two feet, using a rake to clean her dirt. She had apparently taken the rake from the groundskeeper. They recognized me passing in the Pajero, and both watched eagerly as we parked and got out.\n\nI had returned several times since our first visit, sometimes with Estelle, sometimes, like today, with Kenneth only. It had been almost a month since I had seen them last on our way to Bikol.\n\nAs I crossed the fifty-yard stretch of grass toward the tree where Dorothy was chained, she met me with her now familiar hand-flopping, screeching hysteria. I had known that it was an expression of desperate need mingled with hope, but it was Estelle who had known intuitively what Dorothy needed most. On our second visit, Estelle had taken a leap of faith and slid in between Dorothy's flopping hands to hug her. So on this day there was no mystery in it. More than anything, Dorothy craved contact; she wanted to be hugged. I squatted a couple of feet in front of her, and she quieted to welcome me as I duckwalked into her arms. I wrapped my arms around her and breathed in her distinctive musky body odor. As I patted her back soothingly, I felt her relax. After a few seconds, Dorothy pushed me out far enough to study my face and moved her mouth as though she would groom it. I felt her warm breath on my face, and happily anticipated her gentle grooming fingers, but she changed her mind and hugged me tight against her again. As much as I loved this intimacy with Dorothy, as much as I knew she needed it, I was aware of Nama watching and feeling left out. After another minute, I backed up to retrieve and hand to Dorothy the bag of bananas, papaya, mangoes, peanuts, and yogurt that I had packed at the market just for her. By now I knew she preferred to keep the bag and take her time exploring the contents.\n\nI took an almost identical bag to Nama, who stood to take it eagerly and then sat down. After our first visit, I had diagnosed a heavy load of intestinal parasites and had given her two treatments already. She looked slightly more robust than when I had last seen her. Unfortunately, I couldn't hope to rid her of the parasites as long as she lived on that contaminated patch of filthy dirt. Nama explored the contents of the bag for a few seconds and fished out the small papaya. As she savored her first bite, she looked me in the eyes and put per fingers to the chain around her neck\u2014as though to remind me. \"I could never forget it, Nama,\" I assured her softly.\n\nKenneth and I were exhausted after our long trip from Bikol, and we hoped to get to Yaound\u00e9 before dark. After I fed the monkeys and gave water to everyone, we left, knowing I would visit again soon.\n\nDana and Estelle were on vacation in the United States, and I stayed in their detached guest room with access to their house and kitchen. While we waited in Yaound\u00e9, I visited Dorothy and Nama twice more and rested in comfort while I worried about the delay we were facing.\n\nUnfortunately, the same day we finally received a message from Liboz that the bulldozer was set to go, I got sick. A high fever, headache, and excruciating pain in my hands, feet, and knees rendered me useless for almost ten days. I sent Kenneth to guide Liboz's bulldozer through the forest to our campsite and worried constantly about the time passing while I lay there doing nothing constructive for days on end, nothing but thinking and planning.\n\nAs soon as we could transport our building materials into our campsite, we would build a satellite cage for Jacky, Pepe, and Becky and soon afterward a second one for Dorothy and Nama. They would sit adjacent to a tract of forest we would eventually enclose with solar-powered electric fencing. I would take the chimpanzees back to the forest, not to live in cages, but to feel the earth beneath their feet and to view the horizon from the forest canopy. Electric fencing was the only way to give them their piece of natural habitat. I had seen electric fencing used for monkeys in Texas years earlier at Limbe Wildlife Center. I had studied the system at the Pandrillus sanctuary in Nigeria, which Edmund and I had visited on our way to Cameroon. Peter Jenkins, codirector of Pandrillus and Limbe Wildlife Center, had taken time to explain how their complicated (or so it seemed at the time) electric fencing system worked.\n\nI would be using the same equipment, which Peter Jenkins himself had transported to Limbe, via Nigeria, from the United States. Peter, who was a charismatic personality of many and varied talents, had managed to get a big load of equipment transported for free from the United States to Nigeria, through Mexico, on a charter plane. We contributed to the costs of shipping to Mexico, which were minimal compared to the price of commercial transportation to Cameroon, and Peter included our equipment in the shipment to Nigeria. Afterward, he brought our equipment, along with supplies he had bought for Limbe Wildlife Center, by boat from Calabar, Nigeria, across the Bight of Benin to Cameroon. He got the equipment as far as Limbe, and the rest was up to me. A Limbe businessman, a friend of George Muna, had allowed us to use one of his trucks to move it to the big fenced yard of the Coron sawmill in Yaound\u00e9, where it all had been stored for two months. The equipment would take its final journey to the Mbargue Forest on one of Coron's logging trucks as soon as I was well enough to move with it.\n\nFinally, after ten days that seemed like a hundred, I was well enough to return to the forest, although I would suffer from arthritis in my hands and feet for more than a year. I know now that the chikungunya virus, which is transmitted by daytime mosquitoes and is endemic in Cameroon and many other African countries, probably caused my symptoms. African forest primates are reservoirs for the virus, as are humans. It's likely that I was infected with the virus by a mosquito bite while I was trekking through the forest.\n\nGingerly, on sore feet I walked through the sawmill yard monitoring the loading of our imported fence equipment and lots of other building materials we had bought in Yaound\u00e9. We had hired a welder to create large latticework panels from individual iron rods and then had stored the panels at the sawmill. Welded onto a sturdy frame, these would form our cage walls. A company in the Douala port had donated a twenty-two-foot metal shipping container, and we had managed to transport it, too, to the Coron sawmill weeks earlier. When all of it had been loaded and secured on the long flatbed of the logging truck, we set off for the Mbargue Forest. A shipment of gold couldn't have been more valuable to me than those precious building materials. Because I wanted to make sure everything arrived safely, Kenneth and I left Yaound\u00e9 in the Pajero, following behind the big logging truck. However, an hour outside of Yaound\u00e9, when the pavement ended at the town of Ayos, the dust stirred up by the wheels of the big truck on the dirt road, even in this season of not-infrequent rains, was blinding. We managed to pass the truck with the intention of driving in front of it, but this arrangement didn't work out well either. The washboard bumps created by heavy logging trucks limited the speed of our small Pajero much more than it did the heavy truck. The truck driver was impatient with the slow speed and made me nervous by driving too close to us. In the end, we let him pass and fell far behind him. He knew where he was going because he was waiting for us at the campsite Liboz had cleared when we arrived many hours later.\n\nWe arranged for truckloads of sand and gravel to be brought from B\u00e9labo so that we could make cement by hand, using water we would carry from the river. Our first cemented structure was the floor of our pit latrine. Although its walls were made only of palm fronds, the wonderful privacy it afforded felt like a five-star luxury to me. It and a raffia roof over our side-by-side tents were the only structures we built before starting the cage. I had borrowed a second tent from Estelle and Dana for Kenneth. This would be the extent of our camp infrastructure, our base of operations, until after we brought the first chimpanzees to the sanctuary.\n\nBecause building the electric fence would take time\u2014just clearing the fence line of trees could take months\u2014I would focus first on building a big satellite cage. I thought we could build it in a few weeks, and it would be a big improvement over where the chimpanzees were living now. Then, as soon as possible, we would build the electric enclosure and get them back into the forest.\n\nWe hired our construction team of local village people. Mr. Francis, a middle-aged man from the village of Mbargue, on the far side of the Mbargue Forest, was our construction technician. He knew nothing about building cages, but he could lay cement and had built houses with wood. His was the highest level of skill we could find. Six men and teenagers from Bikol 1 and Bikol 2 were the unskilled laborers.\n\nI lacked a blueprint for the cage. I had made rough sketches, I went over every detail of the three-chambered design in my head, and I perfected it as well as I could with my level of skill and knowledge. With all the human and sliding chimpanzee doors that had to be anchored in concrete, it was complicated construction, some of which would have been difficult for me to explain to Mr. Francis even if we had spoken the same language. Under the circumstances, the task was ridiculously difficult. I hovered over the men every minute of every day as they planted poles in concrete to make sure my amateur design was followed precisely. When Kenneth wasn't with me to translate, I drew in the dirt or pantomimed to clarify my intent.\n\nNone of the men on our team, with the exception of Mr. Francis, had ever held a paying job before, and having an American woman boss undoubtedly veered into the realm of the bizarre for them. Up to this point, I had enjoyed a sweet relationship with the people of the villages. Now, trying to finish this first satellite cage before the heavy rains made the roads impassable, I pushed hard for the work to move fast. Our cultures and work ethics collided head-on. I wanted to start work at seven sharp every morning to accomplish as much as possible before the day got hot, but it was rare for all the employees to arrive on time. I tried explaining the importance of arriving for work on time, but they were farmers and hunters for whom a schedule imposed by anything other than the growing season and the physical necessity of eating was difficult to adhere to. I got angry, but I had little leverage. Because I needed the whole crew to get work done, I couldn't afford to send anyone home without pay. When nothing else worked, I motivated them with bonuses for arriving on time.\n\nFor them to bring lunch with them in the morning was a cultural and logistical impossibility. Because women from the village cooked food for them and brought it whenever it was ready, usually late in the afternoon, I wasn't able to set a specific lunchtime near midday, which would have allowed us to rest and rejuvenate in the hottest part of the day. I always held out and ate whenever they were eating, and I noticed that our productivity decreased as the hours wore on without food or rest. I could have solved the problem by hiring a cook and providing lunch in camp. I was pinching every franc, but well-timed rest and nutrition might have increased productivity enough to make up for the cost of lunch. In any case, I didn't think of this obvious solution until it was too late. My narrow American perspective sometimes blinded me to culturally appropriate solutions.\n\nOne day around one o'clock, I went to the latrine in camp and got distracted by a discussion with Kenneth over the placement of a table in the little cooking area near our tents. When I came back to the cage site, all seven members of the workforce, including Mr. Francis, were sleeping under a big mango tree. To wake them, I used a near-empty plastic water container as a drum, pounding it furiously with a two-foot piece of cage metal. They all rose silently, rubbing their eyes and yawning, as they moseyed back to work.\n\nTheir typical slow walking pace, which was undoubtedly a sensible and lifelong adaptation to the tropical climate, contrasted sharply with my march to the drum of urgent purpose. That they could not seem to comprehend or respect my sense of urgency exhausted what little patience I had. When my frustration and stress compelled me to shout unintelligible words\u2014not one among the workforce understood English\u2014the expended energy was not entirely wasted because they usually understood that I wanted them to go faster. For a few minutes they would try to accommodate, or humor, me by working a little faster, all the while speaking in their language and laughing among themselves (at me, I was sure).\n\nIn spite of all the problems, work moved forward. I was watching the calendar constantly, trying to beat the heavy rains, while we worked around lighter, shorter rains that were already coming several days per week. Then came the problem of the generator.\n\nWeeks earlier, in B\u00e9labo, we had arranged to rent a big generator that could power welding equipment. Unfortunately, a bad surprise awaited us when we were ready to weld the standing poles and walls together. When Kenneth went to pick up the machine, the proprietor told him that it was broken, sitting idle, without an essential replacement part that could only be bought in Europe. Our search for another generator was a frustrating drama that led us to Bertoua, the closest big town, and then all the way to Yaound\u00e9. I was almost out of money, which made the option of renting an expensive generator in Yaound\u00e9 less tenable. There had been so many costly contingencies for which I had lacked the experience to anticipate or plan. Edmund was doing his best to raise money in the United States, but with no accomplishments to show potential donors, it wasn't easy. I would learn later that he took out a loan for $2,500 in order to send me money when funds ran out.\n\nOne Saturday afternoon, I was alone at the cage while the work crew took their day of rest. Their Seventh-day Adventist religion prohibited work on Saturday. I always thought the village people embraced what they liked of the religion and left the rest, but try as I might, I couldn't convince them that God would smile on those who worked for chimpanzees, no matter upon what day of the week the work occurred.\n\n\"Madame, we can't put you before our God,\" Mr. Francis told me.\n\n\"Does he pay your salaries? Does he feed your kids?\" I asked.\n\n\"He makes the food grow,\" he answered sincerely, shaking his head apologetically. I couldn't win this one.\n\nThat particular Saturday, fretting about the generator problem, trying to conjure up a solution, I was near desperation. As I sat cross-legged on the dirt by the cage, my troubled thoughts were interrupted by a lanky middle-aged white man peeking over my shoulder. Other than Jean Liboz, who I knew had recently departed for France, and a Catholic priest in B\u00e9labo, I didn't know of any other expatriates working in the vicinity. I stood as Roger Odier, a middle-aged man with thinning light brown hair, looked at me through gold wire-rimmed glasses and introduced himself in English. He was a French national who had recently arrived in B\u00e9labo to manage a wood transportation company.\n\n\"One of my workers told me about a crazy American woman working alone in the forest,\" he told me with a heavy accent. \"I had to come see this thing for myself. You must have dinner with me at my house tonight and explain what it is you are doing here.\"\n\nHe got no argument from me. That night over a lovely dinner of green beans, white rice, French cheese, and red wine, I explained why I was building a sanctuary for chimpanzees, and I went into some detail about the threats they and other primates were facing in the wild. I made an effort to enunciate well and speak slowly as he got accustomed to my American accent. To his sympathetic ear, I confided my problems\u2014most notably, I spoke with all the gravity in my heart about my urgent need of a generator to weld the cage together before the heavy rains would make the work difficult, and moving the chimpanzees impossible.\n\nThe very next day Roger delivered his company's generator, two huge electric spotlights that plugged into the generator, and one of his company's welding technicians to work alongside another welder I hired from B\u00e9labo. Working all day, every day, and late into the night, we finished the cage in two weeks. I joked that Roger had come to my rescue like a knight in shining armor, and I could tell he liked my corniness. I benefited from his platonic friendship for two years before he finally left Cameroon to join his wife and family back in France. During our final meeting, he told me why he had helped me. \"You were hobbling around like a ninety-year-old woman with your sore feet, and you had more determination than I had ever seen. You touched something deep inside me.\" I might not have managed to finish that cage without Roger, and I said many silent prayers of thanks for the amazing good luck, or whatever it was, that brought this man and his goodwill to me at that pivotal time.\n\nDuring the last week of August, the heavy rains came early, and, as a result, many of the roads were closed to big trucks. At the entrances to some of the roadways, policemen lifted fragile wooden barricades for smaller vehicles to pass while they turned back big trucks. At others, policemen weren't necessary, because cemented metal barricades were locked into place, leaving space for nothing bigger than cars and small pickup trucks to pass.\n\nEn route to Limbe, Kenneth and I stopped in Yaound\u00e9 for one night to rest and pick up Estelle. She and Dana had just returned from their vacation in the United States and France. Dana's hospitality and kindness to me in those days was beyond measure. He opened his doors to me whether or not Estelle was in the country, and I was a frequent dinner guest at his table.\n\nOver dinner that night, Estelle surprised me by presenting a rational argument for waiting until the next dry season to move the chimpanzees. \"You built everything in such a rush. It's better to make sure the cage is solid and all the infrastructure is in place before taking chimps there,\" she said, making a good point. \"The roads are terrible now. What if we get stuck? It's not worth the risk to move them now.\"\n\nI knew our infrastructure was minimal, and, having just passed over the muddy roads connecting the Mbargue Forest to Yaound\u00e9, I could understand why Estelle was worried. I too was afraid of it all going wrong, so I sat considering whether moving the chimpanzees at that particular time was worth the risk.\n\nSensing a lapse in my resolve, Estelle added, \"What difference will three months make?\"\n\nWould three months make a difference? I wondered. Flashing through my head were the chimpanzees in Limbe\u2014especially Jacky going crazier by the day\u2014and Dorothy and Nama waiting on their chains. I concluded that three months would, indeed, make a difference for them. I had struggled for months against myriad obstacles, driven by one idea\u2014I would move the chimpanzees as soon as possible. At this late stage, Estelle's coolheaded risk assessment, as well intentioned and logical as it was, could not deter me.\n\n\"I'll move Jacky, Pepe, and Becky within three days,\" I said, giving my decision. I was willing to move them with or without Estelle, but she never knew how relieved I was that she later agreed to come with me.\n\nOnce in Limbe, Estelle, Kenneth, and I faced the necessity of finding a vehicle that was both big enough to accommodate our three transport cages and small enough to fit through the road barricades. I had made the cages with a welder in Yaound\u00e9 and arranged their transport to Limbe weeks earlier. I had intended to rent a big truck into which the cages would fit easily, but it was too late in the season for that now. A truck would be too big to squeeze through the barricades and would be more likely to get stuck in the mud. George Muna had the great idea of renting a bush taxi, a type of van used extensively for public transport in Cameroon, and taking out all the seats to make room for the transport cages. We knew bush taxis could get through the barricades because they moved all over the country year-round. George donated the cost of renting the bush taxi.\n\nTo avoid the traffic jams, the throngs of people who would crowd around the van in excitement to see the chimpanzees, and the daytime heat of Douala and Yaound\u00e9\u2014the two big cities through which we would necessarily pass\u2014we decided to begin the journey at night. Without traffic or other complications, we anticipated a fourteen-hour trip.\n\nShooting darts at chimpanzees is a horrible process that terrifies and infuriates them. I had darted Jacky, Pepe, and Becky before for tuberculosis tests, and Pepe and Becky had been open to reconciliation afterward. We had known each other longer and were better friends now, which for me made it seem a deeper betrayal. I hated it, but in 1999 we had no better options for getting them into the transport cages than to anesthetize them with blow darts. The night we were to travel, two experienced caregivers from Limbe Wildlife Center (LWC) joined us to help with the darting and with loading the chimpanzees once they were anesthetized. The yard-long pipe of my darting equipment could be connected to a compressed air pistol or used as a blowpipe. The LWC caregivers also brought a blowpipe. I was much better at using the pistol than I was at blowing darts, but the pistol could be more painful. Since Jacky was in the middle, I darted him first, so we wouldn't need to worry about him grabbing us as we darted the other two. It was relatively easy to use the blowpipe with Jacky, because he had been sleeping and I caught him by surprise. But from that moment on, it was a stressful affair. When the LWC team entered Jacky's cage to carry him out to the transport cage, Pepe and Becky barked and screamed aggressively at them. At first I think they assumed I was innocent, but once Pepe saw that I intended to dart him, he started barking at me and jumping around all over the cage to avoid the dart. I had to use the pistol to hit him because he was moving so fast. The whole aggressive interaction was incongruous with our gentle relationship. I finally hit him with the dart, though, and we got him into his transport cage. It was no easier with Becky. Left with no vocal support from Pepe or Jacky because they were both unconscious, she cried like a baby chimpanzee and held her arm out toward me for support, pleading with me to stop being mean. In the end, one of the LWC caregivers darted her with the blowpipe. I just hoped the chimps would forgive me.\n\nOnce all three of the sleeping chimpanzees were in the transport cages, we managed to line the cages up in single file from just behind the front seat all the way to the back door of the bush taxi. Estelle and I entered through the sliding side door and sat just beside the cages on the hard metal floor, while Kenneth took the front seat next to the driver, who came with the bush taxi. Even before we pulled away from the hotel, the chimps began to wake up from the light anesthesia. They were confused and terrified, but no one seemed to be holding a grudge against me specifically. They sought our comfort, which we offered as best we could in the cramped space that was uncomfortable for us all. At least they could see that we were all in it together, so to speak. This was closer than we had ever been to Jacky\u2014the openings between the welded bars of the transport cage were small enough that we needn't fear him grabbing or biting us\u2014and even he took some solace in our presence.\n\nIn Limbe, we had acquired documents from the local government authorizing us to transport the chimpanzees, but the size and temperament of our passengers dissuaded careful scrutiny of the papers at any of the many police checkpoints through which we passed. Although we were sometimes able to soothe Jacky and Pepe, and to a lesser extent Becky, there were many moments during our journey when none of them wanted to be consoled. Even within the small confines of their transport cages, they were able to mount frightening displays and were inspired to do so whenever strange people peered in at them from outside. To prevent the pinching of their feet or hands between the bottom of the cages and the ground or floor underneath, I had designed each of the cages on four corner feet. Too late, I was having second thoughts about the design. All three of the chimps quickly realized that rocking the metal feet of their cages on the metal van floor produced a satisfying accompaniment to their already deafening barking and screaming. No human voice, police or otherwise, could be heard above the intimidating racket. We were usually waved through the checkpoints quickly. I myself worried about whether the cages were strong enough to withstand the phenomenal strength of the chimpanzees. During every bout of frenzied cage shaking, I imagined the thousands of weld points that held the cages together giving way. As agitated as the chimpanzees were, I wouldn't be happy to have any of them loose in the van with us. I kept a syringe of anesthesia and the dart gun nearby, just in case.\n\nThe first six and a half hours of the journey were over paved road, and, at times, between police checkpoints, I fell asleep, but once we hit the bumpy, muddy road, which made up two hundred miles of the route, the discomfort for the chimpanzees and for Estelle and me increased dramatically. The cages bounced hard on the metal floor, increasing the anxiety of the chimps, who did not suffer silently, and causing me to worry that the feet of the cages, already making dents in the floor of the van, might actually break holes in it. Estelle and I bounced about painfully on the metal floor and both yelled for the driver to slow down, to little effect. From the floor of the van, we couldn't see the road to anticipate bumps. After an especially painful landing on my tailbone, I threatened Kenneth. \"Make him slow down, or you're trading places with me!\" Kenneth was persuasive enough, but soon speed wasn't the problem anyway. The muddy conditions of the road slowed us to a crawl, and still the van was slipping and sliding.\n\nThen, it happened. About ten hours into our journey, the driver lost control as the van slid and came to an abrupt stop in the mud bog that ran along the edge of the road. His efforts to drive out only sunk us deeper in the mud. Following Kenneth and the driver, Estelle and I crawled out of the sliding door, sinking in mud to our ankles. The front and rear wheels on the passenger side were half buried in mud. I pointedly avoided eye contact with Estelle, but I could still read her thoughts, flying at me like barbs. \"We'll get out,\" I reassured all.\n\nKenneth and I had had recent experience digging ourselves out of a mud bog. I knew it might take a long time, and it did. Estelle and I tried to comfort the increasingly distressed chimpanzees while Kenneth and the driver, both already exhausted from the night without sleep, took turns with our shovel, digging out mud from around the passenger side tires and creating a mudless trench of firm ground in front of each one. Finally, the driver decided to make a break. When he pressed lightly on the accelerator, the wheels found traction and rolled forward for two rotations only to bog down again. After all four of us pitched in to dig for another half hour, Kenneth, Estelle, and I pushed the van with all our might while the driver accelerated. The chimps contributed screaming and thunderous cage shaking to the tense drama. When the van finally jolted forward onto firmer ground, it sent me sprawling on my hands and knees in the red-brown mud, but as exhausted and relieved as I was, I hardly noticed. The three of us climbed in the van silently. We knew a celebration might be premature, since we still had a long trip ahead of us. Fortunately, although it was slow going, we weren't stopped again.\n\nWhen we arrived at the sanctuary an hour before dusk, eighteen hours after leaving Limbe with the chimpanzees, the construction crew was waiting for us. The villagers had never seen live chimpanzees up close, and they were both excited and frightened. The satellite cage we had built for the chimps was a hundred yards from the camp down a forest trail . The crew helped us carry the transport cages, one by one, to the cage, and the chimps were mostly quiet for once. For the first time in their adult lives they could see and hear the forest around them, and though they had no idea what to expect and were undoubtedly frightened, they seemed fascinated at the same time.\n\nThe satellite cage had three chambers with sliding doors between them that could be left open or closed. Estelle and I briefly discussed whether to separate the chimpanzees in different chambers until the following day and decided against it. They had been through hell and the new environment would be foreign and scary. Hoping and believing they would seek comfort from one another, we left open the sliding doors between chambers and transferred the chimps into the cage. We didn't need anesthesia for these transfers. We used chains and padlocks to fasten the sliding door sides of each transport cage over a sliding door of the much larger satellite cage. When the adjacent sliding doors were opened, the chimpanzees could find relief in moving from the small, cramped cage to the much larger one.\n\nWe transferred Pepe first, and then Becky. The two long-separated \"siblings\" ran into each other's arms, screaming and grimacing\u2014happy to be together, but unsure how to feel about the circumstances that were uniting them. I thought it was a picture of overwhelming emotional ambivalence. A few minutes later came the part we were worried about\u2014how would Pepe and Jacky react to each other? In each other's arms, Pepe and Becky watched anxiously as we opened the doors for Jacky. When he ran toward them screaming, Pepe, the biggest of the three chimpanzees, stood upright to meet and support him in a mutual embrace. Becky and Jacky hugged too, amid more high-pitched screaming from everyone, before they all quieted and sat close, each comforted by the proximity of the others as they looked at their new surroundings.\n\nSeveral minutes passed before anyone broke the huddle to explore the cage\u2014a huge space by comparison to what they had known\u2014and even then, they moved mostly together. Becky was first to venture through the sliding door and into the next chamber, only to rush back to beckon Jacky and Pepe to follow, which they did. After the three chimpanzees had moved en masse across the woodchip-covered floors of all three chambers, they started breaking away from one another to explore the more than four yards of vertical space with the sleeping and sitting platforms at various levels. After all the other humans had gradually wandered back to camp, I was sitting beside the cage on a patch of packed dirt in satisfied exhaustion when I heard the free-living chimpanzees vocalize from a distance. It was the first time I had heard them here. They must have been responding to the noisy commotion of these new chimpanzees in the territory. Jacky, Pepe, and Becky heard them, too, and rushing back together, they gazed anxiously into the quickly darkening forest, listening for the sound to come again. I had known the chimpanzees were living here in the forest\u2014at least the villagers had assured me they were\u2014but hearing them erased any doubt and made them real. Hearing the call of the free-living chimpanzees somehow made the lives of the captives seem all the more diminished. The best that I could give them wouldn't be good enough. I so wished that they could live truly free, that they were still living free.\n\nThe sad truth is that after a chimpanzee is orphaned and raised by humans, there's not an easy path back to freedom. On the one hand, released, or reintroduced, former captive chimpanzees face dangers in the forest that make survival difficult: fiercely territorial free-living chimpanzees who are particularly dangerous to strange males, and poachers with shotguns who can easily target chimpanzees who lack fear of humans. On the other hand, the same familiarity and lack of fear that make them more vulnerable to poachers can also make them dangerous to humans. Humans have impacted the lives of bushmeat orphans to a huge extent, and our involvement has changed our status. We are not merely a potentially dangerous and socially insignificant species, as we are to free-living chimpanzees. Their responses to us depend in large part on their individual exposures to human kindness or cruelty or indifference, but regardless of the emotional contexts, humans are part of the social experience of captive chimpanzees. Virtually all chimpanzees who grow up with humans know they are physically stronger than we are, and their sense of territoriality can extend to us.\n\nIn any case, older damaged chimpanzees who had relied on humans as long as Jacky, Pepe, and Becky wouldn't be good candidates for release. They would always live at this sanctuary, but very soon they would have their own small piece of habitat here.\n\nThe free-living chimps didn't speak to us again that evening, but, as darkness came, so did the nightly symphony of insects and other nocturnal wildlife, only a few of which I could recognize by their calls at that time. After their brief excursions up to the higher platforms, Jacky, Pepe, and Becky had settled down to sleep in a heap on the floor. When they were no more than dark shadows, slightly discernible only in movement, I hobbled along the trail by the sparse light of my dim flashlight back to camp.\n\nWe had taken the first irrevocable step. Jacky, Pepe, and Becky were here\u2014a huge step closer to being back in the forest where they belonged. Their lives, and mine, had changed forever. There could be no turning back now.\nNine\n\nForced Seizure\n\nIn late October 1999, we finally heard from the manager of Luna Park Hotel that his family would allow us to bring Dorothy and Nama to our new sanctuary, but it would be another five months before we were ready to bring them. I was working as fast as I could to build a second satellite cage for them, but there were stressful complications and delays. When a cement shortage in the country\u2014more accurately, a total lack of cement anywhere in Cameroon\u2014stopped our construction for two months, I took a quick trip home to Oregon. I needed to work with Edmund to raise more money and look for someone with more expertise than I had to help me build the electric fence. Since I lacked electrical experience and a deep understanding of the way electricity worked, building the fence alone on the foundation of a crash course in Nigeria more than a year earlier had begun to appear daunting. I left Kenneth in charge of caring for the three chimpanzees with the support of two volunteers and our local staff of seven men, who worked as caregivers, groundskeepers, and night guards.\n\nWhen we had asked for job applications for the six permanent positions at the sanctuary, seven men applied. None were more or less qualified than any other. They had lived in either Bikol 1 or 2 all their lives, had minimal education, and had never held jobs before. We couldn't arbitrarily turn one man away, so I hired seven men for six positions and created a schedule that worked. No women applied initially. Estelle suggested that it wouldn't have been culturally appropriate for them to compete with the men for jobs. I believed this was part of it, but I also believed they were just too busy with children and farming. Eventually we would have female employees, who were sadly childless or who had mothers or sisters to help them with chores in the village. Estelle had stayed in camp for a few days just after we brought Jacky, Pepe, and Becky and helped me train that first round of employees. The cook learned his schedule for preparing yams and sweet potatoes for the chimps and local food for the staff lunches (I had finally figured out that it would be easiest to prepare lunch for village employees), the gardener learned where and what to plant, the night guards learned that keeping ants out of the cage was their most important task, and the two caregivers, Assou and Akono, learned to feed the chimpanzees and clean the cages. I had built one section of one cage wall with smaller holes in the mesh, so we could hand-feed Jacky without risk. We had hand-fed him in the transport cage on our way to the sanctuary, and on his first morning at the sanctuary, when Estelle handed him his bananas, he took them from her gently. At the beginning, the caregivers learned to hand Jacky his food from his special section, but soon they were feeding him from anywhere in the cage just as they did the other two. During the training, Estelle didn't tolerate any tentativeness in the caregivers' approach to the chimpanzees, and she expected nothing less than vigor in their approach to cleaning chores. I thought they did their best to comply, and once they got over their initial fright, they seemed to be tickled by the novelty of being so close to big chimpanzees. When I heard them laughingly refer to Estelle behind her back as Margaret Thatcher, I couldn't help but wonder what they might be calling me, but I knew they harbored no malice. By the time I left for the United States, they all had some job experience under their belts.\n\nWhile I was in Oregon my friend Matt Rossell introduced me to his brother Greg, who with his wife, Anita Phillips, operated a small construction business building and selling houses. Together, they could manage all aspects of constructing a house, and they understood electrical circuitry. For several years, they had been incorporating into their work schedules enough downtime to volunteer their construction expertise to projects they thought were worthy, and they both liked a challenge. To my great relief, Greg and Anita agreed to come to Cameroon for eight weeks and take charge of building our electric fence. They studied the electric fence built by Peter Jenkins for juvenile chimpanzees at Limbe Wildlife Center and then adapted the model for our adult chimps. Working at a phenomenal pace, they finished our first solar-powered fence within six weeks. Encompassing five and a half acres of lush forest, at the time the enclosure seemed huge to me.\n\nGreg also helped finish the new satellite cage for Dorothy and Nama, so that by mid-March 2000, we were ready to bring them to the sanctuary. I rode the train to meet Estelle in Yaound\u00e9, leaving Kenneth to manage the sanctuary. He was to follow me in the truck a couple of days later to pick up Dorothy and Nama. Estelle and I arrived at the Luna Park Hotel around midday, and Dorothy and Nama recognized us in her white Toyota Starlet as we drove past. We delivered their food and spent a few minutes visiting. I was so excited with the expectation that we would be taking them with us in a couple of days, and I so wished they could understand that their lives were about to change dramatically. They surely noticed that my disposition had changed\u2014my sadness replaced by a hopefulness that was almost joyful. I put my hand on the chain on Nama's neck. \"It's coming off, Nama. You'll be coming with me very soon.\" She listened as she chewed her papaya. After we gave food to all the monkeys and distributed water to everyone, Estelle and I were eager to discuss details of the pending relocation with the hotel manager we had come to know.\n\nWhen we asked for the manager in the hotel office, we learned that he wasn't there. In fact, he was no longer the manager. A younger sibling, drunk on his newfound authority and significantly more belligerent than his brother had been, was now in the role of manager. We met with him at a corner table in the Luna Park restaurant. From where we sat I could see Nama, at the limit of her chain, still chewing the food we had left and cocking her head to try to see us. The manager kept us waiting while he gave instructions that had nothing to do with us to two restaurant employees, then summoned a groundskeeper to give irrelevant\u2014from our point of view\u2014directions to him as well. Finally, with an air of casual indifference, he turned his attention back to us. Calmly, he informed us that we would not be allowed to take Dorothy and Nama. Unconcerned that he was breaking his brother's verbal contract with us, he said simply, \"My brother is no longer in charge of the hotel or the chimpanzees. My father is making the decisions.\" With forced composure, Estelle translated all that the infuriating, disdainful young man said, although I had pretty much understood it.\n\n\"Is your father here?\" I asked. He was. Estelle and I hardly spoke as we sat alone and waited for the manager to find out whether the elder decision maker would grant us an audience. He would.\n\nWith an air of arrogance, our informer led us out of the restaurant and around back to a private patio where his father sat. The patriarch wore a navy floor-length robe, and I noticed a walking cane leaning against his chair. After we shook hands, he gestured for us to sit in white plastic chairs across from him. We started off with small talk, as is customary in Cameroon. Estelle thanked him for receiving us. She translated my compliment that his hotel was beautiful. (Although I was by now speaking some basic French to my staff, my vocabulary was small, my grammar terrible, and I certainly would not speak French in a situation like this where nuance was critically important.)\n\nIn response to Estelle's query about how old Dorothy and Nama were, he told us that he had acquired Dorothy when his oldest son, now forty years old, was a baby. He said they had bought Nama in 1984. As I did the calculations in my head, Estelle went on to explain who we were and what we were doing in Cameroon. So Nama had been here for sixteen years. For some reason, I couldn't bring myself to accept that Dorothy had endured this \"life\" for forty years. We had independent confirmation, from someone Estelle knew in Yaound\u00e9 who had met Dorothy when he visited Luna Park as a child, that she had been chained here for at least twenty-five years. I couldn't bear to think she had been here longer than that.\n\n\"Bullshit,\" I responded when Estelle mentioned it later, without any sound reason for my skepticism. \"I'm sure he doesn't remember when she came,\" I said.\n\nWhen Estelle finished introducing our mission, the distinguished looking, regally behaving patriarch acknowledged his understanding with a nod. The several moments of silence that followed served as my cue that it was time to get to the substance of the meeting.\n\nEstelle translated as I started off in my most respectful tone. \"After your son told us we could take Dorothy and Nama, we prepared a very good place for them where they will be able to move freely, off their chains. Soon they will live with other chimpanzees in a tract of forest we have enclosed with electric fencing. They will move through the forest like they did with their mothers when they were babies. They will be happy.\"\n\n\"My wife and I are accustomed to seeing them here. We will keep them here,\" he said matter-of-factly, as if that matter were finished. He wasn't accustomed to being challenged. I certainly couldn't leave it there. I couldn't believe he was condemning Dorothy and Nama to continuing hell, and breaking my heart, with such a casual tone. Surely he would see reason, would have some compassionate feelings toward the chimps. I struggled to keep my tone respectful, while I grappled with the realization of what was happening and reacted to it physically with something akin to nausea.\n\n\"I understand your sentiment toward them, but this is not a good life for them,\" I said. \"If you care for them, please be kind to them and let us take them to the forest. We have an enclosure that is ready and waiting.\"\n\n\"I will build an enclosure for them here, better than what you have built,\" he informed us. I had not expected him to say that and was not prepared with a diplomatic reply.\n\n\"C'est ne pas possible pour vous.\" It's not possible for you. I blurted my too honest response in very bad French. I should have stuck to English. Probably more than any other exchange between us, these words gave rise to his feeling, later expressed to the Ministry of the Environment and Forestry through his attorney, that the American woman, specifically me and not Estelle, was a racist.\n\n\"You think you can do it, but I cannot? Why do you think I cannot accomplish what you can?\" The volume of his speech didn't change, but anger drenched his words.\n\nIndeed, I didn't think he could, or would if he could, build an electric enclosure for Dorothy and Nama. Only a few people in the world possessed the expertise required to construct an electric fence that would actually contain chimpanzees. The expensive building materials were not available in Cameroon and had to be imported. Logistical difficulties aside, to believe that this man would go to the trouble and expense of even trying to build a big electric enclosure when he had let Dorothy and Nama live on chains for decades would have been an impossible stretch of my imagination. If he had possessed the slightest sensitivity to their feelings and welfare, or to that of the eight monkeys who were also tethered, he could have extended some effort on their behalf years earlier\u2014even to build a cage.\n\nNow, more than a decade later, I see possible shades of gray in his motivations and more options in my own choices of behavior and words. Perhaps the mere fact that this elderly man of such high status had agreed to meet with two powerless\u2014or so we all thought\u2014Western women reflected some decency that I couldn't see at the time. After all, no one forced him to meet with us. Maybe he had hoped that we would be a resource to provide something better for Dorothy and Nama right there on the manicured grass of Luna Park. A self-serving notion to be sure, but it would have incorporated a better future for the chimpanzees\u2014and possibly the monkeys too. We never got as far as discussing anything like that. I don't know if he had ideas to which he never gave voice, perhaps impeded by my impulsive reply.\n\nI met his angry stare with a suppressed fury that at least equaled his. \"Is that your final word? You are refusing to make the humane and decent decision for Dorothy and Nama?\"\n\nAs Estelle finished translating, he reached for his cane as if to rise.\n\n\"Is that your final word?\" I insisted. I was drawing battle lines. I had no common ground with this man. I knew he would never agree to let us take Dorothy and Nama, and I would never stop trying to get them out of that place through any means I could find.\n\n\"Yes,\" he answered simply as he met my eyes a final time before standing up. The meeting was over.\n\nEstelle and I stood, and with forced civility that felt ridiculous, we each shook his hand. On the walk back to the car my anger gave way to the deep sadness that spawned it. I didn't want Dorothy and Nama to see me so sad, and Estelle must have felt the same. Neither of us went to say good-bye.\n\nBack in the car on the drive back to Yaound\u00e9, I finally broke down and cried. Silently, Estelle smoked a cigarette and waited for my crying spell to pass. She understood that any words of comfort and reassurance she could offer would be empty. After a few minutes, I blew my nose and sniffed a couple of times, a signal to Estelle that I was done.\n\n\"Let's go by the Ministry of the Environment and Forestry office on the way home,\" she said. \"We'll see what they have to say.\"\n\nThe timing of our visit to the Central Province's Ministry of the Environment and Forestry (MINEF) office in Yaound\u00e9 was fortuitous. MINEF's divisional delegate for the Obala region happened to be attending a meeting there when we arrived. Mr. Daniel Essi was just who we needed to see. After we described our new sanctuary in the Mbargue Forest and told him about our experience at Luna Park earlier that day, the delegate told us about his own frustrating experiences with the politically powerful family. Representing MINEF, he had asked the family repeatedly to acquire permits that would authorize them to hold chimpanzees and monkeys at Luna Park. Because the family had acquired Dorothy and Nama before Cameroon's law protecting endangered species was strengthened in 1994, MINEF was willing to give them an exemption to the provision of the law prohibiting private ownership of chimpanzees. They could have paid permit fees, equivalent to $400 for each primate, and kept the chimpanzees and the monkeys. That they refused to pay the fees indicated to Mr. Essi that they thought they were above the law. He felt that they had disrespected MINEF and him personally, and he was angry about it.\n\nHe told us he was willing to confiscate Dorothy and Nama, but only if we could arrange a home for all the monkeys so he could seize them at the same time. He could not enforce only part of the law. We could take all or none of the primates. When Estelle and I walked out of the office, we were not yet jubilant, but the world looked completely different than it had two hours earlier when I was sobbing in the car\u2014it was now full of possibility for Dorothy and Nama. When presented with the necessity of rescuing the monkeys too, I felt ashamed that we had been willing to leave them behind. To do otherwise had not seemed possible before because they weren't protected species. But in any case, we had thought the family was so powerful that the government wouldn't move against them, so we had wasted time trying to get an agreement with the family for Dorothy and Nama.\n\nWe reached out to Limbe Wildlife Center (LWC) and to Cameroon Wildlife Aid Fund (CWAF), which operated Yaound\u00e9 Zoo, about taking the monkeys, providing them details about the species, age, and gender of each one. Limbe Wildlife Center was willing to take three of the monkeys, including the adult baboon, and Yaound\u00e9 Zoo would take five smaller juveniles. Australian Dave Lucas, the new manager at LWC, and Jonathan Kang, the head caregiver there, would come to Obala in their pickup truck to provide technical and logistical support for the confiscation. Then they would transport three monkeys back to LWC. Bibila Tafon, \"Dr. Babs,\" the talented veterinary technician from Yaound\u00e9 Zoo, would also come with a caregiver and two vehicles\u2014including one taxi\u2014to fit five monkeys. When the necessary arrangements had been made, Mr. Essi set the date on the second Tuesday of May 2000, when we would all convene in Obala for the operation. I went back to the sanctuary in the interim and returned to Yaound\u00e9 with Kenneth in our old red Toyota pickup, which I had bought after selling the Pajero. On the fated Tuesday, Kenneth, Estelle, and I crowded into the single cabin for the drive to Obala. I had gotten up before dawn after hardly sleeping. I was nervous and so hoping that nothing would go wrong.\n\nWhile Dave, Babs, and their caregivers waited alongside the road in front of Obala's open-air market\u2014the very market where I had battled my conscience over the dire fate of a doomed crocodile more than a year earlier\u2014Kenneth, Estelle, and I joined Mr. Essi and three of his forestry officers at the Obala headquarters of the military police, only a three-minute drive from Luna Park. The bright hunter-green uniforms of the forestry officers contrasted sharply with those of olive green worn by the more authoritative military police, who topped their ensemble with a distinguishing red cap. Concerned that news of the planned confiscation might leak out to the politically connected Luna Park family, Mr. Essi didn't even tell the military police commander in advance what we would be doing. Instead, he had requested four officers for an unspecified mission. Only on that warm, sunny morning, convened under the big mango tree outside the commander's office, did Mr. Essi explain to all seven armed participants that they would move into Luna Park for a forced seizure of ten primates.\n\n\"Your job will be to protect the technicians\"\u2014he gestured to us\u2014\"while they load the primates into cages and onto their vehicles. They will need some time to do their work, and you should be prepared for resistance.\" The military officers, each holding automatic rifles, exchanged tentative glances with one another. I wondered if they knew the proprietors of Luna Park personally, since they all lived in this small town, and might be uncomfortable with the operation, but I thought they looked prepared, more or less, to move forward. They really didn't have any choice since the commander had issued their orders.\n\n\"Any questions?\" Mr. Essi asked. None were voiced.\n\nDuring the three-minute drive to Luna Park Hotel, the atmosphere in our pickup was tense. No one said a word. Our caravan of seven vehicles, with Mr. Essi in the lead, pulled into the long driveway. We parked our vehicles along the side and filed out onto the grass. The officers spread out, positioning themselves at the periphery of our work area, each holding his weapon diagonally and very visibly in front of his torso. After we offloaded our cages, Estelle led Dave and Babs to the seven monkeys tied on the veranda. They had seen the adult baboon chained near the driveway on our way in. Thereafter, each team proceeded to work independently and quickly, while Mr. Essi went to the office to serve papers.\n\nI was available if Dave's team or Babs's team needed me, but they didn't. They darted the adult baboon and three older juvenile monkeys with anesthesia and were able to carry and place the four youngest into cages without anesthesia.\n\nEstelle, Kenneth, and I focused on the chimpanzees, first carrying one of the transport cages into Nama's area. She expressed interest in the cage immediately, pushing up the sliding guillotine-type door herself. \"Nama may go in without anesthesia,\" Estelle said hopefully, while helping Nama lift the door up far enough for a curious chimp to crawl through the opening. When Nama was completely inside, Estelle closed the door quickly and threw herself across the top of the cage, holding the door closed with her body weight. Her weight would not have been enough to contain most adult chimpanzees, and even frail Nama might have gotten out if she had tried. Fortunately, Nama was concerned, but she didn't panic, and her efforts to push the door open again were halfhearted. She watched with great interest while I used our big bolt cutters to sever the chain tying her to the concrete slab. Estelle opened the door just enough for me to push the cut end of the chain into the cage with Nama, so we could completely close the cage door and slide a lock through the latch. It had been amazingly easy! Nama had developed a degree of trust in us, the only friends she had had in many years I reckoned, and I knew she was desperate for any change in how she was living. Once we were safe at Sanaga-Yong Center, I would need to anesthetize her to cut the tight chain from her neck. I harbored no illusions that Nama trusted us enough to let us approach her neck with those big bolt cutters\u2014she likely would have confiscated them for herself.\n\nUnfortunately, Dorothy had no intention of entering a cage willingly. Under different circumstances, she might have allowed us to give her an injection of anesthesia with a handheld syringe, which is much less painful than a dart, but not this day when she was agitated by all the strange activity around her. She was wary of the syringe and wouldn't have it anywhere near her. I had to blow a dart of anesthesia into her big thigh. When it hit her, she screamed and grimaced, and I hated that my sweet friend thought I was betraying her. Fortunately, it was over quickly.\n\nWhen Dave and Dr. Babs had collected their monkeys, they helped us carry the cages with Dorothy and Nama to our truck and load them in the back. Within forty-five minutes of our arrival at Luna Park, the chimpanzees and all the monkeys were loaded into the four vehicles that would take them to better lives. Just as we were preparing to leave, Estelle went to assure the concerned-looking employees, who had congregated on the steps of the restaurant, that all the primates were going to places where they would be happier. Standing at the bottom of the short staircase, she spotted two sick, almost featherless parrots in a tiny cage in the back corner of the open-air restaurant. We had not seen them there before. \"I wonder if we can take two sick parrots from the restaurant?\" she said when she came back to the truck where I was watching and comforting Dorothy as she began to wake up from the light anesthesia.\n\n\"Ask Mr. Essi if we can take them,\" I suggested.\n\nI watched Estelle approach Mr. Essi's car, where he was waiting for us to finish and leave. The two spoke through his open window for less than a minute, before she returned to me.\n\n\"They don't have permits for the parrots, either,\" she said. \"We need to take them.\"\n\nI knew that Chris Mitchell had just completed a small aviary at Yaound\u00e9 Zoo. Dr. Babs agreed to take the parrots there until they might be released one day, and he sent the caregiver working with him into the restaurant to bring the miserable birds out.\n\nWe had lined up the cages of Dorothy and Nama side by side, front to back, in the bed of the pickup so that there was space for me to sit beside them. I would ride to the sanctuary back here with the chimps, which was only slightly less comfortable than squeezing onto the single-cabin truck seat with Estelle and Kenneth would have been. This was especially true since we had another passenger in the cabin. The past January I had assisted MINEF authorities in the town of Kribi confiscate four-year-old chimpanzee Caroline from a small cage at a restaurant. Lacking a quarantine facility or a nursery at our sanctuary, I had arranged with Dave to keep her at Limbe Wildlife Center for three months, and it had stretched into five. On this day of the confiscation, he had brought her with him from Limbe to hand over to us.\n\nOur red pickup had been last in line heading into Luna Park; now heading out we were at the head of the caravan. As we neared the end of the single-lane driveway, we were forced to stop when a big black Mercedes pulled in. I stood up in the back of the truck as the driver of the Mercedes quickly maneuvered it sideways across the road, blocking our exit. Luna Park's proprietor, the elder family patriarch, stepped out of the backseat in a yellow floor-length robe and planted his feet and cane defiantly.\n\nMr. Essi walked up from behind us to manage the problem. \"Sir, this is an official action by the Government of Cameroon. We have seized the animals you were holding illegally. Please instruct your driver to move the car.\"\n\n\"No one is taking my animals anywhere,\" our nemesis responded with conviction.\n\n\"It's too late for that, sir. Your animals are being distributed among the three MINEF primate sanctuaries, and you can visit them there.\" Mr. Essi turned and instructed the military police, who had also walked forward, to clear the road. With that, he proceeded back to his own car, leaving the police officers to handle the obstacle.\n\nThe patriarch got back into his car. After a minute or so, with no indication that the car would move anytime soon, one of the police officers instructed us to drive onto the grass and around the front of the car. When Kenneth tried to do it, the driver of the Mercedes also pulled forward onto the grass to block us. As Kenneth returned to our original position on the road, the driver also backed up to straddle the middle of the road once again. I was sensing that the military police officers weren't eager for a physical confrontation with the car occupants; they probably knew one another. Their next strategy was for us to try driving on the grass around the backside of the car. Doing as he was told, Kenneth steered our pickup hard to the right and inched onto the grass as if to go around the back of the car. No one, certainly no one in our pickup, was the slightest bit surprised when the Mercedes driver backed up onto the grass to block us. With both vehicles back in their original positions, we watched the military police officers discuss their options among themselves. Finally, one of the officers moved quickly to open the driver's door\u2014fortunately the window was down so the driver couldn't lock it\u2014and another pulled him out of the Mercedes. Now we could drive around the car.\n\nThe patriarch got out of his car and pointed his finger at me menacingly. As our truck rolled past him, I met his hate-filled glare without embarrassment. Turning my face to the road ahead that would carry Dorothy and Nama to their new life, I couldn't have been happier.\nTen\n\nWho's the Boss?\n\nSoon after their arrival Jacky and Pepe started fighting for dominance, and it continued throughout the months before Dorothy and Nama arrived. Becky enjoyed loving relationships with both males, and she was neutral in their extended contest. Because she and Pepe had grown up together since they were babies, they had a brother\/sister relationship that was not overtly sexual. Jacky chose masturbation over copulation; for decades he had known nothing else. Nonetheless, the fights between the males were more frequent when Becky had her genital swelling\u2014a descriptive term for the monthly vulvar engorgement that occurs in female chimpanzees before and during ovulation.\n\nThe violence upset Becky terribly, and she tried her best to keep the peace and to break up fights when they happened. When she sensed that Jacky or Pepe was in a menacing mood, she tried to calm them with grooming or distract them with her sexuality if she was in swelling or position her body between theirs. She screamed and slapped and tried to intervene during the heat of their battles, but she did not seem to favor one over the other. She spent time engaging socially\u2014grooming and hugging\u2014with both of them. I knew from reading that group support can be very important in establishing and maintaining the dominance hierarchy among chimpanzees, but in the circumstances I had read about, an established dominant male was forced to fend off challengers. The length of a male's reign and the success or failure of his challengers was highly influenced by who was on their sides. Between Jacky and Pepe nothing was established, neither had acknowledged the dominance of the other, and the one neutral female in the small social group was not hastening an outcome. I briefly considered keeping them apart until we had a larger community of chimpanzees. I certainly would have done that if it had seemed that one needed protection from the other, but when Pepe and Jacky fought, they were both willing combatants. Neither was submitting to the other, which is all it would have taken to stop the fighting, and I kept thinking they would sort it out sooner or later. After each fight they reached a temporary truce, which usually started with Pepe making a tentative approach to groom Jacky, but sometimes it was the other way around. According to the caregivers, Pepe started more of the fights than Jacky did. In times of peace, they engaged in mutual grooming sessions and even hugged when they were excited about a favorite food or frightened by an unusual occurrence, like an airplane overhead. Sometimes weeks could pass without bloodshed, but when tension became too thick, it was vented through loud and frightening fights that served to temporarily restore calm.\n\nThe battles exacted a toll on both of them, but their wounds were mild compared to what I would see in some chimpanzees in years to come. I cleaned gaping bite wounds on Pepe's back and arms, but nothing severe on his face. At first, Jacky didn't seek my attention for his wounds the way Pepe did. I wanted to provide medical care to both chimps, although I was still wary of Jacky. When I called to him from the side of the cage, usually somewhat tentatively, he pretended to ignore me, although I sometimes knew he was watching me tend to Pepe's wounds. I soon realized that by taking care of Pepe, but not Jacky, after their fights, I was playing a role in the social dynamic\u2014giving support to Pepe in the unsettled conflict. I didn't know how significant my role was, but in any case, I really did believe that Pepe would be a better leader of this little group that would soon expand. Pepe was the sane one, after all.\n\nHowever, after about three months at the sanctuary, Jacky's stereotypical self-abuse had stopped almost completely, and he seemed like a different chimpanzee. One afternoon he surprised me by initiating a change in his relationship with me. I was just outside the cage grooming Becky through the bars, and Pepe was on the opposite side of the cage visiting with caregiver Akono. Jacky suddenly walked up next to where Becky sat across from me, and she considerately scooted over to make room for him. He was only two feet away from me, and although the cage wall separated us, the holes in the metal latticework of that first cage were large enough for his arms to fit through. Easily within range of his arms, I leaned back away from the cage reflexively, but I stayed seated. As Jacky faced me, he kept his eyes down, and I had no idea about his intention until the moment he turned to push the right side of his big black back against the cage wall. He was showing me the deep gash extending into his muscle under his right shoulder blade. I had seen the wound inflicted by Pepe during their last altercation two days earlier, but I hadn't held any hope of treating it.\n\nI could hardly believe that Jacky was asking for my attention to the wound. He was choosing to trust me. It should have been natural for me to trust him in return, at least in this particular circumstance where he was asking for my help, but having seen how he had hurt people, I was still nervous. My heart raced as I examined the infected wound. As my shaking fingers touched the skin around it, I made rhythmic clacking, smacking noises with my mouth to reassure him. When Jacky relaxed into a comfortable sitting position, keeping his back to the cage wall, I relaxed a bit too. Worried that he would leave, I hesitated before walking to collect the disinfectant from the nearby table, but he waited patiently for me to return and allowed me to flush the debris and pus off the exposed muscle in the deep laceration. After that first occasion, Jacky solicited and received my attention to his wounds on his terms, when he decided he needed it.\n\nFinally, in April 2000, about a month before we brought Dorothy and Nama to the sanctuary, we released Jacky, Pepe, and Becky into their five acres of forest. The electric fence around the tract of forest consisted of thirty-two wires, each carrying eight thousand volts. Each of the three chimpanzees had reached through their cage and taken a nasty shock from the hot wires before we released them into the enclosure. I had designed the fence with some of the wires passing close to the cage so the chimpanzees would learn about its unpleasantness from the beginning. Because the wire fence itself was not a strong physical barrier and the electricity running through its wires could be grounded out by a falling tree or limb, it was important for the fence to be a strong psychological barrier. This aspect of the process, allowing them to naively touch the fence, was mean, but using electric fencing was the only way we could afford to give the chimpanzees their piece of the forest. By the time we opened the sliding door to let them go outside, they knew that touching the fence was a very bad idea.\n\nWhen caregiver Assou pulled open the sliding door for the first time, the chimpanzees didn't know what to do at first. They rushed to huddle at the open door and then just peeped through at the expansive forest on the other side. Becky looked up at me quizzically like she thought it was a trick. \"It's okay, Beck. Go outside.\" We had cut narrow crisscrossing trails that traversed the expanse of the lush forest, and we had cleared about two yards along the fence line so they could easily walk around the perimeter of their new territory. It was all waiting for them, and I could hardly wait to see them enjoy it. I advanced along the fence line and called to them over and over while they continued to think it over for several minutes. Finally, Jacky marched out bravely through the sliding door, but he only walked about five steps toward the forest before he turned to run back into the cage. In the end, Becky took the lead. Clearly afraid of the electric fence, she sat in the doorway and inched her head through it very slowly to look up at the hot wires over her head. When she was sure that there really was an open path from where she sat to the forest, she made a run for it. By the time Jacky and then Pepe had followed her out, she was already climbing a tall tree. I started walking along my side of the fence line and called them to follow. The immediate pitter-patter of Pepe's feet on the firm red dirt told me that he was with me before I could turn my head to see him. Jacky and Becky followed after him, and we walked\u2014side by side\u2014them in single file on one side of the fence, me just a few feet away on the other\u2014around the enclosure for the first of many, many times.\n\nAfter lengthy consideration I had decided that the chimpanzees would spend their days in the forest, and we would try to bring them into the satellite cage to sleep at night. While I wanted them to have a natural life, I had good reasons for wanting them to sleep inside. First, if a storm came and dropped a tree or branch that grounded out the fence while we humans were sleeping, I didn't want to worry about where the chimps were in the morning. Second, getting the chimpanzees to sleep inside the cage would spare the forest of their enclosure. Night nests can be destructive to trees, and if the chimps nested outside every night, they would eventually break down their tract of forest. This would be especially true when we enlarged the group. And third, bringing our beloved chimpanzees into the cage every evening would allow us to know if anyone was sick or injured.\n\nLong before we finished the electric enclosure and let Jacky, Pepe, and Becky into it, we began beating our drum at each mealtime. What we called our \"drum\" was actually a five-gallon plastic container that made a loud noise when our caregivers hit it with a stick. They tapped out the same rat-a-tat-tat pattern every day, just before each meal, so the chimps understood it signaled the serving of food. Now that they were going outside, we used it successfully to call them back to the cage for meals. When they came into the cage for dinner at the end of each day, we closed the sliding door until morning, and no one among the three ever objected. They seemed to be perfectly comfortable with the schedule.\n\nI soon learned my own healthy respect of the electric fence the hard way. One day when I was kneeling close to the fence taking photos of the three chimpanzees, I made the mistake of touching one of the hot wires with both my knees. I was knocked back on my behind and I must have yelled, although with the force of the shock, which sounded like a gun going off in my head, I couldn't tell if I made any noise. When I caught my breath, I looked out into the empathetic, concerned faces of Jacky, Pepe, and Becky. They had run up to the fence and were now watching me very closely. Of course they understood what had happened to me. \"I'm okay, guys.\" I stood up to demonstrate. I was fine, but my ears were ringing and I needed to take a break for a while.\n\nI hoped none of these chimps I loved would ever touch the fence again. I hoped that their new home would be rich and wonderful and that they would never want to leave it\u2014would never risk getting shocked. The relatively vast territory within the enclosure offered so much more to explore and enjoy\u2014leaves, bark, insects, an expansive view from high in the canopy\u2014than they had ever known. I had left my own home and dramatically changed my life in order to give it to them, and when I was with them here I didn't regret it in the slightest.\nEleven\n\nFateful Alliances\n\nDorothy and Nama spent their first three months at the sanctuary together in a satellite cage with two chambers. Only one chamber connected to the enclosure where Pepe, Jacky, and Becky spent their days. We had tested Dorothy and Nama for tuberculosis before bringing them from Luna Park, but I wanted to treat them thoroughly for parasites and keep them separated from the other chimpanzees past the incubation periods of most infectious diseases. The standard medical quarantine period for primates in sanctuaries was three months. Ours was a loose form of quarantine. Jacky, Pepe, and Becky could emerge from the forest to see Dorothy and Nama and to vocalize with them whenever they felt like it, but they couldn't get too close to them. It was a good beginning for a gradual social integration.\n\nInitially, the vocal overtures of Jacky, Pepe, and Becky were threatening barks. They frightened Dorothy terribly. She screamed and took comfort in the arms of much smaller Nama, who from the beginning seemed more curious than afraid. When we had first released the two long-suffering females into the cage together, they had stayed several feet apart for a few minutes. I had expected them to fly into each other's arms and was surprised when they didn't, but I concluded that they just weren't accustomed to getting comfort from one another that way. When Nama finally made an overture toward Dorothy, the latter welcomed her with open arms, and then they embraced over and over. During this transition period at the sanctuary, when they were in the cage alone together, Dorothy and Nama cemented a lasting and loyal friendship that would never waver.\n\nThe thirteen feet of vertical space in the satellite cage, with platforms at various levels, provided opportunities for Dorothy and Nama to climb and strengthen the muscles in their arms. Nama took full advantage and grew stronger by the day, but Dorothy didn't climb much. I thought the chain had grounded her for too many decades. Nonetheless, as the days passed Dorothy seemed happy to groom with Nama and to interact with her caregivers, the volunteers, and me from where we would sit just outside the cage. I tried to provide as much enrichment as possible. They had been traumatized by a decades-long nightmare, and though this new environment afforded them the freedom of movement they hadn't known since they were juveniles, and allowed them to engage as often as they liked in the most important chimpanzee social activities of grooming and hugging, they were still in a cage. It was much less than they deserved, and I delighted in making them happy in any way I could.\n\nOne cool morning when it had rained the night before, Dorothy and Nama were both shivering when we delivered their breakfast at seven o'clock. Seeing that they were cold, I rushed back to the camp to make them some hot tea. Their breakfast that morning had included a half baguette each of French bread, simply called long bread by the locals. Roger Odier had brought a big bag of it from B\u00e9labo. When I handed them their plastic cups of tea, which barely fit through the holes in the cage wall, a half hour after the breakfast had been given, Nama took a sip and then immediately reached around behind her to retrieve the uneaten half of long bread she had left on the cage floor. Without a moment's hesitation\u2014she knew exactly what she was doing\u2014she dipped the end of the big piece of bread into her cup of tea and bit off the soaked part, grunting with delight as she enjoyed the special treat. While her mouth was full and chewing, her eyes found mine for a brief glance of gratitude before she turned her full attention to the sweet indulgence.\n\nDipping bread in coffee is customary among many Cameroonians, a breakfast tradition shared with them by French colonizers. As a juvenile, Nama must have lived in a house among people, either French or African, who had dipped their bread\u2014possibly the family of Luna Park proprietors, which had kept her cruelly chained for so many years. Someone must have shared the practice with her when she was young, and she still remembered it after so many years.\n\nDuring those first months when Dorothy and Nama were in the satellite cage, I indulged them with the tea and bread breakfast after each of our weekly trips to the small bakery in B\u00e9labo. At first, Dorothy ate her bread dry and sipped her tea separately, but after a couple of weeks, she too was enjoying her bread soaked with tea. She, however, used a different method. Instead of dunking and biting from the end of a big piece of bread as Nama did, Dorothy pinched off small pieces, dipped them into her cup of tea, and plopped the whole morsels into her mouth, chewing and swallowing them one at a time. As a captured infant, decades earlier, had Dorothy too watched humans eat this way? Had she herself partaken of tea or coffee with bread? It could have explained her different dunking method. Or perhaps she simply got the idea from Nama and adapted her own way of bread dipping. Of course, I had no way of knowing, but I wondered about it as I watched them sitting quietly together, using different dunking methods to enjoy their bread with tea.\n\nAnother clue that Nama had lived in a house was her propensity for cleaning. One morning I arrived at the cage to discover that Nama was holding a washcloth-size piece of one of the big blankets I had left for her and Dorothy. I didn't see whether she had torn it off intentionally with a purpose in mind, but she was guarding it carefully. Later in the morning when the caregivers poured water and soap on the cement of the cage to perform their daily cleaning, Nama used her cloth to help them scrub, periodically wringing soapy water from it. Our staff used brushes and brooms to clean the cages, so Nama hadn't learned to use cloth from them. She had seen that somewhere else, and it had been many years earlier that she had seen it. No one had been cleaning the dirt where she was chained for sixteen years.\n\nAfter three months of visual contact, with the period of medical quarantine over, I allowed Dorothy and Nama to interact with Jacky, Pepe, and Becky through the side of the cage that connected to the forested enclosure. Nama made friends with the two males quickly, and with Becky a little more slowly. In the early days of the integration, her relationship with Pepe was playful. She often lay on her back, up against the cage wall, squirming and laughing heartily as Pepe reached through the cage with both hands to gently poke and pinch her belly and the backs of her thighs. In those moments, Nama was a kid again. With Jacky, she groomed more often than played. Nama and Becky sat calmly within each other's proximity, sometimes grooming, often just sitting.\n\nUnfortunately, Dorothy was socially awkward. Like Nama, she had not been part of a chimpanzee society since she was an infant, but with Dorothy it had been decades earlier. In addition, Dorothy may have felt disabled by her obesity and general lack of physical prowess\u2014conditions imposed on her by a high-fat diet of palm nuts and the chain that prohibited all exercise. Whatever the reasons, Dorothy didn't know how to act with other chimpanzees, and making friends was hard for her. She took much longer than Nama to approach the cage interface where the other chimps beckoned. Although she developed friendly relations with Jacky and Pepe, her tentative shyness irritated Becky, who often barked and threw dirt at her. Within the protected cage, Dorothy could keep her distance from Becky, but our goal was to have them all in the forest together.\n\nFearing that we might never see the kind of positive affiliation between Becky and Dorothy that would lead me to feel 100 percent comfortable about putting the five chimps together, I decided to move forward with the physical integration one step at a time. I felt sure that Nama was ready to go out in the forest with the others, and I didn't want to keep Dorothy inside alone.\n\nThe hot wires of the electric fence ran close to their cage, and Nama had touched it. I never saw Dorothy touch it, and neither did her caregivers. She may have touched it when we weren't around, or she could have taken Nama's advice that she shouldn't.\n\nI started by allowing Nama and Dorothy into the forested enclosure with Pepe, keeping Jacky and Becky in their satellite cage for the afternoon. It was easy to get them in the cage, because we normally beat the drum to call them all for food twice during the day and to come in for dinner at the end of the day. When Jacky and Becky came in for their two o'clock snack, we locked the sliding door behind them. They didn't mind too much since they had been out all morning. This choice of leading the integration effort with Pepe reflected my bias that he would be the better leader of the group. When we opened the sliding door of Dorothy and Nama's cage, Pepe squeezed past Nama to enter the cage as she eagerly ran out of it. Immediately he turned and followed her out, staying playfully on her heels as she trotted around in front of the cage, laughing gleefully. After these few moments of elation, Nama realized that Dorothy was afraid to come out of the cage. Reaching out her arm, palm up, she beckoned her less confident friend. Noisily and with a grimace of fear, Dorothy responded. Like she was taking a desperate, fearful plunge into a pool, she rushed through the door screaming into Nama's, and then Pepe's, waiting arms. Pepe was gentle and kind that first day.\n\nWith Pepe in the lead, the three started down the foliage-free dirt path that ran along the fence line. Jacky, Pepe, and Becky had maintained the footpath with their regular patrols of the fence perimeter, so it seemed natural that Pepe wanted to take Dorothy and Nama along the path. I followed along on the opposite side of the fence. Dorothy hadn't walked more than a few feet at a time in decades, and when she fell behind, panting and sweating, it was Pepe who came back to her. From Dorothy's right side, Pepe wrapped his big, muscular arm around her back and under her left arm to pull her along, encouraging her to continue. With his help, Dorothy made it the half a mile around the enclosure periphery, past the satellite cage from where Jacky and Becky watched quietly but with great interest, and back to snacks and water in the cage. Afterward, while Dorothy rested in the cage, Nama and Pepe entered the forest, out of her sight and mine, for several hours. While Dorothy watched eagerly for Nama's return, she didn't seem distressed by her absence. At the five o'clock dinner hour we beat our plastic \"drum\" to let Pepe and Nama know that food was being served at the cages. Hearing the familiar beckon, Nama returned to a happy welcome from Dorothy, while Pepe returned to the cage he shared with Jacky and Becky. All in all, I felt that Dorothy's and Nama's first day in the forested enclosure with Pepe had gone very well.\n\nThe following day, I kept Becky and Pepe inside, while Jacky went into the enclosure with Nama and Dorothy. This day was a success, too. After Dorothy slowly made her way around the perimeter of the enclosure, she collected a stick from the edge of the forest and used it to groom herself while she relaxed in the shade just outside the cage. I was happy that, in contrast to the day before, she chose a resting spot outside of the cage. Like she had with Pepe the day before, Nama spent time in the forest with Jacky, and they returned calmly to their separate cages for dinner.\n\nNervously, on the third day, I allowed all five chimpanzees in the enclosure together. Estelle had arrived on the train the evening before for a short visit, and she encouraged me to move forward. As usual, I was glad she was there.\n\nThis first day that all five chimpanzees were together gave birth to an amazing and unexpected alliance that would establish the hierarchy of the group for the next decade. Jacky, Pepe, and Becky were congregated outside Dorothy and Nama's cage when we opened the door. Coaxed by Nama pulling on her arm, Dorothy passed through the door, scared but trusting, and followed Nama several yards into the enclosure. With five chimpanzees, the social dynamic was more complicated. With my heart pounding like I had just run a mile, I watched with Estelle, Kenneth, and the caregivers as all five chimpanzees sat around the front of the cage with a nervous energy in the air. While Becky wasn't overtly friendly and welcoming to either Nama or Dorothy, she wasn't behaving aggressively either. I had just released a sigh of relief about Becky's behavior when Pepe surprised me. Hairs on end, he ran stomping past Dorothy and slapped her hard on her relatively frail back, the sound resonating loudly against her chest wall. She screamed in confusion and looked to me for help. Equally surprised, I had no good options for helping her, other than to get her back in the cage and close the door. Estelle and I called for her to come, and she tried but only got as far as the outside cage wall, against which she cowered in terror as Pepe charged at her again, puffed up and terrifying.\n\n\"Pepe, no!\" Estelle and I both shouted, although I doubted whether our scolding would have any effect. Fortunately, Dorothy didn't need to rely on us. Nama intercepted Pepe, and the events of the next few seconds happened so fast that it was impossible to comprehend them as rapidly as they unfolded. About half Pepe's size, Nama plowed into him from the side, catching him midstride. For several moments I couldn't discern who was who in the screaming, blurry mass of brawling chimpanzees, much less who was getting the best of whom. Jacky and Becky were vocalizing from the sidelines, but they didn't enter the battle physically, and I couldn't tell who they were supporting in this initial stage of Nama's fight to protect Dorothy. I was terrified for Nama, but when she and Pepe broke apart, it was he who fled into the forest, screaming. Nama sat near Dorothy panting from exertion, and while she caught her breath, she never took her wary eyes from the forest trail Pepe had entered.\n\nFive minutes later, Pepe returned, exiting the forest on a different trail, with his eyes trained again on Dorothy, who was still sitting with her back up against the cage wall. I had called to her over and over after Pepe had left, but she had chosen not to enter the cage. She was trusting Nama to stand their ground. As Pepe approached slowly but menacingly, Nama paced back and forth in front of Dorothy, aware of Pepe's every move, like a dedicated, lionhearted sentry. She probably couldn't have ultimately prevailed against Pepe, given the disparity in their sizes, but it was crystal clear that she was prepared to fight again.\n\nNot only was I terrified for both Dorothy and Nama, I was upset and disappointed on a personal level that Pepe was behaving so badly. Two days earlier, his kindness toward Dorothy brought tears to my eyes. Now he was trying to assume dominance by cruelly bullying her, the weakest in the group. I knew that male chimpanzees were all about power and dominance and that they commonly bullied weaker males to make themselves appear stronger. There were no weaker males in Pepe's group\u2014only Dorothy, who posed no threat to him. He was transferring his aggression from Jacky, the real target, onto someone safer\u2014using Dorothy in a display to show Jacky he was dominant. Reflecting in hindsight, it made me think Jacky had already gained an edge in their battle for dominance. Pepe was acting more like a challenger and probably had been for some time. With my limited experience I just hadn't recognized it, and perhaps I was blinded by my bias.\n\nOf course, chimpanzees aren't the only great apes to use cruel and unattractive bullying tactics. Studies demonstrating the universality of bullying in human cultures and the frequency with which it occurs in nonhuman primate societies suggest that its evolutionary roots stem back to our common ancestor with chimpanzees, and even much earlier. While I knew that Pepe's behavior was typical and that I shouldn't be disappointed with him for behaving like a chimpanzee, I wondered if I had exacerbated the ugly tendency with the way I chose to proceed with the integration\u2014introducing him to the females first, and then Jacky. In any case, Pepe's strategy was not a winning one.\n\nJust at that moment in the dangerous confrontation between Nama and Pepe, Jacky made a decision that would have far-reaching consequences. He took up a position beside Nama, just in front of Dorothy. With only a quick glance in his direction, Nama understood immediately that in Jacky she had an ally. Almost instantly, not waiting for Pepe to charge again, Nama and Jacky took the offensive. Together they charged at Pepe with overwhelming force. They chased him into the forest screaming, and he didn't dare come back for more. Pepe never bullied Dorothy again, and with Nama at his side, older and smaller Jacky would become the definitive leader of the group. Together Jacky and Nama would maintain peace in their community of chimpanzees, which we would rapidly expand with the addition of young orphans, for the next ten years.\n\nOnly a few days after the fateful introduction in the forest, Nama and Dorothy began following Jacky to the cage he shared with Pepe and Becky, making it clear that they wanted to eat and sleep there, so I let them. While Dorothy might not have trusted Pepe, and she didn't ask for his reassurance the way she did with Jacky and Nama, she didn't hold a grudge against him, either. After that frightening day of turmoil, they began to associate peaceably with mutual grooming. Unfortunately, it was Dorothy's relationship with Becky that would be more problematic in the longer term.\n\nNama and Jacky couldn't solve Dorothy's distressing social problems with Becky as easily as they had protected her from Pepe. Becky was much bigger than Nama, and just as dominant, loved by both Jacky and Pepe. I even wondered if competition with Nama was why Becky chose to bully Dorothy. In any case, Nama must have known to pick her battles carefully. She sat on the sidelines as Becky bullied and tormented Dorothy, humiliating rather than causing physical harm. I quit giving cups of tea when I saw Becky pouring it over the top of poor Dorothy's head, the latter screaming in anguish as the tea dripped down her face. As Becky spat and threw dirt on her, Dorothy sometimes reached out her hand to me, grimacing helplessly and begging me for help. Unfortunately, as much as I wanted to help her, I couldn't solve the problem with Becky either. My angry reprimands went unheeded.\n\nOnce, when Becky went too far, I saw Nama draw the line. After hearing Dorothy screaming near the satellite cage, I arrived on the scene at the same time Nama emerged from the forest to discover the cause of Dorothy's emotional plea for help. Becky was hitting her on the top of her head and shoulders with a sturdy stick, three feet long and a half-inch thick. Dorothy was seemingly powerless to stop the abuse, but Nama wasn't. With little drama, Nama quietly interposed herself between Dorothy and Becky. Facing Becky, Nama wrapped her own hand around the stick and tried to pull it from Becky's hand. During several seconds of intense eye contact between these two strong females, Becky resisted, hanging on stubbornly to the stick and pulling back. I didn't breathe, waiting to see who would win this war of wills. When Becky finally released the stick, the tension dissipated instantly. Nama scooted away and, almost casually, tossed the stick toward the forest. It was still in sight, so Becky could have picked it up again, but she didn't. Nama had made her point, strongly and effectively, without aggression. It was the only time I saw Becky use a stick to hurt Dorothy.\n\nAs the months passed, Becky paid less attention to Dorothy. She lost interest in tormenting her, and in fact generally ignored her. Dorothy spent most of her days alone on the ground near the edge of the forest, while Nama and the other chimpanzees enjoyed the forest and strengthened their mutual bonds.\n\nDuring Sanaga-Yong Center's first year of operation, while we followed with intense interest the adult dramas unfolding in one area of the forest, we opened a nursery in another. I had envisioned \"my\" sanctuary with a small infrastructure to provide for adult chimpanzees\u2014for the long-suffering captives I had befriended at hotels. I would leave it to Limbe Wildlife Center and Cameroon Wildlife Aid Fund to take care of orphaned infants. I would direct the small \"adults-only\" sanctuary while I spearheaded campaigns to stop the killing and orphaning of free-living chimpanzees. I was already an activist at heart, and coming to know and love the adult chimpanzee orphans had made the conservation issues personal for me. However, my vision for a small sanctuary wasn't realistic in the context of the country I had chosen. Cameroon's thriving illegal trade in ape meat was orphaning dozens, if not hundreds, of chimpanzee infants every year. Although only a small percentage was ever rescued, the other sanctuaries were filling up fast.\n\nMy vision evolved soon after the manager of a logging company stopped by our camp with information about a sad, sick baby chimpanzee in a village sixty miles from us. I was away buying supplies in Yaound\u00e9, so the concerned logger gave Kenneth money for gas to go pick up the baby. Kenneth knew that under no circumstances should he buy the baby chimp. It would fuel the trade and work against our mission. He didn't have any money anyway, so he wasn't tempted. Using only his powers of diplomacy and persuasion, Kenneth managed to drive away from the village with the little chimpanzee. When I returned to camp, I first hoped that we could take the two-year-old boy, who Kenneth and volunteer Roberta Sandoli had named Bikol, to one of the other sanctuaries in Cameroon. Only after learning that neither of them had room for him at the time did I let myself fall in love.\n\nSoon afterward, the brother of a hunter brought six-month-old baby Gabby, thinking he could sell him to us. Kenneth threatened the man with arrest by the military police and sent him on his way without Gabby. The incident, which made me fearful that poachers harboring the idea of selling to us might specifically target chimpanzees with babies, inspired us to publicize in the surrounding villages and in B\u00e9labo that we would never buy chimpanzees, and that people who tried to sell them could be arrested. The first prosecution of a chimpanzee dealer in Cameroon would come six years later, after Israeli national Ofir Drori's Last Great Ape Organization would start collaborating with the Cameroon government on wildlife law enforcement.\n\nIn February 2000, when Greg Rossell and Anita Phillips arrived to build our electric enclosure for the adult group, we were caring for babies Bikol and Gabby in our camp. The talented builders found time to contribute in huge measure to our professionalism by building a much-needed nursery complex, which consisted of a wooden sleeping house and a smaller electric enclosure.\n\nBy the end of our first year in operation, our juvenile population had grown to seven, ranging in age from one to four years. My vision for a small sanctuary for adult chimpanzees was gone. In the years to come, the majority of the chimpanzees we would rescue would be young infants for whom we would be surrogate mothers until we could integrate them with older chimpanzees. We would eventually integrate many into Jacky's group.\n\nThe staff, volunteers, and I alternated taking the babies for long daily walks along a complex network of forest trails. During our excursions, the older babies climbed high in the canopy, while the younger ones climbed lower and played on the ground around us, sometimes napping sweetly on our laps when we rested. We human surrogates were the babies' authority figures and their protectors. We provided love and hugs, but also harsh scolding when it was required to intervene in skirmishes or protect ourselves from naughty behavior, like hair pulling. Because we loved them and they needed all we provided, they were upset if we were angry with them. A reprimand was usually followed by whimpers of apology and quick reconciliation. In the forest, whenever we stood to go, all the babies raced toward us, flying down tree trunks, competing for one of the prized riding spots in our arms or on our backs or clinging to our legs. When I was alone with them, on days we were shorthanded, some would need to simply grab a fistful of my shirttail, or even walk a few steps ahead on the trail. One thing is sure, none of the babies intended to be left alone. They were needy and loving, and their social dynamic was relatively uncomplicated.\nTwelve\n\nChallenges on My Side of the Fence\n\nWhile I enjoyed the babies and fretted over Dorothy's struggle to find her comfortable place in the small group of adult chimpanzees, I worked to keep harmonious relationships with the people of the village amid a confusing and evolving political and social backdrop. An important occurrence was the enthroning of a new traditional chief in the Mbargue Forest village of Mbinang, about three and a half miles from our camp. All our dealings had thus far been with Chief Gaspard of Bikol 1, but the traditional territory of Mbinang, I soon learned, encompassed the two Bikols and five other small villages. We had first arrived in the Mbargue Forest soon after the longtime traditional chief of Mbinang had died, and there followed a lengthy dispute over who would be the succeeding chief. I might say that the confusion had left a power vacuum in which the leaders of the small villages had been free to assume autonomous rule, but actually, as I understood it, neither the chief nor the people of Mbinang had used this part of the forest for hunting or farming or paid any attention to it whatsoever for many years before. The local population didn't see fit to mention to me that Mbinang politics might affect us, and the divisional officer who negotiated our first agreement either had not known about Mbinang's traditional role or didn't think it was significant.\n\nIn fact, the location of Sanaga-Yong Chimpanzee Rescue Center\u2014I finally chose this name for the sanctuary because its location was near the confluence of the Sanaga and Yong Rivers\u2014in the forest behind Bikol 1 gave this part of Mbinang's territory much more importance to the new chief. The sanctuary was considered a form of development, and the area would no longer be ignored. Soon after Chief Tendi Ibrahim was officially installed as the replacement of his uncle, he sent a letter to inform me that I was in his territory illegitimately. I was obliged to enlist the help of the divisional officer again to negotiate and sign a new agreement with the chief of Mbinang. This time we worked with the village people to draw up expanded boundaries, and Chief Ibrahim signed an agreement that prohibited logging, farming, and hunting within the 225 acres of Sanaga-Yong Chimpanzee Rescue Center. In exchange, I would hire all our staff from the villages, instead of bringing more qualified people from other parts of Cameroon, and continue to buy the food we needed for chimpanzees, staff, and volunteers from village farmers. I had already compensated the few farmers from Bikol who had been using plots inside our boundaries.\n\nI abided by my part of the agreement and was a good neighbor in the community in other ways as well. I started providing medical care when I realized that people in the villages were dying for lack of simple treatments. The government hospital in B\u00e9labo required payment in advance for consultations and all treatments, and there were no exceptions. People could die in the hospital parking lot for lack of a few francs. For people in our village community, I dispensed medications for malaria, respiratory infections, and diarrhea, and I allowed them to pay me afterward in fruit for the chimpanzees or by doing work around the sanctuary. But some of the treatments I provided for illnesses and injuries weren't so simple. I sutured some terrible machete wounds, including one that was intentionally inflicted upon a man by his wife, and treated various other severe injuries, including third-degree burns in a child whose clothes caught fire. I often wished the people had much more specialized care, but I was much more skilled than anyone else they had, and I did my best. The care I gave saved a lot of lives. Ministering to human maladies took a lot of my time and distracted me from the work of the sanctuary. I sometimes resented it, but I kept my complaints to myself. The people who stood before me asking for medical help had no other options. I couldn't turn them away.\n\nIn return, I insisted that the people of the villages live up to their part of their agreement with me, but they were less than 100 percent compliant. One afternoon from camp I heard a chain saw cutting in the forest nearby, and thought it might be from inside our boundaries. I knew it wasn't Liboz or any of Coron's men, because they had moved on. I suspected the cutting was by illegal loggers we called \"chain saw guys.\" These local chain saw operators followed the roads made by logging companies with legal concessions and cut smaller and\/or more-difficult-to-access trees left behind by the big companies. Working in small groups of two or three, they could slice a tree into planks where it fell and carry the planks out of the forest on top of their heads to stack them on a waiting truck.\n\nKenneth drove me, armed with my camera, holding my head out the window to follow the growl of the chain saw. I strained to listen and gauge the distance and direction of the sound, and as it grew louder, I soon knew that the chain saw was indeed operating within our boundaries. Finally, when Kenneth and I were as close as we could get with the truck, we got out and continued through the forest on foot. The two men didn't notice our approach. One of them stood atop the large trunk of a downed tree, bending over as he worked the chain saw to cut the trunk in half. Just as he looked up at us, I snapped a photo. Quickly I turned the camera on the other man and snapped again\u2014another good face shot. Whether or not they knew about my agreement with the village community, these chain saw guys had to know that it was illegal to log on government land without a formal concession. Even before the man turned off the chain saw and I could hear the words he shouted, I understood from disgruntled faces and pointing fingers that neither man was happy about the photos. When the noise died and we could hear their loud complaints, Kenneth didn't bother to translate, as he would have if he had questioned my ability to understand.\n\nI held up my hand to ask for silence and confronted their anger with a quiet and polite question. \"Can you please tell me for whom you are working?\" Kenneth smiled casually as he translated.\n\nClearly surprised by this weird confrontation in the middle of the forest, they looked at each other, unsure whether to answer.\n\n\"Who sent you here?\" I asked more directly, in simple French.\n\n\"The chief of Mbinang,\" the man with the chain saw finally responded.\n\nNow I was the one who was surprised. As Kenneth and I had tracked the sound of the chain saw, I had played a scenario in my head where I would go immediately to Chief Ibrahim of Mbinang to enlist his help in putting an end to the illegal logging. To hear that he was responsible for it was unsettling. The chief had signed an agreement with me, formalized by a representative of the national government, promising not to log on our small part of the forest. I had enjoyed a glass of wine with him a few days earlier. I tried not to look as surprised as I felt.\n\n\"Okay, merci,\" I said, and to Kenneth, \"Let's go!\" I wasn't sure how strongly these men felt about the pictures in my camera. I didn't want to lose my beloved camera, but neither Kenneth nor I would have fought the guy with the chain saw over it. We hurried back to the truck before they had a chance to weigh their options and drove back to camp, where I could consider mine.\n\nThe next morning we drove to Mbinang. Chief Ibrahim sat on a bamboo bench in the meeting area, which was covered by a raffia roof in front of his house. With him were his nephew Alain, visiting from the town of Mbandjock where he worked as an administrator for a sugarcane plantation, and the two chain saw guys we had gone out of our way to meet the day before. After Kenneth and I had shaken everyone's hand, the chief gestured toward a vacant bench. While we beat around the bush with irrelevant conversation, as is customary and required before getting to any serious issues, other villagers wandered over. They shook our hands and then lined up around the periphery of the meeting area to listen in on what promised to be a confrontation.\n\nFinally, I veered sharply toward the point. \"Chief, we have a big problem!\"\n\n\"Yes,\" the chief agreed.\n\n\"Yesterday, I found these men cutting a tree on sanctuary land! They said they were working for you!\" I cut to the chase.\n\n\"Yes,\" Chief Ibrahim confirmed and proceeded to explain calmly. \"I am not cutting wood to sell, as that would be illegal. I am taking trees only to make furniture in my house, which is my traditional right.\" He had been coached what to say, I felt sure, and I knew it was a lie. The chief's house was not in need of furniture. \"But you signed a legal agreement, a promise, that you would not encroach on the sanctuary land for anything.\"\n\n\"It's my land,\" he said simply.\n\n\"Does your word, your promise, which you gave me in writing, mean anything at all to you?\" I spoke in English with Kenneth translating, as I couldn't afford to be misunderstood. My words were direct, but my tone was respectful and calm.\n\nAlain, who was a very large, relatively well-educated man to whom I had barely ever spoken, jumped into the conversation with a confrontational, angry tone. \"The chief can do whatever he wants on his land. You have disrespected him and stolen his land!\"\n\n\"The land is Cameroon government land, and the government sent me here.\" I was suddenly furious and my heart was pounding madly, but I struggled to maintain a calm tone.\n\n\"Look around you. Where are your government friends? You are here in the bush with us!\" Alain spat at me. I had to admit, to myself at least, that he made a good point, but I was taken aback by how much this man I barely knew seemed to dislike me. When I didn't say anything, he pushed his point a bit too far, \"The divisional officer and the national government in Yaound\u00e9 don't matter at all here.\"\n\n\"Well, I expect they'll be very interested to hear that you feel that way,\" I informed him.\n\n\"The chief is the only authority here!\" Alain was animated and loud now.\n\n\"Well, if that's the case, it should be no problem for me, because your uncle, the chief, is the one who signed a legal agreement with me!\"\n\n\"Taking photos of people without their permission is illegal in my country. You are the one who can go to jail.\" Apparently remembering he needed to address the grievances of the chain saw guys, Alain glanced at them, still scowling from their corner bench, as he spoke to me.\n\n\"They were trespassing. It's legal to take photographs of trespassers.\" I was making it up as I went along.\n\n\"It's the chief's land! You are the trespasser!\"\n\n\"What do you know anyway? You don't even live here,\" I said, and I noticed that some of the villagers around us were nodding their heads a little as I was talking. Taking this as evidence that Alain wasn't universally liked in the village and empowered slightly by the subtle support, I went on. \"I live here with the people and do many things to help this community. I'm part of this community. What do you do to help the people here? Nothing, that's what!\" I really had no idea about his role in the community, but I was on a roll. \"You live in Mbandjock!\" I placed a derogatory emphasis on Mbandjock like it was the most ridiculous place in the world that a person could live, and people laughed, even before the translation.\n\nAlain was so angry he couldn't stay seated. Standing added the emphasis of his large size to his shouting, both obviously intended to intimidate me. \"You are kicked out of the chief's territory. Leave now!\" He pointed to the road. \"Now!\"\n\n\"Who are you to kick me out?\" I remained seated. As his voice had gotten louder, I made mine softer.\n\n\"I speak for the chief!\" He still stood over me, and I tried to appear as relaxed as I could while I hoped he wouldn't try to physically throw me out in the road.\n\nI looked at the chief. \"Does he speak for you, Chief?\"\n\nThe chief was silent, looking straight ahead, neither at Alain nor at me.\n\n\"Leave!\" Alain commanded me, apparently interpreting the chief's silence as support for his position.\n\n\"Chief, does Alain speak for you?\" I asked, a little more urgently.\n\nFinally, the chief groaned uncomfortably and tilted the top of his head to one side and then the other. He obviously didn't like where this discussion had gone. \"I'm adjourning this meeting.\" It was the first thing the chief had said in a few minutes. \"Can you come back tomorrow at 10:00 A.M.?\" he asked me. He had found a way to diffuse the situation.\n\nAfter I agreed to come back, Kenneth and I quickly departed from the village, leaving without the customary good-bye handshakes. Back at Sanaga-Yong Center, I barely slept that night, worrying about the outcome of the meeting that would take place the next morning.\n\nHowever, at 10:00 A.M. we arrived in Mbinang to a completely different atmosphere. As I approached the outdoor meeting place, Alain stood to shake my hand and addressed me solemnly as \"Doctor.\" Before sitting, Kenneth and I shook the hands of Chief Ibrahim, the chain saw guys, and several onlookers who had gathered for the scheduled meeting.\n\nImmediately after we sat down, Chief Ibrahim jumped to the point, \"Can I finish cutting the one tree into planks?\"\n\n\"Yes,\" I said, a bit reluctantly but in the spirit of compromise.\n\n\"Okay, then. I won't cut any other trees within your project boundaries.\" The chief settled it. I suddenly realized that he probably didn't intend to cut any more anyway, at least not in the immediate future, so it was an easy compromise for him, in principle only.\n\n\"Can we have the film from your camera with the pictures of these men?\" Alain asked me with exaggerated politeness.\n\n\"It's a digital camera and doesn't use film,\" I explained, in an equally polite tone. \"I will erase the photos.\"\n\n\"How will we know that you erased them?\" Alain asked, staying respectful.\n\n\"You'll have to take my word for it, like I have to take the chief's word that he won't cut more trees on sanctuary land,\" I said. Alain and the chain saw guys were stuck with it.\n\nThere wasn't much more to say. The meeting was short. Before I could rise to leave, the chief asked if I would do him the favor of giving him a ride to a big meeting in the village of Mbargue (an hour away because the road was bad) the following day. It was hard to say no in that current context of reconciliation.\n\n\"Okay,\" I agreed, hiding my annoyance. I would send Kenneth to drive him, using our fuel.\n\nThus, the drama that had sucked my attention for two days ended anticlimactically. I had made the point that I would notice them logging on sanctuary land, but beyond that I hadn't gained anything. It was like many other experiences that defined my relationship with the people of the village; they were melodramas that demanded my attention and sometimes upset me, but generally ended okay. A few weeks later, a more serious incident in B\u00e9labo traumatized me much more.\n\nOne night in September, I drove to B\u00e9labo to pick up Estelle and two volunteers who would be arriving on the train from Yaound\u00e9, leaving Kenneth and one other volunteer in camp. Kenneth and I might both have gone to B\u00e9labo, but I didn't want to leave one volunteer alone. I might have sent Kenneth to pick up the two volunteers, but because I was excited that Estelle was coming for a short visit\u2014her first in a long time\u2014and because I hadn't been out of camp in a few weeks, I decided to drive to B\u00e9labo myself, alone.\n\nTwo identical passenger trains operated each day on the railways running through our small town of B\u00e9labo. One passed through on its twelve- to eighteen-hour route from Yaound\u00e9 to the town of Ngaound\u00e9r\u00e9 in North Cameroon. The other followed the exact route in reverse, passing from Ngaound\u00e9r\u00e9 to Yaound\u00e9. The crowded trains, which traveled at night to avoid the heat, were both scheduled to arrive in B\u00e9labo around 12:30 A.M., but one or both were often late. After checking at the train station and learning that the train coming from Yaound\u00e9 would be several hours late, I decided to rest in the small, sparse chamber of the Est Hotel that we rented for the equivalent of $16 per month. Renting a room by the month, we could keep our own clean sheets on the bed and our mosquito netting hanging above it.\n\nBefore going to the hotel, I visited a small kiosk near the train station to buy candles, matches, drinking water, some cookies, and a premixed bottle of gin and tonic. I figured I might as well relax and enjoy myself while I waited. When I pulled up to park across the street from the hotel, the attendant was standing outside the front door of the reception area under a dimly burning incandescent bulb. It was the only light source in the otherwise dark alley. B\u00e9labo had electricity about half the time and rarely late at night, so I was surprised to see the bulb burning.\n\nI climbed out of the truck with my hands full of keys, flashlight, and the plastic bag of items I had just bought at the store. I had taken no more than three steps toward the attendant when a hard blow on my back sent me sprawling painfully across the gravel. When I rolled over and tried to sit up, a man in shadow hit me across the top of the head with something he held in his fist, knocking me back down. I saw the flicker of stainless steel and realized he had hit me with the handle of a big knife.\n\nHe pulled the punch was my first thought. I realized immediately that he could have hit me harder or cut me with the knife, and it provided me with a reason to believe I might survive whatever was about to happen. Faceup, prostrate on the dirt, I opened my mouth to yell and was silenced by the sharp point of the long triangular knife blade on the base of my throat. The large blade rose up diagonally under my chin and connected to the hand of an African man who straddled me. In the darkness, I couldn't see his face or the faces of the other two men who stood on either side of me. The shiny metal of their knives was the only thing I could see clearly. A few yards away, under the aura of the dim bulb, I saw the hotel attendant go inside and close the door. I was on my own.\n\nWithout options to defend myself, at the mercy of these men whose faces I couldn't see, one thought ran through my mind like a mantra, Stay alive, stay alive, stay alive, stay alive . . . While their hands ripped off my money belt and my watch and searched my bra for money, their rough kicks bruised my arms and legs, but I didn't feel any pain. When they barked at me in rapid French, it sounded like gibberish through my fright. One of them yanked my blue Teva sandals from my feet, and another pulled my pants down to my knees. They're stealing my good pants, I thought. The terrifying idea that their intentions in removing my pants might be far worse came no sooner than it was laid to rest by one of the men searching my crotch for money. They were hateful two-bit thieves, and nothing more.\n\nSatisfied that they had gotten everything of value, they turned away, leaving me shoeless, with my pants to my knees. One of them reached down to pick up my bottle of water, which had gone flying when they hit me from the back. Unhurried, he threw back his head to drink as he walked away. As I watched the three silhouettes saunter into the darkness, I tried to register as much information about them as I could. The one who held the knife on my throat was short and muscular, and he wore a red jacket. The two others\u2014one tall, one of medium height\u2014wore dark clothes. I knew I wouldn't be able to identify them.\n\nAs soon as they were out of sight, I stood up on the unforgiving gravel and began searching for my truck keys and my flashlight, trying to estimate where they would have landed. My heart raced as I looked about frantically, fighting an irrational fear that the bandits would come back. From within the sphere of dim light, I peered into the surrounding darkness and wondered if they were watching me. When I saw blood on the rocks, I realized that the broken glass of the gin and tonic bottle had sliced my foot, but I hardly felt it. After several minutes, during which I found my flashlight but couldn't find my keys, I banged on the hotel door and called to the attendant. I couldn't bear to be out there alone anymore. It took him several minutes to come, and I spotted my keys just as he tentatively opened the door. I had intended to ask him to go to the police with me, but I was suddenly suspicious of him. He had left me alone with the bandits. Was he simply afraid, unwilling to risk his own life for mine? I could understand that. He couldn't have even called the police during the attack, because B\u00e9labo had no phone service. However, as he stood before me, it occurred to me that he might have cooperated with the bandits, and suddenly he seemed as sinister as they were. I fled in the truck as quickly as I could.\n\nAlone in the pickup cabin, bumping along the forest road on my way back to camp to get Kenneth, intense feelings of relief vied with anger. My body was beginning to ache, but I had not been damaged in any lasting way. I was sure the thieves were quite disappointed with their booty. My money belt had contained the equivalent of $47, and my watch was an inexpensive Casio, the band of which they had broken when they yanked it from my wrist. I really needed my shoes and was upset about losing them, but the thieves wouldn't profit much\u2014they probably couldn't sell them for as much as $20 on the streets. My biggest concern was the loss of my passport, which had been in my money belt.\n\nI harshly berated myself for forgetting my many years of martial arts training. By the time I was on the ground with a knife at my throat, it was too late to respond. I should not have been caught by surprise. Seeing the hotel attendant rendered me complacent, and I didn't even look around before getting out of the truck. I screwed up, and I was lucky the price I paid wasn't much higher.\n\nKenneth and I drove back to B\u00e9labo to pick up Estelle and volunteers Claudine Erlandson and Nicholas Bachand, and to file a police report about the bandit attack. A derailment, not a rare occurrence on our railways, had delayed the train by ten hours. It was on our way to the office of the military police that we spotted the blue passport book lying in the middle of the road several blocks from the hotel. The bandits had made a choice to discard it in the road, where someone might see it, where I might get it back. Although I was compelled to file the report, I was not optimistic about the bandits ever being captured. The military police also suspected that the hotel attendant was involved\u2014if only due to coercion and fear. They would investigate.\n\nWhen we returned to camp in the afternoon with Estelle and the new volunteers, nursery caregiver Ndele Chantal informed us that four-year-old Njode was sick. In fact, he was critically ill with pneumonia, and all my emotional energy for the next twenty-four hours was focused on saving him. Estelle and I passed the night in the nursery with him, one or the other of us watching his every breath. I was able to sleep for a few hours only because she was there. I trusted Estelle to detect even the slightest changes in Njode's condition, just as I would. She stayed another two days, until we knew he would survive.\n\nI had no time to nurse my own psychological wounds, although I knew I had been affected by the bandit attack. I was more nervous than usual, constantly looking around behind myself, taking stock of my surroundings, visibly jumping when anyone walked up behind me. This fearfulness that came afterward was the worst part of the attack for me. For a few minutes the thieves had terrified me with their power over me, and now I was letting the memory of them terrorize me. It made me furious with them and with myself for not having more control.\n\nA week later, I was in Yaound\u00e9 for meetings in the Ministry of the Environment and Forestry. This ministry was about to be divided into two, bringing the total number of government ministries in Cameroon to sixty-two. After the division, we would fall under the domain of the new Ministry of Forestry and Wildlife. It would take eight years and many meetings to propel our formal Protocol Agreement, the important document that would define the parameters of our working relationship with the government, through the labyrinthine bureaucracy of the ministry and finally receive the signature of the minister. I attended many meetings in the ministry offices, trying to move it forward.\n\nAlthough cell-phone service wouldn't reach B\u00e9labo for another two years, it had just arrived in Cameroon's cities and some of its towns. Using Estelle's new cell phone, I called my one friend from Cameroon on his. Since I had met him, George Muna had provided me with contacts, logistical assistance, financial support, and advice on cultural issues. Since we had moved the chimpanzees from his hotel, he and I had met several times. Whether by landline or cell phone I usually called to say hi and let him know when I was in Yaound\u00e9, and most times he managed to make the trip to see me. He also liked to visit his brother who was living in the city, so he never lacked a comfortable place to stay, and this gave him a second reason for making the effort. Once he came to Sanaga-Yong Rescue Center to see what we had built for the chimpanzees. However, the camp accommodations to which I had grown so accustomed were more challenging for him. He seemed particularly averse to our pit latrine, and since he was older and not very athletic, I imagined he might lack the flexibility to meet its particular physical requirements. Why else would one hate it? A volunteer suggested that the flies and bees flying from it and the big spiders along its walls might be dissuading factors for some people. In any case, George only stayed in camp one night. Although I didn't see him often, I considered him a true friend, and it was his comfort I now sought.\n\nWhen I told him on the phone about the bandit attack, his concern for me was palpable through the line. He insisted on driving the six hours from Limbe to Yaound\u00e9 to see me, even though I would be going back to Sanaga-Yong Center the next day. In George's arms, I felt safe to cry, and for the first time, I realized that I had feelings of love for this sweet man whose world was so different from mine.\nThirteen\n\nPregnancy and Motherhood\n\nVolunteer Claudine Erlandson, a French national who had married an American and lived in the United States for thirty years, was exactly my mother's age\u2014born the same month and the same year. In October of 2000, she and I chatted as we drove to B\u00e9labo for a shopping trip. The subject of children came up\u2014she had two who were grown\u2014and I confessed to her my twinge of regret about not having children.\n\n\"It's not too late for you, Sheri,\" she encouraged.\n\n\"Oh yes, it is too late,\" I assured her. \"I made a different choice.\"\n\nA few weeks later, at the age of forty-one, I discovered I was pregnant. George Muna, who was ten years older than I with two grown children and a teenage daughter from previous relationships, was the father of my baby. I hadn't been on birth control in Cameroon because I hadn't needed it in the forest. When I became involved with George, I thought it was very unlikely that I could get pregnant at my age. I wouldn't have made a conscious choice to do it, living as I was in the Mbargue Forest, with my irreversible commitments to the chimpanzees I had brought there, but on some level I really wanted a child.\n\nUp until this point, I had successfully compartmentalized the different aspects of my personal life. Edmund was still raising all the money for the work we were doing in Cameroon, and I had recently convinced IDA to contribute a part-time salary for him to continue fund-raising. But with the communication challenges in Cameroon, he and I could go weeks without speaking. We had spent eight months of 1999 and all of 2000 living on different continents with little communication. We exchanged e-mails when possible, but those opportunities were limited. When I last had seen Edmund late in 1999, we didn't speak of fidelity. He was a gregarious, social person\u2014much more so than I\u2014and I assumed he was dating other people. I had made my choices and would live with them, but I still loved Edmund and cherished the idea of having him in my life, of knowing he worried about me, of knowing he would be there in the United States, at least on some level, when I went home. At the same time, I had come to rely on George's friendship in Cameroon and to love him too. On opposite sides of the planet, the two lives hadn't conflicted. I felt like a different person depending on which continent I inhabited. My pregnancy would bring my two worlds crashing together and change my relationships with Edmund and with George forever.\n\nAt Sanaga-Yong Chimpanzee Rescue Center, where I would spend the largest part of my pregnancy, I had to contend with Kenneth. \"So you're the only one around here who gets to have a baby!\" was Kenneth's response to the news of my pregnancy. It was the last thing he expected, and not only because of my age. When he had questioned my decision to use birth control in our chimpanzees, I had patiently explained my reasons with unwavering certainty. First, we needed to reserve our space and very limited resources for orphans in need of rescue. Second, I didn't think chimpanzees should be born to lives of captivity, no matter how special the form of captivity. Kenneth had been skeptical. With similar fortitude I had performed a spay (ovariohysterectomy) and a castration on our female and male camp cats over Kenneth's objections. To his thinking, there was a certain hypocrisy in my having a baby after I had denied that right to others.\n\nWhile I was excitedly adjusting to the idea of motherhood and trying to work out how I could fit a child into my unconventional life, I was called back to the United States when my own mother was critically injured in a fall. The last couple of years I hadn't been able to speak with my mother very frequently, and I knew she had worried about me a lot. She didn't really understand enough about what I was doing and why to feel proud of me for it. For her, there was just the worry. Now it was my turn to worry during the two months I stayed with her in Mississippi, often sleeping in her hospital room.\n\nDuring those weeks at the hospital, I was disturbed by my strolls through the maternity ward. While a baby chimpanzee, or even a baby kitten, could fill my heart with tenderness, these helpless and somewhat unattractive\u2014to my fearful eyes\u2014human infants left me completely cold. I began to seriously question whether I really wanted one. My doubt persisted until an ob-gyn at that hospital in Mississippi performed an ultrasound to confirm my pregnancy. Seeing my own tiny fetus's heart beating, like the fluttering wings of a fragile butterfly, settled the issue once and for all. Through an amniocentesis I learned that my little butterfly was a girl, whom I named Annarose long before she was born. With all my heart, I wanted her to thrive.\n\nI didn't discuss my pregnancy with my mother. I knew that she wasn't overly conservative, and I knew she ultimately would be delighted about the baby, but I worried that she might experience some slight hesitation about my unwedded state, which I had no intention of changing. When my mother was conscious, I sometimes grappled with whether or not to tell her, and her strange hallucinations of babies in the hospital room with us was slightly unnerving.\n\n\"Sheri, put some clothes on that baby!\" she ordered me on one occasion in her strong Southern accent.\n\n\"What baby, Mama?\" I replied softly.\n\n\"That baby over there needs some clothes on it like the other baby has on!\" she insisted, pointing to a dim corner of the room.\n\nI turned on the light to convince her. \"Look, Mama, there are no babies.\"\n\nAnother time, she told me to pick up the baby. When I again convinced her that the room we occupied was babyless, she laughed softly at herself. \"I guess I need to get this baby stuff out of my mind.\"\n\nI intended to tell her later, when she was stronger, that she would have a granddaughter. I thought the time would come for us to wonder and laugh about her \"psychic\" baby hallucinations in the hospital. However, her injuries and other health issues proved overwhelming. She died without knowing I would have a child. Losing my mother so early in her life\u2014she was only sixty-two\u2014was the deepest and saddest loss I had experienced in mine.\n\nImmediately after her funeral, I flew from Mississippi to Oregon and stayed for three days in my house with Edmund, who was still living there and running our small IDA-Africa office out of it. For him my pregnancy marked a sort of sad milestone in our relationship, and the strain of it was between us. Nevertheless, he did his best to be supportive and comforting to me in my grief. He tried to make sure I ate well, at least, during those few days before I took my grief back with me to Cameroon.\n\nBack at Sanaga-Yong Center, another source of sadness for me was my estrangement from Pepe. His problem with me started just after I returned from the United States, and it continued throughout my pregnancy. Whenever he saw me, he displayed aggressively toward me, so that I couldn't even approach his cage. If I was with other people, he met my eyes during his angry display, making sure I knew his problem was with me specifically. With my deeply hurt feelings, I wondered whether his hostility had to do with me leaving for so long when my mother was injured, or whether he could smell the hormones of my pregnancy. It started before he could see any signs of my pregnancy.\n\nGeorge visited me in camp from time to time. His visits were brief but I was always happy to see him. Initially he was excited about the baby, then he grew concerned about whether I could be a good mother with all my other responsibilities, and eventually, he was excited again. When he visited, he brought me pastries and pizza and olives, and we talked about issues concerning my staff or the villagers that confused me. Our discussions were enlightening and his advice always useful. Once he told me, \"Sheri, you're too direct for our culture. You need to beat around the bush more.\" He loved to use American clich\u00e9s\u2014he had gone to university in the United States for six years. Once George traveled with me to Yaound\u00e9 for an ultrasound. I suffered from motion sickness on the train, which I had never done in my nonpregnant state. The bathroom was filthy, and George stood over me and held my hair while I vomited over and over on the rocking train. The quality of the ultrasound performed in Yaound\u00e9 wasn't good, but we could see Annarose's face and her tiny fingers. It was thrilling to share that with George. However, to a large extent, his business kept him occupied in Limbe, fourteen hours away from me, and there was no phone service anywhere around Sanaga-Yong Center. I had brought back a satellite phone from the United States, but it was much too expensive to use casually. Mostly, I was on my own.\n\nAll in all, the months of my pregnancy proceeded pretty much the way the months before it had. Problems and crises showed no deference to my maternity. Late one afternoon about six and a half months into my pregnancy, I realized that Becky was seriously sick. It was already four o'clock when caregiver Assou informed me that Becky hadn't eaten since morning and had returned to her cage from the forest. I found her resting on her tire, which was situated on a platform high above my head in the center of the cage. A year and a half earlier, I had positioned the tire on the platform and secured it there with chain, thinking it would make a comfortable nesting spot for someone. Becky had chosen it as hers, exclusively. She often carried in leaves and vines from the forest to make a nest on it, but today, she rested on her side on the bare tire. Her back was toward me so I couldn't see her face, but I could just barely discern the much too rapid rise and fall of her abdomen as she breathed. I called to her for over ten minutes, and finally, as I was failing in the fight against my escalating sense of panic, she descended and came to me. Normally, her intelligent, questioning brown eyes would have found mine during her approach, but today, under deeply furrowed brows, they looked past me. I knew immediately that she was in terrible pain.\n\n\"What's wrong, Beck?\" I reached in to place my hand on her forehead. Her skin was warm. When my hand moved downward to briefly cradle the side of her face and then skim gently over the front of her chest, she seemed to hardly notice, but when I touched her abdomen, she grunted and pushed my hand away. The problem was in her belly. She turned her back to me and allowed me to stroke and groom her back for a few moments, but it was more comfort to me than to her. As she left me and climbed slowly back up to her tire, I noticed a slow dribble of urine that continued after she was lying on her side again. Deeply dreading the prospect of performing surgery on Becky, I began considering it. Whatever was obstructing Becky's urine and causing her such awful pain was not likely to repair itself or to be fixed by medicine.\n\nI used the satellite phone to call veterinarian Jim Mahoney in the United States. After working with chimpanzees and monkeys in biomedical laboratories for years, Jim had been the driving force for placing many of them in North American sanctuaries a few years earlier. I knew he had gained a lot of medical experience that I lacked, and I appreciated that he had always been generous with his advice. Jim answered his phone and listened attentively while I explained Becky's symptoms. On the basis of what I told him, he suspected that Becky had twisted her large intestine, and that the twisted bowel was blocking the flow of her urine. He said he had seen it before in chimpanzees. If he was right, the blood supply to Becky's intestine was being cut off, and she probably couldn't survive until morning without surgery. Jim warned me that I might have a fatal outcome even with surgery. If he had known the difficult conditions under which I would operate, I suspect his pessimism would have been much greater.\n\nI had received funding for a small veterinary clinic from the Michigan-based Arcus Foundation, but I had not built it yet. Our kitchen table would serve as my makeshift surgery table, where I had already performed a few minor surgeries like wound suturing. It was a round slab of wood, sliced from the end of a big log and situated under the raffia roof we called our kitchen. I had no gas anesthesia or skilled technicians to assist me. Flashlights charged on our solar system would be my surgery lights.\n\nBy the time I had sterilized my surgical instruments in our pressure cooker and converted the open-air kitchen area to a surgery suite, as much as possible, it was dark. Getting Becky out of her cage would be the first challenge. She was a big girl, weighing about 130 pounds, and I was hoping she would descend from her tire-bed to the ground when I blew the dart of anesthesia into her thigh. Unfortunately, she was so sick she hardly moved. Kenneth climbed a ladder up to her platform and somehow managed, from his precarious perch on the ladder, to pull Becky off the tire and hand her down to the night watchman and me. We were careful to stay out of reach of Pepe and Jacky, who barked and screamed at us from the adjacent cage chamber where I had locked them. Not understanding how we could, or why we would, be taking Becky from the cage, they were frightened for her and wanted to protect her. Hanging on the cage wall, Pepe applied the full force of his fury to loudly vibrate the metal mesh in a threatening display that succeeded in terrifying the night watchman, and in scaring Kenneth and me as well. I knew we had built the cage well\u2014I was there when all the pieces were welded together\u2014but I breathed a sigh of relief when we managed to get outside the cage with Becky and lock the door behind us, putting another wall of metal between Pepe and us. We placed Becky on a bamboo bench that served as our stretcher, and through the swath of light radiating from my head torch, we carried her along the dark forest trail to the surgery table.\n\nShe was too big to fit on the log table, so Claudine sat on a stool at one end, cradling her head. Using a vein in Becky's back leg, I started an intravenous fluid line to improve her blood pressure and start potent antibiotics. Through the IV line, I would administer anesthesia injections as necessary throughout the surgery. Nicholas Bachand, a Canadian volunteer who years later would become a veterinarian himself, and Kenneth assisted me during the operation\u2014holding the flashlight on my surgery field and handing me items as I needed them.\n\nWhen I cut into Becky's abdomen, I found that all the organs in her abdomen were glued together by fibrous adhesions; I had never seen anything like it before. I couldn't even identify the individual organs until I broke down the adhesions, which was a painstaking process that took hours. One wrong move and I could have caused bleeding that would have been impossible to control in the large mass of adhesions.\n\nWith my advancing pregnancy, I had become prone to low back pain. Leaning over the low log table for hours on end, my back now hurt so badly I wanted to scream. Instead, I cursed and swatted at flying insects attracted by the flashlight held over Becky's abdomen. The tone of my instructions to Nick and Kenneth reflected my agonizing discomfort and stress.\n\n\"Tilt the flashlight more this way!\"\n\n\"Shine it where my hands are working! I need to see, dammit!\"\n\n\"Wipe the sweat off my face before it drips into Becky!\"\n\n\"Give that syringe of ketamine! Quick!\" (Just before starting the surgery, I had taught them to give an injection through the IV fluid line.)\n\nSeveral times, I had to put down my surgical instruments to draw up doses of anesthesia or change to a new bag of intravenous fluids, leaving Becky's blood on everything I touched. Each time, I tossed off contaminated gloves and put on a new pair before continuing the surgery. When I had finally separated out the intestines and other organs, I could see that Jim was exactly right. Becky's large intestine was twisted and beginning to turn purple. After I untwisted it and tacked it down in its normal place so that blood circulation could improve, the pink color began to return, giving me more hope that Becky might survive if we could get her through the surgery.\n\nThat Becky lived to the end of that long and complicated surgery under such ridiculously primitive circumstances was a testament to her amazing strength. To survive beyond it and recover her health would be another battle. It was dawn when we finally moved Becky to a chamber in the satellite cage that Dorothy and Nama had lived in during their early months at the center. I would need to keep her separated from the other chimpanzees until her surgical wound healed. Kenneth left me in the cage with Becky and returned shortly with the hot water bottles I had requested. As I strategically placed the hot water bottles and tucked the blanket around Becky's cold body, I began to cry. Sitting with her in the cage, praying for her to wake up, feeling I had done all I could, I sobbed with abandon. I had never been too much of a crier, but pregnancy changed that for a while.\n\n\"Ma'am, she may survive,\" Kenneth said to comfort me.\n\n\"I knooow,\" I wailed at him.\n\nLater that morning, with Becky awake and stable, I thanked Kenneth and the exhausted volunteers for their stamina. I also apologized for the nastiness they had endured from me during the surgery and the hours leading up to it.\n\n\"Don't worry, dear Sheri,\" Claudine assured me in her sweet French accent. \"You didn't yell at us too much.\" I sincerely hoped I hadn't.\n\nThree weeks passed before I was confident that Becky would survive the ordeal. Jim was always available to take my calls and consult with me during Becky's recovery, as he had been the night of the surgery. He speculated that migrating parasites could have caused the adhesions in her abdomen, and that the adhesions predisposed her to the twisted intestine. I knew I had to get antibiotics into Becky at all costs, and twice, when she refused to take them orally, I darted her with them, knowing that it would hurt her feelings and infuriate her. Fortunately, she wasn't prone to grudges against me.\n\nOne afternoon, while I was still engaged in the life-or-death struggle to get antibiotics into Becky, the young woman I had hired to tend our garden informed me that Cathy, our cook, needed me down in the small guard shed by the entrance to the camp. I found Cathy lying on the dirt floor of the shed in her traditional green-and-orange African dress, about to give birth to her fourth child, an event she had expected to occur a month later. I could see that her water had already broken. I had helped mothers of various species deliver their broods\u2014kittens, puppies, calves, and once a foal\u2014but never a human. When Cathy saw my distress, she told me she wanted to go to her village, and I certainly wanted to deliver her into the more experienced hands of her mother and the other women of the village as soon as possible.\n\nWhile I collected a thin foam mattress from my cabin and spread it out in the back of the pickup truck, I sent the gardener to collect Stephanie DuSauccy, a pretty blond French volunteer in her early twenties, who would drive us to Cathy's village of Meyene. Cathy was able to climb into the back of the truck with minimal assistance, and I followed her in. As we bumped along the dirt road, Cathy lay back on the mattress biting her lower lip, and I, sitting between her legs, could see that the baby's head had crowned.\n\n\"Ne pas puissez, Cathy!\" I told her, stupidly. Don't push! It was an impossible request.\n\n\"Oh, Madame!\" That exclamation of warning was the only sound Cathy made as she pulled her dress up to her chest and expelled her baby girl into my hands. The tiny gray baby began to cry almost immediately, which I knew was a good sign. As we continued to bump along, I struggled to hang on to the slippery, crying baby who was still attached to the placenta, which was still inside Cathy. I hadn't thought to bring a towel.\n\nWhen we pulled into the village of Bikol a few minutes after the baby was born, several women were waiting for us in the road. None of the men of Bikol could be seen. The women must have received the news that Cathy was in labor and, hearing our approach, had assumed Cathy was in the truck. I frequently marveled at how news could travel so quickly in these villages without phone lines. It was only when Stephanie hopped out of the driver's seat that she realized the baby had been born. She joined five women who surrounded the truck while two, including Cressance, the wife of Chief Antoine, crawled into the back with Cathy and me. After they gave Cathy a drink of water, they helped her to a squatting position so she could push out the placenta. While she pushed, one of the women outside the truck offered encouragement, or distraction, by tapping on the top of her head with a soft broom. I didn't really understand the broom's role, but I trusted that they knew what Cathy needed much better than I did. Soon I was holding a slippery placenta along with the slippery infant. When I asked for a string to tie the umbilical cord, Cressance smiled and told me to be patient. All the women, including Cathy, were more relaxed than I was.\n\nCathy said we should continue to Meyene, and Stephanie climbed back into the driver's seat to comply. I knew the wind was cold on the still wet baby, so I hugged her to my chest, thoroughly soaking my thin cotton shirt with blood, while I tried to keep the placenta, about as big as the baby, close to her little belly. As we approached the outskirts of Meyene, we saw Cathy's mother walking hurriedly on the road toward us. She was wearing a clean dress, instead of her farming clothes, and she wasn't carrying a machete or a basin as she would have been if she had been heading to her farm. I knew that she was on her way to Sanaga-Yong Center to help Cathy. We stopped so she could climb in the back of the truck with us, and seeing that both her daughter and new granddaughter were alive transformed her worried expression into a broad grin. She didn't sit down in the truck, but instead broke into a joyful song; she accompanied her own melodic Bamv\u00e9le lyrics with a slow twirling dance, reaching for the sky in gratitude. Leaning against the corner of the truck bed, just behind the empty passenger seat, Cathy smiled contentedly as she looked up lovingly at her mother. In that moment, all was right with the world of women in the pickup truck, and I laughed out loud to be part of it.\n\nWhen we pulled into the village at last, a middle-aged woman I hadn't seen before reached over the side of the truck to take the baby from me. With the baby in one hand and the placenta in the other, she lifted both over her head as she turned away from me to walk toward Cathy's mother's house, where I hoped they would have a clean tool for cutting the umbilical cord. Cathy's mother and Cressance helped her out of the truck.\n\n\"Merci, Madame,\" she said, looking back at me.\n\n\"De rien,\" I replied just before climbing into the passenger seat of the pickup. It's nothing. It was the customary response.\n\nWomen in the village didn't pamper themselves during pregnancies, and it was not rare for childbirth to catch them by surprise while they were farming their fields or carrying produce to the market. Although Cathy's style of delivery wasn't out of the ordinary in the village community, being part of it was bizarre for Stephanie and me. I looked into Stephanie's blue eyes, and she stared back into mine. That we were mutually stunned was vividly conveyed by our silence and slack-jawed expressions.\n\nShe broke the silence. \"We better get back to camp,\" she said, gesturing to my blood-soaked clothes.\n\nI simply nodded. There was really nothing much for Stephanie and me to say, but neither of us would ever forget the experience.\n\nA month later, I left Sanaga-Yong Chimpanzee Rescue Center to give birth to my daughter in the United States. I knew I wouldn't be as brave as Cathy had been, and I wasn't. Whereas Cathy's labor had come earlier than expected and lasted less than an hour, my painful ordeal came more than two weeks after my \"due date\" and lasted twenty-four and a half hours. George accompanied me as far as London, but because his father was critically ill, he wasn't able to come all the way to the United States for the birth. Instead, Edmund was with me when Annarose was born, and he loved her from the beginning of her life. I truly loved him during that time, too. I didn't know what I would have done without his friendship and support.\n\nArmed with several books on how to care for infants, I brought Annarose to Cameroon when she was seven weeks old. After a few days introducing George to his daughter in Yaound\u00e9, I returned with her to the Mbargue Forest. I was completely in love with my beautiful baby daughter and vulnerable in a way I never thought possible. She was the one person I knew I couldn't bear to lose. I worried about bringing her to the forest, fearful that she might get sick, but I had committed myself to the chimpanzees before I even dreamed of her. People in the village raised children with far fewer resources and options than I would have. I belonged in the Mbargue Forest, and Annarose belonged with me. In my tiny one-room wooden cabin I built a baby-size extension on the side of my bed and slept with her close to me under my mosquito net. I learned later about the controversy in the United States and other developed countries surrounding mothers sleeping with babies, but I didn't know anything about that then. For me, there in the Mbargue Forest, it was intuitive\u2014the way primates naturally mothered.\n\nI allowed all the chimpanzees to see Annarose without getting close enough for them to touch her. The adults, even Pepe, were calm and quietly interested, while some of the juveniles, especially Bikol and Gabby, greeted us with little stomping displays. I thought they were jealous, and I was very concerned they might hurt Annarose. To keep her safe from injury and to prevent the exchange of diseases, I mostly kept her physically separated from all the chimpanzees.\n\nI hired a young woman named Helene from the village to babysit in the camp while I worked throughout the acreage of the sanctuary. Several more years would pass before I equipped our staff and myself with walkie-talkies. When baby Annarose cried, Helene sent another employee\u2014usually the cook or the groundskeeper\u2014running to collect me.\n\n\"Madame, elle a faim!\" She's hungry!\n\nMany times a day, whenever Annarose needed to eat, I responded to the summons to breast-feed, and like the women of the villages, I never associated the slightest need for modesty with the function. It was as natural as me eating. Although we were in the forest with little electricity and no running water, I thought my experience of motherhood was easier, and possibly more rewarding, than that of many working mothers in the developed world\u2014especially in the United States, where the three-month maternity leave was standard. I sympathized with mothers who had no choice but to leave their young infants to return to work. I was able to move forward with my work for the chimpanzees while keeping Annarose only a short jog away.\n\nEarlier in the year, during a two-week trip back to his village in Northwest Cameroon, Kenneth had married his childhood sweetheart in a traditional ceremony. Within a month of my return to Cameroon with Annarose, he left the Mbargue Forest to begin a life with his new wife. It came as no surprise to me. He had wanted to leave soon after he got married, but he had agreed to wait for me to have my baby and get back to Cameroon. It had been difficult to imagine life at the center without Kenneth, although I had been trying to adjust to the idea of managing with volunteers and my local staff. I certainly had no choice but to make it work.\n\nWhile I was grateful that Kenneth had stayed as long as he had, and I understood completely why he was leaving, I experienced an illogical sense of abandonment when it was time for him to go. He was going to a new, more normal life and leaving me alone to manage this strange one we had created together in the forest. The sanctuary had been my vision and he my employee, but I couldn't have started it without him. And he was the only one who would ever understand the effort and sacrifice of those first two years in the Mbargue Forest. During our final conversation outside the train station, Kenneth tried to reassure me: \"You'll be okay, ma'am.\"\n\n\"Of course, I'll be okay,\" I told him in a forced casual tone, which I could see didn't fool him. Finally, I didn't try to hide my sadness. I avoided his eyes as I managed to say in a hoarse voice: \"I definitely will be okay, but your leaving marks the end of something that was special.\"\n\n\"It marks the end of the beginning of your chimpanzee sanctuary,\" he said. Now I met his eyes as we both smiled at his well-timed truism, and it was a good time to hug good-bye.\nFourteen\n\nDorothy Finds Her Strength\n\nIn January 2002, I decided to introduce a first group of juvenile chimpanzees\u2014ranging in age from two and a half to four years\u2014into Jacky's group of adults. Bikol, Gabby, Bouboule, Moabi, Njode, and Mado composed the group of six. Mado was the only girl. We always referred to this group of first juveniles at the sanctuary as \"the babies,\" but they were really more like very strong and agile toddlers, weighing from twenty to forty pounds.\n\nFree-living chimpanzees have been known to kill babies from different groups, and sometimes even from their own group, as have captive chimpanzees, but I knew that some adult chimpanzees at other sanctuaries had welcomed young orphans. We had introduced six-year-old Caroline, the chimpanzee who road in the cab of the truck with Estelle and Kenneth when we brought Dorothy and Nama from Luna Park, to the adults a year earlier. At one time Caroline had lived in the nursery with the other juveniles, but being a few years older, she had seemed bored with them and had become difficult to manage in the group. During our long daily excursions through the forest with the juveniles, Caroline sometimes opted to amuse herself by wreaking havoc in our camp instead. When we finally introduced her to the adult chimpanzees, they accepted her easily, so I was hopeful that our efforts to integrate the others would go well too.\n\nOne morning, while Jacky and the other adult chimpanzees were in the forest, caregivers Ndele Chantal and Mvoku Samuel along with volunteers Karen Bachelder, Mirjam Schot, and Gabriela Shuster carried the six babies from the nursery, walking single file along the forest trail, with me following closely after them with my video camera. When we reached the big chimpanzees' satellite cage, the loving porters entered a single chamber of the cage with the babies they carried.\n\nWith the exception of Mado, who had been surrendered to us more recently by a virology laboratory, the babies had been living together at Sanaga-Yong Chimpanzee Rescue Center for almost two years and had developed strong bonds between them. They had been coddled and protected by caregivers and volunteers, who took them on long walks in the forest every day. Now I hoped that the juveniles would support one another through this integration process and that the adult chimpanzees soon would become their new role models and protectors.\n\nDorothy, who usually sat at the edge of the forest instead of going deep inside it like the other chimpanzees in the group, was the first to become aware of the commotion at the cage. Although the babies had been hearing the adults vocalize, they had not actually seen an adult chimpanzee since poachers took them from the forest. When Dorothy approached the cage from the forested enclosure, curious but not agitated in the slightest, all the babies climbed down from human arms to move a little closer to the cage wall and get a better look at the big chimpanzee on the other side of it. During this moment that the babies had turned their attention elsewhere, all the human carriers slipped out of the cage, and we closed and locked the door behind them. I worried that the babies would have tantrums when they realized their human surrogates were gone, but no tantrums were thrown. The babies' attention was elsewhere. Within moments, Jacky, Nama, Pepe, Caroline, and Becky, who now seemed in perfect health, were on the scene, reaching their arms through the sizable holes in the metal mesh of the cage wall, trying to touch the frightened babies, who huddled, grimacing and fear barking, just out of reach in the chamber.\n\nThey were relatively safe, isolated as they were, in the cage chamber, but the holes in the mesh of this older cage were much larger than those in the improved version I would build for future cages. Even the large adult chimpanzees could push their big arms in as far as their biceps. Grabbing a juvenile's hand or foot, they could have pulled his or her whole arm or leg through the mesh. I was mostly worried about Pepe and Becky, whose reactions to newcomers were less predictable, and in those first hours, it was Pepe and Becky who solicited interaction with the babies most eagerly. To my great relief, while intensely interested, they were also calm and patient, without a single aggressive display or bark. To a large degree Pepe and Becky hogged the area along the front of the cage, while Jacky and Nama split up to watch their interactions with the babies from either side. Dorothy found a comfortable observation spot on a rise in the dirt a few yards away, and Caroline receded to watch the action from a tree limb at the edge of the forest.\n\nThe babies were fascinated enough that, within the first hour, four-year-old Bikol was breaking the huddle to make tentative movements toward Pepe and Becky, and soon the others were taking turns doing the same. It was a noisy affair. The babies obviously wanted contact with the adults, but when contact actually occurred, they screamed, slapped at the big arms, and ran back to the safety of the huddle. The nervous humans who had nurtured and loved the babies all stood by a few yards from the cage, ready to give moral support if ever it was solicited. Once, smallest baby Gabby broke away to extend his arms toward me through the cage, asking for a hug and reassurance. \"It's okay, little man,\" I told him as I passed my arms through the cage mesh to embrace him tightly. Ten seconds in my arms was all he needed before scooting back to his friends. Mostly the attention of the babies rested on the adult chimpanzees, and not once did anyone reach for us crying as though he or she wanted to be taken out of the cage.\n\nFinally, during one of Bikol's halting approaches to Pepe, he turned suddenly to back up all the way to him submissively. Seeing Bikol's tiny frame juxtaposed with Pepe's comparatively massive one, I realized again how vulnerable he and the others were. Pepe hugged him gently from the back, while brave little Bikol turned his sweet face toward us for reassurance. It was a breakthrough. Tentative overtures continued through the afternoon, but with slightly less noisy fanfare.\n\nFor three weeks, I kept the six recently transported juveniles in this single chamber of the cage, adjacent to the two other chambers where the big chimps slept. Before we would let any of the adults into the babies' chamber, I wanted to give them enough time to get to know one another through the cage wall. But how much time was enough? I had almost no experience integrating adult and juvenile chimpanzees. I would watch them as perceptively as I could, read their reactions, and let them tell me how to move forward. Even so, I knew there would always be a degree of unpredictability. If anything, I would err on the side of being too cautious.\n\nMy maternal instincts were in full swing, and back in camp my baby daughter was thriving. When I was busy working, which was usually the case, she was riding contentedly on her nanny Helene's back, tied there securely by a square of colorful cloth called a pagne, which I had bought in B\u00e9labo with the intention of using myself. Helene taught me to wrap the cloth all the way around Annarose and myself and to tie the four corners tightly, up high on my chest. All the women of the village kept their hands free for work by tying their babies on their backs in this manner. Unfortunately, I couldn't breathe well with the pagne tied around my chest, and I was always nervous that Annarose would fall out of it. I lamented half seriously that she wasn't learning to cling to me as a baby chimpanzee her age would be doing, as the baby chimpanzees in our nursery did when I took them to the forest. Apparently, the clinging or grasping ability didn't offer a strong survival advantage to the babies of bipedal hominids with free arms to carry them (or tie them with pagnes), and therefore the evolutionary process didn't select for it. I thought it was a regrettable loss. But for Helene and Annarose the pagne seemed a natural fit. Annarose often slept with her beautiful little head against Helene's back, where I imagined she was soothed by the sound of a beating heart. She could already hold her balance sitting up, and she had a joyful belly laugh, which George elicited for the first time making goofy faces during one of his brief visits. I was stunned to hear her laugh out loud for him, her shining brown eyes glued to his face, when she had not yet done so with me. It was my first inkling that Annarose would have an adoring relationship with her father that was quite independent of any involvement with me. She was in direct contact with an adult human almost twenty-four hours a day. It made me sorry for children around the world who had less care and even sorrier than I was before for our young chimpanzee orphans. I wished that each of them had a mother who would, if necessary, die trying to protect them. But for them, in this terribly unnatural sanctuary circumstance, there was only me, trying to make decisions that would secure a better future for them without endangering them too much.\n\nBecause Jacky and Nama had emerged as leaders of the small group, I wanted to encourage a strong bond between them and the babies. After a few days, I let the two of them enter the juveniles' chamber first, and over several more days I was delighted to observe their sweet playfulness and intuitive gentleness. Even while Jacky and Nama were inside the chamber with them, some of the babies chose to play with Pepe, Becky, or Caroline through the mesh wall. Jacky and Nama monitored the interactions carefully. Caroline was playing with her old friends like we would have expected from another kid; integrating them back with her would be no problem. Dorothy groomed all the juveniles sweetly, Becky kept inviting the eager little males to copulate with her through the cage mesh, which they happily did even though all were far from puberty, and Pepe loved to make them all laugh hysterically with his tender tickling.\n\nOne afternoon I was watching when Pepe became too persistent in tickling the back of Gabby's thigh, a place where many chimpanzees are ticklish. At two and a half years of age, Gabby was our youngest baby, and I thought he was the most vulnerable. As Pepe held on to his small ankle and pinched playfully at his thigh, Gabby's reaction turned quickly from squirming laughter to a frantic struggle to get free. When he screamed, Jacky rose immediately to intervene, and Nama too appeared ready to pounce. However, before either of them had time to act, Pepe willingly responded to Gabby's scream, releasing his leg and looking tenderly at his backside as he scooted away. After a few moments' respite out of Pepe's reach, Gabby returned to be tickled again. Pepe had showed me that he meant no harm, and in any case, Jacky and Nama were willing protectors. I decided then to open the doors and let them all go together into the forested enclosure the following day.\n\nWhen we opened the sliding doors, the big adults all welcomed the vulnerable and trusting juveniles with open arms. After a half hour of hugging and playing just outside the cage, the kids seemed willing to follow these adults they admired anywhere. Soon, the whole group moved together along a trail leading into the forest, out of my and the caregivers' sight. I was happy to see that even Dorothy went along. Three weeks had passed since we moved the babies from the nursery, and the integration had gone perfectly so far.\n\nA month later, it seemed as though the group of twelve had always been together. Nama and Jacky rarely carried any of the babies, but they played with them, and more important, they comforted, protected, and mediated conflicts without discrimination. The caregivers called Nama \"la m\u00e8re du monde,\" mother of the world. She and Jacky broke up skirmishes between the juveniles and meted out discipline justly\u2014always seeming to know who needed the scolding. Pepe and Becky both let young Gabby ride on their backs, and he was the only one who ever had the privilege of sharing Becky's tire-bed. Dorothy was always gentle with the babies, but their roughhousing seemed to get on her nerves. She enjoyed grooming them when they were calm, and she tried her best to ignore them when they were rambunctious.\n\nHowever, within another month I noticed that four-year-old Bouboule, who had been a clingy baby with his human surrogates, was now always with Dorothy, and she was grooming and kissing him frequently. When they sat together, rarely could any light be seen between them, and when she rose to leave, she often paused so he could jump on her back to ride. When she didn't want him to ride, he walked beside her with his arm draped across her back. Only when Dorothy was resting comfortably did Bouboule venture from her side to play with the other juveniles. He had found the mother he needed so badly.\n\nDorothy not only coddled and nurtured Bouboule, she exerted herself to protect him. If a conflict with another juvenile wasn't going his way, he ran to Dorothy's arms or hid behind her bulk. A soft bark from Dorothy would quickly dissuade any young pursuers.\n\nBecky didn't seem to like Bouboule much, and once, irritated by his rowdy behavior near her, she barked and hit at him. It was a mild disciplinary rebuke, but Dorothy didn't like it. She spontaneously unfurled a back fist punch that landed squarely on Becky's upper arm. I winced with worry, waiting for Becky's wrath, surprised that Dorothy had invited it. Indignant and angry, Becky turned to scream at Dorothy, but the latter wasn't cowering in fear as she had done so many times before. She was screaming right back at Becky, their faces inches apart. Jacky and Nama stayed out of it, and the two female chimpanzees soon quieted down, without any biting or any blows thrown except Dorothy's first one.\n\nThe social dynamic had changed. In her forties, Dorothy's role as a first-time mother had transformed her. Whereas she had not been emotionally capable of defending herself against Becky, she could and would assert herself to protect her adopted son, Bouboule. Her newfound assertiveness elevated her status in the group, earning her a universal respect she had not enjoyed before. She and Becky would eventually become the best of friends.\nFifteen\n\nThe Unspeakable\n\nIn late September 2002, I was in the town of B\u00e9labo collecting our weekly supplies of soap and bleach and some food items, such as rice and pasta, that we couldn't buy from the villages when volunteer Agnes Souchal used the satellite phone to call me from camp.\n\nAgnes was a French national who had arrived to volunteer at Sanaga-Yong Chimpanzee Rescue Center a few months earlier. She was thirty years old, although she looked younger, and no more than five foot two. She had stunning hazel eyes and wore her dark brown hair in a very short style that wouldn't have flattered most women but was a nice frame for her classically pretty face.\n\nAgnes's approach to the work was serious and cautious, as she wanted to do everything correctly. She asked a lot of \"what if\" questions, expecting me to have a plan for every possible contingency. This unnerved me a little bit, because I dealt with issues as they came up. I kept my eye on what I wanted to accomplish and visualized it happening that way. Inspired by my love for the chimpanzees, I had had the single-minded determination to push my vision through, but I had made some mistakes along the way. I was beginning to realize that more caution and anticipation of pitfalls could serve me well. It had been a year since Kenneth had left and I needed a manager I could trust to replace him. I wondered if Agnes's personality might be a good complement to mine. She was unusually smart, and I sensed in her a unique strength of character combined with gentleness. I really liked her.\n\nA month earlier, Agnes couldn't have contacted me by phone in B\u00e9labo because mobile phone service had just arrived, but she reached me that September afternoon with bad news. Pepe had fallen from a tall tree. The caregivers had seen him fall an hour earlier and hadn't seen him since.\n\nWithout regard for the suspension system of our old red pickup, I flew across the bumpy dirt road leading from town to camp, making the trip that usually took over an hour in under forty-five minutes. Pulling into camp, I stepped down from the truck with my heart pounding even before I ran as fast as I could down the trail through the forest to the enclosure. I found Agnes and caregivers Akono and Assou waiting for me outside the enclosure, as close as they could get to where they had seen Pepe fall.\n\nKnitting her brow with worry, Agnes pointed up high to the limb of the tree just inside the forest from which the caregivers had seen Pepe drop. I bent my neck back to see the limb near the top of the tall tree. \"My God! It must be a hundred meters.\" I said, anguish bleeding through my words.\n\nAkono and Assou had both seen what happened.\n\n\"Out on the limb, Pepe swung a stick to hit Jacky. When Jacky grabbed the stick, Pepe lost his balance,\" Assou explained. \"Then Jacky must have let go, because Pepe was holding the stick when he fell,\" Akono finished.\n\nThey had seen Pepe's facedown free fall through the long expanse of open air, before trees rising to lower heights obscured his landing. Pepe was younger, larger, and stronger than Jacky. It was natural for him to want to dominate and lead, but Jacky's gentleness and calm demeanor had won him the support of the whole group. Nama, Dorothy, and the juveniles had all established good relationships with Pepe, but they would never take his side against Jacky. Even Becky couldn't go against Jacky. Without support from the group, Pepe couldn't beat Jacky in a battle on the ground, but he couldn't quell his hunger for power. Finally, he had tried aerial combat.\n\nThe caregivers had been calling to Pepe since he fell. They had heard one bark of fear soon after he landed, and nothing since. Now all the other eleven chimpanzees in the group were inside the satellite cage, having responded to the caregivers' beckoning drumbeat, and I had to go into the enclosure to find Pepe.\n\nThe anger Pepe had exhibited toward me during my pregnancy had dissipated after Annarose was born. His displays against me had stopped, and he had begun sweetly soliciting my interaction again. Unfortunately, I had remained somewhat nervous about approaching him for months longer, and as a new mother with a whole project to run, I had been too occupied to have a lot of time to spend with him. He and I had begun reestablishing some of our old rapport only a couple of months earlier. In any case, not knowing how badly Pepe was hurt, it was scary to enter the forested enclosure, as we all knew he could be volatile and might react to us being in his territory. I loaded a dart of anesthesia in my dart gun to carry along just in case and asked the caregivers if one of them would come with me. When Akono volunteered to go, I was grateful for his bravery.\n\nAfter only a few minutes of searching, we found Pepe lying facedown on the forest floor, in the spot where he had fallen. Kneeling beside him, I saw that he was breathing. When I touched him and called his name, he spoke a soft fear bark, telling me something was wrong. Something was terribly wrong. Pepe was conscious, but he couldn't move.\n\n\"Go get a stretcher and some help,\" I told Akono. \"We need to carry him back to the cage.\" Waiting for Akono to return, I bent low to the ground in front of Pepe's face, and through tears, groomed his face and tried to assure him that I would help him.\n\nAs darkness approached, Akono returned with Assou, carrying a bamboo bench we would use as a stretcher. When we turned Pepe over, he cried out in pain, and again when we lifted him onto the stretcher. I knew that if he had fractured a bone in his neck or back we shouldn't be moving him like this, but I couldn't leave him on the forest floor with night approaching. There were too many dangers. Other large mammals couldn't get through the fence into the enclosure, but carnivorous ants and, to a lesser extent, snakes were big concerns. We transported Pepe to an empty chamber of the satellite cage that had been vacated by Dorothy and Nama and lifted him as gently as possible onto a bed of woodchips and leaves that Agnes had prepared on the floor.\n\nPepe couldn't sit up or even lift his arms or legs, but lying on his back, he could move his head from side to side. I placed a kerosene lamp beside the cage, and with a big syringe I squirted water into his mouth. After swallowing gratefully, he opened his mouth again and again for more. I peeled bananas and a papaya and cut them into small pieces. When he ate them willingly, I knew he had a will to survive this devastating injury. I would have stayed with him that night and many others to come, but baby Annarose needed me in camp. She was with Helene from the village all day, but I needed to be with her at night. I posted our night watchman in the cage with Pepe and asked the volunteers to check on him throughout the night.\n\nDuring the next week, I consulted with two neurologists, and from Pepe's symptoms, we concluded that he injured his spinal cord in the lower part of his neck. We had no way to take an X-ray to determine if he had fractured a vertebra, but the neurologists thought he might possibly recover if given enough time. The caregivers, volunteers, and I hand-fed and cleaned him and turned him frequently to prevent pressure sores. I spent hours with him every day, comforting him, doing gentle physical therapy, reflecting on the time I had known him, and praying, in my way, that he would recover.\n\nVery slowly, for five weeks after his terrible fall, Pepe incrementally regained some ability to move his arms and legs. Although he was frustrated, he ate well and enjoyed the grooming and attention I and the others gave him. During these weeks, he was never able to sit up, but he began to vocalize with enthusiasm to greet the chimpanzees from his group when they visited his cage from the forest. I knew that Pepe would never be the same, but I was hopeful that he might regain enough functional mobility to have a decent life.\n\nThen one night, the guard who was assigned to stay inside Pepe's cage to assure his safety abandoned his post. The guard's most important job was to watch for protein-eating ants and to soak the ground with premixed kerosene and water to change their direction if they should approach the cage. The villagers knew how to effectively turn away ants in this manner long before I arrived in the Mbargue Forest. In fact, they had taught me how to do it. But on this awful night while Pepe was completely defenseless against them, millions of carnivorous ants attacked him. At six thirty in the morning, Agnes woke me up banging on my cabin door.\n\nShe spoke through the door. \"Sheri, Pepe is covered in ants. It's horrible!!\"\n\nIt was the worst thing I could have heard. I jumped from my bed, and in my pajamas with sixteen-month-old Annarose bouncing roughly on my hip, I raced down the trail to the enclosure where Pepe was lying on a bed of woodchips. As I approached the cage, but before I could really see Pepe, the horror of what was happening hit me like a punch in the gut. I could hear my heart pounding in my ears.\n\n\"Goddammit!\" The guttural profanity sounded like it came from someone else, but I vaguely knew it was my own scream of anguish. People were just standing there! Pepe was covered with ants! I saw his face. He was biting his lip.\n\n\"Get the woodchips out.\" I don't know if I actually said it out loud this first time, or if it was just the thought forming. Then I yelled it, \"Get the woodchips out!\" It was the only way we could rescue Pepe. We had to remove the woodchips with the millions of ants crawling through and then pick the ants off him. \"Get the fucking woodchips out!\" My tone was murderous. Volunteer Jennifer Schneider pulled Annarose, who was crying, from my arms, and for once, Annarose didn't resist leaving me. Agnes, another volunteer named Phillip, and I used our hands, our feet, and the small brooms normally used for cage cleaning to sweep away the ant-infested woodchips from around and under Pepe, whose pain and anguish were only reflected in the movements of his mouth when he bit his lip or ground his teeth. We doused our legs and hands with kerosene to repel the ants and still frantically slapped at them on our bodies as we worked, wincing at their bites, fighting the urge to run to safety. We swept the woodchips onto scraps of plywood, our makeshift dustpans, in order to move them outside the cage to a growing pile, which we repeatedly doused with kerosene. When caregivers Assou and Akono showed up for their 7:00 A.M. shift, we were able to work faster.\n\nWhen the woodchips were gone, we spent the next several hours painstakingly pulling thousands of the hideous flesh-eating ants from Pepe's nose, eyes, ears, and everywhere else on his body. They were even inside his anus, and I used my fingers to dig them out. I spoke to Pepe constantly as I worked to save him, but he didn't budge, didn't look at me, didn't respond in any way to my attempts to comfort him. He seemed to be somewhere else, keeping his eyes straight ahead toward the roof of his cage. I imagined him trying futilely to save himself with his limited arm and leg movements, until complete exhaustion caused his surrender.\n\nThe next day, we built a wooden bed off the ground and put the legs in buckets of kerosene so the ants couldn't climb up. I cursed myself over and over for not doing it sooner, but we hadn't wanted to risk causing damage by moving him. The day after the attack, Pepe started moving one of his arms again, but he was no longer moving his legs. Even before the attack, we hadn't been completely successful in preventing pressure sores. Now the ants had caused new wounds that were limiting the positions in which he could comfortably lie. Broad-spectrum antibiotics weren't controlling the infection, and analgesics weren't controlling the pain. Pepe stopped eating, and one morning he turned his head away again and again when I tried to give him water. When his eyes met mine, all I saw in them was suffering. I considered starting intravenous fluids, but I no longer had hope for Pepe recovering. He was giving up, and I needed to let him go. A few days after the ant attack, all I could do was help him die.\n\nOnce I decided to end Pepe's life, I felt an urgency to do it quickly, to not let him suffer another minute. Akono was with me at the cage, and I knew I needed to take the time to explain my decision to him and Assou, Pepe's main caregivers. They had seen much of suffering in the villages, but they had never seen or even considered euthanasia. The idea wasn't part of their culture, and I didn't know how they would react. I asked Akono to run and collect Assou and Agnes as quickly as he could, while I said my good-bye to Pepe. I caressed Pepe's hand and held it to my tear-streaked cheek. Even the day before, with my hands supporting his elbow, Pepe had used his fingers to groom my face. Now, through all his pain, he didn't try. \"I'll make it end, my darling friend. It'll be over soon.\" After I explained to Agnes, who already knew I might make this final decision, she found the best words to explain to the caregivers. Akono cried, but neither he nor Assou tried to change my mind. I asked Agnes to explain to the other volunteers, too, so they wouldn't learn about it after Pepe was gone. Free to move forward, I ran to my little veterinary clinic, drew up the thick, pink euthanasia solution, and raced back to Pepe's side. I was no longer crying. I had to do this last thing for Pepe to the best of my ability without hurting him unnecessarily or upsetting him. I looked into his eyes one final time but fought my impulse to hug him, as it would have only been for me and might have caused him more pain. I asked Akono to groom Pepe's face and speak softly to him while I injected the euthanasia solution into his vein. By the time I looked from the injection site to Pepe's face, he was gone. My grief was suddenly overwhelming, but it was mixed with a sense of relief that this beautiful chimpanzee who had taught me so much wasn't suffering anymore.\n\nAll the chimpanzees who had lived with Pepe were still in their satellite cage when we wheeled his body past it that morning. They all came to the front of the cage, and I realized that somehow they knew immediately that he was dead. There were no loud barks of protest to us taking him out of the cage, as I might have expected. They met us mostly with silence, except for a single mournful cry from Becky. Her particular gut-wrenching vocalization, like none I had heard from any of them before, was an unmistakable expression of grief over the loss of her friend, her \"brother.\" A gardener I had hired from the village was cutting grass with his machete a few yards from the cage. He hadn't been around the chimpanzees much, but hearing Becky's cry, he groaned reflexively and shook his head in sympathy.\n\nIn weeks to come, I blamed everyone for Pepe's suffering\u2014the volunteers who knew the ants were bad that night, the irresponsible little shit of a caregiver who left his post, and most of all myself for not protecting Pepe. All my fury was channeled into killing ants\u2014not in revenge exactly, but to protect the chimpanzees from further attacks. I shipped in several different ant poisons from the United States and spent weeks looking for ant nests. The ants moved in narrow columns during the day, and at night, they spread out hunting for animal protein. It was a bad year for ants, and I found these columns every day around the enclosures or on the road when I was driving. I coated the moving ants with poison of one kind or another, always hoping they would take it back to their nests, to their queen. Agnes told me, correctly I would later learn, that protein-eating ants were an important part of the ecosystem\u2014controlling other insects by eating larvae, and controlling diseases by eating dead animals from the forest floor. If I were to succeed in killing them all, it would likely be an ecological disaster. I told her I would take my chances with whatever other insects or plagues descended upon us.\n\nCertainly, logic was not my master during those sad weeks after Pepe's death. I didn't care about being responsible, and I didn't care what anyone thought. I'm pretty sure the villagers thought I had gone mad, and I probably had, temporarily. I was heartbroken and guilty and pissed off and scared the ants would get another chimpanzee. It was probably fortunate that my ant-killing rampage was indeed a fool's mission. The nomadic ants were endless.\n\nAlthough I told people outside of Africa about Pepe's fall, and attributed his death to it, several years would pass before I could speak of the ant attack. It was too terrible to discuss; I was too ashamed that I let it happen. Even years later, when I could speak of it, casual questions about \"the chimp who died by ants\" cut me like a knife. How could people speak so lightly of the unspeakable thing that happened to Pepe? The suffering in his eyes, trusting me to give him relief in the final moments of his life, haunts me still.\nSixteen\n\nHeroes\n\nBy mid-2003, Jacky and Nama had been leading their small group of chimpanzees for almost three years. Each morning when the group left the satellite cage after breakfast, before disappearing inside the forest, they typically walked around the perimeter of their enclosure with Jacky in the lead, followed by Nama. On the opposite side of the fence, I loved following along with them.\n\nThen I began to notice that Nama, not Jacky, was often taking the lead position. Jacky was following closely behind her, and if he found himself in front, he stopped and waited for Nama to go first. The caregivers began to laugh that Nama was wearing the pants in Jacky's family. I was confused about his odd behavior, until one day I figured out the reason for it. Like the other chimpanzees, Jacky loved his daily chewable vitamin, and he was always happy to pop it in his mouth after I handed it to him. When he accidentally dropped the dime-size, dinosaur-shaped orange tablet one bright July morning, it landed on the floor of his satellite cage. It was clearly visible to me, but I realized that Jacky couldn't see it. He eventually located it, but only after fifteen seconds of skimming around the ground with his hand. During an eye examination under anesthesia, I diagnosed cataracts, which were severely compromising Jacky's vision. Looking through my ophthalmoscope, I could barely see the retinas behind the cloudy lenses of his eyes. I believed he could still see light, shadows, and movement, but little detail.\n\nImmediately, with Edmund's help back in the United States, I began searching for an ophthalmic surgeon to come to Sanaga-Yong Chimpanzee Rescue Center and remove the cataracts, but I knew the search would take time. For Jacky's safety I would need to keep him inside the cage until I could find help to restore his vision. The next morning when we let his group out, but closed the sliding door with him inside, he banged the door furiously for over an hour and then fell on his back on the floor in a screaming tantrum. That Jacky's capacity for leadership had survived decades of lonely isolation in a small cage was nothing short of miraculous. Given the opportunity, he had become a dignified alpha male\u2014so different from the pitifully neurotic chimpanzee, the \"mad chimpanzee,\" I had met at the Atlantic Beach Hotel. To see him writhing and screaming in anguish on the floor of his cage broke my heart and challenged my resolve to keep him inside. Up to this point my relationship with Jacky had been defined by respect. To a large extent since we brought him to the sanctuary, he had been able to make his own decisions about where to go and when. He had acquiesced freely to our routine of going out to the forest during the day and coming in at night. To force him now to stay in the cage when he objected to it so strongly and emotionally seemed terribly wrong, but I couldn't knowingly risk his life. In the following weeks I kept Jacky inside the cage, but I almost always kept Becky or Caroline, or occasionally Dorothy and Bouboule, inside with him so he wasn't alone. With no alpha male, Nama became the leader of the small group so I couldn't keep her inside with Jacky. As the weeks stretched to months, Jacky went completely blind.\n\nIn the late fall of that year, my dear friend Susan Labhard, an advanced-practice nurse I met when she was a client at my veterinary clinic in Portland, Oregon, was aware of my effort to restore Jacky's eyesight when she traveled to San Diego for her Navy Reserve service. On my behalf, she knocked on the door of the navy's ophthalmic surgeon Dr. Jim Tidwell, and after a brief introduction to the work we were doing at Sanaga-Yong Chimpanzee Rescue Center, she asked him if he would be willing to travel there to perform surgery on a chimpanzee. Dr. Tidwell had performed many cataract surgeries in remote areas around the world as part of the navy's humanitarian medical service. He liked new challenges and new places. The idea of performing what was probably the first cataract surgery in a chimpanzee, and most certainly was the first in a chimpanzee in Africa, held some interest for him, quite apart from his desire to help a chimpanzee.\n\n\"It was something different,\" he told me later, as an explanation of his initial interest.\n\nIn January 2004, we paid Dr. Tidwell's airfare and he took two weeks of his vacation from the navy to travel with his expensive surgical microscope from San Diego all the way to the Mbargue Forest of Cameroon. His goal was to remove Jacky's lenses, rendered completely opaque by cataracts, and replace them with transparent lens implants made for a human. He had worked in all sorts of difficult circumstances and wasn't daunted in the slightest by our working or living conditions at Sanaga-Yong Center. I was prepared to coddle the California doctor in every way I could possibly manage within the confines of our rustic camp, but Jim was easy to accommodate. He fit right in with us from day one.\n\nIn case something was to go wrong that might be prevented another time, Jim opted to perform surgery on one eye at a time, with a week between the two procedures. Although we would soon install electricity in the veterinary clinic, we didn't have it then. To run Dr. Tidwell's microscope, we rigged up a solar panel and battery on the ground just outside the clinic. It worked perfectly. After the first surgery, mine was the first face Jacky saw with his new good eye. His gaze moved from my face to the forest outside his cage and back to my face again. His spark of recognition was unmistakable. Jacky could see again!\n\nDuring the week between Jacky's first surgery and his second, Jim and I made a tour of the villages, performing eye exams. He had brought enough lens implants to perform surgeries on three people besides Jacky. We found seven elderly people with cataracts, so he had to determine which three people needed surgery most urgently. It was disturbing to realize that the people we didn't choose might never have the opportunity for surgery, but at least we could restore the sight of a few. We scheduled the surgeries of two women and a man, who were almost completely blind, in our small, one-room veterinary clinic.\n\nMadame Jacqueline was the courageous first patient who allowed herself to be led to our clinic by her nephew Mvoku Samuel, who was working as a caregiver for a group of our baby chimpanzees. The day after the surgery, we went to the village of Bikol 1, where inside Madame Jacqueline's tiny house, leaving the door open for sunlight to enter, we took off her bandages.\n\nWhen Jim asked if she could see, she joyfully exclaimed, \"I see my pot!\" She was referring to her cooking pot on the dirt floor of the room that had very little else in it. In this impoverished community where most people had no things, Madame Jacqueline's pot was something she treasured and almost surely hadn't been able to use in a long time. She would be cooking again soon.\n\nMadame Awa from the village of Mbinang was the second person to have the surgery, and hers, too, was a success. Sadly, the very elderly Mr. Theodore from the village of Meyene didn't show up for his appointment. Like other people of his age in the village, he didn't read, and he spoke only Bamv\u00e9le, his tribal dialect. If he had ever heard a radio or seen a television, he could not have understood the spoken words. It wasn't so surprising that he hadn't been able to trust what we offered, but we were disappointed for him and sorry we didn't have time to schedule someone else who needed the surgery. For several years afterward when I saw Mr. Theodore being led around in the village, I wondered if we might have said or done something else to inspire his confidence.\n\nJim also brought some reading glasses to give out to people who had become far-sighted with age, and many people were delighted to receive them. One man who got a pair of Jim's glasses was Chief Bernard of the village of Meyene. After determining that the chief was having problems seeing objects that were close to him, Jim showed him a page in an open book and asked him if he could see it clearly, anticipating his negative reply. Afterward, Jim handed the chief a pair of glasses and told him to put them on.\n\n\"Can you read it now?\" he asked the chief.\n\n\"No,\" the chief replied.\n\nJim chose a stronger pair. When the chief had them perched on his nose, peering through them at the page of print, Jim asked again, \"Can you read it now?\"\n\n\"No,\" the chief replied again.\n\nPuzzled, Jim asked, \"Do you see it better than you did before?\"\n\n\"Yes,\" Chief Bernard replied. \"I see it very well now, but I still can't read it.\"\n\nJim and I cracked up at the chief's deadpan joke, and through his own chuckling he said he would be happy to keep the second pair of glasses.\n\nAfter Jacky's second surgery, his vision seemed perfect. When I placed his vitamin or peanuts on the floor in front of him, he could see them and pick them up instantly. The juvenile boys who had been sneaking some of Jacky's fruits and nuts for several months were quite surprised when his accurate fist and vocal rebuke delivered the somewhat painful and clear message that henceforth he would be keeping all his food. He went back into the forest, and life for him and his group returned to the way it had been before, with him leading.\n\nBy April 2004, we had completed a big, new enclosure complex where we would have a lot more space to integrate Jacky's group of older chimps with juveniles from our nursery. This new enclosure encompassed twenty acres of forest, and its satellite cage was four times the size of the first one we had built. One at a time, we moved the eleven chimpanzees in Jacky's group the three hundred yards from the old enclosure to the new. The four adults\u2014Dorothy, Becky, Nama, Jacky, in that order\u2014each voluntarily entered a transport cage when I asked and allowed themselves to be carried over to the new enclosure. The caregivers and I were able to carry over in our arms five of the maturing juveniles, who were by then between five and seven years old and hadn't been held by a human in over two years.\n\nWe had to give light doses of anesthesia to only Caroline and Mado. When I entered the cage to carry Caroline, now eight years old, she hugged me sweetly, but I suddenly knew she wouldn't be carried over easily. She would insist on going back to camp, messing around with the solar system, and there was no predicting what other mischief. I didn't have time for it. I injected her quickly by hand when she wasn't looking and then tried to fool her by looking around the air and acting fearful like a nasty bee was in our midst. I doubt if she believed me, but she turned her attention to her discomfort at the injection site. I sympathized and said I was sorry by grooming around it. Six-year-old Mado was more difficult to read. Her ordeal in a Cameroon biomedical laboratory before she came to us had destroyed her ability to trust humans. When I tried to carry her over, she panicked as I walked out the door of the cage and bit me several times during her forceful descent from my arms. She chose to return to the cage rather than flee into the forest. I was left with nasty bruises on my face and arm, but nothing more serious. In the end, I had to anesthetize this frightened little prepubescent girl with a blow dart in order to move her. So as not to traumatize her more than necessary, I crept to her cage in darkness, while she was sleeping, and blew a dart of anesthesia into the muscle of her thigh. Agnes Souchal worked with me late in the night to unite Mado with her group.\n\nIn the new enclosure we integrated other juveniles, eventually expanding the group to twenty-six under Jacky and Nama's watch. Conflicts among the maturing juveniles never escalated, and younger, smaller babies were never in danger with the two of them around. We introduced babies as young as two years to the group, and if ever a bigger juvenile or teenager played too roughly, Jacky and\/or Nama could sort it out with little effort. From a seated position, Jacky with his hair on end could interject with a single bark, as if to say, \"Don't make me get up!\" That was usually all it took.\n\nOlder juveniles often referred to Jacky with frequent glances in his direction to make sure their behavior was acceptable. Less respectful conduct could elicit harsher discipline. When Jacky puffed up and stomped over to the transgressor, sometimes actually stomping on him, screams of fear were soon followed by apologies to Jacky. Even though Jacky could get tough, his gentleness was most striking. When Mado gave birth to Njabeya in 2007 (my tardiness in performing a vasectomy on Moabi resulted in the birth of this baby girl whose name means \"gift\" or \"treasure\" in one of Cameroon's languages), she trusted Jacky to touch her precious newborn. To him, Mado bestowed the privilege of holding Njabeya's foot. Tenderly cradling the tiny, soft appendage in one of his huge hands, Jacky fingered the minuscule toes with his other, an expression of awe on his face.\n\nMost of Jacky's acknowledgments of me were subtle. When I approached his big satellite cage in the early mornings after breakfast, whether he was lounging in a grass nest on the floor of the cage or dangling his legs from a platform above my head, he acknowledged me by extending his foot in my direction, often without bothering to actually look at me. When I extended my hand to grasp his foot, always grateful for his acknowledgment, he invariably squeezed my hand affectionately, making good use of his opposable big toe (a useful anatomic feature, our loss of which is lamentable). This \"handshake\" was our hello. I felt that Jacky delivered as much warmth with the minimal gesture as another chimpanzee might bring with a big hug.\n\nOne evening just after my return from a two-month visit to the United States, I crouched near Jacky's satellite cage as dusk was approaching.\n\n\"Hey, Jack,\" I called. \"It's me.\" He was about to ascend to a high platform carrying an armload of grass to make a nest for the night. Instead, he walked over to my side of the cage and extended his hand out through the bars toward me. I closed the space between us, somewhat tentatively since I had been gone awhile. While Jacky was kind and gentle with chimpanzees and he and I had a positive history, I couldn't forget that he could be violent with humans. When his eyes moved to my hairline and his mouth tightened in concentration, I knew he wanted to groom me. He came in peace, the only way Jacky had ever come to me. I scooted close to him and bowed my head so his fingers would have easy access to my hairline. For several minutes, I enjoyed one of the few times Jacky has ever groomed me. When I raised my head to look at his face, I found his eyes seeking mine. Now when he extended both his hands outside the cage toward me, I placed my hands in his, and we both squeezed. In the moments that followed, looking deeply into Jacky's eyes, holding his hands, I didn't speak, but the song in my head was my spontaneous and heartfelt message of respect to him. I know who you are. I know who you are. I know the strong character that is yours. Jacky understood my message, and he was telling me the same thing. We were two people communicating with body language we both understood.\n\nThe perimeter of the new enclosure we built for Jacky and Nama's group was about three-quarters of a mile. I still enjoyed accompanying them on their morning patrols, and though I stayed on my side of the fence, Jacky seemed to consider me a member of his group during our walks. If I fell behind, he stopped the group to wait for me. One morning, as I paused at a corner of the fence line to film the group walking ahead of me, I captured Jacky turning to use a beckoning hand gesture to request I hurry along.\n\nAlthough I have been pleased and honored by Jacky's attention when he has chosen to give it to me, my deep admiration and adoration of him stem from my observances of him with the other chimpanzees. He earned my deepest respect for the venerable chimpanzee he was with them. But Jacky wouldn't have reached his potential as a gentle leader without the unwavering support and guidance of wise and brave Nama. Her loyalty, sense of justice, and courage were unsurpassed. Whether in collaboration with Jacky or acting alone, she always made admirable choices.\n\nOne of our former volunteers is probably alive today only because Nama put herself on the line to protect her. When I was in Yaound\u00e9, we had a terrible accident at Sanaga-Yong Chimpanzee Rescue Center. One of our caregivers mistakenly let some of the chimpanzees into the human corridor that runs down the center of the large satellite cage between the two rows of chimpanzee chambers. From this protected corridor, caregivers and volunteers could give food, and medicine when necessary, to all the chimpanzees in Jacky's group. A volunteer was in the hallway alone when the mistake occurred.\n\nOn this horrible day that could have been her last, Kim (I'm not using her last name out of respect for her privacy) looked up to see huge teenager Bouboule, adopted son of Dorothy, charging down the hallway toward her. Finding himself in the corridor, somewhere he had never been, with a human he barely knew, Bouboule became extremely agitated and dangerous. If he had wanted to kill Kim, he could have done so within a few seconds. Fortunately, killing her wasn't his intention, but it could have been the tragic result he didn't intend. Pumped up by testosterone and trying to claim this new territory that had been off-limits, he used Kim as a display object as he raced back and forth down the fifteen-yard corridor. Over and over, with bone-breaking force, he stomped on the body of this petite young woman. If Kim had panicked, she probably would have died that day, but to her tremendous credit she went into an almost calm survival mode.\n\nNama was among the several other chimpanzees in the corridor with Kim and Bouboule. Curled in a fetal position, rendered barely conscious by Bouboule's latest pummeling and trying to protect her bruised and bleeding head between her arms, Kim noticed that Nama, sitting a few yards away, had puffed up uncomfortably. Kim didn't know Nama well, but when she saw Bouboule coming toward her again, she called out to her for help, knowing it might be her last few seconds of consciousness. \"Whoo, whoo, whoo,\" Kim whimpered to Nama like a chimpanzee crying, and Nama responded to her plea. Not unlike how she had protected Bouboule's mother, Dorothy, from Pepe years earlier, she now intercepted Bouboule, who was much larger than she was, but ran from her nonetheless. Nama chased Bouboule away from Kim three times before the caregivers were able to dart him with anesthesia and get Kim out of the hall. Kim's whole body and face were left with deep bruises, her eyes were swollen shut, and doctors thought she had a concussion, but thanks to Nama's bravery and kindness, she survived with no physical wounds from which she didn't heal.\n\nFrom the hospital, needing to recount what had happened as a form of healthy catharsis, Kim described to me the details of that awful fifteen minutes and what Nama had done to save her. In the early years when I spoke of Nama to the outside world, I often described her as lionhearted, but no lion's heart could be as courageous or kind as that of this alpha female chimpanzee. That chimpanzees can be horrifically violent is well documented. Popular media has publicized tragic cases of human victimization. That the chimpanzee species also includes heroes like Nama is less well known.\n\nUntil 2007, Jacky and Nama's group of chimpanzees still included Becky and Dorothy, the other original adults whose sad plights had inspired me to build Sanaga-Yong Chimpanzee Rescue Center. Bouboule's adolescent propensity for terrorism notwithstanding, it was an amazing group of chimpanzees, the leaders of which were living testament to the buoyancy of the chimpanzee spirit and their phenomenal capacity to recover. I came to think of it in grandiose terms as the Jacky and Nama era, because I so admired them as leaders and so enjoyed observing the peaceful society they created and maintained. When I was on-site at Sanaga-Yong Center, I was absorbed in it. Because our chimpanzee population had increased rapidly during the first few years, we had established three other social groups in other enclosures, which I also enjoyed, but observing and interacting with Jacky and Nama's group was special for me. I knew that I was living through a historic time that would hold significance in my life like none other. If only Pepe hadn't left us, it would have been perfect. I was immensely grateful and felt privileged to be a witness to the astonishing transformations of these extraordinary individuals. But my happiness stemmed from more than that. In order to bring these chimpanzees to this place and time, I had needed to find the best in myself. My satisfaction in it was complete.\nSeventeen\n\nNecessary Trade-Offs\n\nWe advertised for volunteers on our website and on a couple of other sites that listed job opportunities for people interested in working with primates, and while I was at Sanaga-Yong Chimpanzee Rescue Center, applications often stacked up in my e-mail box. During my regular short trips to Yaound\u00e9 to visit George and take care of business that required an Internet connection, I conducted telephone interviews with volunteer candidates who seemed to meet our qualifications and made decisions about who we would accept. The volunteers were required to work six or seven days per week (depending on how many volunteers we had) preparing fruits and vegetables for the four chimpanzee meals per day, preparing and delivering milk formula for the babies three times per day and at midnight, taking babies into the forest when we were short of staff (especially on Saturdays), doing the marketing in B\u00e9labo for the whole camp, and making sure the staff signed out all the equipment and supplies they needed each day. They were usually up by 6:00 A.M. and had little downtime, so I required people with stamina. I looked for people who could speak French at least on a conversational level, and I preferred people who had some experience living in Africa and\/or working with chimpanzees or other primates. In reality, I rarely found anyone who met all the qualifications. Eventually, long-term American volunteer Karen Bachelder, who traveled to Cameroon and worked on-site at Sanaga-Yong Center many times, very capably took over the interview process, formalized it with strict reference requirements, and made recommendations to me about whom to choose. Before that I often made predictions about who would be able to adapt to our environment and serve the project well based on my gut reaction to them in the short telephone interview, as much as anything else. I got it right sometimes and wrong sometimes. I was always delighted when a good volunteer wanted to come back.\n\nAfter volunteering for six months in 2002, Agnes Souchal came back to Sanaga-Yong Chimpanzee Rescue Center in 2004 with the intention of volunteering for another eight months. While she was on-site, she put the interests of the chimpanzees above everything else, certainly above concerns for her own comfort, or lack thereof, which was always my first measure of a good volunteer. A sure way for a volunteer to get on the wrong side of me was to complain about the facilities, which\u2014even without running water or electricity\u2014were luxurious compared to the tent where I started and contrasted with the surrounding villages, where people raised families in crowded huts on dirt floors. I appreciated that Agnes had no irrational fears of insects, spiders, rats, or even snakes. Her ability to adapt to the African forest probably surpassed even mine. To top off her good points, her subtle sense of humor made me laugh.\n\nThis second time Agnes volunteered, I worked more closely with her on chimpanzee care and staff management than I had the first time she volunteered. We had our cultural differences, but I thought she was nicely diplomatic for a French person, and she thought I was refreshingly frank for an American. She was restrained in her interactions with the employees, and as a result, she wasn't extremely popular with them the way some other more gregarious volunteers had been. But she tracked their individual problems, and when the two of us were alone together she advocated quietly for them as no one else had. Emmanuel needed help sending the orphans of his deceased sister to school. Albertine's daughter wasn't getting enough protein. Surely we should help them. I sometimes teased her for being too French in her notions of labor management, but I too understood that we were usually the last resort for our employees and the village people. If we didn't help them, no one would. We found common ground on staff-related issues, and we were in sync when it came to chimpanzee care. At the end of her second volunteer stint, when she had spent a total of fourteen months working seven days a week at the center, I offered Agnes the position of general manager, and she accepted it. A petite thirty-one-year-old Frenchwoman who had lived all her life in Paris, Agnes wasn't an obvious choice to become manager of a chimpanzee sanctuary in rural Africa, but I certainly wasn't an obvious founder of one either. Gradually, we became irrevocably bonded by our love for the chimpanzees in our care, and our working relationship evolved into a deep friendship based on the concerns that consumed us both.\n\nIn that same year of 2004, George Muna introduced me to Raymond Tchimisso, who was interested in collaborating on a sensitization campaign in Cameroon's West Province. During his travels around the town of Bankim as the personnel manager for a Chinese road-building company, Raymond had been touched by the suffering of strictly confined, captive chimpanzees. He had an idea about how to stop the killing and orphaning of chimpanzees in the Bankim area, where respect for the traditional chief was very strong.\n\nRaymond's English was no better than my French, so our discussions about personal motivations were limited, but he made me understand that his first cousin was the sultan of Bankim, the traditional chief of a large territory, and that the relationship could be of use in a sensitization campaign to help chimpanzees. By coincidence, George was an old friend of the sultan, and as such he too had some friendly influence with him. Through a series of meetings between Raymond, George, and me, and others between Raymond, George, and the sultan, we planned and implemented a community meeting in Bankim.\n\nWhereas the national laws against killing and capturing chimpanzees weren't adequately enforced, we hoped that an edict against it from the sultan would hold sway in his territory. To announce the momentous meeting, the sultan beat the drum literally and figuratively. The beating of an actual drum throughout the night in his palace summoned a team of messengers, which the sultan then launched on a walk through surrounding neighborhoods shouting the announcement of a meeting at his palace. \"Elephant has sent me to call you to his palace to receive important information!\" This was the cry of the messengers, and people understood that the meeting was compulsory. For reasons that were never completely clear to me, it was not considered respectful enough to refer to the sultan as \"the sultan,\" so instead he was called Elephant, which was meant to symbolize his power and strength. At the same time the foot messengers embarked, Elephant sent motorcycle taxis to the more distant neighborhoods and villages to notify all the chiefs under his authority about the meeting, so that they in turn could inform the people in their smaller territories. Because I was occupied at Sanaga-Yong Center, I sent my short-term (as it turned out) administrative assistant Jojo with Raymond to the meeting, and they both reported on it to me later.\n\nDuring the meeting, attended by hundreds of people, Raymond spoke about the problems chimpanzees were facing, and about the laws designed to protect them. \"Our people of the Tikar tribe have been good warriors and good hunters. Until recently, we didn't have a government outside of our tribe, but now there is a national government, which has its laws. We are here at this meeting because Elephant has called us. If we had failed to respond to the summons, his majesty could have fined us. The national government's law says we can't kill chimpanzees, and if we do, they can fine us, or even send us to prison, so we must respect the law.\" Raymond tried to explain it all in terms his people could understand well.\n\nAfter he finished speaking, the sultan himself rose to say that the killing and capturing of chimpanzees would now be prohibited in his territory. Afterward, the meeting attendees were treated to a feast of food and drink, funded by IDA-Africa, which was essential for inspiring goodwill in the community. There were a thousand other communities that would continue hunting chimpanzees, but we made some headway in this one with a single meeting. Maybe some chimpanzee lives were spared as a result.\n\nSoon after the meeting, Raymond Tchimisso accepted the job of personnel manager and community liaison for Sanaga-Yong Chimpanzee Rescue Center. He brought his personnel experience, cultural wisdom, and diplomatic skills to our operation, while Agnes adeptly managed general operations and provided loving and astutely perceptive care to the chimpanzees. She didn't have a medical background, but her keen interest assured she was a quick learner for all things medical. Soon she was able to provide basic medical care for the humans and chimpanzees, and her need to consult with me about the details of every case decreased as she gained experience. Raymond's arrival to support Agnes and her continually increasing skill afforded me more freedom to be away from the site.\n\nThis freedom to come and go had become important to me as Annarose had reached preschool age, when I began to realize that my little daughter needed a different social and linguistic environment than I could provide her in the Mbargue Forest. Our cook, Cathy, had been bringing her daughter Ilsa, the baby I had \"delivered\" in the back of our pickup truck, to play with Annarose once or twice a week. This was the only regular contact she was having with another child. Like most village children, until she would start school, Ilsa would learn to speak only Bamv\u00e9le. Annarose was picking up this local language both from her new nanny, Veronique, and from Ilsa. While our employees were delighted that Annarose was greeting them in their dialect, I was quite sure that this language spoken by only a handful of African villagers wouldn't serve her well in the world. I asked Veronique to speak French instead of Bamv\u00e9le to her, but it was hard to enforce and impossible for Veronique to understand the importance of it. Annarose's speaking of Bamv\u00e9le was a source of pride for Veronique. The only English my daughter was hearing was from me, and I was busy all day almost every day. My time with her was limited to lunch breaks and a couple hours each night. In addition to my relatively minor concerns about the language, I was worried that the isolation wasn't healthy for Annarose. Although she seemed like an extremely outgoing, self-confident three-and-a-half-year-old, perfect in every way in her mother's eyes, I thought she needed exposure to other children and more academic stimulation than I could give her. In 2005, I enrolled Annarose in preschool in the city of Yaound\u00e9. With both Agnes and Raymond managing at the center, I could spend much of my time in the city with her. I missed the chimpanzees terribly and didn't care for Yaound\u00e9, but I was compelled to be with my child and provide the best life possible for her. The chimpanzees would always require my dedication and support, but at this time Annarose needed my consistent presence more than they did. Barring any emergencies that took me there more often, I was spending an average of one week per month at the center. When I was there, Annarose stayed with her dad in the city.\n\nGeorge and Annarose had a sweet relationship. His hands-on participation in parenting went against the cultural norms for men of Cameroon. Although we had been together only sporadically, he had changed her diapers and fed her from the beginning and was proud of his involvement in her care. When Annarose was about a year old, I heard George speaking to his brothers who had experienced fatherhood in a more conventional way. \"Men in Cameroon just don't know what they're missing. Taking care of Annarose, changing her diapers, with her little eyes looking into mine with all that trust, it's like nothing else.\" I sometimes thought he was more like a grandfather than a father, perhaps enjoying with Annarose the pleasures of fatherhood that he regretted missing in his children who were babies when he was much younger.\n\nGeorge and I never had a wedding ceremony, but with young Annarose, we shared an apartment in Yaound\u00e9 for five years. He introduced me as his wife, and I referred to him as my husband, but with much of his work in Cameroon's Southwest Province and much of mine in the Mbargue Forest, it seemed that one of us was always leaving. Although I longed for my daughter when I was in the forest, I was never really lonely there. I cherished my friendships with the chimpanzees (and increasingly with Agnes), and after days filled with physically and mentally demanding medical care or construction work, I usually fell into bed completely exhausted by 9:00 P.M. In contrast, in the Yaound\u00e9 apartment alone at night after Annarose was asleep, I often felt lonely. My days in the city were occupied with providing logistical support for the center, often gathering and sending supplies, or with attending various meetings in the ministry or with volunteer arrangements or with fund-raising efforts. I also had people to organize\u2014my assistant, along with a housekeeper and eventually a driver paid by George. But my nights in Yaound\u00e9 were often long and empty. Nonetheless, I have some lovely memories of the times when George was there with me, particularly of his special brand of chivalry. He must have met a big challenge in wielding it for me\u2014given the independent and headstrong kind of woman I was\u2014but he managed it sometimes.\n\nEarly one evening, we were walking down a dimly lit road in Yaound\u00e9 when three men appeared suddenly from an adjoining alley a few yards ahead, walking at a fast clip toward us. With no time to think, George's instinctive reaction was to step in front of me with his arms extended and shout \"Hoa!\" Fortunately, the guys veered away from us and disappeared on the other side of the road. If it had come to fighting them off, I most likely could have held my own as well as George and would have certainly fought beside him, instead of hid behind him, but his brave gut impulse to protect me, potentially at his own expense, impressed me. Looking back, it still does.\n\nOne Sunday afternoon\u2014I remember it was Sunday because the pharmacies were closed\u2014George suffered alongside me while my fever was rising during a terrible case of falciparum malaria. Because my brain was responding to the infection and telling my body that its temperature should be much higher than it was, I was miserably cold and racked by uncontrollable shaking, which was exacerbating the intense pain in my joints and head. I was desperate to get warm and stop shaking. George turned off the fan that normally made the hot climate bearable, and, after wrapping me in all the blankets he could find in the house, sat beside me on the bed to hold me while I shook. At one point the housekeeper entered the sweltering room and cracked the balcony door (out of concern for George, I'm sure). The slight movement of warm air coming through the narrow opening at the door felt to me like an arctic blizzard. Through chattering teeth, incapable at that moment of considering anyone else, I moaned for her to shut the door, and she did. Finally, when my fever was high enough\u2014103.8 degrees as it turned out\u2014that I stopped shaking, I was aware of George sitting beside me on the bed, his clothes soaked completely through with sweat. He had suffered through a long suffocating sauna on my behalf, and I knew he hadn't left my side once to seek relief. I touched my fingers to his wet shirt.\n\n\"I'm sorry,\" I told him.\n\n\"You held yourself well,\" he complimented me as he held a cup of water to my mouth. I hope George remembers moments of kindness from me, too. I'm quite sure he remembers times I wasn't kind.\n\nDespite the love and tender moments between George and me, domestic harmony was elusive for us. Although he helped with my work for the chimpanzees in many ways\u2014serving on the board of IDA-Africa in Cameroon, providing contacts and trusted advice, lending some of his employees when I needed extra help with a project, contributing financially\u2014he sometimes complained bitterly that I put my work before everyone and everything except Annarose. When he was angry, he accused me of putting it even before her. He couldn't understand that my devotion to the chimpanzees stemmed not only from my love for them, but also from my sense of responsibility to them, which really did come before everything except my responsibility for Annarose. Their survival depended on me. George's didn't. My husband certainly didn't appreciate my lack of skill in \"running the house\" in Yaound\u00e9. I had a housekeeper to help, but I wasn't interested in coordinating the dinner menu a week in advance, as he thought I should. He thought it was my role as the woman to do this kind of planning for the household, and I shunned this imposed role outright, out of principle if nothing else.\n\nIn hindsight, it probably wouldn't have cost me much effort to \"run the house\" a bit more to his liking. George and I loved each other, but neither of us was willing to compromise enough to smooth out the stark cultural differences that were magnified by intimacy and close proximity. Eventually, we determined our frequent arguing hurt Annarose more than our living apart would do. But our mutual love for her, and our respect for each other, inspired us to remain close friends after we stopped sharing a household.\n\nBack in the United States, Edmund was still the development director and \"liaison officer\" for IDA-Africa. He was the one I called to organize shipments of equipment or supplies that I couldn't get in Cameroon and to do Internet research on all kinds of topics, since my connection in Yaound\u00e9 was slow and unreliable. He worked with volunteers to organize fund-raising events in Seattle, Portland, and other cities, and I attended and spoke at them when I traveled to the United States with Annarose for about two months every summer. Edmund was a vital part of IDA-Africa for a decade. During this time, our deep and enduring friendship grew, and he became an important \"family\" member to Annarose. The two of them spent many hours together every summer, and they grew to love each other very much. Through it all, Edmund dated various women who usually didn't understand or appreciate his friendship with me, but eventually he found happiness in his marriage to Cindy Scheel, who was his perfect match and who became a close friend to me and Annarose, too.\nEighteen\n\nFarewell to Our Sassy Girl\n\nDuring Becky's first few years at Sanaga-Yong Chimpanzee Rescue Center, I joked that she, unlike other chimpanzees, was not unpredictable. On the contrary, her penchant for troublemaking was very reliable. On many occasions Becky delighted in making mischief that upset her caregivers and me.\n\nOne afternoon, she brought in a long stick from the forest and poked it between the bars of the metal mesh ceiling of her cage to tear a gaping hole in the zinc roof above it\u2014the very roof that protected her and the others from rain while they slept. \"She clearly didn't think this through,\" I joked with the caregivers. The more vigorously the caregivers and I scolded, the more enthusiastically she stabbed at the roof, pausing only for a moment to stick her tongue out at me. It was good fun for her. Only after we walked away and ignored her did the activity lose its appeal.\n\nAnother time, one of her caregivers made the terrible mistake of leaving a machete just outside her cage chamber. It was a temptation that few chimpanzees could be expected to resist, least of all Becky. Fortunately, she was in a cage chamber alone when she committed the heist, so the danger was less immediate than it would have been if she had been with other chimpanzees. The more nervous we became about the potential harm she might cause herself and the more we pleaded for a trade, the more gleefully she swung the machete around. She held it by its handle as she had seen the caregivers do, never touching herself with the blade. When she finally got bored with it, she showed some interest in negotiating a trade, but her price was high. Not for bananas or papaya or peanuts\u2014foods that were frequently part of her diet\u2014but only for a cup of yogurt, she finally handed the machete to me sweetly.\n\nOver time, Becky's relations with both chimpanzees and humans became more gentle and accommodating. A few years after her arrival at the center, Becky actually assisted the caregivers by performing a helpful cleaning chore and was encouraged by our praise to continue. The caregivers routinely used small straw brooms to brush the spiderwebs and dust from the mesh of the cage walls, but they neglected to climb up to sweep the cage roof or the sections of the sixteen-foot mesh walls that were high above their heads. One day when caregiver Emmanuel accidentally let Becky get hold of a broom, she used it to diligently sweep the spiderwebs from those high parts of the cage that the caregivers couldn't reach. Emmanuel found me in camp and asked me to accompany him to the cage to see what Becky was doing. I found her knitting her brow in concentration, performing a useful task and seeming happy to please us all. I told the caregivers to let Becky have a broom whenever she wanted one. However, quite understandably from my point of view, she lost interest in the tedious task fairly quickly and didn't choose to do it many times.\n\nLike Dorothy, Becky was an adoptive mother. After Pepe died, it was Becky alone who carried Gabby\u2014the youngest and smallest in the first group of juveniles we integrated. She allowed him to sleep with her on her tire-bed, which we moved with her to the satellite cage of the new enclosure, and she even shared her food with him. As Gabby grew older and as we integrated younger chimpanzees into the group over several years, Becky nurtured other babies, including Luke, Lucy, Future, and Emma. It was moving to see Becky content in these tender matriarchal roles.\n\nPerhaps the most striking change in Becky's behavior came in her relationship with Dorothy. One morning in 2006, I returned to Sanaga-Yong Center after being in Yaound\u00e9 for three weeks and eagerly joined the group for their morning three-quarter-mile stroll around their enclosure perimeter. By this time in her life, Dorothy was rarely going on patrols anymore, but when I got back to the cage that morning, caregiver Assou told me that Dorothy had followed us\u2014going along, he was sure, because I was there\u2014bringing up the rear. I hadn't even noticed her. I rushed to make the tour again, this time trying to catch up with Dorothy wherever she was along the fence line. When I found her, about one-third of a mile from where she had started, she wasn't alone as I had feared. Becky had stayed behind with her and now rested her hand supportively on Dorothy's shoulder. I squatted beside them, separated by a few feet and an electric fence line, to see if Dorothy was okay. She was covered with sweat and breathing heavily. I sat with them about ten minutes until Dorothy seemed rested, then stood and took a few steps.\n\n\"Come on, Dorothy. You can make it, old girl,\" I said, trying to persuade her. When Dorothy rose to walk, Becky hobbled along beside her, using only one hand on the ground and the other around Dorothy's upper arm, pulling her along. Becky and I let Dorothy set the pace, and the three of us made several long rest stops along the fence perimeter before we finally got back to the cage. It was the last time I saw Dorothy walk around the enclosure.\n\nIn the mornings and evenings, Dorothy and Becky were frequently together. In the heat of the day, Becky usually disappeared in the forest with the rest of the group while Dorothy sat in the shade at the edge, but whenever the group was all together, near or inside the satellite cage, any stranger watching would know that the two female chimpanzees were friends. What a change a few years had made!\n\nIn early 2007, I was on a visit to the United States while my friend Dr. Kerri Jackson, a talented veterinarian whom I trusted completely, was on-site at Sanaga-Yong Chimpanzee Rescue Center. Agnes called to tell me that Becky was very sick\u2014pale, and showing signs of extreme pain in her abdomen\u2014and that Kerri thought she needed to perform surgery immediately to find and hopefully treat the problem. From the symptoms they described, I agreed. During an abdominal exploratory, Kerri found the same kind of adhesions I had found in Becky's belly six years earlier. This time, Becky was bleeding profusely from somewhere, and it was difficult to discover the source through the extensive adhesions that glued all the contents of her abdomen together. Racing against time, trying to find the source of the bleeding before it was too late, Kerri painstakingly dissected through adhesions to finally discover that Becky was bleeding from a ruptured uterus that contained a five- or six-month-old fetus. Becky, not yet thirty years old, died during the surgery.\n\nWith that terrible undiagnosed pathology in her abdomen, Becky probably wasn't destined to live to an old age, but the pregnancy hastened her death. I was devastated, and I felt guilty. To prevent pregnancies in our chimpanzee residents, I had performed vasectomies on our adult males, using a technique I had learned from a human surgery book. I had been performing them on younger males as they approached puberty, but I obviously had waited too late for one of them. I was sure it was Moabi, who I had intended to vasectomize before I left for the United States but had run out of time. In the days following Becky's death, Agnes spent many hours collecting urine to run pregnancy tests on all our teenage (eight- to thirteen-year-olds) and adult female chimpanzees. This is how we discovered that nine-year-old Mado was also pregnant, and it was the time we started all the other pubescent and older females on birth control pills. Mado would give birth to the only chimpanzee who, as of this writing, has ever been born at Sanaga-Yong Center.\n\nOn the sad day that Becky died, I sat useless and grieving in the United States. I could do no more than write a tribute to her life, which we shared on our website with our supporters:\n\nWhen we met in 1997, your childhood and your adolescence already had been stolen from you. But your penetrating brown eyes stared at me from behind the bars of your tiny cell, and I saw that you were surviving and curious and hopeful in spite of all you had lost. Confined and bored out of your mind for so many years, somehow you were still vibrant. Becky, your eyes grabbed my heart, and they never let go . . . I knew that every single day counted for you, and that your fortitude deserved mine . . . dearest Becky\u2014tough chick, sweet lady, flirt, goofy face-maker, lover of your comfortable \"nest\" made of an old tire where you slept for seven and a half years, overeater of bananas, surreptitious plotter, cleaner of cobwebs, \"sister\" of Pepe and Jacky, mourner of Pepe, best friend of Dorothy, frustrater of pubescent boys, adoptive mother of Gabby, matriarch and protector of little Luke, Lucy, Future, Emma, and others\u2014during your years with us at Sanaga-Yong Center I know you had a rich life that you cherished. And oh how we cherished you!\n\nAgnes, Raymond, and the caregivers buried Becky beside the enclosure where she had lived with Jacky, Nama, Dorothy, and more than twenty other chimpanzees. From the enclosure, Becky's family and friends watched them bury her body, and then all but Dorothy wandered away into the forest. For the rest of that sad day, and significant parts of many days to follow, Dorothy chose to sit directly across from the gravesite of her close friend Becky.\nNineteen\n\nDorothy's Legacy\n\nFor several years after she had adopted Bouboule, Dorothy joined the rest of the chimpanzees for the morning patrol around the fence line, and when they were in the satellite cage or at the edge of the forest, she enjoyed grooming and supportive relations with everyone. For a couple of years during the period when Bouboule refused to leave her side, she even went into the forest with the other chimpanzees. She couldn't, or wouldn't, climb trees, and I imagined her sitting calmly on the cool forest floor while Bouboule played around her or above her with the other juveniles. I hoped they dropped some of the delicious yellow fruits from the umbrella trees for her to enjoy. Of course, I didn't know what happened in the forest; I only knew what I saw outside of it.\n\nAs Bouboule became an adolescent and Dorothy grew older, she accompanied the group on their patrols less often. She usually rested in the shade at the edge of the forest or sometimes she found a reason for lingering just outside the cage. The cage was locked for cleaning until around eleven A.M., but sometimes Dorothy spotted leftover fruit on the floor that she could reach from outside. One morning, she spotted a half-eaten avocado, her favorite food, lying where it would have been within her reach had the holes in the mesh been large enough to accommodate her forearm. She pointed at it and grunted, looking me in the eye, asking me plainly to fetch it for her. I was in the hallway of the cage without a key to the chamber where the fruit lay. I pulled on the lock of the cage and showed her my empty hands, so she would understand that I couldn't enter the cage either. Grunting to express her mild annoyance at my uselessness, she turned away from me to solve her own problem. At a bush near the edge of the forest, she took her time to test several branches before breaking one off. Back at the cage, she used the freshly broken end of the quarter-inch-diameter stick as a spear to pass through a hole and stab the avocado. It took a few minutes of effort because the avocado kept falling off the spear, but Dorothy was able to use her cleverly chosen tool to bring the avocado within reach of her thin fingers. Grunting happily, she ate the green flesh of the fruit, then plopped the seed into her mouth to suck until it stained her tongue bright orange.\n\nDorothy was adept at communicating what she wanted people to do for her, including when she wanted someone to disappear. With a disgusted grunt and a back flip of her hand, she told people she didn't like to go away. I always considered it to be Dorothy's version of the middle finger gesture. Had she ever applied it to me, it would have hurt my feelings terribly.\n\nAlthough she became more and more physically frail, Dorothy was powerful within her social group. She continued to defend Bouboule until he was a big teenager, larger than she was\u2014until long after the only reason he needed defending was the mischief he made. One morning I was squatted beside the enclosure about a hundred yards from the satellite cage \"chatting\" with some of the chimps, when a loud conflict suddenly erupted just a few feet from me. I stood to see what was happening, but it was hard to take it all in. At least fifteen screaming chimpanzees were involved, and I soon realized that Dorothy was right in the center of the fracas, but it was incomprehensible that so many in the group would be angry with her. A second or two later, I realized that Bouboule, then the same size as Dorothy and much more muscular, was quite absurdly hiding and screaming behind her. She was barking and throwing punches in his defense. It ended quickly because no one wanted to go through Dorothy to get to Bouboule, although in all honesty he probably deserved whatever the group wanted to dish out to him.\n\nAs much as I loved Dorothy, I didn't like her son much at that stage of his life. I had known him since Estelle and I had rescued him as a two-year-old from a village where he had been tied up in ankle-deep mud beside a pig, malnourished and covered with sarcoptic mange\u2014arguably the most itchy skin disease known to man or chimp. I had bottle-fed him and cared for him when he was ill. I had watched him mature as Dorothy's love had seemed to transform him from an insecure, lonely baby to a happy, self-confident chimp child, full of laughter. Unfortunately, as he approached puberty, his mean streak surfaced. Almost all adolescent male chimps can be unpredictable and dangerous. They wield phenomenal physical strength for their size and are usually eager to prove themselves, gain power, and climb the social ladder. Bullying is a common chimpanzee tactic for trying to demonstrate dominance, but Bouboule had a particular penchant for it that our other male chimpanzees his age did not.\n\nDorothy used her back fist punch to defend Bouboule many times, but she occasionally used it to discipline him as well. One hot afternoon when she was inside enjoying the cool of the shaded cage, I sat just outside the cage enjoying her company. She was grooming my face when Bouboule, who I believed was jealous, ran in from the forest to surprise me with a painful punch to my nose. He had backed away from the cage wall and was coming back for a second go at me\u2014although this time it was merely intimidation because he could see I was cupping my aching nose well out of his reach\u2014when Dorothy's back fist, delivered with perfect timing, landed squarely on his chest. Accompanied by a harsh vocal scolding from Dorothy and from me, for whatever my input was worth, it sent Bouboule running back to the forest.\n\nAnother incident about the same time, during the last month of her nine-month pregnancy, involved Mado. Mado had been one of those first six juveniles introduced to Dorothy and the other adults in January 2002. Now Mado was heavy and easily tired, and by her own choice, she spent more time reclining in the satellite cage and less in the forest. One afternoon, she was resting on the cool concrete when Bouboule began menacing her hatefully\u2014running past her over and over, slapping her hard on the back each time. All the other chimps were deep in the forest, but from her shady spot at the edge of it, Dorothy heard Mado screaming in distress. She rushed, as much as Dorothy was able to rush, to Mado's rescue, firing off a barrage of barking as she entered the cage, quickly followed by a back fist punch at Bouboule that didn't land well. That the punch failed to land didn't matter. Dorothy's scolding was enough. As Bouboule stomped out of the cage, Dorothy accepted Mado's grateful embrace with open arms, patting the back of the much younger chimp soothingly as she held her. Watching from the corridor of the cage, it felt like my love for Dorothy was too much for my heart to hold. Somehow it was painful, and I cried.\n\nIn the late winter of 2008, we had an outbreak of a terrible respiratory infection that spread like wildfire through all our chimpanzee groups. Dorothy, like many of the others, became very ill. Unlike the others, she didn't bounce back within a few days. Although she began to enjoy her food again, she was losing weight in spite of it, and her respiratory rate remained rapid. While I was in Yaound\u00e9, Agnes entered her cage to collect blood for some tests I requested, and Dorothy, who was happy for the close contact with Agnes, cooperated fully for the procedure. But the blood work was unremarkable, and without X-ray or ultrasound machines my diagnostic capabilities were limited. Because her illness started with a viral respiratory infection, I suspected a secondary infection of some sort. I tried a variety of treatments, and Dorothy seemed to stabilize for a while, but she never returned to normal. She was tired.\n\nFor several more months, she enjoyed sitting in the shade at the edge of the forest, especially at \"her\" corner of the fence line, from where she had an open view in three directions. From her favorite viewpoint she could be sure to see Bouboule, Nama, Jacky, Mado and baby Njabeya, Bikol, and others emerging from their twenty acres of forest along any of a number of chimpanzee trails to join her back at the satellite cage where they would greet her happily, often with hugs. On the opposite side of the fence, she could see the opening of the long trail that led from the center's camp. She was always the first to hear and then see her caregivers bringing food and always the first to know what particular food they were bringing. Through happy grunts and enthusiastic screams she conveyed her excitement, the lesser or greater degree of it depending on how much she liked the food, to her friends who were often out of sight in the forest.\n\nOn September 24, 2008, Dorothy lay down on the grass of this favorite spot at the edge of the forest and died. I had left Sanaga-Yong Center for Yaound\u00e9 the day before, and Agnes was on vacation in France. Volunteer Monica Szczupider called me at five o'clock in the afternoon to tell me what had happened.\n\nDorothy came to the cage and ate normally at two o'clock, and only an hour later caregivers Assou and Emmanuel noticed that she wasn't moving in the enclosure. They called Monica, and together they strained to see if Dorothy was breathing. No one thought she was, but they couldn't be sure from their vantage point outside of the enclosure. They couldn't enter the enclosure to approach Dorothy as long as all the territorial males were outside, so they beat the drum to call the chimpanzees inside. The drum normally signals dinnertime, but as it was too early for dinner, the chimpanzees took their time responding. Nama was the first to discover Dorothy, and she was the last to leave her. At one point Monica and the caregivers lost sight of Dorothy as many of the chimpanzees surrounded her. Strong and sensitive Jacky fell on his back, screaming in distress. Bouboule came from the forest, entered the satellite cage, and was closed inside without realizing what had happened. Looking back out and realizing something was wrong, he cried out in fear and confusion. Over the course of more than an hour, all the chimpanzees responded to the persistent drum call. Gradually, one by one, they entered the satellite cage, until only Nama sat beside Dorothy's lifeless body, her hand resting gently on it. Finally, the sight of dinner being served enticed her to sadly enter the cage with the others. When the caregivers got to Dorothy's body, it was already cool.\n\nI raced to get on the 6:00 P.M. train heading back to Sanaga-Yong Center. Agnes caught me on my cell phone in the taxi on the way to the train station. \"Hello, Agnes,\" I answered, recognizing the number showing on the tiny screen.\n\n\"Hey, Sheri,\" she answered back. I knew from the silence following her simple greeting that Monica had called her, too. Agnes, more than anyone else, knew how I felt. We sat in silence for thirty seconds, feeling each other's pain across a thousand miles.\n\n\"I'm about to get on the train. I'll call you tomorrow,\" I told her, and as I hung up slowly, I heard her say, \"Okay.\"\n\nAfter an eight-hour train ride to the town of B\u00e9labo, followed by a bumpy drive to the Mbargue Forest, I arrived at Sanaga-Yong Center around 3:00 A.M. Dorothy's body was on the floor in the veterinary clinic. I sat beside her on the floor to see her beautiful, peaceful face illuminated by my head torch, to touch her fingers to my face a final time, to feel her coarse hair, and even to smell her body odor, although death had already changed her scent. I knew the heart of this kind chimpanzee\u2014she had earned my admiration and my respect. Alone with Dorothy's body, I cried and said my good-bye. I would never, ever forget her. As much as I didn't want to, I knew at first light I would perform an autopsy. I needed to know why Dorothy died, and there was no one else to do the procedure.\n\nDawn came, and I put my feelings on hold to do the work at hand. I tried to focus all my attention on liver, intestines, heart, lungs, trying hard to block out the aching fact that they had made up the body of someone I loved. A few minutes into the autopsy, I heard Severin, our guard at the front gate, announce that someone from the village of Bikol was waiting. I didn't understand the person's name over the crackly radio, and I didn't really care. I guessed it was a sick person, needing medical care. Both Agnes and I administered health care almost daily when we were on-site.\n\n\"Not today, for God's sake,\" I mumbled, although I knew I wouldn't be able to turn a critically ill person away. Throughout the autopsy, I was peripherally aware of Severin's voice on the radio, again and again, announcing the arrival of someone. Deeply sad and tired, I was annoyed at the prospect of having to do anything but grieve and bury Dorothy. How the hell many people were waiting for me at the gate, I wondered, and what could be wrong with them that they were coming so early? Were we having some awful epidemic in the village? When I had finished the autopsy, concluding that Dorothy had probably died of heart disease, and sewed up her body neatly, I reached for the radio with dread. In my American-accented French that didn't hide my fatigue or my impatience, I asked of our gate guard, \"Severin, who is waiting at the gate?\"\n\n\"La population,\" Severin answered simply. The population. It took me all of two seconds to comprehend that people in the community, hearing the afternoon before that Dorothy had died, had walked to our Sanaga-Yong Center camp from their villages miles away, without being invited, to pay respects to her. I crumpled\u2014bowed my head on my arms folded atop the counter\u2014and sobbed again for Dorothy.\n\nThe men who had been her caregivers helped me put Dorothy's body in a wheelbarrow, and I covered her with a sheet, leaving only her head exposed. Her facial expression was serene, one of final repose. Raymond conducted a funeral service for the staff, volunteers, and dozens of people from the village community. He spoke of Dorothy's suffering and of the happiness she had known at Sanaga-Yong Chimpanzee Rescue Center. I told the community that the best way to honor Dorothy would be to never eat the meat of chimpanzees again and to speak out against it whenever and wherever they could.\n\nAfterward, we transported Dorothy's body in the creaky wheelbarrow toward her gravesite, which Raymond and the caregivers had prepared beside the grave of Becky. As we stopped at the enclosure to let the congregated chimpanzee friends and family of Dorothy say their final good-byes, Monica snapped her funeral procession photo\u2014that now-famous snapshot of nonhuman grief that created what I hope will be Dorothy's legacy of expanded awareness around the world.\n\nInternational attention and surprise over the grief of the chimpanzees in that photo inspired me to tell the story of sweet Dorothy and her circle of friends who have impacted my own life to such a large degree. Dorothy was tragically orphaned and then cruelly mistreated for much too large a proportion of her life, but she also knew kindness and love from both humans and chimpanzees. Late in her life, she herself became a mother, a friend, and a kind defender of the abused.\n\nAlthough Dorothy and I were of different species and we should have lived far apart, each with our own kind in our own habitats, circumstances conspired to introduce us. To an extent, I was included in Dorothy's circle of people, and she was included in mine. Thanks to my relationships with Dorothy and the other chimpanzees I have known at Sanaga-Yong Chimpanzee Rescue Center, my acceptance of the deep intelligence and emotional capacity of their species has become such an inexorable part of who I am that it now seems innate. The chimpanzees in the photo include Jacky, Nama, Bouboule, and Mado, each of whom you have glimpsed through my perspective. In these final moments you read from me, I express the hope that you look at the photo a different way now\u2014gone is any surprise over the capacity of chimpanzees to love and grieve, and in its place is a comfortable, albeit perhaps poignant, assumption of normalcy.\nEpilogue\n\nA year after Dorothy died, her son Bouboule, without political support from anyone in the group, began challenging Jacky for the leadership role. Jacky couldn't beat younger, bigger, and stronger Bouboule in a one-on-one fight, but Jacky had Nama and a small army of adolescents who were willing to fight beside him. Even so, in the face of Bouboule's staunch determination and persistent confrontations, Jacky became increasingly reluctant to engage, and his reluctance was contagious to all except Nama, who never wavered in her support of him. The writing was on the wall for months before it was over, and Agnes and I prayed that Jacky would step aside before he got hurt. Finally, after a year of anxiety on both the chimpanzee and human sides of the fence line, Jacky ended his decade-long reign as alpha male, pant-grunting his submission to his successor.\n\nUnfortunately, Bouboule lacked the political skill to lead well. He dominated through intimidation and fear for about a year, occasionally wounding scapegoats to keep the other males intimidated. Finally, Bikol led the group in a bloody coup against him. The definitive fight occurred late one morning as Agnes and the caregivers stood by the enclosure listening to prolonged screams of battle emanating from the forest. They were helpless to do anything but wait to see the outcome. When the chimpanzees finally emerged from the forest an hour after the fight, Bouboule had multiple wounds, including a severe injury to his testicle, which was bleeding. He was very nervous and obviously afraid of Bikol, who on the other hand was surrounded and supported by many of the females and adolescents in their group. Everyone seemed on edge. With a transparent and compelling desire to make up and be friends, Bouboule made tentative advances toward Bikol, who feigned indifference. Finally, when Bikol allowed Bouboule to close the gap between them and begin grooming him, the nervous tension embodied in all the chimps dissipated. Calm was restored; Bouboule had lost his position to Bikol. The next day I traveled to Sanaga-Yong Center and removed Bouboule's testicle, which was unsalvageable.\n\nBikol now holds the position of alpha male with a good amount of political support. Arriving in 1999, he was our first baby chimpanzee, and he matured into a kind adult, who has long been a favorite of mine. Unfortunately, he's not an exceptionally strong leader. Although he enjoys his free access to the attractive females, he approaches his responsibilities as authority figure and peacekeeper somewhat halfheartedly. After hearing Agnes disparage his leadership skills for weeks, I was surprised recently when I saw him intervene to prevent bullying twice in one afternoon. That night over dinner when I mentioned it to Agnes, as evidence in defense of my dear Bikol, she said, \"Yes, Sheri, he does something, but he's not like Jacky.\" Bikol's name in the local language mean's the king, but he seems to be a reluctant one. He enjoys the spoils of power but would rather shun the duties. I hope he'll grow more responsible as he gains in age and experience. He had a good role model in Jacky.\n\nBouboule has settled down to a relatively passive role in the society and doesn't challenge Bikol. When they hug and comfort one another it reminds me of how they were as young babies. However, there are others who would be king. Moabi and Gabby probably aren't serious contenders, but big adolescents Simon and Future may soon pose threats. Bikol's is a precarious position, and the caregivers make sure he sleeps at night with those who support him.\n\nWe lost another piece of the heart and soul of Sanaga-Yong Rescue Center in June 2012 when our beloved Nama, still only in her thirties, passed away after her illness of several months eluded our extensive efforts to diagnose it. Nama's chest kept filling up with fluid, making it difficult for her to breathe. After ruling out heart disease, we finally narrowed the possibilities to cancer and tuberculosis. All the tests we did for tuberculosis were negative, but we still tried treating her for it. I would have tried anything to save her. In the end, nothing worked. At this writing, we're still trying to get autopsy samples out of Cameroon to determine what really caused her illness and death\u2014CITES permits are required to export tissues from endangered species, and they can take months to process. For now, it remains a mystery. My admiration and love for this shining star of a chimpanzee were boundless. I held her in her final moments, and while I celebrate her remarkable life in the telling of her story, I haven't stopped mourning her death that came much too early.\n\nThe same week that Nama died, we received badly wounded one-and-a-half-year-old Kanoah, a baby boy who was confiscated during the arrest of a dealer, who is now being prosecuted with the involvement of my friend Ofir Drori's Last Great Ape Organization. A month later, the arrival of eight-month-old baby Carla, brought to us by a Catholic priest, brought our resident chimpanzee population to seventy-three.\n\nOf the first five adult chimpanzees we brought to Sanaga-Yong Chimpanzee Rescue Center, only the elder Jacky survives. Without a lot of responsibility he spends his days playing and relaxing, managing to avoid conflict. He seeks my attention more than before, almost always rising to greet me when I approach, which still flatters and delights me. Unlike before, he solicits me in play, often asking me to run up and down the fence with him. Agnes says jokingly that he has regressed to his lost childhood, and I say he deserves it.\n\nWe have begun a series of forest surveys throughout Cameroon to determine if there is a suitable site to reintroduce some of our chimpanzees to a free life. Reintroduction, if it is possible, will be a long and complicated process. It will require a forest site that is good chimpanzee habitat but no longer has chimpanzees living in it, or not many, and at the same time it must not have many humans living around it. Any hunting camps must be removed, and the site must be protectable in the long run, both of which will be the roles of the Cameroon government. Ideally the site should be an important habitat area with conservation value in its own right, quite apart from the reintroduction of chimpanzees. The protection that we would achieve through our reintroduction plan would strengthen ecological diversity or bring it back to a depleted area. Finding such a site is a tall order. We don't know if a site meeting our criteria exists in Cameroon, but to look for it, we've formed a partnership with Ape Action Africa and Limbe Wildlife Center, under the umbrella of Pan African Sanctuary Alliance (PASA), an international organization of which we are all founding members. We are working in collaboration with Cameroon's Ministry of Forestry and Wildlife to conduct forest surveys funded by the Disney Worldwide Conservation Fund.\n\nAs for me personally, my worldview and my human relationships have been irrevocably changed by my time with the chimpanzees in Africa. The lens through which I interpret my experiences is much wider now, but at the same time life seems simpler, more basic.\n\nChimpanzees engage life fully, in the moment. They wear their emotions for all to see, or hear. Even an adult chimpanzee might cry like a baby if he is being rejected, or throw loud and dramatic tantrums over a perceived injustice. A few minutes later, with the proper recognition or comfort, he can be the picture of contentment. The quality of their friendships and family relationships to a large extent determines the quality of their lives. Watching the social vignettes of chimpanzees through the years has taught me to recognize my own pretenses. We are such similar apes. But they bring a primal pureness and immediacy to their expressions of intimacy, which I have come to cherish in my friendships with them. From knowing chimpanzees I have learned to live more honestly and vulnerably.\n\nFrom my perspective, life is simply too short, even for those who survive to old age, and nothing is guaranteed. None of us knows what breath will be our last. I try to keep that in mind every day\u2014to face each day with interest and a sense of purpose, and to pay more attention to how I affect the momentary experiences of those whose paths I cross. Being an imperfect ape, driven by unseen influences both ancient and contemporary, I cannot say that I'm always kind, but I am almost always compelled toward reconciliation. More than anything these days I'm left with a deep sense of gratitude for this brief but wondrous opportunity to live and love.\nAcknowledgments\n\nEileen Cope, my compassionate literary agent, tracked me down in Africa to suggest I write my story, nudged me through a year of proposal writing, and then managed to successfully promote an aspiring first-time author. Without Eileen, there would surely be no book. Nancy Hancock, my editor at HarperOne, believed in the book before it was written and applied her considerable talent to make it the best it could be. And I won't forget Elsa Dixon's humane though dogged approach to the editing and titling processes and for her commitment to producing a final product that would make me proud. These people delivered Kindred Beings, and I will always be grateful to them.\n\nAgnes Souchal, general manager of Sanaga-Yong Chimpanzee Rescue Center, is both the gentlest and the strongest person I have ever known. I deeply appreciate her consultation, advice, friendship, and encouragement during the writing of Kindred Beings.\n\nKarin Cereghino, IDA-Africa program manager, was patiently tolerant of my preoccupation and graciously shouldered more than her share in keeping IDA-Africa afloat with funds coming in during my yearlong obsession with putting the right words, or at least some words, on these pages.\n\nAgnes and Karin as well as Michael Labhard and Malgosia Ceglowski gave generously of their time to read various parts of my early draft and gave very helpful comments.\n\nEdmund Stone and Cindy Scheel, Stan Jones and Cindy Umberger-Jones, Crystal Schneider, Malgosia Ceglowski, and Susan Labhard bestowed me with quiet writing time, and my daughter, Annarose, with hours of enjoyment in their company.\n\nPhotographs for the book were contributed by a talented array of photographers including Carol Yarrow, Mirjam Schot, Monica Szczupider, Agnes Souchal, Marie-Eve Lavigne, Leslie Kadane, Jacques Gillon, and Karl Ammann. I especially thank Monica for the extra efforts that landed her photograph of Dorothy's funeral in National Geographic.\n\nAnnarose Sara Muna, my kindhearted, independent-minded eleven-year-old, cheered me on each day, cooked and ate countless breakfasts alone, and spent many weekends quietly entertaining herself.\n\nIn addition to those who provided direct support for Kindred Beings, there were many people who made possible my work for chimpanzees and the life-changing experiences that were its subjects.\n\nWhen the chimpanzee sanctuary in Cameroon was only a vision in my head, Dr. Elliot Katz, president emeritus of In Defense of Animals (IDA) International, had faith in me. IDA-Africa and Sanaga-Yong Chimpanzee Rescue Center are included in his legacy.\n\nEdmund Stone cofounded IDA-Africa as a program of IDA International and the U.S. base of support for Sanaga-Yong Chimpanzee Rescue Center. He worked tirelessly for over a decade to raise funds for the work in Cameroon. Edmund's wife, Cindy Scheel, has been both a valued development consultant and a fabulous caterer for our fund-raising events.\n\nEstelle Raballand brought her boundless energy, courage, and bilingualism to our early efforts in Cameroon and taught me much about chimpanzees.\n\nGeorge Muna is the most genuinely generous person I have ever known and his contributions to my endeavors for chimpanzees in Cameroon are countless. I thank him for all of these and most of all for being a loving parent to our daughter, Annarose.\n\nKaren Bachelder deserves special mention for traveling to Cameroon to volunteer at Sanaga-Yong Chimpanzee Rescue Center eleven times, for generously managing the volunteer selection process, and for her sage and well-considered advice, from which I have benefited on many occasions.\n\nWhen they were directors of Ape Action Africa, the late Colonel Avi Sivan and Talila Sivan contributed immeasurably to my safety, security, and peace of mind in Cameroon.\n\nRachel Hogan and Babila Tafon, current director and manager of Ape Action Africa, have been frequent collaborators and have assisted Agnes and me many times on issues of security, chimpanzee transportation, and medical care.\n\nIt has been my pleasure to work with still other truly unique, larger-than-life people whose collaboration at various times in the past fifteen years facilitated and advanced my work for chimpanzees in Cameroon. I owe debts of gratitude to Shirley McGreal, Peter Jenkins, Liza Gadsby, Ofir Drori, Dave Lucas, Karl Ammann, and Jean Liboz.\n\nMany valued colleagues have contributed to my work through Pan African Sanctuary Alliance (PASA). They include Doug Cress, Anne Warner, Julie Sherman, Steve Unwin, Christelle Colin, Kay Farmer, Ainare Idoiaga, John Kyang, Felix Lankester, and all the other managers and directors of the PASA sanctuaries in Africa.\n\nThe employees of Sanaga-Yong Chimpanzee Rescue Center have been essential since 1999, and their number has steadily increased. I single out for mention those who have been with us a long time and\/or forged a special bond with the chimpanzees: Raymond Jules Tchimisso Guea (a member of our management team), Timothy Maishu Wirba, Emmanuel Ndong Mene, Assou Felix Francois, Julien Clerck Gomdong, Bertrand Avom, Barnabe Julien Andang, Henriette Nganyet, Nicholas Banadzem, and Severin Bipan.\n\nThousands of generous and caring people in the United States and other countries around the world have contributed financially to the work we are carrying out in Cameroon, and though they number too many to mention by name, from my heart I appreciate them all. There are some who, in addition to financial support, have given very generously of their time to help us raise essential funds. They include Brian Behrens, Steven Bernheim, Marianna Boros, Malgosia Ceglowski, Christine Desvignes, Claudine Erlandson, Ruth Fredine, Julia Gallucci, Al Hainisch, Betsy Holbrook, Julie Honse, Sangumithra Iyer, Kerri Jackson, Mohamed Jantan, Stanley Jones, Cindy Umberger-Jones, Leslie Kadane and Kyle Doane, Erika Knauf Santos, Andrea Kozil, Susan Labhard, Jessica Martinson, Molly Mayo, Laura Michalek, Iain Moffat, Heather Murch, Perrine Odier, Mary Perin, Rebecca Pool, Meg and Jon Ratner, Gwendy Reyes-Illg, Suzanne Roy, Richard Satnick, Crystal Schneider, Valerie Sicignano, Franz Spielvogel (Laughing Planet), Chuk and Donna Steadman, Connie Theil, Dana Vion, Kimber Webb, Rachel Weil, and Jacque West.\nIndex\n\nThe pagination of this electronic edition does not match the edition from which it was created. To locate a specific passage, please use your e-book reader's search tools.\n\nAfrica, 1\u20133, 8\u201314, 17\u201321, 37, 51\n\nAkono, 126, 141, 198, 199, 200, 202, 203, 204\n\nAlbert, Mr. Ndang Ndang, 90\u201392\n\nAmmann, Karl, 45, 69\n\nanemia, 73, 83\n\nanesthesia darts, 118\u201319, 120, 122, 135, 136, 199, 216\n\nanimal cruelty, 47\u201348, 77\u201378\n\nAnnarose (author's daughter), 185\u201387, 192\u201393, 200, 202, 223\u201328\n\nantibiotics, 182, 203\n\nAntoine, Chief, 100\u2013105, 183\n\nants, carnivorous, 61\u201362, 94, 200, 201\u20135\n\nApe Action Africa, 18, 248\n\nArcus Foundation, 179\n\nAtlantic Beach Hotel, 18, 25\u201337\n\nattacks on humans, 27, 28\u201332, 215\u201317\n\nautopsy, 241, 247\n\nbaboons, 69, 74, 133, 135\n\nBachand, Nicholas, 170, 180\n\nBachelder, Karen, 190, 220\n\nbacteria, 19\n\nBamv\u00e9le, 54, 87, 89, 92, 211, 224\n\nbandit attacks, 168\u201372\n\nBankim, 221, 222\n\nBantu people, 14\n\nbathing, 98\n\nBBC, 17, 51\n\nBeatrice, Madame, 95\n\nBecky, 18\u201322, 25, 27\u201328, 30\u201337, 78, 104, 109, 117\u201324, 139, 177\u201382, 191, 194\u201396, 199, 204, 208, 212, 217, 229\u201333\n\ndeath of, 232\u201333\n\nintestinal surgery, 177\u201382\n\nmoved to sanctuary, 117\u201324\n\nsocial integration and dominance hierarchy, 139\u201344, 145\u201357, 207\u201317\n\ntransition period, 139\u201344, 145\u201357\n\nbehavior, 13, 19\u201320, 249\n\nattacks on humans, 27, 28\u201332, 215\u201317\n\nbullying, 151\u201355, 237\u201338, 246\n\ndominance hierarchy, 139\u201344, 145\u201357, 198\u201399, 207\u20139, 245\u201347\n\ngrooming and hugging, 13, 20, 31, 33, 79\u201381, 108, 139\u201341, 146, 150, 194, 195, 214, 246\n\nintegration of juveniles, 189\u201396, 211\u201313, 230\u201331\n\nmaternal, 20, 173\u201387, 190\u201396, 230\u201331\n\nmimic, 19\u201320, 80\n\nmouth movement, 33, 80\n\nsexual, 139\n\nwith humans, 19\u201321, 27\u201337, 72\u201384, 107\u20138, 141\u201342, 176\u201377, 192, 199, 203, 214\u201317, 248\n\nB\u00e9labo, 64, 100, 103, 104, 114, 115, 147, 156, 160, 167\u201372, 197, 219, 240\n\nBernard, Chief, 211\n\nBertoua, 114\n\nBikol, 51\u201360, 64, 87\u2013105, 107, 160, 183, 241\n\nBikol (chimpanzee), 156, 186, 189, 191, 192, 239, 245\u201347\n\nBikol 1, 112, 159, 160\n\nBikol 2, 91, 100, 102, 112, 159\n\nbiomedical industry, 3, 8, 212\n\nbirth control, 174\u201375, 213, 233\n\nBiya, Paul, 46, 87\n\nBobilis, 89\n\nBouboule, 189, 195\u201396, 208, 215\u201317, 235\u201338, 239, 240, 243, 245\u201347\n\nbread, dipped in tea, 146\u201348\n\nbridges, 100\n\nbullying, 151\u201355, 237\u201338, 246\n\nbushmeat trade, 3, 9, 14\u201315, 19, 45, 49, 50, 77\u201378, 123\u201324, 155, 242\n\nbush taxis, 9\u201310, 41, 42, 100, 117, 119, 120\n\ncages, 18\u201322, 25\u201337, 124\n\nconstruction of, 107\u201324\n\nsatellite, 109, 110\u201316, 121\u201324, 125, 127, 143\u201344, 146, 149, 150, 180, 181, 190, 204, 207, 212, 235, 236, 240\n\ntransport, 118\u201321\n\nCameroon, 1\u20133, 8\u201314, 17\u201321, 23, 37, 42\u201343, 45, 47, 85, 187\n\nFrench, 51, 147\n\nwildlife policy and law enforcement, 49\u201350, 74, 76, 85\u201387, 119, 132\u201338, 156, 164, 171, 222, 248\n\nCameroon Wildlife Aid Fund (CWAF), 18, 133, 155\n\nCampo, 65\n\nCarla, 247\n\nCaroline, 137, 189\u201390, 191, 194, 208, 212\n\ncar travel, 9\u201310, 41\u201342, 45, 47\u201348, 52, 60\u201367, 70, 86, 91, 100, 103\u20135, 110\u201311, 116\u201318, 137\n\ncataract surgery, 208\u201311\n\nCathy, 182\u201385\n\ncell phones, 171\n\ncement, 111\n\nCenter for Chimpanzee Conservation, 85\n\nCentral Cameroon, 45\n\nceremonies and traditions, 59\u201360, 92\u201393\n\nChantal, Ndele, 190\n\nchikungunya virus, 110\n\nchildren, 53, 56, 57, 58\u201359, 60, 224\n\nchimpanzees, 1\u20133, 8, 45\n\nbiomedical use of, 3, 8, 212\n\nbullying, 151\u201355, 237\u201338, 246\n\nbushmeat trade, 3, 9, 14\u201315, 19, 45, 49, 50, 77\u201378, 123\u201324, 155, 242\n\ngrooming and hugging, 13, 20, 31, 33, 79\u201381, 108, 139\u201341, 146, 150, 194, 195, 214, 246\n\nintegration of juveniles, 189\u201396, 211\u201313, 230\u201331\n\nmoved to sanctuary, 117\u201324\n\norphaned, 18, 19, 37, 123\u201324, 153, 155\u201357, 189\u201396, 211\u201313, 221, 230\n\nshackled, 69\u201384, 130\u201331\n\nsocial integration and dominance hierarchy, 139\u201344, 145\u201357, 198\u201399, 207\u20139, 245\u201347\n\nvocalizations, 18\u201319, 27, 31, 72, 118, 120, 121, 145, 154, 179\u201380, 190, 195\u201396, 201, 204, 236\u201338, 240, 246\n\nSee also specific chimpanzees\n\ncigarette smoking, 79\n\ncleaning behavior, 148, 230\n\nClementine, Ma, 98\n\nclothing, 56\n\nwashing, 96\u201397\n\ncockroaches, 60\n\nColbert, 53\u201360, 95\n\ncolonialism, 51, 147\n\nconservation. See wildlife protection and conservation\n\nconstitution (1972), 51\n\nconstruction of chimpanzee sanctuary, 107\u201324, 125\n\nCoron Logging Company, 45\u201347, 64, 161\n\ncrime, 39\u201343, 168\u201372\n\ncrocodiles, 77\u201378\n\ndancing, 93\n\ndiarrhea, 73, 80, 83, 160\n\ndisease, 13, 19, 57, 60, 73, 83, 110, 145, 160, 186, 226, 237\n\nDisney Worldwide Conservation Fund, 248\n\nDNA, 3\n\nDorothy, 1\u20133, 69\u201384, 104, 107\u20139, 117, 125\u201338, 139, 199, 208, 212, 216, 217, 231\u201333\n\ndeath of, 1\u20133, 239\u201343\n\nforced seizure of, 125\u201338\n\njuvenile chimpanzees and, 190\u201396, 238\n\nlegacy of, 235\u201343\n\nsocial integration and dominance hierarchy, 145\u201357\n\ntransition period, 145\u201357\n\nDouala, 9\u201312, 39\u201343, 118\n\nDrori, Ofir, 156, 247\n\ndysentery, 57\n\nelectric fencing, 109, 111, 125, 127, 130\u201331, 142, 143, 144, 149, 156\n\nelephants, 49\n\nEmilienne, 96, 97, 98\n\nEmma, 231\n\nentertainment industry, chimpanzees used in, 3\n\nErlandson, Claudine, 170, 171, 182\n\nEssi, Daniel, 132\u201338\n\neuthanasia, 30, 203\u20134\n\nextinction, 14\u201315, 74\n\neye surgery, 208\u201311\n\nfarming, 65, 87, 89, 112, 159\n\nfemale chimpanzees, 32, 34, 69, 230\u201332\n\nalpha, 208\u20139, 215\u201317, 238\n\nbullying, 154\u201355\n\nmothering instincts, 190\u201396, 230\u201331\n\novulation, 139\n\nsocial integration and dominance hierarchy, 139\u201344, 207\u20139\n\nundiagnosed pregnancy, 232\u201333\n\nflies, 94\n\nFonyoy, Kenneth, 86\u2013105, 107\u201322, 125, 127, 133\u201338, 151, 156, 161\u201367, 170, 174\u201375, 179\u201382, 187\n\nfood, 13, 20\u201321, 28, 35, 57, 71, 72\u201374, 76\u201379, 88, 89, 92\u201393, 95, 108, 113, 126, 144, 146\u201348, 160, 200, 211\u201312, 235\u201336\n\nbeating drum at mealtime, 144\n\nforests, 61\u201362, 87, 94, 98\u201399, 157, 161\n\nFrance, 51, 115, 116, 147\n\nFrancis, Mr., 111\u201312\n\nFrancois, Assou, 1, 105, 126, 142, 198, 200, 202, 203, 204, 231, 239\n\nFrancois, Vivian, 101\u20135\n\n\"free land\" policy, 87, 88\n\nfree-living chimpanzees, 123\u201324, 189\n\nfruits and vegetables, 13, 35, 71, 72\u201374, 76\u201379, 92, 108, 211, 235\u201336\n\nfund-raising, 22, 114, 125, 174\n\nFuture, 231, 247\n\nGabby, 156, 186, 189, 192, 194, 195, 230\u201331, 247\n\nGadsby, Liza, 8, 23\n\nGaspard, Chief, 53\u201360, 88, 89, 91, 92, 159\n\ngeckos, 60\n\ngenerator, 114, 115\n\nGermany, 51\n\ngorillas, 9, 14, 15, 19, 45, 54, 55\n\ngovernment, 51, 67, 75\u201376, 85\u201388, 164\n\napproval of chimpanzee sanctuary, 85\u201393\n\nwildlife policy and law enforcement, 49\u201350, 74, 76, 85\u201387, 119, 132\u201338, 156, 164, 171, 222, 248\n\nGreat Britain, 51\n\ngrooming and hugging, 13, 20, 31, 33, 69\u201381, 108, 139\u201341, 146, 150, 194, 195, 214, 246\n\nGuinea, 85\n\nguns, 55\u201356\n\nHaut Niger National Park, 85\n\nHogan, Rachel, 18\n\nhormones, 31\n\nhospitals, 103\u20134, 105, 160\n\nhousing, 52, 89\n\nIbrahim, Alain, 163\u201366\n\nIbrahim, Chief Tendi, 160\u201366\n\nIn Defense of Animals (IDA), 7\u20138, 21, 22, 174, 223, 227, 228\n\ninsects, 55, 56, 58, 60, 61\u201362, 94, 110, 124, 201\u20135\n\nInternational Primate Protection League, 8\n\nInternet, 39, 40, 228\n\nJackson, Dr. Kerri, 233\n\nJacky, 18\u201322, 25, 27\u201337, 78, 104, 109, 117\u201324, 179, 191, 193\u201396, 198, 207\u201317, 239, 240, 243, 245, 248\n\ncataract surgery, 208\u201311\n\nmoved to sanctuary, 117\u201324\n\nsocial integration and hierarchy, 139\u201344, 145\u201357, 198\u201399\n\ntransition period, 139\u201344, 145\u201347\n\nJenkins, Peter, 8, 23, 109, 127\n\njuvenile chimpanzees, 19, 146, 147, 155\u201357, 170\u201371, 186, 189\u201396, 211\n\naggression in, 215\u201317\n\nintegration process, 189\u201396, 211\u201313, 230\u201331\n\nKang, Jonathan, 133\n\nKanoah, 247\n\nKatz, Dr. Elliot, 8, 22\n\nKribi, 137\n\nLabhard, Susan, 209\n\nlanguages, 51, 53, 114\n\nlocal, 53, 54, 58, 87, 89, 224\n\nLast Great Ape Organization, 156, 247\n\nlatrines, 96, 111, 172\n\nLiboz, Jean, 45\u201350, 54, 64, 87, 99, 103, 104, 109, 115, 161\n\nLimbe Wildlife Center (LWC), 8\u201313, 18, 20, 22, 23, 29, 78, 109, 110, 118, 127, 133, 137, 155, 248\n\nlogging, 45\u201347, 50, 64, 87, 99, 160\u201366\n\nillegal, 161\u201366\n\nLouisiana State University, 6\u20137\n\nLucas, Dave, 133, 136\n\nLucy, 231\n\nLuke, 231\n\nLuna Park Hotel, 69\u201384, 107, 125, 127\u201338\n\nmachetes, 60, 65, 66, 77\u201378, 94, 98\u201399, 161, 229\u201330\n\nMado, 189, 190, 212\u201313, 232\u201333, 238, 239, 243\n\nMahoney, Jim, 178\u201379, 182\n\nmalaria, 57, 160, 226\n\nmale chimpanzees, 31, 123\n\nattacks on humans, 28\u201332, 215\u201317\n\nbullying, 151\u201355, 237\u201338, 246\n\nsocial integration and dominance hierarchy, 139\u201344, 145\u201357, 198\u201399, 207\u20139, 245\u201347\n\nMbargue, 111, 166\n\nMbargue Forest, 45\u201367, 69, 85, 87, 100, 110, 116, 159, 185, 186, 187, 225\n\nMbinang, 87, 159\u201360, 162, 166, 210\n\nMcGreal, Shirley, 8\n\nmeat. See bushmeat trade\n\nmedical care, 83, 101\u20135, 108, 140\u201342, 160\u201361, 171, 177\u201382, 208\u201311, 232, 239, 247\n\nMeyene, 210, 211\n\nMichel, Pa, 88, 92, 96\n\nmimic behavior, 19\u201320, 80\n\nMinistry of Forestry and Wildlife, 171\n\nMinistry of the Environment and Forestry (MINEF), 46, 75, 85\u201386, 90\u201391, 130, 132\u201338, 171, 248\n\nMinta, 62, 66, 67, 90\u201393\n\nMitchell, Chris, 18, 136\n\nMoabi, 189, 213, 232, 247\n\nmonkeys, 8, 9, 14, 15, 70, 74, 94, 131, 133, 135\n\nbushmeat trade, 77\n\nmosquitoes, 56\u201357, 94, 110\n\nmotherhood, 20, 173\u201387, 190\u201396, 230\u201331\n\nmouth movement, 33, 80\n\nmud, 62\u201366, 100, 105, 116, 120\u201321\n\nhouses, 89\n\nMuna, George, 25\u201327, 35\u201336, 110, 117, 171\u201372, 173, 177, 185, 193, 221\u201327\n\nNama, 69\u201384, 104, 107\u20139, 117, 125\u201338, 139, 191, 193\u201396, 199, 207, 212, 213, 215\u201317, 239, 240, 243, 245\n\ndeath of, 247\n\nforced seizure of, 125\u201338\n\nas group leader, 207\u20139, 215\u201317\n\nsocial integration and dominance hierarchy, 145\u201347, 207\u20139\n\ntransition period, 145\u201357\n\nNanga Eboko, 46\u201347\n\nNational Geographic, 2\n\nNdian River, 87, 97, 98\n\nNgaound\u00e9r\u00e9, 167\n\nNigeria, 8, 51, 109, 110, 125\n\nnight nests, 143\n\nNjabeya, 213, 239\n\nNjode, 171, 189\n\nnongovernmental organizations (NGOs), 90, 92\n\nObala, 69, 70, 76, 133, 134\n\nobesity, 148\n\nOdier, Roger, 115\u201316, 146\n\nOregon, 7, 8, 9, 17, 22, 36, 94, 125, 176, 209\n\norphaned chimpanzees, 18, 19, 37, 123\u201324, 153, 155\u201357, 221\n\nintegration process, 189\u201396, 211\u201313, 230\u201331\n\noverpopulation, 49\u201350\n\npagnes, 56\n\npalm nuts, 76, 79, 148\n\nPan African Sanctuary Alliance (PASA), 248\n\nPandrillus sanctuary, 109\n\nparasites, 83, 108, 145, 182\n\nparrots, 136\u201337\n\npassports, 170\n\nPeace Corps, 55\n\npeanuts, 57, 71, 76, 78, 108\n\nPearson, Kathy, 9, 11, 13\n\nPepe, 18\u201322, 25, 27\u201328, 30\u201337, 78, 104, 109, 117\u201324, 176\u201377, 179, 186, 191, 194\u201396, 198\u2013205\n\ndeath of, 203\u20135\n\nfall from tree, 198\u2013201\n\nmoved to sanctuary, 117\u201324\n\nsocial integration and hierarchy, 139\u201344, 145\u201357, 198\u201399\n\ntransition period, 139\u201344, 145\u201357\n\npets, chimpanzees as, 3\n\nPhillips, Anita, 127, 156\n\nPierre, 12\u201313\n\npneumonia, 13, 171\n\npoaching. See bushmeat trade\n\npopulation growth, 49\u201350\n\npoverty, 12, 43\n\nprivacy, 96\n\nprotein deficiency, 60\n\nProtocol Agreement, 171\n\nquail, 86\n\nRaballand, Estelle, 22\u201325, 30, 36\u201339, 45\u201367, 69\u201384, 85\u201393, 107, 108, 116\u201322, 126\u201338, 151, 167, 170, 171\n\nrain, 62\u201366, 95\u201396, 100, 104, 114, 146\n\nreligion, 114\n\nrespiratory infection, 238\u201339\n\nringworm, 60\n\nroads, 10\u201311, 46, 47\u201348, 50, 52, 60\u201367, 86, 91, 100, 105, 111, 116, 170\n\nRossell, Greg, 127, 156\n\nSamuel, Mvoku, 190\n\nSanaga River, 87, 160\n\nSanaga-Yong Chimpanzee Rescue Center, 1\u20133, 160\n\ncaregivers, 126\u201327, 141, 142, 190, 198\u2013204, 215\u201317, 230, 231, 239, 242\n\ncommunity meeting on, 85\u201393\n\nconstruction of, 107\u201324, 125\n\nfinding site for, 23, 45\u201367\n\ngovernment approval of, 85\u201393\n\nillegal logging, 161\u201366\n\nintegration of juveniles in, 189\u201396, 211\u201313, 230\u201331\n\njuvenile population, 155\u201357\n\nmoving chimps to, 117\u201324\n\nsocial integration and dominance hierarchy, 139\u201344, 145\u201357, 198\u201399, 207\u20139, 245\u201347\n\ntransition period, 142\u201344, 145\u201357\n\nsarcoptic mange, 237\n\nsavanna, 61\n\nSchot, Mirjam, 190\n\nsexual behavior, 139\n\nshackled chimpanzees, 69\u201384, 130\u201331\n\nShuster, Gabriela, 190\n\nSimon, 247\n\nSivan, Avi, 18\n\nSivan, Talila, 18\n\nsnakes, 94, 100, 200\n\nsocial integration and dominance hierarchy, 139\u201344, 145\u201357, 198\u201399, 207\u20139, 245\u201347\n\nSouchal, Agnes, 197\u2013205, 213, 220\u201321, 223, 225, 232, 238\u201341, 245, 246\n\nSouth Cameroon, 45\n\nspinal cord injury, 200\n\nStone, Edmund, 17\u201323, 25\u201326, 29, 30, 36, 109, 114, 125, 174, 175, 185, 228\n\nsurgery, 177\u201382, 208\u201311, 232\n\nSzczupider, Monica, 2, 239\n\nTafon, Bibila, 133, 136\n\nTchimisso, Raymond, 221\u201324\n\nteeth, 73\n\nTheodore, Mr., 210\u201311\n\nTidwell, Dr. Jim, 209\u201310\n\ntrains, 167\n\ntrees, 61, 98, 143, 157\n\ncutting path through, 98\u201399\n\nfalls from, 198\u2013201\n\nlogging, 45\u201347, 50, 64, 87, 99, 160\u201366\n\ntuberculosis, 11, 118, 145, 247\n\nunemployment, 42\n\nvasectomy, 213, 232\n\nvegetarianism, 7, 88\n\nvigilantism, 42\u201343\n\nvillage, 57\u201360, 85\u2013105, 241\n\ncataract surgeries, 210\u201311\n\nceremonies and traditions, 56\u201360, 92\u201393\n\nchildbirth, 182\u201385\n\ncommunity meeting about chimpanzee sanctuary, 85\u201393\n\nlife and society, 159\u201372\n\nvocalizations, 18\u201319, 27, 31, 72, 118, 120, 121, 145, 154, 179\u201380, 190, 195\u201396, 201, 204, 236\u201338, 240, 246\n\nwages, 55\n\nwater, 64, 66, 67, 74, 79, 97\u201398, 200\n\nwildlife protection and conservation, 14\u201315, 19, 49\u201350, 74, 90, 248\u201349\n\nCameroon government policy, 49\u201350, 74, 76, 85\u201387, 119, 132\u201338, 156, 164, 171, 222, 248\n\nwomen, 52, 54, 56, 48\u201349, 89, 95\u201397, 113\n\nchildbirth, 101\u20134, 182\u201385\n\nmultiple wives, 59, 60, 87\n\nWorld War I, 51\n\nYaound\u00e9, 12\u201313, 18, 23, 39, 64, 67, 69, 76, 83, 104, 105, 108, 109, 110, 114, 171, 172, 177, 185, 224\u201328, 239\n\nYaound\u00e9 Zoo, 18, 22, 133, 136\n\nyogurt, 78, 230\n\nYong River, 64, 99, 160\nPhotographic Insert 1\n\nA loving moment with Launa, who had been kept on a chain until we rescued her.\n\nCredit: Monica Szczupider\n\nDorothy, captive and miserable for decades at Luna Park.\n\nCredit: Sheri Speede\n\nDorothy, finally free of the heavy chain around her neck.\n\nCredit: Agnes Souchal\n\nNama, enjoying a cigarette, entertaining tourists.\n\nCredit: Karl Ammann\n\nNama, in the fresh forest air, observing the world from a tree branch.\n\nCredit: Marie-Eve Lavigne\n\nNama, napping in the sunshine.\n\nCredit: Agnes Souchal\n\nJacky, trapped in a cage at the Atlantic Beach Hotel.\n\nCredit: Sheri Speede\n\nJacky, once deemed \"insane,\" found peace at the sanctuary.\n\nCredit: Marie-Eve Lavigne\n\nThe alpha couple, Nama and Jacky, in a warm embrace.\n\nCredit: Agnes Souchal\n\nVisiting Pepe despite a warning sign on the cage at the Atlantic Beach Hotel.\n\nCredit: Edmund Stone\n\nPepe had been easy to love from the start.\n\nCredit: Leslie Kadane\n\nBecky, delighting in a stuffed panda that Sheri and Edmund had brought to her.\n\nCredit: Sheri Speede\n\nPepe grooms Sheri through the bars of his cage at the Atlantic Beach Hotel.\n\nCredit: Edmund Stone\n\nBecky, the mischief maker, in a tree at the edge of the forest.\n\nCredit: Marie-Eve Lavigne\n\nThe Atlantic Beach Hotel, where Jacky, Pepe, and Becky were kept in small cages for so many years.\n\nCredit: Sheri Speede\n\nRelaxing near Jacky, Pepe, and Becky in their satellite cage, at Sanaga-Yong Center.\n\nCourtesy of the author\n\nAerial view of the camp from a helicopter, set in a remote part of Cameroon.\n\nCredit: Sheri Speede\n\nA raffia cover keeps Sheri's and Kenneth's sleeping tents cool and dry.\n\nCredit: Sheri Speede\n\nSheri with Edmund, who was pivotal in getting the sanctuary started.\n\nCredit: Al Hainisch\n\nKenneth Fonyoy, Sheri's driver and translator, with the ever-faithful Pajero.\n\nCredit: Sheri Speede\n\nSheri (center), French volunteer Laurence Vial (left), and Estelle Raballand (right), just after testing a chimpanzee for TB at the Atlantic Beach Hotel.\n\nCourtesy of the author\n\nSweet and smart Simossa, who was raised around humans, needed a gentle introduction to her chimpanzee community.\n\nCredit: Monica Szczupider\n\nA drink and a laugh with Chief Ibraham of Mbinang on New Year's Day.\n\nCredit: Agnes Souchal\n\nA girl from Bikol 2, bringing bananas for the chimpanzees.\n\nCredit: Lynn Clifford\n\nKenneth with Mado and Gabby. The chimps loved him.\n\nCredit: Sheri Speede\n\nCaregivers Emmanuel and Paulins with a baby group.\n\nCredit: Sheri Speede\n\nBaby Bouboule, who was later adopted by Dorothy.\n\nCredit: Sheri Speede\n\nBikol and Gabby, the first babies rescued, at the Sanaga-Yong Rescue Center.\n\nCredit: Sheri Speede\n\nWaiting for needed traveling papers just after officials confiscated Caroline from a hotel.\n\nCourtesy of the author\n\nGabby, playing like a typical chimpanzee baby.\n\nCredit: Sheri Speede\n\nDorothy tenderly grooms Nama.\n\nCredit: Agnes Souchal\nPhotographic Insert 2\n\nDorothy (in profile) was always kind, patient, and forgiving.\n\nCredit: Marie-Eve Lavigne\n\nAs personnel manager, Raymond Tchimisso was called \"Le Grand Chef\" (\"the Big Chief\") by sanctuary staff.\n\nCredit: Agnes Souchal\n\nAgnes sits beside Marylise and the baby named after Agnes.\n\nCredit: Lynn Clifford\n\nThe staff of the sanctuary. Sheri delivered the baby on the far right. Annarose is being held by her babysitter.\n\nCourtesy of the author\n\nSheri, who is pregnant, cares for Gabby, who is sick.\n\nCourtesy of the author\n\nSheri, six months pregnant, carries Caroline.\n\nCourtesy of the author\n\nSheri, with Annarose, collecting wood chips to use as bedding for the chimps.\n\nCourtesy of the author\n\nThe one-room cabin at Sanaga-Yong Rescue Center that Sheri and Annarose shared.\n\nCourtesy of the author\n\nAnnarose, George, and Sheri, during a brief visit to the camp by George.\n\nCourtesy of the author\n\nDorothy with the chimp named Bikol, whose name means \"the King\" in the Bamv\u00e9le dialect.\n\nCredit: Agnes Souchal\n\nHope tries to stop Simon and Gabby from fighting.\n\nCredit: Jacques Gillon\n\nEmma, Njabeya, Mado, and Future, grooming.\n\nCredit: Agnes Souchal\n\nDorothy, giving Gabby a ride with Bouboule on her left.\n\nCredit: Sheri Speede\n\nGrooming as a pleasurable community event. Manni watches Bouboule grooming Jacky.\n\nCredit: Agnes Souchal\n\nSheri, Tilly, and Shy, who is eating a papaya.\n\nCredit: Monica Szczupider\n\nNama and Emma take pleasure lounging in the dirt.\n\nCredit: Agnes Souchal\n\nOnce Dorothy had adopted him, Bouboule stayed close to his new mother.\n\nCredit: Sheri Speede\n\nNow that he had a mother to nurture and protect him, Bouboule could relax.\n\nCredit: Sheri Speede\n\nLike the chimps did with one another, Sheri established and maintained friendships through grooming.\n\nCredit: Monica Szczupider\n\nSheri and a grown-up Gabby speak to each other through the fence.\n\nCredit: Ann de Graef\n\nOver time, Becky became gentler, and her relationships with both humans and other chimpanzees grew more harmonious.\n\nCredit: Karen Bachelder\n\nDorothy, whose funeral would one day teach the world about the depth of animal feeling.\n\nCredit: Agnes Souchal\n\nDorothy and Bouboule, even when he was an adult, maintained a close relationship.\n\nCredit: Agnes Souchal\n\nThe people of the village came to the camp en masse to pay their respects to Dorothy.\n\nCredit: Monica Szczupider\n\nDorothy's funeral. Sheri cradled her head while the other chimpanzees gathered to view her body.\n\nCredit: Monica Szczupider\n\nJacky became a definitive leader and helped keep the peace among the chimpanzees.\n\nCredit: Carol Yarrow\nAbout the Author\n\nSheri Speede, a doctor of veterinary medicine, collaborated with the Cameroon government to found the Sanaga-Yong Chimpanzee Rescue Center, a forested home for orphans of the illegal ape meat trade. With Edmund Stone, she established In Defense of Animals\u2014Africa (www.ida-africa.org) as a division of IDA International and as the U.S. base of support for the work in Cameroon. Between 1998 and 2011 she lived in Africa full-time; currently, she splits her time between Africa and Portland, Oregon.\n\nVisit www.AuthorTracker.com for exclusive information on your favorite HarperCollins authors.\nCopyright\n\nThis is a work of nonfiction. The events and experiences detailed herein are all true and have been faithfully rendered as the author remembered them, to the best of her ability. Some names, identities, and circumstances have been changed to protect the privacy and\/or anonymity of the various individuals involved.\n\nKINDRED BEINGS: What Seventy-Three Chimpanzees Taught Me About Life, Love, and Connection. Copyright \u00a9 2013 by Sheri Speede. All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. By payment of the required fees, you have been granted the nonexclusive, nontransferable right to access and read the text of this e-book on-screen. No part of this text may be reproduced, transmitted, downloaded, decompiled, reverse-engineered, or stored in or introduced into any information storage and retrieval system, in any form or by any means, whether electronic or mechanical, now known or hereinafter invented, without the express written permission of HarperCollins e-books.\n\nFIRST EDITION\n\nPhotograph on title page courtesy of the author\n\nLibrary of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data\n\nSpeede, Sheri.\n\nKindred beings : what seventy-three chimpanzees taught me about life, love, and connection \/ by Sheri Speede. \u2014 First edition.\n\npages cm\n\n1. Chimpanzees\u2014Behavior. 2. Cognition in animals. I. Title.\n\nQL737.P96S635 2013\n\n599.88515\u2014dc23\n\n2013005848\n\nEPUB Edition SEPTEMBER 2013 ISBN 9780062132505\n\n13 14 15 16 17 RRD(H) 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1\nAbout the Publisher\n\n**Australia**\n\nHarperCollins Publishers (Australia) Pty. Ltd.\n\nLevel 13, 201 Elizabeth Street\n\nSydney, NSW 2000, Australia\n\nhttp:\/\/www.harpercollins.com.au\n\n**Canada**\n\nHarperCollins Canada\n\n2 Bloor Street East - 20th Floor\n\nToronto, ON, M4W, 1A8, Canada\n\n<http:\/\/www.harpercollins.ca>\n\n**New Zealand**\n\nHarperCollins Publishers (New Zealand) Limited\n\nP.O. Box 1\n\nAuckland, New Zealand\n\n<http:\/\/www.harpercollins.co.nz>\n\n**United Kingdom**\n\nHarperCollins Publishers Ltd.\n\n77-85 Fulham Palace Road\n\nLondon, W6 8JB, UK\n\n<http:\/\/www.harpercollins.co.uk>\n\n**United States**\n\nHarperCollins Publishers Inc.\n\n10 East 53rd Street\n\nNew York, NY 10022\n\n<http:\/\/www.harpercollins.com>\n G. S. Waters and R. S. Fouts, \"Sympathetic Mouth Movements Accompanying Fine Motor Movements in Chimpanzees (Pan Troglodytes) with Implications Toward the Evolution of Language, Neurological Research 24(2) (March 2002): 174\u201380.\n\n BBC News, Africa, Cameroon Profile; www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/word-africa-13146029.\n\n Hogan M. Sherrow, Ph.D., \"The Origins of Bullying,\" guest blog on Scientific American, December 15, 2011.\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}}
+{"text":"\n\n\n\nProduced by Linda Cantoni, David E. Brown, Bryan Ness and\nthe Online Distributed Proofreading Team at\nhttp:\/\/www.pgdp.net\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n  ANTONIO STRADIVARI.\n\n\n\n\n  PRINTED BY E. SHORE AND CO.,\n\n  3, GREEN TERRACE, ROSEBERY AVENUE, LONDON, E.C.\n\n\n\n\n[Illustration: HORACE PETHERICK.]\n\n\n\n\n  _\"THE STRAD\" LIBRARY, No. VIII._\n\n\n  ANTONIO STRADIVARI,\n\n  BY\n  HORACE PETHERICK.\n\n  _Of the Music Jury, International Inventions Exhibition,\n  South Kensington, 1885; International Exhibition,\n  Edinburgh, 1890; Expert in Law Courts, 1891;\n  Vice-President of the Cremona Society._\n\n  COPYRIGHT.\n\n  London:\n  \"THE STRAD\" OFFICE, 3. GREEN TERRACE, ROSEBERY AVENUE, E.C.\n  E. DONAJOWSKI, 26, CASTLE STREET, BERNERS STREET, W.\n  D. R. DUNCAN, 186, FLEET STREET, E.C.\n\n  1900\n\n\n\n\nCONTENTS.\n\n\n                                                                  PAGE\n\n  CHAPTER I.\n\n  Date and Place of Birth of Antonio Stradivari--His Instructor\n    in the Art of Violin Making--Peculiarity of His Early\n    Work, Nothing Striking, but Slowly Progressive--Which\n    of the Designs of His Master He was Most Impressed\n    by, and His Own Modifications for Improvement--His\n    Departure from the House of His Master Free to Carry\n    Out His Own Inclinations                                           1\n\n\n  CHAPTER II.\n\n  Details of Further Improvements upon His New Designs--Modification\n    of the Soundholes--The Amati Varnish and\n    Stradivari's--His Secrecy of Method in Working--His\n    Knowledge of What was Wanted and Efforts at Advance\n    in Tone Quality                                                    8\n\n\n  CHAPTER III.\n\n  The Date of the True Stradivarian Individuality--Alterations\n    in Design--Proportions Settled for Good--The Exceptions--The\n    \"Long Strad\"--The \"Inlaid Strads\"--An\n    Acknowledged Master of His Art--Black Edging--The\n    Arching and Channelling--The Brescians, the Amatis and\n    Stradivari                                                        13\n\n\n  CHAPTER IV.\n\n  Lesser Known Patterns of Stradivari--The Treatment of the\n    Scroll by Him--The Individuality and Maturing of the\n    Style--The Purfling                                               19\n\n\n  CHAPTER V.\n\n  Stradivari's Great Success--His So-called \"Grand Epoch\"--His\n    Patrons--His Violins Reputed for Tone when Quite\n    New and Sought After--The Help He Received--His\n    Assistants and Pupils--Parts of the Work Requiring His\n    Individual Touch--The Members of His Family who may\n    have Assisted Him--Stradivari's Varnish--His Imitators            22\n\n\n  CHAPTER VI.\n\n  Some Modifications in Stradivari's Works--Variation in Finish\n    of Details--The Interior of His Violins--The Blocks and\n    Linings--The Bar--Thicknesses of the Tables--Heads or\n    Scrolls of His Different Periods                                  42\n\n\n  CHAPTER VII.\n\n  Stradivari's Tone and System--Those of His Pupils and\n    Assistants--Qualities of Tone Produced in Different\n    Localities                                                        56\n\n\n  CHAPTER VIII.\n\n  The Reputed Golden Period of Stradivari Late in Life--His\n    Later Modifications of Design--Signs of Old Age Appearing--The\n    Help He Received                                                  70\n\n\n  CHAPTER IX.\n\n  Evidences in Stradivari's Work of Old Age--His Death and\n    Burial--Work Left by Him--The Advance in Value of His\n    Work Since His Decease                                            79\n\n\n\n\nLIST OF PLATES.\n\n\n  PORTRAIT OF HORACE PETHERICK                           _Frontispiece_.\n\n  PORTRAIT OF ANTONIO STRADIVARI                       _To face page_  1\n\n  THE HOUSE OF STRADIVARI                                  \"     \"     4\n\n  STRADIVARI'S WORKSHOP                                    \"     \"     6\n\n  PATTERNS OF VIOLINS                                          _page_  6\n\n  ILLUSTRATIONS OF SOUNDHOLES                          _To face page_ 48\n\n  ILLUSTRATIONS OF SCROLLS, FIG. _a._                      \"     \"    50\n\n      \"         \"     \"     FIG. _b._                      \"     \"    52\n\n      \"         \"     \"     FIG. _c._                      \"     \"    54\n\n      \"         \"     \"     FIG. _d._                      \"     \"    56\n\n  CHURCH OF ST. DOMENICO, CREMONA                          \"     \"    80\n\n\n\n\nPREFACE.\n\n\nIt was in the month of April, 1898, when THE STRAD monthly magazine had\ncompleted its eighth year of issue, that the Editor Suggested that then\nmight be an appropriate time for giving a biographical sketch of the\ngreat Cremonese master in serial form, expressed in a manner interesting\nand instructive as possible. With this view I took up the subject with\nsome enthusiasm and proposed to work upon lines which I believed to be\nbound by truth. All references to peculiarities in connection with\nStradivari's designs, construction and purposes should be the result of\nmy own personal observation during many years of experience as\nconnoisseur and expert. In formulating my results of study of a great\nnumber--possibly the majority--of the instruments of the master\nextant--I have abstained as far as possible from using technical terms\nnot readily comprehended by a reader coming newly to the subject, and I\ntrust all persons reading through the matter now collected, added to,\nand presented in book form, will find their time not mis-spent at least\nwhen they arrive at the conclusion.\n\n                                  HORACE PETHERICK.\n  Croydon.\n\n\n\n\nINTRODUCTION.\n\n\nIt was during the second half of the sixteenth century that the violin,\nwith its well recognised combined excellences of artistic form and\nmusical sonority, was started on its way in the world to supply a want\nand prove its fitness as a leading instrument at once and for future\ntimes. So happily was this effected, so complete and mature was it in\nconception, that the advancing intellect of three centuries has proved\nincompetent to insert any fresh and permanent addition to its original\nsimple arrangement. Precisely as it came from the hands of an artistic\nand inventive genius in the city of Brescia so we have it now, unchanged\nin its essential details of construction, although having its natural\nqualities made more evident after undergoing the modern adjustment with\nregard to accessories of detail, or regulation as it is termed. This has\nbeen effected by simply enlarging some parts for the purpose of allowing\nmore freedom and convenience in the execution of more modern music, its\nelaboration of rhythm, besides the extended range of notes in the higher\npositions of the register, necessitating this. As might have been\nexpected in connection with the then still living Renaissance period, on\nthe violin making its appearance it was soon taken in hand by men of\nsuperlative talent, who stamped it with their own individuality in which\nwas a marvellous perception of artistic quality. All that was to be\ndone by means of proportion, form and colour, not setting aside the\nessentials of refined sonority, were combined, each aiding in the grand\ntotal and producing that known and so much sought after at the present\nday--a beautiful Italian violin. For about a century or more many\nItalian liutaros were busily engaged in sending forth under competition\nworks which are now by the cognoscenti treated as unrivalled excellence\nof quality, classical, and the outcome of genius. Each worker being\nanxious to maintain the standard of excellence, or take a step forward\nin the practice of their art, the culminating point seems to have been\nreached when the artist under consideration in the following pages was\nexecuting his masterpieces in Cremona.\n\n\n\n\n[Illustration: ANTONIO STRADIVARI.]\n\n\n\n\nANTONIO STRADIVARI.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER I.\n\nDATE AND PLACE OF BIRTH OF ANTONIO STRADIVARI--HIS INSTRUCTOR IN THE\n  ART OF VIOLIN MAKING--PECULIARITY OF HIS EARLY WORK, NOTHING\n  STRIKING, BUT SLOWLY PROGRESSIVE--WHICH OF THE DESIGNS OF HIS MASTER\n  HE WAS MOST IMPRESSED BY, AND HIS OWN MODIFICATIONS FOR\n  IMPROVEMENT--HIS DEPARTURE FROM THE HOUSE OF HIS MASTER, FREE TO\n  CARRY OUT HIS OWN INCLINATIONS.\n\n\nThe year 1614, although not particularly noticeable at the time for its\nportentous events, was destined to be one of considerable interest to\nthose who are enthusiastic lovers of the delightful quality of sound\nemitted by a certain section--and that only--of a class of stringed\ninstruments which have made the city of Cremona famous throughout the\ncivilised world. For in that city and in that year was born a male\nchild, whose surname was eventually to eclipse by its own refulgence the\nrenown of the city itself. Its paternal name was Stradivari, people\ntrouble themselves very little about the prefix Antonio, common enough\nin Italy, and which was the Christian name given him by his parents. Of\nthese we can only say, that as might be supposed, they were of a\nrespectable portion of the middle class socially considered and from\nwhich have sprung all over the world--with few exceptions--the greatest\nluminaries of the whole firmament of intellect.\n\nOf his private life during manhood we know very little, of his boyhood\nnothing. But we may fairly and truly draw our conclusions that as the\ntime arrived when he was supposed fit for training to fight life's\nbattle, he had already exhibited talent indicative of fitness for that\nartistic branch of industry in which he was hereafter to be the\nworld-wide acknowledged head.\n\nThat his special abilities were thoroughly recognised by his parents\nreceives much emphasis from the fact of his being offered to, and\nreceived as pupil by, Nicolas Amati, greatest of that great family of\nstringed instrument makers. Young Antonio was thus placed in the most\nfavourable situation possible for the fructifying and development of his\nown particular talents. That portion of his life which was spent with\nthe great master of line in violin facture, will, probably, in its\ndetails always remain a blank to us: but there is a lightning like flash\nthrown out by the fact of old Nicolas Amati bequeathing his collection\nof tools, patterns, etc., to Antonio Stradivari, and, be it noticed, not\nto his own son, then over thirty years of age. That the future master of\nhis craft had been a steady and beloved pupil of his great teacher,\nthere is no room for doubt; indeed, steadiness, fixity of purpose and\nhonest intention, are manifested in his work during the whole of his\ncareer. The earliest of his handiwork has become known to us while he\nwas with Nicolas Amati. In this he exhibits extreme delicacy of\nhandling, and seemingly, in the confidence of his master, certain little\nmodifications in the design of the sound holes were permitted, or\nperhaps passed as improvements, but there is nothing eccentric or\nextravagant introduced, a gentle addition, or a trifle less here and\nthere, being the way in which he ever cautiously worked out his idea of\nimprovement, and this latter seems to have been the moving spirit during\nhis whole life.\n\nAt no time do we meet with sudden departures, or what are sometimes\ntermed flashes of genius--the onward progress of his style of design\nand its execution was as unimpassioned as his life was uneventful. When\nwe examine the earliest known work of his hand--it may be observed on\nsome of the late violins of his master--there is plainly perceptible the\nefforts at excelling where at all possible; and if, as is extremely\nprobable--his master was sometimes desirous that the purfling should be\nsomewhat bolder than was to the taste of his refined pupil, this was\ninserted with a delicacy and precision beyond what had been before\ndeemed the acme of finish.\n\nHis departure from the house of Nicolas Amati had to be taken some day\nin the ordinary course of events, and he would then act alone in\ncompetition among the growing swarms of makers who were now busy as bees\nin most parts of Italy. The start is generally reckoned to have occurred\nbetween the years 1664 and 1666, it may have been in 1665, when he had\nreached his twenty-first year.\n\nThat old Nicolas Amati was right in his estimate that young Antonio\nStradivari's natural abilities augured well for his success\nas a liutaro, was now to be proven. With the best possible\nrecommendation--that of being trained by the most distinguished maker of\nthe city--he carried others no less necessary for the long course of\nthought and labour that he was about to enter upon. These were, an\nearnest desire for improvement in all his undertakings, natural,\nindigenous ability for tasteful design and its mechanical execution and\nthe power of steady concentration of the faculties, backed up withal by\na sound, physical constitution in which \"nerves of iron\" must have been\na conspicuous element.\n\nTo those who at the time may have been looking forward with some\nspeculation as to what young Stradivari would put forth now that his\ncourse was free and untrammelled before him, there was probably some\ndisappointment at finding no signs of striking originality, no spasmodic\nstruggles of genius to assert itself by throwing aside those\nindividualities, general and detailed, which were so well marked in the\nwork of his great teacher, and which as pupil he had been studiously\nand conscientiously carrying out. On the contrary, his efforts seem to\nhave been rather to draw the mantle thrown by his master closer around\nhim than to dispense with any part of its protective power. Thus we see\nin his works of this period which have remained to us, very little more\nthan replicas of those of his master in which he for some years perhaps\nhad taken no inconsiderable part. But in doing this, the intention and\npower of selection guided by sound judgment at once asserted itself. He\ndid not take that pattern known to us moderns by the name of \"grand,\"\nand which term was in all likelihood quite unthought of by either\nhimself or his master. Who invented it is a question that may be left\ncomplacently to the bookworm of the future.\n\n[Illustration: THE HOUSE OF ANTONIO STRADIVARI.]\n\nThere is really nothing in the so-called \"grand\" pattern of Nicolas\nAmati that seems to agree happily with that title, it is, on the other\nhand, one in which the love of dainty elegance of contour has been\nallowed almost unrestricted play by its author, and to an extent\nundreamt of before. He perceived, however, that there was a limit, a\nstep further, and disaster would be certain; Nicolas was sufficiently\nwide awake not to take it, but left it for his hosts of imitators, many\nof whom, not gifted with the same perspicuity, \"rushed in where angels\nfear to tread,\" their just reward being laughter and derision. The\nattainment of elegance at the expense of strength and stability was not\nat all in agreement with Stradivari's artistic tastes, and we\naccordingly have no evidence of his having touched the so-called \"Grand\nAmati;\" that which he did take up with was less complex in the\nsubdivision of its curves, and a more simple looking thing altogether.\nTo him it may have seemed to have more of the true characteristic\nquality always accompanying the grand in art, that of simplicity. It was\nthis pattern, and this only, so far as our information goes--that\nStradivari took as the basis on which any future developments should be\ngrounded. He worked upon it for some time seemingly to his own\ncontentment and probably the satisfaction of his patrons, these being\nsufficiently numerous and influential to enable him ere many years had\npassed to think of purchasing a house.[A] This he accomplished in the\nyear 1680, when he was thirty-six years of age. Now be it noted\nStradivari had been working on the simplest of Amati patterns for\nfourteen years, and during that time from his steady industry the number\nof violins, besides other instruments of the family, which left his\natelier must have been very large. The similarity in type and regularity\nof excellence in finished workmanship was almost enough to have\nimpressed the connoisseurs of the day that there was no originality or\nspeculation in the maker, but it was just about this time that the\nindependency of thought began to manifest itself; it was almost as if\nthe acquisition of the freehold property had stimulated the\nself-reliance which had no doubt always been present, but which was now\nto show itself more clearly in his art. He had been in practise long and\nsuccessfully enough to give a right claim to mastership. The veteran\nNicolas Amati, who was now over eighty years of age, had probably been\ndoing little or nothing for some time, and so his pupil, with all his\nadmiration for the retiring chief, felt at full liberty to do really as\nhe liked.\n\n[Illustration: STRADIVARI'S WORKSHOP.]\n\n  [Our illustration of Stradivari's atelier is from a painting by\n  Rinaldi, the sketch for which was made on the premises. The church\n  of St. Domenico, Cremona, was demolished some twenty years since and\n  our illustration is from a photo taken just before the event. The\n  Chapel of the Rosary, being the place where Antonio Stradivari was\n  interred, is the one below and to the right of the tower and lighter\n  in colour than the others.]\n\n[Illustration: No. 1. Grand Nicolas Amati. No. 2. Nicolas Amati pattern\nof Stradivari. No. 3. First independent pattern of Stradivari.]\n\nThe step he took, insignificant enough to the casual observer now, must\nhave been equally so then, but proved one of the most important ever\ntaken in this branch of art, considering the restraints necessarily\nencompassing any efforts at original design. This is perhaps the more\nevident when the main features of the Amati designs and others of the\ntime are analysed. It will be seen that the upper and lower thirds of\nthe design have much in common with each other, and that the middle or\nwaist partakes also of the same characteristics, the whole being a\nseries of full rounded curves, varied as required, to harmonise and\nflow with ease and grace to the squared corners. The slightest possible\nnarrowing or decrease in the size of the upper of the waist curve and a\ncorresponding enlargement of the lower part, served in the hands of\nStradivari to impart a different aspect to the whole pattern. The waist,\nnow less pinched in at the middle, looked longer without being really\nso. The parts above the upper corners and those below the lower ones\nwere modified, the large curves becoming a little flatter just before\nblending with the smaller ones. From these alterations, each one\ntrifling in itself, there resulted what may be called the first or\nearliest Stradivari pattern; in it were the germs of all the succeeding\nones that contributed more and more to the fame of their designer as\nthey appeared. The natural caution or indisposition to throw aside one\npattern before a fair trial of the newest had proved acceptable to his\nnumerous patrons, was possibly the cause of Stradivari's running the\nolder designs alongside the newest creations of his fancy. Thus we find\nthat mixed with the innovations are what he might have called his old\nAmati pattern, probably off the same moulds that he had used when first\nstarting in business on his own account, or even before.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER II.\n\nDETAILS OF FURTHER IMPROVEMENTS UPON HIS NEW DESIGNS--MODIFICATION\n  OF THE SOUND HOLES--THE AMATI VARNISH AND STRADIVARI'S--HIS SECRECY\n  OF METHOD IN WORKING--HIS KNOWLEDGE OF WHAT WAS WANTED, AND EFFORTS\n  AT ADVANCE IN TONE QUALITY.\n\n\nLeaving the consideration in general of the designs of Stradivari's\nearly days, that is, for such a long life, we may look over some of the\ndetails. It is well known to connoisseurs that the handiwork of Nicolas\nAmati was during his best days of the utmost delicacy; in his later work\nwe notice an approach to heaviness in some respects. The very beautiful\nsubdivisions and subtleties of the curves in pattern and modelling began\nto disappear and the purfling became bolder. Young Stradivari, when\nworking on some of his master's violins, seems to have been allowed to\ndo some of this, probably with the material given out by old Nicolas.\nThe work of the young man may be known by its greater decision, such as\nwould be reasonably expected; but after leaving the Amati household the\nnatural bent towards exceeding refinement soon asserted itself. The\npurfling, particularly after some years, is narrower, and inserted with\na precision and ease in its course impossible to excel, even if\napproachable. The mitring at the corners ends in a bent point in the\nmanner introduced by Hieronymus Amati and not, as has been stated, by\nStradivari; the latter carried out the ideas of Nicolas in making it\nvery sharp and this mannerism he continued throughout the whole of his\ncareer.\n\nStradivari from the first made his sound holes more perpendicular than\nthose of his master; after leaving him, they also became more slender\nand the upper and lower wings wider and closer to the opposing curve.\nThe precision and sharpness of the cutting of these parts has become the\nstandard of excellence to which hundreds of Stradivari's imitators of\ndifferent countries and times have striven to attain. It is, perhaps, in\nthese parts of the different instruments--for Stradivari soon got to\nwork on all the four sizes, besides other kinds not played with the\nbow--that his fine nervous system manifests itself, the sureness of his\nknife when passing along from one point to another leaving an edge\nupright and clean as cut glass, yet with a free grace of line never\nexcelled by any master of the renaissance period.\n\nOf the parts the young assistant of Nicolas Amati was allowed to put his\nindividuality to, conspicuously stands the scroll. The one typical of\nNicolas's later days, although free and elegant, yet had a somewhat\nheavier touch about it, possibly the master was gradually losing his\nmuscular power, more necessary to exert in this matter of detail than\nany other. Stradivari began his own type by bringing the first turn from\nthe axis or \"eye\" a little higher up than that of his master; the axis\nitself is a trifle larger and flatter, the edges of the turns are\nsquared off with a machine-like exactness that does not interfere with\nthe ease and flow of line. The peg box is strong and ample, after a few\nyears it became massive, more so occasionally than is to be met with at\nany other time, the grooves down the back are not so deep, the\ntermination or shell likewise and a little wider.\n\nThat Nicolas Amati would by any possibility neglect to duly initiate his\nfavourite pupil in the mysteries and secrecies whereby his work should\nreceive its final crowning adornment, its envelopment in the thin film\nof glory, is not to be thought of. The lustrous solution that was so\nfitting an accompaniment to the dainty designs of the Amatis, was from\nthe first handled with a masterly dexterity and perfect knowledge by\nStradivari. Most of the early work is covered with the orange or amber\ncolour that were the prevailing tints on the early productions of the\nbrothers Amati as well as Nicolas. It is somewhat curious that most of\nthe prominent varnishers among the liutaros of Italy seemed to prefer\nthis in their early days: or was it that the deeper or more intense\ncolours required longer experience in management? Anyhow, so it was, and\nStradivari seems to have been no exception to the general rule. If a\nwell preserved early Stradivari is placed side by side with one of \"the\nbrothers\" or Nicolas Amati's amber coloured specimens, the varnish\nenveloping them will be seen to be precisely alike, whether considered\nin respect of transparency, consistency or thickness. Here is art\nindication that for the best part of a century, these clever artificers\nof Cremona had the same stuff, used it in precisely the same manner, to\na hair's breadth, for they knew there was no going beyond it; every part\nof the process was methodically carried out in compliance with certain\nlaws known to, or instituted by, previous masters. There is an old Latin\nmotto implying that \"the perfection of art is to conceal art\";--it it\nhas often been quoted in illustrative reference, sometimes with sly\nhumour, at others in most serious vein, for instance, when an eminent\njudge's judicial wig was known to have beneath it another of equally\nnatural pretentions, and when quoted as the motto for the year in a\nRoyal Academy catalogue, to be interpreted by the noble army of\n\"rejected outsiders\" as meaning extra efforts that year by the Council\nat concealment or suppression of art that was superior to their own.\n\nBut if there ever was an instance in which this motto could with\nstrictest appropriateness be applied, it was the work of Stradivari.\nMost if not all of the known masters have at times shown by some little\naccident or other, their method of working, thus, notwithstanding the\nextremely careful and finished work of the Amati family, there is\noccasionally to be seen some unobliterated signs--truly very slight--of\ntheir having traced their pattern on the wood for either the sound holes\nor the turns of the scroll. Stradivari left no evidence of this, nor are\nany distinct traces left inside or out that would betray the manner,\nkind of tool, or direction of working. Further, in most beautiful\nspecimens by the \"brothers Amati,\" besides other great varnishers, some\nfaint indications have been seen of imperfectly dissolved resin, but not\nso with Stradivari, who carried out to the letter in this department of\nhis art, that steadfastness of purpose in striving to do in the best\nway, that which his judgment had pronounced to be the best thing to\naccomplish. He further carried this out afterwards in the application of\nthe deeper coloured, and usually softer, varnishes, which when\nmanipulated by other masters of the same school, have frizzled or\ncockled from some cause. This is seldom if at all to be observed in any\nof Stradivari's work, he seems to have taken every possible precaution\nfor preventing change in aspect after the instrument had received his\nfinal touches.\n\nWe may now retrace our steps for awhile and take up another thread of\nthe fabric of Stradivari's individuality, that which is in fact by\ndealers ignored and by players adored. There can be no question that\nduring his minority under the great Amati, young Antonio must have been\nmuch interested in his master's fame for imparting a fine quality of\ntone to his instruments. It must soon have been apparent to him that\nsuccess in his career would not be achieved by progress in the artistic\npart of his work alone. The critics of the day, who must have been\nsufficiently numerous and exacting in accordance with the advanced state\nof the art, would naturally be alive to any subtleties of difference\nbetween the productions of the reigning king of liutaros and his\nsuccessor. The onward progress of musical composition and increase in\nthe numbers of public performers, virtuosi, and others, demanded from\nan artificer taking this position, at least equal skill in producing\nthose essential qualities for which the city of Cremona had become\nfamous. Old master and young man probably had many a talk over what was\nbest to be done to keep pace with the increasing requirements of the\nmoment, and the time approaching when the hand of the former in the\ncourse of nature would lose its cunning. The hour came, the man was\nready. Stradivari started forth from his master's house with full\nconfidence in having a true and good grasp of the wants of the moment\nand those looming in the future. In the good patronage which soon came\nto him, was contained the assurance that his estimate, although formed\nso early, was perfectly correct; thenceforward he saw no reason for\nalteration in the type of acoustical quality that distinguishes all of\nhis instruments, and that which he had once for all fixed upon.\n\nBriefly the acoustical quality of his instruments may be described as a\nfurther development of the tone brought to such a high degree of\nexcellence by the great Amati; an increase in the volume and energy,\nwith more equality of scale, while retaining all the other qualities\nthat had caused players and listeners alike to be delighted, and which\nhad given such renown to the great family of liutaros in Cremona.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER III.\n\nTHE DATE OF THE TRUE STRADIVARIAN INDIVIDUALITY--ALTERATIONS IN\n  DESIGN--PROPORTIONS SETTLED FOR GOOD--THE EXCEPTIONS--THE \"LONG\n  STRAD\"--THE \"INLAID STRADS\"--AN ACKNOWLEDGED MASTER OF HIS\n  ART--BLACK EDGING--THE ARCHING AND CHANNELLING--THE BRESCIANS, THE\n  AMATIS AND STRADIVARI.\n\n\nWe now resume our consideration of the progressive development of the\nStradivarian design as exhibited in the instruments of 1680 to 1690 or a\nlittle later. At the earliest of these dates the complete independency\nor self consciousness of power, as a master liutaro, is already\nperceptible. There is no possibility of these violins having been made\non the moulds used during his bachelorship. People sometimes speak of\nthese instruments as being \"Amatise,\" which is great nonsense; had\nStradivari died somewhere between 1680 and 1690, they would have been\nrapturous in their admiration of his originality and widely separated\nideas from those of the Amati, but as he lived many years on and gave\nforth many more manifestations of his own individuality, the likeness of\nthese 1680 and 1690 to old Nicolas is eagerly searched for and often\nsupposed to be evident. It was at this time that Stradivari probably\nmade more new moulds or blocks on which to construct, than at any other.\nWith some few exceptions those that were now being made could be used\nfor any of his violins during the remainder of his career. The average\nproportions remain the same, the differences are minute in measurement,\nnotwithstanding their effectiveness in helping to a different expression\nin the designs. The exceptions referred to and made between the above\ndates are of a diverse kind. There is the well-known \"long Strad,\" of\nwhich one author has said that it \"has received the title,\" \"not from\nincreased length, but from the appearance of additional length which its\nnarrowness gives it, and which is particularly observable between the\nsound holes.\" The actual measurements of this pattern are, length\n14-3\/16 inches by greatest width 8 inches bare as contrasted with the\nordinary 14 by 8-1\/8; it will therefore be evident at once that there is\na positive increase in length, and a decrease in width. These violins\nare not very rare as compared with the total work of Stradivari extant.\nAnother variation, but now very seldom seen, is a pattern that may be\nsaid to be somewhat opposite in its tendencies, as it is a trifle\nshorter, but of full average width, with a proportionately wider waist.\nThis type of violin must have been sufficiently plentiful at one time,\nas one of the first Gaglianos made a deliberate copy of it; that is, so\nfar as his Neapolitan idiosyncrasy and pride would permit. Besides these\nwere the \"inlaid Strads,\" instruments of the greatest beauty in all\nrespects, but having instead of the ordinary purfling a broad black\nfillet and diamond or lozenge shaped ivory insertions alternated with\nsmaller circular ones; they are further embellished with a floral\ninlaying round the sides or ribs and also on the sides and back of the\nscroll. These instruments--Stradivari is known to have made a quartette\nof them for the Spanish court--are of the greatest rarity. They are said\nto be all known, but this statement seems open to question when coupled\nwith the assertion that Stradivari made other similar but very small\nviolins. The known ones are of very full size, the parties ordering them\nat the time possibly being alive to the advantages of quantity as well\nas quality. Public opinion since the time these were made has not grown\nin appreciation of the additional ornamentation. The violin pure and\nsimple, with its single line of purfling only as it left the hands of\nthe first master of the art of Brescia, is the one which has found the\nmost lasting favour with connoisseurs and the public generally.\nDecorative additions, in various and more or less eccentric or\nextravagant styles, have been introduced from time to time by\nenterprising liutaros of different countries, but the discerning portion\nof the public will have none, and thereby pronounce the violin to be an\nunfit subject for extra clothing; beauty unadorned, adorned is most, is\na figure of speech quite applicable to the simplicity of the violin as a\nwork of art.\n\nStradivari, who had now acquired--at the period 1680-90--a standing as\nan acknowledged master of his craft, showed in his handiwork a decided\nleaning in consonance with this, as--excepting these \"inlaid Strads\"--he\ncarefully refrained from introducing any of the little tricks, or\nfanciful alteration of details, that so many, even of his own\ncountrymen, seem to have been led to affix to their productions. After\nall, the \"inlaid Strads\" were probably so made, not at their maker's\nsuggestion, but by desire of the patrons holding a high social position.\nDouble purfled violins seem never to have left his hands, as none appear\nto be extant and no mention is made of any.\n\nThere is one particular part of the finishing of the violin which calls\nfor remark, and in the absence of evidence to the contrary must be put\nto the responsibility of Stradivari. This is known as the \"black\nedging.\" It cannot come properly under the term decoration, as it has no\nvariety in its management and consists only of the blackening of the\nsquaring off of the junction of the ribs; likewise at the edges of the\nturns of the scroll and continued down the front and back of the peg-box\nto the shell. Its first appearance is not possible to determine and will\nprobably remain unknown. Nicolas Amati did not introduce it, his work\nbeing of the kind that had no accommodation, or sufficient surface for\nit. Once begun, however, Stradivari seems to have persistently held to\nit. There is no proof positive that it was henceforth his invariable\nrule to put this kind of finish. The parts concerned are the first to\nreceive and show signs of wear; therefore an instrument must be very\nfresh indeed to have much \"black edging\" left. Viewed from an artistic\nstandpoint it cannot be considered an improvement, or any adornment,\nfor, however neatly it is executed, the work of hand beneath is more or\nless obscured. Further, the eye of the connoisseur is distracted by it,\nand the neatness of the work is not seen to advantage until the black\nhas become nearly effaced. Other makers of renown, besides Stradivari,\nadopted this method of putting the final touches to their work, Giuseppe\nGuarneri, I.H.S., Carlo Bergonzi, and other later makers, among them\nStorioni.\n\nConcerning the rise of the arching, or modelling of the periods above\nreferred to, there has been much erroneous supposition in connection\ntherewith. That all the early \"Strads\" were of high build, that the\nprogress was gradual towards the \"flat model,\" that Stradivari was\nfeeling his way and becoming enlightened as to the necessity of reducing\nthe arching in order to obtain a fuller and more telling tone with\nbetter ring; further, that the channelling or \"scooping\" near the border\nwas gradually reduced for the same reasons, and that these things did\nnot reveal themselves at once, but gently dawned upon his perceptions;\nmoreover, that he earnestly communed with nature, made numberless\nexperiments concerning her acoustical and other mysteries, and that the\noutcome was faintly looming in the horizon and soon was to blossom forth\nas the golden period, with grand pattern, all of which is really nothing\nmore than grand \"tomfoolery\" spread abroad a generation since by critics\n\"having an eye\" only to such things that seemed to them agreeable with\nthe conditions and surroundings of money getting commodities.\n\nThese worthies were forgetful of the fact that the different varieties\nof flat and high model, channelling deep or none at all, long waists\nand short waists, sound holes long, short, near or wide apart, had been\nwell, if not exhaustively treated by the artists of the Brescian school.\nTo assume that those refined artificers, the Amati family and their\ndisciples, were not conversant with everything for or against the use of\na flat model would be crediting them with but little mental capacity,\nparticularly in respect of their perceptive faculties. Both Stradivari\nand his teacher must have been well acquainted with the different high\nand low modelling of Gasparo da Salo, as well as that of his pupil\nMaggini, and others. He must have been aware that his own most generally\nused model of medium elevation, with slight exceptions both ways, was\nanticipated by each in turn. This, by the bye, disposes of any theory\nthat Stradivari's distinctive quality of tone resulted, as is often\nstated, from his adopting a different elevation to what had been in use\nbefore. It may be fairly argued that if it had been true, as some\nwriters have stated, that the flatter the model the better and stronger\nis the tone, then Stradivari would have been less gifted with sound\njudgment than he has been hitherto credited with; some of his early\nmodellings, 1680-90, being as flat, if not more so, than any known\nduring his whole career. For his selection of the particular degree of\nrise the reasons--for there were several--are not difficult to\nassign:--firstly, it was in consonance with his effort at achieving the\nmost harmonious result--artistically in his designs; the less determined\nrise in the arching being more agreeable with the disposition of line in\nthe pattern that he had been settling down to--posterity has\nemphatically endorsed his views in this respect; secondly, having\nnoticed that a more shallow curve in the arching was quite favourable\nfor the exhibition of gracefulness, while it was accompanied by more\nstrength and permanency, with less liability during time and usage to\ndevelop a stony or bumpy appearance. But while thus looking acutely\nforward to future eventualities in one direction, Stradivari was no less\ncareful to avoid reducing his model too much. Knowing the soundpost\nwould be certainly shifted occasionally, he saw in the very flat model a\nsource of danger lurking in the difficulty of seeing and getting at the\npost, even with the usual appliances at the command of the professional\nrepairer or regulator, while the sound holes would be much more liable\nto damage than when the sufficiently raised arching permits a fair use\nof the \"post setter.\" He was also careful, while keeping the depth and\nwidth of the channelling within reasonable bounds, not to let the\narching spring or commence too near the border, as the screw cramps of\nthe repairer, especially the large sized ones used in olden times would,\nunless most skilfully and cautiously applied, soon register the progress\nof the repairer on the varnish to the destruction of the beauty of\nappearance as a whole. These, then, appear to be the cogent reasons for\nthe adoption of the medium rise in the modelling by Stradivari.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER IV.\n\nLESSER KNOWN PATTERNS OF STRADIVARI--THE TREATMENT OF THE SCROLL BY\n  HIM, THE INDIVIDUALITY AND MATURING OF THE STYLE--THE PURFLING.\n\n\nDuring the period of 1690-1700 the modification of parts of the pattern\nand details was slight but nevertheless important. Occasionally the\nupper corners drooped a little more, and when they are now seen in fine\npreservation seem rather long in comparison with later ones, but they\nare not really so, it being in the expression no doubt arising from the\ngreater robustness in the treatment of the corners which now were\nbecoming in aspect more square, but with the usual peculiarities\nretained. There was also about this time another modification sent\nforth, a pattern that has the waist curve narrowed in a trifle at about\ntwo-thirds of the way upward, causing a slight suspicion of a wish to\nreturn to his old Nicolo Amati period, but it seems to have been only\nmomentary, and beautiful as these violins are, they do not appear to\nhave been repeated. They are in consequence very rare.\n\nAccompanying these little variations there was a slight change in the\ntreatment of the scroll; it became less massive, while all the principal\nfeatures of detail were retained, the grooves at the back were deepened\na little as they ran down to the shell, which last was made a degree\nless shallow. In the earlier part of this period the general contour has\na little more flow in the disposition of line, but later on this was\nchecked, as if not meeting with the full approval of the master, whose\ngoal of ambition was kept steadily in view from the first--that of\nintroducing a design that should worthily rank as classical, and in its\ndetails and execution be such, that no weak spot or point of failure\nshould be discernable under the closest scrutiny. The sound holes now\nreceived further attention and, it might be almost said, for the last\ntime, as they were continued to the end of Stradivari's career with no\nparticular or intentional modification. In length there was no\nalteration, but the design seems more condensed, more compact, yet\nslightly wider in the opening. This is all accomplished without losing\nthe smallest touch of grace, and although firm in the extreme it has the\nopposite of any tendency to hard geometrical form. Stradivari seems to\nhave had some feeling of contentment with it, for although little\ndifferences of measurement in minute particulars occur afterwards, no\nmodification in character is attempted. He was most exact in imparting\nhis own individuality in every instance. It is in this department of the\nliutaro's art that the imitators or forgers of Stradivari's work have\nfound such an insurmountable block in the way of success. The\nimpossibility hitherto of imparting the requisite identical expression,\nnotwithstanding the most careful examination and tracing, constantly\nadds force to an old saying among dealers that \"to make a perfectly\nsuccessful imitation of Stradivari he must be a Stradivari himself.\" In\nthis view it is obvious that a maker having the sure consciousness of\npossessing the power of the master would no longer make tracings of him,\nbut bring out his own originals. Among the scores and scores of\nimitators, some of them having achieved considerable renown as such, the\nbest of them have not succeeded further than giving their own impress to\ntheir tracing of the master's work. This is quite apart from their\nfailure to reproduce the master touch in other branches of the liutaro's\nart.\n\nIn the composition of his purfling he had been, before the periods under\nconsideration, somewhat unsettled, but he now seemed to have come to a\nconclusion that the middle or light coloured portion, should be a\ntrifle wider than the dark or outer portion. This was also for a\npermanency with but little variation. The three parts are probably of\nthe same kind of wood, with the outer portion darkened by artificial\nmeans and not wood with its natural colour, as in so many early works.\nBut there was no change in the manner of insertion. There was the same\nfirm, upright handling of the purfling tool, which, as in his early\nperiod, was sent along with unerring precision and cut its way through\nhard and soft wood cleanly and equally well. In this respect of\nmechanical dexterity, the great master has had few rivals; he was\napparently equally at home in subduing to his requirements a log of\ntough, curled maple, as in gently reducing the exquisitely refined\ngrowth of pine that was to act as a soundboard in throwing out the\nluscious quality of tone associated with his name. It was not always so\namong the most eminent of Italian liutarios. Many of them have left\nunmistakeable evidence of impatience when trying to overcome the\nresistance of the tortuously grained maple in turn with the much softer\nand straight threaded pine. There was a peculiarity connected with the\npurfling that must not be overlooked, and that is, its passing through\nthe little pegs at the upper and lower part of the instrument, and which\nis most carefully attended to by modern close imitators, so that people\nshould be convinced, if possible, that their's is the real thing.\nStradivari, however, may not have conceived the idea of there ever being\nin the future the swarms of his imitators, who, for the last century,\nhave been but too evident in consequence of the daily increasing\nadmiration or even reverence for his work. It is not surprising,\ntherefore, that for some reason known only to himself, he, on rare\noccasions, did not run the purfling through the peg, or to be more\nstrictly correct, the peg was inserted clear of the purfling line. That\nthis peg peculiarity is no point of recognition may be inferred from the\nfact that Stradivari's teacher, Nicolas Amati, treated it in like\nmanner, besides several of his contemporaries.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER V.\n\nSTRADIVARI'S GREAT SUCCESS--HIS SO-CALLED \"GRAND EPOCH\"--HIS\n  PATRONS--HIS VIOLINS REPUTED FOR TONE WHEN QUITE NEW AND SOUGHT\n  AFTER--THE HELP HE RECEIVED--HIS ASSISTANTS AND PUPILS--PARTS OF THE\n  WORK REQUIRING HIS INDIVIDUAL TOUCH--THE MEMBERS OF HIS FAMILY WHO\n  MAY HAVE ASSISTED HIM--STRADIVARI'S VARNISH--HIS IMITATORS.\n\n\nThe period 1700-15 or thereabouts, found Stradivari not only an\nacknowledged master of his craft but among his contemporaries recognised\nas the head. His business had been all along steadily flourishing, his\npatrons had been of high social position, some most illustrious, others\nactually royal. Among the latter the King of Poland stands out in relief\nas having specially sent an envoy to Cremona and that he had to wait\nthree months before he could return with his commission fulfilled.\nWhether he ran in danger of being decapitated for \"hanging about\"\nCremona so long is not known, but one thing is certain, that patrons\nroyal, illustrious, of high social standing and refined tastes, wanted\nthe newly made violins of Stradivari that could never have been played\nupon, almost in the absolute sense of the term, while they could have\neasily obtained well seasoned, well tried instruments of makers who had\nlived long before. Here is \"a nut to crack\" for those who persistently\nassert the necessity and efficacy of age and use to bring tone to\nmaturity. If any further evidence should be thought necessary to\nsupport the assumption of the equal excellence of the new Stradivarius\nwith those that remain with us at the present time, it is contained in\nthe praise of those who heard and used them when quite fresh, declaring\nthe agreeableness of the tone to be beyond rivalry.\n\nStradivari may be said to have been now in the enjoyment of the\nplentitude of his powers. Success was attendant upon him without\nintermission. Tradition says he was reputed in the locality as\npositively rich, but we do not hear of his aspiring to civic honours as\nalderman, vestryman, guardian or councilman--common or otherwise--as the\noutcome of the possession of full coffers. Stradivari simply went on\nmaking fiddles. In a position to secure the best materials in the\nrespect of quality, artistically and acoustically considered, he put the\nbest workmanship upon them; also he further selected the best help\nwhich, in common with all eminently successful artists, he must have\nfound it necessary to employ.\n\nWe now arrive at a point when the question may be fairly put, how much\nhelp did he have, and of what kind was it?\n\nAs Stradivari left no record behind as to the number of pupils trained\non his premises, or assistants who came perhaps as improvers, we are\nleft to do our best in the way of inference. In the first place we may\ntake up the acknowledged fact of his having turned out an enormous\nnumber of musical instruments during his very lengthy career; and it\nmust be remembered that his energies were not centred alone in turning\nout magnificent violins, but that the viola, violoncello, double-bass,\nbesides some of the then not quite obsolete viols of different sizes and\nfantastic forms, received his attention. These had to be produced at the\nrequirements of his patrons, of whom many had probably not yet\ncompletely emerged from the misty musical atmosphere with which the\nfanciful forms with florid decorations seemed so intimately bound.\nFurther, the fittings for them had to be made presumably on the\npremises of the maestro and not as at present in foreign parts. At the\ntime there was not existent that extensive and special manufacture of\nbridges, tailpieces, tail-pins, and pegs that forms a large and\nsignificant branch of commerce at the present day. That the violin\nbridge especially was a production of the Stradivari establishment and\nnot \"made in Germany,\" is sufficiently indicated by its present form\nhaving been introduced by Stradivari. On comparing it with the different\npatterns of bridges that had been issued by the previous masters of\nCremona, it will be seen at once that the master mind of Stradivari had\neffected improvements that have their counterpart in the designs of his\nviolin patterns. We may notice the successful efforts at stability with\nsimplicity, just enough of detail that would lend itself in completing\nthe harmony of the whole design, while dispensing with every unnecessary\nangle or curve. Of the fingerboard and tailpiece we cannot speak in the\nsame terms; the master seems to have accepted the manner of treating\nthese parts as handed down by preceding generations from Gasparo da\nSalo, and thought there was no need for alteration. The design of the\ninlaid ornamentation on both these accessories, was, of course, of a\nkind with which the house of Stradivari would be identified and the\nexecution also in accordance. Of the tailpin and pegs, with the\ndecoration of both, the same may be said.\n\nAll these particulars point to considerable time spent in direct\nsupervision after the preliminary designs had been made by the\nprincipal. This would reduce the available time for direct manual labour\nat his disposal. There would occasionally be some time spent in the\ndiscrimination for purchasing of particular choice kinds of pine and\nmaple, these requiring the closest attention. Whether samples were\nbrought for Stradivari's inspection by agents or their principals, or\nwhether the maestro took journeys to particular districts where the\nexact kind of wood suitable to his requirements was to be had, we know\nnot, but there seems to be much probability that the latter was his\nmode of obtaining that splendid growth of pine, both in appearance and\ntone-producing quality, with which he brought about such beautiful\nresults. This, when obtained, had to be carefully stored away until such\ntime as it might be required for immediate use. The cutting down and\nsawing up into lengths for different instruments would not be such as a\nmaker with less patronage would personally engage in; we can therefore\nplace this aside from the time consuming duties. There is, in the\nforegoing, enough and much over for reasonable inference that with a\nmaster, such as Stradivari, having the refined taste and adaptability\nfor work, there was a considerable amount, if not all, of the merely\nmechanical work done according to his command or under his eye. This\nwould naturally enough increase in proportion as the business connection\ngrew. There would be in this nothing differing from what has been\nhabitual with eminent professors in all branches of art; as far back as\nPhaedias, Praxitelles and Appelles of the ancient classic Greek period.\nLater on it is well known that many of the masterpieces of the\nRenaissance period had much work upon them other than that immediately\nfrom the master's own hand. If this were not permissible, the number of\nthe grandest creations of artistic genius would be most seriously\nlimited. Raphael and his contemporaries, Rubens and Rembrandt, besides\nmany other masters, are well known to have had numerous pupils in their\nstudios engaged in carrying out ideas previously determined upon and\ndrawn out for their guidance. These assistants were gradually drawn into\nthe way and habit of thinking of their masters, and on leaving them,\ntheir own individuality or natural tendency uniting with what they had\nabsorbed of their master's manner, the blending of the two became a\nfresh production of style. If we take this as our guide in summing up\nthe probable amount of help that was drawn upon by Stradivari during his\ncareer, especially that part at which, in our consideration of him and\nhis works, we had arrived, it cannot possibly lead us far from the\nactual facts. Taking into account the known pupils or assistants who\nreceived the benefits of personal instruction from Antonio Stradivari,\nthey are more numerous than we can affix to the name of any other\nmaster, as it must be borne in mind that Stradivari had initiated a\nfresh style, the influence of which was destined to be of a far more\nreaching character than any hitherto coming to the front. The\nStradivarian school became the foremost, most numerous and soon was to\nbe the most imitated, of all. Among the earliest of his pupils (the\nprecise number or even the names of all will never be known), may be\nplaced Alexander Gagliano of Naples, working with him about the period\nof 1680 and some years later, one or two others of the Gagliano family\nmay have been workmen in the Stradivari atelier. Lorenzo Guadagnini,\nJoannes Battista, his son and Josef of Pavia all claim to have lent a\nhelping hand and received instruction, and there is nothing in their\nwork that is in contradiction. The first became a great master of the\nMilanese school and was afterwards rivalled by his son, who was more\ncosmopolitan and not identified with one place in particular. I cannot\ninclude the names of Montagnana or Gobetti, which have been frequently\nreferred to by various authors as pupils of Stradivari; a close\nexamination of their style and workmanship leads to a different fountain\nof inspiration, notwithstanding which they both unquestionably were at\none time influenced by the work of the great Cremonese artist as it\narrived in Venice. Of Carlo Bergonzi, a great master, it is a well\nestablished fact that he worked with Stradivari and probably did much\nmore for him as assistant than is generally acknowledged, but that he\nwas originally a pupil is not in keeping with the early and varying\npatterns which have gone under his name. Further on it will be necessary\nto refer to this luminary of the art. We must not forget the two sons of\nStradivari, Franciscus and Omobono, who received their initiation at the\nhands of their father and worked with him for many years, carrying on\nthe business after his decease. Rumour has brought forth another name\nas pupil or workman with Stradivari, and whose identification with some\nfine specimens of the liutaro's art may yet prove an interesting study.\nA relative of the master, we should expect to find his work strongly\ntinged with the Stradivarian characteristics. His tickets are said to\nhave been all removed in very early times after their insertion and that\none only is known to have been preserved intact. Of the great rival--in\npublic estimation--of Stradivari, Joseph Guarnerius, I.H.S., it can only\nbe said there is not a single feature in his handiwork, style or tone,\nagreeing with the supposition that he at any time was his pupil or\nassistant, moreover, having by me distinct evidence of his pupilage of\nanother maker of a different school, will of course prevent the\ninclusion of his name.\n\nThe number of pupils and assistants who worked with or under the\nsupervision of Stradivari in his prime, might, if we knew all, be more\nconsiderable than we should be prepared to expect. The proportion in the\nusual course of nature, of those able to single out a path for\nthemselves, prove their individuality superior to their fellows or\neventually become of great eminence, must of necessity have been\ncomparatively small. There may have been many working \"on and off\" under\nthe eye of the master at different periods who were without ambition or\nthe talent to rise above the position of humble helpers among their more\ntalented brethren, born to be assistants only, and, in consequence,\nnever heard of outside the studio. These, and the before mentioned, must\nall have had something to do with the instruments their master was\nsending forth into the world; the more clever ones being intrusted with\nsome responsibility on particular work. It is not impossible to fix upon\nthe parts the assistants probably would be allowed to work upon. In the\nfirst place, all the designing, drawing out and tracing down of the\npattern on to the mould, or on to the unprepared blocks that were to be\ncarved into necks, scrolls, or marked out for ribs, would be\nStradivari's.\n\nThe different stages succeeding each other would be most likely as\nfollows--firstly, the master having been commissioned by a wealthy\npatron to make of his best pattern and highest finish a quartet of\ninstruments, he would take from his store of choice pine and sycamore,\nwhich he had taken so much trouble and skill in collecting together,\nsuch pieces that appeared to him suitable for the instruments to be\nconstructed. The upper and lower tables had previously been hewn or sawn\nto size, then the jointed back and front, if both were so, planed\ncarefully and made ready for the master's work, which would first come\non to the wood as a careful tracing from his original design. Sometimes\nthe tracing down may have been done by some advanced pupil or competent\nassistant. We may fairly assume the presence here of one or two, if not\nmore, assistants, besides a pupil or improver. One would be selected for\nthe bow-sawing of the pattern, another afterwards receiving it for\nroughly gouging out according to measurements at hand or marked by the\nmaster. Another had meanwhile the bending of the thin slips for the ribs\nto the necessary curves, or working down the corner and end blocks that\nhad been affixed to the mould. Another, if not the same, might have been\ncarrying out the first stages of the working of the scroll, or perhaps a\nvery competent and trusty assistant would be allowed, under the eye of\nthe master, to work on more advanced forms, making ready for the final\nor necessary touches of the master hand. The sound holes may have been\ntraced down and even the upper and lower circular holes bored. Further,\nit is not impossible, that after the modelling back and front had been\nsufficiently advanced, the glueing and screwing down was intrusted to an\nassistant, and even some of the finishing up with glass paper or other\nmaterial in use at the time and place, of parts of minor importance.\nThese are, perhaps, the majority of the details in which the\nindividuality of the handwork of the master was not obligatory in\nevidence.\n\nIn summing up what could have been done by other hands than those of the\nbusy master, it would be extremely difficult, if not impossible, unless\nwe admit its presence, to account for the extremely large output of the\ngreat Cremonese, even when taking fully into the balance his very\nindustrious habits and extraordinary long working career. Assuming the\nabove view to be reasonable, the number of new instruments which left\nthe Stradivari house must have been very large. It is well known that\nthe master undertook the repairs of musical instruments, which\ndepartment would require some personal attention or supervision, even if\nactually executed by his assistants or his two sons, Francescus and\nOmobono, who, when their father died, were not very young, the first\nbeing sixty-five years of age, and the other fifty-five. They had most\nlikely worked with their parent for about forty years and must have done\nmuch of making and repairing, that is, crediting them with some of their\nfather's industrial tendencies. Stradivari had two other sons by his\nfirst wife, Francesca Ferraboschi, one, Giulio, died 1707, aged forty;\nthe other, Allesandro, in 1732, aged fifty-five. Nothing seems to be\nknown as to whether they were brought up by their father in his own\ncraft or not; if they were, there was time for them also to have done\nmuch work with him. There was a son by his second wife, Antonia\nZambelli, who died 1727, aged twenty-four, who under the same\ncircumstances may have helped. We have thus five sons of Stradivari,\nwho, if they were all taught the art, may have been working together,\nbesides other assistants at the same time. Carlo Bergonzi has already\nbeen mentioned, but although he came late into the field, yet there\nseems a slight indication that he may have had to supply the place of\nothers who had departed for the carrying out of their own schemes.\n\nHaving so far roughly estimated the kind and amount of work, not\nnecessarily his own, on the violins that were sent forth by Antonio\nStradivari, we may glance at the particulars of detail that demanded his\nhandiwork and that solely. That there were keen connoisseurs living at\nthe time of Stradivari, as also in the previous century and earlier,\nthere is no room for doubting. Workers in art reduce their inspirations\nto tangible forms helped by colour that people may see them and,\ncomparing them with what may have gone before and have been executed at\nthe same time, pass judgment on them. In like manner Stradivari, like\nother masters before him, knew that his handiwork would be scrutinised\nas well as the tone of his instruments. It was therefore obligatory that\npurchasers should know his work, that in fact his sign manual should be\nalways present. Contemporaneous with him were makers, artists, who had\nbeen initiated in the mysteries of the manufacture and application of\nthe wonderful varnishes which have since by their qualities made them\nfamous throughout the civilised world. There was nothing, however, in\nthe material or its application that could, under the closest\nexamination, be discerned as different to what might be seen on the best\ninstruments of the Amatis--these must have been numerous at the\ntime--the Ruggieris or the Venetian masters, but these did not in the\napplication invariably work up to a certain standard of excellence,\nwhereas Stradivari always did. There was a consummate beauty of result\nin this branch of the liutaro's art known at the time to many, beyond\nwhich it seemed not possible to go. It was, therefore, more in the\nconstruction and workmanship then, that the sign manual was perceptible.\nWith this view Stradivari seems to have been careful to let the evidence\nof no hand but his own be seen in parts that were sure to be closely\nscrutinised as evidence.\n\nStanding first perhaps in importance would be the cutting of the sound\nholes, the design and careful drawing of these being completed, and cut\nin metal--it is said thin copper was used by him--they may have been\nmostly traced down by himself on the pine of the upper table prepared\nand in readiness to receive it, although this part without much danger\ncould have been done by an intelligent and experienced assistant. The\ncutting and finishing with the thin keen edged knife, however, must be\nhis, the slightest shaving over the traced line or not quite up to it\nwould be sufficient to impart a totally different character to the\nwhole. There is no part of the violin in which the sum total of the\nnative characteristics and ability are shown to such exactitude as the\ncutting of these all important and expressive openings. In those of\nStradivari is to be seen the same firmness of purpose and strict curbing\nof the fancy from proceeding too far, or allowing stability to be over\nbalanced by love of gracefulness, as seen in the designs of his eminent\nmaster. To allow no weak part to be perceptible; strength of line with\nsufficient grace, admirable proportion and balance, and yet withal\nsufficient expression of mobility and freedom from heaviness were each,\nseemingly in turn, given the best attention by the great genius of\nCremona. It is not using extravagant language when they are termed the\neyes of the violin, for it is to these that experienced connoisseurs\nturn their attention at once when inspecting a violin of character newly\nplaced before them. Cut by an Italian, cut by a Frenchman, by a German,\nby a nobody in particular or who understood nothing about it, are the\nthoughts arising in the mind. Each country has its peculiar and native\nrendering of every sound hole that was first designed in Italy. This\ntendency to impart their own national characteristics by each native\nworkman, runs parallel with that in pictorial art in the transferring to\nvarious materials the impressions received after study of the original\nor animated reality. To many the sound holes of an Italian gem of the\nhighest class are but sound holes that are more neatly done or prettier\nthan usual. To others they will be the expression in that simple form of\nan exquisitely acute perception of what will excite pleasurable emotions\nwith regard to delicately balanced proportions, graceful flow of line,\nand freedom from all appearance of effort. That there is much in little\nconcerning this, is proved by the non-success of all foreign copyists\nto give a reproduction of the Italian native touch to these details.\nThat this is not an overdrawn description, may be seen on a close\ncomparison between an original Stradivari of almost any period and the\nmost closely traced, laboriously studied and keenly cut sound holes of\nany of the modern imitators. All have failed signally over these two\napparently simple openings on the surface of the upper table.\n\nNotwithstanding this, it may be said there are scarcely two violins\nalike in respect of expression of these adornments of the structure,\neach instrument is made to convey its own impression, or display its\nparticular kind of beauty. There is a difference, scarcely to be\nmeasured mathematically, that in one will be suggestive of masculine\nstrength, while in another it will be exquisite feminine grace.\n\nIn none of the imitations of the master are there seen these qualities\nexpressed in the same degree and kind. It has often been said, and there\nis more than a substratum of truth in the remark, that, \"to copy a\nStradivari successfully\"--of course, in the fullest sense of the\nword--\"the copyist must be a Stradivari himself.\" There might,\nappropriately, be an addition put to this, namely, that a man who could\nwork up to the dizzy height of his ambition in this way, would not copy,\nbut make originals.\n\nAnother detail of the workmanship always attended to by the master\nhimself, was that of the purfling. Much has been said of the wonderful\naccuracy of Stradivari's purfling and that as a purfler he stands\nunrivalled. This must not be taken in the widest sense, as there have\nbeen, and are living, scores and scores of makers who have cut a rut\nround the border of a fiddle as sharply, and inserted the three\nconventional lines of dark and light wood as deftly as it could be by\nthe hand of any man, be he named Amati, Stradivari, Ruggieri, Tononi, or\nMontagnana. There is a degree of evenness and keenness of cutting and\nclean insertion beyond which it is not possible to go. But there the\nimitators come to a full stop. Without the inventive power which will\nmake this curious, simple, yet wonderful little fillet, aid in giving\nthe desired expression to the whole work, the imitator is not--as people\nsay nowadays--in the race. The finishing of the border, the corners and\nthe delicate and often very elaborate system of curves around the sound\nholes, the hollowing of the wings of these latter, and the final\nsurfacing of both back and front, I have no doubt had Stradivari's\nindividual attention. All the delicate and small work of the scroll,\nperfecting that elegant flow of line and finish of each turn of the\nvolute, as if everything depended on the exactness of its individuality,\nobliterating all marks of the tooling and giving his own impress to the\ngouging of the shell and even the completion of the peg-box; then last\nand not least, the preparation and application of that pellucid envelope\nthat was to serve two purposes, utility and enrichment of effect.\n\nWith regard to this, much has been written and said about its\nincomparable quality, its elasticity, colour and transparency, with\nother excellences needless to dilate upon. Summarily taken as a whole,\nthe simple fact is, that in no respect is his varnish different, or\nbetter than that of his predecessors, the Amatis and masters of the\nBrescian school; it had been done before and his most famous\ncontemporaries were doing it still, and he was in this position for the\nsimple reason that no better could be done.\n\nIf it was not possible for Stradivari to improve upon the varnish of the\nAmatis who had preceded him and the masters in the art belonging to the\nBrescian school,--among whom may be mentioned Giovanni Maggini, Antonio\nMariani, and the first one to use it on violins, Gasparo da Salo--it was\nstrictly in accordance with his invariable rule of putting forth his\nbest that he so dexterously manipulated it, probably both as to its\ncomposition and final application, that faultiness in some respects to\nbe seen in specimens of other masters is not noticeable in his. Thus, as\nis well known, the Brescians, perhaps without exception, were often\nvery careless regarding the thickness of the film, it being occasionally\nof irreproachable evenness, at other times having almost the appearance\nof being laid on with a large brush in great haste. On some connoisseurs\nthis haphazard fulness of treatment, this oft times generously effusive\nmanner, carried out with a careless consciousness of power, acts as a\ncharm, inciting to intense admiration the like of which is roused by the\nrich, juicy brush of Rembrandt and the masters of the Venetian school of\npainters. But this is not the perfect realization of aim with regard to\nthe envelopment of masterpieces by the old Italian liutaros; in the\ninstances referred to, and sufficiently numerous, we wonder at the\nwealth of material and smile at its manipulation. Antonio Stradivari\nwould in no wise act thus at any time. To him it was enough that he was\npossessor in full of the knowledge of materials, and to deviate from the\ngood paths pursued by the artistic Amatis, was not to be considered for\na moment; we therefore find that with him the best material was laid\nwith the utmost skill and care. It must be indeed rare that \"frizzling,\"\nor contraction of the upper surface of the varnish, is to be seen to any\nappreciable extent. I do not recollect one instance, while with the\nRuggieris, most of the Venetian school, and a number of makers of lesser\nnote, it is quite common.\n\nConcerning the colour or variety of tints adopted by Stradivari at most\ntimes, it was most likely done to the requirements of his different\npatrons, many having a desire for the rich orange, some, the light red\nor \"cherry\" tint, while others were not content with any than the red or\nrich full bodied port wine tint. The simple brown seems to have been\nless in demand, as it is during the period under consideration, rather\nexceptional. While using the lustrous coverings for his works with\nconsummate skill, there is one qualification that must not be lost sight\nof. Beautiful, refined and artistic in the strictest sense of the term,\nStradivari never gave way to a desire to outbid the rest of the\nfraternity for congratulations in respect of gorgeousness, he seems\nnever to have fallen back upon his reserves in the direction of\nintensity of colour. Thus if a finely preserved specimen of his orange\nvarnish is viewed side by side with one by Joseph Guarnerius, I.H.S.,\nthe extra degree of fieriness will be on the side of the latter, but it\nby no means places Stradivari on a lower level, as the combined\nqualities of his work, taken as a sum total, is not reached by any\nliutaro of old Italy.\n\nIt may be fairly taken as certain that if there was any master having at\ncommand all the necessaries for turning out musical instruments of\nmatchless superiority, both as to acoustical and artistic qualities, it\nwas Stradivari, and many connoisseurs would expect to find nothing but\nmaple used of the richest curl, and that would throw up with delightful\neffect the lustrous varnish so carefully laid upon it; but, strangely\nenough, his most magnificently curled backs and sides are mixed with a\nfew that are comparatively plain. A variety of reasons might be assigned\nfor this, but that which bears the greatest probability about it\nis--that the instruments being chiefly made to order, the maple of\nrichest curl was not always to be had, at least in time for the\nconstruction as required. In other respects these plainer mapled\ninstruments are fully equal to anything that came from his hands. Of the\nproper tone-giving pine he seems never to have been short; there it is,\nalways of beautiful growth, having, like his own handiwork, both\ndelicacy and strength and of a general appearance such as would attract\nthe eye of the veriest tyro in the liutaro's art. How many imitators of\nthe great manipulator have looked at this growth of pine and wondered\nwhere the old master obtained it! and how he knew that it possessed the\nproper qualifications for his purpose. Swiss pine of course! obtained\nfrom the lower parts of the forests of the Alps, is an immediate loud\nresponse, and cut only from the south or sunniest side of the particular\ntree when found of course.\n\nThis idea was started in the early part of this century in books on the\nviolin, professing to tell the reader all about it or nearly so, and he\nhad only to go, get the stuff, and make Stradivari violins, in fact with\nthe addition of the amount of scientific knowledge of the subject\npeculiar to modern imitators, he would make \"old Strad\" \"take a back\nseat.\" This has been often tried by would-be \"Strads,\" \"Guarneris,\" or\n\"Bergonzis,\" and full of specious promises that if you will but purchase\ntheir wares you be rewarded for your pains by being possessor of\neverything good that they could endow the instrument with. Keep it,\npersevere, and the precious qualities will come; some were daring enough\nto assert that they were already there, if even your mental vision was\nso obtuse as not to perceive it, absurd prejudice was the cause of this\nthey said, oblivious to the fact that the best musicians of Stradivari's\ntime used the violins fresh from the atelier of the master perfectly\nnew, expressing their unbounded admiration for their beautiful acoustic\nproperties or \"pleasurable sounds.\"\n\nIs the like said of new violins at the present time? These imitators,\nsome of them might be with perfect truth termed forgers, are legion, as\nin the case of everything that is of a high standard of excellence and\nwhich makes acquisition desirable. These artificers had their day, so\nfar as forcing their imitations upon the credulous and unwary could be\naccomplished, and others have replaced them, yet there aloft still sits\nthe grand master upon his high eminence, unapproached, with the whole\nworld clamouring and struggling for the possession of what in the\nearnestness of his purpose was only his everyday work.\n\nBefore leaving the imitators and forgers, for they are distinct one from\nthe other, the first simply taken being honest, the other not, it may be\nas well to refer as briefly as possible to the general aspect as\nafforded by such specimens of Stradivari's art that remain with us after\nfairly constant usage during the generations that have passed since his\ndecease. Most connoisseurs and dealers are well acquainted with the\nappearance of a \"Strad\" of fine model, work and varnish that has done\nits duty in former times, and is yet able and willing to answer all\nrequirements of the present day and many to come. If the instrument has\nnot been hidden and forgotten in the cabinet of some deceased collector,\nbut has been handed down from one player to another, kept in healthy\nexercise, not meddled with, muddled, and maddened by the numerous\nwould-be improvers, bridge regulators, sound post agitators and varnish\nvivifiers, then--it will probably present an appearance of what is\ncalled handsome wear, or as a writer has termed it, \"adorned, not\ninjured, by a century's fair wear.\"\n\nStriking the eye first will be the varnish that has been chipped off\nfrom the back chiefly, often from a large space of a rough triangular\nform; the front being usually more smoothly denuded of its lustrous\nenvelope. This chipping away of the varnish from the maple has been\neffected a long time ago, and is the result of a custom in olden times\nof hanging the instrument after use on a peg attached to the wall, or\nmay be the interior of a cabinet. Fiddle-cases seem to have been used\nalmost solely for travelling purposes. They are now in general use as\nthe best means of preservation against damage and a good resting place\nat all times. During the last century there were scores and scores of\nmakers in Italy who were ready, willing to, and did turn out excellent\ninstruments with fine, artistical and acoustical properties, but the\nrace has died out and their remaining works are of daily increasing\nvalue, and consequently much under lock and key, out of harm's way as\nmuch as possible. This old habit of hanging up violins not wanted for\nthe moment was, as a matter of course, effected with a slight bang or\ntwo each time, and a corresponding cost, small or large, according to\nthe blow to the top layer of varnish most highly charged with colour.\nEach instrument used in this way will declare to the sufficiently acute\nobserver, its course of handling and even the peculiarities to some\nextent of the owner; for it will be seen that the chippings give\nindication of different degrees of energy or hurry, when the violin has\ncome in contact with the more or less hard surface of the wall.\n\nIt must be borne in mind that the times referred to were prior to the\nintroduction of wall-papers; the good, old-fashioned panelling of oak or\nhard wood, often of bold design, shattered or nicked away much of the\nold, delicate and precious varnish used for enveloping the works of the\nItalian masters. All these constantly recurring slight collisions by\ndegrees brought about the results that have been defined by some as\npicturesque wear or accidental adornment, if such a thing be reasonable.\nBesides this there was going on the wear caused by handling by one or\nanother of players, rough or mild, contact with the garments, especially\nthe sleeves, all being larger and looser than are fashionable at the\npresent time. The action of these would be more gentle if more\ncontinuous. It is noticeable at the lower end of the back of the violin,\nwhich is often worn away much below the penetration of the varnish, the\ncorners being rounded down and if rather protuberant, even losing their\noriginal character. The upper table of pine being incapable of equal\nresistance to the destroying influence, wears away sooner, also the\nborder at the lower end and at both sides of the tail-piece--for the old\nperformers placed their chins on the contrary side to what is thought\nbest now--and the right upper shoulder where the palm of the hand and\npart of the wrist is apt to work, too often, against the edge. We thus\nsee when a handsome, fairly worn specimen of Stradivari's work comes\nunder our notice, the different pieces of tell-tale evidence, varying of\ncourse in degree with each instrument. Now all this must have been going\non during the time the master's works were being sent out to parts of\nItaly and to other countries. It had been progressing and was showing\nthe onward march of Father Time in the instruments left by the Brescian\nmakers a century before.\n\nAs before observed, the varnish of Stradivari has, often as not, been\nworn, chipped or cracked off in, as some fanciers still call it, a\npicturesque manner or adornment, although from the highest prices being\ngiven for those specimens that have the least of it, the taste seems to\nbe growing healthily in favour of perfection of preservation as far as\nis possible.\n\nIt would be out of reason to suppose that full consideration of the\nsubject was omitted by a genius with such far reaching mental vision as\nStradivari. That he gave all the necessary study and forethought to the\neffects of ordinary wear and such as was occasionally going on within\nhis knowledge, there is evidence enough. He saw how the delicate work of\nhis master, Nicolas Amati, was rapidly disappearing under sometimes\nrough and too often ruffianly usage. It was not in his power to prevent\nor interfere with this by any peculiarity of construction or quality of\nthe varnish used by him. But this he doubtless knew--that the generally\nsubstantial work and total absence of any weak point of detail in design\nand execution was all that an artist could do. This strength shown over\nall of Stradivari's designs, even from the commencement, shows that in\nhis grasp of the highest scale of requirement he was also anticipatory\nand in this wise, that he followed up the self evident principle in art,\nthat the best combination of forms, proportions and masses will answer\nbest for their permanence.\n\nThe numismatist knows full well how, on the coins used in various\ncountries, the masters of basso-relievo had concentrated their skill on\nthe subject. The balance of projection and depression for good and\nproper effect under different situations of light and shade, or even\nindependently of them on occasion--is of paramount importance in all\nbranches of art in their widest range. The omission of proper thoughtful\nattention in this direction is one of the obstacles to success among\ncopyists in any direction of art. In architecture the imitator or\nrestorer of some early English mouldings has often made ignominious\nfailures from the non-application of knowledge of this kind: just a\ntrifling variation from the original while in progress being deemed of\nlittle consequence, but when finished and left for exhibition under the\ntruth testing rays of the sun, the qualities that should have been there\nare, as the saying is, \"conspicuous by their absence.\" In full view of\nthe above and with an intelligence unsurpassable, Antonio Stradivari so\narranged his forms and masses in construction that under fair usage and\nwearing down of the projecting parts, the original beauty of the whole\nshould be retained as long as possible. A fine Stradivari much worn\nstill retains its air of distinction, and very much of its material must\nhave disappeared under bad treatment to make it beyond recognition\nalmost at a glance.\n\nThere can be very little question of there being more than mere\nadmiration for the appearance. Simply viewed, there is the spice of\nromance in connection with it, the history is written in language more\nor less intelligible of the knocks and bruises inflicted, unwillingly in\nmost instances, but not invariably so. And here attention may perhaps be\nappropriately drawn in these pages to what has been asserted by a few,\nvery few, dealers and others, whose general intelligence should have\nbeen a guarantee against the dissemination of utter nonsense and which\nhas even been in print! that--just think of this--Antonio Stradivari,\nthe acknowledged master liutaro of Cremona in his own day, and of whose\ngrowing fame no one can foretell the limits--actually imitated wear and\ntear of varnish on his violins. I have not the print at hand, and so\ncannot give the exact words in which this scum from the boilings of a\ndistorted imagination was conveyed; nor point to the first unfortunate\nwho let it flow abroad. In all probability it came from the same old\nsource, a desire to lift up to a high level worthless imitations of the\nmaster, confuse the public mind so as to make it more and more difficult\nto tell \"t'other from which.\"\n\nA fine specimen, and well known, of Stradivari's art was once lying on a\ntable before me. An amateur of considerable attainments and honesty of\npurpose then present was dilating upon its many beauties and fine\npreservation; he, I soon found, had by some means become infected with\nthe absurd notion of the varnish having been artistically pecked away by\nthe original maker! Just fancy this--Raphael slitting a hole in his\nchef-d'oeuvre to make it look old--Michael Angelo chipping some bits\nfrom the ceiling of the Sistine just before the scaffolding was removed,\nor Phidias snapping off a limb and browning the raw surface to please\nfuture connoisseurs.\n\nThey might all have done this with an equal deficiency of reason and\nconsistency if we allow for one moment any possibility of the genius of\nsuch a stamp as that of Antonio Stradivari descending to such depravity.\nThose who have lent themselves to this incongruous notion, hastily\ngeneralising from insufficient particulars, have strangely overlooked\nthe fact that the same kind of chipping is seen on the violins of other\nmasters, Joseph Guarnerius, Carlo Bergonzi, and others of the Cremonese\nand Venetian School, besides--going far back--the older ones of Brescia\nand Pesaro, any number in fact over all Italy.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VI.\n\nSOME MODIFICATIONS IN STRADIVARI'S WORKS--VARIATION IN FINISH OF\n  DETAILS--THE INTERIOR OF HIS VIOLINS--THE BLOCKS AND\n  LININGS--THICKNESSES OF THE TABLES--HEADS OR SCROLLS OF HIS\n  DIFFERENT PERIODS.\n\n\nWe will now resume our consideration of the handiwork of the Cremonese\nmaster as regards other details. We left him steadily working through\nhis so-called \"Grand epoch\" or, more strictly speaking, his period of\nfinely settled designs in outline and modelling. He had arrived at the\ngoal of his ambition and produced works of excellence which--taking them\nas a whole--it seemed impossible to improve upon. He was henceforth\ncontent to put into them such slight modifications as would prevent too\ngreat similarity. Thus we find some were flatter in the arching, others\na little shorter, being a trifle under the usual fourteen inches, others\nagain were over it, but there was the same general contour, his now\nwell-known accentuated design, complete as possible in all its details.\n\nFrom the great number of finished works that were turned out one after\nanother, it is quite reasonable to assume that there would be\noccasionally some little evidence of extra pressure of business and\nconsequently less time spent over minor details. That this actually\noccurred at times there is no doubt and can be perceived clearly when\nlooked for. One instance occurs to me in which the purfling had been cut\noff a trifle short at the corners and did not quite fill up and make a\ngood mitreing, otherwise all along the border the easy, swift, yet\npowerful stroke was maintained up to his usual standard of accuracy. In\nother instances the point or \"bee-sting,\" as it is sometimes called, is\nnot so sharply defined perhaps in two corners, while the others were the\nperfection of minute finish.\n\nIt seems fairly certain that the great Cremonese was not at the time\nthinking of the almost microscopical scrutiny of critics certain to\noccur one hundred and eighty or so years in the future. These little\ndifferences in accuracy of unimportant detail or accidents of work may\nbe taken as evidence that Stradivari was labouring day by day to meet\nthe requirements of patrons different in disposition and perhaps\npatience. When at the same period he has been allowed to put his full\ntime and attention to his work, then we find the four corners of equal\nunsurpassable finish, and other minute details over the whole structure\nso intently studied that nothing could possibly go beyond. These should\nreally and appropriately be termed his \"grand pattern.\" There is present\nin those instances the combined excellences in the highest degree of\nmechanical precision, beautiful proportion and drawing, such as no\nmaster designer of the Renaissance could surpass, the choicest\nmaterials, including splendid varnish, the whole united and capped with\nthat essential, a beautiful tone.\n\nA few words about the interior of Stradivari's instruments; one kind of\nwork is perceptible in all of them. There is not, as we may see in the\nworks of other masters, that off-handed, or even slovenly want of finish\ninside while the whole attention of the maker has been concentrated on\nthe exterior. With Stradivari all is well done, the blocks, end and\ncorner ones are carefully faced and have little, if any can be seen, of\nthe tool marks left upon them. The linings let into the corners are in\nevery instance done with minute exactness. The wood of these and the\nblocks is a kind of Italian poplar, sometimes called willow and by the\nFrench sallow; it is light and has no threads like pine to cause\ndifficulty in the manipulation. Too much importance has been attached by\ncritics to the presence of this wood in Stradivari's violins. That it\nhad nothing whatever to do with the excellence of tone quality is clear\nfrom the fact of makers of inferior skill and less renown for tone\nhaving used it in the same parts. The most likely reason is--as most\nrepairers have concluded--the absence of thread, its lightness,\npliability and evenness of texture, being thereby adapted for the\nnecessary long strips for fitting round the curves. Some makers used it\ninvariably, while others did so occasionally, perhaps not always having\na stock on hand. When for some reasons, such as being worm eaten or\nbadly fractured, it has been found compulsory to remove them and\nsubstitute others in their place and of other wood, there has been no\nperceptible deterioration in the tone either as regards quality or\nquantity. Not only so, but there is the fact that many of the Italian\nmasters and their numerous pupils, to say nothing of makers of a lower\norder, as often as not sent forth their violins without linings, some\neven without corner blocks. In most of these instances, however, the\nribs were left very stout in substance in order to retain a sufficient\nholding surface for the glue. The subtle curvings of the ribs of an\nAmati, and more so of a Stradivari, almost precluded the use of a very\nthick material, especially so when the curl or figure was bold and\nelaborate. In consonance with this, we find with Stradivari that the\nthin plate or veneer from which the ribs have been cut is not thick, but\nof accurate and equal measurement along its course. The linings being\nequally true and fitting in the closest manner to the ribs, are in their\noriginal state somewhat stouter, the middle or waist ones parting\nslightly on approaching the corner blocks each way and thus giving a\ngradually increasing area of attachment (diag. _h_). All of the four\nblocks are well trimmed off and their surfaces levelled, being quite\nregular in their form and size and trimmed to proper measurement. The\nend blocks serving to sustain the greatest amount of strain\nlongitudinally, are also found well finished, in contrast with so many\nseen in instruments by makers of eminence that are simply hacked roughly\ninto size and shape. They were carefully estimated in their proportion\nfor strength sufficient to resist the strain caused by the size, length,\nand pull of the strings in use at the time of Stradivari, and with\nsomething to spare, so that even now, under the enormous strain of the\nmodern high pitch, when in perfect and original condition they are equal\nto their task. In a number of instances, when much repairing, good or\nbad has been done, the end, and often the corner blocks, have been\nreplaced by modern ones. There is, of course, under these circumstances\nless of Stradivari present, but it has often been a case of painful\nnecessity or question of expense as to the choice between two steps for\nrestoration to health and particularly for strength. The form viewed\nvertically adopted by Stradivari was that of a parallelogram with two\nrounded corners (diag. _i_.). The upper block was left a little thicker,\nthe junction or root of the neck necessitating this. The renewal of one\nor both of these has also been caused incidentally by the deep insertion\nof the modern and longer neck, thus lessening much of the grip or\npurchase of the block on both upper and lower table. The same may be\nsaid of the nut over which the tail string passes, this being--owing\nalso to the rise of the modern tone pitch and increase of tension--much\nlarger than in Stradivari's day, and he may in a sense be said to have\nhad to buckle to modern requirements.\n\n[Illustration: DIAGRAM _h_.]\n\n[Illustration: DIAGRAM _i_.]\n\nWhile the seat as it were of our criticism is at the present moment in\nthe interior portion of the admirable structures bequeathed to us by the\ngreat Cremonese, we may consider further the surface work of this part.\nEveryone knows that the interior of a violin is left unvarnished by\nviolin makers. Stradivari was in no way anxious to become an exception\nto this rule. The reasons for its adoption were, and are, still\nobviously wise, although not necessitous. He knew that his work, in\ncommon with that of other craftsman, would be liable to fracture, and\nthat in the process of restoration the surfaces and junction of parts\nmust be laid bare, and varnish where not obviously necessary would be an\nobstruction.\n\nFor the satisfaction of the anxious inquirer it may be stated that\nvarnishing the interior has, to my knowledge, been tried by an excellent\nmodern workman as an experiment and did not bring any adequate reward\nby perceptible improvement in tone quality. In another instance, to\nprevent the encroachment of the collector's arch-enemy, the worm, the\ninnovation seemed to have proved ineffectual. Stradivari may have tried\nthis and perhaps, for once at least, met with failure. The bar--there is\nbut one--ofttimes erroneously called sound-bar or bass-bar--is, in\ncommon with all the violins of the old Italian school, quite inadequate\nfor modern requirement, that of supporting the upper table on the fourth\nstring side against the pressure caused by the tension of the third and\nfourth, the heaviest strings.\n\nThat the length, thickness and disposition of the bar has much to do\nwith the good going order of every violin there is no disputing.\nStradivari did not live long enough to make acquaintance with the\nnumberless proposals for acquiring his quality by making this part\nlonger, shorter, thicker, or thinner, besides various modes of\nattachment. That some of them would have raised a smile on the features\nof the veteran Cremonese, we may be quite sure. That he was quite\ncontent with the size of the bar in general use during his life-time\nthere can be no doubt, as there is no record or evidence of any\nexperiments having been made by him, fair argument that none were\nconsidered necessary; the instruments finished, the ordinary bar of the\nperiod was inserted and there was an end. The whole of the interior\nindicates an absence of any question of improvement on what had been\ndone before by his master Nicolas Amati and his predecessors, apart from\ngood finish.\n\nA few words as to the thickness of the upper and lower tables. Of this\nmuch has been written, an extremely small portion being from actual\nobservation, and most of the other parts being reiterated assertions\nstarted many years back by people whose supposed knowledge rested solely\nupon simple conviction, without an iota of _bona fide_ evidence in\nsupport. To them the fact, well known to everyone engaged in the\nmanufacture of sound-boards of musical instruments, that a very thick\nsound-board produces different results to that of a very thin one, was\nsufficient, therefore the secret of Stradivari with regard to his tone,\nwas \"the adjustment of the thicknesses,\" whatever that may mean. The\nassertion seeming perhaps rather bare, and wanting some sort of support,\nwas bolstered up with another no less instructive, that if you \"pinged,\"\nor tapped the separated upper and lower tables of a Stradivari so that\nthey each gave out a note there would be found the difference of a tone\nbetween them! Here was something for the \"babes and sucklings\" of the\ncraft of violin making to swallow. It was stated also which table would\ngive the higher tone. Unfortunately for some would-be Stradivaris, the\nparticulars of the tonal difference were copied loosely and reversed and\nso came \"confusion worse confounded.\"\n\n  The illustrations of sound holes, or _f f_ commonly so called, will,\n  it is hoped, be interesting as showing the modification or\n  development from those of Nicolas Amati to the latter part of the\n  period of Stradivari's career, called \"the grand.\" They are all\n  reproduced from fine specimens of the great Cremonese masters, and\n  are the exact size of the originals. The first (_a_) shows the _f_\n  of a violin of the Nicolas Amati's late period, 1663, unaffected--at\n  least in this detail--by the individuality of his hereafter eminent\n  pupil. (_b_) While still going under the name of Nicolas Amati,\n  1678, the _f_ shows the actual interference of Stradivari, it is\n  more vertical, but the peculiarities of the upper and lower wings\n  are retained. (_c_) 1684. The design is quite changed, there is some\n  return to the flow or inclination of Amati, but the whole thing is\n  more extended, is slender, and the upper and lower wings are\n  widened, this modification was retained for a permanency. (_d_)\n  1690. There is some return to the vertical design, but the width of\n  the wings is retained, while the lower part of the design is of\n  larger proportions. (_e_) 1700. The design is more equalised and is\n  more substantial. (_f_) 1715. The same proportions are kept with an\n  increase of gracefulness. It will be perceived the lower wing\n  approaches at its lowest part the opposing curve more closely, the\n  upper one likewise; in some specimens of this period it is still\n  closer. (_g_) 1725. While the upper part is very like the preceding,\n  the lower part is more contracted and curled up. There is a somewhat\n  heavier expression about the upper part in consequence.\n\n[Illustration: _a_ _b_ _c_ SEE PAGE 48.]\n\n[Illustration: _d_ _e_ _f_ _g_ SEE PAGE 48.]\n\n\nHistory does not relate which of those parties who may have practically\nfollowed up the experiments were successful in arriving at the goal of\ntheir ambition; they may even still be continuing the struggle for\nsupremacy with their master.\n\nWe have not to look far for ascertaining whether these assertions have\nborne fruit. There has been time enough for works built upon these\nso-called discoveries of fixed principles to have settled down, and the\npopular verdict now is--that those which guided Antonio Stradivari have\nyet to be discovered. The numbers of announcements of fresh\ndiscoveries--repeated _ad nauseam_--are in themselves some evidence that\nwhat has gone before was founded on deceptive evidence, and therefore to\nbegin anew was the only course left.\n\nThe illustrations of scrolls by Nicolas Amati and Antonio Stradivari,\nbeing from good specimens by the masters, will be interesting as showing\nthe progression of the modification in detail under the hands of the\nlatter. In fig. _a_, Nicolas Amati, c. 1670, it will be seen that the\nfirst or smallest turn after leaving the axis or \"eye\" is kept for some\ndistance rather close. Every effort seems to have been made for keeping\nthe turns or winding from being too circular, there being a general dip\ndownward and forward. The gouging is deep from the commencement. The aim\nof the artist in the whole design appears to have been towards\nperfection of gracefulness.\n\nFig. _b_. Antonio Stradivari, 1683, the openness and bold swing of the\nfirst turn at once on leaving the \"eye\" is very striking, it also\ncommences higher up, there is almost an absence of flow or downward\ntendency. The throat underneath the volute is very massive, although all\nthe edges are finished off with the utmost delicacy and sharp tooling.\nAll the details of scroll carving by Stradivari at this period are\nmarvels of mechanical dexterity of handling. The different depths of the\ngouging are carefully calculated for solidity of effect, each portion\nbeing deep in proportion to its width, the smaller turns thus having\nless depth than the larger. With the Amatis there seemed to be a\nstriving after attainment of the greatest depth possible in the smaller\ngougings, those nearest the axis reaching frequently to almost the same\ndepth of level as the outer or broadest one. In no part of his work does\nStradivari show more clearly the result of careful calculation after\nclosely studying the work of his master and others that had gone before.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. _a_. SEE PAGE 49.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. _b_. SEE PAGE 49.]\n\nFig. _c_. The period 1715 shows the result of further calculation for\ngeneral effect and a consequent modification in respect of minor\ndetails; there is present, as always, the sufficiently bold swing of the\nfirst turn from the axis. In choice specimens the point of commencement\nis as sharply and clearly defined as the mitreing of the purfling at the\nfour corners of the body of the violin and which it seems impossible to\nexcel. The throat, with the whole of the peg-box, is reduced slightly\nbut consistently with strength and beauty of appearance. The public\nverdict has remained unshaken with regard to these scrolls being in\nrespect of the combination of excellencies the best carvings of the\ngreat artist. They are in the most trifling degree smaller than those\ncarved before the period of 1700. Among those cut about the 1710-15\nperiod, or even later, are a few that seem to have been intentionally\nboth smaller and more upright. Although having all the essential\nexcellencies of detail they can scarcely be considered as coming up to\nthe standard of the others in respect of refined grandeur. This type may\nbe said to be mixed up and continued with more or less persistency to\nthe last, and of this Fig. _d_ gives a good representation. There is\nfrequently a more emphatic or energetic gouging at the commencement of\nthe turns, a more developed \"ear\" as it is often termed. It is gouged\nwith quite as much care as the rest. Speculation has been rife as to the\npossible influence or even personal help of Joseph Guarneri at this\npoint, but there is no solid foundation for surmising the presence of\none or the other. If the gouging of this part may be said to bear any\nsort of resemblance to the emphatic or impetuous touch of Joseph, it is\nconfined strictly to this portion; other essentials are wanting that\nwould be absolutely necessary for crediting artists of distinctly\nopposite tendencies with--it might be almost rightly termed--tampering\nwith each other's designs.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. _c_. SEE PAGE 50.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. _d_. SEE PAGE 50.]\n\nBut if the name of Carlo Bergonzi is brought into the field of\nspeculation--granting for a moment that Stradivari was not very likely\nto step aside occasionally from his accustomed groove--then we have much\nmore of a possibility or even probability in the matter. It has always\nbeen asserted, and I believe never contradicted, that Carlo Bergonzi was\nfor a time actually working in the atelier of Stradivari--whether as\npupil or only assistant matters not--but we have in the fact of his\npresence a distinct factor in any of the supposed anomalies of the later\nperiods of the grand Cremonese master. To this, however, we may put some\nconsideration further on. There is further in these later scrolls a\nmodification, alteration, or supposed attempt at improvement in the\nedging of the turns, these being left a trifle stouter than at the\ncommencement of Stradivari's career.\n\nThis is continued along over the top and down the back of the scroll to\nthe shell, which seems to be a little less elongated than the early\nspecimens. It may be more apparent than real in most instances in\nconsequence of the bolder edging. The hollowing of the \"shell\" is\nseemingly less delicate, but this may be taken as a natural result of\nthe foregoing. Further on these details will come in again for review.\n\nTo continue our remarks on the question of \"thicknesses and their\nadjustment\" with each other. This is a department of the luthier's art,\nto which perhaps much more attention has been directed by theorisers\nthan by practical workers. The latter class have no doubt been\ninfluenced by the former to a considerable extent, oftentimes having\ntheir views expressly carried out under their personal supervision. By\nmusical amateurs it is found to be a good theme for conversation when\nthe excellencies of the works of various masters are dilated upon. That\nthe richness of quality in a \"Joseph\" is the result of his having left\n\"his wood\" thick in certain parts and not so much in others, and that\nthis, combined with the flat modelling, was the secret, and that it was\nwritten that some of the Josephs were too thick in the back, and\ntherefore the freedom of the vibration was checked and the tone to some\ndegree stifled and deficient in penetrative power.\n\nAmong my early musical acquaintances, I remember an amateur violinist\nwho would \"wax eloquent\" on the power of his Strad, asserting that it\nwas owing in a great measure to its having been \"left thick by the\nmaker\" all round near the border. This, no doubt, many other amateurs,\nacquainted with what used to be in print on the subject, will recognise\nas being in opposition to what had been accepted as being the rule\ngenerally observed by Stradivari, that the arching in its thickness\ngently decreased towards the border where it was about a third less than\nat the centre. This gentle gradation was said to be the cause of the\nbeautiful \"silky\" and \"sympathetic\" quality so prominently\ncharacteristic of his instruments. The explanation of \"the thing in\naction,\" as mechanicians would term it, was thus--the greatest thickness\nbeing at the part all round by the feet of the bridge, was able to\nsustain the vibration, or the successive shocks caused by the bow, which\nwere transmitted through the wood of the upper table and were gradually\nlessened in intensity as the thickness decreased toward the border,\nwhere they subsided, or were lost.\n\nI do not know what explanation was given, if any, of the \"system\" of\nthickness adopted much by some of the Milanese school, which was that of\nhewing away the wood until it was thinnest at the part all round by the\nfeet of the bridge and thickest by the lower wings of the sound holes.\nJudging by the before mentioned assertions as to the association of\npower of energetic vibration with the thickest wood under the bridge,\nthese Milanese makers were acting very wrongly, but, strange to say,\nmany instruments of very great power were made by them under these\nconditions.\n\nMany years ago I was conversing on the subject of thicknesses with an\nEnglish maker of experience and who seemed to believe in certain\n\"thicknesses,\" and having then as yet made no practical experiments\nmyself in the matter, I put the following to him. There are many violins\nto be met with that through ill-usage and pressure on the bridge have\ndepressions instead of the level wood at the part we should expect it to\nbe, and yet the tone is considered fine, how is this? The answer was\nremarkable, and not unworthy of the class of makers to which he\nbelonged--that although the wood had become thinner from pressure, \"the\noriginal amount was all there,\" it was only squeezed closer together.\nThe instruments were, no doubt, \"rightly gauged\" in the first instance.\n\"Now there,\" he said, pointing to a 'cello hanging up almost out of\nreach and looking in rather a woe-begone condition, is a bass that\n\"never would go well because it was badly gauged when first made.\" Age\nand usage were to be of no avail in bringing this wretched piece of\nworkmanship up to the standard of the average.\n\nThis last assertion might have been of considerable weight had the maker\nbeen a personal pupil of Stradivari, but the public verdict has been\nthat there was a great gulf between the two, and that the first had not\nbeen initiated into the secret of the others. Foreign as well as English\nmakers have announced in the most impressive manner at their command\nthat their instruments were identical in all respects, including the\nsystem of thicknesses in the originals, buy them, use them, and be\nconvinced that in time they would be just as good as the real thing.\n\nThe foregoing is perhaps enough to indicate whether or not the secret of\nStradivari, or indeed any of the other Italian masters, great or small,\nhad been discovered by caliper measurement. It is strange that the\nimpression has held sway so strongly that the genius of the great\nmaster lay in his manner of distribution of the thick and thin parts of\nthe upper and lower table. The first thought in this direction would be\nthat if the theory was good, its practical application with ordinary\nskill and care would be sure to bring about the desired result. But more\nthan this has been done in experimenting on originals and copies from\ntime to time. We have within a mile of Charing Cross no lack of workmen\ncapable of gauging and copying with sufficient exactness the thicknesses\nof any Stradivari brought to them, if that were all, or the principal\nmeans necessary for reproducing the famous qualities of the great\nCremonese. It seems to be forgotten that hundreds of clever workmen have\nlived since his time, in his own as well as other countries, who have\ngiven the most assiduous application to the making of exact copies and\nwith a like result--that of total failure. For a moment let us turn our\nthoughts to the nature of the materials comprised in the sum total of\nthe structure known as a violin. We have for the upper table, or front,\na thin slab of wood known as pine, from a species of tree that grows all\nover the world. The varieties are, however, innumerable and the purposes\nto which they are put, equally so. For the lower table, or back, a more\ndense and tough wood is used. That the particular kind used in the\nconstruction of the famous instruments of the great masters, and mostly\nthat known as curled maple or \"hare wood,\" was chiefly on account of its\nbeauty, is evident from the fact that all the best Italian makers had\nrecourse at times to other and less showy wood. Beech was occasionally\nused by Carlo Bergonzi. Other tough woods grown in Italy, even poplar,\nhave been used by some makers, seemingly when the supply of better\nlooking material ran short. That there are extant some \"Strads\" with\nbacks of some plain wood other than maple is more than likely. We have,\nthen, for the upper table of the violin a wood of soft but elastic\nconsistency, the strength of which lies mainly in the threads running\nlengthwise, and which, when the wood is cut in the manner usual with\nall violin makers since its invention, serve the purpose of small joists\nrunning from end to end of the upper table. The soft material lying\nbetween these is very susceptible to damp, especially when fresh cut.\nThus, if a piece of pine be cut ever so smooth with a sharp gouge or\nchisel, a slightly wetted brush drawn along the surface will at once\ncause the softer parts to swell and so leave a ribbed or \"corduroy\"\nappearance when it is dry. This will serve to show how far this wood is\nsuitable for regulating by such very minute differences as would be\nnecessary when the thicknesses theory is confided in and efforts made to\nreduce it to practice. The exactness reasonably expected of such a\nmaster of quality as Stradivari would be upset in an instant by the\napplication of a little moisture, and which either by accident or during\nthe process of repairing would be fairly certain to occur some time or\nother to every violin that left the hands of its maker.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VII.\n\nSTRADIVARI'S TONE AND SYSTEM--THOSE OF HIS PUPILS AND\n  ASSISTANTS--QUALITIES OF TONE PRODUCED IN DIFFERENT LOCALITIES.\n\n\nWe may now refer to actual observation or close examination of\nStradivari's work with reference to the question of system, whether\nthere is evidence of its presence and how followed by him. That his\nviolins should have been from time to time well measured by the very\nnumerous army of identical imitators, fair copyists, and all sorts of\nconnoisseurs and theorists during the present century will be at once\nadmitted, and the results may be summed up in a few words. Stradivari\ndid not leave clearly defined any evidence of a system of gauging which\nhe strictly followed, at any rate in such a manner as to enable the\nleast approach by such to be made by any followers in his steps with any\nmeasure of success. In short, he was guided by the exigencies of the\nmoment as to the amount of wood left in his ordinary or choicer\nspecimens.\n\nIt has been stated before that his quality of tone was one, not several,\nand for these his patrons flocked to him, as his admirers have also more\nand more earnestly sought for him since the supply has ceased. But it\nwas not desirable that the greatest possible power should be given to\ninstruments that were in many cases to simply charm a small family\ncircle of friends in an apartment of modest dimensions. He would,\ntherefore, naturally enough vary the amount of wood left. This would be\nquite in accordance with what is perfectly well known to all makers and\nrepairers of experience--that with a violin if very \"thickly timbered,\"\nthe tone is less easy of emission, or actually weak. On the other hand,\nif too thin the emission is comparatively easy, but lacks intensity and\nis termed \"hollow.\" Under these circumstances we should expect to find a\nvariation in the thicknesses of different violins of Stradivari, which\nis in accordance with fact.\n\nSome connoisseurs have been in their enthusiasm too hasty in their\nreference of general principles from a few particular instances and\ntheir researches--as time thereafter showed--did not bear the fruit so\nanxiously looked forward to.\n\nAn instance comes to mind of two well known dealers, one British, the\nother foreign, meeting together one day and opening some half-a-dozen\nStrads, that appeared up to that moment to have had their interiors\nundisturbed, or perhaps it might be said untampered with. What a\nmeeting! and what a parting! let us hope that each table, upper or\nlower, that had so long been working in harmony, eventually became again\nproperly mated and gave no cause for lawyers to \"put their fingers in\nthe pie.\" The results of the examination is related thus:--\"In no two of\nthe instruments were thicknesses alike; some had thick places and thin\nplaces; some were thicker on one side than the other; all were thicker\nin the centre of the upper table and all had these as three to five for\nthe back.\"\n\nAnother is that of a well known continental repairer in his day,\nrelating how he had repaired a very large number of real Strads and\nfound the upper tables to be of the same thickness, two and a half m's.\nall over, but that the backs varied in thickness. Some discrepancies\nhere seemingly. To add to this, a correspondent says the Strads he has\nmeasured \"have certainly not been thickest in the centre of the upper\ntable.\"\n\nMy own observations as to thicknesses I am afraid will not afford much\ncomfort to those who have been hopeful at any time that the calipers\nwould drag forth the precious secret. I recollect many years back seeing\na very fresh Strad, and a hasty measurement possible at the time\nrevealed too much wood, that is judging according to our modern ideas of\nregulation.\n\nOne instance of a Strad, once my own property, comes to my mind. It had\nsomething wrong with the interior that necessitated opening. The violin\nwas of good reputation for its tone of fine quality, quantity and ease\nof emission. There was no help for it; much against my inclination the\nseparation of the upper table from the ribs would have to take place,\neither by my own hands, or those of some other person, the rectification\nbeing impossible from the exterior as it sometimes may be. With all\nnecessary care, guided by past experience, the opening was safely\naccomplished, and after a very interesting examination of the interior,\nwhich to an ordinary observer would have seemed but peering into a dirty\nold wooden box, having nothing perceptibly different from any other, was\nin what would be called a fair state of preservation. I took the\ncalipers in hand, expecting to learn something, but found all the\noriginal thicknesses had been lost under the hands of numerous\nrepairers.\n\nThe supposed system or rule followed by Stradivari--that is, according\nto what critics and writers have declared was his habit--was certainly\nnot demonstrated in this instance: in fact the eyesight alone was\nsufficient to perceive that whatever theory the master had believed in\nas necessary for the production of his inimitable quality, or whatever\nrule as to gauging should be followed in order to obtain enough power\nand freedom of emission were, in the present instance, we will not say\nignored, but quite imperceptible; and why? because the fiddle at one\ntime had been what we moderns--with our ideas of regulation and\nfitting--would term \"too thick in the wood.\" The instrument had\nundergone much affliction from various physicians, but, judging from\nvarious little details of evidence, been at almost all times highly\nprized. Here and there were the studs or buttons of various kinds of\npine stuck by repairers of different nationalities and degrees of skill,\nsome placed with apparent good intention, others without reason at all,\nwhile several parts bore indications of studs having at one time rested\nthere and been afterwards removed by succeeding repairers. Now all these\nmen had a thought of doing their work properly, and in finishing off\ntheir studs with gouge or glass-paper, had whipped off around each spot\nsome of the precious wood of Stradivari, with a general result of a\nseries of hollows and gentle prominences not at all pleasing to the eye\nof the believer in the thickness theory, but nevertheless instructive.\n\nOther instances in which the master's work--while still good and\nserviceable, with much evidence of unskilful repair, or want of proper\nattention at the time of accident, have come under my notice, enough,\nlong ago, to have, as the saying is, \"knocked into a cocked hat,\" all\nthat has been put forth regarding the mathematical precision of the\nthicknesses over the different parts of a violin by Antonio Stradivari.\nOne or two further remarks may be interesting on this part of our\nsubject. The fact must not be lost sight of that the pupils of the now\nwell established master of his art in Cremona were working either at\nthat place likewise, or in the large cities of Italy, and had become\nfamous, or were soon to be so and themselves surrounded by learners of\nthe art. All these had been initiated in the secrets, if any, of their\ncraft and in the particulars which distinguished them from others, or we\nmay say, they were of the Stradivari school, showing in a more or less\ndegree the same species of tone which the master had brought to\nmaturity, and which he retained with consistency and never swerved from\nto his latest day.\n\nIt is quite a reasonable supposition that most, if not all, of the\npersonal pupils were taught by the master, or had the way pointed out to\nthem by which they might, with the right ear for discrimination of tone\nquality and enough of industry, impart to their works the identical\nqualities of those of their teacher. But what are the facts left for our\nconsideration in connection with caliper measurement? the pupils\nadmittedly of his teaching, among whom we may mention Lorenzo\nGuadagnini, his son Joannes Battista, Alexandri Gagliano, one or two of\nhis sons and Carlo Bergonzi, as the best known, each adopted their own,\nor shall we say, left no more evidence for us of having a set rule for\nthicknesses than their master. The nearest approach to the asserted\nsystem of Stradivari, that of a gentle declination of substance in the\nwood down to the edge, was made by Lorenzo Guadagnini in his extra sized\nviolins; but then the tone, wonderfully fine, is not Stradivari, but\nGuadagnini. Carlo Bergonzi's system, if we may for a moment call it, was\nquite unlike Stradivari, and yet connoisseurs have frequently credited\nhim with having got \"the same beautiful quality of tone.\" From these few\nreferences it will be sufficiently plain that the grand secret of tone\nquality must not be sought for with the aid of calipers, so we will\ndismiss this part of our subject and proceed to other considerations.\n\nBesides those who have pinned their faith to the thicknesses, there are\nthose who take up with the \"air mass\" theory. I am afraid the arguments\nin favour of this last will not bear even so much knocking about as\nthose just considered.\n\nWe have in the first place to take into account the fact of the larger\nmodern bar taking up more room than the old obsolete one of, not only\nStradivari, but all the other masters of his time and before. The upper\nand lower end blocks have been enlarged in many instances to obtain a\nbetter hold on the upper and lower table. These alterations have been\neach of necessity, not of ignorance or mere whim, and moreover have\nproved efficacious for the end in view. The restorers, or regulators who\nhave performed these operations must--according to the \"air mass\"\ntheory--have been acting quite \"in the teeth\" of it and Stradivari's\nregulation, further there is not one fiddle in a hundred--perhaps not\nthat--which has been in use for a generation but what shows a sinking\none side or the other, or, when the modelling is full, a depression in\nthe middle of the upper table, and very frequently a greater fulness at\nthe back where the sound post touches and presses from the inside. These\nalterations, individually or collectively, alter the \"air mass\" of the\ninterior, and the violin thus, according to the theory, contains within\nitself the elements of its own early dissolution, so far as fine quality\nis concerned. Facts, however, go to prove the contrary, and with the\nmodern regulator's efforts to obtain the best amount of a good thing\nknown to be present, it is quite probable that Stradivari himself never\nheard his instruments to such advantage as they may be now,\nnotwithstanding the unreasonably high pitch to which violinists are\nobliged to conform their tuning.\n\nThere was another theory promulgated many years back by certain people\nof some degree of eminence in their own walk in life. A grand discovery\nwas announced, that the excellence of the violins of Stradivari\nconsisted in the tonal difference between the upper and lower tables\npeculiar no doubt to that master. This sort of committee of scientific\nexperimenter, violin dealer and author, did not--while centralising\ntheir efforts on the violins of one master--say whether the same\nrelationship existed between the back and front of a Nicola Amati,\nMaggini or Gasparo de Salo, they made something of a slip when they\nmentioned the violins of the great Joseph Guarnerius as showing the same\ntonal difference.\n\nIt would have been very interesting to have heard of results after\nfurther trials by the same experimenters upon upper or lower tables of\nviolins by now not very much less celebrated makers, who, although of\nthe same class or school, were living--for those times--far away from\nthe central luminary of the Cremonese art. What would have been said of\nMontagnana of Venice? a star of the first magnitude, curiously near in\nquality and quantity to the great centre to which he was willing to pay\nobeisance and throw out a reflected light; of Gobetti, perhaps more\n\"Straddy\" than any other Italian, Gofrilleri, Seraphino, two or three of\nthe Tononis, besides other lights of lesser magnitude, with exceedingly\nfine qualities, but perhaps open to the charge of intermittency.\nFurther, several of the Milanese school,--offshoots of the Amati and\nStradivari,--of Lorenzo Guadagnini, a master of his art in all its\ndetails, if ever there was one, his son Joannes Battista, steadier in\nhis working, but more uncertain in his results--shifting from place to\nplace, may have had some connection with this--and the occasionally fine\nartificers of the same place, Landolfi, the Grancinos and Testores and\nlater on Balestrieri of Mantua and Storioni of Cremona. These men,\nalways good, and when circumstances were favourable, great in their art,\noften grand in their individuality and power, were, by these modern\nscientific interrogators placed aside or quietly ignored, apparently\neither as unworthy of their recognition, or of such inferior renown as\nnot to come within the scope of their investigations.\n\nA close and searching inquiry into the causes that enabled different\nmasters of their art to bring about the desirable end of their labours,\nthat of imparting a distinct quality and individuality of tone, might\nhave enabled them to get at least a hint as to the means whereby\nStradivari gratified the tastes of his patrons at the time and\nconnoisseurs in general of the present day. As indicated before, the\nVenetian masters were--probably by the same means--able to put before\ntheir patrons that kind of tone most in agreement with the luxurious\nsurroundings of the Venetian nobility, or offered and found acceptable\nto the musical public generally there.\n\nA prolonged, earnest examination of the peculiarities of tone attached\nto the violins of the makers of the chief seats of violin making, has\nled to the inference that the difference in kind or degree was not from\nindividual choice, but chiefly owing to outside influence.\n\nWhat is known as the old Brescian type of tone was doubtless suitable\nto the tastes of musical circles, among whom the then new style of\nmusical instrument was introduced in Brescia. When settled down, the\nAmati family, a group of thorough artists, proved themselves alive to\nthe requirements of the fresh district that was henceforth to be the\nscene of their labours for generations. The Brescian quality had either\nbeen found by them, or was known beforehand, to be too ponderous or\ninsufficiently endowed with the more feminine quality desirable in the\nminds of the Cremonese. The Amatis seem to have been in full possession\nof the means necessary for producing the kind of violin in demand and\nsupplied it.\n\nAs time went on, musical compositions changed in style, advancing by\ndegrees towards the culminating point of nearly a century later. The\nsimple, oft-times wondrously sweet, yet quaint effusions of the early\ncomposers for the violin, were gradually giving more and stronger\nindication of what was possible and likely to follow soon and in its\nturn, like all other things, become antiquated and old-fashioned.\nUndoubtedly, it was this progressive condition of the music of the\nperiod that induced Stradivari, early in his career, if not at the time\nhe was with Nicolo Amati, to take up the study of tone calibre as a\nmatter of essential importance, in order not only to keep pace with the\ntimes, but if possible, anticipate further advances in musical\ndevelopment.\n\nIt was daily becoming more evident that the qualities of refinement and\nsympathy would not in themselves be sufficient in an instrument with\nsuch a future as the violin seemed to have. Melodic forms were being\nmodified, while harmony was becoming more varied and divided.\n\nThe art of appropriate phrasing was also being studied, while practical\nmusicians were bowing to the necessity of leaving old stereotyped forms\nfor those having more emotional qualities. In short, the violin wanted\nin Cremona was one of substantial power and suitable for more dramatic\nexpression on the part of the performer. To bring forth a violin of this\ndesirable type, Stradivari directed his energies. With what measure of\nsuccess, the whole musical world up to the present day have emphatically\ndeclared.\n\nNow, we may ask, was the difference of tone between the violins of\nStradivari and those of the other makers of the Brescian, Cremonese,\nVenetian, Milanese, or Neapolitan school, in consequence of the tonal\ndifference between the upper and lower table, as supposed to have been\ndiscovered by the modern Parisian investigator? was it resulting from\nthe correct air mass inside? the relative thickness of the tables, or we\nmay as well include the straight and fine grain theorists, the amber\nvarnish in the wood theorists, the wood of great age theorists, and the\ngenerations of use theorists, and lastly those who mix them altogether.\nIf Stradivari practically worked upon one, some or all of these\ntheories, there is still more mystery concerning the close proximity at\nwhich his pupils or assistants arrived, several of whom we might\nconclude were possessed of all necessary means of acquiring to the full\ntheir master's excellencies.\n\nJust for a moment or two we may turn aside and notice the kind of\nvariation or the distinguishing difference between the tone in the\ngeneral acceptation of the term--of Antonio Stradivari and other makers,\nor, as time has proved, masters of their art, if not on an equal\nstanding with him. There is frequently among musicians a disposition to\nset down as inferior any tone that may seem to differ in degree or kind\nwith that of Stradivari; that is the ideal type, it must be Stradivari\nand no other; some have even gone so far as to say, \"there is only one\nquality,\" that of Stradivari, and when other masters did not produce it,\nthey were unable to do so; this is more than a hint at condemnation of\nthe head of the Cremona school as having been very lax in the proper and\nthoughtful training of his number of pupils; this latter an almost\nnecessary consequence of eminent rank, taken apart from the usual\nassistance found to be obligatory from pressure of work. If we glance\nover the Italian schools taken one after another, the facts, if\nacknowledged, will be seen to point in other directions. Taking for\ninstance the Milanese master, Lorenzo Guadagnini, who tells us himself\nthat he learnt his art under Antonio Stradivari, we find distinct traces\nof it in his tone, the general calibre is the same and most of the fine,\ndistinguishing features noticed in the tone produced by his master; the\ndifference, however, is that which is peculiar to the master makers of\nMilan, that of a slightly less reedy emission of sound. Some have called\nit harder, which is not a correct description. Chords are produced with\nit as easily and roundly as with any other, the individual notes blend\nbeautifully and give an impression of homogeneousness in no wise\ninferior to anything produced in Italy. There was no apparent difficulty\nin the way of Milan acquiring and cultivating the variety of Italian\ntone known as the Cremonese had they been so disposed; we are therefore\nled to infer that each place with its musical world held its own\nopinions as to the most satisfactory quality of tone for its purpose and\nconsidered it the best. Milan is situated in Lombardy, north-west of\nCremona, and distant from it between forty and fifty miles; not a very\nlong way at any time, but quite sufficient for each place to cultivate\nor indulge in any artistic or musical fancies or whims independently of\nthe other. We find maker after maker in Milan keeping within certain\nlimits as regards the quality of tone produced there; I do not know of\none whose instruments emitted other than the Milanese quality.\n\nWe may, I think, safely assume that so far from loosely and\nsuperficially instructing his pupils, Stradivari's tuition was of a\ndeeper, far-reaching kind than has ever been suspected. If the tone of\nLorenzo Guadagnini is compared with that of the makers who were working\nin Milan when he arrived, it will not be difficult to perceive that the\nMilanese type is still retained, although much enlarged and matured, in\nfact become freshly developed, throwing out the additional qualities for\nthe obtaining of which the great master of Cremona had carefully\ntrained his gifted pupil. All this is not in the least interfered with\nby the fact of Joannes Battista Guadagnini's tone differing in some\nrespects--and more at times--with that of his father, but rather helped\nby it; both assert on their tickets that they were instructed by\nStradivari, and both show the results of their training in that\nlargeness and impressiveness which is so much beloved of violinists and\nwhich without doubt came from their great teacher. Josef, the son of\nJoannes Battista Guadagnini, appears also to have either been instructed\nby Stradivari or to have assisted under his personal supervision--which\nwould amount to much the same thing. We may perceive in the tone of this\nmaker also the influence of the great master in the same directions as\nare manifested in the works of his father and grandfather, they are all\nof the Stradivarian school.\n\nLet us now turn in another direction. Alexandri Gagliano of Naples tells\nus that he too was a pupil of Stradivari, and looking at his work there\nis nothing about it inconsistent with his statement; his typical design\nis formed upon that of Stradivari, and many of his details of\nworkmanship are such as can only have been carried out as the result of\neither a lengthy study, or from being under the immediate supervision of\nthe master.\n\nThe quality of tone produced by the Neapolitans is as distinct as\npossible from that of Milan, it is clear, lively, suggestive of a sunny\nclime, and free in its emission, but leaves an impression on the ear of\na lack of sufficient profundity, nearly the opposite in fact of the\nearly Brescian school. Here the best of the Gaglianos--for it is not at\nall certain that there were not more than two of them assisting at\ndifferent times in Stradivari's atelier--brought the same kind of\nimprovement to Naples as the Guadagninis did to Milan, the scale was\nbetter regulated so as to give greater breadth of effect,\nnotwithstanding the general quality--seemingly native to the\nplace--being uninterfered with. Here then was the influence of\nStradivari having taught his pupils the means whereby the particular\ntone quality most appreciated in the locality could be brought forward\nin its most developed, or mature condition.\n\nCarlo Bergonzi we shall have to consider more fully further on, and for\nthe present only refer to him as a pupil or assistant much more in\nimmediate connection with the atelier of Stradivari than any maker known\nto us. Irregular workman as he was, swayed about this way and that by\nmatters unknown to us, he kept steadfast to the Stradivarian lines to\nthe end. The rest of his family were either his own pupils, or they may\nhave even been at times with his master, as they all--so far as I am\nacquainted with them--are of the same school. These particulars all\npoint in one direction--that Stradivari was not anxious and made no\nspecial efforts at introducing any new kind of tone--development of that\nalready in existence was his aim, and on this line he appears to have\nled his immediate or personal pupils.\n\nThere is great probability that some very clever workmen whose names are\nlost to us, were with Stradivari for a time, long or short, and were\nable to imbibe the valuable precepts enjoined similarly on the other\ndisciples. It is not at present known whether the sons of Stradivari had\npupils or assistants, the rarity of their work seems to point to the\ncontrary; their father having been so successful from the commercial\npoint of view, apart from the higher aspect of his career, there may\nhave been--we might say--the usual disposition amongst sons of\nsuccessful fathers to take life more easily and repose among the laurels\nwon for them, requiring only a little caretaking. There is some\npossibility of Thomas Balestrieri, of Mantua, having worked for a time\nunder Stradivari, but not as a pupil; there is much in his work\nsuggestive of this theory. His tone quality does not belong to the Amati\nschool, in which tradition has it he was trained. He may have gone as\nhelp to Stradivari--for loose as was his general tendency, he could work\nfinely when the fit was on him. Whether he went or not, there remains\ntone quality evidence of the strong influence of Stradivari, besides\nthe throwing aside of the Amati traditions concerning proportions,\ncurves and archings.\n\nOf the other places to which personal pupils of the master went, we may\ntake a passing glance at Genoa, a city not replete with makers of\nrefinement, or numerous, but nevertheless with some sterling qualities.\nAmong them and the most \"Straddy\" is Bernardus Calcanius; his earliest\ndates, if we can rely upon them, and they may prove at any moment to\nhave been earlier than hitherto known, almost preclude the possibility\nof his having worked under Stradivari except as a youth. The influence\nof the master is, however, decidedly paramount in his work and no other\ntendency being noticeable, if not an immediate pupil, he took all\npossible pains to acquire the excellencies that were to his knowledge\npeculiar to Stradivari alone.\n\nAmong the Venetian makers there does not seem to be one that can--from\nhis style and workmanship--be picked out as showing all necessary\nevidence of his having qualified under the great Cremonese as a personal\npupil. Nevertheless there is much indication, and such as cannot be\npassed over, of the influence of Stradivari among the aristocracy of the\nbusiness there. This was not, as in the instances of the other schools\nof violin making outside Cremona, in the first ten years of the century,\nbut after the different individuals of the group of eminent Venetians\nmust have been well known and of established reputation. In this there\nis some apparent indication of one if not more of the party having taken\na trip to Cremona and brought back a few hints of no inconsiderable\nvalue, perhaps received personally from the master. On the other hand,\nif this was not the case, his works must have been brought into Venice\nand their merits artistically as well as acoustically well thought over.\nThe outcome was a change, the Amati genius hitherto presiding\nuninterfered with, seemingly immutable, had to give way to that which\nwas pronounced an improvement or a step higher in the progress of the\nliutaro's art. As in Cremona, the Amati characteristics were too deeply\nrooted in the affections of the Venetians to be eradicated, and we\nconsequently find in the designs of a few of the prominent makers the\nstrong influence of Stradivari in conflict with that of Nicolas Amati,\nand the two swaying in balance with the settled convictions of the\nfollowers of Jacobus Stainer.\n\nHaving now taken a glance round at the chief centres of violin making\nthat had during Stradivari's lifetime been strongly influenced by him,\ndirectly by means of his pupils or indirectly by the arrival there of\nhis works, we may note that his qualities artistically or acoustically\nconsidered, while giving him a commanding position, did not reach so far\nas to annihilate, during competition, those of the Amatis, especially\nwhere the latter had been of long standing and followed earnestly in\ndetail, they kept side by side as in Cremona. The influence of\nStradivari beyond the borders of Italy had yet to receive its due\nacknowledgment from the crowds of imitators which have now become known\nor have pushed themselves in front of the public gaze.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VIII.\n\nTHE REPUTED GOLDEN PERIOD OF STRADIVARI LATE IN LIFE--HIS LATER\n  MODIFICATIONS OF DESIGN--SIGNS OF OLD AGE APPEARING--THE HELP HE\n  RECEIVED.\n\n\nWe can now return back to Cremona, where we left the master in what\nmight almost be termed the heydey of success, as he seems to have had\nfull obeisance as the reigning chief among liutaros. The amount of work\nput forward--estimating carefully by what remains to us after the lapse\nof some hundred and eighty years or more--must have been possibly larger\nthan is suspected and now might appear incredible if it were catalogued\nin detail, were it not for the extreme probability that minor or mere\nmechanical parts of the many instruments other than violins, violas, or\nvioloncellos were effectively carried out under the supervision of\nAntonio Stradivari, his sons and assistants, of these probably what\nunder the circumstances might even be termed a numerous staff.\n\nThe period 1700 to 1725 has been referred to by some writers as \"the\ngolden period\" of Stradivari, not inaptly if we are to understand it in\na pecuniary sense, as his income at the time was no doubt of a very\nsatisfactory nature, but if taken from the standpoint of artistic\nelegance and finish in detail the master himself seems to have had some\nslight misgivings, as there are well-known indications in his latter\ndays of having used some of his early patterns, as if a desire had\narisen in his mind to return to his old love.\n\nThat some signs of advancing age should not be apparent in Stradivari's\nwork during the period of 1715 to 1725 would scarcely be expected. It is\njust at this time, however, that he gives the strongest evidence of\nbeing the extraordinary man that he was. In 1715 and thereabouts, a time\nof all others, some critics might put it, when his most magnificent gems\nof art were sent out into the world, he was a veteran seventy-one years,\na time of life that few people would look forward to as being\nappropriate for executing unrivalled masterpieces, but rather as having\nfor some time retired for final rest after a full complement of working\ndays; here, however, was a peerless artist actually in his prime! and as\nbusy, possibly so, as at any early times.\n\nAt 1720 to 1725 a close student of his work of hand may discern some\nsigns of what was to follow, it might be said naturally. In the first\nplace the purfling gradually assumes a heavier aspect, it is a trifle\nbolder or thicker in substance, although sent round the borders of the\ninstrument with apparently the same masterly handling and iron\nnervousness of the preceding years. The edging is also a degree stouter.\nOccasionally the corners are made to a more obtuse angle, adding to the\nwhole design a more stolid look, as if mere elegance was about to be\nthrown aside and more simplicity and grandeur were being sought for.\nThis was not continued, the master seemed afraid of going too far\ntowards heaviness, he therefore cautiously withdrew to his own old\nlines. Sometimes--possibly taking up and constructing upon some of his\nold and early moulds--the corners are brought out more prominently, but\nwith more substance than in his early days; the result is delightful for\nthe connoisseur's eye. Accompanying these minute modifications there\nwill be noticed an increase slight and gradual in the expression of\nheaviness in the sound holes. If possible there is more freedom from\nmere symmetrical proportion, they are placed less accurately level, one\nbeing a trifle higher than the other, this by the bye was common with\nhim at all times, although usually with a subtlety that left them\nunnoticed by an ordinary observer. This slight irregularity has been\nsometimes misinterpreted as one of the little secrets of the master\nwhereby he obtained his excellent sonority; \"discovered\" was the\nexclamation, and a new rule laid down on Stradivari's lines--never place\nyour sound holes on the same level, always one a trifle higher and you\nwill get what the master was so famous for. The result, so far, has been\na disappointment which laid bare some evidence that these over zealous\nenthusiasts were not sufficiently acquainted with the canons of Italian\nart. There was another peculiarity creeping on with regard to these\nsound holes--that of an enlargement of the curve opposing the lower\nwing, at first it gave a more staid aspect to the part, there was less\nsprightliness and youth about it, nevertheless it was fine at times,\neven magnificent, there being still the same determination of purpose,\nthat of combining maturity of elegance with strength. Afterwards, the\nchange--and if all the works of these later years could be seen, saved\nfrom the destructive ravages of time and wear, it would be pronounced\nscarcely perceptible in its progressive degrees--came creeping on, old\nage gradually insinuating itself in the mechanical part of the design.\n\nFrom 1725 to 1737 was a time forming a proportion of Stradivari's career\nduring which, if he arouses less enthusiasm among his admirers for the\n\"work of hand,\" he outbalances it by far in exciting our astonishment at\nthe man himself. In the year 1725, he was then eighty-one years of age,\nand his work, regarded from the standpoint of \"periods\" as given, or\narbitrarily laid down by critics of the first half of the present\ncentury, was what is now known as just past the \"golden\" or \"grand\"\nperiod; that is, some signs of decadence in the finish of the\ninstruments which he sent forth were for the first time becoming\napparent. It is generally believed that Stradivari was still\nindustriously engaged in constructing instruments of different kinds\nand sizes as before, and that his time was occupied to the full in\nproducing works in rapid succession, as in an uninterrupted stream. That\nthe first part of this was probably quite true we can readily agree to,\nalso that the out-put was continuous. Both, however, will need a little\nqualification when the surrounding circumstances are carefully weighed.\nAllowing the master possession of unusual mental and physical powers,\nwith zeal unabated at the period included within the dates 1725 and\n1735, it would be too much for us to believe him capable of working with\nthe certainty and celerity of former years; with all his extraordinary\nabilities he would now be a less prolific worker.\n\nThis is in agreement with the number of works that have come down to us,\nand as the time advanced it became less and less until a veritable\nspecimen of his latest period is extremely rare.\n\nIt has before been referred to that the sons of Stradivari worked with\nhim for many years. They must have, from continual practice, been able\nto fit their own workmanship on to the designs of their father to a\nnicety that could not be surpassed. Their own individual designs are\nvery seldom seen, consequent, no doubt, on so much of their time being\ndevoted to helping their father, and until his death they must have\nrarely made on their own account.\n\nThere were other assistants who lent a helping hand in different\nbranches of the work, among whom we will not omit mention of Carlo\nBergonzi, a great master himself, but little inferior to Stradivari, and\na good deal better than either of the sons.\n\nThe circumstances under which Carlo Bergonzi worked in the Stradivari\nestablishment are not known; it is by no means certain that he received\nhis early tuition in the place, but that he became an influence of\nconsiderable weight admits of no question. Whether he worked on the\npremises, or--his own being at one time or other next door--was an\noutside help no data is to hand that we can rely on, certain it is that\nhis talent must have been fully recognised by the younger Stradivaris as\ntheir work declares.\n\nMany years back there was some discussion about concerning the extent to\nwhich Carlo Bergonzi helped, or what part he undertook, if it were\nadmitted that some of the Stradivari violins of the latest period were\nnot entirely the work of the master. There was much said for and against\nthe possibility or probability of there being any of Carlo Bergonzi's\nhandiwork to be seen on any of the late Strads. No one seems to have\nquestioned the presence of the influence of Bergonzi's style in the work\nof Franciscus Stradivari, the eldest of the sons, who, after labouring\nfor many years on his father's moulds and patterns, might have\nreasonably been tempted to take a \"leaf from the book\" of such a master\nin designing as his friend and fellow-assistant, Carlo Bergonzi.\n\nTo take any sort of hint from that wonderful, although fitful genius,\nGiuseppe Guarneri, working within earshot, was not to be entertained for\na moment, as the style of workmanship, the calibre and quality of tone\nbelonging to his manner, was quite opposed to Stradivarian teaching, and\nbesides which there are no records or traditions indicating even usual\nsocial intercourse. We are therefore thrown upon our own resources in\nestimating any connection of Carlo Bergonzi with the late work of\nAntonio Stradivari. The instruments themselves will be the only guide\nand, without doubt, in the face of other evidence, had it been present,\nthe best. Stradivari's work during the last ten or more years of his\nlife was showing exactly what we should expect of the man when working\nat a patriarchal age. The stamp of the veteran handicraftsman may be\ntraced not unfrequently on the works of other eminent makers of Cremona,\nincluding Andreas, Hieronymus, Nicolas, and his son Hieronymus and\nothers down to the latest period of Cremonese art, when Laurentius\nStorioni was proving that if in its last struggles it was not quite\ndead.\n\nThe distinguishing characteristics of old age work may be briefly\nsummed up in a few words--heaviness in design and uncertainty of\nexecution. Good, even brilliant, conceptions may be started on new work,\nbut the execution of them shows weakness, or even inability to carry\nthem out well. We will apply this as a kind of test when overlooking the\nspecimens handed down to us as being the production of the great\nCremonese master at the age of between eighty and ninety-three years of\nage. If doing this simply from the connoisseur's point of view, without\nadmitting any such influences as present or past monetary value, former\nownership, in short, thrusting aside all considerations of pedigree, we\nshall soon have to divide them into two sections, one of which will be\nacknowledged by all connoisseurs to be really representative of the true\nStradivarian manner adhered to strictly through a long working career,\nbut with the only fault of not quite so well being said of it. Thus the\nsound holes, as before referred to in the tracings, were becoming\nheavier at the lower part and with a tendency in other details towards\nruggedness. The varnish has a thicker and less dainty aspect, although\nof excellent quality still, but there is an impression of heaviness. In\nthe carving of the scroll the same character prevails, the edges of the\nturns are stouter and at the back the grooves down to the shell are less\nrefined in their execution. All these little specialities of touch, but\nno modifications, are the natural manifestation of the peculiar physical\ncondition of the master at a very advanced age.\n\nLet us now turn to the other section, that over some of which there is\nexcellent reason for disputation, over others none.\n\nIt will be readily acceded that Stradivari at no time during his career\never favoured any exaggeration of curve in the design of his sound\nholes, there was always present the indication of a desire for a fine\nbalance of parts, in fact, his ideal seems always to have been that of\nincreasing, if possible, the elegance of the Amati sound holes while\nadding to its substantial aspect.\n\nIn some of what we have called the second section we find a lively, fine\nand rich transparent varnish such as Carlo Bergonzi was particularly an\nadept at; on the same instrument will be sound holes, that a moment's\nconsideration will remove any hesitation as to the design being other\nthan Carlo Bergonzi. As this remarkable artist had several types of\nsound holes, and no one knows how many subtypes, at his finger ends, a\nlittle knowledge of his two most opposite ones will bring at once to\nmind that he must have had a hand in no inconsiderable portion of what\nis called Stradivari's late work, as here is found the inclining inwards\nof his sound holes with the smaller upper part and heavier lower end.\nThis will be found accompanied by the square looking upper part of the\nwaist curve, the two things being alone almost sufficient to stamp the\nwhole as being by Carlo Bergonzi, but here pedigree has stepped in and\nit was always called a Stradivari.\n\nThis is the one type of sound holes which has to be placed aside for a\nmoment; the other type is of an opposite kind and very often to be seen\naccompanying the longer looking pattern of Carlo Bergonzi: it is free in\ndesign, having the upper and lower wings fully developed, that is, the\nstraight cut of the wing is of full length, this individuality coming\nfrom Stradivari.\n\nIt is this portion of the details of the design that has led so many\nStudents of the works of the Cremonese masters astray, they see the\nStradivarian design, or we may call it peculiarity, and too hastily\nconclude as to its being the actual work of hand of the master. A little\nfurther consideration of the adjoining portions of the sound holes would\nbring to mind how little Stradivari was disposed towards any thinness of\nthe opening out of the part leading from the wing to the nicks: if he\nhad a tendency one way or the other, it would be towards more fulness,\nbut his ideal being a beautiful equilibrium of all parts, this is\nclearly a point telling against the work as coming from his hand\nentirely. There is another part, too, that Stradivari seems to have most\nearnestly avoided, that of making the top portion of the sound hole\ndesign reach over towards the centre, somewhat after the tendency of\nAndrea Guarneri, this causes the lower part to seem turned up more\nsuddenly, it is, however, only by contrast between the two parts that\nthis is so. Carlo Bergonzi's sound holes are more sprightly and\nvertical, and with their more mature style should not be confused with\nthose of the preceding maker. Here, then, are two distinct types of\nsound holes independently of those referred to of earlier periods, to be\nseen attached to violins that have perhaps through several generations\nof owners been attributed to Antonio Stradivari, and in consequence been\nsold again and again for large sums. Here is evidence of there being\nsomething in a name. Had these instruments been carefully and properly\nanalysed, with a strict regard to the habit of the master in respect of\nintention in design and execution at early and later periods, the\nmistake would not have occurred. The conclusions rushed at seem to have\nbeen that there was the proper age of the instrument, the varnish was of\nfine Cremonese type, the pattern and sound holes thought to be\n\"Straddy,\" therefore it must be a Stradivari.\n\nOn the other hand, there is no obtainable evidence that these violins\ndid not issue in new condition from Stradivari's atelier; we have in\nprevious pages considered the amount of help at his elbow, and that this\nwould be more and more called into requisition is but a reasonable\nconjecture: that it was actually the case is helped by the fact of\nviolins being extant in which the age of the master is stated on the\nticket--presumably written by himself. Possibly he felt some degree of\npride in having accomplished, at the patriarchal age of about ninety\nyears, work generally associated with the time and vigour of middle age.\nThe existence of these violins, there may have been several more made\nthan are known, has much significance, for the fact of his age being\ninserted may be fairly taken as indirect evidence not to be lightly put\naside, that they were by himself looked upon as an accomplished work\nquite out of his usual way. Had he been constantly putting forth\ninstruments made by his own hands, there would not have been anything\nunusual about them, but these, with date and age marked, seem to be a\ndeclaration of the master--see--I have made a violin at the age here\nstated! In these there is present exactly what would be expected in such\nwork--indication of insufficiency of the physical powers for carrying\ninto execution the dictates of the mental. The intellect of this wonder\nof humanity appears to have remained unclouded to the last.\n\nThe other violins of about the same epoch, and going under the master's\nname, have a manner of work that ought to have been perceived as being\nalso distinct. Mere hastiness or slovenliness of work is not identical\nwith the effect of inability to achieve mechanical neatness. It is this\nslovenliness of handiwork which Carlo Bergonzi gave way to so\nfrequently; he could, when in the humour, work beautifully; this, with\nhis fine perception of elegance of line, was possibly the secret of his\nbeing admitted into the atelier of Stradivari and of his influence over\nthe sons. There may have been other special particulars regarding him\nthat helped in the matter of which there does not appear to be any\nrecord.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER IX.\n\nEVIDENCES IN STRADIVARI'S WORK OF OLD AGE--HIS DEATH AND\n  BURIAL--WORK LEFT BY HIM--THE ADVANCE IN VALUE OF HIS WORK SINCE HIS\n  DECEASE.\n\n\nReturning to the analysis of the individuality of the mechanical work on\nthe violins of the latest epoch of Stradivari, one or two further\ndetails are worth consideration. The size, style and tool work of the\nscroll have always been admitted to take up a large share in the\nestimation of evidence present for identification of authorship. In some\nof the late specimens of Stradivari we can see at once that the hand has\nbecome less firm, the bold turns seem to have lost much of their former\nvigorous expression, and although thick enough in edge are closer, and\nimpress the connoisseur of the inability of the artificer to spend more\ntime and attention than was absolutely necessary. The groove down the\nback to the shell is less refined than previously, besides being more\nheavily gouged at the termination. Almost in contrast with these parts\nthere are seen on other \"very late Strads\" a neatly cut shell widening\nout a trifle and minus the thick edging; an examination of the turns of\nthe scroll will reveal the fact of its having been gouged in quite a\ndifferent manner, the declevity being more concave, the result of\nrunning the gouge along the course instead of towards the centre which\nwas the manner of the Amatis. This hollowing out of the turns was so\nfrequently done by Carlo Bergonzi that it might be called his most\nnatural mode of treatment; we can here see what evidence there is of\nthis maker's probable help in the work of his master. If we admit the\npossibility of these being entirely Antonio Stradivari's handiwork, then\nthere were more phenomenal aspects of the master's working powers left\nfor our consideration than he had hitherto given the slightest hint of\nduring his extraordinarily long career.\n\n[Illustration: THE CHURCH OF ST. DOMENICO.]\n\nTaking therefore all the facts at our command in connection with the\ncircumstances of the time, and the artist himself with his extended\nlife, sifting these carefully we find the residue left is,--that his\nworking powers gradually lessened in a perfectly natural way and that\nsuch entire work as left his hands during the last few, say six or seven\nyears was, taken at the best, small in quantity; they came forth as from\nthe last flickering embers of a decaying power whose influence,\nbequeathed to the world at large, was destined to increase indefinitely\nand whose secrets were left unrevealed, to be sought for earnestly, but\nin vain, by generation after generation.\n\nTime, he with his hour glass, passing by the home of Antonio Stradivari\nin Cremona, found him full of years and honour among his own little\nworld of friends and acquaintances, for beyond the borders of his\ncountry his name could have been known to few, and those only\nrecognising him as a clever and successful practitioner in perhaps their\nown craft; his world wide fame had as yet received but a slight impetus\nwhen it became known that no more of the unapproachable gems of art were\nto issue from the unassuming house in the square of S. Domenico,\nCremona.\n\nAntonio Stradivari died in his 94th year at Cremona on the 18th of\nDecember, 1737, and was buried in the chapel of the Rosary in the Church\nof San Domenico. This church was situated exactly opposite his house,\nwhere, standing at his door--as he must have done many a time--the tomb\nwhich was to be his final resting-place came directly on the line of\nvision in front of him, but within the third recess or chapel past\nthe intervening wall. So far as our scanty knowledge goes, there were no\ncircumstances connected with his death that called for any special\nnotice at the time. Possibly little more was remarked by the neighbours\nthan that the aged musical instrument maker of the Piazza di San\nDomenico had died, and his two sons were to carry on the business.\nPerhaps none of them gave a thought to the immensely enhanced value of\neach of his works of art--or as they may have described them--the goods\nthat he sold--that might be remaining two centuries forward.\n\nHe had lived to an almost patriarchal age, over ninety-three years. It\nis rare to find in the world's history a leading light among professors\nof science or art completing such a career of almost incessant labour\nboth mental and physical. It is still more so to find the work of such a\ngenius, large as was the quantity, increasing in value by \"leaps and\nbounds\" as time progressed after his decease. Most probably at the\npresent day--supposing there to be extant as much as one-eighth of what\nhe put forth--and that may be very much over the mark, the market value\nof what is recognised as his handiwork would still be a very long way\nabove that of the whole of the work put forth throughout his life. It is\non record that when he died there were ninety violins remaining unsold.\nThere may be several good reasons for this; among them the fact that\nCarlo Bergonzi and Joseph Guarneri were working in rivalry at the time,\nand bidding for public favour less on account of fine workmanship than\nforce and magnificence of style and general aspect, and that public\nattention was to some extent diverted in their direction; further, and\nperhaps more cogent, the recognition of the great brilliancy and\nlargeness of Joseph Guarneri's tone, that must have seemed to the\nmusical cognoscenti of Cremona remarkably fresh and vigorous.\n\nBut when the master had departed it was not long before the loss was\nseen to be irreparable. His work was sought for, there being none other\nof the kind to supply its place; further and further as time advanced\nit was becoming more and more evident that his like was not to be hoped\nfor, notwithstanding the favour with which the public viewed the two\nrivals who were destined to work for a comparatively short period. When\nthese two at last disappeared, it was a signal for another rise in the\nmonetary value of Stradivari's work, and which was to continue\nprogressing indefinitely until such time when there may be signs of an\napproaching renaissance.\n\n\n\n\nFOOTNOTE:\n\n[A] Our illustration of this house is from a photo. It will be noticed\nthat it has not an imposing exterior and not much indication of the more\nspacious premises in the rear where the great master worked.\n\n\n\n\nADVERTISEMENTS.\n\n\n\n\n  _ELEVENTH YEAR OF ISSUE._\n\n  _The Largest Circulation in the World of any paper amongst\n    Violinists._\n\n  THE STRAD\n\n  _A Monthly Journal for Professionals and Amateurs of all Stringed\n    Instruments played with the Bow._\n\n  Published on the First of every Month. Price 2d.,\n  Annual Subscription, Post Free, 2s. 6d.\n\n\n  =THE STRAD= is the only recognised organ of the string family and\n  has subscribers in every country of the civilised world. Our\n  circulation has increased to so great an extent that we are enabled\n  to engage as contributors\n\n  =THE LEADING WRITERS in the VIOLIN WORLD=.\n\n  _The following eminent Authors, Critics and Players are writing for\n  the paper_: BASIL ALTHAUS, ESQ., ARTHUR BROADLEY, ESQ., LANCASTRIAN,\n  ANDRE LA TARCHE, ESQ., ROBIN H. LEGGE, ESQ., J. MATTHEWS, ESQ.,\n  WALTER H. MAYSON, ESQ., REV. MEREDITH MORRIS, HORACE PETHERICK,\n  ESQ., DR. T. L. PHIPSON, E. VAN DER STRAETEN, ESQ., &c., &c.\n\n  =THE STRAD= contains technical articles by the leading artists.\n\n  =THE STRAD=, in the Answers to Correspondents column, gives minute\n  information on every detail connected with the Violin by Experts.\n\n  =THE STRAD= gives all the important doings of Violinists at home and\n  abroad all the year round.\n\n  =THE STRAD= gives early critical notices of all important New Music\n  for Stringed Instruments, with numbers to show the grade of\n  difficulty of every piece.\n\n  =THE STRAD= gives every month a beautifully executed portrait on\n  fine art paper, of some leading celebrity in the violin world,\n  together with a biographical sketch.\n\n  Now appearing,\n\n  =VIOLIN MAKING.= BY WALTER H. MAYSON.\n\n  _Copiously Illustrated._\n\n  This important work goes minutely into every detail of the Luthier's\n  Art, and is the only work on Violin Making that has ever been\n  actually written by a Violin Maker.\n\n  This series of articles commenced in the January issue, 1900.\n\n  All Subscriptions, Advertisements, etc., to be addressed to the\n  Manager, HARRY LAVENDER, 3. Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, London,\n  E.C.\n\n  LONDON:\n  \"STRAD\" OFFICE, 3. Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, E.C.\n\n\n\n\n  _\"THE STRAD\" LIBRARY, No. I._\n\n  _Crown 8vo., Cloth, 2\/6, Post Free, 2\/9._\n\n  _\"THE STRAD\" LIBRARY EDITION is the only Authorised Edition of_\n\n  Technics of Violin Playing\n  ON\n  JOACHIM'S METHOD\n\n  BY\n  CARL COURVOISIER.\n\n  With Folding Plates, Containing Fifteen Illustrations.\n\n\n  LETTER FROM DR. JOACHIM\n  [COPY].\n\n  MY DEAR MR. COURVOISIER: I have read the book on Violin Playing you\n  have sent me, and have to congratulate you sincerely on the manner\n  in which you have performed a most difficult task, _i.e._, to\n  describe the best way of arriving at a correct manner of playing the\n  violin.\n\n  It cannot but be welcome to thoughtful teachers, who reflect on the\n  method of our art, and I hope that your work will prove useful to\n  many students.\n\n  Believe me, my dear Mr. Courvoisier, to be most faithfully yours,\n\n                                                         JOSEPH JOACHIM.\n\n  Berlin, November 3rd, 1894.\n\n\n  The New and Revised Edition of \"Technics of Violin Playing\" issued\n  by THE STRAD is the only authorised edition of my work. The\n  several English editions which have all appeared without my knowledge\n  are _incomplete_ and _faulty_.\n\n  CARL COURVOISIER.\n\n\n  LONDON:\n  \"STRAD\" OFFICE, 3. Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, E.C.\n\n\n\n\n  _\"THE STRAD\" LIBRARY, No. II._\n\n  _Crown 8vo., Cloth, 2\/6, Post Free, 2\/9._\n\n  HOW TO STUDY THE VIOLIN\n\n  By J. T. CARRODUS\n\n\n  CONTENTS.\n\n  Strings and Tuning. The Bow and Bowing. Faults and their Correction.\n  Scales and their Importance. Course of Study. Advice on Elementary\n  Matters. Concerning Harmonics, Octaves, etc. Orchestral Playing.\n  Some Experiences as a Soloist. With full page portraits of Carrodus,\n  Molique, Paganini, Spohr, Sivori, De Beriot, Blagrove and Sainton,\n  and a photo-reproduction of Dr. Spohr's testimonial to Carrodus.\n\n  \"An interesting series of articles 'How to Study the Violin,' which\n  Carrodus contributed to THE STRAD, and completed only a week or two\n  before his death, have now been collected in cheap book form. The\n  technical hints to violin students, which are practical, plainly\n  worded, and from such a pen most valuable.\"--_Daily News._\n\n  \"But a few weeks before his sudden death the most distinguished of\n  native violinists completed in THE STRAD a series of chats to\n  students of the instrument associated with his name. These chats are\n  now re-issued, with a sympathetic preface and instructive\n  annotations. All who care to listen to what were virtually the last\n  words of such a conscientious teacher will recognise the pains taken\n  by Carrodus to render every detail as clear to the novice as to the\n  advanced pupil. Pleasant gossip concerning provincial festivals at\n  which Carrodus was for many years 'leader,' of the orchestra, ends a\n  little volume worthy a place in musical libraries both for its\n  practical value and as a memento of the life-work of an artist\n  universally esteemed.\"--_Daily Chronicle._\n\n  \"It is surely, hardly necessary to direct the attention of students\n  to the unique value of the hints and advice given by so experienced\n  and accomplished a virtuoso as the late Mr. Carrodus, so that it\n  only remains to state that the 'Recollections' make delightful\n  reading, and that the book, as a whole, is as entertaining as it is\n  instructive. The value of the _brochure_ is enhanced by an excellent\n  portrait of Mr. Carrodus, as well as of a number of other violin\n  worthies, and the printing, paper, and get up generally are good as\n  could possibly be.\"--_Musical Answers._\n\n\n  LONDON:\n  \"STRAD\" OFFICE, 3, GREEN TERRACE, ROSEBERY AVENUE, E.C.\n\n\n\n\n  _\"THE STRAD\" LIBRARY, No. III._\n\n  _Crown 8vo., Cloth 2\/6, Post Free 2\/9._\n\n  THE BOW\n\n  Its History, Manufacture and Use\n\n  BY\n  HENRY SAINT-GEORGE.\n\n  With Full Page Illustrations (exact size) by Photo Process.\n\n\n  MONS. EMILE SAURET writes--\"I have read it with great interest, and\n  think that it supplies a real want in giving musicians such an\n  excellent description of all matters referring to this important\n  instrument.\"\n\n  SIGNOR GUIDO PAPINI writes--\"Thanks so much for your splendid and\n  interesting book. You are quite successful and all the artists and\n  amateurs are indebted to you for a so exact and correct '_Texte_' on\n  the subject.\"\n\n  ADOLF BRODSKY writes--\"I am delighted with the book and find it very\n  instructive, even for those who think to know everything about the\n  bow. It is very original and at times very amusing. No violinist\n  should miss the opportunity to buy it.\"\n\n  THE TIMES.--\"A useful treatise on the Bow, in which the history,\n  manufacture and use of the bow are discussed with considerable\n  technical knowledge.\"\n\n  DAILY TELEGRAPH.--\"To the student there is much of interest in the\n  work, which has the advantage of being copiously illustrated.\"\n\n  DAILY NEWS.--\"This book seems practically to exhaust its subject.\"\n\n\n  LONDON:\n  \"STRAD\" OFFICE, 3. Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, E.C.\n\n\n\n\n  _\"THE STRAD\" LIBRARY, No. IV._\n\n  _Crown 8vo., Cloth 5\/-, Post Free 5\/4._\n\n  CELEBRATED VIOLINISTS,\n  PAST AND PRESENT\n\n  _Translated from the German of_\n  A. EHRLICH.\n\n  _And Edited with Notes and Additions by_\n  ROBIN H. LEGGE.\n\n  _WITH EIGHTY-NINE PORTRAITS._\n\n\n  PRESS NOTICES.\n\n  \"Those who love their fiddles better than their fellows, and who\n  treasure up every detail that can be found and recorded about their\n  favourite and cherished players will not fail to provide themselves\n  with a copy of this book.\"--_Musical Opinion._\n\n  \"This book of 280 pages is a most interesting and valuable addition\n  to the violinist's library. It contains 89 biographical sketches of\n  well-known artists, ancient and modern, of all nations. This is not\n  intended to be a perfect dictionary of violinists; the aim of the\n  Editor of the present volume being merely to give a few more\n  up-to-date details concerning some of the greatest of stringed\n  instrument players, and we must concede that no name of the first\n  importance has been omitted. Germany is represented by 21 names,\n  Italy by 13, France by 10, England by 4, Bohemia by 8, Belgium by 7,\n  and the fair sex by seven well-known ladies, such as Teresina Tua,\n  Therese and Marie Milanollo, Lady Halle, Marie Soldat, Gabrielle\n  Wietrowetz, and Arma Senkrah. Altogether this is most agreeable\n  reading to the numerous army of violinists, both professionals and\n  amateurs, and after careful examination we can find nothing but\n  praise for this translation into English of a book well-known on the\n  Continent.\"--_The Piano, Organ and Music Trades Journal._\n\n\n  LONDON:\n  \"STRAD\" OFFICE, 3. Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, E.C.\n\n\n\n\n  _\"THE STRAD\" LIBRARY, No. V._\n\n  _Crown 8vo., Cloth 2\/6, Post Free 2\/9._\n\n  TECHNICS OF\n  VIOLONCELLO PLAYING\n\n  BY\n  E. VAN DER STRAETEN.\n\n  COPIOUSLY ILLUSTRATED.\n\n\n  _Copy of Letter received by the Author from the great 'cellist,\n  SIGNOR ALFRED PIATTI._\n\n                              Cadenabbia, Lake of Como, March 9th, 1898.\n\n  DEAR SIR,--I received the book you kindly sent me on \"The Technics\n  of Violoncello Playing,\" which I found excellent, particularly for\n  beginners, which naturally was your scope. With many thanks for\n  kindly remembering an old ex-violoncello player.\n\n                                       Believe me, yours sincerely,\n                                                          ALFRED PIATTI.\n\n\n  _Copy of Letter received by the Author from the eminent 'cellist,\n  HERR DAVID POPPER._\n\n                                          Budapest, February 22nd, 1898.\n\n  DEAR SIR,--In sending me your book on \"The Technics of Violoncello\n  Playing\" you have given me a real and true pleasure. I know of no\n  work, tutors and studies not excepted, which presents so much\n  valuable material, so much that is absolutely to the point,\n  avoiding--I might say, on principle--all that is superfluous and\n  dispensable. Every earnest thinking violoncello student will in\n  future make your book his own and thereby receive hints which will\n  further and complete the instructions of his master.\n\n  I congratulate you and ourselves most heartily on the new violoncello\n  book. With kind regards,\n\n                                             Yours most sincerely,\n                                                           DAVID POPPER.\n\n\n  LONDON:\n  \"STRAD\" OFFICE, 3. Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, E.C.\n\n\n\n\n  _\"THE STRAD LIBRARY,\" No. VI._\n\n  _Crown 8vo., Cloth, 2\/6, Post Free 2\/9._\n\n  VIOLIN PLAYING\n\n  BY\n  JOHN DUNN\n\n\n  CONTENTS\n\n  INTRODUCTORY--Qualities indispensable to the ideal Violinist--Hints\n  on the Choice of a Teacher--Some Tricks of pretending professors\n  exposed.\n\n  ON THE CHOICE OF A VIOLIN AND BOW--Advice regarding general\n  adjustment and repairs.\n\n  ON THE CHOICE OF STRINGS--Stringing the Instrument and keeping the\n  Pegs in Order.\n\n  ON THE GENERAL POSTURE--The manner of holding the Violin and Bow as\n  accepted by the leading artists of the day.\n\n  ON FINGERING GENERALLY--The various positions--Scales\n  recommended--The Modern Orchestral \"Principal\" or (so-called)\n  Leader.\n\n  ON GLIDING--Special Characteristics of some of the most Eminent\n  Players.\n\n  DOUBLE STOPPING--The main difficulty in Double Stopping--How to gain\n  independence of Finger.\n\n  BOWINGS--Smooth Bowings--Solid Staccato--Spiccato--Spring Bow--Mixed\n  Bowings.\n\n  TONE PRODUCTION--Character of Tone--Rules and Conditions necessary\n  to produce a good tone--Style and Expression.\n\n\n  LONDON:\n  \"STRAD\" OFFICE, 3. Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, E.C.\n\n\n\n\n  _\"THE STRAD\" LIBRARY, No. VII._\n\n  _Crown 8vo, Cloth, 2\/6, Post Free 2\/9._\n\n  CHATS TO 'CELLO STUDENTS\n\n  BY\n  ARTHUR BROADLEY.\n\n\n  CONTENTS.\n\n  Preliminary remarks--'Cello Difficult to Master--Choice of a\n  Teacher--Choice of an Instrument and Bow. How to Hold the\n  Instrument--Attitude of the Player--Use of a Sliding Pin\n  Recommended--Correct Way of Holding the Bow--Some Incorrect Sketches\n  of Same. General Knowledge--Eccentricity not Necessarily a Mark of\n  Genius--Musical Notation--Common Errors with Respect to the Actual\n  Position of the Various Clefs--Tenor Clef Indispensable to the\n  'Cellist. Early Attempts at 'Cello Playing--Firmness in\n  Fingering--The Left Hand--Correct Method of Placing the Left Hand\n  Fingers. General Remarks on Bowing--Useful Method of Combining\n  Scale Practice with Study of Various Bowings--Smooth\n  Bowings--Crescendo--Diminuendo--The Slur. Bowing\n  Continued--Martele--Detached Stroke--Mixed Bowings--The Various\n  Divisions of the Bow. On \"Staccato\" Bowing-Spiccato--Slurred\n  Springing-Bow--Varieties of Phrasing Occasioned by the Portion of\n  Bow Used--Sautille--Dotted Notes. On the Positions--The Individual\n  Requirements of the Orchestral Player and Soloist--The Necessity of\n  \"Stretching\" for the Intervals--Locality of the Neck Positions--The\n  Enharmonic Difference of Sharp and Flat Keys--Absolute Pitch--How to\n  Leap any Awkward Interval--The Positions not Determined by\n  Mathematical Rules, but by the \"Ear\"--Shifting--\"Economy of Motion\"\n  _v._ \"Effect\"--Choice of Positions. Portamento--The Various Uses of\n  Gilding--Some Exaggerations Exposed--How to Leap Great Intervals\n  without \"Howling\"--Combination of Glissando and Sforzando.\n  Double-Stopping--Useful in Developing the Hand--How to Determine the\n  Fingering of Various Intervals--Gliding in Double Stops--Chords--A\n  Correct Manner of Playing Chords. Arpeggios--Their Evolution from\n  Various Chords--The Bowing of Arpeggios. Graces and\n  Embellishments--The Use of the Thumb--Extensions--Octaves.\n  Scientific Basis of Harmonics--Some Peculiar Laws which Govern a\n  Vibrating String--\"Natural\" and \"Artificial\" Harmonics--Manner of\n  Bowing Harmonics--Special Effects--\"Trick Staccato\"--Various Methods\n  of Producing Chromatic Scale Passages--\"Sul Ponticello\" Bowing and\n  \"Bowed\" Harmonics--Flautando--Pizzicato Glide and Grace Notes!\n  Delivery--Style--\"Form\" _v._ \"Feeling\"--Conception--Essentials of a\n  \"Fine\" Delivery--Orchestral Playing.\n\n\n  LONDON:\n  \"STRAD\" OFFICE, 3. Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, E.C.\n\n\n\n\nTRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:\n\n\n  Passages in italics are indicated by _italics_.\n\n  Passages in bold are indicated by =bold=.\n\n  Inconsistencies in spelling and hypenation have been retained from the\n    original.\n\n  Obvious typographical errors have been corrected as follows:\n    Page  3: \"occured\" changed to \"occurred\"\n    Page 22: \"be\" changed to \"he\"\n    Page 31: \"connoissiers\" changed to \"connoisseurs\"\n    Page 39: \"ignominous\" changed to \"ignominious\"\n    Page 60: \"Guadaguini\" changed to \"Guadagnini\"\n\n  Page numbers in the \"List of Plates\" for the ILLUSTRATIONS OF SCROLLS\n    have been retained, but illustrations have been moved to be next to\n    the paragraph in which they are referred.\n\n\n\n\n\nEnd of Project Gutenberg's Antonio Stradivari, by Horace William Petherick\n\n*** ","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}}
+{"text":" \nTable of Contents\n\nJossey-Bass Teacher\n\nTitle Page\n\nCopyright Page\n\nAbout This Book\n\nWhat Are Life Skills?\n\nWhy Teach Life Skills?\n\nWhat Students Will Use This Book?\n\nHow Do I Use This Book?\n\nAbout the Author\n\nParent Activities and Suggestions\n\nPart One: Self-Awareness\n\nPart Two: People Skills\n\nPart Three: Academic and School Skills\n\nPart Four: Practical Living Skills\n\nPart Five: Vocational Skills\n\nPart Six: Problem-Solving Skills\n\nPart One - Self-Awareness\n\nChapter 1 - My Character\n\n1.1 Qualities of a Good Character\n\n1.2 Honesty\n\n1.3 Kindness\n\n1.4 Loyalty\n\n1.5 Responsibility\n\n1.6 Flexibility\n\n1.7 What Are Values?\n\nChapter 2 - Uniquely Me\n\n2.1 Values Important to Me\n\n2.2 My Ethnic Background\n\n2.3 My Disabilities\n\n2.4 What's a Reputation?\n\n2.5 Changing Your Reputation\n\n2.6 How You Appear to Others\n\nChapter 3 - Personal Life Choices\n\n3.1 Smoking: Is It for Me?\n\n3.2 Marijuana and Other Drugs\n\n3.3 Teens and Drinking\n\n3.4 Changing Your Appearance\n\n3.5 Tattoos and Piercings\n\n3.6 Rate the Date\n\n3.7 Ready to Move Out?\n\n3.8 Ready to Work Part-Time?\n\nPart Two - People Skills\n\nChapter 4 - Relating to Others\n\n4.1 Encouraging Others\n\n4.2 Working in a Group\n\n4.3 Working Toward a Common Goal\n\n4.4 Being Friendly\n\n4.5 Helping Others\n\n4.6 What Is a Mood?\n\n4.7 Noticing the Moods of Others\n\n4.8 How My Mood Affects Others\n\nChapter 5 - Friendship Skills\n\n5.1 My Peer Groups\n\n5.2 Who Are My Friends?\n\n5.3 Making Friends\n\n5.4 People Who Are Like You\n\n5.5 People Who Are Different from You\n\n5.6 Where and How to Look for Friends\n\n5.7 Qualities of a Good Friend\n\n5.8 Social Situations\n\n5.9 A Positive Role Model\n\n5.10 What About Gangs?\n\n5.11 Social Networking Online\n\nChapter 6 - Being Part of a Family\n\n6.1 My Family Tree\n\n6.2 Benefits of a Family\n\n6.3 Respecting Authority\n\n6.4 My Parent's Point of View\n\n6.5 My Sibling's Point of View\n\n6.6 Thoughts About Divorce\n\n6.7 Dealing with Stepparents\n\n6.8 Sharing the Chores\n\n6.9 Whom Can I Talk To?\n\nChapter 7 - Communication Skills\n\n7.1 Best Method to Communicate\n\n7.2 Being a Careful Listener\n\n7.3 Summarizing\n\n7.4 Paraphrasing\n\n7.5 Is This the Right Time and Place?\n\n7.6 Communicating by Cell Phone\n\n7.7 Giving Clear Directions\n\n7.8 Verbal and Nonverbal Messages\n\n7.9 Collecting Your Thoughts\n\n7.10 Public Speaking\n\n7.11 Expecting Respect\n\n7.12 Being Convincing\n\n7.13 Giving Your Speech\n\nPart Three - Academic and School Skills\n\nChapter 8 - Reading Skills\n\n8.1 Reading for School\n\n8.2 Reading on the Job\n\n8.3 Improving Reading Skills\n\n8.4 Reading for Comprehension\n\n8.5 Following Written Directions\n\nChapter 9 - Writing Skills\n\n9.1 Communicating Through Writing\n\n9.2 Everyday Writing Tasks\n\n9.3 Proofreading\n\n9.4 E-mailing Dos and Don'ts\n\n9.5 Using Computers to Improve Writing\n\n9.6 Writing and More Writing\n\n9.7 Writing on the Job\n\nChapter 10 - Math Skills\n\n10.1 Everyday Math Skills\n\n10.2 Improving Math Skills\n\n10.3 Common Math Situations\n\n10.4 Understanding Graphs\n\n10.5 Understanding Charts\n\n10.6 Sample Math Problems\n\n10.7 Using Computers for Math Information\n\nChapter 11 - Study Skills\n\n11.1 School Tasks for Success\n\n11.2 Tools for the Task\n\n11.3 Taking Notes\n\n11.4 Studying Smarter\n\n11.5 Following Directions\n\n11.6 Doing Homework\n\n11.7 Managing Daily Assignments\n\n11.8 Managing Long-Term Assignments\n\n11.9 Completing Assignments\n\n11.10 Good Student Behaviors\n\n11.11 Requesting Help or Information\n\nPart Four - Practical Living Skills\n\nChapter 12 - Information Skills\n\n12.1 What Do You Need to Know?\n\n12.2 Where to Get Information\n\n12.3 Information from Newspapers\n\n12.4 Information from Magazines\n\n12.5 Information from the Internet\n\n12.6 Information from Books\n\n12.7 Information from Television\n\n12.8 Information from Other People\n\n12.9 Taking Classes\n\nChapter 13 - Money Skills\n\n13.1 What Is a Budget?\n\n13.2 Making a Budget\n\n13.3 Paying Interest\n\n13.4 \"On Sale\"\n\n13.5 Unit Pricing\n\n13.6 How Much Do Things Cost?\n\n13.7 Writing a Check\n\n13.8 Maintaining a Checking Account\n\n13.9 What Is a Savings Account?\n\n13.10 Credit Cards\n\n13.11 Using Debit and Credit Cards and ATMs\n\n13.12 How Much Money Will You Need?\n\n13.13 Making Change\n\nChapter 14 - Travel\n\n14.1 Local Transportation\n\n14.2 Overnight Travel\n\n14.3 Traveling by Plane\n\n14.4 Planning a Trip\n\n14.5 Estimating Costs\n\n14.6 Using a Timetable\n\n14.7 Reading a Map\n\nChapter 15 - Clothing\n\n15.1 Caring for and Repairing Clothing\n\n15.2 Buying Appropriate Clothes\n\n15.3 Organizing Your Clothes\n\n15.4 Washing and Drying Tips\n\nChapter 16 - Living Arrangements\n\n16.1 A Place to Live\n\n16.2 Living with Parents\n\n16.3 Home Upkeep\n\n16.4 Home Repairs\n\n16.5 Going Green\n\n16.6 Decluttering\n\nChapter 17 - Eating and Nutrition\n\n17.1 Nutrition\n\n17.2 Making Good Food Choices\n\n17.3 Eating Out versus Eating In\n\n17.4 Preparing a Meal\n\nChapter 18 - Shopping\n\n18.1 What Do I Need?\n\n18.2 Smart Shopping\n\n18.3 Comparison Shopping\n\n18.4 Returning Items\n\nChapter 19 - Exercise\/Health and Hygiene\n\n19.1 Exercise in Daily Life\n\n19.2 Exercise Excuses\n\n19.3 Personal Health Habits\n\n19.4 Stress and Stressors\n\n19.5 Stressful Events and Situations\n\n19.6 Coping with Stress\n\n19.7 Depression\n\nPart Five - Vocational Skills\n\nChapter 20 - Present Skills and Interests\n\n20.1 My Strengths\n\n20.2 My Interests\n\n20.3 My Hobbies\n\n20.4 Realistic Vocational Goals\n\n20.5 Academic Strengths\n\n20.6 Working with a Disability\n\n20.7 Finishing High School\n\n20.8 Extracurricular Activities\n\nChapter 21 - Getting a Job\n\n21.1 Searching for a Job\n\n21.2 Vocational Vocabulary\n\n21.2 Vocabulary Help Sheet\n\n21.3 Filling Out an Application\n\n21.4 What Is a R\u00e9sum\u00e9?\n\n21.5 Interviewing for a Job\n\n21.6 First Impressions\n\n21.7 Getting Work Experience\n\nChapter 22 - Working\n\n22.1 Having a Good Attitude\n\n22.2 Being a Great Employee\n\n22.3 Making a Mistake on the Job\n\n22.4 Handling Criticism on the Job\n\n22.4 Handling Criticism on the Job\n\n22.5 Being Prepared for the Task\n\n22.5 Being Prepared for the Task\n\n22.6 Changing Jobs: Why?\n\n22.6 Changing Jobs: Why?\n\n22.7 Changing Jobs: How?\n\n22.7 Changing Jobs: How?\n\nPart Six - Problem-Solving Skills\n\nChapter 23 - Handling Problem Situations\n\n23.1 Understanding the Problem\n\n23.1 Understanding the Problem\n\n23.2 Coping with Surprises\n\n23.2 Coping with Surprises\n\n23.3 Adjusting to Change\n\n23.3 Adjusting to Change\n\n23.4 When the Problem Is You!\n\n23.4 When the Problem Is You!\n\nChapter 24 - Making Decisions\n\n24.1 Decision-Making Factors\n\n24.1 Decision-Making Factors\n\n24.2 Needs versus Wants\n\n24.2 Needs versus Wants\n\n24.3 Immediate Needs versus Waiting\n\n24.3 Immediate Needs versus Waiting\n\n24.4 Following Through\n\n24.4 Following Through\n\n24.5 Changing Bad Decisions\n\n24.5 Changing Bad Decisions\n\nChapter 25 - Resource Management\n\n25.1 What Are My Resources?\n\n25.1 What Are My Resources?\n\n25.2 Reliable Resources\n\n25.2 Reliable Resources\n\n25.3 Fact versus Opinion\n\n25.3 Fact versus Opinion\n\n25.4 Time Management\n\n25.4 Time Management\n\n25.5 Staying on Task\n\n25.5 Staying on Task\n\nChapter 26 - Goal-Setting\n\n26.1 What Is a Goal?\n\n26.1 What Is a Goal?\n\n26.2 Setting Priorities\n\n26.2 Setting Priorities\n\n26.3 Doing Things in Sequence\n\n26.3Doing Things in Sequence\n\n26.4 Realistic Goals\n\n26.4 Realistic Goals\n\n26.5 Adjusting Goals\n\n26.5 Adjusting Goals\n\nChapter 27 - Risk-Taking\n\n27.1 What Is a Risk?\n\n27.1 What Is a Risk?\n\n27.2 Why Take Risks?\n\n27.2 Why Take Risks?\n\n27.3 Acceptable Risks\n\n27.3 Acceptable Risks\n\n27.4 Handling Fear\n\n27.4 Handling Fear\n**Jossey-Bass Teacher**\n\nJossey-Bass Teacher provides educators with practical knowledge and tools to create a positive and lifelong impact on student learning. We offer classroom-tested and research-based teaching resources for a variety of grade levels and subject areas. Whether you are an aspiring, new, or veteran teacher, we want to help you make every teaching day your best.\n\nFrom ready-to-use classroom activities to the latest teaching framework, our value-packed books provide insightful, practical, and comprehensive materials on the topics that matter most to K-12 teachers. We hope to become your trusted source for the best ideas from the most experienced and respected experts in the field.\n\nCopyright \u00a9 2009 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 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Requests to the publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, 201-748-6011, fax 201-748-6008, or online at www.wiley.com\/go\/permissions.\n\nPermission is given for individual classroom teachers to reproduce the pages and illustrations for classroom use. Reproduction of these materials for an entire school system is strictly forbidden.\n\nReaders should be aware that Internet Web sites offered as citations and\/or sources for further information may have changed or disappeared between the time this was written and when it is read.\n\nLimit of Liability\/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.\n\nJossey-Bass books and products are available through most bookstores. To contact Jossey-Bass directly call our Customer Care Department within the U.S. at 800-956-7739, outside the U.S. at 317-572-3986, or fax 317-572-4002.\n\nJossey-Bass also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books.\n\neISBN : 978-0-470-53848-7\n\n_PB Printing_\n**About This Book**\n\n_Life Skills Activities for Secondary Students with Special Needs_ is a resource for special education and regular education teachers, counselors, parents, paraprofessionals, and others who are involved in the education, training, employment, or socialization of students.\n\n#  **What Are Life Skills?**\n\nBasically, life skills are a group of skills that an individual needs to acquire for an independent life, as far as that life is possible. One could argue that the most important skills one acquires in life are the skills of sound character, such as honesty, kindness, and being responsible. At school, students need to acquire the whole realm of academic skills, including reading, writing, and solving math problems. In addition, school is a microcosm of society that demands the acquisition of appropriate social skills. Life skills also includes the many tasks that make up daily living, such as shopping, saving money, traveling, or eating. Vocational skills are another component of what a special needs child will need to acquire\u2014finding and maintaining an appropriate job. Problem-solving skills are a vital thinking technique that can be superimposed on all of the other areas.\n\n#  **Why Teach Life Skills?**\n\nThe teaching of life skills is an ongoing process for children. It can take place in many campuses (at school, at home, in the community) and be taught by many teachers (including professional educators, the bus driver, your neighbor, other children, and community leaders). Sometimes, however, it is best to have a directed goal with a target in mind to help stay focused on what your child needs to learn. Having a specific goal helps not only the student, but the teacher or parent as well.\n\n#  **What Students Will Use This Book?**\n\nThe lessons in this book are primarily directed toward middle school or younger high school students who have a special need for learning. This special need might be a social disability, learning disability, or moderate mental or physical handicap that requires slowing down the pace of the task, going step -by-step toward a goal, needing extra practice, learning through targeted discussion, and\/or simply steering them toward the core skill.\n\nThe material can be adapted for a variety of uses. Answers can be oral or written, students can work individually or in groups, activities can be tailored to fit whatever needs are more pressing.\n\n#  **How Do I Use This Book?**\n\nAs a teacher or parent, you have many options as far as using the material in this book. A typical lesson contains these elements:\n\n\u2022 A specific objective for the lesson\n\n\u2022 Brief comments about the nature or importance of the skill\n\n\u2022 An introductory activity or two\n\n\u2022 Discussion questions pertaining to the skill\n\n\u2022 Answer key or suggested responses\n\n\u2022 An extension activity or two\n\n\u2022 Evaluation items\n\nIn addition, there are parent activities and suggestions for each of the six sections.\n\nThe book is organized into six main parts:\n\nPart One, Self-Awareness, contains twenty-one lessons on character (being responsible, loyal, kind, and so on), individual uniqueness (ethnicity, disabilities, reputation, and so on), and personal life choices (such as smoking, drinking, tattoos, moving out).\n\nPart Two, People Skills, contains forty-one lessons on relating to others (such as working with others, being in a good mood), developing friendship skills (recognizing people who are the same as or different from you, social networking, and so on), and being part of a family (such as understanding another's point of view, sharing space), and communicating (being a good listener, understanding verbal and nonverbal messages, and so on).\n\nPart Three, Academic and School Skills, is primarily related to education and contains thirty lessons on reading, writing, math, and study skills. Teachers in a school setting may find this section helpful for their students.\n\nPart Four, Practical Living Skills, is a longer section containing fifty-four lessons on acquiring information, handling money, travel, clothing, living arrangements, eating and nutrition, shopping, and including exercise and hygiene in your life. Parents of special needs teens may use this section in a home environment.\n\nPart Five, Vocational Skills, contains twenty-two lessons on understanding present skills and interests (hobbies and strengths), getting a job (filling out an application, interviewing, and so on), and actual working (skills needed to be a good employee).\n\nPart Six, Problem-Solving Skills, has twenty-three lessons on skills such as handling problem situations, making decisions, using good resource management, goal-setting, and risk-taking. The examples in these lessons come from home, school, work, and community settings.\n\n_Life Skills Activities for Secondary Students with Special Needs_ was first published in 1995. To reflect changes in education and current social needs, many lessons have been added or updated.\n\nPart One, Self-Awareness, includes a chapter on My Character, which brings into focus character-building skills such as kindness, honesty, and responsibility. These skills are timeless in their value in any program for any student. Other lessons address tattoos and piercings, having a disability, and making life choices about moving out or getting a part-time job.\n\nPart Two, People Skills, includes updated material about social relationships, including noticing the moods of others and how one's mood affects others, places to find friends, social networking online, understanding another's point of view, and using a cell phone.\n\nPart Three, Academic and School Skills, has lessons on e-mailing, using computers to improve school tasks, and using computers to find information online.\n\nPart Four, Practical Living Skills, now includes obtaining information from the Internet; taking classes for further learning; using debit, credit, and ATM cards; overnight travel; care of clothing; \"going green\" smart shopping; learning about nutrition; and the importance of daily exercise.\n\nPart Five, Vocational Skills, includes revisions to the sections on interviewing for a job, searching for a job, creating a good first impression, and how to handle making mistakes and criticism on the job.\n\nPart Six, Problem-Solving Skills, has lessons about seeing oneself as the problem, taking risks, and handling fearful situations.\n\nThere are a total of 191 lessons, 62 of which are new, for a total of 32 percent revised material. There are numerous minor updates and revisions on many of the retained lessons as well.\n\nI hope that you find the lessons to be helpful and appropriate for your students or child!\n\nDarlene Mannix\n**About the Author**\n\n**Darlene Mannix** has worked as an educator for more than twenty years and has taught a wide range of children, including learning disabled, emotionally disturbed, language-disordered, and multiply disabled students. She received her bachelor of science degree from Taylor University and her master's degree in learning disabilities from Indiana University. A past presenter at numerous educational conferences including the Council for Exceptional Children, she has authored many books, including _Writing Skills Activities for Special Children_ (Jossey-Bass, 2004); _Social Skills Activities for Special Children,_ second edition (Jossey-Bass, 2008); _Social Skills Activities for Secondary Students with Special Needs,_ second edition (Jossey-Bass, 2009); and _Life Skills Activities for Special Children,_ second edition (Jossey-Bass, 2009). She currently works as a Title 1 reading teacher at Indian Trail Elementary School in La Porte, Indiana.\n**Parent Activities and Suggestions**\n\n#  **Part One: Self-Awareness**\n\n**My Character**\n\n\u2022 Emphasize that a child's character is more important than anything else that he or she will ever develop. Being a good person is what really counts.\n\n\u2022 Give your child opportunities to take on responsibility around the house. After giving an assignment or chore, act as though you _expect_ him or her to do it; don't keep nagging.\n\n\u2022 Talk about what values you think are important. Share experiences that have helped shape your values.\n\n\u2022 Praise your child when you catch him or her doing something thoughtful or kind for others.\n\n\u2022 When you introduce your child to others, use the opportunity to add a positive comment about your child.\n\n\u2022 Practice acts of kindness all of the time. Invite your child to be a part of this.\n\n**Uniquely Me**\n\n\u2022 Share with your child any details that are appropriate about his or her birth. A birthday is a special day to every individual\u2014it is the one day of the year that is earmarked for that person alone.\n\n\u2022 If your child has a diagnosed disability, talk about what that means as far as expectations for his or her future. Even though he may have a disability, he still has the ability and the expectation to go as far as he can to succeed in life. If appropriate, talk about the causes of a disability.\n\n\u2022 Make it a family project to participate in something that is of interest to your particular ethnic background\u2014Irish dancing? French cooking?\n\n**Personal Life Choices**\n\n\u2022 You, of course, are a very important role model to your child. If you are trying to quit smoking, for example, share your decision with your child and explain why.\n\n\u2022 Decisions about drinking, especially drinking and driving, can be some of the most crucial decisions your teen makes. Give your child a way out if confronted with a situation in which she needs a ride home. Let your child know that you'd much rather get a call for a ride home than have her get into a car with an impaired driver.\n\n\u2022 Encourage your child to think and talk about future events such as moving out or working part-time. This can be scary\u2014but it can also be exciting as you plan future independence together.\n\n#  **Part Two: People Skills**\n\n**Relating to Others**\n\n\u2022 Point out good service (or poor service) as you interact with others around you. Compliment a server for refilling your drinks. Notice a cashier who is efficient. Let your child observe you modeling positive interaction with others.\n\n\u2022 Get to know your neighbors. Even if it's just a friendly \"Hello,\" encourage your child to get involved in the neighborhood. Perhaps he or she can help with a neighborly errand.\n\n\u2022 Join in a community party, fund-raiser, or volunteer organization. Share a positive focus as a family and as a community.\n\n**Friendship Skills**\n\n\u2022 Encourage your child to host a party. It can be a simple get -together to play games or watch a movie, or an elaborate themed event.\n\n\u2022 Talk to your child about gang activity. Stay in close contact with your school to keep communication and information lines open.\n\n\u2022 Find out who your child's friends are. Invite them over and get to know them.\n\n**Being Part of a Family**\n\n\u2022 Attend or plan a family reunion.\n\n\u2022 Get a family photograph taken. Frame it and display it.\n\n\u2022 Give your child a sense of family history by going through old family photo albums. Show your child any memorabilia that was important to someone in your family.\n\n\u2022 Spend an evening watching family videos. There will be lots of laughter, embarrassing moments, and good memories.\n\n\u2022 Have family meetings on a regular basis. Make this a time for family members to share their concerns. This may be a good time to review lists of chores, talk about upcoming family projects or vacations, or make resolutions to improve problem situations.\n\n\u2022 Don't hesitate to attend parenting workshops or family groups, or use other community resources if your family is going through a divorce or if there are problems with stepparents. This is more common than you may realize.\n\n\u2022 Stay in touch with the school counselor or an administrator who may be the person most likely to work with your child if there are family problems that show up at school.\n\n\u2022 Eat a meal together on a regular basis. Make it a point to do something together as a family. No one can miss, no excuses. This is a priority.\n\n**Communication Skills**\n\n\u2022 Resist the urge to speak for your child in social situations. Instead of telling about your child's accomplishments or activities, encourage him or her to talk (prompting is fine). **xviLife Skills Activities for Secondary Students with Special Needs**\n\n\u2022 Watch a movie or TV show together and discuss it afterward.\n\n\u2022 Ask your child's opinions about things that are happening. Don't jump in too quickly to judge or overrule your child's opinion. Listen.\n\n\u2022 Ask your child to give directions for how to do something or how to get somewhere. He or she will learn that directions need to be clear and sequential or it won't make any sense.\n\n\u2022 If your child is moody or unusually quiet, ask if he or she can put the feelings into words. Model how sometimes you feel worried, tense, confused, and so on.\n\n\u2022 Remind your child that moods change. Just because he or she is feeling sad or angry right now, that is not going to be the case forever. That is what a mood is\u2014something that lasts for awhile and then will change.\n\n\u2022 Encourage your child to write in a \"mood journal\" and express the feelings that are being experienced. This can be used to read later when the mood has passed and the situation may look different.\n\n#  **Part Three: Academic and School Skills**\n\n**Reading Skills**\n\n\u2022 Take weekly trips to the library or bookstore to bring reading materials into your home. Secondhand bookstores are a great source for inexpensive books.\n\n\u2022 If your child is having problems with reading, look for a peer tutor who may be interested in helping you out. Depending on the age of your child and the extent of the problems, you may want to contact your child's school or teacher to get some ideas.\n\n\u2022 Order your child a subscription to a magazine that he or she enjoys.\n\n\u2022 Be a good example of a reader by taking the time to read every day\u2014demonstrate that this is a pleasurable activity (if it is for you!).\n\n**Writing Skills**\n\n\u2022 If your child takes phone messages and sometimes misses important things (such as the callback number), provide a ready-made phone pad with lines or spaces for the caller, time of call, message, and callback number.\n\n\u2022 Keep lists around your house of things that are purchased on a regular basis, such as food items, cleaning supplies, and the like. Ask your child to add what is needed to each list by writing it down.\n\n\u2022 If your family takes a trip or participates in a special event, have your child help record impressions and details about the event. You might want to remember who attended a family reunion, comments about a rock concert, anecdotes from a trip, humorous memories or predictions, and so on.\n\n\u2022 Your child might be interested in starting a blog\u2014an online journal. He or she may not want you to read everything that is on it, but show an interest, and if you're allowed to read it, add positive comments and don't insist on perfect spelling or grammar.\n\n**Math Skills**\n\n\u2022 Set aside ten to fifteen minutes each evening to focus on one particular math skill, such as reviewing math facts with flash cards, drawing pictures to go with a story problem, or helping set up an educational computer game that addresses a skill.\n\n\u2022 When reviewing math homework, ask your child to tell you the specific directions and steps for an assignment. The procedures for math problems may be a little different now from when you were in school.\n\n\u2022 Bring along a calculator to the grocery store and have your child keep a running tab or estimate of how much you are spending.\n\n\u2022 Graphs and charts are everywhere\u2014from the newspaper to the gas station to your electric bill. As you find them on everyday occasions, point out the purpose of the graph or chart and see if your child can identify the information.\n\n\u2022 Help your child set up and maintain a personal graph or chart for a project, as an ongoing record or just to keep track of how much time is spent on a certain activity (how many minutes spent on chores, how many miles walked, how many inches grown, and so on).\n\n**Study Skills**\n\n\u2022 Find a calendar that introduces and uses one new vocabulary word a day. Have every member of the family learn the definition and use the word in conversation several times that day.\n\n\u2022 Make sure your child has a designated place in which to study. Include a spot for all of the necessary tools\u2014pencils, extra paper, a dictionary, calendar, stapler, a good desk lamp, bulletin board, and space for a computer\/printer (if possible). Preferably, find a location that is relatively peaceful, free from distractions, and comfortable yet not so relaxing that nothing will be accomplished.\n\n\u2022 If television, video games, or cell phones and their accessories are problems in competing for your child's time, find or negotiate a way to make their use contingent on how well your child 's grades are kept up, chores are completed, attitude is acceptable, and so on. Do not feel that you \"owe\" these things to your child if he or she is not keeping up the other end of the bargain.\n\n\u2022 Keep in close contact with your child's teachers and know when to expect report cards and midterm reports.\n\n\u2022 Volunteer, if possible, to help out in your child's school with occasional projects or on a regular basis. Let your child know that school is important to you.\n\n\u2022 If you have a problem or question about something that has happened at school, reserve judgment until you have contacted the school or principal and heard another viewpoint. Model showing respect for authority and understanding another's point of view in front of your child. Many issues are quickly resolved once communication lines between school and home are opened.\n\n#  **Part Four: Practical Living Skills**\n\n**Information Skills**\n\n\u2022 If you can find a good set of encyclopedias or have access to the Internet, spend some time looking up information with your child. Show your child how the encyclopedia is organized (alphabetically) and, similarly, how to find information on the Internet.\n\n\u2022 Encourage your child to watch local or regional news with you on TV. Talk about what is going on in your community.\n\n**Money Skills**\n\n\u2022 Encourage your child to make a savings plan to save up for a desired item. Map out how much needs to be saved weekly in order to buy the item within a reasonable amount of time.\n\n\u2022 Help your child come up with a budget for spending and saving. If you pay your child for chores or grades, include that in the overall plan. Talk about what factors can be adjusted.\n\n\u2022 Open up a savings or checking account for your child. Go over the monthly statements so that he or she can see growth, spending habits or trends, and fees that are assessed.\n\n**Travel**\n\n\u2022 Before taking a family trip, map out the plan using maps or an atlas. Calculate the mileage, expected travel time, and best route. Locate interesting side trips that your family might want to take.\n\n\u2022 Make a list of what items are necessary for weekend travel, overnight travel, or plane travel. Keep the list handy for at least a week before you go on a major trip, and add items as they come to mind.\n\n\u2022 Select several community destinations and have your child figure out how public transportation could be used to get there. Obtain a copy of timetables.\n\n**Clothing**\n\n\u2022 Periodically go through closets (spring cleaning?) and have your child choose what clothing is needed and what items can be given away or stored.\n\n\u2022 Give your child opportunities to wash and dry clothing. Realize there might be a few mistakes along the way!\n\n**Living Arrangements**\n\n\u2022 Have a daily or weekly schedule of who is responsible for which chores in the house.\n\n\u2022 Monitor your family's heat, electric, and phone bills for a period of several months. Analyze what factors account for the bill and talk about how to keep costs down.\n\n**Eating and Nutrition**\n\n\u2022 Set aside one evening a week for your child to host and prepare a meal. Help in whatever way is appropriate\u2014shopping, planning, organizing, preparing, hosting\u2014but increasingly give your child more independence.\n\n\u2022 Set aside a particular place for coupons or weekly shopping ads so they are easily accessible before shopping.\n\n\u2022 Collect family recipes or favorite meals that have been successfully prepared. Laminate them or use index cards or plastic sleeves to keep them protected.\n\n**Shopping**\n\n\u2022 Look for sales of needed items before buying them. Give your child a reasonable estimate of how much he or she should expect to spend on something. If the item comes in under budget, let your child keep the savings.\n\n\u2022 Have a place to keep receipts so that you can return purchases easily if they don't work out.\n\n**Exercise\/Health and Hygiene**\n\n\u2022 Set a good example of staying healthy by exercising. Include your child if possible, in your own activities.\n\n\u2022 Look for opportunities for your child to participate in sports, on teams or through lessons or neighborhood game-playing in the park.\n\n\u2022 Be aware of the changes your child will be going through as far as puberty. Prepare your child for the changes in hygiene and self-esteem that may be experienced.\n\n\u2022 You are responsible for getting your child to the dentist and to the doctor when necessary.\n\n\u2022 If you are concerned about your child's level of stress or possible depression, check in with your school counselor or a teacher whom you trust. Don't ignore warning signs if your child seems unusually unhappy or has developed odd or unexpected new behaviors.\n\n#  **Part Five: Vocational Skills**\n\n**Present Skills and Interests**\n\n\u2022 You are in a unique position to note your child's strengths and weaknesses. Think about what you have noticed about his or her vocational interests over the years. When he was little, what did he want to be when he grew up?\n\n\u2022 Expose your child to job possibilities. Take advantage of friends of yours who might be willing to take your child to work for a day\u2014or a few hours.\n\n\u2022 Does your child know what his parents do for a living? How do you feel about your job? What you say and your attitude about work can affect how your child will view the world of work.\n\n\u2022 If possible, allow your child to participate in activities that reflect her or his interests. Lessons (music, riding) can be expensive, but look for ways to involve your child in things he likes in natural ways. (Can you trade riding lessons for stall cleaning? Are there teen programs at the YMCA or through scouting?)\n\n**Getting a Job**\n\n\u2022 Your child may need your help to pull some strings to land that first job. Help him or her by keeping an eye out for entry-level positions with your friends, neighbors, or even your own employer.\n\n\u2022 Encourage your child to have character references ready to go. Think about who would give a glowing reference for a job application. Make sure your child asks permission to use this person as a reference.\n\n\u2022 Sometimes employers will let the applicant take the paperwork home to complete. If your child needs practice in filling them out, grab a few samples and help her prepare to find the information that will be needed (school information, references, personal information, and so on).\n\n\u2022 Your child may need to think creatively to land a job\u2014work for free for a trial period? Show enthusiasm? Keep calling back (without being a pest)?\n\n**Working**\n\n\u2022 The first job may not be your child's ideal experience\u2014but emphasize that he or she must perform as though it is the greatest job in the world. That kind of attitude will get your child noticed.\n\n\u2022 If your child complains about things about the job, remind him that everything he learns and does can affect what happens later. He can take advantage of the \"bad\" things to learn how to accept criticism, learn from mistakes, gain new skills, and take pride in sticking it out!\n\n\u2022 Emphasize again and again how important it is to get to work on time, have good attendance, and start the day with a smile.\n\n\u2022 Remind your child that he or she is not the boss (yet).\n\n#  **Part Six: Problem-Solving Skills**\n\n**Handling Problem Situations**\n\n\u2022 Most special needs students do not handle change very well. When you know that a major change is coming (such as a move, divorce, or new baby), let your child know well in advance, or with appropriate notice (some students will then perseverate about the change relentlessly). Stress positive aspects of the change and allow your child to be a part of it as much as possible.\n\n\u2022 If your child is often the one causing a problem in a social situation, help her take ownership of that behavior. There is some degree of perceived power in being able to change what happens or control others' behavior. Encourage her to use this perceived power to control the most important person: herself.\n\n\u2022 Give your child problem-solving activities to work on, such as Sudoku puzzles, word searches, jigsaw puzzles, and minute mysteries. Talk about techniques for problem solving\u2014trying another approach, looking at something from another perspective, trial and error, thinking critically. These are skills that can be applied to life situations as well.\n\n**Making Decisions**\n\n\u2022 Make a pro\/con chart when your child has a nonroutine decision to make. Help him consider both sides of the decision\u2014the investment, the process, the consequences\u2014before making a decision.\n\n\u2022 Although it may be hard, sometimes it is better to stand aside and let your child make a poor decision (as long as it doesn't affect safety or too much self-esteem). Ideally, you can both laugh about it later.\n\n\u2022 Sometimes it is helpful to involve a third party for making decisions. This might be someone who is familiar with the situation, someone respected by both sides, or someone who is objective enough to help with making a decision.\n\n**Resource Management**\n\n\u2022 As situations come up, have your child identify whether something is a _need_ or a _want_.\n\n\u2022 If your child works for you or gets an allowance, help her learn that this is not an endless resource. When the job is finished, she gets paid. When the job is not done, no pay.\n\n\u2022 Have your child make her own personal resource list. What people in her life are there for her? What are her talents and skills?\n\n\u2022 Use opportunities to differentiate between _fact_ and _opinion_. While watching the news at night or reading an article about something going on, you might find opportunities to explain when someone is giving an opinion versus presenting carefully documented facts. When your child wants to argue, ask for facts.\n\n**Goal-Setting**\n\n\u2022 Set a monthly family goal. Write it, display it, review it, revise it, complete it!\n\n\u2022 When there seem to be many things to do, practice prioritizing the goals. Talk about what needs to be done first. Sometimes just getting the first step done will get the ball rolling. Clean out one drawer, vacuum one room, write one letter, start one load of laundry.\n\n**Risk-Taking**\n\n\u2022 Break up your routine. List five things that your family has never done before and take a family risk. Learn to bowl. Run a 5K. Visit a nursing home. Plant flowers in the community park. Wear something currently in fashion. Have some fun.\n\n\u2022 Some risks are not worth even considering. Being in a dangerous situation (taking drugs, being out late at night alone, getting into a car with a drunk driver) is not worth the risk. It is better to learn that lesson by example, not by experience.\n\n\u2022 Be supportive of your child if he or she is in a frightening situation. You can't protect your kids from everything, but if you know your child is going to be in a frightening situation, have a plan ready to execute. And have a backup plan in case Plan A fails!\n**Part One**\n\n**Self-Awareness**\n**Chapter 1**\n\n**My Character**\n\n#  **1.1 Qualities of a Good Character**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify examples of a person showing good character traits.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nThe notion of having good _character_ is somewhat intuitive\u2014you know good character when you see it. In this lesson, students are introduced to the idea of character as something positive, whether it is an action or a thought that leads to an action. It has nothing to do with physical attributes such as how someone looks or their physical limitations.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Write the word _character_ on the board and ask students what they think \"good character\" means.\n\n2. As you go through their ideas, ask if they think character is something _inside_ a person; that is, how they think or act\u2014or _outside_ a person; that is, the way a person looks.\n\n3. Come up with a working definition of _character_ : traits or inner qualities of a person that would make them outstanding or worthy of positive attention.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\n\"Qualities of a Good Character\" is an introductory worksheet for students. The concept of character is presented by examples showing good citizenship, treating others well, or making good choices. Students are to match these three traits to the examples. Several answers can be correct as long as students can justify them. _Answers:_ 1. B (or C) 2. A 3. C (or B) 4. A 5. B 6. C 7. B 8. A (or C)\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nGo through the worksheet items and discuss why students selected their answers.\n\n1. Did any of the examples mention the way a person looked? (No.)\n\n2. In examples 3 and 6, what choices did the people have? (Be angry or wait; skip school or not.) How did the good choices help the people? (Avoided a possible argument; allowed Denny to take the test he needed to take.)\n\n3. How do examples 2, 4, and 8 consider others while being a good citizen? (Make the park a nicer place for others; safety issue for the person and the drivers; provide relief for the man who lost the wallet.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students search through photographs, magazines, or the Internet to find pictures that portray someone in the act of showing good character.\n\n2. List characters familiar to students in movies, books, or other common venues who are good examples of someone with good character. Discuss why this person seems to have good character. What about this person is outstanding?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Give an example of someone being a good citizen.\n\n2. Give an example of someone treating others well.\n\n3. Give an example of someone making a good choice.\n\n **1.1 Qualities of a Good Character**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nThese students are showing good character traits. Write the letter of the trait next to each example.\n\n**A = Good citizen B = Treats others well C = Makes good choices**\n\n_ 1. Eloise's father asked her to be at home right after school so she could babysit for her little sister and brother. She told her friends that she wouldn't be able to go out with them after school and came home.\n\n_ 2. Danny and Henry were walking through the park near their home and noticed a lot of litter. They picked up some cans and threw them into a bag to be recycled.\n\n_ 3. Alison was angry at her best friend for forgetting to return a necklace that she borrowed. Alison wanted to yell at her friend, but decided to calm down and wait before talking to her friend. The next day she didn't feel angry, and her friend apologized.\n\n_ 4. Tony needed to cross a busy street to get to the store, but instead of rushing into the street to make the cars stop for him, he went to the street corner and waited for the crosswalk light to change. Then he walked across.\n\n_ 5. Sara knew that her mother was worried about losing her job. Sara decided to make her mother a nice salad when she came home, and she cleaned the house without being asked.\n\n_ 6. Denny's friend wanted him to join them in skipping school. Denny had a big test that day and told his friends that he needed to go to school.\n\n_ 7. Kara was walking down the hall when a girl accidentally knocked into her and made her drop her books. The girl felt very bad and almost started to cry. Kara laughed and told her not to worry about it.\n\n_ 8. Pete and Devon noticed a wallet on the street with some money, credit cards, and photographs inside. They picked it up and found enough identification to locate the owner, so they called him and returned the wallet.\n\n#  **1.2 Honesty**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify ways that someone could show honesty in given situations.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nTo be thought of as an honest person, someone needs to continually demonstrate that quality, including (especially?) in situations that are not readily observed by others. Think honesty at all times! This worksheet offers examples of situations in which a person has an opportunity to act honestly.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Talk about what _honesty_ means\u2014telling the truth or behaving in a way that is consistent with what is true. 2. Ask students to share examples of observed honesty in others. 3. Ask students to share examples of their own honesty.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nExplain that students will read about honesty in the examples on the worksheet \"Honesty.\" _Answers (Examples):_ 1. Return the money. 2. Tell your mother why you didn't get the chores done. 3. Tell your friend that you already committed to an event but will spend time with him or her later. 4. Take the boxes to the post office. 5. Discreetly let the usher know which kids were involved. 6. Better to admit that you didn't get your math done.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nDiscuss how each example showed honest behavior and the positive results that came from that act.\n\n1. How are other people affected by the honest behavior in these examples?\n\n2. In item #1, why would returning the money matter if the clerk didn't know she had made a mistake? (Might catch up with her later and she would have to pay for the mistake.)\n\n3. How was being honest taking a risk in #5? (Could be anger on the part of the kids if they found out.) Why would it be worth the risk? (So the theater would be a friendly place for others in the future.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Discuss the difference between being \"brutally honest\" and being tactful.\n\n2. Have students think of someone whom they consider to be a very honest person. Write a short paragraph describing the person and the person's honesty.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nHow could you show honesty if you bought a sweatshirt at the store and when you looked in the bag, you had accidentally taken some socks that you didn't pay for?\n\n**Name ____ Date** _\n\n**1.2 Honesty**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nHow could these people demonstrate good character by using _honesty_? Write your answer next to each item.\n\n1. I gave the clerk a $10 bill and she gave me way too much money back.\n\n2. My mother asked if I finished all of the chores I was supposed to do. I didn't get them done, but it was because I had to help my next-door neighbor. I am not sure my mother will listen to my excuses, though.\n\n3. My friend invited me to go bowling, but I already promised someone else that I would go out with him. I don't want to hurt my friend's feelings.\n\n4. My aunt asked me to take these boxes to the post office before noon so they could get out in today's mail. She is gone, so she won't know whether I did it or not.\n\n5. Some kids were throwing popcorn around in the movie theater. The usher asked me which kids were causing the problem.\n\n6. I was rushing to get my math assignment done. Carol said I could copy her paper if I wanted to.\n\n#  **1.3 Kindness**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify an act of kindness that could be shown to someone else in a given situation.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nA popular idea going around is that of doing a \"random act of kindness\" toward others\u2014usually a surprising and pleasant act, going way beyond what is necessary to show kindness to someone. The act of kindness is not expected, is not necessary, and in many instances is not even acknowledged. Encourage students to be creative in their ways of showing kindness toward others.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\nGive students plenty of examples of random acts of kindness and the spirit behind the movement by using the books _Random Acts of Kindness_ (Daphne Rose Kingma and Dawna Markova, Conari Press, 2002) and _Kids' Random Acts of Kindness_ (Conari Press, 1994).\n\n1. Ask students to tell about acts of kindness that have been done to them. 2. Ask students to give examples of any acts of kindness that they have done to others.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to read each example of a situation in which an act of kindness could be done. Students should use their own unique personalities to come up with their responses. Encourage students to be creative, yet realistic. What would they really do? _Answers (Examples):_ 1. Pay the cashier and don't tell the girl that it was you. 2. Write Ben an anonymous note telling how much someone liked his work. 3. Send the girl flowers. 4. Make sure that Mrs. Miller receives a card from every student in her class.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nThere is no single correct answer to these situations. Some students may be able to describe an act of kindness, but would never follow through on it. Ask students to be honest about their responses.\n\n1. Would you want someone to know if you did something kind for somebody? Why would you want to be recognized? 2. How much did each of your deeds cost in terms of time, money, energy? 3. Does doing an act of kindness make the kind doer feel good? Is that why people do these things? 4. After hearing what other people came up with as far as ideas, would you change what you would do? Do you like other ideas better now than your own? 5. Which of these acts of kindness would you ever really do?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Plan to do a wild, exuberant act of kindness. Plot whom you will target and what you will do, then carry it out. What was the reaction of the person you targeted? How did it make you feel? Did you do it secretly or did you want to be discovered? 2. Read the book _Random Acts of Kindness_. Which were your favorite anecdotes? Why? 3. Compile a class book of acts of kindness. What starts happening when people start being outrageously kind to each other? 4. Refer to www.actsofkindness.org to investigate lots of ways people have shown kindness to others.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Give a general example of a random act of kindness. 2. Give a very specific example of an act of kindness that you have personally been involved in.\n\n**1.3 Kindness**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nHow could the person in each picture below demonstrate an act of kindness? On the back of this sheet, draw or write about a good example.\n\n#  **1.4 Loyalty**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will give an example of loyalty to someone or something.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nBeing loyal to someone or something involves providing your support even during times of turmoil or misunderstanding. It is important to develop loyalty within friendships, family, and other groups that share a common bond or passion. Knowing that someone will stick with you or stick up for you whether you are there or not, whether you are having a good day or a bad day, is a true test of loyalty.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students to share the name of their favorite sports team. Why do they support this team?\n\n2. Talk about what _loyalty_ means\u2014being supportive of someone or something in good times or bad. What does this actually look like?\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nThe worksheet \"Loyalty\" gives examples of students who are\/are not showing loyalty to someone or something. The student is to circle the names of the loyal students. _Answers:_ 1. Allan 2. Jill 3. Katie 4. David\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nGo through each example and discuss why each person is or is not showing loyalty.\n\n1. In each example, are the people showing loyalty to a person or to a team or organization? (To people: 2, 3, 4; to a team: 1.)\n\n2. Why does it matter if Frank changed his mind about cheering for the team? (It shows he only cares about who is winning.)\n\n3. In example 2, how would the sister feel in each case? (Loved; alienated.)\n\n4. How does example 3 show a good solution? (Katie wants to invite the friend.)\n\n5. Why would it be hard to be loyal to someone like the boy in example 4? (He is not a fun friend.) Do you think it is a good time to be loyal? (Probably; it might help him.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Dogs are often given the label \"man's best friend\" because of their loyalty. Talk about what this means. Example? 2. Have students find examples in stories or movies of extreme loyalty. 3. In what ways do we show loyalty to our school, family, house of worship, country, and so on? 4. Collect items that depict loyalty, such as: sweatshirts, baseball caps, pins, pennants, school colors, bumper stickers, and so on.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. How could you show loyalty to a member of your family? 2. How could you show loyalty to an organization such as a house of worship, school, or team?\n\n**1.4 Loyalty**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nWhich of these students is showing loyalty to someone or something? Circle the name of the loyal student in each case.\n\n1. ALLEN: Go team! I will support our team, win or lose!\n\nFRANK: Oh man, they are losing terribly! I think I' ll start cheering for the other team.\n\n2. JILL: You are my sister, and no matter what, I care about you.\n\nMEGAN: You look really weird. Don't tell anyone we are related.\n\n3. ELLEN: Hey, we are going to Pat's house after the game. Want to come?\n\nKATIE: Do I! Yes! Hang on . . . Hello, Sue? Something came up, and now I can't go out with you.\n\nABBY: Sorry, I already have plans.\n\n4. MICHAEL: Rick is acting strangely these days. I don't think I' ll hang out with Rick anymore. He is boring and doesn't want to do anything.\n\nDAVID: I think he needs a friend, so I' ll spend some time with him.\n\n#  **1.5 Responsibility**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will give an example of showing responsibility in a given situation.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nBeing responsible means that you will do or be whatever is needed, whether or not someone is there to supervise you. It is important to be trusted to do what needs to be done, with or without someone directing you.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. What is the most important job you have ever been given? Who gave you the job? What did you have to do? How did it go? 2. Have you ever disappointed someone by not doing what they expected you to do? 3. What does being _responsible_ mean to you?\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nThe worksheet \"Responsibility\" shows examples of a person being given a task to do in settings of home, school, and work. The students should write how they could show responsibility in each situation. _Answers (Examples):_ 1. Make sure everything is cleaned up and the door is locked. 2. Stay at home until your sister is there, then leave with friends (or don't leave at all). 3. Make a daily schedule to walk the dog; walk the dog with friends. 4. Take out your assignment book and write the dates on a calendar. 5. Be careful driving; fill the car up with gas when done.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nFor each example, identify the task involved, who assigned the task, and how to make sure it is carried out responsibly.\n\n1. In these examples, the task is specified by a boss, adult, or another person. Can you think of some tasks that you just have to be responsible for on your own, without a reminder from a person? (Habitual chores, paying bills, exercising.)\n\n2. What are some consequences that could happen in each example if the person did not take responsibility?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Research the responsibilities and job descriptions of several different occupations (perhaps the president, a surgeon, a cashier). Why is it important to take any responsibility seriously, whether it involves \"big\" issues or somewhat smaller issues?\n\n2. Invite guest speakers from different types of careers to talk to your class about their responsibilities. When they are looking to hire someone, how important is the characteristic of responsibility?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. How could you show responsibility at home? 2. How could you show responsibility at school? 3. How could you show responsibility at work?\n\n**1.5 Responsibility**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nHow could you show responsibility in each of these situations?\n\n1. BOSS AT WORK: I won't be here when you leave, so would you please put everything away and lock up when you go?\n\n2. FATHER: Make sure your little sister gets home safely before you go out with your friends.\n\n3. MOTHER: You said you wanted a dog. Well, this one needs to be walked every day or he' ll tear up the room.\n\n4. TEACHER: Here are the dates of the next two tests. I am not going to remind you every day, so do what you need to do to remember.\n\n5. FRIEND: Here are the keys to my car. You can borrow it tonight, since you don't have one.\n\n#  **1.6 Flexibility**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will give an example of how someone could show flexibility in a given situation.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nBeing flexible involves being able to make changes to existing plans (such as going to a later showing of a movie), accommodating things that you weren't expecting (such as sitting with your unexpected cousin instead of your friends), or making something work that wasn't originally in the plans (such as finding out the movie was cancelled). In all respects, it involves being able to change with as much ease and grace as possible. Special learners often find comfort in regular, predictable patterns. It requires flexibility to deal with a change in routine.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\nWrite the word _flexibility_ or _flexible_ on the board and have students give examples of what they think this means. What does _flexible_ mean to a gymnast? What does it mean when applied to a rubber band? What do those examples have to do with a personality trait?\n\nAsk students to give examples of times when they have had to be flexible in a situation.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nOn the worksheet \"Flexibility,\" students will read examples of people who have had to show flexibility in order to make an unexpected situation be acceptable. In some cases, it might mean giving up something in order to reach the best outcome for all parties.\n\n_Answers (Examples):_\n\n1. Jacob could see a different movie, go by himself, or go later in the week.\n\n2. The girls could make separate books, or Emily could negotiate and have Emma change only three photos.\n\n3. Joshua could play his position as well as possible, but ask to be a backup quarterback.\n\n4. Madison could explain what happened and ask for time to redo the messy pages.\n\n5. Andrew could be considerate and make his cousin happy.\n\n6. Hannah could wear something else, or Hannah could change her outfit to be mainly pink.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nAs you discuss the questions, talk about how change might be a factor caused by other people, as in some of the examples, but that flexibility might be required when unexpected things happen that are not specifically caused by people (for example, a train running late, bad weather spoiling a picnic, a tree falling)\n\n1. In examples 2 and 5, other people could possibly be flexible to change the situation. How?\n\n2. Flexibility can show up in many different ways. How could example 1 be resolved in several different ways? (Change movie, change time, change date.)\n\n3. What good things could come from showing flexibility in these situations? Are there any that are no-win situations even if the person is trying to be flexible?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students keep track of how many changes of plans happen to them in a single day. Try to categorize the events\u2014people, schedules, weather?\n\n2. Find out contingency plans for an organization that is driven by schedules, such as a train or bus station. What happens when a train runs late? What is the backup plan for equipment failure? How does flexibility help in keeping the overall system working well?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. How could you show flexibility if you had made plans to go swimming and it turned out to be a rainy day?\n\n2. How could you show flexibility if you were planning on meeting two friends for pizza, but five friends showed up?\n\n **1.6 Flexibility**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nHow could each of these people show the quality of flexibility? Write your answer on each line.\n\n1. Jacob was expecting his friend Michael to show up at 6 o'clock so they could walk to the movie theater. Michael called and said that his family had unexpected company, so he wouldn't get to Jacob's house in time to walk with him to the movie. Jacob was counting on seeing the movie that night.\n\n2. Emily and her sister Emma were working on a family photo project. Emily decided to change all of the photos of herself because she didn't like the way she looked in them. Emma had a plan made up for how the photos should go in the book, and now that Emily wanted to change them, it wouldn't be the way she wanted.\n\n3. Joshua had his heart set on being the quarterback for the team he played with, but the coach told him he thought Joshua would be a better running back, at least for this season.\n\n4. Madison finished her homework and had it all set next to the door so she wouldn't forget it. When she got to school, she noticed that her dog had walked across her paper\u2014the one that was supposed to be turned in today. There were brown footprints across the first three pages.\n\n5. Andrew hated to get his hair cut because he liked the way it looked. His mother said that he had to at least get a trim before the family went to his cousin's wedding. In fact, his cousin had specifically asked whether Andrew would take the pink dye out of his hair before they did the wedding pictures.\n\n6. Hannah ordered a blue-and-white-striped sweater online. She ordered it in plenty of time to wear it to a big party that weekend. When the box arrived the day before the party, she opened it to find a lovely pink-and-white-striped sweater.\n\n#  **1.7 What Are Values?**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will list at least five common values and give an example of each.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nEach of us has a value system. There are certain things we place great importance on, and we act accordingly. Our values may be gained from our parents, our experiences, our education, and other sources, but it is important to know what we value. In this lesson, students are introduced to the concept of values and are given examples.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Tell students you are going to say some words. Have them write one word that comes to mind that seems to include your examples.\n\n$1,000,000 ... gold coins . . . winning the lottery **\u2192** Money, wealth mom . . . dad . . . uncle . . . brother . . . Aunt Ginny **\u2192** Family blue ribbon . . . trophy . . . diploma \u2192 Achievement\n\n2. Define _value_. (Something of great importance to someone.)\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nOn the worksheet \"What Are Values?\" students are to match examples of values in action with the value listed. _Answers:_ 1. e 2. h 3. c 4. i 5. b 6. g 7. j 8. a 9. k 10. d 11. l 12. f\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nHave students discuss any of the items that are unclear to them. Explain that these are just examples\u2014there are lots of other ways to demonstrate the value.\n\n1. Which of the values on the worksheet are important to you?\n\n2. What are some other examples of demonstrating the values on the worksheet?\n\n3. Which values do you think would be important to these people?\n\nElderly Person Mother Athlete Teacher Lawyer Model\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students collect or record bumper stickers they have seen or heard of. What values are indicated by the stickers? What clues were given? 2. Listen to speeches by politicians or school board members (election times are good times to work on this activity). What values are brought up?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List five to seven common values. 2. For each value listed in (1), give an example of how someone could demonstrate that value.\n\n**1.7 What Are Values?**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nMatch the value on the left with an example on the right of your demonstrating that value.\n\n1.| Health| _| a.| Wanting your own bedroom  \n---|---|---|---|---  \n2.| Wealth| _| b.| Watching a comedy show on television  \n3.| Family| _| c.| Spending time at the movies with your brothers and sisters  \n4.| Friendship| _| d.| Working out at a health club three times a week  \n5.| Humor| _| e.| Making sure you have had your flu shot  \n6.| Education| _| f.| Doing what you enjoy, allowing yourself to have fun  \n7.| Beauty| _| g.| Going to graduate school  \n8.| Space| _| h.| Opening a savings account  \n9.| Food| _| i.| Sticking up for your friends, even when nobody else will  \n10.| Exercise| _| j.| Planting flowers in front of your house  \n11.| Music| _| k.| Preparing a gourmet meal  \n12.| Happiness| _| l.| Learning to play the piano\n**Chapter 2**\n\n**Uniquely Me**\n\n#  **2.1 Values Important to Me**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will state or list at least five values that are personally important to him or her.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nEveryone has values, whether they are specifically stated or not. Just by observing a person and listening to what he or she says, you can determine some things that are of great importance to that person. In this lesson, students are to think about specific values that are meaningful to them.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students write the name of a person who is important to them. 2. Have students write the name of an important possession. 3. Have students write what they think is the most important characteristic a person can have.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents look at a list of values and indicate which are either somewhat or extremely important to them personally.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nBecause this is an individual activity, responses will be quite different. It might be interesting to find out (with a show of hands) which items were most often selected as being important to students within the class.\n\n1. Why are the things that people value different for everyone? (People have had different upbringings, different experiences, and so on.)\n\n2. What values do you think are probably the same for most people? (Health, happiness, and so on.)\n\n3. What people or kinds of people would not value wealth? (Clergy, homeless.)\n\n4. What problems could arise between people who have very different value systems? (Depends on the value, but there could be a lot of conflicts.)\n\n5. Do you think a person's values change as the person gets older? Why? (Probably needs change as we get older; need to have a job, money.)\n\n6. How could a traumatic experience such as being saved from a life-threatening situation affect a person's values? (The person might tend to value life\/health more.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students consider the items on the worksheet and try to reduce them to a single word; for example, doing well in school, being well-educated could both be covered by Education.\n\n2. Have students add items to the list. Which are the result of specific experiences they have had?\n\n3. Have students conduct a survey of a cross-section of the population: adults, students, elementary children. Make a list of ten items to give as the survey. Which values are more predominant in certain age groups? (For example, do children value health and wealth? Do adults value being good at sports?)\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List five personal values. 2. Give an example for each value in (1) of how you demonstrate that value in your life.\n\n**2.1 Values Important to Me**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nPut a check mark next to the items on the list that are somewhat important to you. Put two marks next to those that are extremely important to you. Leave items blank if you are not particularly interested in that value.\n\n1. Having a lot of money _\n\n2. Doing well in school _\n\n3. Having a lot of friends _\n\n4. Having one close friend _\n\n5. Getting along with my parents _\n\n6. Getting along with my family _\n\n7. Having time to myself _\n\n8. Not worrying about having enough to eat\n\n9. Getting\/having a good job _\n\n10. Liking my job _\n\n11. Respecting myself _\n\n12. Being respected by others _\n\n13. Having my own space\/room _\n\n14. Being good at something _\n\n15. Having a clean room _\n\n16. Breathing clean air _\n\n17. Recycling _\n\n18. Being well-educated _\n\n19. Being in good health _\n\n20. Being handsome\/pretty _\n\n21. Knowing that someone loves me _\n\n22. Being in love _\n\n23. Having nice clothes _\n\n24. Having a lot of possessions _\n\n25. Being in good physical shape _\n\n26. Having a boyfriend or girlfriend _\n\n27. Being good at sports _\n\n28. Helping others _\n\n29. Being recognized for helping others _\n\n30. Believing in God or some other Supreme Being _\n\n31. Being happy _\n\n32. Being right about something _\n\n33. Being able to handle responsibility _\n\n34. Setting goals for myself _\n\n35. Having control of what happens to me _\n\n#  **2.2 My Ethnic Background**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will state and briefly describe his or her ethnic background.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nMany people identify themselves as being part of a particular ethnic group or originally descending from people of a certain country. Part of knowing yourself is being familiar with your ethnic background, particularly if customs and habits are still part of your day-to-day life. This lesson focuses on awareness of our individual backgrounds and taking pride in those origins.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students indicate by raising hands if there are members of their family who recently (in the last generation or two) have come from another country. Perhaps some students may have heard about how their parents arrived in this country and would like to share with the class. Discuss this event.\n\n2. Have students volunteer to discuss and describe any traditions their family has celebrated. (Do not force students to participate; some may not wish to emphasize their differences!)\n\n3. Ask students if any of them speak a second language or have family members who do. Have them describe how this is helpful or difficult.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to complete the survey \"My Ethnic Background\" by individually writing answers to the questions. They may wish to take the sheet home and have their family members help them fill out the information. Assure students that if they do not wish to reveal their personal lives in class, they will not have to, but encourage them to think about the questions and complete them\u2014at least for their own benefit. _Answers:_ Will vary.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nHave students volunteer to share the information they completed on the worksheet. Emphasize that just because traditions may differ, this does not mean one is right or wrong.\n\n1. Was this information easy to obtain? Who were your sources? 2. Are you part of a large ethnic group in your community? Do you feel you are accepted in the community? 3. Do you feel your ethnic group is stereotyped in any way? How?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students compile family photographs or newspaper clippings on a poster or collage. Have students volunteer to explain to the class the significance of the people on the poster. 2. Have students collect newspaper articles featuring their particular ethnic group in the news. 3. Make a class map of the world highlighting the countries where students in the class originated from. They may be surprised to find out the diversity within even one classroom.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. What is your primary ethnic background? 2. How did your family originally come to live in the community where you now reside? 3. What are some characteristics about your family that reflect your ethnic background?\n\n**Name _ Date** _\n\n**2.2 My Ethnic Background**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nComplete this activity by focusing on your own family background. Perhaps you have two or more nationalities represented in your family's history. Talk to your parents, grandparents, or other relatives who can help fill you in on your past.\n\nFind out the following:\n\n1. What ethnic groups are in your family? How did your family come to live where you do now? Did anyone come originally from another country?\n\n2. What holidays or traditions do you celebrate? Are these different from your neighbor's customs?\n\n3. Does anyone in your family speak a second language? What? When?\n\n4. Are your closest friends of the same ethnic group as you? If not, does this present any problems? What?\n\n5. If someone from another country were to visit your home, what do you think he or she would find most interesting? What object would he or she pick out as being unusual? Would any of your customs seem strange to that person? Which ones?\n\n#  **2.3 My Disabilities**\n\n##  **Objectives:**\n\n(1) The student will identify common physical, mental, or emotional disabilities and state a characteristic of each. (2) The student will identify and briefly describe a personal disability.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nThere are many types of recognized disabilities\u2014learning disabilities, emotional disabilities, physical disabilities, and so on. Although we don't want students to cling to their disability as a crutch or excuse in any way, it is important for them to know, as much as is possible and appropriate, about their disability and how it affects them, their family, and their success in life. This lesson is a general introduction to the idea of having a personal disability, what that means, and how to take steps to deal with it positively.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n( _Note:_ Select activities that are appropriate for your students, as some students may not be willing to discuss personal issues.)\n\n1. Discuss: What is a disability? (Not being able to do something as well as others, primarily based on physical restrictions or cognitive\/behavioral issues.)\n\n2. What are some common types of disabilities that you know about? (Learning disabilities, attention deficit disorder, physical disabilities, and so on.)\n\n3. Do you have a disability that you can share information about with us? Or is there someone in your family who has a disability? How has it affected you?\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nOn the worksheet \"My Disabilities,\" students are to write one way that the disabled person is doing something positive to help himself or herself. Remind them to think about their own disabilities and ways that they have learned to be positive.\n\n_Answers:_\n\n1. Getting involved in wheelchair sports\n\n2. Getting the information in a different way\n\n3. Controlling the environment for success\n\n4. Continuing to work with the speech teacher\n\n5. Spending time socializing in fun ways\n\n6. Doing things in his strong area\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nAs you discuss the examples, encourage students to relate to the disabilities that are similar to their situations and experience.\n\n1. In item 1, the boy is physically disabled. How has he continued to have a good life? (Enjoys sports, seems to have a good attitude.)\n\n2. If someone has a speech disability, such as the girl in item 4, how could that affect them socially? (Embarrassing.) How did the girl handle the problem? What are some other ways that she could continue to be positive around others?\n\n3. People with emotional or social disabilities, such as in items 3 and 5, have issues with others. What are some suggestions that you might make to these individuals? Perhaps you know of someone who has difficulty in this area and has developed some coping strategies.\n\n4. Language or reading disabilities, such as in items 2 and 6, can be hard to deal with, especially in school, but what are some ways that these people have overcome their disabilities? (Learning in other ways, using their strengths.)\n\n5. If you have any of these disabilities, what could you share as far as difficulties and successes?\n\n6. Do you feel that others have to help you with your disability or that you can be in control of what happens to you and how to help yourself?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\nThese websites contain ideas and actual experiences for simulating disabilities:\n\n\u2022 www.pbs.org\/wgbh\/misunderstoodminds\/\n\nAttention deficit; reading, visual, auditory disabilities\n\n\u2022 www.addchoices.com\/it_feels_like_.htm\n\nVisual and fine motor disabilities\n\n\u2022 <http:\/\/library.thinkquest.org\/5852\/activitiesandsimulatons.htm>\n\nActivities and simulations for visual impairment and mobility disabilities\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Give an example of a physical disability. Describe something that a person could do with an adaptation.\n\n2. If you have a disability, describe something positive and something negative about your disability.\n\n **Name _ Date _**\n\n**2.3 My Disabilities**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nHow are these students doing positive things even though they have a disability?\n\n1. I can't walk, but I can sure play basketball!\n\n2. Listening to a recorded book is a lot easier for me. I can understand things a lot better when I hear them.\n\n3. I know that I will get angry when Jeff gives me a nasty look. I want to punch him, but I will control myself by sitting on the other side of the room. I can talk to the counselor later today about how I can stay in control.\n\n4. It's embarrassing for me to have to keep repeating words when people can't understand what I'm saying. But I will work hard with my speech teacher. I know I am getting better.\n\n5. Ifind it hard to talk to people, but when I'm in a group and we go roller skating or bowling, it's a lot easier for me to fit in.\n\n6. I don't like to read, but I sure am good at math. I 'm on our school's Math Bowl team. I even help some of the younger kids at our school who need a tutor.\n\n#  **2.4 What's a Reputation?**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will make assumptions about a character's reputation based on given clues.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nA reputation is a judgment about a person made by others. Whether deserved or not, people make decisions about a person's character. In this lesson, students are given comments about others to consider. They are to decide what it tells about the person's reputation.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Define _reputation_ (a person's character as judged by other people). 2. Write one comment you think people say about you to others.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to read the comments on the worksheet \"What's a Reputation?\" and make a judgment about some aspect of the person's reputation. _Answers (Examples):_ 1. She is a good student; gets good grades. 2. He is a poor driver. 3. He knows about cars. 4. He cheats. 5. She's a bad player. 6. He's a good salesman. 7. She is honest. 8. He lies. 9. He's a poor carpenter. 10. She's fun. 11. She has a bad temper. 12. He eats a lot.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nAfter students have completed the worksheet, compare their responses. Did they come up with the same conclusions?\n\n1. How do other people come up with ideas about a person's reputation? (Things they observe, things they hear from others.) 2. What is an example of a good reputation? 3. What is an example of a bad reputation?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students consider some political figures or celebrities. What reputations are they known for? How did they get these reputations?\n\n2. Have students think of famous people (or, if appropriate, students within the school's student body). Who has a reputation for being a good sport? For being friendly? For being rich? For being athletic? Have students think of other categories. Try to emphasize the positive.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Define _reputation._ 2. If someone had a reputation for being a good cook, what are some possible clues that would lead you to think that?\n\n**Name _ Date _**\n\n**2.4 What 's a Reputation?**\n\n1. \"She's such a brain!\"\n\n2. \"Don't ever get in the car with Tom if you value your life.\"\n\n3. \"Fred is the one to ask if you have a question about cars.\"\n\n4. \"Oh, no\u2014do I have to sit next to him in this class? I' ll have to hide my paper so he doesn't copy everything.\"\n\n5. \"I hope we don't have to have Sheila on our team. She's awful.\"\n\n6. \"If you want a good deal, buy your cars from Mr. Alvarez.\"\n\n7. \"If Angie says it's true, it's true.\"\n\n8. \"Don't believe anything Mark says.\"\n\n9. \"John built your back porch? I hope it doesn't fall down.\"\n\n10. \"Be sure to invite Kim to the party. She's a lot of fun.\"\n\n11. \"I'm afraid to admit that I messed up on this paper. Mrs. Gabler will have a fit.\"\n\n12. \"Let's make sure we eat dessert before Randy gets here. There won't be any left.\"\n\n#  **2.5 Changing Your Reputation**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify reasons or ways for individuals to change a reputation in specific examples.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nReputations are gained and lost all the time. If someone makes a concerted effort to change a reputation, that can happen. There are also other ways to make changes. Sometimes other people make that determination for us by providing training, guidance, or a model. In this lesson, students are given examples of reputations that have changed and are to determine what factors were involved.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students give an example of something that could change a good reputation to a bad one.\n\n2. Have students give an example of something that could change a bad reputation to a good one.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to read the four examples of reputation changes on the worksheet \"Changing Your Reputation\" and decide which was the \"old\" reputation and which is now the \"new\" reputation. _Answers:_ 1. good student \/ apathetic student 2. unathletic \/ good athlete 3. school skipper \/ regular attendee 4. unskilled \/ good worker\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nHave students give their ideas about what caused the changes in the characters, reputations:\n\n1. How did Cindy's reputation change among her friends? Among her teachers? Which reputation did she care more about? (Friends.) 2. What changes besides reputation did you think happened for Alfredo? (Became goal-oriented; self-esteem probably improved.) 3. How did the court system help Geno improve his attendance at school? Do you think that will help his reputation even though he didn't do it on his own at first? 4. Maria's bosses did not give up on her. How did that help Maria's reputation? (She was trying to live up to what they wanted for her; probably felt more important knowing that they valued her.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students examine the changes in reputation of some popular celebrities who have gone up and down in the public eye. What events have caused people to change their minds about them?\n\n2. Show students the classic movie _My Fair Lady_ in which a dramatic transformation is achieved in an uncultured flower seller. Discuss how her reputation changed.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List two ways that a person can change his or her reputation. 2. Describe a famous person who has undergone a change in reputation. Explain.\n\n**Name _ Date _**\n\n**2.5 Changing Your Reputation**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nRead the following examples of people who have had a change in reputation. How would these events change what someone thinks of a person?\n\n1. Cindy always had good grades and was a pretty good student. Her teachers liked her because she was bright and polite. As she got older, she started to hang around with a group of girls who liked to party more than they liked to study. When teachers tried to talk with Cindy about what was happening, she ignored them.\n\n **Old reputation:**\n\n**New reputation:**\n\n2. Alfredo was picked last on any athletic team. He hated going to gym class because it always made him feel like a loser. Then he joined a karate class after school and began working out. He developed muscles, energy, and a spirit to compete. After a few months, Alfredo began trying out for some after-school teams. He found that he enjoyed them and was getting pretty good at them. Other kids began asking him to join them when they played.\n\n **Old reputation:**\n\n**New reputation:**\n\n3. Geno had a terrible attendance record at school. He just didn't care about attending. Then he found out that the courts decided he had to see a probation officer once a week to discuss some of his other problems. Now that he didn't have a choice, he began attending every day. Now everyone expects Geno to show up\u2014which he does.\n\n **Old reputation:**\n\n**New reputation:**\n\n4. Maria was \"all thumbs\" when it came to typing. She worked at a job in which she had to do some work with word-processing software. Her bosses were frustrated, too, at all of her mistakes, although they really liked Maria and wanted to see her succeed. They decided to pay for her to attend night-school classes to learn how to operate a computer. Once she received the training, she understood how to do her job better. Now Maria looks forward to doing the paperwork!\n\n **Old reputation:**\n\n**New reputation:**\n\n#  **2.6 How You Appear to Others**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will describe how he or she appears to several other specified individuals.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nWe have many sides, many faces. Although we may seem sweet and kind to our best friend 's mother, we may be nasty and mean to that little brother whom we see every day. We give different people different views of how we behave and what we think. Sometimes when two people are discussing the same person, the views are entirely different, and you wonder if they are talking about the same individual! Part of what makes us complex, interesting individuals is the different attributes we reveal to others. In this lesson, students examine the different reputations other people might have in mind for the same person.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students how they feel about [select a winning football or basketball team]. Many students will probably indicate it is their favorite team. Ask why? (We like to be associated with winners.)\n\n2. Ask students how they feel about [select a team with a somewhat bad reputation]. Comments will probably be negative!\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nUsing the worksheet \"How You Appear to Others,\" students are to examine their reputations in light of how they appear to several different individuals. The individuals are chosen randomly, and you may wish to add or change the people. Encourage students to be objective!\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nStudents may consider this a rather personal activity, so ask for volunteers to divulge information if they wish.\n\n1. How much control do you have over your reputation among other people? 2. Do you think your reputation is more accurate as reported by people who are close to you, such as a family member or your best friend? 3. Do you think people who know you only through school or work would have valid observations about you? Why? (They may be more objective, different circumstances.) 4. Do others see you as they want to see you? Are they accurate? 5. Do you think others see you as you would like them to see you? Are you effectively giving them the right information to have whatever reputation you want? 6. Have you ever tried to make a good impression in front of someone and ended up feeling like you were being a phony? 7. When you described your reputation as if you were another person, did you tend to list your accomplishments? Your personality? Your physical appearance? 8. Are you happy with the reputation you feel most people have given you?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students spend some time talking to a close friend about how they appear to others. Find out what their reputation is. Are they surprised? 2. Collect and read some yearbooks (with permission). A lot of the comments may reveal some insights into the people's reputations. It would be interesting to look through those of parents! Again, get permission.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. In general, what kind of reputation do you think you have among your closest friends? 2. What kind of reputation do you have within your family? 3. What kind of reputation do you have at school or work? 4. Which reputation most reflects you? Why?\n\n**Name _ Date _**\n\n**2.6 How You Appear to Others**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nDifferent people have different perceptions of what you are like. Fill in the following information about the picture shown. How would the following individuals describe you or your reputation?\n\n**Chapter 3**\n\n**Personal Life Choices**\n\n#  **3.1 Smoking: Is It for Me?**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify several reasons why people choose to smoke or not smoke.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nBy this age, many students are probably already smoking and are tired of listening to adults lecture them about the dangers of this habit. There are lots of reasons why smoking is unhealthy. On the other hand, the decision to smoke or refrain from smoking is tied into factors such as peer pressure, parents' attitudes about smoking, desire to appear \"cool\" or mature, and so on. At this point, students have probably already made up their minds. If we can educate them with the facts about smoking, perhaps some of them will make informed decisions about smoking.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\nHave students complete a secret survey by indicating whether (1) they consider themselves to be smokers, (2) one or both of their parents smoke, and (3) they know of someone who wishes he or she could quit smoking but is having difficulty.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nOn the worksheet \"Smoking: Is It for Me? \" students are to read the situations that involve smokers and nonsmokers and indicate the essence of the situation.\n\n_Answers (Examples):_\n\n1. Enjoys smoking.\n\n2. Had experience with father's death from cancer.\n\n3. Finds the smell offensive.\n\n4. Wants to appear \"cool.\"\n\n5. Wants to appear older.\n\n6. Probably addicted.\n\n7. Has health problems.\n\n8. Smokes to relieve nervous tension.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nStudents probably have some personal anecdotes either pro or con regarding smoking. Allow them equal time to express their opinions, but feel free to question the basis of their decisions.\n\n1. If you smoke now, do you think you will still be smoking in ten years? Why or why not?\n\n2. Do you believe there are serious dangers associated with smoking?\n\n3. Does knowing the facts about the dangers of smoking affect your decision to smoke or not to smoke?\n\n4. If parents smoke, do you think that would increase the chances of the children in the family smoking? Why?\n\n5. What experiences do you know of people who have tried to quit smoking? What success stories are you aware of?\n\n6. About what percentage of the people you hang around with would you classify as smokers?\n\n7. About what percentage of people who are smokers do you think would like to quit?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Assign students the task of finding out recent facts and statistics about smoking. What diseases are associated with smoking? How is nicotine addictive?\n\n2. Have students take a pro\/con stance as to whether the government should regulate smoking and the rights of smokers.\n\n3. Have students calculate how much money would be spent on cigarettes if a person smoked two packs a day for one year.\n\n4. Cigarette smoking is associated with at least 85 percent of all cases of lung cancer. It is also a leading cause of heart disease. Obtain information from your local heart association or cancer centers about smoking. Get the facts.\n\n5. Have students research the different methods and effects of quitting smoking (hypnosis, behavior modification, group support, and so on). What results and conclusions can they reach?\n\n6. Collect different forms of advertising for cigarette ads. What is the point of each? To whom does each appeal? How effective is it?\n\n7. What brands of cigarettes are popular among students? Research the amount of tar and nicotine in some popular brands. What exactly is being taken into the body?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List at least three reasons why people choose to smoke.\n\n2. List at least three reasons why people choose not to smoke.\n\n **Name _ Date _**\n\n**3.1 Smoking: Is It for Me?**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nWhat reasons do these people give for smoking or not smoking? Write your answer on the lines.\n\n#  **3.2 Marijuana and Other Drugs**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will be able to give factual information about specific drugs.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nAs with smoking, the choice to smoke marijuana and take other drugs is one that students may already have made. Peer pressure, availability, lack of thought, and other factors play a part in this behavior. There are many programs available to fight drug abuse. Ideally, your school and community are aware of this widespread problem and are taking steps to combat it. In this lesson, students are given factual information about some commonly abused drugs.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. On a scale of 1 to 10 (with 10 the most severe), have students rate the drug problem as they see it in their school.\n\n2. On a scale of 1 to 10, have students rate the drug problem as they think the adults (parents, teachers, school administrators, police) in the community would perceive it.\n\n3. Have students volunteer to explain any discrepancy between (1) and (2).\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nOn the worksheet \"Marijuana and Other Drugs,\" students are given short paragraphs to read about several commonly abused drugs. Questions about them are contained in the following discussion.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nSome students may not want to reveal their thoughts about drug usage, particularly if they are known to be users in their crowd. Encourage them to at least answer the factual questions.\n\n1. How would you answer people who say that smoking marijuana is no more harmful than smoking cigarettes? (It contains more cancer-causing agents than cigarettes.)\n\n2. The marijuana produced today is from five to twenty times stronger than that from a decade ago. How would you answer people who argue that they used marijuana years ago and it never hurt them any? (They probably had a less-potent product.)\n\n3. Cocaine is sometimes promoted as a recreational drug, often used by celebrities and wanna -be celebrities for fun. What are some of the dangers of using cocaine? (Damage to the membrane of the nose, disruption of the heart and respiratory functions.)\n\n4. What is the problem with unsterile equipment associated with drug use? (Sharing needles puts users at risk of acquiring AIDS or other diseases that are transmitted through the blood.)\n\n5. How can unborn children be victims of drug abuse? (Pregnant women can have premature or addicted children.)\n\n6. What is an example of an inhalant? (Aerosol spray cans, paint cans, containers of cleaning fluid, and so on.)\n\n7. What are some immediate effects of inhaling vapors? (Nausea, sneezing, nosebleeds, and so on.)\n\n8. What are hallucinations? (Perceptions of an object or event that does not really exist, usually due to drug use.)\n\n9. Have you heard of anyone having \"flashbacks\" due to previous drug use?\n\n10. Many of these drugs have legitimate medical uses. Can you think of any? (Pain control, antidepressant uses, appetite control, and so on.)\n\n11. How can being involved with drugs negatively affect your performance in school or at work? (Memory loss, attitude, depression, and so on.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Interview a social worker in a drug treatment center. Listen to anecdotes of people whose lives have been affected by drug abuse.\n\n2. Research the drug problem in your community. What steps are being taken to recognize this situation and prevent its worsening?\n\n3. What educational programs are in the schools at the elementary, middle school, and high school levels? How effective are they?\n\n4. Have students research specific drugs. Find out the attractions, effects, and problems associated with each.\n\n5. Have students design a puppet show to present to younger children about alternatives to drug use.\n\n6. Have students research the price of drug abuse in personal pain, business loss, affects on the family, courts, hospitals, and social agencies.\n\n7. Find out the community penalties for possession of controlled substances. If possible, talk to a police officer involved with this aspect of drugs in your community. Do you think the penalties are severe enough?\n\n8. What drug rehabilitation programs are available in your community? Contact your local mental health agency or hospital to get more information.\n\n9. Do some research on the facts about drugs. These websites may be helpful:\n\n<http:\/\/www.freevibe.com> (Facts and teen stories)\n\n<http:\/\/teenshealth.org\/teen\/> (Take the link for Drugs and Alcohol)\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List at least three drugs that are commonly abused.\n\n2. For each drug listed in (1), describe the possible effects.\n\n **Name ____ Date _**\n\n**3.2 Marijuana and Other Drugs**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nCarefully read the following information about specific drugs and the effects they have, and be prepared to answer questions about them.\n\n**Cannabis (Generic Name: Marijuana)**\n\nThe use of cannabis may affect your short-term memory and ability to understand things. It can reduce your ability to perform tasks requiring concentration, such as driving a car. It is damaging to the lungs and contains more cancer-causing agents than cigarettes.\n\n**Cocaine**\n\nCocaine is usually sold as a white powder that is inhaled through the nasal passages, although it can be injected or smoked. It stimulates the central nervous system, which is evidenced by dilated pupils, and it raises the blood pressure, heart rate, respiratory rate, and body temperature. Chronic use by inhalation can cause damage to the mucous membrane of the nose. If injected with unsterile equipment, the user can get AIDS and other diseases. The use of cocaine can cause death by disrupting the brain's control of the heart and respiration.\n\n**Narcotics (Heroin, Codeine, Morphine, Opium, and so on)**\n\nThese drugs produce a feeling of euphoria followed by drowsiness, nausea, and vomiting. An overdose can affect breathing and lead to convulsions, coma, and possibly death. Tolerance develops rapidly. Addiction in pregnant women can lead to premature, stillborn, or addicted children.\n\n**Inhalants (Nitrous Oxide, Hydrocarbons, and so on)**\n\nWhen vapors are inhaled, the immediate effects can include nausea, sneezing, nosebleeds, and lack of coordination. These drugs can also decrease heart and respiratory rates. Long-term use may result in disorientation, violent behavior, brain hemorrhage, or death. Repeated sniffing can permanently damage the nervous system.\n\n**Hallucinogens (LSD, PCP, and so on)**\n\nLSD can produce illusions and hallucinations. These sensations and feelings can change rapidly and the user may experience panic, confusion, and loss of control. Chronic users of PCP report memory problems, speech difficulties, and mood disorders including depression, anxiety, and violent behavior.\n\n#  **3.3 Teens and Drinking**\n\n**Objective:** The student will state five to eight facts about teens, alcohol, and drinking.\n\n**Comments:** Underage drinking is on the rise and is certainly not a positive choice for special students. One survey (Monitoring the Future survey, 2005) estimated that three-quarters of twelfth graders, more than two-thirds of tenth graders, and two-fifths of eighth graders had consumed alcohol. Other studies have found that the average age of a teen's first drink of alcohol is fourteen. The purpose of this lesson is to alert students to the facts about alcohol and making good choices.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students to list facts about alcohol and drinking. Many will probably have a vague idea about the dangers of alcohol, but probably not a clear idea of the extent and range of those dangers.\n\n2. Ask students to give their opinions about alcohol and teen drinking. List reasons why students feel that it is acceptable or not acceptable.\n\n **Activity:** Students should be given the worksheet \"Teens and Drinking\" and asked to fill out their responses before further teaching or discussion is given.\n\n_Answers:_ 1. twenty-one 2. car crashes 3. 1.5 oz., 5 oz., 12 oz. 4. bloodstream 5. brain 6. false 7. in full control 8. eaten; food 9. accepted, older, popular 10. poor\n\n**Discussion:** Have students score their own papers as you lead a discussion about the facts of alcohol and drinking.\n\n1. What are some ways that teenagers can get alcohol? (Parents, older friends.)\n\n2. Why do you think underage kids want to drink? (To have fun, fit in, fight depression.)\n\n3. Do you know of anyone who has been involved in a car-related accident that involved alcohol?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Invite someone from a community agency to speak to your class about alcohol and the effects of underage drinking.\n\n2. Track coverage in your local newspaper about incidents involving teenage drinking.\n\n3. These websites have kid-friendly activities, stories, quizzes, and information about alcohol and teens:\n\nwww.checkyourself.com\/Alcoholmyths.aspx\n\nwww.thecoolspot.gov\n\n**Evaluation:** List five facts about alcohol and\/or teenage drinking.\n\n**Name _ Date _**\n\n**3.3 Teens and Drinking**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nSee how much you know about teens, alcohol, and drinking. Fill in the blanks with your answers.\n\n1. The legal age to buy or possess alcohol is **_** years old.\n\n2. The three leading causes of death for fifteen- to twenty-four-year-olds are _, homicide, and suicide. Alcohol is the leading factor in all three causes.\n\n3. One \"drink\" consists of: _ oz. of liquor, _ oz. of wine, or _ oz. of beer.\n\n4. After you take a drink, the alcohol is absorbed into your _.\n\n5. From there (#4) it goes to your central nervous system, which consists of your spinal cord and your _.\n\n6. True or False: A teenager's brain is fully developed. _\n\n7. Alcohol is a depressant, which means it slows down functions such as perception, move ment, vision, and hearing. Someone who is driving a car too fast might think that he or she is _.\n\n8. How fast alcohol is absorbed into the blood depends on what you've _ recently. The less _ in your body, the faster you will get drunk.\n\n9. Reasons why teens drink include curiosity, peer pressure, and wanting to feel _.\n\n10. Alcohol can lead you to make _ decisions.\n\n#  **3.4 Changing Your Appearance**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe students will state at least three to five ways that a person could make changes in his or her appearance.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nPerhaps we all dream of waking up one morning and being that beautiful or handsome creature to whom everyone is attracted. We are often our own worst critics when it comes to judging our appearance. We may feel we are too tall, too fat, not pretty enough, and so on. Although physical appearance is only one dimension (and perhaps not even that important a dimension!) of an individual, there are some things that can be changed to improve one's physical appearance. In this lesson, some of those changes are investigated.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\nHave students raise their hands if they:\n\n1. Have ever used a tanning booth.\n\n2. Have ever experimented with hair color.\n\n3. Are wearing contact lenses.\n\n4. Are wearing braces on their teeth.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nSeveral ways to change one's physical appearance are listed on the worksheet \"Changing Your Appearance.\" Students are to match the change desired with a method (in the box) that could promote or make that change. Be sure students understand that these changes are not necessarily desirable for everyone; they are merely suggestions that one might investigate if one wanted to make physical changes.\n\n_Answers:_ 1.c 2. h 3. g 4. l 5. e 6. a 7. k 8. d 9. i 10. b 11. j 12. f\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nAvoid focusing on students who may have particular problems with their physical appearance, such as excessive acne, obesity, and so on. Try to keep things on general terms.\n\n1. Do you think men or women are more conscious of how they look and how to improve their looks?\n\n2. What are some methods that are different for men compared with women?\n\n3. If someone really wanted to change his or her appearance, what might stand in the way? (Money to visit a doctor or get a fashionable hair style, not knowing how to go about starting an exercise program, and so on.)\n\n4. What are some physical problems that are common to most students? (Probably pimples, improper eating habits, need for straightening teeth, and so on.)\n\n5. If someone didn't have a lot of money, how could he or she still be fashionable? (Do some of the hair styling at home or with friends, buy fewer but better clothes, and so on.)\n\n6. Is it important for girls to wear a lot of makeup? (Depends on the individual case; some look better without a lot on.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Invite a beauty specialist to come to the school to do a face or hair makeover on some volunteers. Have the specialist point out techniques for enhancing one's best features to look good.\n\n2. Have students find out the cost (and duration) of basic orthodontic work.\n\n3. Contact lenses are now quite affordable. Have students contact a local eye care specialist to find out the cost of getting contacts.\n\n4. Have students take a pro\/con view of plastic surgery procedures. What are the costs, benefits, risks, results?\n\n5. Have students research the effects of visiting a tanning booth, both short-term and long-term.\n\n6. Have some ambitious students put together a fashion show for both boys and girls. What \"look\" is popular right now? Recruit a few \"models\" to demonstrate some fashion looks that suit different body types. Have fun!\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List three to five physical changes that a person could make in his or her appearance.\n\n2. Write a paragraph explaining what you like best about your appearance and what you would change if you could (or what you are working on changing).\n\n **3.4 Changing Your Appearance**\n\n_1. You want your hair to be shorter.\n\n_2. You want your hair to look blonder and curlier.\n\n_3. You hate wearing glasses.\n\n_4. Your striped shirts make you look heavy.\n\n_5. You are heavy!\n\n_6. Your teeth are crooked.\n\n_7. Your skin is very pale.\n\n_8. You have pimples all over your face.\n\n_9. Your eyebrows are very bushy.\n\n_10. Your skin is blotchy.\n\n_11. You are very thin and have no muscle tone.\n\n_12. People tell you that you dress very sloppily.\n\na. Get braces or another orthodontic appliance.\n\nb. Use facial makeup to even out the color of your face.\n\nc. Get a haircut.\n\nd. Use acne medication and\/or visit a dermatologist.\n\ne. Watch what you eat; try to lose weight slowly so you can keep it off.\n\nf. Update your wardrobe by buying some new clothes; get advice from a salesperson.\n\ng. Try some contact lenses.\n\nh. Try some hair coloring; get a perm.\n\ni. Thin your eyebrows with tweezers.\n\nj. Start an exercise program to build up some muscle.\n\nk. Get some fresh air and sunshine, but remember your sunscreen!\n\nl. Wear clothes that are more flattering to your body type.\n\n#  **3.5 Tattoos and Piercings**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will describe an appropriate type of body art for a given situation.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nLove 'em or hate 'em, body art is everywhere! Some sources estimate 50 percent of people in their twenties have a tattoo or a body piercing. Piercings are basically nonmedical holes for the purpose of inserting jewelry or other decorations. State laws vary, but although tattooing and piercing is legal in all fifty states, most states require the customer to be at least eighteen or, if younger, to have a parent or guardian's written consent. (See <http:\/\/www.ncsl.org\/programs\/health\/minorbodyart.htm> for state-by-state information.) Some things to consider before getting body art are safety, permanence of the procedure, and its effect on future issues (where you will work, public opinion regarding tattoos, changing fads, and so on).\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students to describe interesting tattoos that they have seen.\n\n2. Ask students to share any experiences about acquiring a tattoo or piercing.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nThe worksheet \"Tattoos and Piercings\" includes situations in which a person has or is considering a tattoo or piercing. The student is to write an opinion about how this situation could be handled in the best interest of both parties.\n\n_Answers Examples:_\n\n1. Wait under she is sure about the relationship, or get a smaller tattoo.\n\n2. Wait until they reach age eighteen.\n\n3. Talk to the employer to see if the piercings would be offensive for that job\u2014they may not be.\n\n4. No! No! No!\n\n5. Remove the stud when at work.\n\n6. If they have a policy regarding body art, apply for one of the jobs that doesn't involve a lot of contact with customers.\n\n7. Get something small or one that can be easily concealed.\n\n8. A tattoo would be fine there. However, Rick should make sure he likes that line of work\u2014he may change jobs someday.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nIf there is a policy in place about body art, that must be considered and adhered to. On the other hand, if there is no policy, then an inoffensive tattoo should not be a problem.\n\n1. In example 1, why would it not be a good idea for Angel to have her boyfriend's name tattooed on her shoulder or anywhere? (Doesn't seem like a stable situation; he has a long name.)\n\n2. What are some cute, interesting, or attractive tattoos that you have seen?\n\n3. How much is \"too much\"? What do you think makes body piercing unattractive?\n\n4. For what jobs might a lot of body art be welcome? (Sales of items that appeal to young people, performers.)\n\n5. What concerns might you have about tattoos and piercings? What concerns might your parents have?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Find out the state or city laws for tattooing in your community.\n\n2. Arrange for a visit of a tattoo artist. If this is not possible, you can view a video on getting a tattoo and a lip piercing on this website: <http:\/\/tattoo.about.com>\n\n3. Do a report on how tattooing works. Include some colorful designs.\n\n4. Do a random, informal survey of the prevalence of tattoos or piercings in your community. Sit at a busy mall for an hour and just count and tally your observations.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Describe three types of body art.\n\n2. Give an example of a tattoo that is inappropriate for a situation.\n\n3. Give an example of a tattoo that is appropriate for a situation.\n\n **Name _ Date _**\n\n**3.5 Tattoos and Piercings**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nHow could these body art situations be handled in a positive manner?\n\n1. Angel wants to have her boyfriend's name (Christopher) tattooed on her shoulder. Her mother pointed out that she has had several boyfriends and she just started dating Christopher.\n\n2. Sarah and Hailey want to get matching butterfly tattoos on their ankles. They are both seventeen years old. Sarah's mother asked her to wait until she is eighteen, but Hailey's mother said it is fine with her.\n\n3. Austin wants to get his eyebrow, lip, nose, and ear pierced. He also wants to get a part-time job working at a nursing home. He is a friendly guy who really likes older people.\n\n4. Sydney wants to get her belly button pierced. She has a friend who said she knows how to do piercings and she will do it at her home for free.\n\n5. Kayla has a nose stud that she really likes. She applied for a job as a waitress at a restaurant that has a policy for no piercings.\n\n6. Jordan wants to work at a five-star hotel. He has skull-and-crossbones tattoos on the backs of his hand and a star tattooed under his eye. There are several openings at the hotel, including a dishwasher at the restaurant, busboy, valet parking attendant, and hotel receptionist.\n\n7. Danielle wants to get a tattoo, but she doesn't want to get in trouble at work for having a feature that everyone will stare at.\n\n8. Rick works at a bookstore that sells graphic novels\/comic books and art posters. There is no dress code. Rick would like to get a tattoo that is fun and gets attention.\n\n#  **3.6 Rate the Date**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nGiven various dating examples, the student will rate each on a scale of 1 to 10 and give reasons for his or her rating.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nAs adults, looking back, probably all of us have had dating disasters that now appear humorous (after the passage of time). On the other hand, don't you remember some good times, moments you wish you could relive again and again? Some students may not actually be dating, but they can still identify good and bad aspects of going on a date. In this lesson, they are to read some episodes of students on dates and then rate them on a scale of 1 to 10.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students to volunteer to describe the most awful dating experience they've ever had. (Encourage humor!)\n\n2. Ask students to tell about a particularly fun or interesting date they've had.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to read the anecdotes of seven different dates and then score them (1 to 10, 1 = disaster, 10 = wonderful) on the worksheet \"Rate the Date.\" They will discuss their rating scales.\n\n1. In example 1, what factors were not important to the girl on this date? (Wind, cold.)\n\n2. What factors were important to the girl in example 1? (A considerate date.)\n\n3. In example 2, what did Jennifer do that the boy found annoying? (Ignored him.)\n\n4. In example 3, what was important to the girl? (Seeing the movie.) What did she find irritating? (The boy's behavior.)\n\n5. In example 4, why did Amy surprise the boy? (She turned out to be a lot of fun and a good listener.)\n\n6. Did you rate the date pretty high in example 5? Why? (Probably because both people had a good time.)\n\n7. Do you think Janine was inconsiderate in example 6? (Ordered expensive items, didn't thank him.) Do you think the boy will ever ask her out again? (Probably not.)\n\n8. In example 7, what could have prevented that date from ending up so bad? (Jeff could have tried to avoid the fight.)\n\n9. What factors did you include in your ratings? What did you consider to be important about a good date?\n\n10. Do you need to spend a lot of money to have a good date?\n\n11. What do you appreciate from the other person when you go on a date? (Courtesy.)\n\n12. Would you go out on a blind date? What information would you want to know ahead of time?\n\n13. Do you think girls and boys should split the cost of dating?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Set up a \"Dating Game\" in which students ask questions of each other, but do not know to whom they are talking. (You could use a room divider, having students answer in writing, and so on.) Students might find it interesting to determine what girls or boys find appealing about them.\n\n2. Have students conduct an informal survey or poll asking ten friends or classmates to tell the best or worst thing they've had happen to them while on a date. Information should remain confidential, of course, and be used simply for fun.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nRate the following date. Include what factors you used to determine your rating.\n\nI was really excited about going on my first date with Bill\u2014on a ride in his brother's four-seater airplane. I had never been in an airplane, so I was really excited. What I didn't know was that I would get so airsick I spent the whole time vomiting into a little bag. I was so embarrassed, but I remembered to thank Bill and his brother and told them that I would always remember this very memorable experience. Bill couldn't stop laughing. He said I was a great sport and that our next date would be on the ground.\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**3.6 Rate the Date**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nRate each date described below on a scale of 1 to 10, with 1 being a disaster and 10 being wonderful. Think about what you are considering to be important!\n\n1. \"Andy and I had our first date at Homecoming. It was 30 degrees outside and windy. We were so cold! Andy was really thoughtful, though. He kept asking if I was warm enough and made sure I kept drinking hot chocolate. I remember thinking, 'This guy is so considerate! Is he always this way?'\" _____\n\n2. \"Jennifer and I had been going out casually for awhile, so I felt like I knew her pretty well. But one night we double-dated with her best friend and her boyfriend. Jennifer and her girlfriend talked and laughed with each other the whole night. The other guy and I felt like we weren't even there! They kept talking about people and things we didn't know anything about.\" _____\n\n3. \"I had been looking forward to going to the movies with Ricardo. I really wanted to see the movie! But all he wanted to do was hang all over me and make out. I couldn't wait until it was over. I went back the next day to see the movie I had missed while I was being pawed.\" **_____**\n\n4. \"People told me Amy would really be a dud because she's so quiet. I just found myself talking and telling her things about myself that I had never told anyone else. She's such a good listener\u2014I was fascinated just sitting around in the library, talking for hours.\"\n\n5. \"Pete and I took off on his motorcycle and went all around the county. It was a blast. We both love to be outdoors and feeling free! We made plans to work on fixing up his car next weekend.\"\n\n6. \"I don't think Janine dates very much. When we went out to dinner, she ordered the most expen sive items on the menu. I hardly had enough cash to pay for it. Then when it was over, she didn 't even thank me.\" _____\n\n7. \"Jeff and I went roller skating at the community rink. Another guy he knew from high school knocked into him, so Jeff shoved him back. One thing led to another until there was a full-fledged fight and the cops came. That date really made an impression on me!\" _____\n\n#  **3.7 Ready to Move Out?**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify some positive indications that a person might be ready to move out or to a more independent setting.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nOur desire for older teens is to prepare them for as much independence as possible. At what point are they ready to move out from close parental supervision? Next steps for special teens might include a sheltered apartment, living with a different family member with fewer restrictions, or actually maintaining a safe environment on their own. Teens need to think about what factors are important before they can consider moving out. This might include mastery of independent living skills, financial support, and commitment to a safe lifestyle.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students to think about where they will be living, or hope to live, in the next five to ten years. Have them describe their future living environment. 2. Ask students to list what factors they think are necessary in order to move out on their own.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nThe worksheet \"Ready to Move Out?\" has examples of teens who desire to move out of their present situation, which we will assume is that of living with a parent. Students should read each scenario and pick out the clues that indicate whether or not that person seems ready to move out. _Answers:_\n\n1. No (there will probably still be parental issues). 2. Yes (she has a job, the financial situation seems good). 3. Yes (factors of finance and the school). 4. Maybe (might continue to have problems if he has a bad attitude, but there's a possibility the move could be good for him). 5. No (forgets her medication, is not responsible). 6. No (doesn't have a job lined up).\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nTalk about the pros and cons of each example on the worksheet. What factors are favorable in each case? What factors indicate the student is not yet ready to become independent of a parent?\n\n1. Which examples show someone who is probably in a good financial situation to move out? (#2, #3.) 2. Which examples show someone who can rely on a supportive adult? (#3, #4 maybe, #5.) 3. Which examples show someone who thinks that a change of environment will change his or her life substantially? (#1, #3, #4.) 4. What advice would you give to the boy in #6? (Don't move until you have a secure job.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students interview a parent or custodial adult to ask for help in making a list of skills that the adult thinks are needed for independent living. 2. If possible and appropriate, take a tour of an assisted-living home, sheltered apartment, or other place that might be a possible next step for independence for your students.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. What is one indication that someone is ready to move out on his own? 2. What is an indication that someone is not ready to move out?\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**3.7 Ready to Move Out?**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nDo you think these students are ready to move out?\n\nWrite Yes or No next to each description.\n\n1. Madden is tired of his parents' always wanting to know where he is and what he is doing. He thinks things would be a lot better for him and for his parents if he moved in with his friend Hunter. Hunter's parents are not home very much, so Madden thinks that there won't be any problems.\n\n2. Juliet is taking night classes at her local high school so she can get a high school equivalency degree. During the day she works at a shopping center. She has a chance to move into an apartment with two other girls who also have jobs and are going to school part-time. The rent is not very high, and the girls all want to finish high school. _____\n\n3. Victoria is fourteen and her sister Natalie is sixteen. They want to live with their father in California instead of with their mother in New York. Both parents agree that the girls would be welcome to make the move. Natalie is excited about going to a special school that has classes for art students, which is something she is very interested in. She can also apprentice at her dad 's office and earn some extra money. _____\n\n4. Ethan has had problems at his school in the city. His grades are not good, he does not get along with most of the other kids, and he is getting in trouble in the community. He wants to move in with his older brother who has an apartment with several other guys. The move would put Ethan in a different school district. His brother said he would make sure that Ethan gets off to a good start.\n\n5. Maria needs to take medication to control her seizures. Sometimes she forgets to take her pills, so her mother has to make sure that she takes them every day. _____\n\n6. Cameron wants to move out of his parents' home, so he applied for a job at the local plant nursery. They told him that they would be hiring workers in the summer, but couldn't promise anything yet. He has a little money in a savings account, but not enough to pay rent. The fast-food restaurants are hiring, but he doesn't want to work on weekends. _____\n\n#  **3.8 Ready to Work Part-Time?**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify at least two conditions that would be important in determining readiness for a part-time job.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nWorking is a great way for a student to test the waters of the working world. Some conditions that you need to think about are (1) the appropriateness of the job (are you qualified?), (2) the amount of time it will involve, (3) the logistics of the actual workplace (can you walk to work, or do you need to be able to drive?), (4) other commitments (sports, family obligations), and (5) motivation for working (to be with friends?).\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students to list some part-time jobs that they know about. 2. Ask students to give some advantages of working part-time rather than full-time.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents should read the examples on the worksheet \"Ready to Work Part-Time?\" and decide whether or not each person is a good candidate for working part-time. _Answers:_ 1. Yes (good opportunity to work for a relative, only weekends) 2. No (the job will not fit Lauren's desires) 3. No (needs to study) 4. No (not qualified) 5. Yes (wait until summer) 6. Yes (flexible job)\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nSome of the situations may not be clearly yes or no. Have students speculate about how the part-time jobs might work for the students, with some adaptations.\n\n1. What are some part-time jobs that have flexible hours or working conditions? 2. Why is it important to balance work, school, and social time? 3. Why were some of the jobs not a good fit with the students on the worksheet?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students look through local newspaper ads for part-time jobs to get a sense of what employment opportunities there are in the community. 2. Have students complete a time management schedule to see what type of part-time employment would best fit their individual situation. Nights? Weekends? Summer only?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nList two conditions that would indicate that someone is ready to find a part-time job.\n\n**Name** _____ **Date** _____\n\n**3.8 Ready to Work Part-Time?**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nRead each of the following situations. For each, would you recommend that the student try to get a part-time job at this time? Why\/why not?\n\n1. Christopher has a chance to work at his uncle's garage on the weekends. Chris knows that he will have to get all of his school work done during the week, but he has been keeping his grades up and thinks he can handle it.\n\n2. Lauren's friend Samantha got a job working at a tanning salon and said it would be fun if Lauren worked there, too. Lauren doesn't like to work evenings or weekends, but thinks it will be fun to work when Samantha works so they can talk.\n\n3. Ryan really wants to go to a community college after high school, so he needs to keep his grades up. He studies about three hours every night after school and also spends a lot of time on weekends studying. He found a job at a pizza parlor that requires working a lot of weekends.\n\n4. Tyler found an ad for a part-time lifeguard at the local pool. The pay is good and the hours would work out well for him, too. He thinks he can learn to swim and pass the certification quickly so he can apply for the job.\n\n5. Jasmine is co-captain of her cross country team. She has to run every day to stay in shape. She is thinking about trying to get a part-time job working with kids at a camp in the summer.\n\n6. Jose's family owns and runs a restaurant in town. Jose's parents said that he can come out to the restaurant and help clean off tables on the evenings that he doesn't have any homework.\n\n**Part Two**\n\n**People Skills**\n**Chapter 4**\n\n**Relating to Others**\n\n#  **4.1 Encouraging Others**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will give examples of ways to encourage or praise others in given situations.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nPeople handle the skill of encouraging and praising others in different ways; some are comfortable with being verbally affectionate, others are not so vocal. But each individual can find a way to demonstrate encouragement to others in a manner that he or she feels comfortable with. In this lesson, students are to use their unique personal qualities to demonstrate how they could show encouragement to others.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Define _compassion_ for students. (Showing sympathy toward someone else's misfortune or distress.)\n\n2. Have students give examples of situations in which someone has been distressed or needed encouragement.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to read examples of young people who are going through some distressing circumstances. The student will offer words of encouragment for each example. _Answers (Examples):_ 1. We' ll still stay in touch; I'm here if you need to talk. 2. It was hard for me at first, too, but let's keep trying, OK? 3. Would you help me practice for my part? I could really use your help. 4. May I get you anything? Would you like me to mow the lawn for you?\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nHave students compare their responses. Remember that each student might view the given situations a little differently\u2014perhaps he or she has been through a divorce in the family or been the friend who was disappointed.\n\n1. Have any of these situations happened to you? Can you tell about how it made you feel? 2. What if the people in each example really didn't want to talk about the problem? How would you handle that? 3. Do you think people know if you are just saying something to try to be kind or if you really feel sympathetic toward them? 4. Are there times when it is better to say nothing than to say something that sounds made up or insincere?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students pair up and create a list of 50 to 100 phrases of encouragement such as: \"Good job!\" \"Keep trying!\" \"You' ll get it!\" Write the phrases or words on colored poster board or strips of construction paper and hang them around the room. You' ll never be at a loss for something positive to say! 2. As a writing activity, have students pretend to be a \"Dear Abby\" columnist and write their advice in response to problems that are submitted.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Give a simple definition for the word _compassion_. 2. Give three examples of words or phrases of encouragement.\n\n**Name _____ Date** _____\n\n**4.1 Encouraging Others**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nRead and think about the following situations. What is something that you could say to encourage, support, or praise the person in the example? Write your answers on the lines provided.\n\n1. Your best friend just found out that his parents are getting a divorce. There is also talk of him moving to another state to live with one of his parents (who are not speaking to each other). What would you tell him?\n\n2. You are supposed to be helping your little sister with her math homework. You try and try to explain division to her, but she just doesn't seem to catch on. She'll listen for a little while, then just throw her paper down and give up, saying it's just too hard. What might you say to her?\n\n3. You and a friend both try out for speaking parts in the school play. The results are posted, and you made it! Your friend, however, did not get any part at all. The friend says that it doesn't matter, but you know better. What will you do or say?\n\n4. Your father just lost his job\u2014at a company where he has worked for almost twenty years. He always seems to be in a bad mood and doesn't want to talk about it, especially to you. What will you say to your dad?\n\n#  **4.2 Working in a Group**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will successfully complete a given task as a member of an assigned group.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nAn important life skill that carries through to adulthood is the ability to complete tasks as a member of a group. In this lesson, students are assigned to work as part of a group to complete a given task. Afterward, students will evaluate their own performance and the ability of the group to complete the work.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students list tasks that are easier to complete when they are performed by a group, rather than an individual. (Lawn work, cooking a meal, practicing for basketball, and so on.)\n\n2. Have students think of why some tasks are easier when performed in a group.\n\n3. Have students think of some drawbacks to working in a group.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to work on an assigned task as a group. Groups should be small, perhaps three to five students. All groups should work on the same task. Many tasks lend themselves to group work, but some ideas are:\n\n\u2022 Assemble a hundred-piece puzzle.\n\n\u2022 Color in a map of the United States with all states labeled.\n\n\u2022 Solve a crossword puzzle.\n\n\u2022 Complete a page of math problems (can be coded to reveal a secret message).\n\n\u2022 Write a poem (must be twenty lines long).\n\nDo not give students any more directions other than to assign the task, help them complete the information on the worksheet \"Working in a Group,\" and tell them the length of the time for this activity. Allow the students to proceed with the task with a minimum of teacher intervention. Just observe!\n\n_Materials:_ Will vary depending on the task.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nAfter all groups are finished (or time has run out), have students come together to discuss the following questions about working in their group.\n\n1. Did your group select a leader? Who was it and how was he or she selected?\n\n2. How did your group determine who would work on each part of the task?\n\n3. Did anyone not participate? Did one person do everything? Was the work divided fairly?\n\n4. What was fun or interesting about working in a group? Was your task completed efficiently because there were many workers?\n\n5. What problems did your group encounter?\n\n6. Which group put the most effort into the assignment? What good ideas did that group come up with?\n\n7. If you had the same task to do over again with the same group, what would be done differently?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Repeat the assignment with another task and with different group members. Have students record or reflect on what was managed better on the second try.\n\n2. Keep the same groups for several tasks, but alternate the students as being a leader of the group. Select one person from each group, take them aside, and inform them that they have a special, secret task: to act as a \"recorder,\" to note how many comments of praise or encouragement are given by each leader. When all students (except for the recorders) have been the leaders, have the recorders share their findings.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Give an example of a task that is better performed by a group than an individual.\n\n2. Give two reasons why group work can be more efficient than individual work.\n\n3. Give examples of at least two problems that need to be worked out when a task is performed by a group.\n\n **Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**4.2 Working in a Group**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nEach student will be assigned to work on a given task as part of a group. After the activity is completed, you will discuss and answer some questions about the activity. Fill out the following required information below before you begin.\n\n#  **4.3 Working Toward a Common Goal**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify the importance of using strengths of self and others in working on completion of a common goal.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nIn this lesson, the entire class is to work on a project. This could be a major project, incorporating a lot of time and energy, or a smaller project, completed in one lesson. Students should be aware of using the strengths of each member of the group to efficiently carry out the project.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have each student list on a piece of paper two or three general strengths or skills they possess. These could be athletic, social, or artistic skills, as well as character strengths\u2014organized, smart, patient, and so on.\n\n2. On the same paper, have students classify themselves as someone who enjoys being in charge (leading others), or likes carrying out assigned jobs (following instructions from others), or who prefers to work independently. Students may have characteristics of more than one group, but try to have them narrow it down to their predominant trait.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nInform students that the entire class is going to be working on one project for which they will all be accountable. The project assigned should be something that is large enough for many students to find an opportunity to participate. Be sure you have administrative and parental support for your activity! Examples:\n\n\u2022 Design a huge poster for the hallway to promote a school event (school fair, football game, library week, and so on).\n\n\u2022 Organize a school-wide food drive to collect canned goods for a charitable organization.\n\n\u2022 Design and sell T-shirts, bumper stickers, or pinned buttons with a school motto or logo on it.\n\n\u2022 Challenge another class to a _Jeopardy_ -type game dealing with information on a certain subject (history, geography, spelling words, and so on).\n\n\u2022 Organize an auction in which people donate items to be bid on to raise money for the local animal shelter.\n\nHave students complete the worksheet \"Working Toward a Common Goal \" with information supplied about the project that they will be doing. Encourage them to use the strengths and resources of the members of the class when organizing the project. Also, have them use ideas and lessons learned from the project in Lesson 4.2 (Working in a Group) to include everyone in the project.\n\n_Materials:_ Will vary depending on the project.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nAfter the project is completed, have students discuss the questions on the worksheet and the following questions:\n\n1. When you first began the project, how did you feel about doing it?\n\n2. Now that you are finished, are you disappointed in the results or happy?\n\n3. How did the class organize this task?\n\n4. Were the individual strengths of the members of the class used to full advantage? How?\n\n5. Was the project successful?\n\n6. Did you choose a leader?\n\n7. What would you change if you did this project again?\n\n8. Did you like having one grade for everyone or did it seem unfair?\n\n9. How did members of the class help each other?\n\n10. What did you learn from this activity?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. For one week, have students work cooperatively on all assignments, knowing that they will be given one grade. After a week, evaluate the pros and cons of this type of structure.\n\n2. Have students come up with a pool of project ideas and select a second class project to work on. Allow students to design, plan, carry out, and evaluate the project. Look for use of individual strengths and more efficient work.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Name two projects that can efficiently be completed as a large group.\n\n2. List two personal strengths you can contribute to a large group project.\n\n **Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**4.3 Working Toward a Common Goal**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nYou will be working on a class project. All students will be expected to participate and all will be given one grade\u2014the SAME grade for everyone. Complete the following information about your class project. After you are done with the project, you will be asked to discuss the activity.\n\n#  **4.4 Being Friendly**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify ways to show friendliness to others, given specific situations.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nNot everyone is naturally friendly and outgoing. But even those of us who tend to be withdrawn and shy can learn to appear friendly to others simply by making the first nonthreatening move or just saying \"hello.\" In this lesson, students are given examples of people who are somewhat approachable and would be good targets on which to practice developing this social skill.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students list three to five people whom they think of as being especially outgoing and friendly. 2. Have students indicate by show of hands whether or not they would be the first one to speak if on the street they passed: (a) a complete stranger; (b) someone they recognized by sight but didn't know his or her name; and (c) someone unknown who looked grumpy or distressed.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to draw or write their responses to examples on the worksheet \"Being Friendly\" in which a person could easily demonstrate initiating friendliness. _Answers (Examples):_ 1. You could ask if the puppy is friendly and remark about how cute it is. 2. You could smile at the girls and say \"Hi.\" 3. You could ask the man if he's in a hurry and would like to go in front of you. 4. You could go up to your teacher and ask if he or she remembers you. 5. You could offer to take your cousin outside to play catch. 6. You could just say \"hello\" if he is busy, or ask for an autograph if it seems he is happy to have the attention!\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nHave students compare their ideas to these situations.\n\n1. Do you like it when people who are friendly approach you and begin talking to you, or are you distrustful? 2. Do you think some people would rather be left alone than talked to? (For example, the man in the grocery line.) How would you be able to tell whether or not someone would be approachable? 3. If the famous person in situation 6 looked as though he just wanted to go shopping, how could you show friendliness without being annoying? 4. Do you think young children in particular are taught to avoid strangers, especially ones who try to appear overly friendly? 5. Do you think the expression \"Have a nice day\" is overused and empty of feeling? What friendly expression might you use instead?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students make an assignment for themselves: to demonstrate or initiate a friendly behavior toward someone every day for a week. Have them record what they did, how they felt about it, and how the person reacted. Does it get easier with practice? 2. Designate one person in your classroom each day to stand outside the classroom and greet every person who enters the class. This greeting could consist of a simple hello, shaking of hands, pat on the back, or whatever seems appropriate. How do students feel when they know they are going to be met with a greeting (ideally, a sincere one) before class each day? How does it feel to be the greeter?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Give two examples of friendly, nonthreatening comments that you could make to anyone in any type of social situation. 2. Give the name of someone whom you consider to be a friendly individual and explain why you think this.\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**4.4 Being Friendly**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nHow might you show friendliness in each of these situations?\n\n1. You are walking along the sidewalk and pass a woman who is walking an unusual little white puppy.\n\n2. You are sitting in the park, reading a book, when two little girls go by, laughing, skipping and hopping.\n\n3. You are standing in a very long line at the food store ahead of an eldery man who has two items in his cart.\n\n4. You are at a party with people from your neighborhood and see your first-grade teacher.\n\n5. You are at a family reunion (borrrrrring) and notice that your younger cousin looks just as miserable as you are.\n\n6. You are at the shopping mall when you notice the quarterback from your favorite professional football team walking around with his wife and children.\n\n#  **4.5 Helping Others**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify appropriate ways to assist others in given situations.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nIt is a nice idea to think we can always be helpful to others; however, it is important to be cautious as well. There are some situations in which we are unable to help and indeed, should not even attempt to dabble in something beyond our skills (car accidents, dangerous situations, and so on). In this lesson, students are to evaluate the given situations and decide what type of assistance is needed and who should provide that assistance.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students raise their hands if they would give a stranger verbal directions for how to get to the post office.\n\n2. Have students raise their hands if they would draw a map for someone who wanted to get to the post office.\n\n3. Have students raise their hands if they would allow a stranger to follow them while they were riding a bike to show that person how to get to the post office.\n\n4. Have students raise their hands if they would get in the car with a stranger who wanted to know how to get to the post office.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nThere are different levels of involvement regarding how far someone will\u2014or should\u2014go to provide help for another person. On the worksheet \"Helping Others,\" the student is to indicate what level of help he or she thinks is appropriate for the situations given. #1 indicates that the student would directly help the person; #2 indicates that he or she would find someone else to help; and #3 indicates that he or she would not become involved in the activity at all. Inform students that they are to select only one of the options. Their choices will be discussed.\n\n_Answers (Examples):_\n\n1. #2\u2014call 911.\n\n2. #2\u2014call a gas station if it looks like he needs help; he may be fine by himself.\n\n3. #1\u2014chase the dog away.\n\n4. #2\u2014offer to call someone for him.\n\n5. #1\u2014if you know how to do algebra!\n\n6. #2\u2014recommend a good French tutor.\n\n7. #2\u2014encourage him to talk to the school counselor.\n\n8. #2\u2014call a lifeguard if one is close by unless you know water safety.\n\n9. #3\u2014your help will probably not be necessary if the door swings open automatically.\n\n10. #1\u2014help her out.\n\n11. #2\u2014get a salesperson to help.\n\n12. #2\u2014encourage him to talk to someone; it sounds like there's trouble involved.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nAlthough there is room for individual variations, probably most of the students will agree on the majority of the situations. Ask for their thinking on each.\n\n1. How is situation 1 different from situation 2?\n\n2. How would you handle situation 4 if your parents were home?\n\n3. How would you handle situation 4 if you were home alone and it was night?\n\n4. How are situations 10 and 11 alike and different?\n\n5. Were there many people who used response #3 (avoid the situation entirely) for any of the situations? Do you think most people want to help others, even if it is just by referral?\n\n6. Can you think of examples of #3-type situations that probably should be avoided?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Make a directory of agencies, people, and local social services that can be used as a referral resource for several types of problems. What community services are there for helping students who are having financial, social, parental, drug, or school problems?\n\n2. Interview your school counselor. Find out what types of referrals he or she deals with and what kinds of advice he or she would give for situations such as dealing with kids who are experiencing school and home problems.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Give two examples of situations in which you could provide direct assistance to help someone else.\n\n2. Give two examples of situations in which you could refer a person with a problem to someone else.\n\n3. Give two examples of situations in which you should not become involved.\n\n **Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**4.5 Helping Others**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nRead the following situations. In the space provided, write: #1 if you would provide direct assistance, #2 if you would refer the person to someone or something else for help, #3 if you would avoid the situation entirely.\n\n__ 1. At night, you pass a car accident in which a woman is injured and bleeding.\n\n__ 2. You pass a car that is by the side of the road with a flat tire. A man is outside on the highway pulling out the jack from the trunk.\n\n__ 3. You and your little sister are walking through the park when a large dog runs up and begins to chase her.\n\n **__** 4. An unfamiliar man comes to your door and knocks. You open the door and he says he has car trouble and wants to use your phone.\n\n__ 5. A friend calls and doesn't know how to do his algebra homework.\n\n__ 6. A friend of a friend calls and needs help translating a paper from English to French.\n\n__ 7. A friend is thinking of running away from home because he can't get along with his parents.\n\n__ 8. You are swimming in the pool at the neighborhood park and see a little kid who looks like he is drowning.\n\n__ 9. A man in a wheelchair is approaching the door to the grocery store. You are several feet behind him.\n\n__ 10. In the grocery store, an elderly woman is trying to reach a box of cereal on a high shelf.\n\n__ 11. In a sporting goods store, a young boy is trying to reach a bowling ball on a high shelf.\n\n__ 12. Your best friend calls and says that he or she needs a lot of money in a hurry and begs you not to ask any questions.\n\n#  **4.6 What Is a Mood?**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify five to ten different moods\/emotional states.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nWe sometimes group people into \"good\" moods or \"bad\" moods, when there are actually many different emotional states in between. Technically, a mood is an emotional state that lasts for a length of time such as hours or days, whereas emotions (especially in teens) can fluctuate frequently. For the purposes of these worksheets and discussion, we will treat \"mood\" as an emotional state that typifies a person for at least a specific length of time that is long enough to cause attention or warrant the label.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students list as many types of moods as they can think of\u2014try starting with \"a\" (amused, annoyed) and go as far as you can!\n\n2. Good mood\/bad mood: Have students write examples on the board of things or situations that would \"put them\" in a good or bad mood.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nUsing the worksheet \"What Is a Mood?\" have students give an example by writing, drawing, or orally stating someone who is showing the moods on the activity sheet.\n\n_Answers:_ Will vary.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nThere are many types of emotions and many reasons why someone would feel that emotion for a prolonged length of time. As you discuss the moods, look for specific examples that will help convey each mood.\n\n1. If you were going to label these moods simply Good\/Bad, which side would you put them on? (Perhaps 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, and 10 would be \"bad,\" and 3, 5, and 9 would be \"good.\")\n\n2. Are some moods something other than good\/bad? Are there neutral moods?\n\n3. Do you have some really good examples for some of the moods? Share.\n\n4. Could being in a \"bad\" mood lead to something good? Explain. (Maybe being confused could lead to understanding; being broken-hearted could lead to going out and trying to find new friends; and so on.)\n\n5. What do you think it means to be a \"moody\" person? Is that good or bad or neutral? (Someone who changes moods a lot; could be either.)\n\n6. What kind of mood do you think describes you most of the time?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. If students are computer-savvy they probably already know about emoticons\u2014little faces or pictures that can be downloaded to express an emotion. One website is www.aeddemotions.com\/emotions.html. Or this site uses only variations of smiley faces: www.instantsmileys.com. This site uses the keyboard to express emotions, including blowing a kiss, winking, pouting, yawning, and others: www.livejournal.com\/moodlists.bml.\n\n2. A word of caution: some sites also provide easy access to adult-themed emoticons and some that are just not polite!\n\n3. Mood rings used to be popular in the late 1970s. Assign a group of students the topic of researching this fad and discover the fun and science of how a mood ring works. Check out www.howstuffworks.com\/question443.htm.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List five to ten (teacher specifies) different moods and give an example of each.\n\n2. Write a paragraph telling about a time when you experienced one of the moods you listed in (1).\n\n **Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**4.6 What Is a Mood?**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nGive an example of someone showing the following moods:\n\n1. Stressed\n\n2. Broken-hearted\n\n3. Amused\n\n4. Distressed\n\n5. Creative\n\n6. Confused\n\n7. Bored\n\n8. Sarcastic\n\n9. Cheerful\n\n10. Annoyed\n\n#  **4.7 Noticing the Moods of Others**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify a specific mood of a character when given written and facial clues.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nSometimes teens (or all of us, at one time) are so wrapped up in their own emotional state that they do not notice the moods of others. Noticing and then correctly identifying someone else's mood is a good social clue as to whether or not this is a good time to ask for something, offer to help out, stay away, or join in the fun. In this lesson, students are given some examples of a person who is in a specific mood.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students think of a movie or TV character who is a good example of someone who is usually in a good mood, bad mood, sad mood, or other type of mood. 2. Have students take turns (on a volunteer basis) demonstrating a mood with only facial cues or by using body language (such as crossing arms, pouting, tapping foot).\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to use the worksheet \"Noticing the Moods of Others\" to match people with an appropriate mood. _Answers:_ 1.b 2.e 3.a 4.d 5.c\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nAfter students have completed the worksheet, they can discuss the following questions:\n\n1. In example 1, the boy is frustrated. Does this mean he is also angry? (Not necessarily.) 2. What would be a solution to help the boy change to a better mood? (Ask for help on his math problem.) 3. In example 2, the girl is bored. What is an alternative for her to get out of her bored mood? (Find something else to do, invite a friend over, read a book.) 4. In example 3, the girl is excited. What clues did you pick up on? (Facial excitement, tone of voice, hands waving.) 5. In example 4, the boy is angry. Do you think he is always in an angry mood or is this because of the situation? (This situation triggered angry behavior\u2014we would need to know him a little better to know whether he is an angry person in general or just set off because of this situation.) 6. In example 5, the girl is happy. What is the specific reason? (She got a present from her parents.) 7. Can you think of people who always seem to be in a good mood? What does it feel like to be around them? How do you think they would explain their good mood? 8. When something specifically good or bad happens to you, how does that affect your mood? (Can throw you into a good or bad mood temporarily, but you can bounce back to your normal mood.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students make a small chart with several moods listed (such as happy, bored, silly, amused, stressed) and observe others who seem to be expressing that mood. Jot down the circumstances that might be contributing to that mood. 2. Have students look for examples in books, short stories, or other written examples that have a character clearly expressing a mood. Share how the author uses words to depict a mood clearly.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nWhat mood do you think each of these people might be experiencing?\n\n1. A person with tears on her face, mouth trembling. _____ (sadness) 2. A person yawning, drumming fingers on a table. _____ (boredom) 3. A person rolling on the floor, laughing and playing with a dog. _____ (happy)\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**4.7 Noticing the Moods of Others**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nMatch the person on the left with the mood he or she is in from the choices on the right. Write the letter next to each person.\n\n__ 1. Dang it! I can never get these numbers to add up right!\n\na. Excited\n\n__ 2. Ho, hum. I've seen this show at least twenty times already.\n\nb. Frustrated\n\n__ 3. I can't WAIT 'til you come over!! Can you hurry??? Please hurry!\n\nc. Happy\n\n__ 4. When I find out who spilled coffee on my research report, there will be some screaming going on around here and it won't be me!\n\nd. Angry\n\n__ 5. I just had the best day! My parents gave me a gift card for some new jeans.\n\ne. Bored\n\n#  **4.8 How My Mood Affects Others**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will state how one person's mood might affect another person.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nFor better or worse, our moods affect other people around us. If I am in a really bad mood, my students know to be quiet and give me some room. If I am cheerful and silly, my students are more likely to open up, talk more, and feel relaxed. It is important for students to have the awareness of how their mood affects others\u2014positively and negatively.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students to give feedback as to how they know their parent's, teacher's, or sibling's mood first thing in the morning. What are some clues? 2. Role-play a situation in which you (the teacher) enter the classroom in each of several moods. Discuss how that affects the students' first impression of how the day is going to go.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to complete the worksheet \"How My Mood Affects Others\" by identifying the mood of a person and a typical response to that mood. _Answers (Examples):_ 1. happy \/ happy also 2. frustrated \/ angry 3. grieving, sad \/ annoyed\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nHow we feel and show our emotions can and does affect how others feel. We can't control things around us, but we can try to control our moods, especially as they affect other people.\n\n1. In example 1, Theo shared his happiness with a friend. How would Theo have felt if Mike didn't want to come over or said that his aunt sent him a lot more than $50 on _his_ birthday? (Happiness buster!) 2. In example 2, Angel's bad mood was brought on by oversleeping. How else could she have handled this situation with her brother? Could her brother have done anything different to help Angel's mood? 3. In example 3, Stefano was grieving over his dog. Have you ever felt the loss of a pet or a friend? Has this sadness been misinterpreted by others? Did anything help to make you feel better?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Ask for volunteers to role-play two-person situations in which Person A is in a specific mood (list the choices and have students pick them at random). Have Person B participate in the role-play and (a) just listen without giving feedback, then (b) try to interact with Person A to join in a good mood or lessen the bad mood. 2. Finish the story: Give students a scenario for the beginning of a story (for example, invited to a party, hiking in the woods, participating in a play) and have them finish it with alternate endings. In one, for example, the narrator is in a crazy\/sad\/happy\/ sarcastic mood. Complete the story, staying true to the mood. Compare endings.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. How could a person in this mood affect someone else in a positive way? (Being patient while waiting in a long line to buy something.) 2. How could a person in this mood affect someone else in a negative way? (Being sarcastic while at the tryouts for a cheerleading squad.)\n\n**Name** _____ **Date _____**\n\n**4.8 How My Mood Affects Others**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nRead each of the following stories. Identify the mood, then write a short answer that describes how the first person's mood affected the other person or people.\n\n1. Theo got a birthday card from his aunt with a $50 bill inside it. He began to dance around the room! He called his friend Mike and invited him to go out for pizza, Theo's treat. Mike said he would be over in two minutes.\n\n2. Angel overslept on the day of a big math test at school. She ran downstairs, pushing her brother, Tom, out of the way as she grabbed some lunch meat out of the refrigerator. \"Hey!\" yelled her brother. \"That was for my lunch!\" \"Too bad,\" yelled Angela. \"You are out of luck today! Now, _move_!\" Tom threw a banana at her as she dashed out of the house.\n\n3. Stefano had to take the old family dog to the vet to be euthanized. He didn't want people to notice that he had been crying. When Sandra asked him if he wanted to help out on a school project, he said no and walked away. Sandra told the other friends in their group that Stefano was acting really weird and that they should stay away from him because he was in a bad mood.\n\n**Chapter 5**\n\n**Friendship Skills**\n\n#  **5.1 My Peer Groups**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will define and give examples of members of a peer group.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nPeers have a tremendous influence over children, particularly as they enter adolescence. It is important for students to recognize that they are part of larger social groups and that these groups can and will affect them. In this lesson, students are to think about what people compose their peer groups.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students list five or six of their closest friends. 2. Have students add to that list by including people with whom they spend a lot of time (because of the activity), though they may not necessarily be \"friends\" with them. 3. Define _peer_ for students. (Someone who is equal to another person, either in social standing or because he or she is in the same age group or has the same status.)\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nEach student will think of peers who have something in common with him or her, such as family background, interests, or school activities. _Answers:_ Will vary.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nBe aware that some students may be perceived as low status or outcasts within the group. You may not want to have students reveal the names they put on their worksheets. What is important is that each student is aware of his or her peer group(s).\n\n1. Did you tend to write names of people who are the same age as you? 2. Except for item 3, did you tend to write names of people who are the same sex as you? 3. Do you consider yourself to be friends with everyone whose name you wrote down, or were there people who are part of your groups but not necessarily someone you were close to? 4. What does this phrase mean: \"a jury of your peers\"? 5. Do you think you would have the same names written if you filled this out ten years from now?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Make a banner or several separate posters of peer groups within the school. Use copies of yearbooks or newspaper photos to get you started (softball team pictures, pep club, and so on). 2. Have students bring in photographs that portray themselves with at least one or two other people. What is the common thread between the people in the photo?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Define _peer_ or _peer group_. 2. Give two examples of someone in your peer group and state why that person is considered to be a peer.\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**5.1 My Peer Groups**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nWrite the name of someone who fits the description of each of the following comments. Try to pick different people for as many as you can.\n\n1. Someone who is the same age as I am:\n\n2. Someone who is interested in the same hobbies as I am:\n\n3. Someone who is the same sex as I am:\n\n4. Someone who gets about the same grades as I do:\n\n5. Someone who works with me or does about the same job as I do:\n\n6. Someone who comes from a family that is a lot like mine:\n\n7. Someone who is on the same team as I am:\n\n8. Someone who feels the same way I do about something very important to me:\n\n#  **5.2 Who Are My Friends?**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will list at least five individuals whom he or she considers to be a friend.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nHaving a good friend can go a long way in terms of having a happy life. Many people are very lucky to have just one good friend. Not everyone needs to be popular, with their cell phone ringing constantly with invitations, to be a part of things. Yet sometimes we overlook the people in our lives who are there for us, who really are the steady friends whom we can count on. In this lesson, students are focusing on identifying people in their lives who are already their friends.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Discuss with students the notion of being \"popular\"\u2014what does that mean? How many friends are needed in order to be popular? 2. Discuss the notion of a \"best friend.\" Is there one certain individual who stands out from the rest, who is a critical person in someone's life? For what reason(s)?\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to identify possible friends who are already in a person's life on the worksheet \"Who Are My Friends?\" _Answers:_ Will vary.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nUsing the worksheets, guide students through a discussion on what people are already established as being friends in their lives.\n\n1. Which of the items on the worksheet were easy for you to complete? 2. Which items were more difficult for you? Why? 3. Do you see any kind of pattern on the list? Are the same names popping up several times on your sheet? 4. When you think about the names on your list, did any of them surprise you? 5. Do you think your name would appear on the list of questions if your friends were to fill out the list? For what categories?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students make a list of their friends. Then, using a target image, have students arrange their friends with the closest friends in the middle of the target. Place the others accordingly. Discuss the idea of best or close friends compared with casual friends A student may have many casual friends, but out of this group there will most likely be one or two who are especially close to the student. 2. Discuss the idea of _age_. How many students have older people on their list as a friend? How many friends are younger than they are? How does this contribute to an interesting array of friends?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List three to five people whom you consider to be your friends. 2. For three of the friends, write a reason why that person is a special friend to you.\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**5.2 Who Are My Friends?**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nRead each description and write a name or names of someone who comes to mind.\n\n1. Someone who makes me laugh\n\n2. Someone I can talk to about school problems\n\n3. Someone I can talk to about family problems\n\n4. Someone who likes to do the same activities as I do (sports, hobbies)\n\n5. Someone who goes to my house of worship\n\n6. Someone who is in a club or organization with me (4-H, scouting, cheerleading).\n\n7. Someone who is friendly to me\n\n8. Someone who calls me or contacts me first\n\n9. Someone who invited me over to their house\n\n10. Someone who invited me to a party or an event\n\n11. Someone who is a good listener when I talk\n\n12. Someone who can keep a secret\n\n13. Someone who makes me feel included in things\n\n14. Someone who buys me things\n\n15. Someone who likes my gifts\n\n#  **5.3 Making Friends**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify three or four ways to initiate a friendship.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nSome students have difficulty making friends. Perhaps they are shy, too loud, or simply try too hard. In this lesson, several ways to initiate a friendship are discussed.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students list two people who have recently become their friends. 2. Have students write the names of two people whom they consider to be friendly.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to examine the ten cartoon situations on the worksheet \"Making Friends\" and evaluate how good a way each is to initiate making friends with someone else. In some cases, \"maybe\" is an appropriate answer. _Answers (Examples):_ 1. No\u2014may be too aggressive. 2. Yes\u2014acting first. 3. Yes\u2014go where people are. 4. No\u2014isolating self. 5. Yes\u2014acting friendly. 6. Yes\u2014being helpful. 7. Yes\u2014acting first. 8. No\u2014critical comment; or Maybe\u2014teasing in a friendly way. 9. Yes\u2014acting first. 10. Yes\u2014being resourceful.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nStudents should be prepared to explain their answers and try to come up with some general ideas for making friends, such as: look and act friendly toward others, include others, be available, go where other people are, and make the first move.\n\n1. Which of the ways on the worksheet would you try? 2. Which of the students on the worksheet would you find irritating or offensive? 3. When is the last time you picked out someone whom you would like for a friend? How did you become friends? 4. Is it harder to initiate friendships with someone of the opposite sex? 5. If you are basically a shy person, what are some quiet ways you could initiate talking or contact with someone else?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students target someone whom they would like to befriend. Have them practice friendship-making skills to initiate contact with the person. Keep a journal of progress! 2. By secret ballot, have students write the names of three people in the class, school, or group who they consider to be good at making friends. Analyze why these people are friendly.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List three good ways someone could initiate a friendship with another person. 2. List one way that would probably not be a good way to make friends with someone else and explain why.\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**5.3 Making Friends**\n\n**Directions:** Read each situation and decide whether it is or is not a good way to approach someone to initiate a friendship. Write YES, NO, or MAYBE next to each item. Be prepared to explain your answers!\n\n#  **5.4 People Who Are Like You**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will find something in common with the descriptions of two individuals who are friends.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nOne way to make friends is to hang around with people who are similar to you. At least you know there will be some kind of common interest. Encourage students to think about ways that they are like other people. These similarities can lead to friendship.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Make a Venn diagram with two names for the circles. Choose two students at random in the class. Ask for descriptions of the students in terms of what they like to do, where they live, what they look like, and so on. Emphasize the overlapping area of the diagram as something that they have \"in common.\" 2. Have students pair up and complete a Venn diagram with another person in the classroom. Discuss the common areas.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents will read descriptions of two people on the worksheet \"People Who Are Like You\" and then find what the individuals have in common. They can write or discuss the common areas. _Answers:_ 1. Both enjoy football. 2. Both have an interest in dogs. 3. Both enjoy boats and lakes. 4. Both enjoy winter sports. 5. Both enjoy reading. 6. Both enjoy the outdoors. 7. Both know what it feels like to struggle in school. 8. Both like food.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nFor each of the pairs on the worksheet, there is something in common but also a variation of how they share the enjoyment or struggle that they each feel.\n\n1. In example 1, what could the boys do together that involves football? (Talk about their favorite teams.) 2. In example 2, the girls both enjoy something with dogs, but their interests are different\u2014one wants to be directly involved and the other enjoys drawing. Yet how can their common interest bring them together as friends? (They can talk about the different breeds, what makes them laugh when watching them.) 3. For the other examples, how does a common interest show up in a different way? 4. In example 7, the boys have something in common\u2014they are both having trouble in school. How can that common struggle draw them together? (They both know what it's like, might need tutoring, perhaps can help each other with their strengths.) 5. Do you think any two people can find something in common with each other?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students make a Venn diagram for themselves and several of their friends. What areas overlap? 2. Have students ask others who know them to give a brief description of what they (the students) are like; perhaps a \"Top Three list\" of what traits or interests best describe them. Have the students compare the list provided by several different people and discover which trait(s) are most obvious to others. Any surprises?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nWhat do these individuals have in common? 1. Mike likes to roller skate; Jenna likes to skateboard. 2. Anna used to live in Paris, France, while her parents worked over there. Janelle has always wanted to learn to speak a foreign language.\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**5.4 People Who Are Like You**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nRead the following descriptions and find something that the people have in common.\n\n1. Eric loves to watch professional football. Jerris likes to play football, but he doesn't really like to watch teams play.\n\n2. Amy loves dogs; in fact, she volunteers at the local animal shelter. Her friend Cami is allergic to most dogs, but she is a good artist and draws pictures of dogs and other animals.\n\n3. Mark has always wanted to go sailing, but there are no lakes near him. Derrick lives on a lake and has a rowboat and a canoe.\n\n4. Denise ice skates in the winter. Alyson can't skate at all, but she loves to go tobogganing down the biggest hills in the park.\n\n5. A perfect day for Alex is to sit in a comfortable chair and read a good book about cowboys and the Old West. Tina can spend hours reading mystery books.\n\n6. Jenni just got a twelve-speed bike and can't wait to go biking. Karlie loves to run outside and likes to keep in shape for the cross-country team.\n\n7. Benny is struggling to keep up in his math class. It just seems so hard! Juan doesn't have any trouble in math, but he is failing his English class.\n\n8. Robert's family is Italian and they make the best lasagna! Serena is from Mexico, and she loves any kind of food with cheese on it.\n\n#  **5.5 People Who Are Different from You**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will list three to five ways in which people can significantly differ from each other.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nIn these days of celebrating cultural diversity, it is apparent that even small details of one 's life are scrutinized for political correctness. Although this can be carried to annoying extremes, the underlying theme of getting to know someone, including their differences, is still a valid task. It really is important to understand where someone is coming from in terms of their cultural background, opinions, upbringing, and choices.\n\nIn this lesson, a few differences are highlighted.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Talk about how different cultures celebrate holidays. There are so many to choose from\u2014perhaps Hanukkah, Martin Luther King Jr.'s birthday, Kwanzaa, and May Day are a few that would spark some discussion. If appropriate, open it up to a discussion about religious celebrations.\n\n2. Have students offer to share how to say a common greeting or count to ten in a foreign language. How many different languages are students familiar with?\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are directed to think about ways in which people can differ in terms of activities, language, ethnicity, family, and how they spend time on weekends on the worksheet \"People Who Are Different from You.\"\n\n_Answers:_ Will vary.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nPeople differ in many ways other than ethnicity, although that is probably one of the most prominent themes. Encourage students to realize that differences are a good thing\u2014diversity is what keeps things interesting at the very least!\n\n1. What are some examples of different things that your friends like to do? Why is it important to try some new things? (Expand your horizons, you might find a new activity for yourself.)\n\n2. What are your experiences with someone who speaks a different language from you?\n\n3. How might it be difficult to speak one language at school and another at home?\n\n4. How might it be helpful to know two languages?\n\n5. What do you know about your own ethnic background?\n\n6. What are some things you find interesting about a different ethnic background?\n\n7. Can you name any famous people who are from a certain country?\n\n8. Have you ever wished that your family was different in some way? How?\n\n9. What are some good things about knowing people who are very different from you?\n\n10. Do you think that you have learned something new about a different culture, religion, or philosophy in the last few years? Explain.\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Invite a guest speaker from another country to visit the class and talk about customs, cultural differences, language, traditions, and any other topics that are appropriate. Allow a question-and-answer time for students to find out more about another country.\n\n2. Encourage interested students to find a pen-pal (or \"e-pal\") from another country. Two sites that may be helpful are www.epals.com and www.studentsoftheworld.info (a French-based site, but in English).\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List three ways that people can be different from each other in terms of this activity.\n\n2. Write a paragraph describing one of the ways that you and a friend are different and how that difference helps your friendship.\n\n **Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**5.5 People Who Are Different from You**\n\n**Directions:** Here are some ways in which a person can differ from you. Write down the name of someone you know who fits the description.\n\n**Favorite things to do:**\n\n#  **5.6 Where and How to Look for Friends**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify several examples of where or how he or she could find an opportunity to make a friend.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nSpecial needs teens may find it difficult to start up friendships. Although we try to group them and encourage them to participate in all kinds of activities, it does take a certain chemistry to find people who really get along with and actually like each other! By intentionally identifying some ways to search for friends (using common interests, sharing experiences), the student may increase the chances of being in the right place for a friendship to start.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students to list some places that they like to go to hang out with friends. (Shopping center, arcade, movies, and so on.) Why are these good places to get to know someone?\n\n2. Go through the list and have students give ideas for how they could make a new friend or meet someone at each of the places. Sometimes having a friend introduce or include new people in a group is a good way to enlarge the social circle.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to read conversations between people on the worksheet \"Where and How to Look for Friends\" and try to figure out how they became friends.\n\n##  **Answers:**\n\n1. The girls share an interest in horses at the stable.\n\n2. The boys play football on a team.\n\n3. The kids worked together on a science fair project.\n\n4. The girls didn't want to swim but will try another activity.\n\n5. The kids both take their dogs for training.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nBeing in the right place at the right time can help someone find friendship with people who share an interest, problem, or situation. Encourage students to \"think big\" to come up with places and opportunities to meet others.\n\n1. In example 1, the girls share an interest in horses. How could this start a friendship? (They could ride together, share chores.)\n\n2. In example 2, the boys are on a team together. What are some other teams that are available in our area or at our school?\n\n3. In example 3, the kids were working together and became friends that way. Who has any other examples of working with someone on a project?\n\n4. In example 4, the girls did _not_ like the activity they were doing together, but one suggested an alternative. So even an unpleasant activity led to something better. Has this ever happened to you or someone you know?\n\n5. In example 5, how did the dogs serve as a starting point for starting a conversation? How would that make it easy to talk to someone? (Dogs are appealing to many people\u2014good conversation starters!)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Encourage your class to take part in activities with older or younger groups of people in your community. Assisted-living facilities often welcome this age group to come and befriend older adults who may be looking for friendship as well. If appropriate, cross-age tutoring or being a buddy to a younger child within a school can also serve to let the student be a role model and friend to someone in need.\n\n2. Get a copy of your community's local paper and have students identify possible activities that are open to the public throughout the week. This might include activities at the library, special events, community parties, and so on.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List three places or activities that would be good places to find a friend.\n\n2. Think about one of your friends and how you first met. Write a few sentences that explain how your friendship started.\n\n **Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**5.6 Where and How to Look for Friends**\n\n**Directions:** Read the following conversations between characters and try to determine how they became friends. Write your answers on the lines.\n\n1. \"I started taking riding lessons at Paradise Riding Center.\" \"I love horses! I couldn't wait to get a job working at the stable!\"\n\n2. \"Here\u2014try to catch the football! \" \"Got it! See you at practice later.\"\n\n3. \"We had so much fun working on the science fair!\" \"Let's try to be partners for the Math-a-Thon planning committee.\"\n\n4. \"I am only taking swimming lessons because Mother thinks I'm going to drown in the bathtub. I hate swimming.\" \"Me too. I would rather go bowling. Why don't we go to the alley after the lesson next week?\"\n\n5. \"Down, Ginger! She hasn't passed her obedience class yet!\" \"What a beautiful dog! This dog training class is fun, isn't it?\"\n\n#  **5.7 Qualities of a Good Friend**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify several qualities he or she feels are important in a friendship.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nMany different qualities may draw friends together. Some are based on being thrown together in a time of crisis, having mutual interests, geographical convenience, or simply just enjoying the company of another person. In this lesson, students are to analyze qualities they feel are important in a friendship.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students volunteer to tell about a particularly good experience they had with a friend.\n\n2. Have students volunteer to tell about how a friend helped them through a difficult time.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to read over the list of suggested qualities on the worksheet \"Qualities of a Good Friend\" and rank from 1 to 5 (1 is the highest) those they feel are most important. They can add qualities to the list.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nYou may want to take a quick class survey to find out which were the top three qualities selected. Be sure to ask which additional qualities were added to the list.\n\n1. Why did you select the qualities that you did? Did you have a particular experience or reason?\n\n2. Which did you think was the single most important quality?\n\n3. Do you think you also possess that single most important quality in being a friend toward others?\n\n4. Are you as good a friend to others as you expect others to be to you?\n\n5. How long do you think someone possesses these qualities (for example, is really loyal, trustworthy)?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Look for anecdotes of true friendship in books, newspapers, magazine stories, and so on (for example, a young man had cancer and lost his hair, so all of his close friends shaved their heads). What quality does it show as being important?\n\n2. Target a friend and do something special to thank that friend for his or her special quality.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List three qualities you think are important in a friendship.\n\n2. Explain which of those qualities is the most important to you. Why?\n\n **Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**5.7 Qualities of a Good Friend**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nWhich of these qualities do you think is important in a friendship? Rank each item from 1 to 5 (1 = most important). Feel free to add your own ideas.\n\n\u2022 Is popular **_____**\n\n\u2022 Has money _____\n\n\u2022 Is a good listener _____\n\n\u2022 Can be trusted with secrets _____\n\n\u2022 Doesn't talk behind your back _____\n\n\u2022 Is usually happy _____\n\n\u2022 Is a good student _____\n\n\u2022 Gets lots of attention _____\n\n\u2022 Is funny _____\n\n\u2022 Has good ideas for things to do _____\n\n\u2022 Is interesting _____\n\n\u2022 Understands how you feel _____\n\n\u2022 Is respected by other people _____\n\n\u2022 Is good at sports_____\n\n\u2022 Comes through in a crisis _____\n\n\u2022 Is loyal\u2014keeps on being your friend even when you' re not around _____\n\n#  **5.8 Social Situations**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify several social situations that are personally comfortable or uncomfortable for him or her and explain why.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nOne way to make (and perfect) friendships is by spending time in social situations. Our comfort level differs, depending on what those situations are. Some students may enjoy dancing, while others fear it as a horrible situation. In this lesson, students are to think about social situations they enjoy and those they may find uncomfortable.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students volunteer to tell about a situation involving other people in which they felt embarrassed or awkward. 2. Have students volunteer to tell about a situation involving other people in which they felt comfortable and possibly proud of themselves.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are given examples of ten social situations on the worksheet \"Social Situations.\" They are to indicate which make them comfortable, uncomfortable, or neither. The situations are smoking, dancing, playing cards, talking about sports, eating, talking about a controversial topic, talking positively about someone else, talking negatively about someone else, drinking, playing sports.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nBe sure each student understands the context of each picture. There are no \"right\" or \"wrong\" answers; each student will respond according to his or her own comfort level.\n\n1. Which situations would make you feel uncomfortable? Why? 2. In which situations would you feel quite comfortable or even look forward to participating? 3. Did you feel \"neutral\" about any of the situations? 4. What do your answers reveal about you? (Think of yourself as a risk-taker, enjoy sports, and so on.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Write about your most embarrassing moment. Who was around? How did you handle it? What do you think people thought about you? Does it seem funny now? 2. The next time you are at a party or social gathering, observe the people around you. Pick out someone who seems to be very social and try to decide what qualities it is about him or her that make the situation fun for him or her. Is the person outgoing? A good listener? Does he or she move around a lot to talk to many different people? Observe!\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List two social situations in which you feel very comfortable. 2. List two social situations that make you feel uneasy, nervous, or bored.\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**5.8Social Situations**\n\n**Directions:** Here are ten social situations in which people are involved in a lot of different activities. Circle those that show situations in which you would feel comfortable. Put an X on those in which you would feel uncomfortable. Leave alone those in which you would not particularly feel one way or the other.\n\n#  **5.9 A Positive Role Model**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify a personal positive role model and give at least one reason why this person was selected.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nIt is important to have someone to look up to\u2014to admire and to emulate. Part of growing up is modeling oneself after other people. If students can relate to someone who is a positive influence (for whatever reason), this can help them aspire to try to develop the same positive traits in themselves.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students write the name of a peer whom they admire or wish they could be like. 2. Have students write the name of someone else whom they admire, but there are no restrictions\u2014this could be anyone. 3. Have students write the name of an adult whom they admire.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nOn the worksheet \"A Positive Role Model,\" students are to pretend they are one of the people they selected as a role model and describe what a typical day would be like for them as this person. Some students may insist on selecting someone whom you may not think of as a \"positive\" person; however, encourage students to pick someone who in some way has a redeeming quality! Allow students to really exaggerate the details in their writing. This may help them use their imaginations and have some fun with the project. (You may want to provide parameters on the role model\u2014living or dead, fictional or real-life person, and so on.)\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nHave students share who they selected as their role model. Ask for volunteers to read their entries if they desire. The bottom line in this activity is for students to identify what it is about their role model that makes that person a positive influence on them.\n\n1. Who did you select for your role model? 2. What positive characteristic about this role model did you focus on? 3. Do you think you could really be like this person in some way? Is the characteristic you like really attainable for you? 4. Do you admire this person because he or she is somewhat like you or because he or she is different in some way from you? 5. Did you pick someone who is the same sex as you? 6. Did you pick someone with the same abilities (artistic, athletic, and so on) as you, only more pronounced or professional? What does this indicate about you?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Write a letter to a famous role model. What would you like to find out about him or her? 2. Read a book or magazine that contains information about your role model. What has he or she done that you admire? What background information did you find out that interested or surprised you? 3. Conduct an informal survey of your class or other group. Who are popular role models among these groups? Try to predict\u2014Movie star? Musician? Athlete? Why?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Identify a person who is a positive role model for you. 2. Give at least one reason why this person is a positive influence.\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**5.9 A Positive Role Model**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nYou have just turned into your positive role model. Describe a typical day in your life. Ideas: What will you wear? What will you do today? Who will you talk to? How will people respond to you? Will you do anything surprising? (Use the back of this sheet if you need more space to write.)\n\n#  **5.10 What About Gangs?**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will define and give examples of membership in an organized gang.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nStudents are exposed all too soon to the influence of gangs. Some are part of the \"wannabes\" and do not realize the danger they are putting themselves in. Though students may view gang membership as powerful or prestigious, there are serious social and criminal consequences linked to gang activity. This lesson is primarily for discussion of students' perceptions, experiences with, and decisions about gangs.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Define _gang_ for students. (A group of people associated together whose activities are primarily antisocial and delinquent.) 2. Have students list characteristics of gangs in general. (Wearing a certain color, special hand signals, signs, and so on.)\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nThe student will read some comments about gangs and decide whether he or she agrees or disagrees with the statement. Some of the statements are facts; others are opinions.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nStudents may have had some exposure to or experience with gangs in your community. Some may act like it is \"cool\" to be part of a gang and will disagree with the comments on the worksheet. At your discretion, you may want to have students share their anecdotes about gangs. Be prepared to back up your opinion!\n\n1. What do you think are the good things a gang can offer a member? (Belonging, safety against others, and so on.) 2. Can these good things be gotten in other ways? How? (Join a different group.) 3. Do you think most kids who act like they are in a gang are truly gang members or are they \"wannabes\"? What's the difference? 4. What consequences are there to committing a crime? 5. What crimes are organized gang members often guilty of? (Drive-by shootings, knife fights, theft, and so on.) 6. What would be a way to convince someone to stay out of a gang?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Collect newspaper articles about gang activity. What type of activity is in your area or close to your community? 2. If possible, arrange for an interview with someone who was or is somehow involved in a street gang. (Clear this with your administration first!) Has this been a positive experience for the person?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Define _gang._ 2. Give two examples of positive things that gang membership seems to promise. 3. Give two examples of negative consequences that can occur because of gang membership.\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**5.10 What About Gangs?**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nRead the following comments about gangs. Circle \"agree\" or \"disagree\" to show how you feel about the comment.\n\n1.| There are gangs in my community.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n---|---|---|---  \n2.| Organized gangs in the United States are in the business of crime.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n3.| Gangs have special ways of showing membership, such as wearing a certain color or having a hand signal.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n4.| People who join gangs want to belong to a group.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n5.| Older gang members can recruit others by intimidation or by providing a sense of belonging.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n6.| New members have to go through initiation to join some gangs.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n7.| Once you join a gang, it is difficult to get out.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n8.| People who join gangs have experienced some sort of hardship or abuse as a child.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n9.| Some people act like they are members of a gang, but they are really not.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n10.| Kids join gangs because they want to feel powerful.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n11.| Joining a gang can be dangerous.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n12.| Once you join a gang, you have lost your power to make choices.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**\n\n#  **5.11 Social Networking Online**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will describe the purpose and features of several online sites.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nStudents are becoming increasingly familiar with online sites to make new friends, share information with peers, blog, carry on conversations, and share many aspects of their life. Although many sites are safe and fun, adults should always be careful to know what their children are doing on the computer and to teach them to be careful with what information they share. This site is helpful for safety guidelines for adults: www.onguardonline.gov\/topics\/safety-tips-tweens-teens.aspx.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students to tell you what they know about Facebook or MySpace. Some may have accounts on these or other sites for social networking. 2. Discuss what a blog is and visit several online. 3. Write and visit these websites as a group or in small groups: Facebook, LiveJournal, ePals, Horseland, Flixter. Have students talk about the purpose and features of these sites.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nAfter checking out the sites just listed, have students complete the worksheet \"Social Networking Online\" by selecting an appropriate site for the people on the list. _Answers:_ 1. Facebook 2. Flixter 3. LiveJournal 4. ePals 5. Horseland\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nAfter students have completed the worksheet and have some familiarity with the websites, discuss the features and attractions of the sites.\n\n1. What are some of the things that you like about Facebook? (Can post pictures, can link to many other fun features, easy to add friends.) 2. How is LiveJournal different from Facebook? (It is a blog\/journal, purpose is more to put thoughts into writing than to list social activities.) 3. What are some of the features that you noticed about ePals? (Helps you find people who may have similar interests but live somewhere else, safe e-mail, can join as a class or individually, has projects you can join.) 4. What are some of the features that you noticed about Horseland? (Has levels for younger and older kids, can connect with other horse lovers, games.) 5. What are some of the features that you noticed about Flixter? (Polls, movie reviews, movies online, quizzes.) 6. Why do you think some people enjoy making online friends, even though they might never meet? (Still fun to talk to someone, share interests.) 7. What are some safe sites that you have visited to make friends or share information with people you already know?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Compile a classroom list of favorite sites to visit that are safe, approved, and interesting. Have students fill out an information sheet with features, comments, and opinions about the site. 2. Join ePals.com as a classroom project and connect with another class in another geographical area. Explore!\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List two online sites that are safe and helpful for making friends. 2. Choose one of the sites and describe the features of that site.\n\n**Name** _____ **Date _____**\n\n**5.11 Social Networking Online**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nRead the description of the interests of each of the following people. Then select a site that could be a good computer match for him or her. Write your answer on the lines.\n\n1. Tony likes to keep up with friends on the Internet, but he doesn't like to write very much\u2014mostly he just likes to read about what's going on with them and look at their pictures.\n\n2. Barb loves to go to movies and enjoys chatting with others online about which ones she likes.\n\n3. Amy likes to write about her life. Pretty much every day she wants to tell the world about her thoughts and what she's doing.\n\n4. Frank is interested in learning about what life is like for students in other countries. He has a computer and wants to start corresponding with someone his own age in Portugal.\n\n5. Dolores and her younger sister both enjoy horses. They found a site where there are people to talk to about horses and also games that they can both enjoy.\n\n**Chapter 6**\n\n**Being Part of a Family**\n\n#  **6.1 My Family Tree**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will complete a brief family tree, including siblings, parents, and grandparents.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nIt is interesting to research one's family tree. Through records, interviews with relatives, and perhaps old diaries, one can reconstruct a brief history of the people who helped create us! In this lesson, students are to attempt to research their own family tree, at least for a generation or two back.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Define _genealogy_ for students. (The study of family origins) 2. Define _family tree_ for students. (A chart that lists the names of people in a family, showing the different generations) 3. Have students list names of their siblings, parents, and as many grandparents as they can.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to work on drawing and filling in names for an informal family tree on the worksheet \"My Family Tree.\" Students can get information from parents or other relatives to complete the activity. You may wish to have students complete the chart using their natural parents (if they live with a stepparent). Students may wish to include stepsiblings as brothers and sisters. Decide how you want to have them complete the chart. Be sensitive to students who live in foster homes or who may be adopted.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nIdeally, students will have learned a little about the people on their charts beyond simply noting their names. Allow time for discussion of what anecdotes they learned about the people in their past.\n\n1. Who or what were some good sources for you to complete the chart? 2. What interesting or surprising things did you find out about the people on your chart? 3. How far back were you able to go; that is, how many generations? 4. Were there any common first names among the people in your family tree? Any common characteristics?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Add to your family tree by locating and including pictures of the people on your chart. 2. Write a biography about one of your ancestors. 3. Write a journal for your future grandchildren. Describe to them what your life is like. What is the present technology, food, prices, popular fads, television, and so on? 4. There are several online sites that can help you locate your ancestors through census, military, and vital records. A free site is www.familysearch.org that will get you started; www.ancestry.com requires membership.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Define the word _genealogy._ 2. Define the term _family tree._ 3. Draw a sample family tree showing an individual, one sister, one brother, parents, and two sets of grandparents.\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**6.1 My Family Tree**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nA family tree, or pedigree chart, lists a person's name and the names of his or her parents, grandparents, great-grandparents, and so on. On the back of this sheet, try to complete your own family tree, including brothers and sisters. Get information from your parents or other relatives. You can use the following sample chart to get started.\n\n#  **6.2 Benefits of a Family**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will list at least three ways that members of a family can help or benefit each other.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nIdeally, families provide more than shelter and financial security for each other. The members of a family share living space and problems, but they can also share support, encouragement, happiness, and time. Whatever the student's family situation is like, he or she is a member of a very special group that can be a lifelong benefit. ( _Note:_ Be sensitive to those students who might be in foster care, be adopted, and so on.)\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students to think about what family they wish they could be a part of if they could choose one other than their own. 2. Have students list reasons why they chose that family.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nOn the worksheet \"Benefits of a Family,\" students are to read examples of how particular members of families have helped each other. They are to write the specific reason on the lines. _Answers (Examples):_ 1. Older brother walked her to school. 2. The whole family is saving for a vacation. 3. Older brother helped Bobby improve his football skills. 4. Sister helped Ann get ready for the prom. 5. The whole family worked together to make decisions. 6. The whole family spends a regular time together.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nNo family is ideal; every family has difficulties. But families share many bonds\u2014genetic, lifestyle, experiences, and current events.\n\n1. As kids gets older, why do they sometimes pull away from parents? 2. Do you think siblings of the same sex get along better than opposite-sex siblings? 3. What types of crises might bring a family closer together? 4. What are some activities that families can enjoy doing together? 5. Would you want your own future family to be similar to or different from your family now?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Find out the origins of Mother's Day and Father's Day. What are some creative ways to celebrate and honor these people? 2. Watch and analyze some family situation-comedy shows on television. How have members of the family helped each other or stuck together through problems? 3. A caricature is a cartoon-like drawing of a person emphasizing outstanding features (like wild hair or pointed ears) or interests. Make a family caricature of the members of your own family.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List three needs a family can meet for its members. 2. Write a paragraph describing a time when your family helped you through a crisis.\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**6.2 Benefits of a Family**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nThink about ways family members can help each other. Read each example and write one way the family involved demonstrates how being part of a family can be beneficial.\n\n1. Sally is afraid to go to school because some of the older kids have been teasing her. Her older brother, Frank, has decided to walk to school with her to make sure she gets there safely.\n\n2. The Morgan family wants to travel to Yellowstone National Park for a family vacation. Mr. Morgan is working overtime and the older children are earning money by doing odd jobs. Everyone is putting money into a special account at the bank so they can afford to go.\n\n3. Bobby wants to join the middle school football team. His older brother, Tom, played for several years on the local high school team. Tom is spending weekends helping Bobby learn how to throw and catch the ball.\n\n4. Ann wants to wear something special for the prom. She went through her sister's closet and found just the right dress. Her sister helped her get ready for the big day.\n\n5. When Juan's father died, the entire family grieved for a long time. The family had to make important decisions together and realized that being close was comforting as well as necessary for them.\n\n6. One of the favorite activities for the Johnson family is to rent movies on the weekend, make buttered popcorn, and spend an evening together. No one is allowed to have a friend over, and everyone is expected to be there. The Johnsons find that they really enjoy spending family time together.\n\n#  **6.3 Respecting Authority**\n\n**Objective:** The student will state at least two reasons why it is necessary to respect and obey parental authority.\n\n**Comments:** Older students may find it difficult to follow rules that seem too restrictive or protective. Nevertheless, parents are responsible for the children's actions while they are minors. Rules are necessary for safety, efficiency, and discipline. Rules may change with the age of the child and the amount of responsibility that he or she can handle.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students raise their hands to indicate who they view as the primary source of parental authority in their house: father, mother, other adult, and so on.\n\n2. Have students list specific rules that apply in their families or households.\n\n **Activity:** The student will read several anecdotal paragraphs about a teen and his or her parents and decide whether the teen is showing respect to the parent or not.\n\n_Answers:_ 1. No 2. Yes 3. No 4. No 5. Yes 6. No\n\n**Discussion:** Have students discuss the examples and decide exactly what rule or request was given and then whether or not it was followed.\n\n1. At what age should parents begin to give a child more authority? When should it be fifty-fifty?\n\n2. Are parents responsible to higher authority systems themselves for care of their children?\n\n3. In which of the examples were parents motivated by concerns for the children's safety?\n\n4. What things could the people in the examples have done to try to change what they considered to be unfair rules?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students conduct a survey of their class or grade. What is the curfew time for most ninth graders? Twelfth graders? Girls? Boys?\n\n2. Invite a probation officer or welfare worker to speak to the class about the legal responsibilities of parents for their children.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List two rules that parents or adults in your household expect you to follow\n\n2. List two reasons why it is necessary to obey parental authority.\n\n **Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**6.3 Respecting Authority**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nRead each of the situations. Decide whether or not the main person in the story is showing respect for parental authority or not. Circle YES or NO.\n\n1. Tommy is five years old. His dad tells him not to play with matches. Tommy puts the matches away and gets his dad's cigarette lighter instead and begins to play with that. **YES NO**\n\n2. Amy is in high school. She borrows her mother's car to go to work at the local dry cleaning store on weekends. Her mother needs the car at midnight on weekends to go to her job. Amy is supposed to fill up the car with gas each weekend and have it in by 10 p.m. Amy goes out to a party on Friday night with friends and has the car back at the house by 9:30. She then returns to the party by getting a ride with another friend. **YES NO**\n\n3. Steve is fifteen. He has a curfew of 11 p.m. on weekends and 10 p.m. on school nights. He has been getting C's and D's on his report card, so his parents change the curfew to 9 p.m. every night until his grades improve. Steve thinks the curfew is too early and unfair, so he has been coming in at 10 p.m. on weekends. **YES NO**\n\n4. There have been several robberies and other crimes in Marla's neighborhood over the past few months. Marla's dad decides he is going to pick her up at school and wants her to stay there to wait for him until he can get her. Marla finds this extremely embarrassing, so she tells him that she has a ride with friends and walks home instead. **YES NO**\n\n5. Sally's older sister just found out she is pregnant. Their parents are extremely upset about this. Now Sally's parents refuse to let Sally even go out on a date at all. Sally is angry at her parents and thinks this is unfair. After all, she doesn't even have a serious boyfriend! She sees her friends at school and talks to them on the phone. **YES NO**\n\n6. Robert Smith has been skipping school. The probation department is going to prosecute his father if he doesn't make sure that Robert gets to school every day. Mr. Smith leaves for work at 5 a.m. each morning but wants Robert to call him at work right before he leaves for school at 7:30 a.m. Robert calls, then goes to his friend's house to play video games. **YES NO**\n\n#  **6.4 My Parent's Point of View**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will give a plausible response to a situation from a parental point of view.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nIn general, people respond to a situation from their own viewpoint unless given a reason not to. Teens may not view a situation from a parental point of view simply because they have never been asked to consider that viewpoint. Of course, this assumes that the parent is loving, careful, protective, and truly wants the best for each child. Unfortunately, this is not always the case; however, for this lesson the position of the \"parent\" should be assumed to be one that protects the child.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. List areas in which teens and parents may have differing opinions\u2014think in terms of music, dress, activities, and so on.\n\n2. Have students share short anecdotes in which they differed with their parents, but the parents turned out to be right.\n\n3. Repeat the activity, but ask for examples in which the _student_ turned out to be right.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents get to pretend to be the parent on the worksheet \"My Parent's Point of View\" by responding to situations as a parent.\n\n_Answers (Examples):_\n\n1. You don't have your license yet\u2014it isn't even legal for you to drive.\n\n2. Sorry, but we have a new baby in the family and it's just not a good time.\n\n3. We have had company for two weeks, and not much has been normal in our house.\n\n4. We have a lot going on that week, and you already are committed to doing other things.\n\n5. We want you to learn from our mistakes.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nUse the worksheet to start the discussion of these questions:\n\n1. Think about activities such as the driving in example 1. Why does the boy want to drive so badly? What would you think of the parent if she let him drive and then he had an accident?\n\n2. In example 2, the girl wants a large dog. Besides having a new baby in the family, why would the father tell her no? (Large dogs have special requirements, cost more to feed, maybe someone in the family is allergic.)\n\n3. The teacher in example 3 is concerned about the son. What are some possible reasons that the adult could give? Do you think the teacher was threatening to the mother?\n\n4. The girl is angry in example 4. Why do you think she feels angry at her mother? How else could she have this discussion with her mother?\n\n5. In example 5, the boy wants permission to get into trouble. Do you think the parents care if he does? Even if they were parents who got into trouble as kids, do you think they want their son to have the same issues?\n\n6. For all of these examples, did you write responses that showed parents who cared about their children?\n\n7. What do you think might be hard for a parent when dealing with kids your age?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Role-play the situations on the worksheet and add others as appropriate. Have pairs of students take turns playing the role of the student (or teacher) and the parent.\n\n2. Have students write a letter to their parents or to an adult, explaining what it is like to be a teenager these days and what life is like for them. You do not have to actually deliver the letters\u2014it might be interesting and revealing to have students write to a hypothetical adult.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. How might your parent\/guardian respond to the following situations:\n\na. You want to borrow $100 to buy some new shoes the day after your father was laid off from work.\n\nb. You are invited to an overnight camping trip with a new family that just moved into your neighborhood.\n\n2. In example 5, the boy wants permission to get into trouble. Do you think the parents care if he does? Even if they were parents who got into trouble as kids, do you think they want their son to have the same issues?\n\n3. For all of these examples, did you write responses that showed parents who cared about their children?\n\n4. What do you think might be hard for a parent when dealing with kids your age?\n\n **Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**6.4 My Parent's Point of View**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nPretend you are the parent in each of these situations. Write something that you might say in each situation.\n\n1. Mom, I am almost old enough to drive. Couldn't I just take the car out for a little ride if I' m really careful?\n\n2. I really want to get a dog. Someone in my class is giving away a St. Bernard for FREE! Why can't we get it?\n\n3. Mrs. Smith, I am really concerned about Johnny. He doesn't seem to concentrate in class and he hasn't turned in homework in two weeks. Can you help me?\n\n4. You are so mean! I wanted to go to Cassie's party and you don't trust me. I hate you!\n\n5. I bet you and Dad did some pretty wild things when you were my age, didn't you? So why do you care if I get in trouble once in awhile?\n\n#  **6.5 My Sibling's Point of View**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will give a plausible response to a situation from the point of view of a sibling.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nAlmost everyone with a brother or sister runs into a conflict or situation in which opinions are very different. Age can make a difference, too, in terms of responsibilities, permission to do things, and experience. Gender also plays a factor\u2014think about being the only boy in a family of five children or the youngest girl in a string of boys. But having a sibling is having a family member who is somewhat close to the same age and therefore overlaps in life situations. Again, teens may not try to see issues from another point of view unless asked specifically to do so.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students raise their hands to show if they have a sibling. (You may include stepsiblings.) Narrow down the qualifications to include: an older or younger sibling, a brother or sister, and twins.\n\n2. Continue to involve students in the sibling mind-set by asking \"who\" questions, such as: Who in here is an only child? Who has more than four brothers and sisters? Who is the youngest child? Who is the only boy or girl in the family? Who is a twin? Who has to share a room? Who has to babysit? Who has to do the worst chores? Who would trade their brother or sister for a dog? Who has a sibling who is your best friend?\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nOn the worksheet \"My Sibling's Point of View,\" students can read a situation and respond in two ways\u2014as themselves and as a sibling.\n\n_Answers (Examples):_\n\n1a. I felt happy that my dad was proud of me.\n\n1b. I felt left out and jealous.\n\n2a. It all happened because I was in a hurry; I didn't do it on purpose.\n\n2b. My sister is careless and didn't care about the damage that was done.\n\n3a. We are lucky to be able to go on vacation at all and anywhere would be great\u2014so let's work out a way to make it happen.\n\n3b. Maybe we could visit a theme park near a beach and two of us would be happy.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nHaving a sibling means giving things up, but also having a larger family. You may be familiar with the family dynamics of the students in your class and want to avoid or touch on some of the following questions.\n\n1. The situations on the worksheet all involved a conflict of some sort between siblings. Why do you think there are problems between brothers and sisters in a family? (Roughly the same age group, involve sharing parent's attention, being compared to others.)\n\n2. Do you think the kids in your family are typical in terms of getting along with others but having conflicts sometimes?\n\n3. What are the biggest areas of conflict between you and your siblings?\n\n4. Who works out resolving the conflicts\u2014do your parents, or do you have to work it out between yourselves?\n\n5. How would your family work out the conflict in example 3?\n\n6. What would your siblings say about you in a conflict situation?\n\n7. How would your siblings describe you as a member of the family?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students make a family collage\u2014bring in pictures of past trips, events, baby pictures, and other items that could be put on poster board. If desired, you can have students talk about their siblings.\n\n2. Have creative writing students write a short story in which they switch positions with a sibling for a day and write about what it might be like to be a completely different person within the same family. Share writings.\n\n3. Using photos, have students bring in pictures and demonstrate strong sibling and family resemblances. It might be a physical characteristic such as red hair, blue eyes, or long legs. Talk about other ways in which siblings demonstrate the same traits\u2014generosity, short-temper, quick grasp of math, and so on.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nHow would you and a sibling respond differently to the following situations?\n\n1. Acquiring a new pet\n\n2. One of you winning an award for something you both like to do\n\n **Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**6.5 My Sibling's Point of View**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nRead each of the following situations and answer each question (a) from your point of view and (b) from the sibling's point of view.\n\n1. You and your brother Keith both play on a softball team with the park league. At one game you hit a home run but your brother struck out. On the way home, all your father could talk about was how great you played. Keith was very quiet on the way home. Your dad said it was the best you had ever played.\n\nHow would you describe this game and this ride home?\n\n2. You and your sister have to share a bedroom. You were in a hurry to get to a meeting with your friends; you left the door open and left a bowl of potato chips on the floor. Sometime during the day the dog got in, ate the food, chewed up your sister's new shirt, and left muddy footprints all over the floor. You felt bad, but you were in a hurry, and sometimes your sister leaves the door open.\n\nWhat might you talk to your parents about?\n\n3. You and your two siblings get to vote on where to go for vacation. You want to go to the beach. Your sister wants to go skiing. Your brother wants to visit a theme park. Your parents say you all have to agree. You really, really want to go to the beach and you are the oldest so you should have more say in the decision.\n\nWhat would your conversation be like?\n\n#  **6.6 Thoughts About Divorce**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will express\u2014either in writing or orally\u2014his or her opinion or experience regarding divorce.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nStatistics show that about half of all first marriages end in divorce. Second marriages have a 65 percent divorce rate. With such statistics, it is probable that almost all students have some experience with divorce. In this lesson, students are given the opportunity to collect their thoughts about divorce and to state their opinions.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students raise their hands if they know someone who is divorced. 2. Have students raise their hands if someone in their immediate family (parent, sibling) is divorced. 3. Have students raise their hands if they think they will be divorced at some time in their lives.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are given twenty statements on the worksheet \"Thoughts About Divorce.\" There are really no right or wrong answers to these comments; they are provided to stimulate thought and discussion. Some students may be going through a divorce in their family and have negative or intense feelings. Be sensitive to this. Students can learn and benefit from the comments of others.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nAfter students have responded to the statements, go through each and have students volunteer to give their experiences and feelings about them. Students will have a variety of comments, especially those who have come from divorced families. They may be able to see only one side of the situation, so encourage students to listen carefully to the comments of everyone else. Perhaps they will be made aware of other viewpoints and success stories that have come out of divorced situations.\n\n1. What are some reasons why people get divorced? 2. How does having children in a marriage complicate a divorce? 3. What are ways that people can try to save their marriage and avoid a divorce? 4. Do you think it's better for people who don't get along to stay married for the sake of the children? 5. Would children from divorced families answer these questions differently from those from non-divorced families? Why? 6. What problems can arise after a divorce? (Financial problems, custody problems.) 7. Why do children sometimes feel responsible when their parents divorce? 8. What steps might people take to \"divorce-proof\" a marriage?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Research the topic of divorce using current periodicals (newspapers, magazines), Make a list of fifteen to twenty questions about divorce, predict what you will find, and then search for the answers. 2. Check with your local County Recorder's Office to find out the number of marriage licenses applied for in the past year and the number of divorce cases filed during the same period of time. What ratio did you find? 3. If your parents have been divorced, write about your experience. How did you feel? How did you cope? How are things different in your life now? How has this experience affected you? What advice would you give to someone else who is in this position?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List two or three reasons why people choose to divorce. 2. List two or three ways that people might try to prevent a divorce. 3. Write a paragraph describing your experience with a divorce and how it has affected you presently and how you think it will affect you in the future.\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**6.6 Thoughts About Divorce**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nRead the following comments about divorce. Circle \"Agree\" or \"Disagree\" to show how you feel about the comment. If you are undecided, put a question mark next to the comment.\n\n1.| Divorce is always wrong.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n---|---|---|---  \n2.| I will probably be divorced someday.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n3.| Both people are at fault in a divorce.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n4.| Parents should stay together for the sake of their children.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n5.| Children should get to pick who they want to live with after a divorce.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n6.| Counseling can keep people from getting a divorce.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n7.| The mother should always keep the kids.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n8.| Children can be part of the problem in causing people to get a divorce.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n9.| Many divorces are about money.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n10.| If someone has an affair, they will probably get divorced.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n11.| People who are divorced once will probably get divorced again.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n12.| Divorce is now considered to be socially acceptable.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n13.| If only one person wants to stay married, the marriage will not work.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n14.| Marital problems stem from couples who don't communicate with each other.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n15.| Marital problems stem from couples who don't make commitments to each other.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n16.| Second marriages are always better.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n17.| People should get to know each other very well before they get married.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n18.| It is very easy to get a divorce.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n19.| It is expensive to get a divorce.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n20.| Half of all marriages now end in divorce.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**\n\n#  **6.7 Dealing with Stepparents**\n\n**Objective:** After interviewing a stepparent, the student will be able to identify two or three problem situations encountered in stepfamilies and offer solutions.\n\n**Comments:** Students may have to deal not only with stepsiblings, but also with stepparents. Often this is a vaguely defined role that can be uncomfortable for parents and children alike. New roles are thrust upon everyone. Adaptations must be made. New living patterns are established. Discipline must be worked out. Making these adjustments can be difficult. In this lesson, students are to interview a stepparent to find out what difficulties he or she has encountered and what has been helpful.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students compile a list of questions they could ask a stepparent about his or her new role.\n\n2. Have students suggest a list of possible problems that would be common to stepparents.\n\n **Activity:** Students are to interview an adult who has volunteered to participate in this activity. You may want students to find their own willing participant or you might have one adult speak to the class. Students are to ask questions during the interview and record the answers.\n\n**Discussion:** Be sure to preview any additional questions that students want to add to the list on the worksheet \"Dealing with Stepparents.\" Depending on how well you know the volunteer and how frank you want the discussion to be, you may want to tailor the questions to fit the situation. After the interview(s) are discussed, you may want to go over the following questions:\n\n1. Do you think most stepparents and stepchildren get along?\n\n2. What do you now think is the hardest thing for adults to deal with in a stepfamily?\n\n3. What do you now think is the hardest thing for children to deal with in a stepfamily?\n\n4. Was our list of possible problems accurate?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Write and perform several skits dramatizing a particular problem that might be encountered in a stepfamily. Show various outcomes.\n\n2. Compile and review a list of fairy tales or common stories that have stepparents portrayed as wicked and uncaring. How do you think this got started? Rewrite the stories with a more contemporary character in the stepparent role.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List two or three problems commonly encountered in stepfamilies.\n\n2. Give an appropriate suggested course of action for each problem considered in (1).\n\n **Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**6.7 Dealing with Stepparents**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nConduct an interview with someone who is a stepparent. You may want to add to this list of questions.\n\n1. How long have you been a stepparent?\n\n2. Do you have children of your own?\n\n3. What is the hardest thing for you about being a stepparent?\n\n4. Did you and your spouse make plans ahead of time for how you would handle having two families living together?\n\n5. Do you feel free to discipline your stepchildren?\n\n6. What do your stepchildren call you?\n\n7. What problems have you encountered with your children and stepchildren living together?\n\n8. How do you and your stepchildren get along in general?\n\n9. What have you found that you really like about your stepchildren?\n\n10. Do you have problems with shared visitation of your stepchildren?\n\n11. Do your children and stepchildren get along with each other?\n\n#  **6.8 Sharing the Chores**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify at least ten chores that are necessary for running a household.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nThere is a lot of work involved in running a household. Ideally, most of the chores are shared by family members! In this lesson, students are to identify common household chores and think about who is primarily responsible for that work in his or her home. Each student should then think about his or her own role in the running of the household.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students volunteer to describe the most-hated chore at their home. 2. Have students tell about common chores they are responsible for in their home.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to complete the worksheet \"Sharing the Chores,\" which lists various common household chores, by writing the name or identifying the person usually responsible. Students can make their own key to identify people and can add to the list.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nAfter completing the chart, students may have a better idea of the amount of work it takes to effectively run a household. It may be revealing to actually figure out how much or how little certain individuals do.\n\n1. Which chores are more efficiently done if they are usually performed by one person (rather than rotating the job)? Why? 2. Which chores do you personally find appealing? Distasteful? 3. What could or would happen if a particular chore on the list was neglected for two weeks? 4. Do you think children should be responsible for a lot of chores if they are busy with school or sports? 5. Do you think children should be paid for doing chores? 6. Are your family chores distributed equally? How are they selected for each individual? 7. Are chores basically the same for most families in your community?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Add to the chart by figuring out the following information: (a) the frequency with which each chore should be done (for example, weekly, daily), (b) how much time is involved in completing the chore, and (c) a rating of how much effort or enjoyment is associated with the chore. 2. Figure out how long it actually takes to complete each chore on the list. If someone were paid minimum wage to do each chore, which would be the most expensive? Least expensive?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List ten common household chores. 2. Write a paragraph describing how to efficiently perform your favorite chore; then write a paragraph describing how to perform your least favorite chore. Give reasons for why you like or dislike the tasks you selected.\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**6.8 Sharing the Chores**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nWho is responsible for doing these chores in your family? Indicate who does what. Add items to the list that apply to your family.\n\n#  **6.9 Whom Can I Talk To?**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will list three to five people in his or her life who would be possible sources of help in confidential situations.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nWe have all had a situation or issue that is troubling, frightening, or confusing at some time in our lives. Knowing that there is a person who cares about you and about your problems is a great source of hope. In this lesson, students are asked to focus on identifying a person or persons who would be helpful and safe to talk with about their situations. It is great if there is someone within the family who knows the dynamics and the players and can help the student, but often it takes someone who is uninvolved to be objective.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Think about a problem or something bothering you. You don't have to say it out loud, but raise your hand if you can think right away of a person whom you would feel safe talking to about your problem. Raise your hand if you are thinking of a friend. Raise your hand if you are thinking of an adult. Raise your hand if you are thinking of someone at school. Raise your hand if you are thinking of someone at home. It is great that there are so many people that you are thinking about who might be helpful to you.\n\n2. We all like people who tell us we are great, we are right, we are the best! But think about a person who will tell you the truth about a situation or even about you, whether it is flattering and pleasing or not. Can you think of such a person?\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nOn the worksheet \"Whom Can I Talk To?\" the students are to identify the character in each pair who is a person who is being helpful to the person with the problem or question.\n\n_Answers:_ 1. grandmother 2. older brother 3. school counselor (or teacher) 4. pastor\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nThere are many people who are available to students, but the student must take the initiative to identify and seek out help. It is important, too, to select someone who is trustworthy.\n\n1. In example 1, the girl's grandmother was helpful to the girl. How? (She listened to her, she knows the mother, she identified an issue that the girl wasn't aware of\u2014being stressed by the job.)\n\n2. Why might an older person be helpful in talking about family issues? (An older person has a unique perspective, might know the members of the family quite well.)\n\n3. In example 2, what is the boy's problem? (Feels unpopular.) How did the brother help him? (Told him the truth, gave advice.)\n\n4. In example 3, the problem is probably one that needs some professional help. Why? (The girl can't control things happening at home, there might be abuse or some reason why she doesn't want to go home.)\n\n5. Who are some professionals who might be available to help with family problems? (School counselor, Youth Service Bureau, other agencies.)\n\n6. What is the boy's issue in example 4? (The worthiness of his life.) Do you think this is a common issue? (Probably.)\n\n7. Do you think that most people really want to talk to someone about a problem or would they rather work it out by themselves?\n\n8. When you talk to someone, you are really putting trust in them. What kind of personal traits would you want to see in someone you opened up to? (Honesty, kindness, able to keep a secret, knowing when to intervene in a situation.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Make a list or bring in a page of resources that are readily available to students in the community for any kind of social\/family problem, including phone numbers and names of contact people. Post it in your classroom or make sure that students know where to find this information.\n\n2. Invite a social worker, counselor, pastor, or mental health worker to come to your class to talk about what they do in terms of counseling and listening to others.\n\n3. As a teacher, try to confer individually with your students over projects, assignments, and other routine school-related items, but always make it a point to find out something that is going on in their lives. Teachers are often the first to pick up on erratic behavior, depression, and just \"something wrong.\"\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List three people who would be helpful to talk to in a confidential situation.\n\n2. List a family member who would be a good resource in a family problem situation.\n\n **Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**6.9 Whom Can I Talk To?**\n\n**Directions:** Who did these characters find helpful in each of these situations?\n\n1. \"I am so mad at Mom. She doesn't understand why it is so important to me to dress like the other kids.\"\n\n\"When she was a teenager, she and I had all kinds of discussions about clothes, believe me! But she wants you to fit in. She does know that it's important to you. Just don't make a big deal about it right now. She's stressed by her job.\"\n\n2. \"Why don't girls like me?\"\n\n\"Sometimes you act really stupid. Try being more quiet and listening for a change.\"\n\n3. \"My home life is really rotten these days, Ms. Astor. I just don't even want to go home.\"\n\n\"Molly, you are a great girl. Let's meet during your study period tomorrow and we can talk about some ideas for you.\"\n\n4. \"Pastor Bob, I feel like I want to do something important with my life, but I just feel lost.\"\n\n\"You are not the only one who feels that way. Things take time. Why don't you come to our discussion group?\"\n\n**Chapter 7**\n\n**Communication Skills**\n\n#  **7.1 Best Method to Communicate**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will give an example of an appropriate way or method of communicating in a given situation.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nThere are many ways to communicate with others; for example, via technology (e-mail, texting, cell phones), humans (letting someone deliver a verbal message), written messages (notes, letters), prewritten items (greeting cards, forms), public venues (bulletin boards, newspaper ads), and even unique ways such as skywriting, a message in a bottle, or using a secret code. The idea is to use the most appropriate method for the situation.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students list as many ways to communicate as they can. Try to group the items by common features (writing, technology, and so on). 2. Have students suggest a message that would be a good example of how the method can be used; for example, an e-mail might be a good way to communicate plans to a friend or groups of friends quickly.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nThe worksheet \"Best Method to Communicate\" gives examples of types of messages that need to go out. Students are to suggest a good method to communicate that message. _Answers (May vary):_ 1. Face to face \/ note 2. Phone \/ face to face 3. Greeting card 4. Message board 5. Another person (family member?) \/ note \/ phone 6. Face to face 7. Face to face 8. E-mail \/ cell phone 9. Newspaper \/ message board 10. Newspaper ad\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nThere are usually alternative methods for delivering a message. Things to keep in mind are the circumstances surrounding the message, the means of sending a message, and the appropriateness of the message for the situation.\n\n1. How would you want to receive the news that someone was breaking up with you? How about if someone liked you and wanted to go out with you? 2. What types of messages are best delivered in person? 3. What kinds of methods would be best if you wanted to communicate with just one individual? How about a small group of people? How about if you had a message for the community?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students investigate and report on other methods of communicating, such as speaking a different language or using a code, sign language, or other methods. 2. Have students keep track of how many different forms of communication they use in a day.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List five common ways that people can communicate. 2. What would be a good way to communicate if you wanted an individual to know about something? 3. What would be a good way to communicate if you wanted the community to know about something?\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**7.1 Best Method to Communicate**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nWhat is a good way to communicate for each of the situations below?\n\n1. Finding out your grade in math from your teacher\n\n2. Asking someone out on a date\n\n3. Wishing your aunt a happy birthday\n\n4. Finding out your work schedule\n\n5. Letting your mother know you will be home late\n\n6. Being angry at your sister for taking your sweater\n\n7. Wanting to know if you can borrow your dad's favorite belt\n\n8. Letting a friend know that you are meeting at the mall at 7 o'clock\n\n9. Letting the community know that you are having a yard sale\n\n10. Trying to sell your bike\n\n#  **7.2 Being a Careful Listener**\n\n**Objective:** The student will demonstrate the ability to listen to a partner for at least two to three minutes without interrupting and to remember at least three main points.\n\n**Comments:** Listening to what someone is saying is a logical prerequisite to understanding what is on that person's mind. In this lesson, the student is given an exercise in listening to another person.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students raise their hands if they think of themselves as a good listener.\n\n2. Have students list ways they can show they are actively listening to someone else who is talking. (Having eye contact, concentrating on what's being said, and so on.)\n\n **Activity:** Students are to participate in an exercise with a partner in which they take turns listening to each other speak on a designated topic for two to three minutes. The worksheet \"Being a Careful Listener\" suggests several topics. You may want to tape record both speakers so that they can check for the accuracy of their memory of what was said. Remind students of the rules: (a) do not interrupt the speaker, and (b) concentrate on what the speaker is saying.\n\n_Materials:_ pen or pencil, tape recorder\n\n**Discussion:** After students have had a turn being both the speaker and the listener, discuss the following questions:\n\n1. How well did you listen? How much did you recall?\n\n2. What helped you remember? Did you use any tricks to help you?\n\n3. What distractions did you encounter that took your mind off of what the speaker was saying?\n\n4. Did eye contact help?\n\n5. Did you find yourself wanting to interrupt?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Target a person you do not know very well and try to engage that person in conversation. Practice being a good listener: use eye contact, ask good questions to keep the conversation going, and don't interrupt.\n\n2. Practice tape recording short speeches or discussions from the radio or television, then write down the main points that you remember. Use these as exercises to work on being a better listener.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List two ways you can improve your ability to be a good listener.\n\n2. Listen to a tape-recorded message (prepared by the teacher) and write the main points.\n\n **Name ____ Date ____**\n\n**7.2 Being a Careful Listener**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nPerform the following activity with a partner. Listen to your partner talk about one of the following topics for two to three minutes. Tape-record the comments. Be sure to read the rules!\n\n**Suggested Topics:**\n\nMy Most Embarrassing Moment   \nWhat I Think About Our School   \nMy Favorite Recent Movie   \nThe Best Place to Eat   \nIf I Had a Million Dollars\n\nThink of some other topics and write them here:\n\n**Rules:**\n\n1. Don't interrupt while the other person is talking.\n\n2. Concentrate on what the other person is saying.\n\nWhen your partner has finished, repeat as much as you can remember about what was said. You may want to tape record your comments. Then play back the original tape recording. How much did you remember? How well did you listen?\n\n#  **7.3 Summarizing**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will accurately summarize a short paragraph.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nSummarizing consists of preserving a message, but in shortened form. In this lesson, students are given short paragraphs to read (or listen to), and then they are to indicate which of the choices is the best summary of the paragraph.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students define the word _summary_. (A shortened version of a longer passage that covers the main points) 2. Have students list various types of texts or comments that are often summarized. (Newscasts of speeches, teachers' lectures, and so on)\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to read the four short paragraphs on the worksheet \"Summarizing\" and then mark the choice that is the best example of a summary of that paragraph. Remind students that a good summary should include the main point(s) of the paragraph; it does not have to be as long as the original paragraph! _Answers:_ 1. b 2. c 3. a 4. c\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nAfter students have completed the worksheet, discuss why the answer they selected was the most appropriate and why the other answer options were not the best summaries.\n\n1. Does it help to come up with your own summary statement before looking for the choices given? 2. In some of the examples, the choice was true, but was only one small detail\u2014it was not the main idea of the paragraph. Which are examples of this? (4a, 4b.) 3. Some of the choices included information that was partly true, but we don't really know if the rest of the sentence is true. Which choices were examples of this? (2a, 3b.) 4. How can a summary of something be helpful? (Don't have to read the entire text, just gives the main points.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students practice taking summary notes of brief lectures or information presented in short paragraphs. Compare summaries among the students\u2014what is the main idea they should have picked up on? 2. Practice reading paragraphs to a partner and have the partner give a one-sentence summary of what was read. Make sure students include the main idea!\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Give a one-sentence summary of a paragraph (provided by the teacher). Make sure you include the main point or points and do not include irrelevant details or inferences that are not specifically given. 2. Write a paragraph about a given topic. Then summarize your paragraph in one sentence.\n\n**Name ____ Date ____**\n\n**7.3 Summarizing**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nA summary is a shortened version of what was expressed. Read or listen to the following paragraphs. Circle the letter of the best summary of each.\n\n1. A huge black dog watched a cat cautiously approach a little brown bird. The cat's tail wagged slowly side to side as it focused on its prey. Just before the cat was about to pounce, the dog barked. The little bird flew away, leaving the cat without a target.\n\na. A black dog wanted to catch a bird.\n\nb. A dog scared away a bird before a cat could get it.\n\nc. A dog chased away a cat who was chasing a bird.\n\n2. Jeremy got an F on his chemistry quiz today because he forgot to study. Now he has found out he has a math test in the next hour. He also forgot to study for that test.\n\na. Jeremy has a bad memory.\n\nb. Jeremy is not very good at chemistry.\n\nc. Jeremy was not prepared for his tests today.\n\n3. The tall blonde girl picked up the basketball, dribbled it a few times, and then smiled as she watched it sail through the air and fall through the hoop.\n\na. A girl made a basket while playing basketball.\n\nb. A girl had blonde hair and was very pretty.\n\nc. A girl was a good athlete.\n\n4. I wanted my best friend to come over this weekend so we could go out for pizza and go to the soccer game, but my mother informed me that my aunt and uncle from Seattle were going to arrive and I would be busy cleaning my room.\n\na. My aunt and uncle live in Seattle.\n\nb. My friend and I wanted to go to a soccer game.\n\nc. My plans for the weekend changed because we were having guests.\n\n#  **7.4 Paraphrasing**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will accurately paraphrase a given sentence or short paragraph.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nParaphrasing differs from summarizing in that one is looking for different words to convey the same meaning (rather than simply shortening the text). By using different words that mean about the same thing, the student is showing he or she understands the speaker's or writer's intent.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Define the word _paraphrase_. (To restate something in different words, keeping the same meaning.)\n\n2. Have students compare and contrast a summary and a paraphrase of a text. (Both may be shortened forms; a summary could contain the same words, a paraphrase uses different words.)\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to read the sentences on the worksheet \"Paraphrasing\" and select the answer that best paraphrases the intent of the sentence. Remind students that they are looking for the same meaning, but a different form or choice of words that means about the same thing as the original. _Answers:_ 1. b 2. a 3. a 4. b 5. b 6. b\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nHave students discuss why the selected answer is the best paraphrase and why the answer they did not select was not a good paraphrase. Some reasons may be that it was more of a summary than a paraphrase, too much was implied in the answer, or the answer was too vague.\n\n1. Was this activity harder or easier than summarizing a sentence or paragraph? Were they about the same? 2. In sentence 1, why wasn't (a) a good answer, as it was true? (It didn 't address the meaning of the sentence; the important fact was that the opponents made excuses for losing.) 3. Why wasn't (b) a good paraphrase for sentence 3? (It was possibly true, but didn 't focus on roller coasters.) 4. How do you know the girl in sentence 5 was angry? (Clues such as her red face, yelling, hitting.) 5. What words in the sentences and the correct paraphrases could you match up as being about the same thing? (1. excuses, poor sports; 2. 100 degrees, temperature; 3. thrill, fun; 4. blank, didn't know; 5. yelled and hit, angry; 6. anytime and anyplace, love.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Practice paraphrasing with a partner. Have a partner give a sentence. Then repeat the sentence b ut use different forms of the words to keep the meaning. 2. Write several sentences on the board. Have all students write a paraphrase of the same sentences. Compare the different versions.3. Practice paraphrasing by taking a nasty or impolite comment and turning it into something appropriate. For example:\n\na. I hate your hat. _Paraphrase:_ I don't care for that hat.\n\nb. You are really fat. _Paraphrase:_ You' re somewhat overweight.\n\nc. That perm looks horrible. _Paraphrase:_ Your hair is different today.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Explain the difference between giving _a summary_ and giving _a paraphrase of_ a sentence or paragraph.\n\n2. Provide a paraphrase of given sentences (provided by the teacher).\n\n **Name ____ Date ____**\n\n**7.4 Paraphrasing**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nParaphrasing is stating something in a way that keeps the meaning, but changes the words. Read each sentence below and circle the letter of the better paraphrase.\n\n1. Our opponents in football made all kinds of excuses when they lost to our team.\n\na. We beat the other football team.\n\nb. The members of the other football team were poor sports.\n\n2. The thermometer nearly hit 100 degrees today.\n\na. The temperature was almost 100 degrees.\n\nb. It was a warm day today.\n\n3. My friend and I loved the thrill of going up and down on the roller coaster.\n\na. We thought that riding the roller coaster was fun.\n\nb. My friend and I like rides.\n\n4. I just gave the baby a blank look when it cried.\n\na. I don't like crying babies.\n\nb. I didn't know what the baby wanted.\n\n5. The red-faced girl yelled at the younger girl and tried to hit her.\n\na. A girl had a red face from yelling.\n\nb. A girl was very angry at another girl.\n\n6. I could eat an entire pizza with three or four toppings all by myself anytime, anyplace.\n\na. I am really hungry.\n\nb. I really love pizza.\n\n#  **7.5 Is This the Right Time and Place?**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will give examples of several situations that may affect how a comment or expression is interpreted adversely or unclearly.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nThere are times when people may be in a hurry, in pain, running late, or feeling extremely depressed or extremely happy. These are situations that may also affect comments and actions. What is said during that time may not truly be what is meant; these are comments that can be misinterpreted and overreacted to. In this lesson, students are presented with situations in which the characters are in somewhat abnormal positions and their comments do not truly reflect what they would say or do in calmer, more normal situations.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students give examples of times or situations in which they felt stressed or pressured.\n\n2. Have students describe situations in which they knew they would get an undesired answer or response from a parent or teacher because of the bad timing or specific situation.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to read the situations on the worksheet \"Is This the Right Time and Place?\" in which characters are placed in stressful or abnormal situations. The responses the characters give are not reflective of what that character would probably normally say or do. The student is to decide what unusual or stressful situation is affecting the person.\n\n_Answers (Examples):_ 1. Embarrassment in front of a friend 2. In a hurry 3. Headache 4. Guilt 5. Extreme happiness\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nDiscuss each item on the worksheet and have students conclude what factor(s) might be causing the situation to be abnormal for the characters.\n\n1. How did the character feel in situation 1? (Embarrassed by his sister.)\n\n2. What was abnormal about the situation? (Her outfit.)\n\n3. How could the first boy in situation 2 misinterpret what the second boy said and did? (Left in a hurry, left out, rudeness.)\n\n4. What factor in situation 3 could be responsible for the seemingly rude behavior of the girl? (Headache.)\n\n5. In situation 4, what possible other responses could the girl who forgot to wait for her friend have given?\n\n6. Under normal circumstances, how would the girl in situation 5 have reacted? (Probably distressed or angry.)\n\n7. What are some situations that particularly throw you off or make you more irritable than usual?\n\n8. What are some extremely happy situations that might cause someone to act in an unusual way?\n\n9. How can you be sensitive to someone's mood before you approach him or her? What cues are there?\n\n10. What is a more polite way that the rude people could have explained that it was a bad time to be approached?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students find, look for, make, or draw pictures of people in obviously stressful situations and then add captions (humorous, if desired!) to accentuate the absurdity of asking for a favor right then. (For example, a kid in three layers of snowsuits asking his mother if he could go to the bathroom.)\n\n2. Have students keep a running classroom list of \"Situationally Silly Questions,\" such as taking a spelling test and having someone raise his or her hand to ask, \"How do you spell that?\" You' ll find that there are many silly questions that are asked. Emphasize that it is the situation that makes it funny or silly, not that there are bad questions. Look for cartoons that show situationally silly examples also.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Give three examples of situations that may be stressful or abnormal, causing someone to react in an unusual manner.\n\n2. Write a paragraph about a time when you felt you were misunderstood or treated rudely because the other person involved was in a stressful or unusual situation.\n\n **Name ____ Date ____**\n\n**7.5 Is This the Right Time and Place?**\n\n**Directions:** Sometimes a situation might cause a person to act or react differently than usual. In each of the following examples, what situation is causing the person to act or react in an unusual manner?\n\n#  **7.6 Communicating by Cell Phone**\n\n**Objective:** The student will identify whether or not a situation is appropriate for using a cell phone.\n\n**Comments:** The use of a cell phone in public can be annoying if the situation is one that usually calls for quiet or peace (house of worship, a wedding, in class), if others are within earshot of a private or embarrassing conversation (having an argument, telling a joke), or if having a conversation with another person who is not present is rude (when you are ignoring others who are with you). On the other hand, a cell phone is a great way to communicate when you need directions, clarification about an imminent meeting or activity, or to report an emergency. Students need to decide whether the cell phone is the best way to communicate in each situation on the worksheet.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students give an example of helpful cell phone use.\n\n2. Have students give an example of rude cell phone use.\n\n **Activity:** On the worksheet \"Communicating by Cell Phone,\" students are to decide whether or not a cell phone is the best means of communication.\n\n_Answers:_ 1. no 2. yes 3. no 4. yes 5. yes 6. no 7. yes 8. no 9. yes 10. no 11. no 12. yes\n\n**Discussion:** Talk about why the cell phone was or was not the best choice for each example. For each \"no\" response, discuss a better way to communicate.\n\n1. What is rude about using a cell phone in examples 1, 3, 6, 8, 10, and 11?\n\n2. What would be a better way to communicate in each of those examples?\n\n3. In which cases would texting be acceptable rather than talking out loud?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students evaluate different types of phones and compare features. What else can you do with a cell phone besides talk?\n\n2. Have students conduct a random survey of how many people they see using a cell phone in one hour's time at a public place.\n\n3. Have students research how many driving accidents involve cell phone use by the driver.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Give an example of a situation in which cell phone use is appropriate.\n\n2. Give an example of a situation in which cell phone use is not appropriate.\n\n **Name ____ Date ____**\n\n**7.6 Communicating by Cell Phone**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nIn which of these situations would a cell phone be a good choice to use to communicate? Write YES or NO next to each.\n\n1. Waiting in a busy doctor's office\n\n2. Calling a friend while you are sitting in a park\n\n3. Having lunch with a friend and thinking about something you wanted to tell another friend\n\n4. Seeing two cars collide while you are walking home from school\n\n5. Letting your boss know that you will be a little bit late while you are getting ready to get on the bus for work\n\n6. Sitting in church while the pastor is speaking\n\n7. Calling your brother to let him know it's time to pick you up from your piano lesson\n\n8. Sitting in the back of a classroom and wondering what your mom is going to fix for dinner\n\n9. Talking to your friend who is somewhere in the water park while you are saving a place in line\n\n10. Telling someone a joke while you are waiting for a wedding to begin\n\n11. Chatting with a friend while you are in a movie theater waiting for the previews to be over\n\n12. Calling home from the supermarket to ask your mother what kind of meat you were supposed to pick up for her\n\n#  **7.7 Giving Clear Directions**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will provide clear, accurate directions to enable another person to correctly complete a given task.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nExpressing oneself so that others can understand the message is a very important skill. In this lesson, students are given the opportunity to follow verbal directions and then must give directions for another person to follow. The tasks involved are simple drawing of figures. Through trial and error, students will experience how important it is to be very specific and use words the listener will understand.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Give students the following set of directions as if you really expected them to comply: \"Take out a pencil, put it in your left hand\u2014no, make that your right hand\u2014draw two or four concentric circles, shade the middle one in, fold your paper in half or thirds if you want to, and then place it in the upper right-hand corner of the desk and write your address in Chinese on the top. \" When students look at you in disbelief, ask them what was difficult about that task. (Too many directions, given too fast, directions were changed, directions were unclear, they were asked to do things they probably didn't know how to do, and so on.)\n\n2. Have students come up with suggestions for how better to give instructions for that type of task.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents will be given oral directions (read by the teacher) for the first part of this activity on the worksheet \"Giving Clear Directions.\" They are to draw geometric figures in a specific pattern. On the second part, they are to generate directions for someone else to follow.\n\n##  **Instructions for Part I:**\n\n1. You will be drawing three squares. Make the first square small. Leave a little space. Then draw a second square to the right of the first one. This square should be medium-sized. The bottom line should be in line with the first square. The third square should be a little bigger than the other two. It, too, should have the bottom line on the same level as the other two.\n\n2. You will be drawing three circles, in a line. The first circle should be small. Color in the entire circle. The second circle is the same size as the first. Draw it to the right of the first one. Then draw a line in the circle to cut it in half. The line should go from top to bottom. Shade in the left half of the circle. The last circle should be bigger. Draw this circle so that the bottom of it is in line with the other two. Then draw a line going up and down that cuts the big circle in half.\n\n3. Draw a medium-sized square. In the middle of the square, draw a small circle. Make sure the outline of the circle does not touch any part of the square. Cut the circle into four equal parts by drawing two lines, one up and down, the other sideways. Shade in the bottom right-hand section of the circle.\n\n4. There are three figures in this drawing. First draw a small triangle. Cut the triangle in half by drawing a line from the point at the top to the base. Shade in the right half of the triangle. Now draw a small circle on top of the triangle, so that the point of the triangle touches the bottom of the circle. Divide the circle into four equal parts by drawing two lines: one up and down, the other sideways. Shade in the upper right-hand section of the circle. Then draw a rectangle on top of the circle so that they touch in only one point. Make sure the long part of the rectangle is going sideways. Cut the rectangle into four equal parts by drawing two lines: one up and down, the other sideways. Shade in the upper left-hand section.\n\n##  **Instructions for Part II:**\n\nThe student should write directions that would enable someone else to draw the figures on the sheet. Examples:\n\n5. There will be three figures in a row. The first one is a small square. Leave a small space to the right and draw the second, a medium-sized triangle with the base on the same line as the bottom of the square. The third is a square, the same size as the first square. Shade in the third square completely.\n\n6. Draw a rectangle with the long side going across. Then draw another rectangle of the same size, but with the long side going up. The two rectangles should be touching each other like this: the short side of the second rectangle should be on the same line as the bottom of the first rectangle so that the whole short side of the first rectangle touches the second rectangle. Then go to the first rectangle and find the middle of the top long side. Draw a big black dot on that line so that half of the dot is below the line and half is above.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nStudents will probably have a lot to say about how hard or fun this task was. Go over the following questions:\n\n1. What helped make the directions clear when you were given things to draw?\n\n2. What directions seemed confusing?\n\n3. How was using shapes an easier task than if you were supposed to draw a dog or a house? (Consistent, all agree on what a shape looks like.)\n\n4. What was hard about writing directions for someone else?\n\n5. What parts were most confusing when you had to direct someone else to draw a picture?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students draw three or four pictures (using shapes or other agreed-upon items) and write directions for someone else to follow. Trade directions and compare drawings.\n\n2. Have several students go to the board and work on the same set of directions (given orally) at the same time by one person. See how differently people can interpret the same set of directions if the directions are not specific and clear.\n\n3. Try this type of activity with other items. For example, use colored 1-inch blocks and direct students to place them in a certain pattern. Or have two students sit back to back so they cannot see each other and have one proceed to build something. As he or she puts the blocks in place, he or she should tell the second student what to do. The rest of the class can serve as a silent audience to see if the second student is complying with the directions accurately. Try it (a) without allowing the second student to ask any questions, and (b) allowing the second student to inquire of the audience: \"Is this correct?\" That is the only question that can be asked of the audience. Have fun with this!\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Given a specific geometric drawing, write out clear directions for how someone else could reproduce the drawing without seeing the picture.\n\n2. Given specific written or verbal instructions, draw the pattern or figures described.\n\n **Name ____ Date ____**\n\n**7.7 Giving Clear Directions**\n\n**Directions:**\n\n**Part I:** For Part I, draw the figures you hear described.\n\n**Part II:** For Part II, you will write clear directions for someone else to follow in order to draw the figures you see. Use the back of this sheet for your directions.\n\n#  **7.8 Verbal and Nonverbal Messages**\n\n**Objective:** The student will give an example of a verbal and a nonverbal message that convey the same meaning.\n\n**Comments:** Tapping a foot, rolling eyes, wagging a finger, or shrugging shoulders all give nonverbal messages. Sometimes a nonverbal message is even more powerful than words. (Did your mother ever give you \"the look\"?) It is important to understand what the message is, whether the means is verbal or nonverbal.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Pick two students to role-play situations in which they cannot speak but can use only nonverbal communication. Situations might be ordering food from a menu, picking out a DVD or CD in a store, playing a game or sport, and so on.\n\n2. Have students take turns reading this sentence, emphasizing one italic word at a time. Talk about how the meaning changes, depending on which word is emphasized:\n\n\" _I_ would _like_ to _go_ to the _game_ with _you_ on _Saturday_.\"\n\n**Activity:** On the worksheet \"Verbal and Nonverbal Messages,\" students should show how a response to a question could be indicated by using a verbal answer and then by using a nonverbal message.\n\n_Answers (Will vary):_\n\n1. \"Yes!\"\u2014Smile\n\n2. \"Lost it.\"\u2014Scratch head\n\n3. \"To the left.\"\u2014Point\n\n4. \"A salad.\"\u2014Point to item on menu\n\n5. \"Oh, yeah!\"\u2014Thumbs up\n\n6. \"Ten.\"\u2014Hold up both hands\n\n7. \"Not a clue.\"\u2014Hands up, lost\n\n8. \"Go team!\"\u2014Fist in air\n\n9. \"Nope.\"\u2014Shrug\n\n10. \"Thanks for coming!\"\u2014Applaud\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Body language can reveal a lot about a person. These two websites have interesting information; however, you should preview what is appropriate for your students. The first, www.positive-waycom\/body.htm. , has a lot of information On www.howcast.com, search for How to Interpret Body Language for a short video with interesting commentary.\n\n2. Have students come up with both ordinary and more exotic examples of using nonverbal communication. (Flagging down a taxi? Ballroom dancing? Teaching a dog to stay?)\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. How could you give a verbal message to let someone know you like him or her?\n\n2. How could you give a nonverbal message to let someone know you are angry?\n\n **Name ____ Date ____**\n\n**7.8 Verbal and Nonverbal Messages**\n\n**Directions:** How could each question be answered (a) verbally and (b) nonverbally?\n\n#  **7.9 Collecting Your Thoughts**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will state at least one reason why it is important to collect his or her thoughts before speaking or writing.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nSpeaking spontaneously is fine in most occasions; however, at times it is beneficial for people to think before talking. Some situations might require a degree of delicacy or diplomacy, and taking a few seconds to think through what you really want to convey is well worth the effort. Students are given situations to think through before stating what they would say to handle the situation.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Explain that you are going to give students a choice. They must write their choice immediately. State: \"Vote A or B. A\u2014we can skip homework for three weeks and you'll have one huge test at the end. B\u2014you will have daily assignments for three weeks and no final exam. Write A or B.\"\n\n2. Explain that you are going to give students another choice. This time they must think for thirty seconds before they indicate their choice. State: \"You notice that a house is on fire. You have time to save one person. Would you save person A\u2014a two-year-old boy who is screaming by a door on the second floor, or person B\u2014a sixty-year-old grandmother who is in a wheelchair by a window on the first floor?\"\n\n3. Ask students which activity was more difficult. Did the extra thirty seconds to think about the situation make the choice harder or easier? Why?\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents will be given several situations to consider on the worksheet \"Collecting Your Thoughts.\" They must take thirty to sixty seconds to plan what they will say (and do). Then they should write their response on the worksheet.\n\n_Answers:_ Will vary.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nThe extra time, though short, should give students a chance to think through several alternative responses. After students have completed the activity, compare answers, emphasizing what they did with the \"thinking time.\"\n\n1. What would have been your first response if you didn't take the time to collect your thoughts?\n\n2. Would your response have been the same or did the added time encourage you to change your first response?\n\n3. Why do you think taking time to \"think through\" a situation would make someone change his or her mind? (Could think of more alternatives, new ways to look at a situation.)\n\n4. Why would it be harder to decide which person to save\u2014a baby on the second floor or an older person on the first floor\u2014than deciding when to take a test? (Much more important consideration, more complicated.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Make a list of ten questions other people must answer right away, without giving it any thought. Examples:\n\na. Would you shave your head for $10 right now?\n\nb. Would you shave your head for $100?\n\nc. Are you a happy person?\n\nd. Should all students be given A's?\n\ne. Should school meet on Saturdays?\n\nf. Do you like pizza?\n\ng. Do you like snakes?\n\nh. Would you lie to your best friend to avoid hurting his or her feelings?\n\ni. Would you trade places with the President of the United States for a week?\n\nj. Are girls more sensitive than boys?\n\nThen pick three or four of the questions, reflect on them for a minute or two, and see if the answers change and why.\n\n2. Begin using the phrase \"Collect your thoughts\" in class when assigning oral and written work. Encourage students to refrain from even picking up a pen or pencil until they have taken some \"think time.\" Make this a practice so that students learn to expect to think first.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. State one reason why it is important to collect your thoughts before expressing an opinion.\n\n2. Write a paragraph expressing your opinion about whether or not your school should have a dress code. Think first.\n\n **Name ____ Date ____**\n\n**7.9 Collecting Your Thoughts**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nHow would you carry out the following tasks? Before you write what you would say, take thirty to sixty seconds to think it through. Collect your thoughts! Now write what you would say.\n\n1. You have to tell your best friend that her very exotic tropical fish just died as a result of your having forgotten to feed it for a week while she was on vacation.\n\n2. Explain to your teacher that your semester research project is not finished, and give your reasons.\n\n3. Your little sister wants to know if the Tooth Fairy and Santa Claus are real. She trusts you and will believe whatever you tell her.\n\n4. You must give a short talk to the Student Council on your opinion about whether or not you think fourteen-year-olds should be allowed to drive.\n\n#  **7.10 Public Speaking**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will complete items on a checklist in preparation for making an informal speech.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nPublic speaking can be a terrifying experience for many (most?) people, yet it is an excellent way to express an opinion, especially if the comments made are well thought out and the speaker is prepared to deliver the speech. In this lesson, students will take steps to prepare a simple speech that will be given at a later time.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students name or list some people who are good public speakers, or people whom they enjoy listening to. (Perhaps a stand-up comedian, a favorite teacher, and so on.)\n\n2. Have students list reasons why it might be scary to speak in front of people.\n\n3. Have students suggest techniques that make a good speaker seem interesting or easy to listen to. (Humor, interesting topic, pleasing voice, and so on.)\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nThe student is to select a topic he or she finds interesting or might know something about. If the topics on the worksheet \"Public Speaking\" do not seem appropriate for your class, have students suggest others. Students do not all have to pick the same topic! Students will then go through the checklist, item by item, to prepare themselves for giving a speech. You should specify the length of time involved in giving the actual speech (perhaps three to five minutes).\n\n_Materials:_ Have resources available such as books, encyclopedias, newspapers, or pamphlets. Also, instruct students to obtain note cards (3\" \u00d7 5\") and other materials (posters, markers, rulers, and so on) if they are going to include visual aids. _Time:_ You may want to plan several days or a week to complete this activity. Depending on how much help the students need, this activity might take more time than the usual writing activities. You may want to assign specific due dates for items on the checklist. Have students be available to monitor each other's progress.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nAs students progress through the checklist, monitor them carefully to make sure they are not bogged down on certain steps. Some will need help with outlining, writing good introductions and conclusions, and preparing the visual aids. At this point, it is more important that they go through the steps and complete each item even if it is not completely \"polished.\" An outline could be as simple as writing the topic sentence from each paragraph on individual note cards. Go through the following discussion questions to help students focus on the Activity:\n\n1. Was it difficult to select a topic?\n\n2. Were your resources readily available? Did you find resources other than printed material? (Such as individuals.)\n\n3. Can you read your rough draft?\n\n4. Do you feel you have outlined your speech adequately? What information should be put on the note cards?\n\n5. How can you keep your note cards organized? (Number them, color-code.)\n\n6. Why is it important to have a good introduction and conclusion?\n\n7. What types of visual aids would be good for your presentation? Why?\n\n8. How many times would you need to practice your speech before you feel comfortable with it?\n\n9. Where are some places or who are some people who could help you feel comfortable with practicing your speech?\n\n10. Why is it important to look at your audience rather than just reading the cards? (Gets audience involved.)\n\n11. Why is it important to speak slowly and to remember to breathe? (Slows you down, makes sure people can understand you.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. If students are having particular difficulties with some aspect of this assignment (such as outlining, writing a conclusion, practicing), pair students with a buddy who is more competent and allow them to work together.\n\n2. To make interesting visual aids, give students time to work in the computer lab (if available) or use other resources to create charts, graphs, or pictures.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. State the topic of your speech.\n\n2. List at least two important features that will be included in your speech. (Visual aids, interesting statistics, and so on.)\n\n **Name ____ Date ____**\n\n**7.10 Public Speaking**\n\n**Directions:** Select a topic about which you feel strongly or know a lot about. Go through the following checklist, marking off each item as you have completed or thought through what you plan to do.\n\n**Suggested Topics:**\n\nProfessional Athletes Make Too Much Money   \nStudents Should Have More Voice in the Way They Are Graded   \nWays We Can Stop Pollution in Our Community   \nExotic Animals Should Not Be Kept as Pets   \nWhy We Need a Girls' Football Team\n\n#  **7.11 Expecting Respect**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will state at least two techniques to help get the respect of an audience.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nNot everyone is a dynamic public speaker, but there are some techniques that can help shape the audience's expectation toward a speaker. Teachers know that sometimes giving the class the \"silent treatment\" can be an effective way to gain its attention. Several techniques mentioned in this lesson include waiting for the audience to be quiet, using eye contact, interacting with the audience, and having a sincere, serious demeanor\u2014expect the audience to respect you!\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students give examples of different types of audiences and speakers they have observed during the past week. 2. Write the words **Respectful** and **Not Respectful** on the board. Underneath each, have students list examples of audience behavior from (1) that showed either respect or lack of respect toward the speaker.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to read the four techniques on the worksheet \"Expecting Respect\" that a speaker can use to obtain respect from the audience. The student is to first indicate (Yes\/No) whether or not the speaker is behaving in such a way that he or she expects respect. Second, the student is to indicate which technique is illustrated. _Answers:_ A. No, 1 B. Yes, 3 C. No, 4 D. No, 2\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nGo through each illustration to determine what the speaker could have done to improve the attention and respect of the audience.\n\n1. In situation A, what are several things the speaker could do to get the attention of the audience? (Say \"Listen, please\"; stop talking; make a joke; and so on.) 2. In situation B, how did the speaker include the audience in her comments? (Talked about what had happened to them.) 3. How else did the speaker in situation B get the audience's attention? (Showed a chart.) 4. Do you think the speaker in situation C had the attention of the audience? Do you think he had the respect of the audience? 5. In situation D, if the speaker had looked up, what would he have noticed? (The audience was bored.) 6. What else could have been improved to get the audience's respect in situation D? (Shorten the list.) 7. What techniques do your teachers use to get the class's attention and respect?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. While students are practicing their speech, tell them to include several checkpoints on their note cards at the points when they should make sure they have eye contact with someone in the audience. 2. Assign students to observe a speech on television (perhaps a TV preacher, politician, or special lecture). Have students jot down audience reactions that show the audience is attentive and respectful to the speaker (or not). What specific techniques do the students observe the speaker doing to get respect?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List two behaviors a speaker can use to try to get the respect of an audience. 2. Write a paragraph explaining why it is important to have the attention and respect of an audience.\n\n**Name ____ Date ____**\n\n**7.11 Expecting Respect**\n\n**Directions:** You want your audience to respect you while you are giving your speech. Read the techniques for getting your audience to respect you. Then look at the following situations. (1) Write Yes or No to show whether the speaker is expecting respect. (2) Then write the number (1, 2, 3, 4) of the technique illustrated.\n\n1. Wait for the audience to give you its attention.\n\n2. Use eye contact with your audience.\n\n3. Interact with the audience by including questions or comments about them.\n\n4. Be sincere and serious.\n\n#  **7.12 Being Convincing**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will give at least two examples of convincing arguments to back up his or her opinion.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nIn some cases, the audience that needs to be convinced of something may be a parent, friend, or stranger. Some techniques that can help strengthen a position include: being enthusiastic, using logic, being interesting, and showing how one's position will benefit the audience or other person.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students list five things of which they wish they could convince their parents, teacher, or a rich relative. This may be an idea, an event, or purchase. 2. Have students list ways they could try to convince the people in (1) to agree with their position.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nOn the worksheet \"Being Convincing,\" students are to read the techniques for being convincing and then match the technique with the situation illustrated. _Answers:_ A. 4 B. 2 C. 1 D. 3\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nThe audience in these examples consists of a single person, rather than a group. However, the principles can apply to any situation in which one person is trying to convince another.\n\n1. How much of a role does sincerity play in trying to convince someone else of something? Is it more convincing if you act as though you truly believe in what you are saying? 2. Do you feel that someone who is very convincing usually believes in what he or she is saying? 3. If you know that someone is trying to sell you something (which is a form of convincing), what might you be cautious about? (Trying to figure out what the salesperson gains from this; being aware that he or she is looking out for his or her own interests too.) 4. What are some occupations that are based on being a good convincer? (Sales, law.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Videotape and view ten television commercials. For each, discuss: (a) Who is the target audience? (b) What is the ad trying to sell?, and (c) What techniques for convincing are used? 2. Have students write and perform skits in which they demonstrate their ability to be convincing. Skits could include: (a) convince parents to let them stay out past midnight; (b) convince a sister\/brother to let them borrow items such as clothes, CDs, magazines, cash; and (c) convince a teacher to put off a huge assignment until the next week. 3. Have students design a product and write a commercial to try to sell it to an audience. Videotape the commercials, if possible. Discuss what techniques were used. Evaluate how convincing is the commercial.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List two techniques that can be used to convince someone else to agree with your position.\n\n2. Describe your favorite commercial. Explain how it is convincing and what techniques it has used to convince and appeal to you.\n\n **Name ____ Date ____**\n\n**7.12 Being Convincing**\n\n**Directions:** Read the technique for convincing your audience to agree with you. Write the number of the technique (1, 2, 3, 4) that is illustrated in each situation.\n\n1. Be enthusiastic!\n\n2. Use logic or common sense.\n\n3. Be interesting.\n\n4. Show how your ideas will benefit the audience.\n\n#  **7.13 Giving Your Speech**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will give a three- to five-minute speech on an appropriate topic.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nBy the time this lesson is reached, the student should be well prepared to give his or her presentation to an audience. The important points are not only the delivery of the speech, but also how well the ideas are expressed to the audience. Because it is assumed that everyone will participate, an evaluation form is provided with space for each student to do a self-evaluation as well as view comments from a peer and teacher.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students list factors they think are important when evaluating a speech or speaker. (Well prepared, good eye contact, other ideas from previous lessons.)\n\n2. Have students give ideas for how a self-evaluation could be helpful in assessing a speech.\n\n3. Have students give ideas for how having a peer do an evaluation could be helpful.\n\n4. Have students give ideas for how a teacher's input could be helpful in evaluating a speech.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nBecause this is quite an involved activity, the following order of events may be helpful:\n\n1. Give each student a time at which he or she will be expected to present the speech to the class.\n\n2. Review the items on worksheet 7.10 \"Public Speaking\" to make sure everyone is reasonably prepared.\n\n3. Go over the items on the evaluation form \"Giving Your Speech.\" You may want to pair students to do each other's student evaluations. Make sure students understand what is expected for an \"Excellent,\" \"Good,\" \"Fair,\" and \"Poor\" rating. Students doing the evaluation are to indicate their rating in the appropriate box. Short comments would be appropriate.\n\n4. If possible, plan to videotape the speeches, as this will be helpful when reviewing the ratings and the comments.\n\n5. After the student has given his or her speech, the student should complete the self-evaluation portion of the worksheet immediately. The selected peer should also complete the evaluation at that time. This may be done on a separate sheet of paper and the results later transferred to the main sheet. Likewise, the teacher evaluation should be completed and transferred so that all information is in one place.\n\n_Materials:_ pen or pencil, videotaping equipment, sufficient copies of the evaluation sheet so that students and teacher have copies to complete\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nAfter students have participated in the activity by giving their speeches, distribute the evaluation forms (which now should have all respondents' comments attached and\/or transferred to one main sheet). If students feel comfortable with this, play the videotape of their performance while discussing each presentation.\n\n1. Which of your ratings (self-, peer, teacher) tended to be the highest? Which the lowest?\n\n2. What would you change about your presentation?\n\n3. What ideas did you get from listening to the speeches of other people about what to do or what not to do?\n\n4. Do you feel you effectively communicated what you wanted to say?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students work in small groups to prepare a speech or presentation for specific groups\u2014a kindergarten class about drug awareness, a commercial to another class, a short play or skit for parents, and so on.\n\n2. Divide students into two groups to take a pro (for) side of an issue and a con (against) side. Have them come up with logical arguments and try to present each side clearly and effectively. Evaluate the effectiveness of the speech using the evaluation sheet from this lesson.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List two or three things you felt went particularly well with your speech.\n\n2. List two or three things you feel could be improved with your speech. How could you specifically change things to make these improvements?\n\n3. Write a short paragraph explaining the value of having a self-, peer, and teacher evaluation done on the same speech.\n\n **Name ____ Date ____**\n\n**7.13 Giving Your Speech**\n\n**Directions:** Read this evaluation form before you give your speech. You will evaluate yourself on the performance, have at least one peer evaluate your speech, and have your teacher complete an evaluation.\n\n**Ratings:** Excellent Good Fair Poor\n\n**Part Three**\n\n**Academic and School Skills**\n**Chapter 8**\n\n**Reading Skills**\n\n#  **8.1 Reading for School**\n\n**Objective:** The student will give examples of reading tasks in various school subjects.\n\n**Comments:** Reading is a vital skill (in some respect) in every subject at school. Whether rules to a game, a summary of a class, or textbook information, reading is required in order to fully gain the information available.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students list reading skills involved in their academic classes.\n\n2. Have students list reading skills involved in nonacademic classes (for example, art, music, P.E.).\n\n **Activity:** Students are to match the reading activity with its appropriate class.\n\n_Answers:_ 1. d 2. a 3. c 4. b 5. h 6. g 7. e 8. f\n\n**Discussion:** Have students discuss the items on the worksheet. They may or may not be typical of reading assignments for their classes, but students should be able to identify the type of class with which they would be paired.\n\n1. What alternatives to reading assignments are provided in some classes? (Taped books, oral discussions, making projects, and so on.)\n\n2. How essential of a skill do you think reading is when you consider your classes? (Probably depends on the class and teacher.)\n\n3. Do you think there are any classes in which the skill of reading is not a part or plays a minimal role? (Perhaps music, other arts classes.)\n\n4. What provisions are made for students who have a lot of trouble with reading? (Partner-readers, books of a lower reading level, alternative assignments, and so on.)\n\n5. Do some people learn better from hearing material rather than having to read it? Do you think it is still important for these people to be able to read?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students make their own matching activity including typical reading assignments from classes they are currently taking. Students can exchange papers.\n\n2. Have students calculate how much time (in minutes) is spent in direct reading activities for selected classes. For example, would you expect that a great percentage of time is spent reading (or on reading tasks) in Literature rather than P.E.? Take one designated day and keep a chart of the results. Any surprises?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Give an example of a reading task for several of your school subjects. (Teacher may want to specify how many and which classes.)\n\n2. Write a paragraph stating your opinion about the importance of reading in a particular class.\n\n **Name ____ Date ____**\n\n**8.1 Reading for School**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nMatch the reading activity with the class for which it might be required.\n\n___| 1.| Read the biography of a famous composer.| a.| Physical Education  \n---|---|---|---|---  \n___| 2.| Read the rules for how to play tennis.| b.| World History  \n___| 3.| Read the instructions for dissecting a frog.| c.| Biology  \n___| 4.| Read about weapons used in World War I.| d.| Music  \n___| 5.| Read the instructions for playing a game using a certain disk.| e.| Math  \nf.| Foreign Language  \n___| 6.| Read a short story.  \ng.| Language Arts  \n___| 7.| Read examples of how to solve a word problem.  \nh.| Computer Science  \n___| 8.| Read rules for which French words to capitalize.\n\n#  **8.2 Reading on the Job**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify reading tasks necessary or helpful for specific jobs or careers.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nThere are tasks involved with almost any type of job that requires reading. True, some people can perform a job once they have learned how to do it without referring to a manual, but at some point reading is a part of acquiring knowledge about the job. Students are to think of ways that reading is a part of either performing a job or of more efficiently performing that job.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\na. Have students list ten occupations that require reading. b. Have students list three to five occupations they feel do not require a lot of reading.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nThe student will consider a list of common jobs and list possible reading tasks that would be important to complete the job. _Answers (Examples):_ 1. Being able to read the orders 2. Following instructions for feeding and exercise 3. Road signs 4. Alphabetizing names 5. Reading about the effects of medicine 6. Reading descriptions of the parts 7. Reading about the chemicals that are ingredients in some of the products 8. Following recipes\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nStudents can discuss the different reading tasks they thought of for each of the jobs listed. Additional discussion questions include:\n\n1. Can you think of any jobs that don't require any reading at all? 2. What type of reading materials would there be that a person could use to improve his or her skills? (Manuals, extra skills training, and so on.) 3. Which of the jobs on the worksheet also involved writing? (1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8; possibly 3.) 4. What are some jobs primarily based on reading? (Book editor, novelist, jobs for gathering information and research, and so on.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. \"Job shadow\" a parent or individual you know well. Find out what reading tasks are involved in his or her job. Is the reading task a vital part of the job? 2. Make a game along the lines of Twenty Questions, only using reading tasks as clues. Appropriate questions might include: \"Do you read street signs on your job?\" \"Do you read from a dictionary on your job?\" \"Do you read papers written by students?\" and so on.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List five jobs performed by someone you know. List two reading tasks involved for each.\n\n2. Write a paragraph describing a job you are interested in doing someday as a career. What reading tasks would be involved?\n\n **Name ____ Date ____**\n\n**8.2 Reading on the Job**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nLook through the following list of jobs. What are some reading tasks that would be required or important in order to do each job well? Write your ideas on the lines.\n\n1. Working at a drive-up window at a fast-food restaurant\n\n2. Taking care of cats and dogs at a kennel\n\n3. Driving a truck across the country\n\n4. Being a secretary\n\n5. Being a doctor for children\n\n6. Placing orders for computer parts ordered by customers\n\n7. Running a beauty salon\n\n8. Preparing food for a catering service\n\n#  **8.3 Improving Reading Skills**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify three to five ways to improve his or her reading skills.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nThe best way to improve reading skills is to read, read, read. There are specific skills good readers have acquired, and students who would like to improve their skills can follow the model of good readers and read \"smarter.\" In this lesson, specific reading skills and ways to acquire them are discussed.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students rate themselves on their reading ability, from 0 (poor) to 5 (excellent).\n\n2. Have students list specific things about reading they find difficult, or specific reading tasks they have trouble with (for example, outlining, answering questions, understanding words, and so on).\n\n3. Have students estimate how much time (in hours or minutes) they think they spend in a day on reading activities.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nOn the worksheet \"Improving Reading Skills,\" students are to match a given reading skill with an example that shows how that skill might be taught. Be sure students understand the skills before completing the worksheet. _Skills:_ sequencing\u2014putting events in order; following directions\u2014completing a task as specified; vocabulary (meanings)\u2014identifying what a word means, synonyms, opposites, and so on; identifying new words\u2014looking up the definition of a highlighted word; word attack\u2014using phonics or decoding skills to pronounce or \"take apart\" a word; comprehension\u2014understanding what was read, being able to summarize and remember.\n\n_Answers:_ 1. e 2. a 3. d 4. b 5. f 6. c\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nThere are many specific reading skills. Likewise, there are many ways to acquire these skills. Have students do some thinking to devise ways to become a better reader. After reviewing the worksheet, go over the following questions:\n\n1. What is the purpose of \"word attack\" skills? (To help identify unfamiliar words.)\n\n2. Does being able to pronounce a word help you understand the word? (Yes, if you would have known the word when you heard it read aloud.)\n\n3. What are some tasks you perform in school that require following directions? (Cooking, workshop, projects.)\n\n4. What are some problems that could come up if you don't follow the directions carefully?\n\n5. How would knowing synonyms and antonyms help you with reading? (Identify many more words, clarify meaning of what you read.)\n\n6. What are some ways you can figure out the meanings of unfamiliar words without looking them up in the dictionary? (Context, word attack skills to pronounce them, and so on.)\n\n7. What are some tasks that must be performed in a certain sequence? (Building, cooking, driving a car, dressing, and so on.)\n\n8. What are some classes that require reading of material and then responding to comprehension questions? (Science, social studies, and so on.)\n\n9. What are some ways to help remember the core or essence of what you have read, particularly if it was quite lengthy? (Take notes, outline, jot down important details.)\n\n10. Why is it important to know synonyms and antonyms of common words? Why can 't everything just be \"big\" or \"good\" if that's what you mean? (Makes more interesting reading to use different, more specific words; word choice also reflects more accurately what you mean.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Keep a reading log for a week or two. How much time do you spend on reading? You might wish to have a separate \"pleasure reading\" journal in which you record the number of minutes spent on a daily basis.\n\n2. Read different types of material. Make a list of at least ten different types\u2014encyclopedia, newspaper, news magazine, directions for a task, and so on. Spend thirty minutes a day reading something you normally do not read.\n\n3. Improve your vocabulary. There are self-help workbooks that concentrate on knowing word meanings and how words are used.\n\n4. Tape-record yourself reading a passage orally. Practice reading fluently and clearly.\n\n5. Browse through a volume of an encyclopedia. Find some topics that catch your interest and spend some time reading.\n\n6. Get a book of crossword puzzles, word searches, and other word game activities. Work on them daily.\n\n7. Practice skimming textbook material before you read. Look it over, read the headings, and form questions in your mind about what the content will be about. Then as you read, look for answers to your questions.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Identify five reading skills and briefly explain what is involved in each.\n\n2. For each of the skills you identified in (1), give one example of where or how you would use it in school and everyday life.\n\n3. List two skills in which you feel you could improve and write a possible plan for improving those skills.\n\n **Name ____ Date ____**\n\n**8.3 Improving Reading Skills**\n\n**Directions:** Here is a list of six important reading skills. Read each of the following examples and match it with the letter of the reading skill involved.\n\na. sequencing\n\nb. following directions\n\nc. vocabulary (meanings)\n\nd. identifying new words\n\ne. word attack\n\nf. comprehension\n\n_**Example 1.**_ Circle the consonant blend in each word: trap block street friend thick\n\nReading skill ___\n\n_**Example 2.**_ Tom wanted to build a doghouse. First he made a list of the materials he would need. He figured out how much it would cost. Then he went to the lumber yard and placed his order. After getting his tools together, he and his father began to work on the project. A few hours later, Rover had a new home. What were the steps involved in making a doghouse?\n\nReading skill ___\n\n_**Example 3.**_ We went to the zoo to take a look at a marsupial. It was really cute. What is a marsupial?\n\nReading skill ___\n\n_**Example 4.**_ When you make your map, put a key in one corner that tells what your symbols mean. Use a * to indicate a capital city. Use blue to show water. Be sure to include a compass to show the directions.\n\nReading skill ___\n\n_**Example 5.**_ Archery is a popular sport that involves shooting with a bow and arrow. In target archery, the archer tries to score points by hitting a target as close to the center as possible. If the archer hits the middle, he or she would score 10 points. That is called a bull's-eye. What is target archery?\n\nReading skill ___\n\n_**Example 6.**_\n\nWhat is the opposite of: direct large heavy\n\nWhat is a synonym for: tired cold happy\n\nReading skill ___\n\n#  **8.4 Reading for Comprehension**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify specific comprehension skills when given examples.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nWe often ask students, \"Did you understand what you read?\" and accept a nod of the head. When probed, however, the student may not be able to tell anything about what he or she just read. There are many different ways to view \"understanding\" of what you read; comprehension can encompass a lot of skills, from remembering specific details to being able to state the main idea in a few words. It is helpful to be precise with students as to what type of comprehension skill you are focusing on.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students to discuss a movie or book that most or all of them have read or viewed. Ask them to tell you what the subject was about using only one sentence. Connect this to the idea of \"main idea.\"\n\n2. Now ask students to tell what happened in the movie or book, in order. Connect this to the idea of \"sequencing.\"\n\n3. Continue by asking students to answer who, what, where, when, why, and how questions in the movie or book. Connect this to the idea of \"important details.\"\n\n4. Ask students to state whether or not they liked the movie or book. Talk about their reasons that helped them come to a decision. Connect this to the idea of forming a \"conclusion.\"\n\n5. Have students describe the movie in a short paragraph. Connect this to the idea of \"summarizing.\"\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nWrite the terms _main idea, sequencing, details, conclusion_ , and _summarizing_ on the board. Explain that the activity \"Reading for Comprehension\" will involve understanding and identifying these terms.\n\n_Answers:_ 1. Important details 2. Summarizing 3. Sequencing 4. Conclusion 5. Main idea\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nExplain that there are many different ways to show that you comprehend or understand what you have read. When you give the students an assignment, also give them a clue as to how they will be expected to demonstrate their understanding.\n\n1. In example 1, why were the details important? (Those are the clues that lead up to revealing the killer.)\n\n2. If I had asked for the name of the murder victim, what type of comprehension skill would that show? (Conclusion.)\n\n3. In example 2, what comprehension skill was demonstrated? (Summarizing.)\n\n4. What are some other school assignments that would use summarizing as a comprehension skill? (Giving a book report, describing something in a written report.)\n\n5. Example 3 uses the skill of sequencing. What other tasks would be important to do in a particular order? (Anything that is assembled, describing events that take place over several days.)\n\n6. How does example 4 lead the person to come to a conclusion? (He has to read and understand facts, then put them together to come to a single answer or decision.)\n\n7. What are some other tasks that involve considering several things before coming to one conclusion? (Deciding on a menu, playing chess, taking a test.)\n\n8. The last example describes using the main idea to tell about a book. Why does a main idea need to be kept short? (You are trying to hit the highlight of the book, not tell every detail.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. As students are given various reading assignments, have them predict what type of comprehension skill might best fit the assignment. For example, when you have them read a short story, discuss they might use the skills of summarizing, sequencing, or main idea to give feedback on the story.\n\n2. Discuss other comprehension skills such as paraphrasing, predicting, using vocabulary skills, reading between the lines (inferring, deducing), and using cloze (fill-in-the-blank) techniques.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Give an example of an event or activity that has to be done in a specific sequence. List the steps in that event.\n\n2. Write the main idea of a book that you have read recently or a movie that you have seen.\n\n **Name ____ Date ____**\n\n**8.4 Reading for Comprehension**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nThese students are reading items for a specific purpose. Fill in the blanks with the reading skill that each student is using.\n\nMain idea   \nSequencing   \nImportant details   \nConclusion   \nSummarizing\n\n1. I have to read this murder mystery to find out who the killer is. I know I will have to pay attention to all of the little clues that are given. I really have to use the skill of paying attention to **_____** when I read this.\n\n2. I am reading five short paragraphs that each explain interesting habits of endangered animals around the world. I am going to tell the class five things about the animals. I am not going to tell every single detail because that would take too long. Instead, I will be _____ each paragraph.\n\n3. I am reading a book on how to make an aquarium. I know that I have to assemble a lot of things, but it's really important that I do it in the right order. I know I won't get the fish first\u2014I'll get them last! I am using the skill of _____.\n\n4. I am reading a pamphlet that gives two sides of an issue in our community\u2014how to use some land near the downtown area. One person believes that our community needs a new parking lot. The other person thinks that the land should be used to make a new park. I am going to read both sides and then I will decide what I think is the best way to use the land. I will come to my own _____.\n\n5. I have been reading a long book with many chapters in it. My friends have been asking me what the book is about since I love it and I can't put it down. I don't want to give away anything that would ruin the story for them, but I want to tell them just very generally what the book is about.\n\nI will tell them the _____.\n\n#  **8.5 Following Written Directions**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will recognize whether or not a character has followed a written direction.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nMany directions come in the form of a written explanation, list, or assignment that, in turn, must be read and understood. In this lesson, students are given examples of people who have been given a written direction and must decide after reading the item whether or not the person read, understood, and followed the written direction.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\nInform students that for the next five minutes they are allowed to communicate only by writing on a piece of paper. Hand out blank paper, set a timer, and spend the next few minutes watching students experience communicating through the written word.\n\nWrite instructions for students on the board; for example: (1) go to your desk; (2) get out your reading book; (3) turn to page 50; (4) count how many times you see the word \"the\" on that page; (5) write that number on a piece of paper, circle it, and hold it up high.\n\nDiscuss how well students were able to follow written directions from these activities.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nOn the worksheet \"Following Written Direction,\" students are to decide whether or not the people on the worksheet followed the written directions and indicate their answer by writing Yes or No next to the items. _Answers:_ 1. No\u2014she did not follow the directions right away. 2. Yes\u2014he mailed the form in within the thirty-day period. 3. Yes\u2014she responded right away. 4. Yes\u2014he moved the car to a safe street. 5. No\u2014they skipped the waiting part. 6. Yes\u2014he got gas using the money left for him.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nOn the worksheet, it appears that the people were all able to read the instructions, but not all of them followed the instructions. Discuss why it is important (even urgent in some cases) to follow the instructions exactly as written.\n\n1. In example 1, why didn't Tamara follow the instructions exactly? (She did other things first.) 2. Why do you think her mother wanted the hamburger taken out right away? (Might take awhile for it to thaw.) 3. In example 2, what was the written direction for Jeff to follow? (Mail the proof of purchase to the company.) 4. Why is it important to send in information like that on time? (The products are only under warranty for a specified length of time.) 5. How does using e-mail make it easy to respond to a written request as in example 3? (Very little effort is required to respond.) 6. In example 4, what might have happened if Jason didn't follow the instruction? (His car might have been towed.) 7. In example 5, what happened because the girls didn't follow the instruction? (The cake didn't turn out the way it should have.) 8. In example 6, what might have happened if Tony didn't read the instruction left for him? (He might have skipped mowing the lawn, asked his parents for money for gas.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Assign students the task of finding five examples of written directions that they have seen or followed that day in school or around the house. 2. Have students write specific directions for someone else to read and follow. Choose a topic of interest to the students such as how to do\/make\/play something or how to get to their house from the school.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Give an example of a written direction that you have been given. 2. Give a reason why it is important to follow the above direction carefully.\n\n**8.5 Following Written Directions**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nWrite Y for Yes or N for No on the line if the person followed the written direction in each situation below.\n\n___ 1. Tamara picked up a note on the refrigerator from her mother that said: \"Please take the hamburger out of the freezer as soon as you get home from school.\" She did her homework, called a friend, and then took the hamburger out.\n\n___ 2. Jeff got a new digital camera. It came with a warranty that said: \"Mail this proof of purchase form with your sales receipt within 30 days of purchase.\" The following weekend he took a lot of pictures of the neighborhood on his way to the mailbox to send in the form.\n\n___ 3. Alyssa got an e-mail from a friend that said: \"Don't forget we are having a book club discussion at my house tomorrow. Let me know today if you are coming.\" Alyssa clicked Reply, typed \"yes,\" clicked Send, and then went to get a drink of water.\n\n___ 4. Jason usually parked in his car on South Street, but there was a sign nailed to a post that said: \"No parking today\u2014special event.\" He moved his car to North Street.\n\n___ 5. Jamie and Karissa wanted to surprise their friend with a homemade birthday cake, so they got an old family recipe that their great-grandma used to use for special parties. One part said: \"Mix all of the ingredients together in a big bowl and set aside for 30 minutes.\" They were in a hurry, so they decided to just go ahead and put it into the oven. The cake came out flat and mushy.\n\n___ 6. Tony was taking care of the neighbor's yard while they were gone. They left instructions that said: \"You will have to get some gas for the lawn mower. We' ll leave you some money in an envelope by the door.\" Tony found the money, picked up a red gas can, and walked two blocks to the service station to get the gas.\n**Chapter 9**\n\n**Writing Skills**\n\n#  **9.1 Communicating Through Writing**\n\n**Objective:** The student will list and explain common forms of communication using writing.\n\n**Comments:** Writing is communicating. A simple model of this process is: writer\u2014message\u2014receiver. In this lesson, the student is to identify some types of writing that are directed to a receiver.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students list three things they have written lately.\n\n2. Have students list three people to whom or for whom they have written something in the past week. What were the messages or assignments?\n\n **Activity:** On the worksheet \"Communicating Through Writing,\" students are given a task involving some form of writing. They are to identify what type of writing (for example, message, report, application) is required and who is the receiver of the message.\n\n_Answers:_ (examples) 1. Personal letter\/Aunt Edna 2. Report\/teacher 3. Job application\/manager 4. Short message\/mother 5. Business note\/company 6. Book report\/teacher\n\n**Discussion:** There are many ways in which we communicate with each other through writing. Some may be quick and short-lived\u2014a message jotted down, a comment; others are meant to endure\u2014a special letter, a speech, and so on. Discuss with students how the type of writing and the message should fit the situation.\n\n1. Which of the forms of communication are you most likely to use?\n\n2. Which types of writing are the most formal? (Business application, report.)\n\n3. What special considerations would you give to a more formal type of writing? (Check for neatness, spelling, and so on.)\n\n4. Does knowing who will receive the message change the way you would write the message? (Probably\u2014if it is someone you know well, you would not have to be so formal.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students collect examples of formal writing such as job applications, business letters, and reports.\n\n2. Have students research guidelines for writing different types of letters\u2014business letters, friendly letters, thank-you notes, and so on. Then compile examples of each.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List five examples of types of written communication.\n\n2. Identify the examples in (1) as either formal or informal.\n\n3. Specify a likely recipient of the message in each example.\n\n **Name ____ Date ____**\n\n**9.1 Communicating Through Writing**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nThe following tasks involve writing. For each task, write an example of what type of writing might be used, such as a message, research paper, and so on. Then write who the information is directed to (received by), such as a teacher, parent, friend, and so on.\n\n**Task** | **Type of Writing** | **Received By**  \n---|---|---  \n1.| You want to let your Aunt Edna know how you are doing in school.| |   \n2.| You need to write a report about the political history of Haiti.| |   \n3.| You want to apply for a job at a restaurant.| |   \n4.| You should let your mother know you' re going out for a few hours.| |   \n5.| You want to receive information from a company about its free offer.| |   \n6.| You want to give your opinion about a book.| |\n\n#  **9.2 Everyday Writing Tasks**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify five to ten everyday writing tasks.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nMost students will face several types of writing tasks throughout the day. Writing is involved in simple tasks such as taking a phone message or writing yourself a note to remember something. This lesson provides the student with many examples of how writing is part of everyday life.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students list three to five common writing activities they perform at school. 2. Have students list three to five common writing activities they might perform at home or for pleasure.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nThe student will read a short story about a girl's activities at school and home. The student will list common examples of writing tasks that the girl encountered during the day. _Answers:_ 1. History outline 2. Write poem summary 3. Note to friend 4. Shopping list 5. Office form 6. Job application 7. Paragraph about self 8. Phone message 9. Address for information 10. Science questions 11. Thank-you note 12. Journal\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nThis was probably not a completely \"typical day,\" but there are many common examples of writing in this activity. Have students compare answers.\n\n1. How many of your common writing activities are done with pen or pencil? Do you use a word processor for many of your tasks? 2. What additional \"everyday writing tasks\" could you add to this list? (Assignment sheet, other notes and assignments.) 3. Do you think writing is more difficult than reading for most people? Why\/why not? (Writing may require more effort; it is self-generated, active, and so on.) 4. Which of the examples on the worksheet could be considered more formal? Which would be more informal?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students interview a parent or adult. What typical writing activities are part of their everyday life? How does this differ\u2014or overlap\u2014with a student's writing activities? 2. Have students spend time in the computer lab developing word-processing skills. Record improvement in rate and accuracy of typing!\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List at least five everyday writing tasks that would be performed at home, school, and\/or work.\n\n2. Write a paragraph explaining how you feel about one of the following topics:\n\n\u2022 Importance of Writing vs. Reading as a School Skill\n\n\u2022 Importance of Word Processing vs. Handwriting\n\n\u2022 Writing Skills of the Twenty-First Century\n\n **Name ____ Date ___**\n\n**9.2 Everyday Writing Tasks**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nRead the following short story. List as many examples of everyday writing tasks as you can find. Use the back of this sheet if you need more space to write.\n\nSara got up one morning and gathered her books for school. First hour, she had U.S. History. \"Take out your outlines of Chapter 3,\" the teacher said. Sara handed hers in.\n\nSecond hour, she went to English. The assignment was to write a summary of a poem they had read. Sara spent about an hour working on that.\n\nLater in the day, she had a study hall. \"I want to make sure that Mike doesn't wait for me after school,\" she thought, dashing off a quick note for her friend Ellen to deliver to Mike. She decided she would use the rest of her study hall time making a list of ingredients she would need to pick up at the store to make chocolate chip cookies for her parents.\n\nAt lunch, she got her books and filled out a form at the office that stated she could leave early. She had an interview at the local veterinarian clinic for a part-time job.\n\nShe filled out a job application at the clinic. At the bottom was the question: \"What special qualities do you have that you think would make you a good applicant for this job?\" She thought for a minute, then wrote about her experiences taking care of animals for her parents' friends while they were on vacation.\n\nAfter the interview, Sara went shopping, then home. The phone rang and the call was for her brother, Terry, as usual. She wrote the message and left it taped to Terry's bedroom door.\n\nThen Sara began baking the cookies with the television on in the background. She watched a program about underprivileged kids and ways to help them. An address flashed across the screen at the end that showed where you could write for more information. She jotted down the address.\n\nSara's mother came in. \"Hi, Sara,\" she called. \"Here's a letter for you from Aunt Carol. There's some money in it, too, for your birthday.\"\n\nAfter supper, Sara finished her homework\u2014answering questions from the science book\u2014and then wrote a thank-you note to Aunt Carol. Before going to bed, she pulled out her journal and wrote about her busy day.\n\n#  **9.3 Proofreading**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify several important features to proofread when reviewing written material.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nWhen writing, particularly on more formal pieces of writing, students should take care to avoid mistakes. Not only will mistakes result in a poor grade, but they can also change the meaning of a message. Proofreading can help the student be aware of common mistakes that should be avoided.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students volunteer to tell about writing mistakes for which they have been corrected recently; for example, spelling, paragraphs, punctuation, and so on.\n\n2. Have students come up with a working definition for proofreading. (Reading something written and making corrections.)\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nOn the worksheet \"Proofreading,\" students are given several examples of ways to make their writing clear. Make sure students understand why writing should be: (1) neat\u2014so it can be read; (2) well-organized\u2014so the message makes sense; (3) appropriate\u2014the style should be suitable for the receiver; (4) spelled correctly; (5) correct as far as punctuation and capitalization; and (6) written in clear sentences\u2014again, so that the message is easy to understand. In this lesson, students are to circle the letter of the illustration that demonstrates the example.\n\n_Answers:_ 1. A 2. B 3. B 4. A 5. A 6. B\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nStudents should explain why the illustration they chose demonstrates good proofreading and why the other illustration is incorrect.\n\n1. On what writing tasks should you go to the time and trouble of proofreading? Would you bother with a shopping list? What about a letter to the President of the United States?\n\n2. How important is correct spelling? What does this convey to the receiver? (On a formal piece of writing, it is extremely important; it conveys accuracy, professionalism, and knowledge!)\n\n3. How does a \"sloppy copy\" (first draft) help when you are expected to write something formal? (Lets you get your ideas out without worrying about being perfect the first time.)\n\n4. If you know you have trouble with spelling, what are ways you can help yourself avoid these mistakes? (Keep a personal list of difficult words, get familiar with a dictionary, have someone proofread your writing, and so on.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students find and become familiar with proofreaders' marks. (These can be found in most dictionaries. They show symbols that are used to indicate changes in a piece of writing. Some that are appropriate would be indicating a new paragraph, inserting or deleting words, and using capital letters.) Prepare several pieces of writing with obvious mistakes and have students use proofreaders' marks to indicate corrections.\n\n2. Make a classroom list of \"spelling demons\"\u2014words that give students trouble! Post the list in a prominent place in the room. Students may also keep their own personal list of words that give them trouble.\n\n3. Offer students the opportunity to work on spelling skills. Share \"tricks\" (such as mnemonic devices) for remembering hard words.\n\n4. Have students exchange papers often and search for corrections in each other's writing. You may want to prepare a checklist of items to consider, such as the items on the worksheet. After checking, students should initial each item to show they examined it.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Write a paragraph that explains the importance of proofreading something you have written.\n\n2. List at least five items you should consider when proofreading a piece of writing.\n\n **Name ____ Date ____**\n\n**9.3 Proofreading**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nThe following are examples of ways to make your writing as good as you can make it. For each one, circle the letter for the illustration that better demonstrates the example.\n\n#  **9.4 E-mailing Dos and Don'ts**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will state five common courtesy tips to use when using e-mail.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nThe use of online communication is increasing every day. Terms like _chat_ (real-time conversations), _texting_ (brief electronic messages sent by cell phones or other devices), and _IMing_ (spontaneous instant messaging\u2014another real-time communication feature between others who are a \"buddy list \") are part of most teens' conversations. Although most e-mails can be informal and fun, there is still a need to be familiar with a few basic rules of courtesy when using e-mail, especially when e-mailing an adult or regarding a job, or when the communication is a bit more formal.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Raise your hand if you know what e-mail stands for. (Electronic mail.)\n\n2. Raise your hand if you know what IM stands for. (Instant messaging.)\n\n3. Raise your hand if you have ever texted someone. (Message via a keyboard from an electronic device.)\n\n4. Raise your hand if you know what KPC means. (Keeping Parents Clueless.)\n\n5. What is meant by \"netiquette\"? (Using etiquette or good manners when using the Internet.)\n\n6. Can you think of any examples of bad manners using e-mail or other communication on the Internet?\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nPass out the worksheet \"E-mailing Dos and Don'ts\" to the students and review the seven rules on good manners for using e-mail. Have students match the numbered examples with the letters of the rules.\n\n_Answers:_ 1. f 2. d 3. b 4. a 5. f 6. c 7. e\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nMake sure that students understand the difference between informally e-mailing a friend and using e-mail to contact and communicate with someone with a more formal purpose.\n\n1. In example 1, the person received an e-mail chain letter. What are some examples of chains or forwards that you have seen? Why are they annoying?\n\n2. In example 2, the e-mail is all in caps. Why can this be rude? (It is harder to read, it gives the impression the writer is shouting.)\n\n3. In example 3, the girl was in a bad mood when she wrote the e-mail, and even worse, she was wrong. How could this have been prevented? (Find out the facts first; stop and think before sending an emotional message.)\n\n4. In example 4, how could the subject line be shortened? (Plans for tomorrow.)\n\n5. In example 5, what was the beginning of this embarrassing moment? Could the person have prevented it? (The photograph was embarrassing to the person, but the one who sent out the e -mail is the one who broke the rule: he or she could have asked for permission before circulating the picture. )\n\n6. What is the problem in example 6? (Document is too long for e-mail.) What could the sender use instead? (Type it up on a word-processing program and send it as an attachment.)\n\n7. What is the problem in example 7? (The person did not use a spell check, and the position he wants involves proofreading.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students research common hoaxes or myths that are circulated on the Internet. It can be fun to find out about some outrageous claims that might actually be true. Sources such as www.urbanlegends.com, www.mythbusters.com, or www.snopes.com are helpful and very interesting!\n\n2. Acronyms are used as shortcuts for writing when using e-mail. Collect and list some common or interesting acronyms. Realize that even though they are fun to use, the recipients of some e-mails may not have a clue what you are talking about and think it is a foreign language. My favorite new acronym is BOCTAAE (\"But of course there are always exceptions\"). The website www.netlingo.com is very helpful.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Why shouldn't you use all capital letters when sending an e-mail to someone?\n\n2. Why should you be careful when you send a forward or attachment to others?\n\n **Name ____ Date ___**\n\n**9.4 E-mailing Dos and Don'ts**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nReview the netiquette list of good behavior when e-mailing. Which rule is violated in the following examples?\n\na. Keep the subject line short and to the point.\n\nb. Don't write or send an e-mail when you are in a bad mood.\n\nc. Keep your e-mails brief.\n\nd. Don't use uppercase letters unless you want to indicate great emphasis, as if you're shouting.\n\ne. Use spell check.\n\nf. Think before forwarding attachments (hoaxes, jokes).\n\ng. E-mails are not private.\n\n__ 1. _Oh great! Another stupid chain letter. If I don't forward this to five people within ten minutes, I will break my arm._\n\n__ 2. E-mail: ARE YOU GOING TO COME OVER TO MY PARTY TONIGHT? DON\"T FORGET TO BRING POTATO CHIPS AND A GOOD GAME.\n\n__ 3. E-mail: It was pretty mean of you to have a party and not invite Sharon. Sometimes you are so thoughtless! You think you are better than other people and I' m just sick of your attitude and the friends you think are so popular. Stuck up! What? Phone call for me? It's Sharon? She just got an invitation to the party? Oh dear . . .]\n\n__ 4. Subject: I am spending the night with my friend Tom and tomorrow we are going to a football game at his brother's high school.\n\n__ 5. E-mail: Wow! I just got a really embarrassing picture from our Halloween party sent to me online. I don't even remember having a red wig on my head and dancing on a table. I am wondering how many other people got that e-mail. Like, my sister?\n\n__ 6. E-mail: Here is my report. Would you look it over before I turn it in? It 's about 50 pages long. Here we go. . . .\n\n__ 7. E-mail: I am intrested in aplying for the pozitin of assitent copy editor for your newspaper.\n\n#  **9.5 Using Computers to Improve Writing**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will state common computer\/Internet features that will assist someone in creating a written document.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nUsing the Internet and programs for writing (such as Microsoft Word), students can create, proofread, and polish their writing for school and other projects. Specific training on the computer program will of course be necessary, but this lesson presents some general ideas that may help students become familiar with some of the more common uses of word-processing programs. Although the Internet can provide facts and information, the important thing is what we do with that information\u2014and that takes human intervention.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students to list some ways that a computer can help them with their writing projects. What features are they familiar with?\n\n2. Discuss some advantages of computer-generated projects compared to handwritten projects. Discuss some disadvantages.\n\n3. Demonstrate, using a computer, search engines such as www.search.yahoo.com, www.ask.com, and www.google.com.\n\n4. Demonstrate how to find and use an online dictionary (www.wordcentral.com is a kid-friendly one), online encyclopedia (www.factmonster.com or www.encyclopedia.com are good), and Basic Word features such as choice of font, font size, bold\/italic\/underline features.\n\n5. Demonstrate how to locate and import a picture.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nSome familiarity with using the Internet and a specific word-processing program is assumed as a basic skill for this lesson, as the emphasis is the _application_ of some features rather than teaching how to use them. The worksheet \"Using Computers to Improve Writing\" attempts to connect students' knowledge of features with examples of how they could be helpful when writing.\n\n_Answers (Examples):_\n\n1. Type in \"Abraham Lincoln.\"\n\n2. When was he born? When did he die? When was he president?\n\n3. Go to www.wordcentral.com and type in the word in the search box.\n\n4. Choose a font that is impressive, make it bold and large compared to the rest of the print.\n\n5. Run the spell-check feature of the program.\n\n6. Always save your work.\n\n7. Use the Insert>Picture feature of your word-processing program.\n\n8. The White House. \"Biography of Abraham Lincoln.\" www.whitehouse.gov. 2009.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nDepending on the students' abilities and opportunities to use computers, tailor your discussion to whatever is relevant to your class.\n\n1. What is a search engine? (The feature that helps you find information; an index.)\n\n2. What are some search engines that we commonly use? (Yahoo, Google, Ask.)\n\n3. Can using an online dictionary be easier than looking up a word in a book? (Can be faster.)\n\n4. How can you use different types of font, sizes, and even color to make your document look good? (Vary the style, call attention to certain parts of the report.)\n\n5. Why is it a good idea to use a spell check? (Easy way to help proofread.) Why is it important to look over your writing even after you have used a spell check? (A spell check can be helpful, but won't catch everything.)\n\n6. Why is it a good idea to always save your work, even if you don't think you will need it again? (Better to not have to redo all that work in the event that you need to use it again.)\n\n7. Do you believe that everything you find and read on the Internet is true? Why or why not? (A lot of people can post whatever they want without verification.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Give students plenty of opportunity to work with Word or other word-processing programs to become familiar with some of the more common features. The point is actually to become familiar with the process rather than the content. Let students type sentences with their spelling words in different colors, different fonts, different sized letters, and so on.\n\n2. Invite students to submit questions about subjects that they are interested in, and assign small groups to try to find the answers on the Internet using different search engines.\n\n3. To give practice with using an online dictionary or encyclopedia, have the class divided into teams and give each team a list of words or facts to define or explain and see which team can complete the list first.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nHow can these computer\/Internet features help someone with a writing project?\n\n1. Online dictionary\n\n2. Spell check\n\n3. Search engine\n\n **Name ____ Date ___**\n\n**9.5 Using Computers to Improve Writing**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nWrite a brief answer to the following situation that shows how a computer can be used to help with a writing project. (ornamental art: boy and girl working on a computer.)\n\nDavid and Sarah are working on a paper for their reading class. The assignment is to research information about a famous person and write a report. The report should include historical information about the person, his or her contributions, and other interesting information. They should then type up a one-page report that can be copied and distributed to everyone else in the class.\n\nDavid and Sarah chose to write a report about Abraham Lincoln.\n\n1. What information could they type in to get started on a search engine such as www.search.yahoo.com or www.ask.com or www.google.com ?\n\n2. What specific questions might they ask?\n\n3. If they wanted to find out what the word _fourscore_ meant, how could they use an online dictionary?\n\n4. When typing up the report, David wanted the title to stand out so it would be noticed. What might he do, using the document?\n\n5. Before handing in the report, Sarah suggested they make sure everything is spelled correctly. How could they do that?\n\n6. David wanted to save the document before printing it. Sarah said they probably didn't need to save it since they would have a copy that is ready to print and pass out. What do you think?\n\n7. David wanted to put a picture of Abraham Lincoln on one of the pages of the report. What could he do?\n\n8. The teacher asked them to include the references from whatever sites they used from the Internet. She wanted (a) the name of the person or group providing the information, (b) the title of the page used, (c) the Internet address, and (d) the date or year it was posted. How would they write this information from this site:\n\nThe information is updated daily, the page is called \"Biography of Abraham Lincoln,\" the Internet address is www.whitehouse.gov, and the information is provided by the White House.\n\n#  **9.6 Writing and More Writing**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will complete several writing tasks, showing evidence of proofreading and producing a clearly written product.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nAs with reading, the best way to improve writing skills is to practice writing. The student is given a long list of writing activities to work on. He or she should incorporate proofreading skills and demonstrate attempts to write clearly in order to produce a piece of writing that communicates well!\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students make a personal list of kinds of writing activities they enjoy. You may have to make suggestions to get them started\u2014plays? riddles? letters? and so on. 2. Have students select one item from the list they would really like to spend time working on. Inform them that they will be given this as part of the activity.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nThe worksheet \"Writing and More Writing\" lists twenty-five writing activities to get students started writing. You may wish to have students select five to ten activities and get a notebook specifically to be kept for these writing assignments. Add other items as students think of things they would be interested in writing. _Materials:_ writing notebook, pen or pencil\u2014or computer and printer\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nHave students select writing activities and set aside time for students to work on them, on a daily basis if possible. Once students are well into the activities, discuss the following questions:\n\n1. Once you get into the routine of writing, does it become easier? 2. What types of writing activities did you choose, and why? 3. Were you surprised to find you enjoyed trying to write something different? Perhaps a poem or play? 4. Are you using a proofreading checklist to help you produce a nice finished product? 5. What other items did you think of to add to the list?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students continue to add writing ideas to a class list. As times come up when students need ideas, refer to the list. 2. Establish a daily writing time for your students, perhaps just for five to eight minutes a day. There are many books available that supply topics, questions to answer, and thought-provoking ideas.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nAs students complete the various writing activities, have them do a self-evaluation (Is this the best I can do?), work on proofreading, exchange papers (if the writing is not personal), and display (with permission) the students' efforts.\n\n**Name ____ Date ___**\n\n**9.6 Writing and More Writing**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nHere is a list of twenty-five writing tasks. Choose some that sound interesting to you and sharpen your pencil or turn on the computer!\n\n1. Make a list of everything you'd need to take for a week-long vacation in the Bahamas.\n\n2. Write a letter to a local travel agency asking for a brochure on biking through France.\n\n3. Choose a favorite sport. Write a paragraph explaining the rules of the game.\n\n4. Pick a position on a hot topic in your community. Write a two -page paper explaining how you feel about it and why.\n\n5. Write a paragraph that you could include on a job application that tells some interesting things about yourself. Include travel, interests, work goals, and educational plans.\n\n6. Write a brief autobiography. What do you want others to know about you?\n\n7. Keep a journal for a month. Keep track of your feelings, events, ups and downs, and any other information you would like to remember.\n\n8. Follow the happenings of one important development in the life of your community. Keep a log of daily changes in that situation.\n\n9. Write a news article for your school paper about something that is interesting around your school or community.\n\n10. Interview your favorite teacher or coach.\n\n11. Write a poem.\n\n12. Write a short story.\n\n13. From a book or an encyclopedia, write a one-page biography of a famous person.\n\n14. Do a \"Dear Abby\" column within your class. Answer the questions and concerns of your classmates (submitted anonymously!).\n\n15. Write an ad explaining why someone from another state would want to visit your town or school.\n\n16. Write a thank-you note to a friend for doing something you appreciated.\n\n17. Write a letter to someone famous asking him or her to visit your school.\n\n18. Write directions for someone unfamiliar with your area for how to get to your house from the downtown area (or other landmark).\n\n19. Copy down three or four of your favorite jokes or riddles. Exchange with friends.\n\n20. Copy the Gettysburg Address.\n\n21. Make an address book or phone book of everyone on your Christmas list.\n\n22. Write your birthday \"wish list.\"\n\n23. Make up an assignment sheet for everything you need to do, get, remember, and complete for a month at school.\n\n24. Send away for free information that you see advertised on television or in a magazine.\n\n25. Make a list of the best things that have ever happened to you or things that make you smile.\n\n#  **9.7 Writing on the Job**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify ways that people in various careers would use writing skills.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nIn most occupations, there are some writing tasks that are a part of carrying out the job. These may consist of writing out orders for someone else to follow, jotting down notes to remind oneself of something, or creating something for others to read. In this lesson, students are to think of how writing is involved in most jobs.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students list ways that teachers use writing on the job. (Prepare tests, write out worksheets, and so on.) 2. Have students list ways that their parents use writing skills on their jobs.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are given a list of ten careers on the worksheet \"Writing on the Job.\" They are to list at least one way in which writing is used on the job. _Answers (Examples):_ 1. Write prescriptions. 2. Write trial notes. 3. Write comments about a photograph. 4. Write an ad to sell a product. 5. Describe a house for sale. 6. Write medical notes for a sick animal. 7. Write the conversations between cartoon characters. 8. Describe a vacation resort. 9. Write a biography of an artist. 10. Write directions for caring for a lawn.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nCompare students' ideas about how writing is used on the job. Discuss the following questions:\n\n1. Are there any jobs you can think of that do not involve much writing? 2. What are some jobs in which creative thinking or writing is important? (Advertising, writing stories, and so on.) 3. How do workers in jobs that require a lot of writing do these tasks more efficiently? (Form letters, use secretaries, use computers, and so on.) 4. If someone really liked to write, what type of jobs would he or she be interested in as a career? (Novelist, reporter, magazine writer, and so on.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Invite an author or editor to visit the class and talk about how writing is part of the job. Have students prepare a list of questions to use to interview the author or editor. 2. Go through job files or books that describe occupations. Target five to ten unusual occupations. Get ideas for how writing is used on these jobs.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List five occupations and one way in which writing is used on each job. 2. Write a paragraph describing an occupation you are particularly interested in and how writing is part of that occupation.\n\n**Name ____ Date ___**\n\n**9.7 Writing on the Job**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nHow would people in these occupations use writing skills in their jobs?\n\nList at least one idea for each.\n\n1. Doctor\n\n2. Lawyer\n\n3. Photographer\n\n4. Advertising person\n\n5. Real estate agent\n\n6. Person who cares for zoo animals\n\n7. Cartoonist\n\n8. Travel agent\n\n9. Art gallery owner\n\n10. Lawn care worker\n\n**Chapter 10**\n\n**Math Skills**\n\n#  **10.1 Everyday Math Skills**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will demonstrate knowledge of common math skills by stating at least one way that a given skill is used in everyday life.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nMath is an academic area with many practical applications to everyday life. It is important not only to know how to add and subtract, but also to estimate, solve problems, and apply operations to everyday situations.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students make a list of common skills taught in math class (addition and other operations, perhaps some formulas, current topics discussed, and so on). 2. Have students list three to five activities they participated in today that involved numbers or math in some way.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nThe student will read a list of math skills and write one example of how he or she would use that skill in daily life. _Answers (Examples):_ 1. Figuring out the total on a bill 2. Figuring out your score from 100 by subtracting the number wrong 3. Figuring out the number of cookies required if each student wants three 4. Splitting up money among friends 5. Grouping students into fourths for a project 6. Doing a lab in science 7. Calculating how much decoration you need to put around a bulletin board 8. Figuring out when school is out for the day\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nCompare students' ideas on the worksheet. Ideally, students will realize that math concepts are everywhere and apply to many situations.\n\n1. Do you think math is hard or easy for you? Which parts? 2. Why is it important to know math facts quickly and to be accurate? 3. How important is it to know how to use a calculator to help solve problems? 4. Are there any parts of math you think are fun? What parts are they? 5. Do you know of any math \"tricks\" or ways to do math that help make it easier?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Arrange for tutoring of younger students in math. This could involve making math games, helping students with their work or math activities, going over flash cards, and so on. 2. Have students find and contribute math puzzles, brain teasers, or worksheets they have found fun, interesting, and useful. Laminate them and make a class learning center.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List ten common math skills. 2. List two skill areas that are strengths for you. 3. List two skill areas that remain challenging for you.\n\n**Name ____ Date ___**\n\n**10.1 Everyday Math Skills**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nThe following are some skills involving math. Next to each one, write one example of how you would use that skill.\n\n#  **10.2 Improving Math Skills**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify specific techniques for improving math skills.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nStudents are often their own best source for how best to learn something that is important to them. Some students learn by memorization, others by thinking things out, some by moving around, others by working with a partner, and so on. In this lesson, specific skills are considered and students are to match examples of ways to help learn those skills.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students list two or three skills they feel they are good at. Ask for ideas for ways that they learned these skills. 2. Have students list their own personal preferences for learning math; for example, using notes? working with a partner? using a calculator? and so on.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to match specific skills involving math with a possible technique to help learn that skill on the worksheet \"Improving Math Skills.\" Make sure students understand that these are just examples\u2014there are lots of ways that people learn skills (refer them to the second Introductory Activity). _Answers:_ 1. d 2. b 3. f 4. e 5. h 6. g 7. a 8. c\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nGo over the specific answers with students. Ask students to give reasons for why they selected the answers on the worksheet.\n\n1. How could you work with a partner to learn math facts? (Quiz each other.) 2. Why is it important to know common equivalences? (Some problems are given in one set of terms, some in another.) 3. What are some ways you can solve a \"story\" problem besides drawing a picture? (Underline key words, look for strategies.) 4. Why is it important to make sure you are given correct change when dealing with money? (Make sure you are not shorted.) 5. In what school classes would you use time and money? 6. Why is it important to be accurate when keeping a checking account? (So you aren't overdrawn, to avoid extra charges.) 7. Why would it be important to figure out your mileage when driving? (Make sure your car is running efficiently.) 8. What are some examples of when you would need to know the perimeter of something? (Carpeting, decorating, trimming, and so on.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Teach students how to use a calculator to check their work. This will give them extra practice in working on concepts as well as teach them to become familiar with the calculator as a tool. 2. Have students make their own flash cards for math facts, formulas, key concepts, and so on. 3. Allow students time to use computer games to improve basic math facts as well as thinking skills. 4. Put up a \"Brain Teaser of the Day.\" Encourage students to work together to solve puzzles. 5. Help students become aware of their own strengths and weaknesses in math. If students tend to make the same mistake over and over, analyze the pattern; point out to the student exactly what he or she is doing wrong and give specific techniques for overcoming that particular problem.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List two areas of math in which you could improve your skills. 2. Suggest at least two ways for each of the two areas in (1) that you could try to improve your math skills.\n\n**Name ____ Date ___**\n\n**10.2 Improving Math Skills**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nMatch the skill on the left with a way you could improve your ability to use that skill.\n\n1.| Learn math facts quickly.| a.| Find out how many gallons your car will hold and how many miles you traveled on the tank of gas.  \n---|---|---|---  \n2.| Remember equivalences (for example, 12 inches = 1 foot).| b.| Make a sheet with notes on it such as 3 feet = 1 yard.  \n3.| Figure out a story problem.| c.| Make note cards with formulas for figuring out the perimeter of a square, rectangle, and so on.  \n4.| Give change for a dollar.| d.| Make flash cards with math facts on them.  \n5.| Figure out the time it will be in five hours.| e.| Watch carefully when a clerk gives you back money.  \n6.| Maintain a checking account.| f.| Draw pictures to help yourself \"see\" the problem.  \n7.| Figure out how far you can drive on a tank of gas.| g.| Enter deposits and amounts spent into your account; check for accuracy.  \n8.| Find the perimeter of a figure.| h.| When making appointments for later in the day, figure out how much time will have passed.\n\n#  **10.3 Common Math Situations**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nGiven an everyday situation, the student will identify several ways that math skills are involved.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nMath is a part of many everyday activities\u2014shopping, eating out, even counting the change in your pocket. In this lesson, students are to think of ways that math skills are involved in some common situations.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students list five to eight activities they or their parents have done in the past few days that involved numbers. 2. Have students list two to four activities they or their parents have encountered in the past few days that involved reasoning or problem solving.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are given six examples of common situations on the worksheet \"Everyday Math Situations.\" For each, they are to think of several ways that math skills are involved. _Answers:_ Will vary.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nCompare students' responses. There should be a wide variety of ideas for each. The following questions will be helpful for discussion:\n\n1. Why is it important to understand the advertising that often accompanies products that companies want you to buy? 2. Is the \"best buy\" always the largest can or container? 3. What is \"unit pricing\"? (Figuring out how much something costs for one unit\u2014one ounce, one pound, and so on.) 4. What is an easy way to figure out a 15 percent tip? (Find 10 percent and add half of that.) 5. What are some expenses that come with a car? (Repairs, insurance, and so on.) 6. What units of measure would probably be involved in cooking?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Collect menus from restaurants. Have students write math problems using the menus. 2. Borrow a pay stub from someone who is willing to share this. What are all of the deductions taken from the paycheck? What percentage is take-home pay?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nChoose one of the following everyday situations and list at least three ways that math skills are involved:\n\n1. Going to a sports event 2. Going to the movies 3. Shopping for clothes 4. Playing a video game 5. Figuring out your report card grades 6. Planning a birthday party for a friend\n\n**10.3 Common Math Situations**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nFill in the chart with math skills you would use in the following activities.\n\n#  **10.4 Understanding Graphs**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify several types of graphs and the uses of each.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nA lot of mathematical information is shown clearly by using graphs and charts. In this lesson, four types of commonly used graphs are presented: bar graph, line graph, circle graph, and pictograph or picture graph. Students should be able to identify the type of graph presented and explain how the information is given on that graph.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Dictate the following information for students to write: \"On Monday, a music store sold thirty-seven CDs and eighty-seven cassettes. On Tuesday, it sold fifty CDs, twenty-eight cassettes, and nine posters. On Wednesday, it sold twelve CDs, thirteen cassettes, and four posters.\" Have students share how they recorded this information.\n\n2. Have students make three columns on a sheet of paper. Label the columns \"Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday\" at the bottom of the paper. Have students total the number of items sold on each of the three days in (1). Construct a bar graph that shows the total number of items sold for the three days.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nExplain that you are going to show how to present information by using graphs. There are four graphs that you will be covering: (1) a bar graph\u2014one bar represents one piece of information; (2) a line graph\u2014a continuous line connects pieces of information; (3) a circle graph\u2014shows how much (percentage) of a whole is designated for a given piece of information; and (4) a picture graph\u2014a simple picture as a code to represent how many of a given item are represented.\n\nOn the worksheet \"Understanding Graphs,\" students are to match the type of graph with the example illustrated.\n\n_Answers:_ 1. picture graph 2. line graph 3. bar graph 4. circle graph\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nGo over the examples with students, paying attention to how each graph clearly depicts the information provided.\n\n1. Why is it important to have a key when using a picture graph? (To show what the pictures stand for, how many items are depicted, and so on.)\n\n2. What could be a good title for the graph in example 1? (The number of students in class.)\n\n3. How does the graph show five students? (Half of a person.)\n\n4. What could be a good title for the graph in example 2? (Amount of snowfall in January.)\n\n5. Why is a line graph a good way to show this type of information? (It is continuous.)\n\n6. What could be a good title for the graph in example 3? (The number of car sales in a week.)\n\n7. What other type of graph would clearly show the information in example 3? (A line graph.)\n\n8. What could be a good title for the graph in example 4? (Amount of money spent on county projects.)\n\n9. Where does most of the money go in example 4? (Juvenile center.)\n\n10. What other type of graph would clearly show the information in example 4? (Bar graph, possibly picture graph.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students construct graphs to show information. Examples: (a) track the change in their height in inches over five years; (b) compare the population of three nearby states; (c) tally the number and kind of pet owned by students in the class; and (d) show the results of a survey asking for the favorite candy bar of students.\n\n2. Look for examples of graphs in the newspaper and magazines. Label the kind of graph and give each a title (if not already provided).\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nConstruct one or more of the following graphs (remember to include labels and titles):\n\n1. Make a bar graph showing the number of televisions serviced by a company in a year: January\u201413; February\u201411; March\u20143; April\u201414; May\u201410; June\u201419; July\u201413; August\u201420; September\u201415; October\u201416; November\u201411; December\u201411.\n\n2. Make a circle graph showing the percentage of types of movies students enjoy: horror\u201412 percent; comedy\u201450 percent; romance\u201413 percent; science fiction\u201425 percent.\n\n3. Make a line graph showing Mary's worksheet scores for one week: Monday\u201479 percent; Tuesday\u201490 percent; Wednesday\u201485 percent; Thursday\u201481 percent; Friday\u201470 percent.\n\n4. Make a pictograph with one star representing five CDs. Show the number of CDs owned by each of these students: Jason\u201410; Mary\u201415; Marcos\u201425; Pete\u20147.\n\n**Name ____Date ____**\n\n**10.4 Understanding Graphs**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nWrite the type of graph (bar graph, line graph, circle graph, picture graph) shown in each example.\n\n#  **10.5 Understanding Charts**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will construct and be able to interpret information on a chart.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nA chart is another way in which information can be presented. Students should not only be able to read information from a chart, but also, when given information, should be able to construct a chart to show this information.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Do a quick survey of students to find out their favorite place to eat or get pizza. After tabulating the information, construct a simple chart with pizza places across one side and the number of students selecting that place underneath.\n\n2. Conduct another survey of favorite toppings of pizza. Construct another chart, but this time divide the boys and girls into separate columns with the toppings across one side.\n\n3. Obtain attendance information (if possible) for one week and construct a chart showing the number of students (divided into grade levels or boys and girls) absent Monday through Friday.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nThe worksheet \"Understanding Charts\" depicts a chart showing the sale of items from a bookstore. Students are to use the numbers on the chart to answer questions.\n\n_Answers:_ 1. November (totals by month: 186, 153, 220, 241, 202) 2. October 3. pencils 4. $8.00 5. pencils (226 compared to 193 pens)\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nFrom this activity and the introductory activities, students should have experience on constructing and reading charts. The following questions should be discussed as a class:\n\n1. How does a chart help make information easy to read? (Should be straightforward, uncluttered.)\n\n2. When you construct a chart, why is it important to use labels? (To make it clear what information you are presenting.)\n\n3. Could you put information on a chart other than numbers? (Yes; any type of description.)\n\n4. What are some types of charts you could make?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students construct charts of any applicable information, such as grades or test scores in a certain class, sports results from teams, amount of money earned from fund-raising activities, favorite movies or books, and so on.\n\n2. Collect charts that are in the newspaper and have students write questions using them. Exchange among students and grade for extra credit.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Construct a chart using the following information of grades in four subjects for four students:\n\n\u2022 Mary, Kathleen, Todd, and Jamal are the students.\n\n\u2022 The subjects are math, reading, science, and history.\n\n\u2022 Mary's grades (in order) are 79 percent, 83 percent, 92 percent, and 82 percent. Kathleen 's grades are 88 percent, 86 percent, 79 percent, and 94 percent. Todd's grades are 90 percent, 82 percent, 86 percent, and 77 percent. Jamal's grades are 79 percent, 78 percent, 90 percent, and 85 percent.\n\n2. Answer the following questions using your chart:\n\n\u2022 Which student had the highest percentage in math? (Todd)\n\n\u2022 Which student had the lowest percentage in history? (Todd)\n\n\u2022 What was Kathleen's percentage in reading? (86 percent)\n\n\u2022 In what subject was Mary's highest percentage? (Science)\n\n **Name ____ Date ___**\n\n**10.5 Understanding Charts**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nUse the following Bookstore Report to answer the questions.\n\n**Bookstore Report**\n\n1. What month had the most sales of all items? ____\n\n2. In which month were the most calculators sold? ___\n\n3. What item sold the most in October? ____\n\n4. If notebooks sold for $.25 each, how much money was made in November from that item?\n\n5. Were more pens or more pencils sold over the five months reported? ____\n\n#  **10.6 Sample Math Problems**\n\n**Objective:** The student will select and complete several types of math activities.\n\n**Comments:** In this lesson, students are given a variety of activities using math skills. They are to select however many you feel are appropriate and try them out. You may wish to add plenty of activities of your own, depending on what you wish to emphasize in class.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students list three to five types of math activities they enjoy doing.\n\n2. Have students write one math problem they would give someone else to figure out.\n\n **Activity:** Students are given lots of examples of math problems on the worksheet \"Sample Math Problems.\" Depending on your specific objectives, you may assign them to work on several at their own pace.\n\n**Discussion:** After students have been given time to work on several of the activities, discuss the process and their answers.\n\n1. What did you find out about shopping for groceries? Did the amount of money it costs to buy food surprise you?\n\n2. How far can your family's car go on one tank of gas? What factors would change this number? (Type of car, city or highway travel, condition of the car, and so on.)\n\n3. How did your cookies turn out? Were the single and double batches different?\n\n4. What is the current interest rate on savings accounts?\n\n5. For problem 7, which types of soft drinks were the cheapest per ounce? Which were most expensive?\n\n6. For problem 13, what amount did you get on January 31? ($10,737,418.24.) Were you surprised that it was this great?\n\n7. For problem 17, how did you go about estimating the number of beans?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Add your own ideas to the math list. Include students' problems and ideas, brain teasers, and current events in math.\n\n2. Post a \"problem of the day\" in your classroom. Have students work on it in their spare time.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List one or two specific skill areas in math in which you would like to improve.\n\n2. Specifically state what you will do or have done to improve your ability to solve math problems in (1).\n\n **Name ____Date** ____\n\n**10.6 Sample Math Problems**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nHere are twenty math activities for you to try.\n\n1. Shop for your family's groceries for a week. Estimate the total cost of the contents of your shopping cart before you find out the exact amount.\n\n2. Figure out how far your family's car can go on one tank of gas.\n\n3. Make a batch of chocolate chip cookies. Double the recipe for a larger batch.\n\n4. Calculate how much money you would have if you deposited $100 into a savings account that paid back 4 percent interest each year and you kept the money in for one year.\n\n5. Figure out your exact age in (a) months and then (b) days.\n\n6. Estimate how far your house is from school. Then drive or bike the distance with an odometer to see how close your estimate was.\n\n7. Make a chart that shows the unit prices of several different kinds of soft drinks.\n\n8. Add up the number of calories you consume in one day.\n\n9. Use a calculator to find the average height and weight of the people in your class.\n\n10. Cut out five charts or graphs from newspaper articles. Write three to five questions that can be answered using them.\n\n11. Collect menus from local restaurants. Plan an entire meal, including beverage, appetizer, and dessert. Calculate the cost. Don't forget the tip!\n\n12. Check the classified ads for available jobs. What is the hourly wage of one that interests you? What would your weekly salary be? Monthly salary? Yearly salary?\n\n13. If you are given a penny on January 1 and the amount doubles each day after that (for example, you would get 2\u1e09 on January 2, 4\u1e09 on January 3, 8\u1e09 on January 4 and so on), how much money would you get on January 31?\n\n14. Estimate (and then figure out) the total weight of everyone in the class if you all stepped on a scale at the same time.\n\n15. If you weigh 1\/6 of your normal weight on the moon, how much would you weigh?\n\n16. How far is it around the perimeter of your classroom in feet? In yards?\n\n17. Fill a small jar with jelly beans. Estimate how many beans are in the jar. Then count them.\n\n18. Open a small bag of M&M's. Make a chart showing how many of each color of candy there are in the bag.\n\n19. Record the temperature at the same time of the day every day for two weeks. What is the range in temperatures? Make a chart showing this information.\n\n20. Read the sports section of the local paper. What is the percentage of completed passes from a football game? What is the hitting percentage (batting average) from a baseball game? What is the win\/loss ratio of a favorite team?\n\nCan you think of other math problems to share with your classmates? write one or two here.\n\n#  **10.7 Using Computers for Math Information**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify and explain uses for several common online math tools.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nWe all (teachers and students alike) have our favorite websites that we use to help us locate information. Sometimes websites have so many links and so much information that it may be hard for students to navigate them. This lesson contains information about a few tools (clock, timer, calendar, and so on) that students can readily find and use for math help.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\nAsk students to tell you what tool would be helpful in the following math-related situations: Telling time (clock), figuring out how much you weigh (scale), knowing what the temperature is (thermometer), knowing what day of the week your birthday falls on this year (calendar), and figuring out how to multiply huge numbers (calculator).\n\n1. Inform students that some of these tools are available online and that you will be visiting some sites to show them how to find them and how to use them. 2. Display or pass out individual sheets containing website addresses for the various math tools that will be discussed. Depending on your class, demonstrate how the tools work or have students explore on their own.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nWhile students are exploring the various online tools, ask them to think about how they might use these sites while they are doing math-related activities. _Answers (Examples):_ 1. Timing self on a math drill 2. Figuring out a story problem 3. Figuring out what time it will be in thirty minutes 4. Figuring out what day of the week spring break begins 5. Practicing making change for a job that requires handling money 6. Figuring out how to spend and save money 7. Practicing number drills\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nHave students share their experiences and ideas regarding these websites and the tools they have worked with on them.\n\n1. Which tools were the easiest for you to find? 2. Which tools do you think you would use most often? 3. What are some math situations that would use these tools? 4. What would be the best way to remember where these tools are located?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students locate and evaluate these and other websites that contain helpful math tools. Often sites that look good at first want the user to subscribe to a service or buy a book. Try to come up with a helpful list for the class of easily accessible items. 2. Using the budgeting information, have students set up a sample budget given an arbitrary amount of money. Discuss how different students budgeted the same amount of money differently using the same basic budget plan on the computer. 3. For practice in using the calculator, have students work on solving basic operations problems with varying degrees of difficulty. The calculator will be of no benefit if the student is not accurate in using the keys.\n\n**Name** ____ **Date ___**\n\n**10.7 Using Computers for Math Information**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nVisit these online sites to find some tools that will help in solving math problems. Write how you might use these tools in school situations.\n\n1. **Stopwatch:** www.stopwatch.onlineclock.net\n\n2. **Calculator:** www.metacalc.com\n\n3. **Clock (face and digital):** www.time-for-time.com\/swf\/myclox.swf\n\n4. **Calendar:** www.timeanddate.com\/calendar\n\n5. **Making change:** www.mathplayground.com\/making_change.html\n\n6. **Budgeting:** www.capitateyourkids.com\/budgeting_for_teens.htm Or www.moneyandstuff.info\/pdfs\/SampleBudgetforteens.pdf\n\n7. **Flash cards (basic operations):** www.allmath.com\/flashcards.php Or www.aplusmath.com\n\n**Chapter 11**\n\n**Study Skills**\n\n#  **11.1 School Tasks for Success**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify ten to fifteen skills that are important for success in school.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nMost teachers and students would agree that there are certain skills that separate the \"good\" students from those who have problems in school. In this lesson, students are to consider a list of student skills and rate themselves according to how well they think they are doing on each.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students list three skills they think are important to doing well in school. 2. Have students list three skills they think their teachers would say are important to doing well in school. 3. Have students list three skills they think their parents would say are important to doing well in school.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are given a list of typical school tasks on this activity. They are to rate themselves on a scale of 1 to 5 (with 5 representing the best) to show how well they see themselves performing each task.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nBecause this is a personal survey, students may or may not want to share their responses. You may inform the students that you won't even look at their responses, but hope that it will be helpful to them to improve their skills.\n\n1. Which of the skills on the list would you pick as your biggest problem area? 2. Which would your teachers select? 3. Which would your parents select? 4. Which skills do you think are the most important for any student to do well at? 5. Do different teachers have different ideas or expectations of what they feel is important to do well in school or in their classes? 6. Are there any skills on the list that you feel are not important?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Conduct a class survey. Which skills are the hardest for most students to follow? Why? Which are considered the most important? 2. Add skills to the list. You may want to list different sets of skills for different classes. 3. Write a handbook for younger students explaining what skills are important for your grade level and how they can begin developing good student skills now. Illustrate the handbook with humorous drawings.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List eight to ten important student skills. 2. Explain why five of the skills you selected are important to do well in school. 3. Write a paragraph selecting one student skill you would like to work on and outline a brief plan for how you could improve in that area.\n\n**Name ____ Date ___**\n\n**11.1 School Tasks for Success**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nThe following is a list of skills or tasks that help someone do well in school. Rate yourself from 1 to 5 (1 = poor, 5 = excellent) according to how well you see yourself performing each skill.\n\n____ I am well organized; I can find my materials easily.\n\n____ I get my assignments done on time.\n\n____ I usually understand what I' m supposed to do on assignments.\n\n____ I get along pretty well with my teachers.\n\n____ I usually get along well with my principal.\n\n___ I get along well with other students at school.\n\n___ I can take good notes.\n\n___ I listen to what's going on in class.\n\n___ I ask questions if I don't understand something.\n\n___ I follow directions carefully.\n\n___ I do my assignments clearly and neatly.\n\n___ I usually put forth good effort into my work.\n\n___ I do my work right away; I don't procrastinate or put it off.\n\n___ I am on time to class.\n\n___ I do my homework.\n\n___ I turn in my work when it is due.\n\n#  **11.2 Tools for the Task**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify items (tools) that are necessary or helpful in completing a given task.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nBefore we can complete or even begin a task, we have to know what materials are needed to do the job. In this lesson, students are given several tasks to complete and must identify what tools are needed.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. If you had to take a spelling test right now, what tools or materials would you need? (Paper, pencil, eraser.) 2. If you were going to clean out your desk or locker, what tools would you want to get ahead of time? (Wastepaper basket, paper towels, spray cleaner.)\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nOn the worksheet \"Tools for the Task,\" students are to read and identify what common tools or items would be needed to complete the job. _Answers (Examples):_ Task #1. Paper, resource books, possibly computer Task #2. Poster board, colored markers, book with map of your state Task #3. Recipe, food items, cooking utensils, oven, carrying case for food Task #4. Poster board, tape measure or height\/weight scale\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nHave students compare answers on the worksheet and possibly edit their own answers.\n\n1. In Task #1, how many different tools did the class come up with? 2. Is it important to have everyone's project look exactly the same? Why or why not? 3. Why would it be helpful to have the needed items ahead of time? 4. In Task #3, why would it be important to know how you were going to prepare the food before starting the job? (Might need access to an oven or stove.) 5. What tools could be substituted if you didn't have markers, poster board, or a computer? (Could use colored pencils, crayons, butcher paper, library books, and so on.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Assign groups of students a common task, such as #1 or #2 on the worksheet. Give each group the same tools to work with and compare how students used the same tools to come up with projects that looked very different. 2. Assign groups a task, but this time omit one tool. Have students brainstorm to complete the task by improvising or substituting tools to complete the job.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nList three tools that would be helpful to make a bulletin board that displays favorite books read by students in the class.\n\n**Name ____ Date ___** _\n\n**11.2 Tools for the Task**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nFor each of the following school assignments, list the tools that would be needed to get the job done.\n\nTask #1: Write a two-page paper on an invention of your choice.\n\nTask #2: Color and display a map of your state, showing the three largest cities and the capital.\n\nTask #3: Prepare a traditional meal from a country of your choice for ten students to enjoy.\n\nTask #4: Make a chart that compares the height of the boys and the girls in your grade at your school.\n\n#  **11.3 Taking Notes**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will demonstrate ability to read (or listen to) a short passage and take summary notes.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nThe ability to listen to or read information and then understand it well enough to summarize it is a skill that is helpful throughout an entire school career. Much information is presented orally, especially in the upper grades. Some teachers use notes and chalkboards to list important information for students to know; others expect students to listen, analyze, and write information quickly and accurately. In this lesson, students are given an opportunity to write notes as if they were listening to a brief lecture.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students list classes in which note-taking is a frequent activity. 2. Ask students how they know what information presented in a class is important to know. (Written on board; teacher says \"You need to know this!\" and so on.)\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nThe students are to \"pretend\" they are listening to a brief lecture given by a science teacher. You may want to read this to students from the worksheet \"Taking Notes\" or have them participate by reading it orally. The students are to jot down notes on the material on another sheet of paper.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nStudents will probably record the information in different ways. Some may use pictures with labels to help them remember; others may use words. Compare the ways in which students selected what they thought was important.\n\n1. How did you know what was important to write down? 2. What clues did the teacher give that something was important? (Definition on the board, comment \"Remember that.\") 3. How did the pictures on the board help? (Something visual to go with the labels.) 4. What information about this material do you think might be on a test? 5. How do you organize your notes? 6. Is it easier for you to take notes from oral or written material? Why? 7. Is it important to be a good listener for oral information and a good reader for written information?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students pay attention in each class for clues or techniques that his or her teachers use to highlight important information. Make a list. 2. Prepare mini-lectures (or have students participate in this) with a quiz at the end. Practice emphasizing what notes should be taken and studied in preparation for the test. 3. Jot down an incomplete outline on the board before you give a lecture. As you talk, have students complete the outline on their own paper. Compare notes at the end.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nHave students use the notes they took on the worksheet to complete the following \"quiz\":\n\n1. What is digestion? 2. How do the teeth and tongue help with digestion? 3. Where does food go after you swallow it? 4. What is the esophagus? 5. What is the stomach shaped like? 6. Where does food pass to after the stomach? 7. When does food go to the large intestine? 8. What is waste? 9. How does waste leave the body?\n\n_Answers to quiz:_\n\n1. Breaking down food 2. Moisten and crush it 3. Into the esophagus 4. A short tube that connects the throat and stomach 5. The letter j 6. The small intestine 7. After the small intestine 8. What the body does not use 9. Through the colon\n\n**Name ____ Date ___**\n\n**11.3 Taking Notes**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nMr. Knowitall is giving a science lecture. What notes would you take if you were a student in his class?\n\n#  **11.4 Studying Smarter**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify reasons why characters in examples are not studying effectively.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nOn any given assignment, students in a class probably have about the same amount of time and length of work involved. However, some students use that time much more constructively\u2014they study \"smarter.\" This lesson highlights some problems that get in the way of being a good student.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students the following question: If you had fifteen minutes to learn the capital cities of ten European countries, how would you go about using that time to work on this task? 2. Ask students to list their ideas or techniques for \"good studying.\" What are some ways they use their time wisely?\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nOn the worksheet \"Studying Smarter,\" students are to examine the examples of students who are not studying in an effective manner. They are to pick out the problem in each. _Answers:_ 1. Disorganized 2. Procrastinating 3. Didn't keep quizzes or notes 4. Didn't plan ahead 5. Using time to socialize instead of studying 6. Not finding out instructions 7. Listening to music instead of concentrating 8. Joking around\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nHave students go over their ideas for each. Have them offer suggestions for a better use of the time.\n\n1. How could each student on the worksheet study smarter? 2. Which are examples of problems of (a) time, (b) organization, (c) attitude? 3. How could you go about making changes if this were your situation? 4. Do you think some students study better with background music or TV? (Emphasize the word _background_!)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students role-play these and other situations. Have them come up with alternative endings that show good use of time. 2. Have students come up with a specific plan of attack for each student on the worksheet. What would they suggest for each?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List two ways students can effectively use time to study efficiently. 2. List two ways students can effectively organize materials to study efficiently. 3. List two ways students can effectively use a good attitude to study efficiently.\n\n**Name ____ Date ___**\n\n**11.4 Studying Smarter**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nEach of these students could be a little smarter in the way he or she is studying. What is the problem for each of them?\n\n#  **11.5 Following Directions**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify common school directions and possible consequences of not following them.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nThe ability to follow directions is very basic to survival in school. Assuming the student understands the directions given, the next step is careful compliance with them. Students are given examples of common directions heard in school and are to think of what could happen if they were not followed correctly.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students give examples of directions they have been given at home in the past few days (or hours).\n\n2. Have students give examples of directions they have been given at school recently.\n\n3. Have students give examples of directions that might be given by someone in position of authority such as principal, mayor, president, and so on.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are given examples of directions on the worksheet \"Following Directions\" that might be given in school. They are to write a possible scenario of the circumstances in which they might be given the direction and to decide on a possible consequence of what might happen if the direction were not followed correctly.\n\n_Answers (Examples of consequences):_\n\n1. May do the wrong problems.\n\n2. Answers might not be read correctly by the computer.\n\n3. Reading more than you have to.\n\n4. Getting some problems wrong.\n\n5. May get filed with the wrong class.\n\n6. Lose all of your computer work.\n\n7. What should be a body of water may look like a country instead.\n\n8. Unmelted butter won't mix easily into the popcorn.\n\n9. Names will be out of order.\n\n10. The teacher may be busy, and you would waste time when you could probably figure it out yourself.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nHave students share their responses to the items on the worksheet. Be sure to praise creative answers!\n\n1. Why would it be important to follow the directions given?\n\n2. If you think you have a better idea, how could you suggest it in some of the situations?\n\n3. What are some occupations for which it is extremely important to follow directions? (Life-or-death situations!)\n\n4. If you did not understand the directions, what could you do to make sure you complete the task correctly? (Ask, watch someone else, and so on.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students collect items for which there are extensive (and important) directions, such as assembling a model, playing a video game, driving a foreign car, mixing hair color, and so on. Have them present humorous scenarios that demonstrate what could happen if the directions were not followed.\n\n2. Invite a guest speaker who works in a field with life-or-death consequences\u2014perhaps a doctor, EMT\/firefighter, military person, or airplane pilot\u2014to talk about how important following directions is to his or her career.\n\n3. Have students make puzzles in which sets of directions that must be followed sequentially are mixed up (cooking something, assembling something, and so on). Have students put them in the correct order.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Give an example of types of directions given in classes such as math, science, P.E.\n\n2. Write a paragraph describing what could go wrong if the following directions were not followed:\n\n\u2022 A surgeon performing open-heart surgery\n\n\u2022 A chef in a fancy restaurant trying out a new recipe\n\n\u2022 A mechanic working on a car\n\n\u2022 A lab technician testing evidence for fingerprints\n\n **Name ____ Date ____**\n\n**11.5 Following Directions**\n\n**Directions:** When might you hear these directions being given? What is a possible consequence of not following the directions?\n\n1. Do the odd-numbered problems only. Show your work.\n\n2. Use a No. 2 pencil on the scantron sheet.\n\n3. Read the passage first, then answer the questions.\n\n4. Check your answers by randomly redoing some of the problems.\n\n5. Put your name, date, and the subject in the upper right-hand corner of your paper.\n\n6. Save your work on your disk.\n\n7. Use the color blue to represent water on the map.\n\n8. Melt three tablespoons of butter before pouring it over a bowl of popcorn\n\n9. Alphabetize the names by the last name.\n\n10. If you're stuck, reread the chart in the book before asking the teacher for help.\n\n#  **11.6 Doing Homework**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will list several ideas that help with the task of completing homework.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nThe downfall of many students is their failure to understand, complete, and return homework. Homework can be a time to reinforce concepts already taught at school, extra time allotted for completing tasks that weren't done at school, or a time to explore something new and related to activities introduced at school. In this lesson, students are asked to think about different ways to help make doing homework easier.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students discuss how often they have homework. 2. Have students mention which classes most often assign homework. 3. Have students list several purposes of assigned homework.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are given a list of several helpful homework tips. They are to match the tip with the picture that shows the idea being used. _Answers:_ 1. b 2. c 3. f 4. a 5. e 6. d\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nGo over answers with students. Discuss how the tip would be helpful in completing homework.\n\n1. Is completing homework a problem for you? Why? 2. What specific problem areas do you have in doing homework? 3. What are some ways you could set things up before doing your homework to ensure that you know what to do and have all needed materials? 4. What are some safeguards you could have available to you in case you have trouble with understanding the homework? 5. How could you make sure you turn in homework correctly and on time? 6. What type of atmosphere is best for you to study in? 7. How can homework assignments help you get better grades or get a better understanding of the work?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students chart their homework for a month. They should record the class, assignment, completion percentage, and any other relevant information, including any problems encountered. 2. Have students record the number of minutes spent in homework (defined as any time spent working on or studying concepts for a class) for each class. Is there any connection between time spent studying and the grades achieved?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Write three to five helpful ideas for doing homework. 2. Write a paragraph explaining how homework can be helpful to achieve learning in a particular class of your choice.\n\n**Name ____ Date ___**\n\n**11.6 Doing Homework**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nHere are some tips to doing homework successfully. Match the tip with the picture that shows a student following the idea.\n\n____ a. Know what to do.\n\n____ b. Have all necessary materials.\n\n____ c. Find a good place to work.\n\n____ d. If you have questions, ask.\n\n____ e. Do everything you are supposed to do.\n\n____ f. Put the work in a safe place where you' ll have it to turn in.\n\n#  **11.7 Managing Daily Assignments**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will monitor his or her daily assignments for a specified length of time.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nMany students do not take the time to write down their assignments. They feel they can keep track of everything in their heads and do not need the extra work of writing things down. However, the use of a daily assignment sheet is often very helpful even for students who are capable of organizing themselves. This lesson consists of a project in which students keep track of their daily assignments.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students describe any methods they use for recording daily assignments\u2014notebooks, assignment sheets, specific pages, and so on. 2. Have students discuss which classes tend to give daily assignments, as compared to those that assign long-term projects or include participation as the major activity. How do daily assignments help students learn the material?\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to keep track of their daily assignments for at least one week. You may wish to target only one or two classes at first, depending on the student and the likelihood of good record-keeping. The information on the worksheet \"Managing Daily Assignments\" includes the date, subject, specific assignment, room for a summary of the class's activity, notation for any homework, and a square to be marked off when the homework (if assigned) is done. You may wish to add other information that is pertinent to your situation.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nAfter students have participated in this project for at least one week, discuss how helpful the assignment sheet is. Students may have ideas for adding other information or designing their own daily assignment sheet.\n\n1. What classes tended to give daily assignments? 2. Why would briefly recording a summary of the class activity for that day be helpful? 3. What other information would be helpful to monitor on an assignment sheet? 4. Do you have a good idea what your grade or class performance is for each class? 5. How would an assignment sheet be helpful in case you were absent? 6. How would keeping an assignment sheet also help someone else keep up with homework?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students design a personal daily or weekly assignment sheet. Tell them to include their own personal touches such as a logo, motto, or any drawing that reflects their personality. Run off copies if possible and encourage students to use them. 2. Include good record-keeping as part of a class grade. Keep students posted often as to their performance in class. 3. At the end of the week, give a quiz on information that should have been kept on the assignment sheet, such as class summary information. Allow students to use their assignment sheets to answer the quiz questions!\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List two ways that keeping a daily assignment sheet can help a student get better grades.\n\n2. List three to five pieces of information that should be included on a daily assignment sheet.\n\n **Name ____ Date ____**\n\n**11.7 Managing Daily Assignments**\n\n**Directions:** Complete the following assignment sheet. Record all necessary information.\n\n#  **11.8 Managing Long-Term Assignments**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will plan a long-term (for example, several weeks' duration) assignment using a calendar and other resources.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nPlanning and carrying out a longer assignment requires more effort than maintaining daily work. Especially if the student is given a lot of independence, he or she must organize the project, make deadlines, obtain materials, and keep on track. In this lesson, students are given an assignment to organize.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students give examples of some long-term (at least several weeks, possibly a semester) assignments or projects. 2. Have students give examples of materials or resources that might be involved in a long-term assignment (library research, interviewing people, using a computer, and so on).\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to examine a girl's long-term assignment for a class. They will use the sample calendar to help the girl plan how she will complete the steps of the project to get it completed on time.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nAssume the project is assigned on October 1 and is due on November 30. Students may want to work in small groups so that they can discuss when they think certain deadlines should be made. Compare deadlines and activities that the students come up with. There is no \"right\" or \"wrong\" time schedule, but students should keep certain factors in mind; for example, when the library is open (weekends?), what materials need to be purchased, how much time might be needed for revisions, and so on.\n\n1. After making a careful schedule, what problems could potentially come up that would throw things off? (Getting sick, someone not doing his or her part, and so on.) 2. Where would be a good place to keep the calendar? 3. What shopping or purchasing would you need to do? 4. What plans would you need to make to get access to a computer or typewriter? 5. What materials would you need for a map or other visual aids? 6. What might you put on the cover? 7. Can you think of other items or dates you should include on the calendar?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\nHave students organize a similar long-term plan for the following assignments. What tasks are involved? What materials are needed?\n\n1. Prepare a fact sheet for each of the fifty states. Due in one month. 2. Design and give a \"creative\" book report. Due in three weeks. 3. Research and prepare a meal from another country. Due in two weeks. 4. Write and perform a play for another class. Due in one month. 5. Make a diorama of a scene from a favorite movie. Due in three weeks.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Give examples of two or three long-term assignments or projects. 2. Select one of your examples and list the tasks and materials involved. 3. Using a calendar, make a sample outline of when each task in your example should be completed.\n\n**Name ____ Date ___**\n\n**11.8 Managing Long-Term Assignments**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nHere is Amy's long-term assignment for English and history. Help her plan how she will manage her time so that she will complete the project on time. Use the calendar that follows to help assign dates for the tasks.\n\nProject: Write a research paper on a topic about the Civil War.\n\nDue: In two months\n\nTasks:\n\n\u2022 Pick a topic\n\n\u2022 Find three sources\n\n\u2022 Outline is due in one month\u2014notes should be on 3 \u00d7 5 cards, must be turned in after outline\n\n\u2022 Need to turn in one rough draft\n\n\u2022 Need at least one map and two pictures or visual aids\n\n\u2022 Final copy must be typed or on computer\n\n\u2022 Must have a cover\n\nNeed to:\n\n\u2022 Go to the library to do research\n\n\u2022 Get cards\n\n\u2022 Read books and other sources\n\n\u2022 Get lab time on the computer\n\n\u2022 Buy a cover for the report\n\n#  **11.9 Completing Assignments**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify completed assignments and maintain a personal record of completed assignments for a designated period of time.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nSometimes students may attempt an assignment but not complete it to specification. Turning in a partially completed assignment or doing an inadequate job on a task are problem areas for many students. Students are to identify correctly completed tasks in this activity.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students give ideas for what a teacher looks for in a completed assignment (name on paper, neatness, all parts completed, directions followed, and so on). 2. Have students give examples of what types of assignments would need to be completed in their various classes (writing a paper, reading an entire book, painting a picture, and so on).\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nOn the worksheet \"Completing Assignments,\" students are to read the assignments given and the description of what the character actually did. Then they are to determine whether or not the assignment was completed and circle Yes or No. _Answers:_ 1. no 2. no 3. yes 4. no 5. yes\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nAfter completing the worksheet, have students discuss why the characters did or did not complete their assignments.\n\n1. Why didn't the boy complete the science assignment in example 1? (Didn't read the entire assignment.) 2. What was wrong with the assignment turned in by the girl in example 2? (Didn 't follow directions.) 3. In example 4, what could the girl have done to complete the assignment? (Find sandpaper, finish staining.) 4. In example 5, how do you know the boy completed the assignment correctly? (The word \"library\" appears on the articles; there are five of them.) 5. What are some difficulties that you have from time to time with completing assignments in school? 6. What could you do to improve your completion of assignments? 7. Are there particular classes for which you have difficulty completing the work?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Collect various examples of daily, weekly, or monthly assignment sheets. How does each show assignment completion? 2. Have students keep track of their assignment completion on a regular basis\u2014for at least a month. Teach them to calculate their percentage each week:\n\nNumber of assignments completed \u00f7 Number of assignments given\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Calculate the approximate percentage of assignments you have completed over the past two weeks. (Use your assignment sheets if necessary to calculate this percentage.) 2. List two specific ways you could improve your percentage of completed assignments.\n\n**Name ____ Date ___**\n\n**11.9 Completing Assignments**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nDid the following students complete the assignments they were given? Circle Yes or No for each.\n\n1. Class: Science\n\nAssignment: Read Ch. 14, pp. 81-89.\n\n**YES NO**\n\n2. Class: Reading\n\nAssignment: Write a paragraph about a character in the story we read in class.\n\n**YES NO**\n\n3. Class: Math\n\nAssignment: Copy each problem! Solve page 54 (1-10).\n\n**YES NO**\n\n4. Class: Woodworking\n\nAssignment: Finish sanding and staining the wooden box.\n\n**YES NO**\n\n5. Class: Social Studies\n\nAssignment: Collect five news articles about the new library being built downtown.\n\n**YES NO**\n\n#  **11.10 Good Student Behaviors**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will recognize and state behaviors that are characteristic of \"good\" students.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nMost students are probably able to come up with a list of behaviors they think are teacher-pleasing or characteristic of students who never get in trouble. But having \"good behavior\" is more than just being quiet or not getting caught misbehaving! In this lesson, several examples are given of what would constitute good student behavior.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students list two examples of good student behavior they have observed recently. 2. Have students list two examples of poor student behavior they have observed recently. 3. Have students speculate on the consequences of the examples they listed.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are given a list of student behaviors on the worksheet \"Good Student Behaviors.\" They are to determine which they think are examples of good student behavior and mark them with a check mark. _Answers:_ The checked good behaviors are 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 12, 13, 15.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nAfter students have completed the worksheet, discuss why the behaviors were or were not examples of good student behavior. Discuss why the circumstances give clues as to whether or not the behavior would be appropriate at that time or not.\n\n1. Why would being early to class be an example of good student behavior? 2. What would be the problem with situation 4? 3. Why would situation 9 be a problem in some classes? (Some teachers want extra time spent on their class material.) 4. Why would situation 10 be a good idea\u2014in the right circumstances? (Good use of free time.) 5. How much depends on what each individual teacher will tolerate? (A lot!) 6. How can you tell what teachers expect of you and your behavior in their classes? (Usually they will give expectations at the beginning of the year; also observe who gets rewarded and punished in class.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students add more items to the list. What other good student behaviors are important? 2. Have students perform skits demonstrating these behaviors (a) once the \"right\" way and (b) once the \"wrong\" way. 3. Select one good student behavior and design a management program for a week or two. For example, make it a point to stand outside your classroom and then award extra points for students who politely greet you each day and\/or are in their seat when the bell rings, and so on.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List five to eight examples of good student behaviors. 2. Select one good student behavior you feel is important and you could improve on. Design a plan you could carry out for at least one week to work on this behavior.\n\n**Name ____ Date** ____\n\n**11.10 Good Student Behaviors**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nWhich of the following behaviors are examples of good student behaviors? Put a check mark in front of them.\n\n#  **11.11 Requesting Help or Information**\n\n**Objective:** The student will identify appropriate ways and times to ask for extra help.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students think about a recent time when they needed help on a project or assignment. What type of help did they need? Who helped them? How did they ask for help?\n\n2. Have students list different ways they can get extra help on their work (peer tutors, extra assignments, learning programs, and so on).\n\n **Activity:** Students are to select the better way of requesting help or information.\n\n_Answers:_ 1. a 2. b 3. a 4. a 5. b\n\n**Discussion:** Have students discuss why the examples are or are not appropriate times and ways to ask for help. In some cases, it may simply be a matter of good intentions but bad timing!\n\n1. In situation 1, Sara is trying, but not getting the right answer. Why is (b) not appropriate? (The teacher has not intentionally given her a problem that's too hard for her to solve.)\n\n2. In situation 2, why is (b) a good choice? (He can learn from his mistake.)\n\n3. In situation 3, how is Alex saving himself some time by asking for information? (He doesn't have to study everything; he is narrowing down the assignment to what is important for the test.)\n\n4. In situation 4, the guest is leaving. How does Renee show good behavior to try to get her questions answered? (She realizes this is not the best time for a lengthy conversation; she will wait for a convenient time for the guest.)\n\n5. In situation 5, how is Donald showing flexibility in requesting help? (He is finding out when the teacher would have extra time in his or her schedule.)\n\n **Extension Activity:** Have students observe quietly how many times other students request help of a teacher in a given classroom. Have them note (if possible) the different approaches taken\u2014raising hand, demanding help, asking for help quietly, and so on. Encourage students to thank the teacher or other individual involved after they have given the help that the student asked for.\n\n**Evaluation:** Your class has been studying the planets. You will be having a test on material you have learned in class about characteristics of the planets. Unfortunately, you have been sick for a few days with the flu and have missed some notes.\n\n1. What are some specific ways you could get extra help?\n\n2. When would be a good time to ask for extra help?\n\n3. What specific questions would you ask?\n\n **Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**11.11 Requesting Help or Information**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nThese students are working on projects, but they have run into problems. Which response shows the better way of requesting help or information in each case? Circle the letter.\n\n1. Sara is working on a math problem, but she doesn't get the answer that is shown on the answer key in the back of the book.\n\na. \"Mrs. James? I have worked on this three times and I don't see how to get the answer.\"\n\nb. \"Why did you give me such a hard problem? I can't do this. \"\n\n2. Denny is working on a science program on the elements in the computer lab. The screen seems to be stuck on a certain frame and now it won't do anything.\n\na. \"May I just copy from Dena's computer so I won't do it again?\"\n\nb. \"Can you show me what I did wrong?\"\n\n3. Alex has a big social studies test coming up on Friday, but he isn't sure which chapters are on the test.\n\na. \"Hey, Frank, can I see your assignment sheet?\"\n\nb. \"Should I just take everything home and study all of it?\"\n\n4. Renee is interested in learning more about being a veterinarian. The guest speaker for the week is a vet, but she is just about ready to leave the classroom.\n\na. \"May I ask you some more questions about being a vet when you have time?\"\n\nb. \"Could you help me write my report?\"\n\n5. Donald's teacher said she would stay after school to give extra help on Mondays and Tuesdays from 3:00 to 5:00. Donald has piano lessons on Mondays and works after school for his uncle on Tuesdays. He is having trouble in class with math.\n\na. \"Why can't you help me on Wednesday?\"\n\nb. \"Is there another time that I could come to get some extra help?\"\n**Part Four**\n\n**Practical Living Skills**\n**Chapter 12**\n\n**Information Skills**\n\n#  **12.1 What Do You Need to Know?**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nGiven a situation, the student will identify what information is needed to complete the task.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nNo matter how simple a task may appear at first, there is often a need to clarify what needs to be done to complete it. This is a matter of thinking through what is needed to accomplish the task\u2014defining expectations, knowing what to get, doing things in sequence, and so on. This activity requires students to decide what information is needed to complete a given task.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Tell students they are going to prepare a five-course dinner for some special guests. After they recover from the shock, ask them to list what they need to do. 2. Have students pretend they are going to take a cruise around the world next summer. What information is needed for this task?\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents will read examples of situations in which a person needs to find out some information in order to complete the task. They are to write that information on the line next to each item. _Answers (Examples):_ 1. Shoe size 2. How many people will be there 3. Salary, hours, benefits 4. How long it should be, what type of book 5. Age of boy, interests 6. What type of computer 7. How many will be there, what you will be serving 8. Care instructions\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nHave students compare their ideas for what information is needed. There should be several different ideas for each one. 1. Why is it important to think about what information is needed before diving into a task? (Would save time, avoid mistakes.) 2. What information is important to know when buying a gift for someone? (What they are like, their interests, how much money you have to spend.) 3. Why do you think people are sometimes hesitant to ask for information, such as stopping to ask for directions? (Feel that it will embarrass them.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students think of tasks but leave out at least one vital piece of information. Write the tasks on slips of paper, exchange them, and have students identify missing information. 2. Have students identify at least three tasks that are usually done at home or at school. What information is needed to complete these tasks?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nWhat information would be needed for the following tasks?\n\n1. Decorating a room for a birthday party 2. Feeding your neighbor's pets while she's away for the weekend 3. Buying jeans for a friend\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**12.1 What Do You Need to Know?**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nWhat information do you need to know for each situation?\n\n1. You are buying new shoes.\n\n2. You are planning a birthday party for your mother.\n\n3. You are applying for a job as a server at a pizza place.\n\n4. You are supposed to write a book report.\n\n5. You are buying a gift for your nephew.\n\n6. You want to buy a new game for your computer.\n\n7. You are cooking dinner for your family tonight.\n\n8. You have some seeds to plant outside in your garden.\n\n#  **12.2 Where to Get Information**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nGiven a situation, the student will identify an appropriate source of obtaining information.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nOnce it is established that more information is needed, the problem remains of finding out where to get the answers. In this lesson, students are given situations and must decide where the missing information can be found.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students where they would go to find out what was being served for lunch that day.\n\n2. Ask students who they would talk to in order to find out what time basketball practice is this weekend.\n\n3. Ask students what source they would use to find out who the nineteenth U.S. president was.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to read a list of questions inquiring about needed information. They are then to write one appropriate source where that information could be found.\n\n_Answers (Examples):_\n\n1. Television program guide or newspaper\n\n2. Weather report on TV or in newspaper\n\n3. Newspaper\n\n4. Nutrition information on the wrapper\n\n5. Encyclopedia or almanac\n\n6. Sports magazine\n\n7. Dictionary\n\n8. Local bookstore\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nCompare responses. Students may have somewhat similar ideas for sources.\n\n1. Did most of your responses involve people, places, or paper?\n\n2. Who is someone whom you consider to be a good source of information about school? Sports? Life?\n\n3. Why is the public library a good source of information? (Many types of materials are stored there.)\n\n4. Do you think it is just as important to know where to find answers as it is to know the answers?\n\n5. What is a good way to remember what things you need to look up or find out? (Jot down notes, make yourself a list. )\n\n6. Are most of the sources you wrote down easy to obtain or accessible?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Set up a learning center or display table of almanacs, books of lists, and so on. Allow students time to browse through them. Make the assignment to write ten to fifteen questions based on interesting facts they have found. Devise a scavenger hunt in which students on teams must go through resource books to find specific information.\n\n2. Make a _Jeopardy_ -type game with five to eight different categories. Have students write questions ranging from easy to difficult for each of the spaces on the board. (See the example that follows.) Make sure students have a verified answer for each of their questions! Play the game with two teams.\n\nExample: Ten-point question for People\u2014Name all four science teachers in our school.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nList an appropriate source for the following situations:\n\n1. You want to know whether your painful arm is broken.\n\n2. You are having trouble starting your motorcycle and aren't sure what the problem is.\n\n3. You are interested in tie-dyeing a shirt, but have never done it before.\n\n**12. 2Where to Get Information**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nHere is a list of information you need to find out about. Write the name of an appropriate source where you could get the answer.\n\n1. What's on TV on Thursday at 9 p.m. on channel 4?\n\n2. What will the high temperature be for tomorrow?\n\n3. What pet dogs are for sale at the pet store?\n\n4. How many calories are in a Butterfinger candy bar?\n\n5. What is the population of Zaire, West Africa?\n\n6. Who is the first-string quarterback on the Green Bay Packers football team?\n\n7. What are several meanings for the word _row_?\n\n8. What are the current top three fiction bestsellers in the nation?\n\n#  **12.3 Information from Newspapers**\n\n**Objective:** The student will identify three to five sources of information obtained from newspapers.\n\n**Comments:** The newspaper is a source of an incredible amount of information\u2014world news, national news, local news, weather, sports, editorials, and so on. In this lesson, students are to use a newspaper to locate information.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students list as many newspapers as they can think of.\n\n2. Have students list different features or sections of the newspaper.\n\n **Activity:** Using a local newspaper (or whatever newspaper is convenient for class use), have students find the answers to the questions on the worksheet \"Information from Newspapers.\"\n\n_Materials_ : pen or pencil, newspaper\n\n_Answers_ : Will vary for many of the questions\n\n**Discussion:** Have students share their findings.\n\n1. Were you surprised at how many different types of information were contained in the newspaper?\n\n2. How is your newspaper organized? Are there different sections? What parts are always the same?\n\n3. What is an editorial?\n\n4. Who is the advice columnist?\n\n5. How often do you read from the newspaper? What parts do you usually read?\n\n6. Are there any special features in your newspaper?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students compare several newspapers, including some that are directed to special interests or organizations. What features are common to all? Which are particularly appealing and why?\n\n2. Have students create their own class newspaper. Have fun designing and planning a unique publication!\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List five types of information that could be found in a typical newspaper.\n\n2. List the names of three newspapers.\n\n **Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**12.3 Information from Newspapers**\n\n**Directions:** Use a newspaper to answer the following questions.\n\n1. What is the name of the newspaper? ____\n\n2. What is the date? ____\n\n3. What is the headline? _____\n\n4. What is a sports story about? _____\n\n5. What is the weather forecast for today? ____\n\n6. What are the names of two comics? ____\n\n7. What is one editorial about? ____\n\n8. What does your horoscope say for today? ____\n\n9. What is one car that is for sale? Find the price, condition, and other facts. ____\n\n10. What is one house that is for sale? Find the price, location, and special features. ____\n\n11. What is one sale that is going on this week at a large store? ____\n\n12. What is one problem discussed in the advice column? ____\n\n13. How many sections are in your paper? ____\n\n14. On the back of this sheet, describe one photograph and write the caption under it. ____\n\n15. How many births, deaths, weddings are reported? ____\n\n#  **12.4 Information from Magazines**\n\n**Objective:** The student will identify three to five sources of information obtained from magazines.\n\n**Comments:** Most students are probably familiar with certain teen magazines. Strolling through the supermarket, one can see lots of magazines aimed at different populations. In this lesson, students are to examine different magazines and discover what types of information can be obtained from them.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students list several different magazines with which they are familiar.\n\n2. Have students list their favorite magazine and explain what they particularly like about it.\n\n **Activity:** On the worksheet \"Information from Magazines,\" students will match the magazine with the type of information typically contained within it. Even if students are unfamiliar with the magazine, they should be able to figure out the contents based on the title.\n\n_Answers_ : 1. d 2. c 3. g 4. b 5. e 6. h 7. a 8. f\n\n**Discussion:** Go over the answers to the worksheet. Discuss how the examples given indicated which magazine they matched.\n\n1. Which magazines do people in your family read or subscribe to?\n\n2. What is the benefit of reading magazines for information rather than a newspaper? (More photographs, lengthier articles, different and more in-depth types of stories and features.)\n\n3. What are some of the more unusual magazines you have heard of?\n\n4. How does the cover of a magazine draw your interest? What types of photographs or pictures would be portrayed on a cover?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students bring in samples of lots of different types of magazines. Discuss what makes them appealing and to whom they would appeal.\n\n2. Have students design a cover for a magazine they would like to see created. Who would be their target audience? Who (or what) will they feature on the cover?\n\n3. Have students read a magazine they normally would not be interested in. Is the information clearly written and intriguing enough that\u2014even though they may not be interested in the topic\u2014they are still able to understand and appreciate the material?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List five to ten different types of magazines (by title).\n\n2. List a topic or type of information that would be obtained from each magazine listed in (1).\n\n **Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**12.4 Information from Magazines**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nMatch each magazine listed on the left with an example on the right of information you might find in the magazine.\n\n1.|  _People_ | a.| Recipe for a fancy chocolate dessert  \n---|---|---|---  \n2.|  _Time_ | b.| Description of new fall television shows  \n3.|  _Horse Illustrated_ | c.| What the U.S. President is doing  \n4.|  _TV Guide_ | d.| What the top-selling singer is doing  \n5.|  _New Woman_ | e.| How to take care of your kids and keep your job  \n6.|  _Sports Illustrated_ | f.| How people in New Guinea live and play  \n7.|  _Bon Appetit_ | g.| Benefits of different types of saddles  \n8.|  _National Geographic_ | h.| Predictions for the Super Bowl\n\n#  **12.5 Information from the Internet**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will recognize accurate statements about the uses and capabilities of the Internet.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nThe Internet is vast! Huge! All-encompassing! There is so much information out there, it is mind-boggling when you realize how much knowledge is stored and is now accessible with a few clicks on a keyboard. Students need quick retrieval of important and desired information, especially when they are working on reports or looking for factual information. This lesson is a very basic introduction to the Internet and how it can be useful on a personal level.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students for examples of information that they have gotten from the Internet in the past few days. (Weather, news, sports information, games.)\n\n2. Write an address such as <http:\/\/www.kidsclick.org> on the board. Discuss the parts of the address. Very briefly, \"http\" refers to a language that is used between computers on the Internet; \"www\" stands for the World Wide Web, which is not the same as the Internet but a collection of websites that can be accessed from the Internet; \"kidsclick\" is the domain name of the website which usually has something to do with the information; and the _extension_ \u2014the letters at the end of a web address, such as .org, .com, .mil, or .edu\u2014refer to the type of organization (the military, government, business, school, and so on).\n\n3. When searching for something with a search engine, a keyword is often used to locate information. Discuss what keyword(s) would be most helpful in finding information about: _Indian elephants_ (not just _elephants_ ), the _weather in New York City_ (not just _NYC_ ), or the names of the professional quarterbacks on your favorite football team (not just _quarterbacks_ ).\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nThe worksheet \"Information from the Internet\" can be used as a starting point to assess knowledge about the Internet or as a final quiz after having discussed and experienced some of the Internet activities.\n\n_Answers:_\n\n1. Yes\n\n2. No (World Wide Web)\n\n3. No; use \"polar bears\"\n\n4. No\n\n5. Yes\n\n6. Yes; others are ask.com, search.yahoo.com\n\n7. No (not ethically!)\n\n8. No; links mean that there is more information\n\n9. Yes\n\n10. Yes ( _bookmark_ them or store them in Favorites)\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nUse the worksheet to start or continue discussing information regarding the Internet.\n\n1. Why is it important to type in the site address correctly? (Every letter matters; could go to a completely different website than you intended.)\n\n2. How is the World Wide Web different from the Internet? (It is a subset; the Internet refers to the millions of computers that communicate with each other, whereas the Web is mostly websites that share information.)\n\n3. Why is it important to use a specific, rather than a general, keyword? (Gets you the information faster.)\n\n4. Why isn't everything on the Internet true? (Anyone has access to it, can publish whatever they want to without validation.)\n\n5. Why is it important to note what kind of website is providing the information; for example, .mil or .edu? (It would have information important to that source, military or education, rather than just general public information.)\n\n6. How does a search engine work? (The engines use the keywords to search for documents or websites that contain the words you put in; it assembles a web page for the user listing sources that might be helpful to find what they are looking for.)\n\n7. What is a link? (It is a word or phrase, usually underlined in blue or purple, that indicates there is more information available on another page or document; by clicking on the link you can find more information quickly.)\n\n8. What information is on a homepage? (It might have a site map, tabs to indicate what information is on the rest of the website.)\n\n9. What are some favorite sites that you like to use? For what purpose?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students write ten questions about topics that interest them and use the Internet to try to find the answers. How quickly can they find the information?\n\n2. If you have a teacher webpage or a school website, show students its features, including the homepage, links, favorites, and other information.\n\n3. Have students investigate these websites for more information about searching the Web or Internet: www.kidsclick.org (designed by librarians), www.kids.yahoo.com, www.askkids.com.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. What keywords might you type in to find out about black widow spiders?\n\n2. What is some information that you might find on a website about spiders?\n\n **Name _____ Date ____**\n\n**12.5 Information from the Internet**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nWrite Yes or No on each line to show if you agree or disagree with the statement.\n\n____ 1. It is important to type all parts of the address of a website very carefully.\n\n____ 2. WWW stands for the World Wide Wonderland.\n\n____ 3. If I want to learn about polar bears, I would use the keyword _animals_.\n\n____ 4. Everything I read on the Internet is probably true.\n\n____ 5. If a web page ends in .gov it means that the information is provided by the U.S. government.\n\n____ 6. A common search engine is called Google.\n\n____ 7. I can copy a complete report from the Internet and turn it in for an assignment.\n\n____ 8. Some websites contain links, which mean you have come to the end of the information.\n\n____ 9. A homepage usually tells you what information is on the rest of the website.\n\n____ 10. It is a good idea to keep track of sites that are helpful to you for future projects.\n\n#  **12.6 Information from Books**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify three to five types of information that can be obtained from books.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nBooks are probably one of the most common sources of information. There are books available on almost any topic you can imagine. In this lesson, students are to go to a library and find examples of books on various topics.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students list three topics they are interested in learning more about. Then, if they are familiar with some books, have them list a good book that would give information about each topic.\n\n2. Have students give examples of a book they have read recently that they particularly enjoyed. What was the name of the book, what type of book was it (fiction or nonfiction, and so on), and what information did they learn from it?\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to consider each subject listed on the worksheet \"Information from Books\" and browse through the local or school library to find the location of books on these topics. They are to give an example of a book that would provide information on the topic and then give an example of what type of information they could find in the book. You may need to help familiarize students with the layout of the library and where certain nonfiction books are found. Students may also do well on this activity if they work in small groups.\n\n_Materials_ : pen or pencil, access to a library\n\n_Answers (Examples):_\n\n1. How to care for iguanas\n\n2. Where to vacation in Florida\n\n3. What planes were used in World War II\n\n4. How to take better outdoor pictures\n\n5. Some healthy recipes for chicken\n\n6. Where President Lincoln grew up\n\n7. How the writer felt about his\/her parents\n\n8. The rules for playing golf\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nHave students go over the books and information they obtained from this activity. Allow students time to check out books they found\u2014perhaps the books will spark some interest in new topics.\n\n1. What did you find interesting or surprising about the books that were available on these topics?\n\n2. How did you choose the book you selected as representative of each topic? What appealed to you about one book rather than another?\n\n3. As you were looking through the shelves of books, what other topics or books distracted you? What else did you find intriguing?\n\n4. When doing a research paper or project, why is it a good idea to use more than one source?\n\n5. What is a problem with using older books as references? (Information can be outdated.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students make a display of books that give information about a topic of their choice. Encourage them to use posters, lists of questions, models, and other aids to make an attractive display about a topic.\n\n2. Have students write and display book reviews or book reports about topics interesting to them or relevant to something they are studying.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nWhat are three pieces of information you could learn from books with the following titles?\n\n_How to Build Your Own Backyard Birdhouse_   \n_All About Animals of Australia_   \n_Magic and Card Tricks_\n\n**Name ____ Date ____**\n\n**12.6 Information from Books**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nSpend some time in your school or local library. Find an example of each category of book listed here. Then list at least one type of information you could learn from the book.\n\n**Subject** | **Example (Book Title)** | **What Information**  \n---|---|---  \n1.| Animals| ______________________| ______________________  \n______________________| ______________________  \n2.| Travel| ______________________| ______________________  \n_____________________ _| _____________________  \n3.| Airplanes| _____________________| ______________________  \n_____________________| _____________________  \n4.| Photography| _____________________| ______________________  \n_____________________| _____________________  \n5.| Cooking| _____________________| ______________________  \n_____________________| ______________________  \n6.| Biography| _____________________| ______________________  \n_____________________| _____________________  \n7.| Autobiography| _____________________| ______________________  \n_____________________| _____________________  \n8.| Sports| _____________________| ______________________  \n_____________________| ______________________\n\n#  **12.7 Information from Television**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify three to five types of information that can be obtained from television.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nTelevision is probably one of the more common sources of information, as it is readily available and appealing to viewers. In this lesson, students are to identify types of information that can be obtained from television.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students list their top three favorite television shows. 2. Ask students to indicate what type of information can be gotten from the shows they picked. 3. Ask students to think of two or three shows that are primarily geared toward providing information. What information is given?\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\n_Answers (Examples)_ : 1. News bulletin 2. Sports program 3. Talk show 4. Game show 5. Educational or discovery program 6. News or trial coverage\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nStudents may have some variety in their answers to the worksheet. Have them explain what clues were given in the cartoons to hint at the type of program.\n\n1. Do you think most people watch television for pleasure or with the intent of learning something? 2. What programs have you watched that you think give a lot of information? 3. What type of information are you interested in learning about from television? 4. Do you have a television in the classroom? If so, how is it used? 5. How can television be used to provide information in a way that is different from radio, books, or people?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. For a homework assignment, have students watch a specified show on some relevant topic\u2014perhaps a documentary or educational program. In class, have students write a summary of what they remember. Compare students' writings. How accurate and how varied were their summaries? 2. Tape a provocative talk show episode. (Be sure of the content beforehand:) Have students watch the show, and periodically stop the program to have students write an opinion, evaluate a comment, or predict what they think will occur next. 3. If you have the equipment available, have students write, produce, and act in a television production about something of relevance to them, the school, or your community. Don't forget to include commercials!\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nWhat type of information would the following television programs provide for the viewer?\n\n1. An exercise show 2. A documentary about bullfighting in Spain 3. A debate between political candidates\n\n**Name ____ Date ____**\n\n**12.7 Information from Television**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nAll of these television programs are giving information. What type of program is shown? Write your answer below each picture.\n\n#  **12.8 Information from Other People**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nGiven a situation, the student will identify an appropriate person who could provide information to answer the questions.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nPeople are a wonderful resource for information. People can teach skills, explain how to do things, give opinions about experiences they have had, and make recommendations. Students should not overlook this very important source of information.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students to give names of people (famous or not, living or deceased) whom they would like to have the opportunity to sit and talk with for an hour. Who would they choose? What would they ask?\n\n2. Ask students to tell anecdotes in which a person helped them learn to do something or learn about something. How did this person assist them?\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to list a person who would be an appropriate source of information to answer the questions on the worksheet \"Information from Other People.\" In some cases, the name of a specific person (if known) is an acceptable answer. In other cases, a general type of person (someone of a certain age, someone who works a certain job, and so on) is sufficient.\n\n_Answers (Examples):_\n\n1. A veteran\n\n2. A pilot\n\n3. A music teacher\n\n4. Someone who works at the Department of Motor Vehicles\n\n5. Someone who has visited France\n\n6. A friend who visited the Grand Canyon last summer\n\n7. A pitcher for a professional baseball team\n\n8. An English teacher\n\n9. Someone who lived in Spain\n\n10. Salesperson at a bike shop\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nDiscuss and compare responses to the questions on the worksheet. Allow students time to share their experiences with types of situations presented.\n\n1. How is talking to a person for information easier or better in some ways than using a book or other written source? (Can get feedback right away, can actually \"see\" how something is done, and so on.)\n\n2. Just because someone is able to do something well, does that mean he or she is good at teaching or explaining to someone else? (No.)\n\n3. Do you think you learn or understand better when someone explains something, or do you prefer to read instructions, think about them, try them out, and learn by doing?\n\n4. Why is it important to keep in mind that someone's opinion of a task or event may differ from someone else's? (Both express what their perception was; neither may be true or both may be partially true; keep in mind that the person is explaining only what he or she perceived.)\n\n5. What is also important to keep in mind when dealing with a person who has a job to do; for example, a salesperson for example 10? (That person may not be entirely unbiased!)\n\n6. Before you consider a person's opinion or judgment on something, what should you know about the person? (Qualifications, reputation, experience, reliability, and so on.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Invite people to visit your class and talk about what they do or specific skills they have. Prior to the visit, have students list questions they would like to learn about.\n\n2. Have students write letters (fan mail?) to individuals whom they would like to learn more about. Sometimes celebrities will respond by sending at least a photo or form letter.\n\n3. Encourage students to take lessons. School functions sometimes permit lessons in sports, music, and drama for very low cost. Let students know that teachers of many types of subjects are excellent resources for learning new skills.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nWho would be an appropriate person to help with the following tasks or questions?\n\n1. What is necessary to adopt a stray kitten from the animal shelter?\n\n2. How old do you have to be to join the Marines?\n\n3. What customs or celebrations take place in Germany during December?\n\n **Name ____ Date ____**\n\n**12.8 Information from Other People**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nWho (specifically) or what kind of person (job, age, and so on) could give you information about the following topics? Write your answers on the lines.\n\n1. What was the Vietnam war like?\n\n2. How do you fly an airplane?\n\n3. How do you play a guitar?\n\n4. What do you need to get or do to obtain a learner's permit for driving?\n\n5. What are some sights to see or visit in France?\n\n6. What is there to do at the Grand Canyon?\n\n7. How do you throw a curve ball?\n\n8. Is my story well written and interesting?\n\n9. Who would be a good tutor for Spanish class?\n\n10. What is the best kind of bike to get for riding cross country?\n\n#  **12.9 Taking Classes**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify at least five types of continuing education classes that are available.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nEducation can and should be a lifelong ambition. Even if someone is not a straight-A student in school, he or she can take advantage of weekend and evening classes available at community colleges, civic centers, local libraries, online, or through correspondence classes. We should always keep feeding our interests!\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students to list some things that they are interested in learning about but that may not be taught in their school. 2. Help students list places in which alternative learning takes place in the community.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nThe worksheet \"Taking Classes\" has a brief sample schedule of some noncredit classes that are typical of continuing education studies. _Answers:_ 1. 306, 319, and Watercolor I 2. Maybe 110, but might want to ask about prior experiences 3. 306 meets on Saturdays 4. 274, or Intro. to Yoga when offered 5. 107 6. Watercolor II, but only if you had Watercolor I first 7. Not yet 8. Any of the introductory classes\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\n1. Why is it important to have some prerequisite experience for some of the classes? 2. Why would anyone want to take a class that didn't give you some kind of credit or certification? (Personal interest, no pressure of grades.) 3. What are some other reasons to take a class, other than for the learning? (Social.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Locate a brochure of classes that are available in your community. Discuss the types of classes that are offered. 2. What type of class might students be interested in taking that is not on any of the existing lists? How might a person go about getting a class started?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. What type of class might someone who is very artistic be interested in? 2. What type of class might someone who likes sports be interested in?\n\n**12.9 Taking Classes**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nUse the sample class schedule to answer the following questions about community classes.\n\n1. If you were interested in art, what class or classes might appeal to you? ____\n\n2. If you liked to cook, but didn't know anything about cooking, would any of these classes be helpful to you?\n\n3. If you worked evenings, what class might be best for you? ____\n\n4. If you were interested in yoga, what class might be appealing to you? ____\n\n5. If you liked flowers, what class might be interesting to you? ____\n\n6. If you were free only on Thursday nights, what class could you take? ____\n\n7. If you were interested in learning to speak Italian, is there a class you could take? ____\n\n8. What classes could you take if you had never taken a community class before? ____\n**Chapter 13**\n\n**Money Skills**\n\n#  **13.1 What Is a Budget?**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will be able to explain the following terms as they relate to a budget: _earned income, deductions, fixed expenses_ , and _flexible expenses._\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nUnderstanding the purpose of a budget and how to devise one that will work for the individual is a harder task than it seems. Many of us have the tendency to spend everything that comes in\u2014and more! In this lesson, students are introduced to some basic terms that relate to devising a budget.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students how many of them get an allowance or get money from working either at a job or for doing specific chores. 2. Have students volunteer to tell about how they allocate the money they receive. 3. Ask students to help come up with a definition for the term budget. (A plan for what you will do with income and expenses.) 4. Provide definitions for the following terms:\n\n_Income_ \u2014money that comes in or is earned\n\n_Expenses_ \u2014money that you must pay out\n\n_Fixed expenses_ \u2014payments that are always the same amount of money; predictable\n\n_Flexible expenses_ \u2014payouts of money that can change; they are not always the same amount\n\n_Deductions_ \u2014money that is taken out of a paycheck to go to other designated sources (such as taxes or insurance)\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nWith teacher assistance, students are to familiarize themselves with terms on the worksheet \"What Is a Budget?\" as they relate to money and budgeting. Students are then to categorize the terms into one of four categories\u2014earned income, deductions, fixed expenses, and flexible expenses. The number of answers under each category is shown by the number of lines.\n\nBe sure that students understand the following definitions of the worksheet terms to help them make their selections:\n\na. Money that is usually taken out of a paycheck to pay for federal services\n\nb. Money that is earned by working more than the usual number of hours\n\nc. Expenses that go toward buying and maintaining clothing\n\nd. Money that is usually deducted for state services\n\ne. How much money a person earns each hour\n\nf. The amount of money paid each month (usually) for a car\n\ng. Taxes that are usually deducted from a paycheck to go toward the person's retirement or other work-related benefits\n\nh. Payment for phone calls and services\n\ni. Money paid toward a house (mortgage)\n\nj. Money that is not from working, but still provides ability to buy things\n\nk. Utilities (often a fixed expense)\n\nl. Expenses incurred from traveling by car\n\nm. Expenses that go toward running a house; for example, getting your carpets cleaned, mowing the grass, home repairs, and so on\n\nn. Amount of money spent on either eating out or groceries\n\no. Expenses for leisure activities such as movies, roller skating, and so on\n\np. Money that is taken (usually from a paycheck) to go toward membership in a union, which is an organization that works to improve conditions of the members\n\n_Answers (Vary according to different conditions in your area):_ 1. Earned income: b, e, j 2. Deductions: a, d, g, p 3. Fixed expenses: f, i, k 4. Flexible expenses: c, h, m, n, l, o\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nDiscuss why the items under each category would be an example of that category. In some cases, fixed and flexible items might differ.\n\n1. What are other deductions sometimes taken directly from a paycheck? (Insurance, automatic payments, savings, and so on.)\n\n2. If you were trying to tighten your budget, what area(s) would you concentrate on first? Why? (Probably flexible expenses, because you would have more control over those items.)\n\n3. Why would the cost of flexible items go up or down? (Seasonal considerations, one-time purchases, and so on.)\n\n4. How would a budget help you in planning for your expenses? (You would be able to decide ahead of time how much money you wanted to put toward something.)\n\n5. How would a budget help you account for where your money goes? (You can see exactly how much is spent in each category.)\n\n6. Do you think savings is an important part of a budget? Why? (Yes! Prepare for emergencies, plan for something you will need to pay for later.)\n\n7. When would be a good time to make a budget? (When your income stabilizes or has changed.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students find or think of other budgets other than personal and family budgets, such as school corporation, the U.S. government, local parks and recreation department, and so on. How is the money allocated? 2. Have students interview their parents about a budget. What guidelines do they use? What does most of the money go for? What percentage goes for housing and food? Do they have a savings plan?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. What is the purpose of a budget? 2. Give an example of income. 3. Give an example of a fixed expense. 4. Give an example of a flexible expense. 5. Give an example of a deduction.\n\n**Name ____ Date ____**\n\n**13.1 What Is a Budget?**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nThe following is a list of terms that have something to do with earning and spending money. Assign each term to only one category below.\n\na. Federal taxes\n\nb. Overtime pay\n\nc. Clothing\n\nd. State taxes\n\ne. Hourly wages\n\nf. Car payment\n\ng. Social Security\n\nh. Phone bill\n\ni. House payment\n\nj. Money from gifts\n\nk. Electric and water bill\n\nl. Gas for car\n\nm. Household expenses\n\nn. Food\n\no. Recreation expenses\n\np. Union dues\n\n**Earned Income**\n\n**Fixed Expenses**\n\n**Deductions**\n\n**Flexible Expenses**\n\n#  **13.2 Making a Budget**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will complete a suggested budget by calculating the percentage of money designated for each of several categories.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nBudgets can and should be tailored to fit the needs and goals of the individual. What is important (or necessary) for one person may have little or no value for another. In this lesson, students are given guidelines to complete a budget.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students estimate how much money they have for income each month. (This may be based on allowance, working part-time, savings designated for spending, and so on.) 2. Have students prioritize at least three to five items they would include in a personal budget.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to complete a fictitious budget, based on a monthly income of $2,000. Using the questions and guidelines on the worksheet \"Making a Budget,\" students should be able to calculate the percentage for each category. One point that students need to understand is converting a percentage to a decimal for ease in multiplication. Make sure that students follow the example.\n\n_Materials:_ pen or pencil, calculator\n\n_Answers:_ 1. $24,000 2. $1,320 3. $700 4. $175 5. $70 6. $105 7. $70 8. $70 9. $70 10. $49 11. $35 12. $35 13. $21\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nHave students share other \"tricks\" or ways to multiply to make finding the percentages easier.\n\n1. Why is it important, when making a budget, to work with take-home pay rather than the gross (total) amount? (That is the \"disposable\" income; the rest is never seen.) 2. Why is it helpful to use percentages when making a budget? (Shows relative amounts of money designated to each account.) 3. What percentage do you think you spend most of your money on? 4. What do you think takes up most of people's money? (Probably housing.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Invite a banker to speak to the class or obtain some typical personal finance information. What percentages are common or suggested for the main categories? 2. Have students make a personal budget. What categories should they include? How much money can they allocate to each? Then have them try it out for a month and make adjustments as necessary. Evaluate how well they estimated costs!\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nFred's paycheck is $3,500 for the month. His deductions total $1,200. His fixed and flexible expenses were exactly the same this month. How much would he spend on each? ($1,150.)\n\n**Name ____ Date ____**\n\n**13.2 Making a Budget**\n\n**Directions:** Use this planning sheet to help Ed make a personal budget. He makes $2,000 a month (before deductions). Write your answers on the lines. Use the back of this sheet for your work.\n\n1. What is Ed's yearly pay? ____\n\n2. If his deductions total $680, how much does Ed bring home each month? ____\n\n3. Ed has several fixed expenses. His apartment costs $550 a month and utilities (water and electricity) are $70 a month. How much is left now? ____\n\nEd would like to budget the remaining amount of his money. He wants to designate a certain percentage for each of the following categories. Remember that a percent can be changed to a decimal for ease in figuring out the dollar amount.\n\nExample: 25% would be \u00d7 .25; 15% would be \u00d7 .15; and so on.\n\n**Expense Category** | **Percentage** | **Dollar Amount**  \n---|---|---  \n4.| Food| 25%| _______________  \n5.| Clothing| 10%| _______________  \n6.| Car\/transportation| 15%| _______________  \n7.| Household expenses| 10%| _______________  \n8.| Savings| 10%| _______________  \n9.| Church and charity| 10%| _______________  \n10.| Phone| 7%| _______________  \n11.| Medical and dental| 5%| _______________  \n12.| Charge cards| 5%| _______________  \n13.| Recreation| 3%| _______________\n\n#  **13.3 Paying Interest**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will calculate how much interest is added to a purchase in given situations.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nWhen people borrow money, especially from a bank or other commercial loan institution, usually a certain amount of interest is added to the transaction. In this lesson, students are introduced to the terms _principal_ and _interest_ and are given situations in which they must calculate how much money is added to the purchase price when interest is involved.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students to lend you $10.00 in cash. Tell them that you'll pay the money back sometime next week. Wait to see how many of them want to add a \"service charge\" or interest to the loan. 2. Ask students for their ideas about why people or banks charge interest when money is borrowed (for the privilege of using someone else's money for awhile). 3. Define _principal_ (the main amount borrowed). 4. Define _interest_ (a charge\u2014usually a percentage\u2014added to the amount borrowed).\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nBe sure students understand how to convert percentage to a decimal for purposes of multiplying (principal times interest) to find the total amount to be repaid. In the examples on the worksheet \"Paying Interest,\" they will need to convert 4 percent, 7 percent, 8 percent, and 10 percent to .04, .07, .08, and .10 (which will be multiplied by the principal amount).\n\n_Materials:_ pen or pencil, calculator\n\n_Answers:_ 1. p = $6,500, i = $260, t = $6,760 2. p = $35, i = $3.50, t = $38.50 3. p = $10,000, i = $800, t = 10,800 4. p = $18,500, i = $1295, t = 19,795\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nGo over the problems on the worksheet, making sure that students understand how to solve the problems and can make corrections if they get an incorrect answer.\n\n1. Why is it important to find out the interest rate when purchasing something? (It adds significantly to the price.) 2. Would it ever be cheaper to buy an item with a higher purchase price but with a lower interest rate? (Maybe; you'd have to compare to figure out the bottom line each way.) 3. What are some items you would buy or transactions you would make that will probably have interest added? (Cars, credit cards, loans, mortgage, and so on.) 4. How is interest different from just having a service charge added to the cost of something? (The longer the money is borrowed, the more interest is paid; a service charge might not be so high or so profitable for the bank.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students collect examples of sales ads in which interest is charged on the items; for example, cars, other vehicles, furniture or appliances with interest waived for a certain period, and so on. Figure out the total cost if the amount is financed for a year. 2. Make a poster comparing the actual cost of one item with different interest rates. 3. Find out the percentage charged on several major credit cards.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nPretend you have borrowed $1,350 for a new snowmobile. You must pay back the loan plus 9 percent interest.\n\n1. What is the amount of the principal? ($1,350) 2. What is the amount of interest to pay back? ($121.50) 3. What is the total amount of money you will have to repay? ($1,471.50)\n\n**Name ____ Date ____**\n\n**13.3 Paying Interest**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nRead the following situations. Figure out the principal, the amount of interest paid, and the total amount that must be repaid. Use the space below each problem for your work.\n\n#  **13.4 \"On Sale\"**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will calculate the sale price of a given item.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nBuying \"on sale\" can result in substantial savings. Students can benefit from being able to figure out the sale price of items they are interested in purchasing. In this lesson, students are given the task of calculating the price of an item that has been marked down or is on sale.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students discuss what items they are interested in at the moment that are on sale. What are they, and where is the sale? 2. Have students offer what would be considered a good sale price for some common items such as a popular compact disc, personal computer, designer jeans, a perm, and a video game. What would be the regular full-price cost of these items?\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are given two items on the worksheet \"On Sale.\" The original price and the amount of the discount (percentage or fraction) are given. Students are to figure out the sale price. Make sure students remember how to use percentages (multiply by the equivalent decimal) and equivalent fractions (1\/2 = 50% = .50; 1\/3 = 33% = .33). Make sure students realize there are _two steps_ involved in these examples\u2014they must calculate the amount of the discount and subtract it from the original price!\n\n_Materials:_ pen or pencil, calculator\n\n_Answers:_ 1. $8.00, $72.00 2. $18.50, $55.50\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nStudents may have some trouble with the mathematical calculations on these problems. If so, provide them with a helpful chart (perhaps on the board?) that shows the specific steps for solving these problems: (1) What is the original price? (2) What is the amount of the discount? Use decimals! (3) Subtract the discount from the original price. If necessary, provide a chart of common equivalences between fractions and decimals.\n\n1. In problem 1, why is it relatively easy to figure out a 10 percent discount? 2. In problem 2, there is a half-price sale. Why do you need to know the price of both sweaters in order to figure out what each sweater would cost? (To find out what each one would cost, you must add the original prices of both, subtract half the price of one, then divide the result by 2.) 3. Why do stores have sales? (To get rid of old merchandise, get people to come to the store, promote other items, and so on.) 4. What are some items that go on sale seasonally? (Snowmobiles, swimsuits, coats, and so on.) 5. What are the pros and cons of waiting to buy something until it is on sale? ( _Pro_ : get a good price; _con_ : not such a good selection, what you want might be gone.) 6. If something is sold \"as is,\" how is that different from \"on sale\"? (Probably damaged.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students walk through a mall and take an informal inventory of what is on sale. How do the stores promote their sale items? 2. Have students become detectives. Search for the same item that is sold in several different stores (for example, a two-liter bottle of soda, item of clothing). What is the range of prices for the item? What is the average price? What is the best sale price? 3. Have students visit an outlet mall or store if there is one near you. Compare prices. What is the approximate discount for buying something that is \"irregular\" or not of the same quality?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nYou are in a shoe store where there is a \"buy one, get one at 1\/2 price\" sale. The shoes you like cost $35.00.\n\n1. How much would the second pair cost? ($17.50)\n\n2. What would your total cost be? ($52.50)\n\n**Name ____ Date ____**\n\n**13.4 \"On Sale \"**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nThe following items are on sale! The regular prices are shown as well as the amount of the discount. For each problem, figure out the sale price. Use the bottom of this page for your work.\n\n#  **13.5 Unit Pricing**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nGiven several examples, the student will be able to identify the unit used and the unit price.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nWhen is a \"deal\" a real deal? Although some buys may sound good, it is not until you really know what you are actually getting for your money that you can decide if it is truly a good purchase. In this lesson, students are introduced to the concept of figuring out the cost of an item based on the unit price\u2014how much one ounce, one pound, one gallon, and so on, costs.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Tell students that you have a deal for them\u2014they can either have five cans of soda for $3.75 or a twelve-pack for $6.00. Which is the better deal? Why? (The unit price on the first is 75 cents, the second is 50 cents.) 2. Have students explain how they figured out which was the better buy. Ideally, they will understand that it boils down to how much you would have to pay for a single can. 3. Define _unit pricing_ (the price for only one of a group of items).\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nOn the worksheet \"Unit Pricing,\" students are to figure out what unit is being purchased (one can of soup, one candy bar, and so on) and the price for one item. Students may need a calculator to solve the problems. Be sure students have the unit correctly identified. Also, explain how you want the answer written if it does not come out evenly (for example, three cans for $1.00 would probably be 33 cents; .6666 would be rounded off to .67). _Materials:_ pen or pencil, calculator _Answers:_ 1. One can, 33 cents 2. One folder, 25 cents 3. One pizza, $4.00 4. One CD, $11.67 5. One candy bar, 24 cents 6. One gallon, $1.15 7. One pair of socks, $2.33 8. One drink, 25 cents\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nBe sure students understand how the correct answers were reached on the worksheet. Discuss any points of confusion.\n\n1. Why is unit pricing helpful when you are comparing different brands of the same product? (Lets you see exactly how much the item costs when compared equally.) 2. What are some common units used when you buy food items? (Ounce, pound, and so on.) 3. What are some items usually packaged in quantities? (Soda, socks, small cereal packages, notebooks, pencils, gum, soap, and so on.) 4. Why isn't bigger always the best buy? (You might be paying more for each unit.) 5. Should you always get the item with the cheapest unit cost? What other factors should you consider? (Freshness, quality, taste, and so on.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students bring in and set up a display table of grocery items. Figure out the unit cost of each. 2. Find and bring in items that come in different sizes; for example, cereal boxes, soda cans and bottles. Set up an activity for students to figure the unit cost of each and the better buy.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nWhich is the better buy? Why?\n\n1. Three pads of lined paper, each pad containing 50 sheets, for $3.00 OR 2. 1 Super-Duper pad of lined paper with 250 sheets for $4.25\n\n#2 is the better buy: each sheet is 1.7 cents compared to 2 cents each for #1.\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**13.5 Unit Pricing**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nFor each of the following examples, write the unit that is used and the unit price for each.\n\n1. Chicken noodle soup: three cans for $1.00.\n\n2. Pocket folders: twelve for $3.00.\n\n3. Three pizzas for $12.00.\n\n4. Buy two CDs, get one FREE! Your cost: $35.00.\n\n5. Bag of candy: six bars for $1.44.\n\n6. Twenty gallons of gas for $23.00.\n\n7. Three pairs of socks for $7.00.\n\n8. Boxed drinks: nine for $2.30.\n\n#  **13.6 How Much Do Things Cost?**\n\n**Objective:** The student will find out an approximate cost of common items around the house or in everyday situations.\n\n**Comments:** Prices can vary greatly from store to store, by season, or generic versus name brand. Although there can be some variability, it is a good exercise to have at least a ballpark figure in mind of what some common items cost.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students estimate what they think these items might cost: new tennis shoes, a hand -held calculator, an ice cream cone, and other items that you are interested in. Record their estimates. Use a local newspaper ad or other references to see how close students' guesses were.\n\n2. Have students list reasons that might affect the cost of an item; for example, the season, special sales, buying in bulk, name brand, and so on.\n\n **Activity:** The worksheet \"How Much Do Things Cost?\" will require some research to look up ads or to go to various stores to find out prices. You may want to have students estimate their answer before going out to do field work.\n\n_Answers:_ Will vary greatly.\n\n**Discussion:** Record different answers on a class chart or graph to get a feel for the range of prices. If there is a lot of variability, you' ll want to use an average price.\n\n1. Which items were a lot more expensive than you thought they would be?\n\n2. Were any items cheaper than you expected them to be?\n\n3. Why do you think there is so much price variability on some of the items?\n\n4. What kind of information affects how much something costs? (For example, on item 4 you would need to know the grade of gas; on item 13 you would need to factor in the ingredients for toppings, size, and so on.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Play a type of _The Price Is Right_ game by showing pictures of common items and having three prices displayed per item. Students must \"come on down\" and guess the correct price.\n\n2. Have students experiment with a proposed budget of $100. How many pizzas are equivalent to one tire? How many eggs are equivalent to a can of root beer?\n\n **Evaluation:** What is the approximate price of five common items that you use?\n\n**Name ____ Date ____**\n\n**13.6 How Much Do Things Cost?**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nUsing appropriate sources, find out the cost of these common items listed below.\n\n1. A twelve-pack of root beer ____\n\n2. A tire for a car ____\n\n3. A gallon of milk ____\n\n4. A gallon of gas _____\n\n5. A pair of jeans ____\n\n6. A cell phone ____\n\n7. A bottle of shampoo ____\n\n8. A jar of peanut butter ____\n\n9. A pound of chopmeat ____\n\n10. A pair of socks ____\n\n11. A paperback book ____\n\n12. A bottle of aspirin ____\n\n13. A large pizza from a restaurant ____\n\n14. A haircut ____\n\n15. A dozen eggs ___\n\n#  **13.7 Writing a Check**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nGiven the appropriate information, the student will correctly write a sample check.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nSome students may already have an active checking account; others may want to open one when they have incoming money or need to write checks for purchases. In this lesson, students are introduced to the information required on a check and are given practice in writing sample checks.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students describe checks they have seen in use. (Personalized checks, humorous checks, checks with cartoons on them, and so on.) 2. Have students list occasions on which they or their parents have written checks. Why was a check used rather than cash or a charge? 3. Draw or make a large blank check for purposes of demonstration. Include blanks for: (1) the date, (2) the party to whom the check is written, (3) the dollar amount in numbers, (4) the amount in words, (5) signature, and (6) memo or purpose. Explain the purpose of each and demonstrate how each is used.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents will fill in blank checks on this worksheet with information given on each item. This includes who the check is written to, the date, the amount, and a signature.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nLook over students' checks to make sure all information is filled out properly. Answer any questions about the checks.\n\n1. How is using a check convenient for many people? (Don't have to carry cash, can keep track of spending, and so on.) 2. What types of places will usually take a check? (Grocery stores, department stores, gas stations, and so on.) 3. What identification is sometimes required to write or cash a check? (Driver's license, credit card.) 4. What happens if you write a check and don't have enough money in your account to cover it? (It will \"bounce\" or be returned with a substantial service charge added.) 5. What is a \"blank check\"? (A check that is signed but the amount is not filled in.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Invite a banker to speak to the class or obtain literature from a local bank about opening a checking account. Find out what options are available for the customer. Is a minimum balance required? How much does it cost to maintain the account? List other questions. 2. Almost every interest group has a series of checks that appeal to them. Collect cancelled checks and display them.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. What are two benefits of using a checking account? 2. Use a blank check provided and write a check to your teacher for $100. Be sure to spell his or her name correctly! After your work is checked, void the check by writing \"VOID\" across it.\n\n**Name ____ Date ____**\n\n**13.7 Writing a Check**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nUse the blank checks on the next sheet to write checks for the following amounts and purposes. Look at the example for help. Use today's date.\n\n1. Write a check to the Hobby Castle for $9.93 for a model airplane.\n\n2. Write a check to Ms. Beamon for $17.54 for the class cookie sale.\n\n3. Write a check to Friendly Fones for $39.00 for a new bedroom phone.\n\n4. Write a check to Towne Outlet Store for $52.30 for school supplies.\n\n#  **13.8 Maintaining a Checking Account**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will be able to correctly enter sample checks into a checking account ledger.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nNot only must students know how to fill out a check, but they must also learn to keep careful accounting records of how much money they have in the checking account. In this lesson, students are given a fabricated checking record to enter into a ledger.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students raise their hands if they have a checking account.\n\n2. Have students raise their hands if they would like to have a checking account.\n\n3. Ask students to list some responsibilities they would have to live up to if they had a checking account. (Maintaining accuracy, making sure they have the money in the account.)\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nUsing the worksheet \"Maintaining a Checking Account,\" students are to complete a checkbook register based on having an opening balance of $150.00 and subsequently subtracting checks and a service charge and adding a deposit. You may wish to go through the first check notation in the register together as an example.\n\n_Materials:_ pen or pencil, calculator\n\n_Answers:_\n\nThe register should resemble the following:\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nMake sure students understand how to maintain the register and answer any questions they have about doing the math. Students may ask about the column with the check mark. Many people use this to reconcile their checks by placing a check mark in the column after the bank has cashed and returned the check.\n\n1. How often do you think you should make sure your math is accurate? (After every few checks at least.)\n\n2. How could you check your math? (Use a calculator.)\n\n3. How could you use monthly bank statements to make sure your records are accurate? (Check your balance with the balance that the statement shows; after subtracting the checks that have not been cashed already.)\n\n4. What do you think are some common sources of error? (Not lining up the decimal point, forgetting to subtract an amount, just making mathematical mistakes; for example, when the amount you are out of balance is divisible evenly by 9, chances are that you have transposed two numbers, such as writing \"94\" instead of \"49.\")\n\n5. What should you do if you make a mistake on a check? (Write \"void\" across it, or if it is a minor error you can correct it and put your initial next to the correction.)\n\n6. Sometimes there is a service charge as a penalty added if you do not have enough money in your account and the check \"bounces.\" How could you avoid this? (Some banks have overdraft protection; better yet, make it a habit to update your balance each time you make a deposit or withdrawal, so you always know exactly how much money is in your account.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Obtain examples of typical monthly bank statements. Have students figure out what information is contained on it and how this could help make sure their personal banking records are accurate.\n\n2. Compare the features of checking accounts at two or three local banks. Find out which would be the best for students to start out with. Find out the policy for being overdrawn, overdraft protection, and any other relevant features.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nYou open a checking account with a deposit of $100.00. Your first check is written for $37.92. What is your balance? ($62.08.)\n\n**Name ____ Date ____**\n\n**13.8 Maintaining a Checking Account**\n\n**Directions:** Complete the following register from your checking account. Give yourself a starting balance of $150.00.\n\n1. Write check #101 on 10\/1\/10 to Fred's Discount Shop for $8.89.\n\n2. Write check #102 on 10\/1\/10 to Polly's Pizza for $15.42.\n\n3. Write check #103 on 10\/2\/10 to Northfield High School for $17.00.\n\n4. Void check #104\u2014you made a mistake in the amount.\n\n5. Write check #105 on 10\/3\/10 to Harvell Oil Company for $40.30.\n\n6. Deposit $150.00 on 10\/3\/10. Note that this was a paycheck.\n\n7. Write check #106 on 10\/4\/10 to Mrs. Violet Chandler for $10.50.\n\n8. Subtract a service charge of $8.00 on 10\/5\/10.\n\n#  **13.9 What Is a Savings Account?**\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nStudents may have had a savings account established for them when they were young and might continue to put money into this account. In this lesson, some features of a savings account are discussed and it is compared to a checking account.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students raise their hands if they have a savings account. Ask when the account was first established. Some may have opened an account when they began working; others may have had an account opened for them by a parent when they were children. Share experiences.\n\n2. Write \"savings account\" and \"checking account\" on the board and ask students to tell what they know about similarities and differences between these kinds of accounts.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to decide if each description on the worksheet \"What Is a Savings Account\" applies to a savings account, a checking account, or both.\n\n_Answer:_ 1. C, S 2. C, S 3. C 4. C 5. C 6. S 7. C 8. C, S 9. C 10. C\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\n1. Why do you think many people have both types of accounts? (Want to pay bills from one, not draw from the savings.)\n\n2. What are some goals or items that people might save for over a long period of time? (College education, home, vacation.)\n\n##  **Extension Activity:**\n\nWhat are some ways to get a better interest rate than a typical savings account offers?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List one way a savings account is different from a checking account.\n\n2. List one way they are the same.\n\n **Name ____ Date ____**\n\n**13.9 What Is a Savings Account?**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nRead the following descriptions of the bank account. Write \"C\" if it could refer to a checking account. Write \"S\" if it could refer to a savings account. Both will be true for some of the items.\n\n**____** 1. You can deposit money into this account.\n\n____ 2. You can take money out of this account.\n\n____ 3. You usually get a better interest rate.\n\n____ 4. You can write checks from this account.\n\n____ 5. You probably would use this account quite often.\n\n____ 6. If you had a large amount of money and weren't planning to spend it soon, you'd use this account.\n\n____ 7. You have to maintain a minimum balance.\n\n____ 8. You get a statement each month indicating how much money you have in the account.\n\n____ 9. You may have to pay a service charge if you don't have a high enough balance.\n\n____ 10. You would use this account if you have a lot of bills to pay every month.\n\n#  **13.10 Credit Cards**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will use a sample credit card to answer information about its use.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nIt is getting easier and easier for students to obtain credit cards. Unfortunately, the benefits seem to overshadow the risks that can be involved with easy credit. In this lesson, students are given a sample credit card and are asked to answer questions about its use.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students list the names of familiar major credit cards. 2. Have students tell the percentage of interest charged on credit cards that they or their parents have or cards that have been advertised. 3. Have students figure out how much interest would have to be paid in a year on a balance of $4,890 if the interest rate was 22 percent ($1,075.80). Does this seem like a lot?\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nHave students examine the information about the sample credit card on the worksheet \"Credit Cards.\" Explain what the numbers refer to.\n\n_Credit limit_ \u2014how much you can charge on the account\n\n_Annual percentage rate_ \u2014the amount of interest charged annually on the balance of the credit card account\n\n_Annual fee_ \u2014how much you pay each year for the privilege of having the card\n\n_Valid dates_ \u2014when you first got the card and when it will expire\n\n_Account number_ \u2014the sixteen-digit number that is the number of your account on this card\n\n_Answers:_ 1. 5231 0004 7586 3268 2. $10,000 3. $17.90 4. Once a year 5. August 2014 6. General Card 7. $209 8. $375 + 67.13 = $442.13 (rounded off)\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nMake sure students can calculate the interest rate (some numbers are rounded up). Answer any questions they have about the worksheet.\n\n1. How is the use of a credit card helpful? (Convenient, gives you extra time for payment.) 2. How is use of a credit card more flexible than using a check? (You can spend money that you don't actually have yet; some places will take credit cards but not checks.) 3. What should you be aware of before running up a huge credit card bill? (How much the interest charges will add to your bill.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students collect and compare features of having a major credit card. Compare items such as the annual fee, percentage rate of interest, other benefits, and so on. You may want to have students draw enlargements of the cards and list the features on posters. 2. Have students make a list of fifty local stores or nearby places that will accept a credit card.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nWrite a paragraph listing several pros and cons of using a credit card for purchases.\n\n**Name ____ Date ____**\n\n**13.10 Credit Cards**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nLook at the sample credit card, then answer the questions.\n\n1. What is the account number on this credit card?\n\n2. How much can you charge on this card?\n\n3. If you charged $100, how much interest would you have to pay in a year?\n\n4. How often do you have to pay the $50 fee?\n\n5. When does this card expire?\n\n6. What type of credit card (name) is this?\n\n7. If your balance is $219 and you have to make a minimum payment of $10, what would your new balance be (before interest is added)?\n\n8. If your balance is $375, what would you owe after you figure out the interest you are being charged?\n\n#  **13.11 Using Debit and Credit Cards and ATMs**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify the most likely bank card to be used in a transaction.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nOlder students may have access to cards that are linked to a bank, such as a debit card (which may also have the option of being used as a credit card) or an ATM card (which allows them to access cash that is linked to a bank account). This lesson focuses on some very basic differences between the bank cards and which are most appropriate for certain situations.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Display a debit card, a credit card, and an ATM card. Ask students to tell you what they already know about the differences. On the board, make three columns for each card and list a few features; for example, **debit card** \u2014takes money directly from your bank account, operates like a check; **credit card** \u2014allows you to get something now and pay for it later, charges interest; **ATM** \u2014allows you to get cash from your bank account.\n\n2. For emphasis, tie or attach a ribbon or small rope to each card. Explain that the money that comes from each of these cards is not _free_ money, but it is attached to a bank. It might be a local bank that services their checking or savings account, or in the case of a major charge card, it might be a bigger financial institution. Emphasize that no matter which card is used, the actual money comes from an account that they are maintaining.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nKeeping the visual display in front of the students, explain that they are going to use the worksheet \"Using Debit\/Credit Cards and ATMs\" to try to figure out which card would be the best for each situation.\n\n_Answers (May vary, but go with general guidelines):_ 1. Credit 2. ATM 3. Debit 4. Debit 5. Credit 6. Trinity\u2014debit; Zoe\u2014ATM 7. Credit 8. ATM\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\n1. Discuss each response and talk about how the selected card would help the student in his or her situation.\n\n2. For the credit card answers (#1, #5, #7), discuss alternatives to help those students get what they want without using a credit card.\n\n3. Are there situations in which using credit is the best or the only choice?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Anyone who has ever been in credit card debt can attest to the down side of being in that position (high interest rates, years of making minimum payments, and so on). Invite a financial counselor to speak to your class about alternatives to using a credit card, or using a prefunded card that operates like a credit card but has a preset limit.\n\n2. Discuss some \"emergency situations\" in which using a credit card might be a good or necessary option, such as running out of gas in a car when you are in a new place, needing to sign up for a course right away, ordering something online, establishing identity, or finding something on sale that is just the right color!\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nGive an example of a time when you would probably use each of the following:\n\n1. A credit card\n\n2. A debit card\n\n3. An ATM card\n\n**Name ____ Date ____**\n\n**13.11 Using Debit and Credit Cards and ATMs**\n\n**Directions:** These people are using cards to do their transactions. Circle **D** (for Debit), **C** (for Credit), or **ATM** to indicate which kind of card is being used.\n\n1. Blake wants to buy a new bike, but he doesn't have enough money in his checking account. He will use a card to cover the full amount and pay it back as he can every month.\n\n **D C ATM**\n\n2. Amy wants to go to a movie and have a pizza afterward with some friends. She only has $5 with her, so she wants to get some cash so she can pay for her evening activities. Which card will she use?\n\n **D C ATM**\n\n3. Owen doesn't like to carry any money with him. He likes a small, thin wallet so he only has one card. He stopped at a bookstore to buy a book, but it is a small amount and he doesn't want to have to put the purchase on a charge card.\n\n **D C ATM**\n\n4. Michelle always forgets to check her balance in her checking account, but she knows that every time she makes a purchase using this card she can check on the computer to see how much she spent and view her balance. She can also keep a receipt from each transaction that shows how much she spent.\n\n **D C ATM**\n\n5. Aiden didn't know how much it would cost to go shopping for new clothes. He doesn't want to subtract money right away from his checking account, so he is using this card.\n\n **D C ATM**\n\n6. Trinity and Zoe went roller skating and wanted to pay for their skates. Trinity handed her card to the cashier to pay by having money taken directly out of her checking account. Zoe used a card at a machine at the skating rink to get cash from her checking account. Which cards did they use? (Trinity) **D C ATM** (Zoe) **D C ATM**\n\n7. Devin wanted to buy a new stereo for his car. It was on sale, but it was still quite expensive, and he knows that he would need to work for a few months before he can pay for it. What card did he use?\n\n **D C ATM**\n\n8. Jada's gas tank is almost on empty. She went to the gas station to get some money to fill up the car. What card did she use?\n\n **D C ATM**\n\n#  **13.12 How Much Money Will You Need?**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will estimate the amount of money needed for several items or situations, rounded to $5, $20, $100, or $500.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nDoes a trip to Hawaii cost $100 or $1,000? Students may only have a vague idea of the price tags of some of their dreams. In reality, we need to know the cost\u2014the real cost\u2014of everyday activities, services, or items. Wild guesses won't work. In this lesson, students are given practice in categorizing items or services into one of four monetary categories.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students what they could buy with $1,000,000? (That's \"a million.\") They might answer \"anything,\" but that is not true. Some people have garages that cost more than that! Keep a list of student guesses for research on the Extension Activities below. 2. Ask students (if appropriate) to talk about the most expensive purchase that they have made in the last week. What is the highest dollar transaction that students are familiar with?\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nOn the worksheet \"How Much Money Will You Need?\" the students are going to estimate the category that each item or service on the list would probably fall within. There may be some exceptions or qualifications\u2014don't make that the issue here. _Answers (May vary):_ 1. B 2. A 3. D 4. B 5. B 6. D 7. C 8. D 9. C 10. B 11. C 12. C 13. C 14. D 15. C\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nGo over student responses and explain that these are just approximate categories\u2014yes, you probably can get a video for 99 cents, but the lowest category is $5.\n\n1. Why is it important to have some idea of how much something costs before you buy it? (Plan your budget, make adjustments.) 2. Were you surprised at how much any of these things cost? 3. Why do you think some people don't want to buy things on sale or during certain seasons? (They have the money, they need to get something immediately.) 4. When you know the cost of something ahead of time, how would that help you in your plan to get something that you want? (You have the goal.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Use the Internet or other resources to find out an actual cost of owning dream toys such as a private jet, an island in the Pacific, a Rolls-Royce, and so on. Or, reverse the search and find out what you can buy with $1,000,000 and make a list. 2. Some items continue to need financial support or upkeep after the initial purchase (pets, appliances, cars, and so on). Go through the items on the worksheet to determine additional costs that one would have to consider. Can you go bowling without buying something to eat? Or buy jeans without a new sweatshirt?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nList one thing or service that you could purchase for:\n\n$5_____ $20_____ $100_____ $500_____\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**13.12 How Much Money Will You Need?**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nCircle the answer that is a good estimate of how much money would be needed for each of the following situations.\n\n**A** = **About $5 B** = **About $20 C** = **About $100 D** = **About $500**\n\n**__** 1. Buying a new hardcover book\n\n__ 2. Renting one video\n\n **__** 3. Buying a brand-new bike\n\n__ 4. Taking a large pizza with three toppings\n\n__ 5. Playing a few games of bowling\n\n__ 6. Buying a new kitchen table with four chairs\n\n__ 7. Going to Walt Disney World for one day\n\n__ 8. Flying to a popular vacation spot\n\n__ 9. Buying a new iPod\n\n__ 10. Buying pair of jeans on sale\n\n__ 11. Buying small refrigerator for your room\n\n__ 12. Buying set of leather-bound classic books\n\n__ 13. Adopting puppy from the animal shelter\n\n__ 14. Buying original oil painting from a gallery\n\n__ 15. Tickets to a Broadway show\n\n#  **13.13 Making Change**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will be able to count out correct change for purchases under $20.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nMany businesses have cash registers that automatically provide the correct change for purchases. Counting out change is not a lost need, however; small businesses and informal situations (such as working the hotdog stand at a high school sporting event) still require the ability to make change. Learning to \"count back\" money efficiently requires practice and thinking.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. When was the last time you bought something and needed change back? (School cafeteria? Drug store?) Did the clerk dump the money into your hand or count it back to you?\n\n2. Divide students into small groups. Have them each write down how they would give change in these situations:\n\n**Money owed** | **Money given Type** | **of coins**  \n---|---|---  \n$1.45| $2.00 N,| Q, Q  \n$3.70| $5.00 N,| Q, $1  \n$.52| $5.00| P, P, P, N, D, D, D, D, $1,$1,$1,$1\n\nIn these situations, how did they come up with the most efficient way to give change? (Get to the nearest nickel\/dollar, look for ways to group small coins, and so on.) Have students explain \"tricks\" or strategies that helped them. Counting back entirely in pennies will get the right answer, but is not a workable strategy. _Think:_ efficiency!\n\n_Ideas:_ getting to the first (closest) dollar is the trickiest part; after that it's easier; start with pennies to get to the nearest 0 or 5, then you can use larger coins.\n\nDon't worry about what \"equivalences\" you use\u2014for example, using four dimes instead of one quarter, one dime, and one nickel is still 40 cents; use whatever you are comfortable with (within reason).\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nThere are two ways to provide change: counting back the balance, or using a calculator to find out the difference. In most cases, counting back is quicker, but if using a calculator works and is acceptable for a student\/business, that is a great alternative. However, the student still has to count back the amount on the calculator correctly.\n\nOn the worksheet \"Making Change,\" the students are to count back change using coins and dollars. There may be more than one answer, as some coin equivalences are interchangeable.\n\n_Answers_ (Will vary):\n\n1. Q.\n\n2. P, P, N, D, Q, Q, $1.\n\n3. The penny eliminates the .01 right away; D, $1, $1.\n\n4. P, P, Q, $1, $1, $1.\n\n5. P, P, P, D.\n\n6. P, D, Q, Q, $1, $1, $1, $5, $10.\n\n7. The $5 bill takes care of the $5; that just leaves .50\u2014Q, Q.\n\n8. N, Q, $1, $5, $10.\n\n9. P, P, N, D, Q, Q, $1, $1, $5.\n\n10. P, P, P, N, D, D, D, D, $1, $1, $1.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nSome students will struggle with making change by counting back and will have to resort to other techniques or aids if this is something they have to do.\n\n1. In what situations do you need to know how to count back money? (Job, receiving change.)\n\n2. Why is it a good idea to check your change when you make a purchase? (Make sure you got the right amount back.)\n\n3. If you have trouble counting out change, what are some things you can do to help yourself? (Make a chart of common equivalences, carry a pocket calculator.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Practice, practice, practice. The website www.mathplayground.com\/making_change.html, already referenced for another topic (10.7, Using Computers for Math Information), is also a good practice resource for making change.\n\n2. Provide frequent practice in giving change to the nearest dollar, as this is the first step in making change. Basically, you are setting up situations such as this: How do you get from 89 to 100 using coin equivalences? Answer: Penny, dime.\n\n3. Use math money rulers to help students visualize the \"steps\" or coins that will help them:\n\nQ: 0, 25, 50, 75, 100\n\nD: 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100\n\nN: 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nWhat change would you provide for the following situations?\n\n1. The customer gives you a $10 bill. The meal was $6.50 including taxes and tip.\n\n2. You get a $20 bill from a friend; he wants $15.73 back to pay for a book you bought.\n\n **Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**13.13 Making Change**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nWhat coins and bills would be the most efficient to give the correct change in these situations?\n\n**Money owed** | **Money handed to you** | **Change given**  \n---|---|---  \n1.| $4.75| $5 bill| _______________________________________  \n2.| $8.33| $10 bill| _______________________________________  \n3.| $2.91| $5 bill and 1 penny| _______________________________________  \n4.| $6.73| Two $5 bills| _______________________________________  \n5.| 87 cents| Four quarters| _______________________________________  \n6.| $1.39| $20| _______________________________________  \n7.| $5.50| $5 bill and $1 bill| _______________________________________  \n8.| $3.70| $20 bill| _______________________________________  \n9.| $12.33| $20 bill| _______________________________________  \n10.| $16.52| $20 bill| _______________________________________\n**Chapter 14**\n\n**Travel**\n\n#  **14.1 Local Transportation**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will describe forms of transportation available in the community.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nGetting around independently is a worthy goal of any member of a community. Although some students may have bicycles or ride a school bus to get where they want to go, there are usually other modes of transportation that are available and should be investigated. These may include public buses, a subway system, taxis, and so on. In this lesson, students are to target places they frequently go to and note what form of transportation they use.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students list ways people can get around in their community. 2. Have students put a check mark next to the ways they have used. 3. Have students put a dollar sign ($) next to the ways that cost money. 4. Have students put the letter **A** next to the ways that require an adult's help.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nEncourage students not to put down the same answer for all items. If necessary, if their first choice tends to be the same, have students put an alternative mode of travel for the items. _Answer (Will vary)_\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nIf your community is small, many students probably get around by foot or on a bike, or with the help of an adult driver. Encourage students to think about alternative modes of transportation. Is there a public bus system that could get them around? Do they ever carpool with a friend's parents? Look for alternatives!\n\n1. Do you feel your town or community has adequate public transportation?\n\n2. Are there any places you would like to be able to get to but can 't? Is it because you need an adult, need money, or haven't learned to use that particular transportation system?\n\n3. Do you feel you are able to use public transportation without major problems?\n\n4. How much do you rely on adults or older siblings who drive to get you around?\n\n5. Do you plan to have a car or access to a car when you are old enough? How?\n\n6. Other than going to a friend's house or to school, where do you normally go on a regular basis that requires transportation?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students conduct a survey of their classmates regarding how they travel (a) to school and (b) for fun. 2. Have students compile a list of facts about public transportation in their community. Find out about rates, availability, schedules, and so on.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List three forms of transportation available to you in your community. 2. Describe how each form listed in (1) is used by you and\/or by others.\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**14.1 Local Transportation**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nList ten places you go to periodically in your community or have recently visited. How do you get there? Write your answers on the lines.\n\n#  **14.2 Overnight Travel**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will list several appropriate items that would be needed for specific overnight travel plans.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nWhen planning an overnight stay, students need to think about personal items (toothbrush, mouthwash), medication, amount and type of clothing, and any extra items that are specific to the destination (such as a book, fishing equipment, gift).\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Draw a large suitcase on the board. Give students three minutes to draw or write the name of items that they would take on an overnight trip. 2. Ask students to explain why these items might be important for overnight travel: alarm clock, deodorant, medication, extra socks, snack, iPod, book of crossword puzzles, contact lens solution.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nOn the worksheet \"Overnight Travel,\" students are to list specific items that they would take on an overnight trip with the specific destinations. _Answers (Will vary):_ 1. Pajamas, toothbrush, games, cell phone 2. Warm sweaters, books to read, iPod, lots of socks and underwear, jigsaw puzzle 3. Hiking boots, swimming suit, camera 4. Bug spray, flashlight, inflatable pillow, sleeping bag 5. Games, contact lens solution, pajamas, deodorant 6. Games, videos, appropriate pajamas, sleeping bag, bathrobe\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nThe length of the overnight stay and the destination all affect what items someone should bring.\n\n1. Other than clothes, what other things should you remember to bring when you will be away from home overnight? 2. What other factors do you have to think about when you are going to be gone? (Weather, activities.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Find magazine pictures of travel destinations and have students cut them to fit the shape of a suitcase. Glue it onto a sheet of paper so that you can \"open\" the suitcase. Have students list items that would be specific to that destination. 2. Have students make a \"personal overnight travel list\" of items that are important for them to have even on a very short stay. The list might include medication, contact lens solution, personal shampoo and conditioner bottles, aspirin, an alarm clock, a retainer container.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. What personal items would you need to take with you on a one-night overnight trip? 2. What additional items would you take if you were on a one-week trip?\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**14.2 Overnight Travel**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nList items that you would take for each of the following situations.\n\n1. Spending a Friday night at a friend's house\n\n2. Spending one week at your cousin's home during the winter, in a cottage on a ski slope\n\n3. Flying with your family to a vacation home in the mountains\n\n4. Going on a camping trip with a community group for 3 days\n\n5. Staying with a friend for his\/her birthday for an overnight party\n\n6. Going to a group slumber party held in a church gymnasium\n\n#  **14.3 Traveling by Plane**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will use information to solve airline travel situations.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nAirline travel is a specific type of travel in which the traveler needs to become familiar with the rules and regulations of the airline industry. Some common things to know are: (1) bring proper identification, (2) arrive at least an hour ahead of time, (3) be prepared to remove some clothing items for security, (4) pack as lightly as possible, (5) know what items have to be in a zip-locking bag.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students to raise hands to indicate that they have flown on an airline. Give them a few minutes to talk about experiences and destinations.\n\n2. Go over the airline travel tips and discuss why they are important.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nSome students may not have had the opportunity to fly anywhere. The worksheet \"Traveling by Plane\" includes questions that can be solved by applying given information to each situation. _Answers:_ 1. 29 2. $50 3. $75 4. 6:30PM 5. 9:30PM 6. Hand lotion, spray deodorant, bubble bath 7. Wear shoes that are easy to remove, light jacket, maybe leave off the belt\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nAirline travel must be safe for all passengers, and the rules and procedures must be followed. The more familiar students are with what is expected, the easier their experience will be.\n\n1. Why do you think the airlines have so many rules? (Safety.)\n\n2. What things do you have to be aware of when you are on a plane with so many other people so close together for probably several hours? (Not being annoying, watching personal space.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Using the Departures chart, have students write questions for each other concerning times, flights, gates, and so on. Exchange questions with each other.\n\n2. Have students research other airline regulations at www.tsa.gov to find out more information about traveling by plane. Have them share their findings with the class.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nWhat are three things you learned about traveling by plane from this lesson?\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**14.3 Traveling by Plane**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nUse the information given to help you decide what Aaron should do to help him on his flight.\n\n**Departures**\n\n1. Aaron is going to Milwaukee to visit a friend. He decided to get the latest flight possible to Milwaukee so he wouldn't have to rush. What flight will he get on?\n\n2. Aaron has one carry-on bag and two checked bags. It will cost $25 for each checked bag. How much will he have to pay?\n\n3. Aaron's carry-on bag is too big to fit in the overhead compartment, so he will have to check it. Now how much will he have to pay?\n\n4. Aaron knows he needs to arrive at the airport at least one hour before departure. What time should he get to the airport for Flight 29?\n\n5. If Aaron's flight is two hours, the plane departs on schedule, and there are no time zone changes, what time will he arrive in Milwaukee?\n\n6. Aaron remembered that liquids, gels, and aerosol sprays have to be small (three ounces) and put into a clear plastic zip-locking bag to be checked at security. Which of these items should he put into his bag? Hand lotion, spray deodorant, hair brush, bubble bath, toothbrush, extra socks\n\n7. Aaron has to take off his shoes, jacket, and belt and put them in a tray before he goes through security. How should he dress that day to make it easier to go through security?\n\n#  **14.4 Planning a Trip**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will list at least five considerations necessary for planning a trip.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nWhether planning to travel across the city, across the state, or across the country, one must consider the expense of travel. There are costs involved, not only in the actual travel, but in meals, hotels, and expenses for sight-seeing when the destination is reached. This lesson lists factors that must be considered when traveling.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students to list a place they would like to travel to someday. Allow time for them to share their ideas. 2. Have students list some ideas of what they would have to plan for before actually taking the trip. (Assume that money is not a problem.)\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nYou may wish to narrow the scope of this assignment by having students select a site within your state or possibly within another designated area. You may wish to have students work in small groups on this project. _Materials:_ pen or pencil, various guidebooks to cities or places\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nStudents may come up with other items or considerations that are involved in taking a trip (tipping a taxi driver, car repairs, and so on).\n\n1. Why did you select the particular destination for this project? Was this a pleasure trip? Sight-seeing? To visit someone? 2. How could you figure out the number of miles involved in the trip? (Atlas, map.) 3. If you drove and used 55 cents per mile as your estimated cost, how much would the trip cost to drive there and back? 4. Why is it usually cheaper to visit some places in the off season? (Not so popular, so tourist facilities offer better prices to attract customers.) 5. What are some other ways you can reduce the cost of a trip? (Stay with friends, take a bus, pack your own food, and so on.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students contact a travel agency to collect brochures of interesting places to visit. Find out about ups and downs of costs and how you can save money by taking advantage of \"package deals.\" 2. Find out about trips that are offered to school groups at a discount rate. How much money is saved by traveling this way rather than as an individual? 3. Have students collect photos and postcards of their designated trip. Make a display of the sights and adventures. 4. Research motel\/hotel chains. Find out the relative costs of staying in several different motels\/hotels in a given city.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List five factors to consider in planning a trip. 2. List three cost considerations (involving money) you would have to keep in mind when taking a trip. (Meals, gas, tickets, tipping, shopping, and so on.)\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**14.4 Planning a Trip**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nSelect a destination for your trip. Then do some research to fill in the following information.\n\n#  **14.5 Estimating Costs**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will estimate costs associated with travel (for example, meals, motel, attractions) to a designated destination.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nThere are a lot of hidden costs involved in traveling, but adjustments can be made by staying in a less costly motel, eating at economical restaurants, traveling with others, and so on. In this lesson, students are to compare travel expenses to a specified destination by manipulating several variables.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have the class select four major cities that would be interesting to visit (for example, New York, Los Angeles, Denver, Chicago). 2. Have the class select a specified time for which they would like to pretend (or actually would like to go someday) to visit that city.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents should be divided into groups and assigned a major city to visit for a week (or whatever length of time you decide). Their object is to plan a visit to that city and estimate the costs involved on the worksheet \"Estimating Costs.\" You may wish to have each group take a different city to compare how much it would cost a typical tourist to visit different places, or you may wish to have the different groups use the same city as the destination but each plan the excursion differently from the others. Students will probably need to get guidebooks for the city selected. It would also be helpful to have brochures on motel\/hotel chains or other travel information. _Materials:_ pen or pencil, guidebooks for cities, maps, brochures on major motel hotel chains, other travel information\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nStudents will probably have a lot of information to share on their \"discoveries\" about their cities. Ideally, they will also be somewhat enlightened as to how expensive meals and lodging can be.\n\n1. Why are some cities more expensive to visit than others? 2. Did you find any good airfare rates? 3. What was the cheapest available way to get to your city? 4. What sights would you want to see in your selected city? 5. Who or what agencies can help you in planning a trip? (Travel agent, AAA.) 6. What was the range of prices for hotels or motels in the area? 7. What were some rates for rental cars? What determines the prices? (Kind of car, length of rental, adding insurance, and so on.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students obtain and collect guidebooks for other interesting places. How much more would it cost to visit some places in Europe or other continents? 2. Have students find listings or books containing bed-and-breakfast establishments. Many of them are quite interesting, historic, and unique! Compare rates and places. 3. Some motel or hotel chains put out brochures advertising their amenities\u2014a pool, spa\/exercise room, elaborate room service, free breakfast, free newspaper, and so on. Have students investigate what special attractions some places of lodging offer.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nPretend you are a travel agent working with a customer who would like to visit the city you have just studied. What advice would you offer him or her in planning a trip? What should he or she see there? What questions would you ask the customer to find out what the specific needs are?\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**14.5 Estimating Costs**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nDivide into groups. Each group will select a destination or target city (for example, Chicago, New York, Denver, Los Angeles). Pretend you will spend one week at the selected city. Answer the following questions based on your city.\n\n1. How much will it cost to get to your city?\n\n2. How will you travel to get there?\n\n3. How much would a hotel cost for your stay?\n\n4. How much would meals cost?\n\n5. What will you want to do or see in the city? What do you estimate these attractions will cost?\n\n6. What will a rental car cost (per day\/per week)?\n\n7. What other expenses might you have to consider? Estimate them.\n\n#  **14.6 Using a Timetable**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will be able to read a given timetable of a public transportation system and solve situational problems.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nReading a timetable is a useful skill for anyone who uses public transportation to get around. Decisions about arrival times, how long a layover may be, making transfers, and planning one 's schedule around possible departures and arrivals are all considerations the user must be able to understand. This lesson provides a sample timetable and problems for the student to solve.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students list vehicles or transportation systems that use a timetable. (Public buses, trains, delivery services, subways, and so on.) 2. Have students list information that would probably be contained on a typical timetable. (Vehicle number, arrival time, departure time, names of the stops, and so on.)\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nFor this activity, students will use a sample timetable to answer questions about situations involving train travel. _Materials:_ pen or pencil, perhaps a clock or clock manipulative _Answers:_ 1. 12:15 P. M . 2. A, B 3. C, D 4. 40 minutes 5. A\u201412 minutes, B\u20148 minutes, C\u201415 minutes, D\u201410 minutes 6. 38 minutes 7. A, B (C might be cutting it close!) 8. 1 hour, 33 minutes\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nGo over all of the problems with students, making sure they understand how to find the answers if they had any difficulty.\n\n1. Why is it important to know how long a layover there will be at a stop? (In case you need to change trains, get off, and so on.) 2. How would knowing the schedule ahead of time help you plan your trip? (You'd know when to be there, what time you' ll arrive, plan alternatives if necessary.) 3. Do trains (or buses or airplanes or anything else with a timetable) always adhere to the schedule? (Sometimes they may run late or early.) 4. Why should you allow extra time to make connections? (Because sometimes timed systems do not run on schedule.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students bring in sample timetables from public transportation systems. Have them write and exchange problems and situations with each other. 2. Using a timetable, give students a destination and time limit. Have them plan an efficient route.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. What are some systems of transportation that use a timetable? 2. What are three to five pieces of information contained on a typical timetable?\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**14.6 Using a Timetable**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nThe following is a sample timetable for trains in Fortville. Answer the questions based on the timetable.\n\n1. What time does Train B arrive downtown?\n\n2. Which trains arrive at River Ridge before 2:00? _____\n\n3. Which trains could you take leaving from Fortville after noon? _____\n\n4. How long is the ride from Fortville to downtown on Train C? _____\n\n5. How many minutes does each train stay at the downtown station?\n\n6. How long does it take for Train D to get from downtown to River Ridge? _____\n\n7. If you needed to be at River Ridge before 3:00 P.M., which trains would you take? ______\n\n8. How long is your ride from Fortville to River Ridge on Train B? _____\n\n#  **14.7 Reading a Map**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will use a given map to answer questions about distance, directions, and locating information.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nMaps are another source of travel information. They can provide the user with location of specific sites, information about distance between points, and a good idea of how to get to one's destination. In this lesson, students are given a small map of a portion of Washington, D.C., to answer questions.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students list various types of maps and their uses (weather map, road map, population map, and so on). 2. Have students tell about maps they have used recently or are familiar with (map of the school, city map, and so on).\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents should examine the partial map of Washington, D.C., on the worksheet \"Reading a Map.\" Make sure students can read the information on the map and are familiar with the scale of miles and compass.\n\n_Materials:_ pen or pencil, ruler\n\n_Answers:_ 1. Lincoln Memorial 2. Supreme Court, Library of Congress 3. Southeast 4. One inch = 1\/2 mile 5. (Example) Go east on Constitution Avenue to 3rd Street, turn south\/right until you get to Independence Avenue, turn east\/left 6. Constitution Avenue, Independence Avenue 7. National Museum of American History 8. Northeast\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nAnswer any questions students may have about the activity.\n\n1. How could a map help someone get around in an unfamiliar place? 2. What information does a compass give? (Directions: north, south, east, west.) 3. Why is knowing the scale of miles important? (Gives distance.) 4. What other transportation information might be given on a city map? (Bus lines, subway stops, and so on.) 5. What other information might be contained on a map key? (Parks, roads, restrooms, phones.) 6. Where are some places that would distribute maps? (Zoo, museum, and so on.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students collect various maps and make a display. 2. Have students play \"Where Am I?\" Give a map to students with a starting point and a set of directions. See if they end up at the intended destination. 3. Have students make a map of their neighborhood, community, state, or other relevant place.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nHave students refer to the Washington, D.C., map on the worksheet to answer the following questions:\n\n1. About how far is it from 7th Street to 17th Street? (One mile.) 2. What direction is the Vietnam Veterans Memorial from the National Museum of American History? (West.) 3. What is the highway number of Constitution Avenue? (50.) 4. What direction do the numbered streets run? (North-South.)\n\n**Name** _____ **Date**\n\n**14.7Reading a Map**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nThe following is a map of highlights of Washington, D.C. Use the map to answer these questions.\n\n1. What national monument is on the west side of this map?\n\n2. What two buildings are on the east side of this map?\n\n3. What direction is the Lirary of Congress building in relation to the U.S. Capitol building?\n\n4. What is the scale of miles? _____\n\n5. Give directions from the National Museum of Natural History to the National Air and Space Museum.\n\n6. What two major avenues run east and west?\n\n7. What building is between 5th Street and 6th Street?\n\n8. Where is the Vietnam Veterans Memorial in relation to the Lincoln Memorial?\n\n**Chapter 15**\n\n**Clothing**\n\n#  **15.1 Caring for and Repairing Clothing**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will demonstrate knowledge of how to care for or repair various clothing items.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nWe all probably wish that our clothes would be self-cleaning (and could put themselves on hangers and go into the closet on their own); however, in order to look presentable we must periodically clean and repair whatever is necessary. In this lesson, students must think about how to take care of various items of clothing.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students tell what they do with their clothes when they are done wearing them for the day. (Try not to be shocked!) 2. Have students tell who is primarily responsible for taking care of their clothes right now.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are given a list of typical clothing maintenance or repairs on the worksheet \"Caring for and Repairing Clothing.\" They are to suggest a way to take care of the problem. _Answers (Examples):_ 1. Take jacket to the dry cleaner. 2. Replace the zipper. 3. Sew on the button. 4. Hand wash the shirt. 5. Nest one of the socks into the other before throwing them into the wash. 6. Sew the rip. 7. Wash it off. 8. Spray prewash cleaner on the spot. 9. Replace the shoelaces. 10. Repair the hem. 11. Iron the shirt. 12. Darn the hole shut.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nSome students may have more practical knowledge about doing minor repairs and cleaning than others do. Have students share their knowledge with the class.\n\n1. Why aren't you wearing the same clothes now that you had five years ago? (Outgrow them, styles change, clothes wear out, and so on.) 2. Why is it a good idea to take good care of your clothes? (They will last longer, look better.) 3. Do you have a system now for taking care of your clothes? How does it work? How could it be improved? 4. When you shop for clothes, what things do you consider\u2014cost, style, care? 5. What sources could you check if you weren't sure how to clean a specific stain? (Check clothing care books; call a cleaner; use Internet sources such as www.ehow.com, howtocleananything.com, or butlersguild.com.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students write the specific steps for operating a washing machine and dryer. 2. Have students check advertisements or make phone calls to find out the cost of having clothing items dry-cleaned. 3. Have students run a load of clothing through a local coin-operated laundry machine. 4. Supply students with a needle, thread, a button, and a swatch of fabric and have them practice sewing on the button! 5. Have students write a short story entitled something like: \"I Am Joe's Shirt\"\u2014describing a day in the life of a shirt from the shirt's point of view. 6. Have students compile a booklet of helpful cleaning hints. Copy and distribute the tips to students.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List five typical clothing repairs that need to be done periodically. 2. List three typical clothing cleaning tasks that need to be done periodically.\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**15.1 Caring for and Repairing Clothing**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nThe following is a list of clothing maintenance or repairs that need to be done. What's your suggestion for what needs to be done?\n\n1. Your suit jacket needs to be cleaned, but it says \"Dry Clean Only\" on the label.\n\n2. Your skirt has a broken zipper on the side.\n\n3. There is a button missing from your favorite shirt.\n\n4. Your new red-and-white T-shirt is dirty but you are afraid if you wash it, it will come out pink.\n\n5. Whenever you wash a pair of socks, you seem to lose one of them.\n\n6. There is a little rip in one of your shirts.\n\n7. You spilled some ketchup on a tie.\n\n8. You were playing a little too roughly and got some blood on your jeans.\n\n9. The end of your shoelace has completely unraveled and you can't get it through the hole anymore.\n\n10. The hem of your slacks is coming out.\n\n11. Your dress shirt is wrinkled.\n\n12. There is a hole in the toe of your sock.\n\n#  **15.2 Buying Appropriate Clothes**\n\n**Objective:** The student will identify appropriate clothing for a given situation.\n\n**Comments:** When buying clothing, it is important to keep some of these questions in mind: _How often will I wear this? What details about the event or place do I need to know? How much do I have to spend?_\n\n##  **Introductory Comments:**\n\n1. Divide students into two groups. Tell one group that they are going hiking. The other group is going to a rock concert. Each group has to list what they would buy on a shopping spree. Students might want to draw a composite picture of their \"person.\"\n\n2. Now inform students that the hiking group is going to a rock concert and the rockers are on a bus to go hiking. What problems or funny situations would they encounter?\n\n **Activity:** Write the words _how often?, cost, type of event_ , and _other details_ on the board. As students select their answers on the worksheet \"Buying Appropriate Clothes,\" have them refer to the key words to make their decision.\n\n_Answers:_ 1. Ski jacket 2. T-shirt 3. Comfortable dress 4. Nice white shirt 5. Tennis shoes with treads 6. Khaki pants\n\n**Discussion:** For each answer, explain what factors the characters needed to consider in making their decision about the best choices of clothing.\n\n1. What is the difference between casual events and formal events? What are some examples? (Wedding vs. hanging out with friends; meeting an employer vs. meeting one of your parent's friends.)\n\n2. Why do you have to consider details such as climate or seasonal changes when buying clothes? (Each might require very different types of clothing.)\n\n3. If you were on a very tight budget, what types of clothes would you buy? (Not too outlandish, clothes that would fit in most situations.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Fashion shows display \"what not to wear\" pictures of celebrities. Have students come up with a parody making posters of \"what not to wear\" for students.\n\n2. Jeans come in all prices, colors, and styles. Have students research and categorize jeans according to price, appropriateness, and appeal.\n\n **Evaluation:** How are the types of clothing you should buy affected by climate? By cost? By the event at which you will wear the clothing?\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**15.2 Buying Appropriate Clothes**\n\n**Directions:** These students are shopping for some clothes. Read each situation and help them decide what to shop for. Circle the appropriate clothing for each situation.\n\n1. Alexa is going skiing for the first time with some friends. She doesn't know if she will like the sport or not, but she wants to look good. Which jacket should she buy?\n\n2. Adam is going to Florida and wants some new clothes to wear. What might he want to get?\n\n3. Sierra is shopping for back-to-school clothes. She wants a cute dress to wear on the first day. What should she look for?\n\n4. Diego is working at a restaurant. The dress code says he has to wear dark pants and a white shirt. What should Diego buy?\n\n5. Vanessa is going hiking in the mountains. She needs something for her feet. What should she buy?\n\n6. Cody is going on a job interview to work at a hotel. He needs to buy some pants. What should he buy?\n\n#  **15.3 Organizing Your Clothes**\n\n**Objective:** The student will state a suitable location for a given item of clothing.\n\n**Comments:** Although shoving clothes under the bed, hanging them on a lamp, or rolling them up and tossing them on the bathroom floor might be a form of organization for students, it is helpful to at least identify a place where clothes can be kept in some kind of order. Grouping \"like\" clothes together or stashing off-season clothes in a storage box are examples of ways to categorize clothing.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Give each student a blank sheet of paper. Ask them to draw their bedroom or bedroom closet to show how their clothes are organized.\n\n2. Have students come up with different categories of clothing; for example, everyday clothes, socks and underwear, clothes for special occasions, and so on.\n\n **Activity:** Explain that Blake is trying to organize his clothes on the worksheet \"Organizing Your Clothes.\" Students will indicate where a clothing item could be stored by writing the letter of the appropriate storage place (dresser, closet, box, and so on). Go through each storage area and discuss what kinds of clothes you would expect to find in each area. For example, _occasional wear_ means clothing that you do not wear all the time so it could go in the back where it is harder to get to. A shelf might be for shirts or pants that don't have to be creaseless; a rod might be better for shirts or sweaters that keep their shape better on hangers. Note that it is a summer day in the picture.\n\n_Answers (May vary):_ 1. F 2. G 3. A 4. C 5. G 6. E 7. D or B 8. H 9. A 10. F 11. B or D 12. E 13. E 14. E 15. E 16. H 17. B or D 18. B 19. possibly A or G 20. E\n\n**Discussion:** There really isn't a \"wrong\" or \"right\" way to organize clothing, but it helps to be able to find what you are looking for with a minimum of searching.\n\n1. What kind of clothes do you consider everyday wear?\n\n2. What kinds of clothes are occasional wear for you?\n\n3. If you don't have a storage box for off-season clothing, what else could you do with them? (Store them in the back of the closet or another room.)\n\n4. What are some creative ways that your family organizes or stores clothing?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students make a map of their bedroom or closet to show how items are organized. Label each category and have students define or explain the attributes of each category.\n\n2. Have students collect tips for organizing from other students, their parents, magazine articles, or other sources. Share ideas.\n\n **Evaluation:** List three places that clothing could be stored for easy access.\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**15.3 Organizing Your Clothes**\n\n**Directions:** Help Blake organize his clothes by writing the letter\n\n(A-H) of the area where each item should go.\n\na. Dresser (socks, underwear)\n\nb. Folded T-shirts\n\nc. Jeans drawer\n\nd. Closet shelf for folded items\n\ne. Rod for hangers\n\nf. Occasional wear\n\ng. Off-season box\n\nh. Shoe rack\n\n__1. Three-piece suit\n\n__ 2. Winter sweaters\n\n__ 3. Athletic socks\n\n__ 4. Jeans for school\n\n__ 5. Earmuffs\n\n__ 6. Nice shirt\n\n__ 7. Nice sweater\n\n__ 8. Running shoes\n\n__ 9. Black socks\n\n__ 10. Jacket for windy days __ 11. T-shirt from concert\n\n__ 12. Dress shirt\n\n__ 13 Dress pants\n\n__ 14. Uniform shirt for work\n\n__ 15. Uniform pants for work\n\n__ 16. Flip-flops __ 17. T-shirt for school\n\n__ 18. T-shirt with football logo\n\n__ 19. Swim suit\n\n__ 20. Tie\n\n#  **15.4 Washing and Drying Tips**\n\n**Objective:** The student will state two or three tips for washing and drying clothing.\n\n**Comments:** A step toward independence is knowing how to do laundry. While hardly exciting, it is a task that, with experience, can be performed with some degree of efficiency and helps make clothes last longer. This lesson includes tips on washing and drying clothing.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students to raise their hands if they wash and\/or dry their own clothes.\n\n2. Ask students to tell stories about washing or drying mistakes that have ended up as humorous disasters. (Maybe you have a few of your own.)\n\n **Activity:** The worksheet \"Washing and Drying Tips\" includes tips for washing and drying clothing or personal items (towels). The student should read each tip and decide whether the example shows someone following the tip or not.\n\n_Answers: Washing_ \u20141. No 2. Yes 3. No 4. Yes 5. No; _Drying_ \u20141. No 2. No 3. Yes 4. No 5. Yes\n\n**Discussion:** Depending on the student's level of experience, he or she may be quite familiar with washing and drying procedures. On the other hand, some may need specific instruction on how best to take care of laundry.\n\n1. Why is it important to follow instructions on garments, such as how to wash or dry them? (The makers know the type of fabric and what conditions will preserve it best.)\n\n2. Which washing or drying tips were new for you?\n\n3. Do you have other washing or drying tips that you can share?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students write out the specific steps for operating washing and drying machines.\n\n2. If possible, take students to a local laundromat and go through the procedures for a coin-operated washing and drying process.\n\n3. Have students compile a humorous book of helpful dos and don'ts for cleaning, washing, and drying clothing. Copy and distribute to students.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List two tips for washing clothing.\n\n2. List two tips for drying clothing.\n\n **Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**15.4 Washing and Drying Tips**\n\n**Directions:** Which of these examples show people who are following the tips for washing and drying clothing?\n\n**Washing**\n\n**Tip #1 Sort your clothes by color: whites, darks, medium.** \"Why is my white dress pink?\"\n\n**YES NO**\n\n**Tip #2 Presoak heavily soiled items before you wash them.** \"Oh good, that ketchup stain is gone. I loved the french fries, but what a mess!\"\n\n**YES NO**\n\n**Tip #3 Check your pockets before you wash items.** \"Oh, that's where my lipstick went to! And my gum!\"\n\n**YES NO**\n\n**Tip #4 Make sure your clothing item is machine washable.** \"DRY CLEAN ONLY. Hmmm. I' ll put that in a separate pile.\"\n\n**YES NO**\n\n**Tip #5 Check the suggested temperature for washing.** \"MACHINE WASH COLD. I'm just going to run everything on hot. . . . Oh my, what happened here?\"\n\n**YES NO**\n\n**Drying**\n\n**Tip #1 Shake out items from the washer before putting them in the dryer.**\n\n\"Strike one! Strike two! Get in there, you!\"\n\n**YES NO**\n\n**Tip #2 Don't overload the dryer.**\n\n\"I am going to try to fill up the dryer with all four loads of wash!\"\n\n**YES NO**\n\n**Tip #3 Put similar items together before drying.**\n\n\"Towels over here, delicate stuff over there\u2014I don't want clumps of thread on my socks!\"\n\n**YES NO**\n\n**Tip #4 Dry clothes just long enough to remove wrinkles.**\n\n\"Oh, I' ll just get to that tomorrow.\n\nI don't feel like unloading or sorting right now.\"\n\n**YES NO**\n\n**Tip #5 Keep the lint filter clean.**\n\n\"Oh my, it has been awhile since I checked this. Now my clothes will dry much faster.\n\n**YES NO**\n\n**Chapter 16**\n\n**Living Arrangements**\n\n#  **16.1 A Place to Live**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify possible appropriate housing arrangements for given characters.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nHousing does not necessarily mean living in a house\u2014there are all sorts of living arrangements that can suit people in various situations. In this lesson, students must match the character with an appropriate accommodation.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students to share their ideas about where they expect to live after they have completed their schooling or are working somewhere. 2. Have students list different types of housing or living arrangements for adults or people who are \"on their own.\"\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nOn the worksheet \"A Place to Live,\" students are to match the characters (who are given specific needs or situations as clues) with a housing possibility. Explain that not everyone can afford (or wants) to live in a house. Some people need to live close to their place of employment or on a bus line, or want to live with friends, or need to save money by staying with relatives. _Answers:_ 1. c 2. e 3. a 4. d 5. f 6. b\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nGo over the answers on the worksheet. Some answers may fit more than one character, but to make the answers come out even, the clues need to fit one particular response.\n\n1. Why do many people start out by renting an apartment rather than buying a house? (Easier to get out of, cheaper payments, and so on.) 2. What are some disadvantages to living in an apartment? (Neighbors, parking, restrictions on pets, and so on.) 3. What are some advantages and disadvantages to living with relatives? (Save money, but may not have privacy.) 4. Why do you think some housing places have restrictions on kids or pets? (Tend to cause more damage, may annoy neighbors.) 5. How would you handle problem neighbors if you lived in an apartment? (Talk to manager, talk to the other tenants, talk to the problem people, and so on.) 6. How could you be a good neighbor to your neighbors? (Be considerate.) 7. How would you go about finding a place to live? (Check classifieds, friends' recommendations, and so on.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students collect information on local apartment complexes. Compile and compare prices and amenities offered. How much is a one-bedroom apartment? A two-bedroom? Is there a pool? A game room? Do they allow pets? 2. Have students prepare and carry out an interview of someone who has recently taken a job, moved out of his or her parents' home, and\/or is living independently. Find out if there were any surprises about finding a place to live or what is involved in living independently.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nConsider your needs and probable income. Make a list of what considerations will influence your choice of living arrangements when you are on your own.\n\n**16.1 A Place to Live**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nMatch the person on the left with a good place for him or her to live on the right. Write the letter of your answer on the line.\n\n__ 1. Sally is going to college part-time at night. She works during the day. She shares a car with her sisters at home. She gets along pretty well with her parents\n\na. Westwood Apartments\u2014close to town and right on a public bus line.\n\n**__** 2. David has a full-time job with good hours. He doesn't want to live alone, but he wants his own room. He has several good friends who are in the same situation.\n\nb. Deluxe Mobile Homes\u2014have your own small yard and share a communityplayground.\n\n__ 3. Pete doesn't have a car, so he needs to live close to his job. He works during the day.\n\nc. Live at home with parents and siblings.\n\n__ 4. Alison wants to go to school in another city where she can get the classes she wants. She hopes she can save some money by staying with someone she knows.\n\nd. Stay with Aunt Mary who lives in a big city, has lots of room, and won't charge any rent.\n\n__ 5. Monroe moved to a new town. He would like to stay there for awhile, but he doesn't know the area well and doesn't really know where he would like to settle permanently.\n\ne. Share an apartment with one or two friends.\n\n__ 6. Shanelle wants her own place, and she really would like a yard, even if it is small. She has a small child and would like privacy.\n\nf. Rent a room in a large house with several smaller apartments. You can stay only one month or as long as you like.\n\n#  **16.2 Living with Parents**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify common conflicts between parent and child living at home and provide a possible resolution.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nOlder teens may be desiring increasing amounts of independence from their parents\u2014yet they may not have the resources to move out or to even demonstrate competent living skills away from parental supervision. In this lesson, areas of conflicts with parents are explored and discussed.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students to name some things that their parents do or provide for them now that will stop when they move out. (Provide meals, car, pay bills.) 2. Ask students to suggest common areas of disagreement between a teen and his or her parents. List them and try to group them according to areas such as money, control of time, trust, chores, and so on.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nThe worksheet \"Living with Parents\" provides examples of potential student-parent conflicts. The student should discuss the conflict from both viewpoints and suggest a way to resolve the issue. _Answers (Will vary):_ 1. Work at the store in the afternoons after school or on weekends during the day. 2. Seth might have to use alternative transportation and keep saving up his money. 3. Compromise on a plan to put some toward savings, some for spending. 4. Try a curfew, add additional thirty minutes as his parents trust Jake to be responsible. 5. Maybe Melissa could cook a few meals instead and offer to help supervise one of the other children to help with laundry. 6. Find out what Carson's problems are\u2014is it academic? Does he need a tutor? Can a school counselor help? 7. Take care of a neighbor's pet for a week and see if it's as much fun as she thinks it will be. 8. Maybe Victor can fix up a room in the basement or attic to be his own place.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\n1. What does \"compromise\" mean? Which examples on the worksheet could be resolved by compromising? (Both parties giving up something.) 2. Do you think there are some things that a parent has the right to not compromise on? What? (Curfew for underage girls.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students create their own survey about rights and privileges and ask adults to respond to their questions. They may want to interview their own parents. This could include questions such as: When should a teen be allowed to get a car? What time should a fifteen-year-old be allowed to stay out with friends? Do you think it is OK for teens to drink if they are not driving? Compile the results and come up with conclusions. 2. Collect articles from the local newspaper that are written about teen issues. What are some teen problems in your community? What are successes that teens are responsible for?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. What is a common source of conflict between a parent and teen living at home? 2. What would be a reasonable solution for that conflict?\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**16.2 Living with Parents**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nHow could these conflicts or daily situations when living with a parent be resolved?\n\n1. Erin wants to work at a convenience store with night hours. Her father doesn't want her to work alone at night.\n\n2. Seth does not have enough money to buy his own car, so he has to keep borrowing his dad's. His dad, however, works different shifts and the car is not always available.\n\n3. Leslie wants to buy a lot of expensive clothes so she will look nice. Her mother thinks Leslie should be saving her money for college.\n\n4. Jake and his parents do not agree on what time he should be at home during the week. Many of Jake's friends do not have a set time to be home, and Jake feels that he should be given the option of coming home when he wants to.\n\n5. Melissa hates to do laundry, but her mother has asked her to help out with chores. There are four kids in the family and Melissa is the oldest.\n\n6. Carson doesn't like school and would like to drop out. His father will not even talk about it with Carson.\n\n7. Evelyn wants to get a pet puppy, but her parents are not thrilled with the idea, because they just got new carpeting. Evelyn insists that she will be able to care of it.\n\n8. Victor has always had to share a room with at least one brother, and he would really like his privacy. He can't afford to move out on his own. His parents are willing to listen to his suggestions.\n\n#  **16.3 Home Upkeep**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will list ten to fifteen routine jobs that are necessary for properly keeping up a house or residence.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nIt takes work to keep a place looking nice! Students may not realize how much work is involved in general cleaning, routine maintenance, and making improvements. In this lesson, students must make a list of inside and outside jobs that are necessary to keep a residence looking acceptable.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Give students a blank sheet of paper and have them draw an abandoned house. Discuss what clues they gave that the house was abandoned.\n\n2. Make a class list of maintenance work that would need to be done to improve their abandoned houses. Students may also have drawn a neglected yard to go with the house. Include yard work!\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nOn the worksheet \"Home Upkeep,\" students are given a list of items or rooms that routinely need attention, such as the yard, carpet, plumbing, and so on. They are to list at least one specific routine job that needs to be done to keep the area functional, clean, and neat.\n\n_Answers (examples): Outside:_ mow the lawn, replace shingles, clean windows, paint fence, clean up after pets, weed, keep debris out of driveway; _Inside:_ make sure spots or dirt are cleaned off walls, clean carpet, clean appliances, make sure the sink drains, dust and vacuum, clean windows, clean out refrigerator, launder sheets, sweep and mop the kitchen floor, clean toilets, take out garbage regularly.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nStudents may vary somewhat on the jobs they listed for the specific areas. Have students share their ideas.\n\n1. Why is it important to keep your home looking nice? (Looks as though you are responsible, keeps property values up, safer environment, more pleasant to live in.)\n\n2. How could letting your home deteriorate affect safety? (Things may fall apart, could lead to very expensive repairs, someone could get injured, a child may get into a place where he or she could get hurt, and so on.)\n\n3. What goes through your mind when you see a house or apartment that used to be quite nice but is now run down? (The owners didn't care, perhaps couldn't afford to keep it up.)\n\n4. Why do you think some people would rather live in an apartment or condominium than keep up with a house? (May be older, unable to physically do the work, don't want to spend the time.)\n\n5. Some people enjoy doing yard work. Why? (Like to be outside, enjoy watching things that they have planted grow, and so on.)\n\n6. What extra responsibility do pet owners have? (Keep their yards clean, exercise their pets, make sure the houses are clean if the pets are kept indoors, and so on.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students make an extensive shopping list of items needed for a thorough cleaning (top to bottom!) of a house or apartment. Then do some research at a local store and figure out what it would cost.\n\n2. From the list of jobs in (1), have students find out how long it actually takes to do the job (specify the particulars\u2014clean the carpets in four rooms, wax one nine-by-twelve-foot kitchen tile floor, and so on). You may want to take a class average. It would also be interesting to have students take before and after pictures of their projects!\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List five to ten general routine jobs for keeping a residence livable and comfortable.\n\n2. List two or three reasons why it is important to keep your living quarters looking nice.\n\n **Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**16.3 Home Upkeep**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nThere is a lot to do to keep your place looking nice. List at least one job that needs to be done occasionally next to each clue word below.\n\n**Outside**\n\n**Inside**\n\n#  **16.4 Home Repairs**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will make a list of home repairs that are routinely necessary and available resources for making the repairs.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nUnfortunately, things break, burn out, get lost, or fall apart with old age. Part of independent living is recognizing when there is a maintenance problem and taking steps to repair the damage. It isn't necessary to call in a professional in every case, but on the other hand, it is important to know when something is beyond your skills! In this lesson, students are to identify home repair problems and offer solutions.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students make a class list of everything they can think of that can go wrong in a house or apartment.\n\n2. Have students identify the last two or three things that needed to be repaired around their house.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to read the short story on the worksheet \"Home Repairs\" about a man who is faced with numerous housing repairs and to list them. Then they are to make a tentative list of professionals they may need to call or jot down what supplies they may need to get to do the job themselves.\n\n_Answers (Examples):_\n\n1. Broken coffee maker\u2014take to appliance repair\n\n2. Burned-out light\u2014replace with new bulb\n\n3. Spill on carpet\u2014clean with towel\n\n4. Broken garbage disposal\u2014call appliance repair\n\n5. No hot water\u2014call plumber\n\n6. Dirty windows\u2014clean them\n\n7. Gutters filled with leaves\u2014clean them out\n\n8. Loose hand rail\u2014tighten loose parts\n\n9. Broken cord\u2014replace cord\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nWe hope no one really has a day this bad! Students may differ on what jobs they think should be done by a hired professional. It is expensive to call a service person for every little job. Students should realize the importance of learning to do a few home repairs on their own.\n\n1. Why is it a good idea to be able to do some home repairs by yourself? (Save money, save time waiting for repair person to show up.)\n\n2. Why is it a good idea to call a professional service person to do some home repairs? (Get a guarantee, may do a better job, have the right tools and supplies, do the job faster, and so on.)\n\n3. Why is it important to keep warranties on major appliances such as a refrigerator or oven? (It shows when and where you purchased the appliance, tells what is covered, may entitle you to free service within the warranty period, and so on.)\n\n4. When shopping around for service, what qualifications do you think are important to find out about before having someone do the work? (If they are recommended to do a good job, provide a guarantee of their work, reasonable price, efficient workers, and so on.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students watch a movie or television show parodying the hassles of being homeowners, such as the movie _The Money Pit_ or the TV series _Home Improvement_.\n\n2. Have students find out how much electricians, plumbers, carpenters, and\/or appliance repair technicians charge for their services.\n\n3. Have students obtain some books on do-it-yourself home maintenance and evaluate the books. Are they easy to understand? Are the directions accurate? Would they be helpful in making repairs?\n\n4. Have students opt to learn one maintenance task from a friend, parents, older sibling, or other volunteer teacher. Expect a demonstration or report on this new learning!\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List five typical home repairs that will probably be necessary at some point.\n\n2. List three to five professional service people whom you could call for repairs. Describe the type of maintenance or repair that the person would do.\n\n **Name _____ Date** _____\n\n**16.4Home Repairs**\n\n**Directions:** Pete is having a very bad day. Make a list of all the repairs he needs to do something about. Then next to each one, write who he should call or what he should do.\n\nPete's alarm went off, early in the morning. He rubbed his eyes and went into the kitchen to make coffee, but for some reason the coffee maker wasn't working. He decided to drink some orange juice. He opened the refrigerator, but found that the light had burned out and he couldn 't see what was inside. He grabbed some juice, but as he turned around his dog knocked into him and he spilled the juice all over the kitchen carpet. He had some cereal for breakfast, and was going to dump the remains down his garbage disposal, but when he turned on the switch, nothing happened. He also realized that he was missing a spoon. He decided to wash his dishes, but when he turned on the faucet, only cold water came out\u2014no hot water! There went his long morning shower! His dog was barking at something outside, and Pete went to look, but he couldn't see through the dirty windows. Leaves were falling all over the yard. He managed to wipe clear a little spot in the window on the second floor, where he could see that the gutters were completely filled with leaves. He turned to go back down the steps, and his hand slipped on the stair rail, which was loose. He tried to turn on the light at the bottom of the stairs, but his dog had chewed up the cord to the lamp. No light! He decided he would head on to work\u2014where he hoped that everything would be in working order!\n\n#  **16.5 Going Green**\n\n**Objective:** The student will recognize examples of ways to interact responsibly with the environment.\n\n**Comments:** The environment is ours to take care of. It is important to teach students how to be efficient consumers and make wise use of resources as part of their everyday lifestyle. In this day and age, it is very convenient to recycle. There are many other small changes that we can make that contribute to ensuring a healthier environment.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Divide students into two groups and have them compete to see how many items they can think of that can be recycled. Compare lists. Anything unusual?\n\n2. Bring in examples of items that have been recycled; for example, cups that have become planters, everyday items turned into jewelry, and so on.\n\n **Activity:** On the worksheet \"Going Green,\" students are to choose the characters who are demonstrating concern for the environment.\n\n_Answers:_ Circled: 1, 2, 5, 6, 8, 9\n\n**Discussion:** There is a wide spectrum of opinions about how best to live on the planet. The purpose of this lesson is to simply create awareness of simple, commonsense ways to not be wasteful or destructive.\n\n1. What does the term _go green_ mean to you? (Be friendly to the environment.)\n\n2. What are some ways that you, your family, or your community is going green?\n\n3. Were there any items on the worksheet that would be easy for you to do if you are not already doing them?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Research recycling\u2014what types of items can be recycled, how and where are they recycled, and what can they be recycled into?\n\n2. Have a Recycled Items Display. Find items that are a far cry from their original intention (a distributor cap is now a pen holder, typewriter keys are fashion jewelry, and so on) and set up an interesting display for others to visit.\n\n3. Additional tips can be found on www.letsgogreen.biz (including all kinds of eco-friendly products) and www.earth911.com.\n\n4. Find out how _going green_ got started. Incidentally, _green_ topped the 2008 list of banned words (twilightearth.com), with _carbon footprint_ coming in second.\n\n **Evaluation:** List three ways that you could go green in your home, school, or work lifestyle.\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**16.5 Going Green**\n\n**Directions:** Which of these students is showing respect for the environment? Circle the number of each one who is doing something \"green.\"\n\n1. **CARLA:** \"I can just wash these plastic forks from the party and use them over again. I won't throw them away.\"\n\n2. **BRAD:** \" That was a great drink. Now where is that recycle bin?\"\n\n3. **ELLIE:** \" Those new energy efficient light bulbs look really weird. I' ll just use the old ones.\"\n\n4. **JAMAL:** \"I love these long showers! I could stay in here for at least an hour.\"\n\n5. **MARIA:** \"I' m using a reusable bag for shopping instead of getting a new plastic one every time I shop.\"\n\n6. **TOMAS:** \"I think I' ll ride my bike to school today.\"\n\n7. **AMANDA:** \"This room is cold. I' ll turn up the thermostat to 80.\"\n\n8. **KEITH:** \"I can use the back of these papers to jot down my rough draft for my report instead of using new paper.\"\n\n9. **GRACIE:** \"I' m going to dry these clothes by hanging them on a line outside. It's such a nice day.\"\n\n10. **NICHOLAS:** \"What am I supposed to do with an old ink cartridge? I guess I could take it to the recycle center, but it's three blocks away. I' ll just toss it in the trash.\"\n\n#  **16.6 Decluttering**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will state ten to fifteen tips for keeping a living area organized.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nIs it just me or does everyone seem to have too much stuff? This lesson offers twenty tips for helping to stay organized and discard unneeded items. The less you have to organize, the faster you can get the job done!\n\n##  **Introductory Activities**\n\n1. Have students list, in one minute, as many items as they can think of that are in a bedroom or living room closet at home. 2. Have students take turns estimating how long it would take them to find the following items: their birth certificate, a pair of matching socks, a sharpened pencil, house keys, a flashlight, baby pictures of themselves (you may add other items, of course).\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents should be given a copy of the worksheet \"Decluttering\" and asked to read and think about how each item might be helpful to them. They are then to draw a picture or write a brief description of how this could apply to them. (You may want to have them choose ten items instead of doing all of them.) _Answers:_ Will vary.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nBe sensitive to students who may not have a lot of possessions, or who may have had a tragedy (fire, tornado, and so on) that has destroyed their home.\n\n1. Why do you think many people tend to collect and save a lot of items that they really don't need? (Too lazy to get rid of them, think they will use them later, like having a lot of things.) 2. What are some ways you could find new homes for unwanted or unneeded items? (Donate them, sell, give away.) 3. Which of the tips on the list do you think would be most helpful to you? 4. What types of organizing tasks are the hardest for you?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have motivated students continue to find helpful organizing tips and arrange them into a booklet. They might have tabs (labeled, of course) and folders with pockets, and diagrams or pictures to help with the tips. 2. Have students challenge each other to clean up a disorganized room of their house (their own bedroom?). Take before and after pictures. 3. These websites are helpful in providing tips for getting and staying organized:\n\nwww.getorganizednow.com\n\nwww.pioneerthinking.com\/household-organizers.html\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nWrite five ways that you could organize your schedule, your desk, your time, your cleaning habits, and your paperwork.\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**16.6 Decluttering**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nDraw a picture or write an example of how someone could use these tips to help stay organized.\n\n1. Use one calendar\u2014put all of your appointments, due dates, and other scheduled events in the same place.\n\n2. Label everything\u2014your files, your keys, storage boxes, saved magazines.\n\n3. Store similar items together\u2014craft supplies, games, sports equipment, shoes.\n\n4. Open your mail over a recycle bin\u2014toss in junk mail, envelopes, and unneeded inserts; put bills or other needed items in one place.\n\n5. Invite a friend over to help you clean\u2014then return the favor and help him or her.\n\n6. Have a special file for your receipts\u2014you might need to return something; use the receipts for proof of payment, taxes, reimbursement.\n\n7. Get a desk organizer, closet organizer, shower organizer\u2014use these items to help you keep smaller items together.\n\n8. Always keep important items in the same place when not in use\u2014your glasses, your keys, your medicine, your homework, your bills.\n\n9. Always have spare items of things you use often\u2014laundry detergent, soap, cleaning supplies (then you won't have an excuse to not get started on cleaning!).\n\n10. Get rid of your trash often\u2014don't get used to seeing it around; know your trash day or where to dump your trash, and put that in your weekly schedule.\n\n11. Put a laundry hamper in the bathroom\u2014toss your dirty clothes there immediately, not on the floor.\n\n12. Create reference lists\u2014a list of birthdays, directions to places, websites that have been helpful, books you want to read, things you need to accomplish, people to call for help, gift ideas, and so on. Put the list in a folder, label it, and file it where you won't lose it.\n\n13. Schedule cleaning tasks on a weekly basis\u2014determine which tasks you will do each day of the week, then stick to your schedule.\n\n14. Start organizing stuff that you may not need\u2014put into piles of \"give away or sell,\" \"throw away,\" \"keep,\" and \"not sure.\" Box up the \"not sure\" items and see if you really miss having them after two or three months. If you haven't missed them, move them to one of the other piles.\n\n15. Break down larger tasks into smaller steps\u2014start organizing one drawer, one corner, one shelf, one file, one closet.\n\n16. Make a photocopy of your credit cards (both sides)\u2014if you lose one, you will have the numbers to refer to if you need to call to cancel them.\n\n17. Put your TV remote in a basket on the coffee table or attach it with Velcro to the side of the TV so you won't lose it.\n\n18. Set yourself a deadline for necessary tasks (especially those you don't want to do )\u2014write it down on an index card and put it on your calendar.\n\n19. Put things away; if you leave them out, they will still be there. Have hangers, boxes, files, drawers, and so on available.\n\n20. Promise yourself to leave one area perfectly organized before you go to bed at night\u2014your kitchen counter, your desk, your laundry room, your sink, the stand next to your bed.\n**Chapter 17**\n\n**Eating and Nutrition**\n\n#  **17.1 Nutrition**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nGiven guidelines, the student will plan a nutritious meal.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nIn our hurried pace of life, planning and eating nutritious meals sometimes goes by the wayside. It may be easier to grab a little bag of potato chips and a candy bar than to take the time to eat something more healthy and full of nutrients. In this lesson, students are introduced to the food guide pyramid and will use that as a guideline to plan nutritious meals.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students to list the last ten things they can think of that they have eaten.\n\n2. Have students put a check mark next to the items they think are considered nutritious.\n\n3. Define _nutritious_ (describing foods that contain nutrients\u2014substances in food that provide material for maintaining the body and keeping it healthy; specific nutrients include fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins, and carbohydrates).\n\n4. Have students reconsider the items they checked in (2) to see if they want to change their answers.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nOn the worksheet \"Nutrition,\" students will use a food guide pyramid to plan one day of nutritious meals.\n\n_Materials:_ pen or pencil, books on nutrition, calorie-counter booklets, and so on\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nHave students share their ideas on nutritious meals. They could exchange papers or evaluate volunteers' ideas as a class. Make sure students have included items from the food guide pyramid.\n\n1. Why is it important especially for children to eat nutritious meals? (Their bodies are still growing.)\n\n2. What are some benefits of eating well? (You'll feel better, maintain your weight, have a stronger body, fewer cavities, and so on.)\n\n3. Not all foods that are good for you taste bad. What are some foods you like that you know are good for you?\n\n4. Some menus in restaurants are marked \"heart smart.\" What does that mean? (Low in fat, won't clog your arteries.)\n\n5. What are some physical or health conditions that some people have that require special diets? (Heart diseases, obesity, diabetes, hyperactivity, and so on.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students find out the number of calories contained in twenty food items (for example, candy bar, apple, serving of lettuce, and so on).\n\n2. Have students find out the number of grams of fat in the same items.\n\n3. Have students find out the recommended caloric intake for their age, weight, sex, and activity level.\n\n4. Assign students the task of keeping track of everything they eat for one week. Look for trends. Are the foods nutritious?\n\n5. Challenge students to take one week to give up fatty, sugary foods and eat only healthful foods. How do they feel at the end of the week?\n\n6. Talk to school cafeteria personnel to find out what are the school's specific nutritious guidelines.\n\n7. Have students research a topic involving nutrition. What foods are high in specific nutrients?\n\n8. Prepare a book of nutritious meals using healthful guidelines.\n\n9. Have students write to child-care organizations that promote nutrition in Third World countries. How do they help feed undernourished children?\n\n10. Have students make a chart showing the nutritional value (including calories, vitamins, serving size, and so on) of several common foods.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. What are some guidelines to include when planning a nutritious meal?\n\n2. Give an example of at least one item in each group of the food guide pyramid.\n\n **Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**17.1 Nutrition**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nUsing the food guide pyramid, plan one day of nutritious meals\u2014breakfast, lunch, dinner, and snacks.\n\n#  **17.2 Making Good Food Choices**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will be able to identify examples of healthy foods and provide good alternatives to unhealthy foods.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nAmericans have an abundance of choice in their food decisions. Do I want fast food? A home-cooked meal? Do I feel like meat, or pasta, or soup? With all these decisions, sometimes it is easier to choose the fastest or easiest foods out of convenience, when these foods may in fact be the most unhealthy. Knowing which foods are healthy and good alternatives makes the decision-making process easier.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Draw a picture of an apple, a carrot, and a fish on the board. Ask the students to list what nutritional values they know come from these foods. (Fiber, vitamins C and B, iron, potassium, fiber, protein.) More information can be found at www.nutritiondata.com. 2. Draw a picture of a candy bar, an ice-cream cone, and a hamburger on the board and have the students list the nutritional value of these. (There really is some, but stress the unhealthy fats and oils content in these foods.)\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nHave students complete the worksheet entitled \"Making Good Food Choices.\" Students will choose the better option between the two choices. _Answers:_ 1. Whole wheat bread 2. Lean turkey 3. Unsalted nuts 4. Steamed broccoli 5. Fat-free milk 6. Baked potato with salt and pepper 7. Salad 8. Bran flakes cereal 9. Water 10. Granola\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\n1. Is it easy to tell if something is healthy or unhealthy? 2. What are signs that something may be unhealthy? (Oily, deep-fried, white flour, high in sugar, and so on.) 3. Can healthy foods still taste good? Give examples of some foods.\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Take a group trip to the grocery store and walk around the perimeter of the store. Notice that most of the foods on the edge are \"real\" foods\u2014that is, they are closest to their natural states. Then walk through the middle aisles and notice that most foods are boxed, canned, or processed. Have students point out healthy foods and unhealthy foods as you go. 2. Have students bring in boxed items or wrapped candy bars. List the ingredients in several of the items. Compare fat content, number of calories, and ingredients.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Give an example of three healthy foods. 2. Give an example of three healthy snacks.\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**17.2 Making Good Food Choices**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nChoose which of the two options is the healthier food. Circle your answer.\n\n1. White bread Whole wheat bread\n\n2. Fried chicken Lean turkey\n\n3. Unsalted nuts Honey-roasted peanuts\n\n4. Butter-battered broccoli Steamed broccoli\n\n5. Fat-free milk Chocolate milkshake\n\n6. Baked potato with salt and pepper Cheesy French fries\n\n7. Pepperoni pizza Salad\n\n8. Blueberry waffles Bran flakes cereal\n\n9. Water Diet Cola\n\n10. Candy bar Granola\n\n#  **17.3 Eating Out versus Eating In**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will state the advantages and disadvantages of eating in and eating out.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nEating out is fun, easy, fairly quick, and requires little work; however, it can also mean large portions, greasy preparation, unnecessary expenses with taxes and tips, and fewer healthy options. Although eating out is something that most people do from time to time, it can be a bad habit to do regularly. Eating at home gives a person the opportunity to prepare foods in smaller portions and with healthier ingredients, and it costs significantly less.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students to estimate how many times or meals they ate out during the past week. Set a timer for one minute and have students (in groups) list as many fast-food restaurants as they can. 2. Making a \"pros and cons\" list on the board, have students list positive and negative aspects of eating out and eating in.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nHave students complete the worksheet \"Eating Out versus Eating In.\" They should decide which character made the better food decision, and then write a reason why. _Answers:_ 1. GREG: He didn't choose the easy way out, but instead decided cooking could help him relax. 2. JANICE: She made the money go further and bought healthier items. 3. JOSE: He stopped eating after one serving. 4. HELEN: She chose something healthy. 5. FRANK: He was willing to try cooking and found that cooking can be easy. 6. PATRICIA: She made cooking at home a fun, social gathering.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\n1. What are some benefits to eating in and preparing your own meals? 2. What are some things that make this hard? (Takes time, requires planning, ignorance of recipes and how to prepare meals.) 3. Do you think many fast-food restaurants are now serving more healthy foods? Give some examples.\n\n##  **Extension Activity:**\n\nCollect menus from several local restaurants. Have students select items that would make a healthy meal. Total the calories, fat, and price.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List an advantage and a disadvantage of eating out. 2. List an advantage and a disadvantage of eating at home.\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**17.3 Eating Out versus Eating In**\n\n**Directions:** Read each cartoon. Decide who made the better choice and then write why choice was better.\n\n#  **17.4 Preparing a Meal**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will list steps that demonstrate how to prepare a single meal that is healthy and well-balanced.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nIt is important to know how to prepare meals that have food from every food group and portions that reflect the food guide pyramid. Having a good understanding of meal preparation makes it easier to plan in advance shopping for groceries, preparing healthy meals for individuals or families, and improving overall health. Eating well and in good proportions can help us feel better about ourselves and feel more in control of our eating habits and ability to make smart food decisions.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students to tell what their favorite food is. Ask, if they had the chance, would they eat only that one food for every meal.\n\n2. Ask students to tell about a meal that they prepared or assisted in preparing.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nHave students split into small groups and read aloud the story of Donna's lunch on the \"Preparing a Meal\" worksheet. Then have them decide together the order of steps to prepare the different foods to make a whole meal.\n\n_Answers: The sandwich:_ 5, 2, 3 or 4, 3 or 4, 6, 1; _The apple:_ 3, 1, 4, 2; _The milk:_ 3, 2, 1; _The vegetables:_ 1, 2\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\n1. Discuss with students what their favorite part of Donna's meal was.\n\n2. Was the meal easy or difficult to prepare? Could the students make a similar meal? With help?\n\n3. Was it a healthy meal? What made it healthy? Was it balanced? If so, why?\n\n4. Why was Donna's meal better than the pizza and chocolate cake she could have chosen?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\nHave students look up recipes on www.kidshealth.org\/kid or in a food magazine and find their favorites. Prepare a few of the simple foods or even an entire meal in class and enjoy them together!\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. What do you need in order to prepare a meal? (Time, food, knowledge of preparation.)\n\n2. What food groups should be present to have a well-balanced meal?\n\n **Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**17.4 Preparing a Meal**\n\n**Directions:** Read Donna's plan to make a healthy, well-balanced lunch. Then help Donna put the steps to preparing each food in the correct order.\n\nSaturday afternoon, Donna stumbled into the kitchen, her stomach growling with hunger. She was famished after walking around the neighborhood with her dog Kip. \"What should I eat?\" Donna wondered. She opened the refrigerator and saw some leftover pizza and chocolate cake from her sister's birthday party the night before. But Donna wanted something healthy and didn't mind taking the time to make it. So she pulled out some lunchmeat and whole wheat bread to make a sandwich, grabbed an apple from the fruit bowl, and took out the milk carton to pour a glass.\n\n\"Yum, yum!\" said Donna out loud. \"I've got my fruit, my meat, my bread, and my dairy. What am I missing, Kip?\"\n\nKip barked in response.\n\n\"That's right, boy. I need my vegetables.\" Donna pulled out a lettuce leaf for her sandwich and some carrots and celery. But how would she prepare it all?\n\n**The Sandwich**\n\n__ Add a slice of meat.\n\n__ Spread a small amount of light mustard or mayonnaise on the bread.\n\n__ Add a single slice of cheese.\n\n__ Add a lettuce leaf.\n\n__ Place the remaining slice of bread on top.\n\n__ Place two pieces of bread on a plate.\n\n **The Apple**\n\n__ Cut the apple into slices.\n\n__ Find a ripe, unbruised apple.\n\n__ Place the slices on a plate.\n\n__ Wash the apple under lukewarm water.\n\n **The Milk**\n\n__ Pour the milk into the glass.\n\n__ Open the milk carton.\n\n__ Find a tall, clean glass.\n\n **The Vegetables**\n\n__ Open the bag of carrots and celery.\n\n__ Place several of each on your plate.\n**Chapter 18**\n\n**Shopping**\n\n#  **18.1 What Do I Need?**\n\n**Objective:** The student will identify several items that would be needed on a shopping trip in order to complete a task.\n\n**Comments:** It is helpful to make and take along a list when you are going shopping for a specific purpose (to paint, to decorate, to build). First, it forces you to inventory what you need (and you might discover you already have some of the items), and second, it can help you stay focused on getting only what you have on the list.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. If I sent you shopping to get decorations for a Valentine's party, what would you get?\n\n2. What if I told you that I had three boxes of decorations left over from last year's party? How would that affect your shopping for this year?\n\n **Activity:** Students can focus on specific shopping needs with the worksheet \"What Do I Need?\"\n\n_Answers (Will vary):_\n\n1. Green paint, tarp, brush\n\n2. Training book, collar, bowls\n\n3. Warm sweater, mittens\n\n4. Book, calendar, shirt, toy\n\n5. Popcorn, beverages, small bowls\n\n6. Posters, thumbtacks\n\n7. Games, DVD\n\n8. Book, bookmark, hot chocolate\n\n**Discussion:** Emphasize that some items on a shopping list might have to be general until you see your choices. Listing the items will help steer you toward the right area.\n\n1. Why is it important to take inventory of what you already have?\n\n2. What is impulse buying?\n\n3. Are there certain types of shopping that are repetitive? (Weekly meals, seasons.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students compile a booklet of How to Do Things, including a list of materials. For example: How Do I Paint a Room? How Do I Throw a Good Party?\n\n2. Have students design a cute shopping list form (generic or specific to tasks). Include sections for what I already have, what I need, where to shop.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nWhat items would you need to shop for if your aunt was visiting for a weekend and you know she likes pancakes and fresh flowers and enjoys playing games?\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**18.1 What Do I Need?**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nWhat items would you need if you were in each of the following situations? Write some things on each shopping list.\n\n1. Painting your bedroom green\n\n2. Preparing for a new puppy\n\n3. Going on a weekend ski trip\n\n4. Shopping for Christmas gifts for your family\n\n5. Having a few friends over for a party\n\n6. Decorating your room\n\n7. Babysitting for some small children\n\n8. Picking out a birthday gift for a friend who loves to read\n\n#  **18.2 Smart Shopping**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will name at least two ways that a shopper can get more for his or her money.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nUnless you enjoy paying full price for what you buy, it is important (and fun) to find ways to cut costs. Using coupons, looking for items off-season, visiting thrift shops, buying in bulk, and so on are good ways to save a little money.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Do you or your parents ever use coupons when they shop? What do they buy? How much do you think they save?\n\n2. If you didn't want to pay full price for clothes, what are some ways you could shop for clothing and save some money?\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nUse the worksheet \"Smart Shopping\" to have students recognize ways to shop that can cut costs.\n\n_Answers:_ 1. e 2. g 3. a 4. b 5. c 6. f 7. b 8. d 9. h 10. f\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nUse the examples from the worksheet to discuss these questions about shopping.\n\n1. What are some items that are \"off season\" for each season?\n\n2. What are some pros and cons of using coupons?\n\n3. What do you need to watch out for if you buy something that needs to be assembled or fixed up? (Be sure you know how or know someone who does.)\n\n4. Sometimes people can find unique items at thrift stores or even at antique malls. What's the difference between junk and a bargain?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Go through the advertising section or promotions throughout your local newspaper. What items are on sale? What is \"off season\" right now? How big are the bargains?\n\n2. Compare prices on an item; for example, a book that is (a) available in paperback, (b) sold at a thrift store, (c) sold \"used\" online, or (d) sold at bookstores, discount stores, and pharmacies, and so on. What is the range of prices for the same book?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nList two ways that a person can save money shopping and give an example of each.\n\n**Name ______ Date _____**\n\n**18.2 Smart Shopping**\n\n**Directions:** How are these people being smart shoppers? Match the shoppers with their strategy.\n\na. Buy off-season.\n\nb. Buy a larger quantity.\n\nc. Look for reduced price.\n\nd. Look for something you can fix up.\n\ne. Share with a friend.\n\nf. Use coupons or promotions.\n\ng. Buy after a holiday.\n\nh. Buy generic, not name brand.\n\n__ 1. Hey, Yolanda\u2014these paper towels are \"buy one, get one free. \"Let's get two and we can each take one.\n\n__ 2. I know this candy will go on sale right after the holiday is over. I' ll just wait.\n\n__ 3. I know that spring is coming, but all of the winter jackets are now on sale.\n\n__ 4. The soup is four cans for a dollar. I could just buy one can at the sale price, but I have room to store them and I really like soup. I think I will buy four.\n\n__ 5. This sweater is in the clearance pile. It looks fine to me!\n\n__ 6. I have a coupon for that brand of cereal. I can save 75 cents on that box!\n\n__ 7. One can of root beer is $1, but I can get twelve in a case for $4.99. I wonder what I should do?\n\n__ 8. This table is a lot cheaper if I can put it together myself. I know that my dad will be able to help me. He has a lot of tools and likes to do stuff like that.\n\n__ 9. These are really nice jeans. They don't have a designer label, but they look great.\n\n__ 10. The store is having a promotion on this brand of soap. I don't usually buy that kind, but the price is great. I'll try it!\n\n#  **18.3 Comparison Shopping**\n\n**Objective:** The student will select an item from a pair of items that is a \"better deal\" and then give a reason why.\n\n**Comments:** A bargain is a bargain only if it is something you need in the first place. It is great to buy something on sale, but is it something you want? In this lesson, students will try to decide what makes something a \"good deal\" by comparing similar items and deciding what factors to consider before making a choice.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students if they have ever bought something at a store and then changed their minds as soon as they walked out of the store. Why did they regret their purchase?\n\n2. Ask students to describe what kind of sweatshirt they would like to have if they could have their choice. Include logos, hoods, size, color, price, name brand, and so on.\n\n **Activity:** On the worksheet \"Comparison Shopping,\" students will compare two items and discuss factors why each might be the better buy for someone.\n\n_Answers:_ Will vary.\n\n**Discussion:** Have students discuss what factors were most influential in deciding which item was the better buy.\n\n1. What factors were important to consider in the coffee cup example? (Price, color, condition.)\n\n2. What factors were important in the sweatshirt example? (Logo, size, price.)\n\n3. What factors were important in the TV stand example? (Assembly, availability, price.)\n\n4. What factors are most important to _you_ when purchasing an item?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Play \"Find the Best Deal\" by assigning students to find two similar items that vary greatly according to one of the factors discussed. Have them \"promote\" the items and let the student audience vote on the better deal. Then reveal the price and source of the items.\n\n2. Send students out on a scavenger hunt to find the best local deal on a selected item\u2014a book, sweatshirt, game, CD, or other popular item.\n\n **Evaluation:** You are interested in getting a digital camera for yourself. Your aunt gave you $100 for your birthday to buy one. Camera A costs $100. It comes with a lot of accessories and you can do a lot with the pictures on your computer. It also has a printer. Camera B is $50 and is easy to use, but the pictures you take will not be as clear. Which camera is the better deal for _you_? Explain why.\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**18.3 Comparison Shopping**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nWhich is the better deal? Compare cost, value, need, and other factors. Explain your answers.\n\n1. **Item A:** A set of four coffee mugs, the color you want, $25. You can also buy matching soup bowls later if you want.\n\n **Item B:** A set of four coffee mugs, a color you don't really like, but only $10. One of the cups has a loose handle.\n\n2. **Item A:** A hooded sweatshirt with your favorite team's logo, a little bigger size than you normally wear, $40.\n\n **Item B:** A hooded sweatshirt from a thrift shop, fits perfectly, no logo, $15.\n\n3. **Item A:** A TV stand, needs to be assembled, needs to be painted, available right now, $50.\n\n **Item B:** A TV stand, can special order it from the factory, completely assembled, but will have to wait about three weeks for it to come in, $35.\n\n#  **18.4 Returning Items**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will be able to give two or three helpful tips for successfully returning an unwanted item.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nShoppers have the option to return unwanted items provided that they comply with the store's return policy. Some items cannot be returned without proof of purchase, such as a receipt. Other stores will take back items without any questions. Sale items usually cannot be returned. Buyers should be aware of the store's return policy and keep receipts, warranties, and other paperwork that might be necessary to return something.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students to give some \"good\" reasons for returning an item. (Wrong size, broken, doesn't meet your needs.) 2. Ask students to give some reasons why a store may not accept an item that you are trying to return. (Already been worn\/read\/used\/opened; length of time between purchase and return is too long; lost receipt.)\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nOn the worksheet \"Returning Items,\" students are to consider each situation and decide whether or not the person could probably return the item without a problem. _Answers:_ 1. No (worn) 2. Probably yes (if store can verify it is their product) 3. Yes 4. No (too long ago) 5. Yes 6. No (no returns of sale items) 7. No (was read) 8. Yes\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nDiscuss return policies and how it helps both the customer and the store.\n\n1. Why does it matter if you try to return something that you already wore or already read? (You used the item\u2014now it is devalued.) 2. Why should you keep receipts for important purchases? (Shows when you bought something, where, price.) 3. What are some examples of things that you can't return? (Underwear that has been worn, opened food products, sale items.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Survey several retail stores in your area. Have students find out the return policies and compare them. 2. Have students role-play situations in which one is a customer trying to return an item and the other is a shopkeeper. Practice being courteous (both parties!) and focused in the transaction.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nWhich of these items could probably be successfully returned?\n\n1. An unworn sweater 2. A magazine that you took home and read 3. An opened bag of potato chips 4. A set of markers from two years ago\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**18.4 Returning Items**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nEach of these people wants to return an item. Circle YES if the item could be returned. Circle NO if it cannot be returned. If NO, why not?\n\n1. \"I would like to return this dress. It doesn't fit and I don't like the color. But I did wear it two times to a party. Here's the tag. There's a little stain on the back. Sorry.\" **YES NO**\n\n2. \"This towel set is the wrong color for my bathroom. I threw away the receipt. I think I got it from this store, but I'm not sure.\" **YES NO**\n\n3. \"I bought these jeans and when I got home I noticed that the zipper was broken. Here is the receipt.\" **YES NO**\n\n4. \"I have a receipt for these curtains. I bought them three years ago.\" **YES NO**\n\n5. \"I got this sweater from my aunt as a gift, but I really don't like the color and the size is too small. I would like to exchange it for something else.\" **YES NO**\n\n6. \"I know the sign says NO RETURNS ON SALE ITEMS, but I decided I don't like this game and I would rather have my money back.\" **YES NO**\n\n7. \"I bought this book last week for $15. I would like to return it and get my money back. The book really wasn't that interesting. Except it did have a good ending. But I've already read it, so I don't really want it anymore.\" **YES NO**\n\n8. \"I was supposed to get vacuum cleaner number 2-848, and I picked up 2-484 by mistake. It's still in the box. I would like to return this and get the other one.\" **YES NO**\n**Chapter 19**\n\n**Exercise\/Health and Hygiene**\n\n#  **19.1 Exercise in Daily Life**\n\n**Objective:** The student will identify ways to exercise and state at least two purposes for exercising.\n\n**Comments:** Exercise is a key component to a healthy weight and healthy lifestyle. People exercise for a variety of reasons, including keeping weight down, enjoying the outdoors, being part of a team, feeling good about themselves, and being all-around healthy. This lesson encourages students to incorporate exercise into their lives.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have individual or small groups of students volunteer for a game of charades in which activities (both exercise and nonexercise) are acted out. Have students decide whether it was exercise (playing basketball) or not (sleeping, reading).\n\n2. Have students list their favorite ways of exercising and state how often they do.\n\n **Activity:** Students will look at the profiles of four different examples on the worksheet \"Exercise in Daily Life.\" They will then answer questions about the exercise, equipment needed, and so on.\n\n_Answers:_\n\n1. Basketball; 1-2 hours; basketball, gym clothes; alone or on a team\n\n2. Swimming; 30-90 minutes; pool, suit; alone or with friends\n\n3. Walking; 30-60 minutes; walking shoes, comfortable clothes; alone or with friends\n\n4. Weight lifting; 30-60 minutes; gym clothes, weights; with someone (need a partner for safety with weights)\n\n**Discussion:** After students have completed the worksheet, discuss which of the four activities is most appealing. How could it become a reality?\n\n1. What are some good reasons for getting exercise? (Health, social, weight.)\n\n2. Why is it important to exercise daily? (Teaches good habits, good for body.)\n\n3. What are some creative ways to exercise? (Take the stairs, jump rope.)\n\n4. Are the dreams of these people possible? Does it matter?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Visit a local gym or recreation center to view the facilities. Demonstrate how the sport\/equipment is used.\n\n2. See how many forms of exercise the class can list, A through Z.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List three types of exercise and give a purpose for each.\n\n2. Write one personal exercise goal. What will you do _today_ to get started?\n\n **Name _____ Date** _____\n\n**19.1 Exercise in Daily Life**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nIdentify what kind of activity each student is doing, how long it may take them, what equipment is needed, and if it is done alone or with others. Parts of the charts are already filled in.\n\n**Paul** | **Jonda**  \n---|---  \n_Stats_ | _Stats_  \nHeight: 6'1\"| Height: 5'2\"  \nWeight: 200 lb.| Weight: 165 lb.  \nLikes to exercise because: Chicks dig it!| Likes to exercise because: Makes me feel good about myself.  \nDream: To join the NBA| Dream: To learn the backstroke  \nActivity:| Activity:  \nHow long:| How long:  \nEquipment:| Equipment:  \nAlone\/others:| Alone\/others:\n\n**Lucy** | **Robbie**  \n---|---  \n_Stats_ | _Stats_  \nHeight: 5 '8\"| Height: 5 '6\"  \nWeight: 125 lb.| Weight: 160 lb.  \nLikes to exercise because: Helps keep my weight down| Likes to exercise because: Likes to set goals of lifting more weight  \nDream: To walk a 5K race| Dream: To bench press 140 pounds  \nActivity:| Activity:  \nHow long:| How long:  \nEquipment:| Equipment:  \nAlone\/others:| Alone\/others:\n\n#  **19.2 Exercise Excuses**\n\n**Objective:** The student will identify several common excuses for not exercising and state a way to solve the problem.\n\n**Comments:** We all make excuses for not exercising when there really are alternatives. It is important to know of other options for exercising and why excuses shouldn't keep us from living healthy. A person can exercise indoors, outdoors, alone, with a friend, with a TV program, with or without equipment, and in many creative ways.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students what types of exercise they have gotten in the past week.\n\n2. Ask students to list excuses for not exercising. Write them on the board and code them: good excuse, bad excuse, or excuses that fall in the middle.\n\n **Activity:** Students will complete the worksheet \"Exercise Excuses\" and choose a way to overcome each excuse by providing a solution.\n\n_Answers (Examples):_\n\n1. Wear a swimming cap.\n\n2. Exercise at an off time when no one is around.\n\n3. Ride her bike on some errands.\n\n4. Participate in wheelchair sports.\n\n5. Get a friend to try it with her.\n\n6. Do Jazzercise indoors.\n\n7. Start exercising slowly at first.\n\n8. Go to the local park, which has exercise stations.\n\n**Discussion:** Go over the student responses and compare creative solutions!\n\n1. Why do people make excuses not to do something?\n\n2. How can getting a partner or family member to join in help you get and stay motivated?\n\n3. What goals could the individuals on the worksheet set to get started exercising?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students role-play the activities on the worksheet, with one being the resistant exerciser and the other being the voice of a coach, conscience, or health professional.\n\n2. Make an \"Excuse Board\" and have students take turns shooting darts or rubber-tipped arrows at the excuses. Include comments such as \"I' m too tired,\" \"I don't like to get sore,\" and so on.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List three excuses for not exercising.\n\n2. List a solution for each of the excuses.\n\n **Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**19.2 Exercise Excuses**\n\n**Directions:** How could you help these individuals with their excuses for not wanting to exercise?\n\n1. Marsha doesn't want to go swimming because she' ll get her hair wet.\n\n#  **19.3 Personal Health Habits**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will complete a personal health survey and select two or three areas for improvement.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nTeens are going through many changes in their lives. Puberty affects their growth rate and triggers the onset of many other bodily changes. When you don't look like everyone else, it can lead to feelings of inferiority and confusion. In this lesson, students are to complete a self-inventory of some personal health habits to evaluate which areas are in need of attention.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students to tell what they ate for breakfast that morning. How many confess to eating candy bars, last night's pizza, or strange concoctions? 2. Ask students to share what time they went to bed last night. Calculate the number of hours slept. Compare answers.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nOn the worksheet \"Personal Health Habits,\" students are given a chance to complete (privately) a general inventory of habits for good hygiene, their self-assessments of weight, sleep habits, and regular medical maintenance. Be aware of some students who may be overweight or embarrassed about their looks. Some students may not have access to clean clothing, personal care items, or a stable home environment. ( _Note:_ Information for items 6 and 15 are discussed under Extension Activities.) _Answers:_ Will vary.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nGo over the items on the worksheet in general terms. Do not ask students to share information that they are uncomfortable talking about in a group.\n\n1. Why is it important to visit a dentist regularly? (Avoid pain, have nice appearance, keep your teeth all your life if possible.) 2. Why is it important to follow a doctor's instructions, especially for medication? (Monitor prescription drugs, know what is normal for you.) 3. Other than smelling and looking nice, why is it important to keep yourself clean?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Research BMI (body mass index) and help students calculate their weight. If 85 to 95 percentile is overweight, and over 95 percentile is obese, how many students are in an area of concern? 2. Sleep habits are different for teens! Research shows that a brain hormone is produced late at night that contributes to their tendency to keep odd hours. Have students make a list of good sleep health habits, including how to fall asleep. 3. Dieting is more than losing weight\u2014it is eating healthy. Check into specific diet plans for teens and come up with ten tips for losing weight (small portions, watch out for sugary drinks, stop when you are full, and so on).\n\nHelpful information for teens can be found on www.kidshealth.org\/teen\/food_fitness.com.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nList two or three personal areas of your health habits that could be improved. Explain how.\n\n**Name _____ Date** _____\n\n**19.3 Personal Health Habits**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nComplete the following personal healthy inventory to see what areas might need attention.\n\n#  **19.4 Stress and Stressors**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify the stressor (something that causes us to feel stressed) in given situations.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nStress is a part of life. Things that make us feel stressed are called _stressors_. This is not necessarily a negative thing; some people draw more energy, strength, and resourcefulness from being in what others might term a \"stressful\" situation. What is important is that each student can identify what is stressful and is able to cope with the situation. In this lesson, students are given stressful situations and are to select the stressor.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Pretend you are in the following situation: Someone is chasing you. He is getting closer and closer. You are running as fast as you can, but your legs are getting tired and you can 't go any faster. He is gaining on you! Now he is right behind you! You can hear him breathing! How do you feel? (Students may suggest fear, panic, excitement.)\n\n2. Now let's continue the situation. The person grabs you and you fall down. Suddenly you hear cheering and thousands of people are yelling, \" _Touchdown!_ \" Now how do you feel? (Happy.)\n\n3. Did your perception of the situation change after you were given more information? Why? (In the context, it was not truly a life-threatening situation.)\n\n4. Would you as the runner feel stress, even if you knew it was all a game? (Probably.)\n\n5. Define _stress_ (a feeling or response that results from some demand or pressure placed on you; could be pleasant or frightening).\n\n6. Define _stressor_ (something that causes you to feel stressed).\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nIn this lesson, students are to read on the worksheet \"Stress and Stressors\" examples of stressful situations. For each, they are to pick out the stressor and identify whether it is \"good\" or \"bad\" (pleasant\/unpleasant; positive\/negative).\n\n_Answers:_ 1. Test\/negative 2. Accident\/negative 3. Late bus\/negative 4. School record\/positive 5. Discipline by principal\/negative 6. Too many tasks\/negative\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nHave students reveal their thoughts about the stressors and their perceptions of each situation. Expand by having them tell about similar situations they have been in. Did they feel similarly stressed?\n\n1. Is there a chance the stress that Otis feels in situation 1 would help him perform better? (Yes.)\n\n2. If you knew that Terri took her father's car without permission and then got into an accident, would that increase her level of stress? (Probably.)\n\n3. What if Terri had caused an accident by running into someone else? (Yes, increased stress.)\n\n4. Why would Rolando in situation 3 feel anxiety? (There is nothing he can do to make that bus come faster.)\n\n5. Do you think most athletes feel stress at times? (Probably.)\n\n6. What are some causes of their stress? (Training rigors, desire to achieve, competing against others.)\n\n7. What are some ways your body might show signs of stress, particularly in situation 5? (Red face, tightly clenched fists, increased heart rate, and so on.)\n\n8. What could Wendy do in situation 6 to relieve her stress? (Take a deep breath, make a plan for getting the work done, cancel the babysitting, and so on.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students compile a list of ten to fifteen activities that can be the cause of positive stress.\n\n2. Have students compile a list of ten to fifteen activities that are usually the cause of negative stress. These activities could be at home, school, work, or leisure time.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Define _stress_.\n\n2. Define _stressor_.\n\n3. Give an example of a situation in which the stressor is positive.\n\n4. Give an example of a situation in which the stressor is negative.\n\n **Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**19.4 Stress and Stressors**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nRead each of the following situations. Identify what is stressful (the stressor) about each situation and circle whether it is positive or negative.\n\n#  **19.5 Stressful Events and Situations**\n\n**Objective:** The student will identify common life events that are associated with stress.\n\n**Comments:** Children, as well as adults, feel stress. For them, the stressor may be something as seemingly simple as moving to a new neighborhood or as devastating as experiencing the death of a parent. In this lesson, students are given a list of common stressors among children and are to take note of those that personally affect them.\n\n**Introductory Activities:** Have students list what they consider to be one of the most stressful situations at home, at school, or among friends. (Be aware of your students' personal situations!)\n\n**Activity:** Students are to read a list of stressful situations on the worksheet \"Stressful Events and Situations\" and indicate those that might be affecting them. Inform them that this is a personal inventory and will not be collected, but that they should be aware of the stresses they are under. Later lessons will discuss combating stress.\n\n**Discussion:** Because the information is personal, students will not need to share their answers unless they want to discuss them in general terms. Be sensitive to their needs at this time.\n\n1. Do you feel school puts a lot of stress on its students? How?\n\n2. Would you rather have parents who put pressure on you to succeed, or parents who were more laid-back and let you work at your own pace?\n\n3. Do you feel you work or perform well or even better under pressure?\n\n4. Why is change\u2014even if it is good or neutral\u2014considered to be stressful? (Have to adapt to new things.)\n\n5. How could success and achievement cause stress? (You might feel you have to live up to new expectations.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students find a more complete list of adult life stressors. Some lists even provide a type of rating that indicates how intense that life event might be. (For example, the death of a spouse is usually at the top of the list, with a rating of 100. Divorce, marital separation, being in jail, being fired, retirement, and taking on a mortgage are also important stressors.) Although your students may view adulthood as far off, they or their parents will face these events before they know it.\n\n2. Have students do a book report on the story of an individual who dealt with (and overcame) a stressful event.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List at least ten important stressors that most people encounter in life.\n\n2. Select a stressor that you can relate to personally and explain how it adds stress to your life. Is that stress positive in any way? If so, how?\n\n **19.5 Stressful Events and Situations**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nHere is a list of stressful events and situations that occur throughout life. Put a check mark next to those that affect you.\n\n#  **19.6 Coping with Stress**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will be able to list and briefly explain at least three techniques for reducing stress.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nThere are many techniques and programs available for stress reduction. These include everything from talking to yourself to hypnosis. Since our concern is students, the techniques presented in this lesson are fairly simple and straightforward. They can be learned and practiced within a school setting, with friends, or by individual study.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students list some stressful occupations (surgeon, spy).\n\n2. Have students suggest how those individuals might handle stress.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to read on the worksheet \"Coping with Stress\" a list of eight ways or techniques that may be helpful in dealing with stress. They are to answer the questions about each technique.\n\n_Answers (Examples):_\n\n1. Relaxation\n\na. He could imagine himself winning.\n\nb. She could clear her mind of other thoughts.\n\n2. Positive Practice\n\nc. She could rehearse all aspects of the speech.\n\nd. He could go through the arguments and anticipate all responses from the boss.\n\n3. Talking to Yourself\n\ne. Encourage yourself not to get down about it; we all make mistakes.\n\nf. Dwell on the times when you succeeded; you will succeed again.\n\n4. Assertiveness\n\ng. You wouldn't be confident enough to take a strong stand.\n\nh. You would gain respect for yourself.\n\n5. Thought Stopping\n\ni. The person could train the mind to stop that line of thought.\n\nj. An explosive, laser beam.\n\n6. Coping Skills\n\nk. Avoid whenever possible, continue to do your best, remind yourself it will be over someday.\n\nl. Find someone you can talk to; join Alateen.\n\nm. Practice time management to get everything in.\n\n7. Learn New Skills\n\nn. Take a course; ask someone to teach you.\n\no. Vocabulary, other self-help books.\n\n8. Exercise\n\np. The person could think through the problems of the day while moving around.\n\nq. Do something that involves the hands so he won't be tempted to eat.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nBe sure to go over all the techniques and explain how each can work. Students may choose to target one to try. Some may already be employing some of the techniques in their experiences with stress.\n\n1. Which of the techniques seem most appealing to you?\n\n2. Which techniques have you already tried or currently use to reduce stress?\n\n3. Can you think of other techniques that are helpful?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Steer students toward biographies of people who have gone through extremely stressful periods in their lives. How did these people cope? People like Anne Frank, Wilma Rudolph, Terry Fox, and survivors of the holocaust had experiences that are incredible.\n\n2. Encourage students to try the techniques when they are in stressful situations. Have them report back to you (or the class) as to the success each has had. Practice them as a class if possible!\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nList three techniques that can be helpful for reducing stress.\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**19.6 Coping with Stress**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nHere is a list of some practices that can be helpful in managing stressful situations and\/or the stressor itself. Read each carefully and then answer the questions.\n\n1. _**Relaxation:**_ Teach yourself to relax when you are in a stressful situation. Take a few deep breaths, close your eyes, imagine yourself floating.\n\na. How could this be useful to a boy who is about to run a race?\n\nb. How could this be useful to a girl about to take a very important test?\n\n2. _**Positive Practice:**_ Before engaging in a stressful activity, go over it in your mind. Envision yourself performing each and every step, and always end with success! Do it so many times that it seems natural.\n\nc. How could this technique be used by a woman who has to give a speech?\n\nd. How could this be used by a man who has to present his side of a conflict to the boss or administrator?\n\n3. _**Talking to Yourself:**_ Get comfortable with the idea of giving yourself \"pep talks\" when you feel stressed. Keep repeating phrases such as \"You are doing fine! This is something you can handle. You don't even need to worry about this.\" Say the things you wish someone else would say to you.\n\ne. How could this work in a situation in which you made a mistake and are afraid to face your peers?\n\nf. How could this technique help someone who sometimes succeeds but sometimes doesn't?\n\n4. _**Assertiveness:**_ Reduce your stress by standing up for what you believe is right. Handle the level of conflict by practicing saying what you believe and not backing down.\n\ng. Why wouldn't this be a good technique if you weren't really sure how you felt or didn't know enough about the situation?\n\nh. How would it make you feel to know that others respected what you had to say?\n\n5. _**Thought Stopping:**_ When you feel the symptoms of stress creeping in, imagine a lightning bolt flashing through the sky and bombarding that stressor to pieces. Imagine yourself screaming, \" _Stop! That's enough!_ \" Forbid yourself to dwell on it anymore. \" _Stop! Stop! Stop!\"_\n\ni. How could this technique be used by someone who daydreams a lot and ends up thinking about ways he or she is going to mess up or fail?\n\nj. What other mental images could be used to block or destroy a thought?\n\n6. _**Coping Skills:**_ Pinpoint the stressor and logically decide how you can cope with it. If you have to sit next to that bully every day for the rest of the semester, make your plan as to how you can survive. Will you ignore him? Will you bring up a new, friendly topic of conversation? Will you combine other techniques, such as positive practice, to learn to handle this person in a way of your choosing? If you know there is going to be a problem, plan ahead of time to decide how you will handle it. Then stick to your plan.\n\nk. How could you cope with a teacher who seems out to get you?\n\nl. How could you cope with a stepfather who is an alcoholic?\n\nm. How could you cope with a grueling work schedule for the next four weekends?\n\n7. _**Learn New Skills:**_ Perhaps the stress comes from inability to perform. If a secretary is worried about making mistakes on the computer, perhaps taking a course in updating her skills would help handle the problem. People are capable of learning new things!\n\nn. What skills could someone learn to overcome a fear of working with mechanical things? What about a fear of technology?\n\no. If someone is embarrassed about appearing \"dumb,\" what skills could he or she learn to improve this self-image?\n\n8. _**Exercise:**_ Sometimes stress can be greatly alleviated by taking it out physically. Run! Play basketball! Work out! Do something to get your body on your side. Expend that energy in a positive, healthy way.\n\np. How could exercise help someone who works at a desk all day?\n\nq. What exercise would you recommend for someone who likes to eat when feeling stressed?\n\n#  **19.7 Depression**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will define depression and identify several symptoms of depression.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nEveryone experiences moods of depression, particularly associated with sadness, grief, loneliness, or other traumatic events. But when the feeling of depression lasts for an extended period of time, it can cause other problems and may require treatment from a specialist. In this lesson, students are given a list of symptoms of depression.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. How would you feel if you came home from school and found out that a fish in your aquarium had died? (Probably sad for a little while.)\n\n2. How would you feel if you came home and your favorite dog had died? (A little sadder than you'd feel about the fish?)\n\n3. How would you feel if you found out your favorite uncle had died? (Very sad.)\n\n4. How long do you think you would feel bad about the death of the fish? The dog? The person?\n\n5. What would you think of a person who was still grieving over a dead fish three years later\u2014grieving to the point that he or she couldn't eat, couldn't sleep, and didn't seem to care about anything? (You'd wonder about the significance of the fish, and you'd also advise the person to seek professional help.)\n\n6. Define _depression_. (An emotional state in which the person feels sad, lonely, grief, or just \"down.\" This is normal for short periods of time. When the symptoms persist, there is concern that it could be a more serious problem.)\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nThe term _depression_ describes the behavior of anyone who is in a state of sadness, grief, or general gloominess. When used to refer to clinical depression, this is a much more serious type of depression that can be associated with other types of disorders and even suicide. In this lesson, students are to examine symptoms or signs of depression by matching them with a comment on the worksheet \"Depression.\" It's hoped that this will create an awareness of the problem. Be sure to explain any terms with which students are unfamiliar.\n\n_Answers:_ 1. e 2. c c 3. k 4. j 5. b 6. i 7. d 8. g 9. h 10. f 11. a 12. l\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nEveryone feels some of the symptoms of depression from time to time. Be sure students understand that this is normal.\n\n1. Can you relate to most of the comments on the worksheet, at least at some time or another in your life?\n\n2. When do you remember being the most depressed?\n\n3. Do you know of anyone who was so depressed that he or she needed professional help?\n\n4. What kinds of treatments are you aware of for depression? (Counseling, medication, perhaps shock therapy.)\n\n5. Why wouldn't it work to tell someone to just \"snap out of it!\"? (It may be a chemical problem requiring medical treatment.)\n\n6. Do children experience depression? (Yes.)\n\n7. What are some causes of depression in children? (Children who suffer a significant loss, have low self-esteem, have family problems, or have an inherited tendency for depression.)\n\n8. What would you think of someone who was on medication for depression?\n\n9. Are people who are treated for depression \"crazy\"? (No, but they may need help.)\n\n10. During the times when you were depressed, what got you out of it or helped a lot?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students research the treatments for depression. Have them find out in what ways other people (especially families) can help with a depressed individual.\n\n2. Have students make a list of what they think are the most important factors of their lives that are associated with depression. Would a bad haircut make you feel depressed? Would losing a parent to cancer? Have them give this some thought. Answers will differ greatly among students.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Define and explain _depression._\n\n2. List at least five symptoms or signs of depression.\n\n **Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**19.7 Depression**\n\n**Directions:** The following is a list of comments that might indicate a depressed feeling and a list of symptoms of depression. Match the comment on the left with the symptom on the right.\n\n**Part Five**\n\n**Vocational Skills**\n**Chapter 20**\n\n**Present Skills and Interests**\n\n#  **20.1 My Strengths**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify at least twenty things that he or she feels he or she can do well. This may include accomplishments, personality attributes, talents, and so on.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nWhen beginning the search for a job and hopefully a career, the student may start by looking at his or her own skills and interests. Although not everyone is lucky enough to find his or her job fascinating, it is a worthwhile endeavor to take inventory of what one is able to do well and is interested in doing. Perhaps later there will be some overlap between the job and the interest. In this lesson, students are to make a list of what they feel are their skills, talents, and\/or things that they are knowledgeable about.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Define _skill_. (Something someone is able to do well; this can be an acquired thing with learning.)\n\n2. Define _talent_. (A natural ability to do something well; this is something that you have or you don't; it can be developed and enhanced, but it is more of something that is within the person.)\n\n3. Define _job_. (A task that is performed usually for money; can be short-lived and may not involve a lot of training or skill.)\n\n4. Define _career_. (A profession, usually involving training, that may last throughout a person's life.)\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents will add items to a list of things that they are able to do well. This could include activities that they are good at, things they know something about, or even winning personality traits.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nProvide time for students to share their ideas about their skills and interests. If some students say they cannot think of any, encourage classmates who know them to help them out.\n\n1. Do you have skills or talents that seem to run in your family? If so, what?\n\n2. Why do you think people in the same family might have similar interests? (Availability of resources.)\n\n3. How did you become good at the things you are proficient in now? (Practice, good teaching, asking questions, and so on.)\n\n4. Do you need other people to tell you that you are good at something or is it enough for you to recognize your skills yourself?\n\n5. What are some skills that can be learned if you are willing to become a student or apprentice?\n\n6. What are some examples of talents that some people just naturally possess? (Musical ability, athletic ability, and so on.)\n\n7. What are some skills you have developed within the last year?\n\n8. How did you learn a new skill?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Encourage students to take part in a workshop, mini-course, correspondence class, YMCA\/YWCA evening class, cooking class at the community center, and so on. Many classes are free or are available for a small charge. Learn a new skill!\n\n2. Help students offer their services for free to become an apprentice to someone who does something they are interested in or would like to learn more about. Try to help students hook up with an auto repair shop, riding stable, artist, and so on.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List two skills in which you are competent that you have learned or developed in the past year.\n\n2. List two talents you possess.\n\n **Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**20.1 My Strengths**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nMake a list for yourself of twenty to twenty-five (or more) things you are able to do well. Don't limit yourself to only things you can make or compete at; include things you know a lot about and your personality strengths.\n\n**Examples:**\n\nI am good with children.   \nI can fix things\u2014a bike, VCR, and so on.   \nI know a lot about astronauts and the space program.\n\n#  **20.2 My Interests**\n\n**Objective:** The students will identify at least five to ten different interests that he or she currently has.\n\n**Comments:** Some jobs come with a rather predictable work environment; a pilot, for example, may have a regular route, is responsible for the welfare of others, must be cool in a crisis, and should be familiar with the technology of the plane. A person who enjoys none of those qualifications would probably not seek a job in which he or she would be piloting an airplane. In this lesson, students are to identify some characteristics of a job that appeal to them.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students write one career that is of interest to them.\n\n2. Have students list at least three to five interests or skills that a person who performs that job would probably have.\n\n **Activity:** On this worksheet, students will read a list of possible interests that people may have and then circle several that are appealing to them. The idea is to stimulate thought and discussion about their own interests.\n\n**Discussion:** Clarify any items the students are unsure about. Remind them that this is just a preference list; there is no wrong or right.\n\n1. What do you think are some major considerations for someone looking for a job? (Depends on the individual and his or her needs at the time; money, security, outlet for creativity, and so on.)\n\n2. What are some ways you could take advantage of opportunities to try new things? (Read, volunteer, take a summer job, and so on.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students look over the preferences they select. Have them identify at least one career that seems to fit their interests.\n\n2. Assign a class project to select fifty careers. Provide a ten-sentence summary for each career that describes the probable characteristics of someone in that career.\n\n3. Have students begin a personal career file: collect items on interesting careers such as news articles, school information, and brochures. Find out the salary, available training, and working conditions associated with each career.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List three of your main career interests at this time.\n\n2. Write a paragraph describing a time when you explored or tried something new and found out something about yourself.\n\n **Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**20.2 My Interests**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nRead the following list of interests you may have. Circle those that appeal to you.\n\n1. Working with pets\n\n2. Working with children\n\n3. Being inside\n\n4. Being outside\n\n5. Being around people\n\n6. Moving around\n\n7. Sitting at a desk to work\n\n8. Teaching someone how to do something\n\n9. Traveling\n\n10. Driving\n\n11. Taking care of things\n\n12. Working under high pressure, excitement\n\n13. Having a calm, predictable environment\n\n14. Being creative\n\n15. Following a set schedule each day\n\n16. Doing lots of different tasks\n\n17. Doing the same task over and over\n\n18. Being responsible for the welfare and safety of others\n\n19. Making lots of money\n\n20. Using a computer\n\n21. Having a chance to learn new skills\n\n22. Helping other people\n\n23. Supervising other people\n\n24. Working whatever hours I want\n\n25. Getting raises and promotions\n\n#  **20.3 My Hobbies**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will describe how a specific hobby can be related or turned into a career.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nSometimes things we do for fun and pure enjoyment can pay off in terms of being a vocational choice. Some hobbies are engaged in because they are a pleasant \"break\" from a demanding career (doctors playing golf?), and sometimes turning a hobby into a business can take away the enjoyment of the hobby. In some circumstances, however, it is nice to think of your work as something you truly enjoy doing. In this lesson, students are to specify how certain hobbies may be turned into careers.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Define _hobby_ (an activity that is engaged in primarily for entertainment). 2. Have students list five to ten hobbies with which they are familiar.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to match the hobby on the left side of the worksheet \"My Hobbies\" with a possible career listed on the right side that could grow from that hobby. Make sure students understand what is usually involved in the hobbies listed. _Answers:_ 1. f 2. h 3. c 4. d 5. i 6. e 7. g 8. k 9. a 10. 1 11. j 12. b\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nMake sure students did not have any trouble completing the worksheet.\n\n1. What are some other examples of hobbies that can turn into careers? 2. Do you personally know of any people who have turned a hobby into a business or career? 3. Some people choose hobbies that are very different from their jobs. For example, a woman who works at a desk all day might go jogging for fun. What are some other examples of hobbies that would complement certain types of jobs? 4. What are some collections you can think of? (Stamps, dolls, antique cars.) 5. What would be the value of becoming an \"expert\" in a certain field of study if it was not part of your job? 6. What are some sports hobbies you can think of? 7. How could sports as a hobby be turned into a career other than by actually participating in the sport as a professional? (Advertising, sales of related merchandise, and so on.) 8. Why do people invest time and money in hobbies? (Serious fun!) 9. Think of some very exciting careers\u2014race car driving, modeling, working on television, and so on. Do you think the people who are involved in these careers may have begun by dabbling in the career as a hobby? How? 10. Do you think people who are involved in exciting careers would have very different activities for their hobbies?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Organize a Hobby Fair for your class. Have students (or parents or adult friends or other interested community people) bring in collections, pictures, posters, brochures, and so on, about their hobbies. 2. Assign students the task of researching a new hobby. Let them find out about it and report back to the class. 3. Invite speakers to class to talk about their hobbies. How does the hobby fit into their life as a balance or supplement for their career? Does the speaker wish that the hobby could be his or her career?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List three personal hobbies. 2. Describe how each of your hobbies could turn into a career for you.\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**20.3 My Hobbies**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nMatch the hobby on the left with a possible career listed on the right that could grow from that hobby.\n\n__| 1.| Refinishing furniture|  **a.** | selling patterns at a fabric shop; helping customers with their sewing needs  \n---|---|---|---|---  \n__| 2.| Collecting antiques|  **b.** | working at a store that sells saddles and bridles  \n__| 3.| Training dogs  \n **c.** | working for the police department K-9 (canine) unit  \n__| 4.| Painting with watercolors  \n__| 5.| Writing poetry|  **d.** | selling paintings at an art gallery  \n **e.** | running a catering business  \n__| 6.| Cooking fancy meals|  **f.** | selling furniture made of wood; doing repairs involving woodworking  \n__| 7.| Playing football  \n **g.** | coaching a high school sports team  \n__| 8.| Planting and growing flowers  \n **h.** | working in a museum as a guide  \n__| 9.| Sewing|  **i.** | being a freelance writer selling work to magazines  \n__| 10.| Doing aerobic dancing|  **j.** | working in an auto body shop  \n__| 11.| Repairing cars|  **k.** | managing a florist shop  \n__| 12.| Horseback riding|  **l.** | teaching exercies classes at a health spa\n\n#  **20.4 Realistic Vocational Goals**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify problems with characters who have unrealistic career goals.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nMany children want to grow up to be actresses, sports heroes, rock stars, and millionaires! It seems glamorous and attainable to a child who doesn't realize that the odds are against him or her. In this lesson, examples are given of characters who have somewhat unrealistic aspirations.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students volunteer to recall, when they were five or six years old, what they wanted to be when they were grown up.\n\n2. Have students raise their hands if they have changed their minds about a career since they were little. If so, why?\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are given several situations to consider in which characters are not setting realistic vocational goals. They should identify possible problems and write their ideas on the lines.\n\n_Answers (Examples):_\n\n1. A small town may not support a huge factory; he doesn't mention having any resources to open a factory.\n\n2. It appears as though the girl doesn't have much musical ability.\n\n3. The product is not good.\n\n4. He doesn't know much about his product.\n\n5. He did not research the business; it may be a total scam.\n\n6. He doesn't seem bright enough to be a scientist.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nHave students explain how they selected the problems in each example. Some assumptions have to be made about the characters since not a lot of facts are given.\n\n1. Is it wrong to have high aspirations? Why _not_ plan to become a sports hero or rock star; obviously some people make it? (Try to be realistic\u2014some make it, but many more do not.)\n\n2. What types of skills or talents do you think are important when choosing a career? (Things that will fit into the career.)\n\n3. Why is it important to know a lot about your product if you are selling it? (So you can be convincing to your customers.)\n\n4. What lack of skills seems apparent in situations 2 and 6? (Musical ability, general intelligence.)\n\n5. Do you think having someone tell you \"You' ll never make it\" can work in a positive sense? How? (Might give the person incentive to try to beat the odds.)\n\n6. What advice do you think someone who \"beat the odds\" would give to others who want to be where they are? (Keep trying, don't give up, and so on.)\n\n7. What are some things you could be doing right now to help yourself toward whatever career or goal you are interested in?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students find and read interviews given by people who are successful in their fields. What advice do they offer to people who want to be successful?\n\n2. Have students make a bulletin board emphasizing the importance of hard work toward achieving a goal. Use a \"ladder\" with words or phrases written on the rungs, such as _education, taking a risk, talking to people, learning, listening_ , and so on.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nWhat is at least one realistic career goal for the following characters?\n\n1. Joel loves music. He knows all of the artists and bands that are currently on the Top 40 list. He can't play an instrument, but he has a great memory for songs. ( _Examples:_ disc jockey, record store owner or manager.)\n\n2. Rachel is good with numbers. She always has her checkbook balanced and handles investments for her family. She enjoys learning about how to make money by investing in the stock market. ( _Examples:_ stock market investor, accountant, financial advisor.)\n\n3. Marta was abused as a child. She spent a lot of time in courts and eventually grew up in a foster home. Now she wants to help protect children from the type of abuse that she lived through. ( _Examples:_ lawyer, social worker.)\n\n4. Tomas enjoys taking pictures. He has several cameras and has taken classes in photography. He would rather be behind a camera than anywhere else. ( _Examples:_ studio photographer; freelance photographer for books, calendars, and magazines.)\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**20.4 Realistic Vocational Goals**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nThe following characters are going to run into difficulty as they prepare for a career. What problems) do you see in each case? Write your ideas on the lines.\n\n#  **20.5 Academic Strengths**\n\n**Objective:** The student will review past and present report cards and state at least two academic strengths.\n\n**Comments:** School records are important, especially because most high school transcripts will play a part in the student's further education. If students are in high school, you may be able to track their past records through your central office. Some students may have past report cards at home; if so, you may need to get parent permission to view them. Many schools send home standardized test information at the end of the school year as well. In this lesson, students are to look at their grades and determine which subject or subjects are a \"strength.\" They may wish to view future career possibilities in light of what they are interested in and excel at in school.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students tell about their best year in school. When was it? Why was it good?\n\n2. Have students write what they think is their best subject in school.\n\n **Activity:** Using past report cards and any other objective information about students' performance, students should summarize the information on the worksheet \"Academic Strengths.\" Many report cards contain places to record attendance, which can affect school performance. Have students list semester or yearly grades for the main academic subjects and include other appropriate subjects in the last column. Make sure you do not embarrass students who may not have good grades.\n\n_Materials:_ reports cards, standardized test results (if available), attendance reports, pen or pencil\n\n**Discussion:** Since grades may be a rather personal issue with some students, have students volunteer to reveal their thoughts and answer questions. Have students go over the discussion questions at the bottom of the worksheet.\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students find out if there is a connection between attendance and grades. If possible, provide students with information about attendance and grades from anonymous students in their class. Do good students have good attendance? Do poor students have poor attendance? Have them define their terms and decide what limits support their conclusions.\n\n2. Have students interview teachers in the school or collect examples of grading procedures for their classes. How much control does a student have over the grade he or she gets in a class? (Some teachers may grade on a contract basis, others use percentage of points, and so on.)\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List two of your academic strengths as indicated by report card grades.\n\n2. Select one of your memorable classes and grades. Explain in a paragraph what you remember about that class. Why was it memorable? Was the grade you received a fair one? Why?\n\n **Name _____ Date** _____\n\n**20.5 Academic Strengths**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nUsing old report cards and standardized testing if available, complete the following academic profile of your grades over the past few years. Be objective!\n\n1. How was my attendance overall?\n\n2. In what areas do I have the best grades?\n\n3. Is this an area that I am interested in learning more about?\n\n4. In what areas do I have the worst grades?\n\n5. What is my explanation for those grades?\n\n6. Do I feel these grades are a fair representation of my abilities and knowledge in these areas?\n\n7. At this point, am I interested in further education, such as college?\n\n8. Am I interested in further education, such as technical or vocational training?\n\n9. Are there ways to improve my grades? How?\n\n10. Am I interested in putting more effort into academic classes if it would improve my chances for further education?\n\n#  **20.6 Working with a Disability**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will explain how a person with a disability could make adaptations to do well in school or on the job.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nJust because a person has a disability (physical, emotional, learning, and so on) does not mean he or she cannot still achieve success at school or on the job. There are many adaptations that can and must be made for people with disabilities. In this lesson, students are given examples of characters who have a disability. They are to explain how the character is coping with school and work in spite of the disability.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students make a list of disabilities with which they are familiar.\n\n2. Have students look over their list and note how many of these are physical disabilities.\n\n3. Have students give examples of any individuals they know who have a disability and how that person functions with adaptations, if necessary.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to read five examples on the worksheet \"Working with a Disability\" about people with disabilities in a school or work situation. They are to identify the disability and explain how the character is coping with it in each setting.\n\n_Answers (Examples):_ 1. physical disability\u2014uses elevator 2. learning disability\u2014taped material 3. epilepsy\u2014medication 4. emotional disability\u2014small class 5. deaf\u2014hearing aid, translator\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nGo through each example and clarify each disability if students are unfamiliar with the basic handicapping condition.\n\n1. Do you know of anyone with a disabling condition? What is it?\n\n2. Does this person's disability stop this person from doing what he or she wants or needs to do in any way?\n\n3. What special adaptations (if any) are made for this person?\n\n4. Do you think having a disability should stop someone from succeeding in school?\n\n5. What are some ways schools can help a person with a disability?\n\n6. What types of jobs might be out of the realm of possibility for the people on the worksheet? Why?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students work in groups and research a handicapping condition. Have them find the definition of the handicap, ways that people with this disability can overcome or work around it, famous people who have had this condition, and other topics. Ideas may include: deafness, blindness, cerebral palsy, epilepsy, mental retardation, emotional disturbance, physically challenged, and so on.\n\n2. Have students volunteer to spend time working in a classroom with children with special needs. The experience may be quite enlightening!\n\n3. Have students read selected books written by or about people with disabilities. What limits (if any) did the people put on themselves?\n\n4. Find out what community resources are available to help people with disabilities. Is there a group home? Sheltered workshop? Vocational training?\n\n5. If you know of someone who would be willing to come in to talk to the class about his or her disability and how it affects everyday life, invite this person to school. Prepare your class for appropriate questions. Perhaps someone in your class has a disability\u2014be sensitive to his or her feelings.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List examples of at least three common disabilities.\n\n2. For each, give an example of how a person with that disability might still perform school and work tasks.\n\n **Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**20.6 Working with a Disability**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nRead the accounts of the following students. Identify each disability. Then explain how each is coping with his or her situation at school and on the job.\n\n1. Mark is in a wheelchair. He was injured in an accident many years ago, but has complete use of his upper body. At school he has classes on the first floor and uses the school elevator to get where he needs to go. He attends regular classes at school.\n\n2. Amanda has a learning disability. She finds it extremely difficult to read and understand any kind of written material, although she excels in math. Her teachers allow her to take tests orally, and she often listens to books read on a tape recorder. Her grades are average. Only her closest friends even realize that she has a disability.\n\n3. Charlie has epilepsy. He cannot get a driver's license, but he has no other restrictions. His seizures are completely controlled with medication. He does average or above-average work at school and has two part-time jobs: delivering the local newspaper and helping his uncle at a gas station.\n\n4. Kanisha is in a class with other students who have not done well in a traditional class setting. She has an emotional handicap that prevents her from learning as easily as some other students. The class is small, and she takes most of her academics from one teacher. They also do some \"job shadowing\" several times a week, in which Kanisha can assist people at the local hospital.\n\n5. Eric is partially deaf. He has a small hearing aid in both ears and communicates primarily through signing. He attends several regular classes with the help of a translator. After school Eric helps out at the YMCA with teaching swimming to young children with and without handicaps.\n\n#  **20.7 Finishing High School**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will give at least two reasons why it is important or beneficial to complete high school.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nThere are a lot of reasons why teenagers drop out of high school. Among these are the facts of pregnancy, poor grades, truancy, getting into trouble at school, boredom, seeing no relevance, and a simple lack of motivation. In this lesson, students are asked to respond to comments about completing high school.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students raise their hands if they intend to graduate from high school.\n\n2. Have students raise their hands if they have a close friend who has dropped out of high school.\n\n3. Have students raise their hands if they have a brother or sister who has already dropped out of high school.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to read the twelve statements on the worksheet \"Finishing High School.\" They are to circle Agree or Disagree to show how they feel about the statement. These are all opinion statements, so inform students that they will not be scored \"right\" or \"wrong.\"\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nIt may be quite surprising to hear your students' views on completing high school. While some may be overly optimistic that they of course will complete high school (even with poor attendance, poor grades, low motivation), others\u2014particularly those without support from home\u2014may already be planning to quit. Without being judgmental or \"preachy,\" listen to the students' comments and opinions. Extension activities may prove to be quite enlightening to some of these students!\n\n1. What do you think is the main purpose of high school?\n\n2. If someone close to you has dropped out of school, why would that make it more likely that you would also drop out of school? (That's your model; you may think of this as \"freedom\"; you may already have a job.)\n\n3. Do you think there is a connection between the amount of education a person has and his or her earning potential?\n\n4. What other kinds of training are available after high school besides a regular four-year college program? (Two-year degrees, vocational schools, apprentice programs, and so on.)\n\n5. Do you feel your parents value a high school education?\n\n6. Why is a high school degree sometimes important to parents or grandparents who never got one? (They might feel as though they have missed an opportunity.)\n\n7. What are some ways that classes and schools try to make learning more relevant? (Offer on-the-job programs, work\/study, and so on.)\n\n8. Do you know of anyone who has completed the GED program? What comments did this person have about the program?\n\n9. If someone has quit high school, how easy do you think it would be to return\u2014especially after having a baby or working for awhile? (Probably difficult\u2014new responsibilities, less time, more stresses.)\n\n10. What advice would you give to someone who is struggling in high school, but still wants to stay in and try to finish? (Get help\u2014talk to a counselor, teachers; get tutoring, and so on.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. If possible, have a counselor come in to explain the GED (equivalency) program. Some students may think this is an easy way to get through high school. Find out about the history of the program (military program during World War II), the restrictions, time involved, level of material, and commitment of time that is necessary to complete the program.\n\n2. Have students research the earning potential of students with and without high school degrees.\n\n3. Have students find out reasons why teenagers drop out of high school. How many plan to return? How many actually return?\n\n4. Invite speakers to your class who have made the decision (or felt it was necessary) to drop out of high school. Do they regret the decision? What factors were involved in their life at the time? What are they doing today?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List at least two reasons why it is beneficial to complete high school.\n\n2. List at least two reasons why teenagers may choose to drop out of high school.\n\n3. Write a paragraph explaining your intentions about finishing high school.\n\n **Name _____ Date** _____\n\n**20.7Finishing High School**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nComplete the following survey by expressing your opinions and reactions to the following statements about high school. Circle **Agree** or **Disagree** after each statement.\n\n1.| It is important to have a high school diploma.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n---|---|---|---  \n2.| You can still get a good job without a high school degree.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n3.| High school is a waste of time if you don't plan to go to college.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n4.| Most high school classes don't have any practical value.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n5.| It is easy to get a GED (equivalency degree) if you drop out of school and then want to get a degree.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n6.| There are ways to get help if you want to finish high school.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n7.| A lot of my friends either have quit or intend to quit high school.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n8.| One or both of my parents did not finish high school.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n9.| I have a brother or sister who quit school.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n10.| I would consider leaving high school, but only if I had a job already lined up.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n11.| The only reason I am in high school is because of the activities and my friends.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**  \n12.| If you really want to get a high school diploma, you will find a way.|  **Agree** | **Disagree**\n\n#  **20.8 Extracurricular Activities**\n\n**Objective:** The student will list at least five to ten extracurricular activities available at his or her school and how involvement in those activities is beneficial to vocational planning.\n\n**Comments:** Schools, no matter how small, generally offer a range of extracurricular activities for students to participate in. Many colleges look for evidence of participation as part of the application process. It is important for students to be well-rounded, to try different things, and to be part of groups. Getting involved and being part of a team are important qualities to future employers. Plus, it can be fun! In this lesson, students are to complete a word search that includes many examples of extracurricular activities.\n\n**Introductory Activities:** Have students guess which activity you are referring to by giving the following clues:\n\n1. \"Go! Team! Go!\" (Cheerleading.)\n\n2. \"Would you please grant an interview, Ms. Principal?\" (School paper.)\n\n3. \"There are other ways to have fun without drinking!\" (Students Against Drunk Driving\u2014S.A.D.D.)\n\n**Activity:** Students are to try to find the words in the word search puzzle \"Extracurricular Activities.\" All the words are examples of typical extracurricular activities at schools. Inform students that not all of the activities may be available at your school. Clarify any terms with which students are unfamiliar.\n\n_Answers:_\n\n**Discussion:** After completing the activity, have students talk about which activities they are interested in or involved in. Perhaps some students are unaware of the activities available at your school.\n\n1. What are some of the benefits of being involved in an extracurricular activity? (Fun, be on a team, learn a new skill, and so on.)\n\n2. What might it cost you in terms of time and money to become involved in an extracurricular activity? (Time for practices, travel time, money for uniforms, and so on.)\n\n3. What is fun about being part of a team? (Other people accept you, support you, might enjoy being on a winning team, and so on.)\n\n4. What skills might you learn from being a part of a group that an employer would be interested in? (How well you get along with others, whether you are a leader, whether you can learn new things.)\n\n5. Why do you think potential employers want to know which activities you were involved in when you were in high school? (Want to know your interests, what type of skills you have, and so on.)\n\n6. Are there certain groups at your school that are considered to be desirable? Which groups?\n\n7. Are there certain groups at your school that are laughed at or not respected?\n\n8. If you were going to start a new extracurricular organization at your school, what would it be?\n\n**Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students research and then prepare a display showing the different activities available at your school. They may want to interview people who are involved in the club or group (or they may be members themselves); to find out the restrictions, membership responsibilities, services provided, and skills taught; and so on.\n\n2. Encourage students to join an activity\u2014perhaps something they never really gave any serious thought to before. Give it a try!\n\n**Evaluation:**\n\n1. List five to ten extracurricular activities available at your school.\n\n2. For each, specify at least one skill that would be used when pursuing that activity.\n\n3. Select one of your activities and explain how (or why) an employer might be interested to know you were involved in that activity at school.\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**20.8 Extracurricular Activities**\n\n**Directions:** There are a lot of extracurricular activities in the following word search. Can you find them all? Look for the words horizontally, vertically, diagonally\u2014and backwards!!\n\n**Chapter 21**\n\n**Getting a Job**\n\n#  **21.1 Searching for a Job**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify at least five ways to begin searching for a job.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nFor many students, it may seem overwhelming at first to enter the world of work after the structure and safety of high school life. Some may already have jobs lined up, but many probably must go in \"cold\"\u2014beginning that search for the first real job. In this lesson, students are given examples of ways to begin looking for a job.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students raise their hands if they are planning to inherit the family fortune after they finish high school and never work another day in their life.\n\n2. Have students raise their hands if they are already working somewhere and plan to continue to work there after high school.\n\n3. Have students raise their hands if they have a good idea of what they will be doing right after high school.\n\n4. Have students raise their hands if they think they could benefit from some help getting a job after high school.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents will consider a list of ways to find a job. They should provide an example of how each way could be helpful and write their answers on the lines.\n\n_Answers (Examples):_\n\n1. Find out if there is an opening at a business in your area for which you are qualified.\n\n2. Put your own ad in the newspaper or online.\n\n3. Your friend or relative may know the person who does the hiring and put in a good word for you; this lets the employers know you are available.\n\n4. A counselor can help match you with a job.\n\n5. There may be a job placement service after training is completed.\n\n6. A social worker may be able to find you a position.\n\n7. Sometimes businesses will hire temporary helpers; this can help someone get a foot in the door.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nHave students share their ideas and\/or experiences with getting a job. They may have additional suggestions as well.\n\n1. How much time do you think is involved in job-hunting? (Could be a lot!)\n\n2. What are some ways you can be systematic about looking for a job? (Keep a list of places you have tried or want to try.)\n\n3. Whom are you probably competing with to find a job? (Other recent graduates, unemployed adults in the community, other skilled workers, people who have been laid-off in your area, and so on.)\n\n4. Do you think the job will come to you or will you have to do some work to find a job? (Unless they are in a family business, they will probably have to do some work.)\n\n5. How could job-hunting be a discouraging experience? (Getting turned down, being told you don't have enough experience.)\n\n6. If the place you are interested in working at requires experience, how could you go about getting experience if they won't hire you? (Find something somewhat related.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students interview five adults to find out how they got their first jobs.\n\n2. Go through your local paper's classified ads for employment. Have students systematically go through them to find what types of jobs are available, the range of salaries, which are entry-level positions, how many require specific experience, and whether any will provide training. For how many of the jobs are students qualified right now?\n\n3. Contact an employment agency to find out the terms for finding a job through this means. Is a fee involved? How much? What types of jobs are listed?\n\n4. Check out www.myfirstpaycheck.com and www.coolworks.com for more tips on getting a job and for some \"dream jobs\" that might get students thinking!\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List two possible jobs in which you are interested.\n\n2. List three ways you could begin a search for finding one of those jobs listed in (1).\n\n **Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**21.1 Searching for a Job**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nThe following is a list of ways to find a job. Write an example of how the method could help you (or someone you know) find a job.\n\n1. Reading the classifieds in the newspaper\n\n2. Putting your own ad in the newspaper or online\n\n3. Asking friends and relatives if they know of any openings where they work\n\n4. Going to businesses, factories, and other places of work and asking for applications\n\n5. Talking to a counselor at an employment agency\n\n6. Signing up for job training in your community\n\n7. Finding out whether you are eligible for any government-sponsored work programs\n\n8. Working for a temporary-help agency\n\n#  **21.2 Vocational Vocabulary**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will match common vocabulary terms associated with getting a job with their definitions.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nTerms such as _r\u00e9sum\u00e9_ , _cover letter_ , _background check_ , and _character reference_ are all commonly used when someone is seriously trying to get a job. This lesson focuses on explaining what the words mean and how they relate to getting a job.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask for three students to volunteer for a skit. With one student (the job -seeker) in the middle, position a female on one side to represent his mother, and a male on the other side to represent a former boss. Discuss with the student audience how both of these individuals know the job seeker, but may have different things to say about him. Continue to play out the different roles that each has and different responses that each have to the same question. ( _What is he like? Is he a good worker? What are his strengths? Is he trustworthy?_ ) Explain that what these individuals say about the student represent a character reference (mother) and a job recommendation (boss).\n\n2. Pass out the \"Vocabulary Help Sheet\" to students to refer to while you discuss the terms.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nWhen student seem familiar with the \"Vocabulary Help Sheet,\" pass out the worksheet \"Vocational Vocabulary\" and have students match the term with the definition.\n\n_Answers:_ 1. c 2. e 3. b 4. g 5. f 6. h 7. a 8. d\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Write each vocational term on an index card and have students randomly pick them and explain, demonstrate, act out, or otherwise perform to show their understanding of the term.\n\n2. Check out www.jobsearch.about.com\/cs\/justforstudents for lots of helpful information about all aspects of vocational searching for students. There are sample forms, letters, online search information, and sample applications.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. What is the difference between a letter of recommendation and a character reference?\n\n2. What are some ways that an employer finds out what a possible employee is like?\n\n#  **21.2 Vocabulary Help Sheet**\n\nFollow Bob through his attempt to find a job!\n\n**BOB:** I saw an advertisement on the mall bulletin board that the Farm Store is hiring help for the summer. I am interested! I will go over to the Farm Store and see what I need to do.\n\n**BOSS:** Hi. I' m glad you' re interested. First, you will need to fill out a job application so we know a little bit more about you.\n\n**BOB:** No problem. Here you go.\n\n**BOSS:** Thanks. We' ll be in touch or else give us a follow-up call or letter in a few days.\n\n_A few days later . . ._\n\n**BOB:** Well, I haven't heard anything. I will send them a copy of my r\u00e9sum\u00e9 so they will know about my work experience. I'll send a cover letter to remind them that I stopped in and that I am still interested in the job.\n\n_A few days later . . ._\n\n**BOSS:** Hello, Bob? Come on in for an interview. We will need a letter of recommendation and a character reference when you come.\n\n**BOB:** Let's see . . . I can get a letter of recommendation from Mr. Jones who was my boss when I worked at the pizza place. He always liked me. And then I' ll ask my teacher to write a character reference for me.\n\n_The next day . . ._\n\n**BOSS:** Bob, we like what we have found out about you. Now we would like you to take a career assessment test to see if you have the math skills and the personality skills that would help you on this job. It won't take long.\n\n**BOB:** This is not too hard. I just have to put down what I would do in each situation.\n\n_Later . . ._\n\n**BOSS:** OK, Bob, it looks like everything checks out. We just need to do a background check and a drug screening to make sure you qualify for our company.\n\n**BOB:** I don't take drugs. Why do you have to do that?\n\n**BOSS:** You will be dealing with the public. Also, we want to make sure you have good attendance and don't have any problems that would affect your performance on the job. It is routine; everybody has to pass that.\n\n_The next week . . ._\n\n**BOSS:** Bob, I am happy to say that everything checked out great! Welcome to the team!\n\n**BOB:** You won't be sorry you hired me! Thanks!\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**21.2 Vocational Vocabulary**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nMatch the description on the left with the term on the right.\n\n#  **21.3 Filling Out an Application**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will complete a sample job application accurately and neatly.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nMost job searches begin with an application. This requests information regarding the applicant's education, work experience, and personal information. When entering the world of work, a student should be prepared to provide the necessary information. Also, an application should be filled out completely, honestly, and neatly. All of these are factors in making a good first impression\u2014which is often what the application serves as. In this lesson, students are to work on completing a job application.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students how many of them have ever walked into a place of business, thrown out their arms, and yelled, \"I'm ready to work! When do I start?\" and have gotten a job.\n\n2. Ask students to explain why filling out a job application is usually the way many companies begin their search for employees.\n\n3. Ask students to list what information they think is generally included on a job application.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to complete the sample application for employment on the worksheet \"Filling Out an Application.\" They will need to know or obtain their social security number, names and phone numbers of references, and dates of previous employment.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nHave students ask for clarification about any parts of which they are unsure. They may need a day to get missing information such as their social security number. Encourage students to write as legibly as possible. Also inform them to be honest and accurate on the application.\n\n1. Why is it very important to write legibly on the application? (The reader needs to know how to contact you or the references, has to be able to read the information.)\n\n2. What else can help make a good first impression on the application? (Using one color of ink or even typing it, staying within the lines, overall neat appearance.)\n\n3. Why would an employer want to know of any physical defects? (They need to know if you can perform the job you are applying for.)\n\n4. What are some jobs that require someone to be over twenty-one? (Serving alcohol in the United States.)\n\n5. Why would they want to know your hobbies or interests? (To see what kinds of activities you are involved in.)\n\n6. Why would they want to know if you have a criminal record? (The job may involve handling money or checks, involve some sort of security, and so on.)\n\n7. Why are you not to include activities that indicate your race or religion? (Should not be a factor in getting the job.)\n\n8. Why is it important to have good references from your previous employers? (They probably will be contacted.)\n\n9. Why would they want to know how many days were lost from work? (They want to know whether attendance will be a problem.)\n\n10. What factors are prohibited from being discriminated against, as written on the top of the application? (Race, creed, color, national origin, ancestry, age, sex, physical or mental handicaps, and so on.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Collect and bring in examples of applications for employment from several businesses or organizations. Have students check them out and figure out what things are similar among them.\n\n2. Have students prepare a personal information sheet they can use to complete applications. Have them record references, names and addresses of previous employers, and so on.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nHow would you revise the following responses to an application for employment:\n\n1. What interests you in working for our company? \"I am hoping to get free food and be able to talk to my friends while I am working.\"\n\n2. What are your hobbies or special interests? \"I have no hobbies. I am interested in boys.\"\n\n3. What is your reason for leaving your last job? \"My boss was a jerk.\"\n\n**21.3 Filling Out an Application**\n\n**Directions:** Here is a sample job application for an entry-level position at a fast-food restaurant. Complete the application to the best of your ability.\n\n#  **21.4 What Is a R\u00e9sum\u00e9?**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will construct a brief r\u00e9sum\u00e9 including education, work experience, interests, and other relevant information.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nA r\u00e9sum\u00e9 is a simple one-page document that introduces the hopeful employee to the prospective employer. Although the format may vary, the following information is usually included: position sought, personal information, work experience, education, and references. In this lesson, students examine a sample r\u00e9sum\u00e9.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Define _r_ \u00e9 _sum_ \u00e9 (a brief account of one's work experience and qualifications). 2. Ask students to give their ideas of what an employer would want to know about them before hiring them for a job.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to look at a sample r\u00e9sum\u00e9 and answer specific questions about it. Emphasize that a r\u00e9sum\u00e9 is a quick look at a person's skills, interests, and experience and will not contain a lot of information. _Answers:_ 1. High school graduate. 2. He has a wide variety of interests and abilities\u2014is athletic, musical, probably smart! 3. Probably a favorite teacher; owner of the construction company he worked for. 4. He was given some responsibility, is able to make repairs. 5. 18 (in 2004).\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nAnswer any questions about the information Michael included on his r\u00e9sum\u00e9. Then go over the following questions.\n\n1. Why is it usually important to keep the information on a r\u00e9sum\u00e9 to only one page? (Gives a lot of information in a little space, employers don't have to spend a lot of time reading it.) 2. Why should a r\u00e9sum\u00e9 be neat and easy to read? (It's the first impression you give of yourself.) 3. Why it is helpful to list the duties you performed on your jobs? (So the employer will know exactly what you were responsible for.) 4. Why is it good to include some personal interests and achievements? (This may set you apart from other applicants, shows your strengths.) 5. What personal information might you include on a r\u00e9sum\u00e9? (Birthday, family information, phone, address, and so on.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Collect and display different examples of r\u00e9sum\u00e9s. Discuss with students what is distinctive about each. What information is common to them all? 2. Have students compose a personal r\u00e9sum\u00e9. Have them experiment with different styles. Display them to the class, with permission.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. What are you most proud of that you would include on your r\u00e9sum\u00e9? 2. What references would be most helpful on your r\u00e9sum\u00e9? 3. What are some unique things about you that would set you apart from others on your r\u00e9sum\u00e9?\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**21.4 What Is a R\u00e9sum\u00e9?**\n\n**Directions:** The following is a sample r\u00e9sum\u00e9. Look it over carefully and then answer the questions.\n\n**Michael A. Kenner**\n\n1124 North Orchard Street   \nMilwaukee, WI 53213   \n(414) 476-9988\n\n**Education**\n\nGraduate of Milwaukee North High School, 2004\n\n**Extracurricular Activities**\n\nFootball team, 2002-2004; Swing Choir, 2001-2004; Debate Team, 2003-2004; Chess Club, 2002-2003\n\n**References**\n\nCamille T. Sabato, teacher (414) 883-2959\n\nAlexander Smith, Smith Construction owner (414) 783-2990\n\n**Work Experience**\n\nSmith Construction Company, summer 2003: carpenter's assistant\n\nDairy Barn, after school 2002-2004: assistant manager\n\nPete's Bike Repairs, summers 2001-2002: helped take orders, made minor repairs\n\n**Interests**\n\nBike riding, sports, hunting\n\n**Personal Information**\n\nBorn May 20, 1986\n\nOldest of three children\n\n1. What do you know about Michael's education?\n\n2. What can you tell about Michael from his interests and extracurricular activities?\n\n3. Why do you think he selected the references he did?\n\n4. What do you know about him from his work experiences?\n\n5. How old is Michael?\n\n#  **21.5 Interviewing for a Job**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will give at least five important considerations to keep in mind during the interviewing process.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nThe interview is the first step in the door toward getting a job. It is at this point that the prospective employee has a chance to make a face-to-face impression with someone who may have the authority to hire him or her for the job. In this lesson, the student is to evaluate ten different steps in the interviewing process and state appropriate ways to handle each step.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students to give their opinions as to what a job interview is.\n\n2. Ask students to give reasons why making a good impression at an interview is important.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to complete the worksheet \"Interviewing for a Job\" by providing the character with appropriate comments (or actions) related to performing well at an interview.\n\nAnswers _(Examples):_\n\n1. Be polite, be specific.\n\n2. Be on time or early.\n\n3. Dress for the type of job\u2014don't overdo it, don't look too casual.\n\n4. Say \"Good morning,\" not \"Yo!\"\n\n5. Express interest; don't ask about salary right away.\n\n6. Tell why you came for the job.\n\n7. Tell what you have done that might be relevant.\n\n8. Express some personality.\n\n9. Say \"Thank you for your time.\"\n\n10. Thank them for the interview and reaffirm your interest in the position.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nGo through each of the steps and talk about what would be considered appropriate or inappropriate at each point.\n\n1. Why is it important to be on time or early for an interview? (Their time is valuable, you want to appear conscientious.)\n\n2. What would be appropriate dress if you were applying for a job at an office? (A suit jacket, with either pants or skirt, or a businesslike dress; a shirt and tie.)\n\n3. What would be appropriate dress if you were applying for a counselor's position at a sports camp for kids? (Something more casual.)\n\n4. Why would it be important to ask questions about the position? (Shows that you are interested, have given it some thought.)\n\n5. Why shouldn't you ask about the salary right away? (It would appear as though that was your only reason for wanting the job.)\n\n6. If the interviewer tells you right away that you won't get the job, why should you still be polite when you leave? (There might be another job opening later.)\n\n7. Why is it a good idea to send a follow-up letter or make a phone call? (To find out what they have decided, make another good impression.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Practice mock interviews, with students taking turns interviewing each other. Have them fabricate the type of job they are offering and make a list of questions. Have students participate by interviewing and evaluating the interviews of others.\n\n2. Have students work in groups to illustrate various positive and negative points about being a good interviewee. Videotape the skits and have students evaluate them. This can be a fun activity!\n\n3. Invite a business friend to talk to the class about what he or she looks for in a person who is interviewing for a job. What specific things turn them off? What is impressive?\n\n4. Here are two web pages that offer video tips on interviewing: www.videojug.com\/film\/job-interviews-why-should-we-hire-youand www.videojug.com\/film\/job-how-can-I-make-a-good-first-impression-2.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. What are some important things to prepare for before the interview?\n\n2. What are some ways to make a good impression during the interview?\n\n3. Why is an appropriate appearance very important during an interview?\n\n **Name** _____ **Date** _____\n\n**21.5 Interviewing for a Job**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nAlison is interviewing for a job as a typist in a business office. What advice would you give her at each step of her interviewing process?\n\n1. Calling to set up a time\n\n2. Being on time\n\n3. Appropriate appearance\n\n4. Polite greeting\n\n5. Asking good questions about the position\n\n6. Explaining her interest in the job\n\n7. Stating her qualifications\n\n8. Telling personal things about herself that are interesting and unique\n\n9. Politely leaving\n\n10. Sending a follow-up letter\n\n#  **21.6 First Impressions**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will recognize that appearance, attitude, and honesty are important factors when making a first impression.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nWhen being considered for a job, a student should do everything possible to create an appropriate appearance (dress for the type of job you want), attitude (portray your strengths, but be respectful), and honesty (don't try to pass yourself off as something you are not). This lesson gives examples of characters who need to improve in these areas.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Write _appearance_ , _attitude_ , and _honesty_ on the board. Have students give examples of how each could affect making a good first impression. 2. Display pictures of random people. (Try to get a cross section of different \"looks.\") What is your first impression of each?\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nUse the \"First Impressions\" worksheet to have students decide which area (appearance, attitude, honesty) needs to be improved. _Answers:_ 1. Appearance\u2014should wash hands and use a lint brush. 2. Attitude\u2014doesn't seem motivated. 3. Attitude\u2014the picture doesn't really reflect his job skills. 4. Honesty\u2014is afraid of animals. 5. Attitude\u2014is telling the boss what to do. 6. Attitude\u2014should wait for instructions. 7. Appearance\u2014it might be better to dress down. 8. Attitude\u2014is more concerned about breaks than the job.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\n1. What are some ways that you could adjust your appearance to make it appropriate for the job you are trying to get? (Check your hair and clothing, find out how casual or formal the job is.) 2. What are some ways that you could show a willing, respectful attitude? 3. How can you answer questions honestly without seeming to be (a) bragging or (b) not qualified for something?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Role-play the examples on the worksheet to show both an inappropriate impression and a better impression. 2. Check out www.videojug.com\/film\/how-can-I-make-a-good-first-impression-2 for video tips (with a British accent) on body language. Another interesting video is www.videojug.com\/film\/job-interviews-why-should-we-hire-you. These are primarily for adults, but have tips that teens can use, too.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nExplain how appearance, attitude, and honesty can affect making a good first impression and give an example of each.\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n**21.6 First Impressions**\n\n**Directions:** How could these characters improve their first impression on these job interviews? Keep in mind: appearance, attitude, honesty.\n\n1. Victor is applying for a job at a bookstore. He forgot to wash his hands after brushing his dog, and he has dog hair all over his sweater.\n\n2. Melissa is applying for a job at a video store. She told the interviewer that she is interested in the job because she likes to watch movies and thinks it will be easy.\n\n3. Carson wants to work at the community pool; he brought pictures of himself swimming on a beach.\n\n4. Evelyn is hoping to work at a pet store. She told the interviewer that she loves animals, although she is really afraid of cats and gerbils.\n\n5. Dan wants to work with a crew that is raking yards. He told the interviewer that he knows how to rake, so don't bother telling him what to do.\n\n6. Melanie wants to be a babysitter for a family with three small children. She told the mother that she will spank the kids if they get mouthy with her.\n\n7. Colin wants to work at a car wash. He showed up wearing a nice suit and tie.\n\n8. Melinda is applying for a job as a cashier at a drug store. When the interviewer asked if she had any questions, Melinda wanted to know how many breaks she would get.\n\n#  **21.7 Getting Work Experience**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will list several ways to get work experience.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nThere are opportunities available all around for young people to get work experience\u2014which is sometimes a prerequisite for someone to hire them for another job! Some of the jobs may not pay much (and some may involve volunteering just for the experience), but the experience gained can be beneficial and look great on a r\u00e9sum\u00e9. In this lesson, students are to think of lots of ways they can gain work or leadership experience.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students think of ways or times when they have been in a leadership position. List them.\n\n2. Have students raise their hands if they have ever babysat, cleaned out a garage, walked a dog, or washed a car. Inform them that they have work experience!\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to read the worksheet's partial list of suggestions and think of other possible ways to get work experience.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nAsk students to share their ideas. See if students can come up with at least twenty different ways they can gain work experience.\n\n1. How many of the ways you thought of involved earning money for your services? 2. How important is it for you to have money for what you do? Would you consider working for free if you got good experience? 3. What are some unusual experiences you have had that would apply to a job you might eventually do? 4. What are some organized volunteer programs in your community? (Meals-on-Wheels, hospital gift shop, and so on.) 5. What does the fact that you have done part-time work and volunteer work say about you to a potential employee? (You are creative, resourceful, interested in others, and so on.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students find out about volunteer programs in the community. Encourage them to sign up to give it a try for the experience. 2. Set up peer tutoring or cross-age tutoring within your school. Provide training for helping the students learn to be tutors and start them off with a volunteer experience. 3. Have students contact some local businesses to find out whether there are part-time work\/study positions available. Some businesses will work with a school as \"partners in education.\"\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List at least five possible work\/leadership experiences you have already participated in or would consider doing. 2. What are at least two reasons why volunteering is a helpful experience for both you and the agency for which you are working?\n\n**Name __ Date __**\n\n**21.7 Getting Work Experience**\n\n**Directions:** The following is a partial list of ways you can get some work experience that might help you with future jobs. Add to the list with your own ideas.\n\n1. Work for your parents' office or business.\n\n2. Ask your relatives for part-time work.\n\n3. Be a camp counselor in the summer for children.\n\n4. Volunteer to work with handicapped children after school.\n\n5. Teach a Sunday school class for children.\n\n6. Help out on a farm.\n\n7. Tutor children at your school.\n\n8. Offer to care for neighbors' pets or houses while they are on vacation.\n\n9. Be a library assistant at your local library.\n\n10. Become involved in summer sports programs as a manager, batboy, and so on.\n\n**Chapter 22**\n\n**Working**\n\n#  **22.1 Having a Good Attitude**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will rewrite comments reflecting a bad attitude toward work to make them positive or acceptable.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nNot every job is a worker's dream. Some jobs, especially entry-level positions, might involve doing tasks that are less than glamorous, are low in pay, and may be tedious. Employees who have the attitude that they are \"too good for the job\" (and express this feeling) are probably not going to last long. Students need to realize that having a good attitude is important on any job. In this lesson, students are to rewrite negative comments to make them reflect a better attitude.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Present students with the following scenario: \"You just started a new job. Your boss comes to you and says that she noticed you were late. She warns you not to let it happen again. What will you do?\" Write students' responses on the board.\n\n2. Next to each response, decide whether it reflects a _positive attitude_ (taking the criticism politely, without defiance, and so on) or a _negative attitude_ (responding in a sullen or defiant manner).\n\n3. Have students speculate what might happen to the employee if each of the possible responses listed was followed.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nThe characters on the worksheet \"Having a Good Attitude\" reflect a negative attitude in terms of being defiant, lazy, self-seeking, or appearing as if they think they are too good for the position. Students are to decide what is wrong with the attitude expressed and then rewrite the characters' comments to reflect a better attitude. Students may argue that the employee is in the right and should not have to put up with unfair treatment, and so on. For the sake of completing the worksheet, inform students that there will be a lesson later on handling problems with the boss.\n\n_Answers (Examples):_\n\n1. At least this job is a start and I' m getting a paycheck.\n\n2. I can learn to go to bed earlier at night.\n\n3. I' ll try to keep my mouth shut when I' m upset around that man.\n\n4. I' ll do the best I can, even though the work is dull.\n\n5. If I do good work on this job, I' ll probably get to do something better later.\n\n6. Fred will understand that I need this job.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nStudents may feel the employee has a right to pick and choose whatever job he or she wants. Indeed, if someone is in a position to have a lot of choice, there is no reason to stay at a job that makes life miserable. On the other hand, if one is beginning the world of work, it is crucial to make a good impression, practice good work skills, and learn the social skills needed to be a good employee\u2014if only to work one's way out of that job into a better one.\n\n1. If someone feels he or she is too good to do a certain job, what other options does he or she have? (Look for something else, put up with it for the time being, and so on.)\n\n2. If you have no other work options at the moment and are stuck in a low-paying, boring job, what could you do? (Learn to adapt, try to make it as interesting for yourself as you can.)\n\n3. Why do some people feel work rules have to bend to fit their personal rules\u2014such as what time they will start, what they will wear, and so on? (They probably have been used to calling the shots and haven't been used to following school rules either.)\n\n4. Is getting a paycheck the only reason to stick it out on a job you don't like? (It might be enough in some cases, but it's also a good idea to stay around long enough to get a good recommendation and experience.)\n\n5. How can you reflect a good attitude toward your coworkers? (Be friendly, do your share, be positive about the work.)\n\n6. If you bring a bad attitude to work with you, how does that affect the people you work with? (It might rub off.)\n\n7. How does the bad attitude affect your job performance? (Probably makes you not want to care or do a good job.)\n\n8. Can you think of any ways to change a bad attitude? (Realize that you need the job more than it needs you, calm yourself down and rethink your goals, and so on.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students talk to their parents about their work. If their parent is an employer, have them give examples of employees who have good attitudes on the job. If their parent is primarily an employee, look for examples of how they reflect a good attitude. Share these ideas with the class.\n\n2. Collect, write, and display positive attitude comments around the room. These can be useful for school situations as well as work. Colorful signs that display sayings such as \"I can do that!\" or \"Here's my best work!\" can reflect a positive attitude about your classroom.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nRewrite the following comments to reflect a more positive attitude:\n\n1. \"This work is stupid. Whoever thought of doing this was really an idiot.\"\n\n2. \"No one will notice if I leave ten minutes early again. I work hard enough that I am owed that time anyway.\"\n\n3. \"I don't care that the boss said to do it his way\u2014I think my own way is better.\"\n\n**Name __ Date ___**\n\n**22.1 Having a Good Attitude**\n\n**Directions:** What is wrong with the attitude expressed by these employees? Rewrite their comments to reflect a better attitude!\n\n#  **22.2 Being a Great Employee**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nWhen given examples of pairs of workers, the student will select the better of the two employees and state why.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nHaving a good attitude is only one factor in being a good employee. There are a lot of other factors, such as being punctual, performing well, getting along with the boss, getting along with coworkers, and so on. In this lesson, students are given pairs of employees to compare and must select the better one.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students list characteristics of a good employee (you may start the list with \"good attitude\"). Students can give examples. 2. Have students list characteristics of a poor employee. They can add specific examples if they choose.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nIn this activity, students will read the comments of two employees in a similar situation. They are to circle the one in each pair who demonstrates the behavior of a good employee. _Answers:_ 1. Second employee\u2014comes to work ready to work 2. First employee\u2014is recognized for performance 3. First employee\u2014team player 4. Second employee\u2014polite and respectful to boss 5. First employee\u2014gets along with coworkers 6. Second employee\u2014comes to work on time\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nGo over the examples on the worksheet and have students explain what characteristic the good employee is demonstrating.\n\n1. How would you feel if the first worker in example 1 was a brain surgeon who was going to operate on you today? (Frightened!) 2. Why is it important to be mentally and physically ready to work? (You owe that to your employer; it's important in order to do a good job.) 3. In example 2, why do you think the second employee never gets noticed? (Maybe he never does anything well.) 4. In example 3, the second worker says the company does not care. Who else does not care? (The worker.) 5. Both employees greeted the boss in example 4, but what is the difference? (One was sarcastic, the other was sincere.) 6. Do you think the second employee example 4 is being phony or just trying to get in good with the boss? (Could be; it all depends on the attitude of the employee.) 7. What characteristic is demonstrated in example 6? (Being on time.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students write and present (or videotape) a humorous skit in which two employees are vying for the same position. Both could go overboard trying to impress the boss. 2. Have students come up with a checklist for at least ten skills they think are indicative of a good employee. Which of these skills also apply to being a good student?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List at least five characteristics of a good employee. 2. Choose one characteristic and explain how this contributes to being an effective employee and producing a better product or service.\n\n**22.2 Being a Good Employee**\n\n**Directions:** Read the comments of each pair of employees below. Circle the one who is the better employee of the two. Explain why with your classmates.\n\n#  **22.3 Making a Mistake on the Job**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will give examples of how to cope with making mistakes on the job and provide an appropriate way of handling the situation.\n\n##  **Comment:**\n\nEverybody makes mistakes! We're all human, and sometimes things just don 't go right\u2014even on the job. However, there is a right and a wrong way to handle our mistakes, to notify those in charge, and to deal with the frustrations we may feel. Making mistakes can actually be a very helpful way of learning how to do your job better and a chance to make you a more careful worker. It's all in how you respond to the mistake.\n\n##  **Introductory Activity:**\n\nPlay a game of Simon Says with the students, in which Simon tells them to perform activities that would be normal in the work environment (\"Simon says to type on a computer,\" \"Simon says to mop the floor,\" \"Simon says to wipe off a table,\" and so on). When a student \"messes up\" and performs the task without Simon saying to do so, have the student sit out until all players are done. Then discuss with the group how it felt to make a mistake.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nHave students complete the \"Making a Mistake on the Job\" worksheet. They should identify what mistake was made, give a suggestion of a positive way to handle or correct the mistake, and suggest what can be learned from the mistake. _Answers:_ 1. _Mistake:_ Broke glass. _How to handle:_ Notify boss, ask for assistance if needed, sweep up all pieces of glass. _What to learn:_ Be careful when working with glass. 2. _Mistake:_ Spilt drink on customer. _How to handle:_ Apologize, get towels for customer, clean up spill, notify manager, offer to give customer a free drink. _What to learn:_ Be careful not to spill when working with beverages. 3. _Mistake:_ Filled the bag too full of heavy items. _How to handle:_ Apologize, pick up items, replace any damaged foods, repack in careful manner. _What to learn:_ Be careful not to pack too full or too heavy. 4. _Mistake:_ Put items in wrong section. _How to handle:_ Put items in right place. _What to learn:_ Be aware of particular places for particular items.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\n1. Is it okay to make mistakes? What can you learn from making them? 2. Should you notify your boss if you make a mistake? 3. Why should you not be afraid to tell your boss if you've made a mistake?\n\n##  **Extension Activity:**\n\nCreate scenarios for the students to act out, where they can make a mistake. Have them respond in a bad way and then in a good way.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Give an example of making a mistake on the job. 2. Give an example of how to correct that mistake.\n\n**Name ____ Date ___**\n\n**22.3 Making a Mistake on the Job**\n\n**Directions:**\n\nFor each of the following scenarios, tell what the worker's mistake was, how the worker should handle it, and what the worker might learn from the mistake.\n\n1. Mistake:\n\nHow to handle:\n\nWhat to learn:\n\n2. Mistake:\n\nHow to handle:\n\nWhat to learn:\n\n3. Mistake:\n\nHow to handle:\n\nWhat to learn:\n\n4. Mistake:\n\nHow to handle:\n\nWhat to learn:\n\n#  **22.4 Handling Criticism on the Job**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify positive ways of handling criticism on the job in an effort to become a better employee.\n\n##  **Comment:**\n\nAlthough none of us likes to receive criticism for our work, sometimes that is the very thing that helps us to be proactive about changing our bad habits or recognizing when we've made a mistake. Criticism does not always have to be harsh and mean; it can be constructive and helpful for us at work. Regardless of the way the criticism comes, it is up to us to use it for our good, to make us better employees.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students give examples of when they have had poor customer service and what criticism they may have felt or wanted to express. 2. Have students give an example of positive (constructive) criticism and criticism that is meant to be hurtful.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents should complete the \"Handling Criticism on the Job\" worksheet and note which way of handling criticism is best in that situation. _Answers:_ 1. c. Cheri knows that being late is jeopardizing her job and should make an extra effort to be early. 2. b. Ted should realize that he is behind and should focus on catching up on his work. 3. a. Frank should make an effort to be clean and well-groomed every day. 4. b. Molly should not rush through her tasks just to get done, but should go at a pace that allows her to do her best work. 5. c. Donny should be proud of his role as the first person guests meet; he should smile and welcome everyone.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nEmphasize that criticism does not necessarily mean \"critical,\" but that it can also mean giving a helpful opinion.\n\n1. Why can hearing criticism be hard? (We take it personally, it seems unfair, we only like hearing positive and not negative, and so on.) 2. Why can some criticism be good? (It can point out a mistake we didn't know about, it can help us to a better job in the future, make us better employees, and so on.) 3. Discuss with the class a time when you've received criticism on the job and how you either handled it well or poorly.\n\n##  **Extension Activity:**\n\nHave students watch an episode of _Mr. Bean_ or another TV show in which the character makes a lot of mistakes. Pause the show right after each mistake and have the students criticize him. Then have the students say what he should do instead.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Give an example of a bad criticism on the job. 2. Give an example of a constructive criticism on the job. 3. Give an example of a bad way of handling criticism on the job. 4. Give an example of a good way of handling criticism on the job.\n\n#  **22.4 Handling Criticism on the Job**\n\n##  **Directions:**\n\nChoose the best way of handling each example of criticism on the job. Circle the letter of your answer. Then discuss with classmates what can be learned from that criticism.\n\n1. \"You're ten minutes late again, Cheri. You know I like my employees to be on time.\"\n\na. Cheri runs to the bathroom crying.\n\nb. Cheri makes an excuse, saying that it was the traffic's fault.\n\nc. Cheri apologizes and then makes sure to be early the rest of the week.\n\n2. \"Ted, your performance is down. We need twenty boxes packaged, and you've only done fifteen.\"\n\na. Ted says, \"Well, if Billy could keep up, then maybe I could get my work done, too.\"\n\nb. Ted focuses on his task at hand and tries hard to catch up.\n\nc. Ted throws the boxes on the ground and leaves.\n\n3. \"You really need to keep up on your grooming and hygiene, Frank. I have been receiving complaints that you smell bad.\"\n\na. Frank apologizes and then comes to work showered and well-groomed the next day.\n\nb. Frank takes his shoes off, so that the room smells even worse.\n\nc. Frank goes on working, ignoring his boss.\n\n4. \"It looks like you've been rushing through your cleaning duties, Molly. I'd like you to go slower and do a better job.\"\n\na. Molly throws down her towel and sits on the ground in defeat.\n\nb. Molly slows down in her work and tries to do a better job.\n\nc. Molly speeds up even faster.\n\n5. \"Donny, I'd like to see you smile more as you greet our guests. After all, yours is the first face they see.\"\n\na. Donny complains, \"But I don't feel like smiling today.\"\n\nb. Donny refuses to greet any more guests.\n\nc. Donny takes pride in his role and welcomes the guests happily.\n\n#  **22.5 Being Prepared for the Task**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify steps that show how to be prepared for tasks on a job.\n\n##  **Comment:**\n\nOnce you have a job, you will want to do that job well. This can lead to impressing your employer, a possible promotion or pay raise, pride in your work, mastering a skill, and many other rewards. One of the best ways you can do your job well is to be prepared for each task that you have. Though these tasks may vary, you can learn how to be prepared and excel at your job.\n\n##  **Introductory Activity:**\n\nWrite several activities of a typical morning routine on the board (brushing teeth, getting dressed, eating breakfast, and so on). Have the students tell how they would prepare for each one of these tasks.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nHave students complete the worksheet \"Being Prepared for the Task\" by listing ways to prepare for each task in a given profession. _Answers (May vary):_ 1. Leroy should put on his gym clothes, do some stretches, and dribble the ball around. 2. Miss Violet should clean the board off, get some good markers, decide which problems to write, and then write them on the board. 3. Oscar should get the ingredients for the muffins, bake them in the kitchen, decorate them, and then display them. 4. Mr. Dell should wake up early, measure out the right amount of food, put the food in the cows' troughs, and give them water. 5. Sally should get soap and water and clean off all the table tops, locate napkins and silverware, roll them napkins, arrange on the tables. 6. Dan should locate some free weights and a couple of stretching bands, find a space big enough to work in, wear comfortable athletic clothes, bring charts and necessary paperwork.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\n1. What might happen to the people in the worksheet if they don't come prepared for their tasks? (They might lose business, animals go hungry, customers get angry, lose their job, and so on.)\n\n2. Why is it good to be prepared at work? 3. What kind of preparation can be done in your head before you actually work on the task? (Give thought beforehand, time, organization.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Think of a family vacation you would like to take. List all the ways you would prepare for your trip\u2014what you would pack, what you would need to buy, whom you would need to tell, how much money you would need to bring, who would take care of your pets, and so on. 2. Have students pick some way-out occupations and divide into small groups to list some of the more unusual tasks that might come with the job. (TV shows such as _Dirty Jobs_ might inspire some creative thought!)\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. What are the benefits of being prepared for a task? 2. Pick an occupation that interests you and list three tasks that would come with the job.\n\n#  **22.5 Being Prepared for the Task**\n\n**Directions:** Each of these people has a different profession. Notice the task they are going to do, and list how they can prepare themselves for each task.\n\n_Name:_ Leroy Davis\n\n_Profession:_ Professional basketball player\n\n_Task at hand:_ Leroy needs to shoot some free throws before his game.\n\n_How to prepare:_\n\n_Name:_ Miss Violet\n\n_Profession:_ Third-grade teacher\n\n_Task at hand:_ Miss Violet needs to write some math problems on a dirty board.\n\n_How to prepare:_\n\n_Name:_ Oscar Cupcake\n\n_Profession:_ Baker\n\n_Task at hand:_ Oscar needs to bake a dozen muffins for the display case.\n\n_How to prepare:_\n\n_Name:_ Mr. Dell\n\n_Profession:_ Dairy farmer\n\n_Task at hand:_ Mr. Dell needs to feed his forty cows.\n\n_How to prepare:_\n\n_Name:_ Leroy Davis\n\n_Profession:_ Professional basketball player\n\n_Task at hand:_ Leroy needs to shoot some free throws before his game.\n\n_How to prepare:_\n\n_Name:_ Miss Violet\n\n_Profession:_ Third-grade teacher\n\n_Task at hand:_ Miss Violet needs to write some math problems on a dirty board.\n\n_How to prepare:_\n\n#  **22.6 Changing Jobs: Why?**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify several reasons why people change jobs.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nThere are lots of reasons why people change jobs\u2014it may be due to work environment, boredom with the job, additional training that qualifies one for a new job, or change in location. Most people do not keep the same job (or even career) for their entire working life. It is important to keep options open and, if the opportunity presents itself to move to another job that is, in some respects, better, it is perfectly acceptable to do so. In this lesson, students are given examples of people who are ready to change jobs or want to do so.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students to give examples from personal experience of their parents or relatives of times when they changed jobs. 2. Ask students to give reasons why people might change jobs. 3. After listing reasons, have students try to categorize them; for example, personal reasons, professional concerns, and so on.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents will match the person who wants to change jobs with the reason for the job change. _Answers:_ 1.c 2. b 3.d 4.a 5.f 6.e\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nAfter students have completed the worksheet, see how the reasons compare with the reasons students listed in the introductory activities. What other reasons did they give that were not on the worksheet?\n\n1. Some people keep the same job for their whole lives. Why? (No other options, enjoy the work, work for family, and so on.) 2. What are some good or positive reasons for job changes? 3. What are some negative reasons for changing a job? 4. What else might change with a new job that demands more responsibility? (More money, power, respect, time demands, and so on.) 5. What stresses might be involved in a job change? (Moving, getting to know different people, learning a new job, and so on.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students interview at least five adults who have had job changes. Find out the sequence of jobs\u2014have most been improvements? Were they the same types of jobs? What contributed to making a job change? 2. Have students prepare a bulletin board entitled \"Climbing the Ladder of Success\" (or similar theme) showing how an entry-level position can lead (with additional training, skills, and some luck) to different positions. For example, a principal may have started out by being an assistant to a teacher, then became a student teacher, teacher or coach for a high school, and eventually a principal. Have students find out other paths that careers can follow.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List three to five reasons why a person may want to change jobs. 2. Write a paragraph explaining at least one negative aspect and one positive aspect of changing jobs.\n\n#  **22.6 Changing Jobs: Why?**\n\n##  **Directions:**\n\nMatch the person on the left with the reason for the job change on the right.\n\n1.| I' m bored with my present position of planting seedlings. I would like to do something different, like plan how a garden will look when it is finished.| a.| Higher pay  \n---|---|---|---  \n2.| I just can't work with that woman anymore. She criticizes everything I do. I go home feeling like I' m worthless.| b.| Get away from an unpleasant situation  \n3.| It's too far to work at that supermarket. Now that one is open one block from my home, I' m going to apply for a job there.| c.| More interesting job  \n4.| Hey! I can make $2 more an hour for the same job at that factory. It's time for a change!| d.| Better location  \n5.| Now that I've completed this training, I should be eligible for a supervisor's position.| e.| Benefits  \n6.| If I guarantee that I will stay on the new job for a year, they will pay for my training and get me started in this new office. Sounds good to me!| f. | More responsibility\n\n#  **22.7 Changing Jobs: How?**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will list at least three ways or steps that a person can take to make a job change.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nOnce the decision to change jobs has been reached, it is then time to begin the job search all over again; however, there is one difference\u2014now the person has had at least one job and has experience! Even if the experience was negative and the person realizes that this is not the job for him or her, at least that is a starting point. In this lesson, students will complete paragraphs to indicate how to go about changing jobs by improving skills, getting additional training, or using other available resources to make that change.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students write a probable job they are capable of holding right now or perhaps work at part-time.\n\n2. Have students indicate by raising hands if they would like to keep that same job for the rest of their lives. Why or why not?\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to complete the worksheet \"Changing Jobs: How?\" by filling in the blanks in paragraphs with words from the selection at the bottom of the page. When completed, the paragraphs will give ideas for ways to make a job change.\n\n_Answers:_ 1. experience 2. training 3. help 4. recommendation 5. job 6. classifieds 7. move 8. consider 9. night 10. quit\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nChanging jobs does not indicate that you are disloyal or hard to get along with\u2014it may only indicate that you are willing to move up or move on to something else that comes along that is better for you. Have students discuss the following questions.\n\n1. If you are happy with your present job, why even bother looking for something else? (It may not meet your needs for the future, you may want to earn more money, have more prestige, and so on.)\n\n2. What are some jobs that have built-in advancement? (Some entry-level jobs provide training, management positions, and so on.)\n\n3. Do you think some companies would like to keep their good employees so they make arrangements for them to stay to have a better job? Why? (Yes\u2014good employees are hard to find!)\n\n4. If you knew that your boss could recommend you for a better position within the same company, how could you go about using this resource? (Ask for an evaluation, talk to boss about your desire to change jobs, and so on.)\n\n5. What are some ways to get additional skills that would qualify you for a better job within a company? (Ask around, check with the personnel office, look for in-service opportunities, and so on.)\n\n6. Sometimes factories or businesses close and the job goes with it. If your position is terminated because of those factors, how would this affect your looking for another job? (Still use the references, explain that it was not your fault that you're out of a job, and so on.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students check with their parents or other adults who and bring in examples of on-the-job or in-service traning that is available to employees. How does this help both the employee and the company?\n\n2. Find out what evening school courses are available at local community colleges. How could a person maintain a day job and still get traning to help him or her advance to another position?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List two or three ways a person could change jobs once already employed.\n\n2. Write a paragraph explaining how satisfactory (or superior) job performance on a present job can benefit someone when he or she is changing jobs.\n\n#  **22.7 Changing Jobs: How?**\n\n##  **Directions:**\n\nFill in the blanks in the following paragraphs to find some ways to change jobs. Use the words in the word box at the bottom of the page.\n\nYou are bored with your present job. If you could get some more **(1) ____** , you would be qualified to do something else. You might want to find out about some\n\n**(2) ___** that is offered on your present job that would help you move on to something new.\n\nYou like your boss and do very well at what you do. Perhaps your boss can\n\n**(3) ___** you find another job at the same place. You can always ask for a good **(4) ___** from him or her. This will help you find another\n\n**(5) __**.\n\nThere is nothing in your town besides the same old jobs. You look through the\n\n**(6) ___** and find out that you can do a similar, but more interesting job if you are willing to **(7) ___** to another city. You are alone and don't have a family, so you might **(8) ___** it!\n\nIf you are willing to go to school at **(9) ___** , you can take some evening classes in a new area that interests you. This way you won't have to **(10)** ___________ your present job, but you can try out something new.\n\nrecommendation   \ntraining   \nexperience   \nclassifieds   \nquit   \nnight   \nhelp   \nmove   \njob   \nconsider\n**Part Six**\n\n**Problem-Solving Skills**\n**Chapter 23**\n\n**Handling Problem Situations**\n\n#  **23.1 Understanding the Problem**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will demonstrate understanding of a given problem situation by identifying the problem(s) involved.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nAll of us find ourselves in problem situations at one time or another. A first step toward resolving the problem is identifying what the problem consists of. Few problems are simple enough to reduce to one little event; most involve larger situations in which several factors interplay to create problems. In this lesson, students are given problem situations to consider and must pick up the specific factors involved in contributing to that problem situation.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students think of one problem situation that is important as it relates to their school.\n\n2. Have students write the names or positions of the main people involved in the problem situation.\n\n3. Have students share their ideas and opinions as to what problems face the school at this time.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are given four problem situations to read on the worksheet \"Understanding the Problem.\" They then are to list the specific factors contributing to the problem situation. In each case there is no simple single factor that is the problem; there are many contributing forces that affect the situation.\n\n_Answers (Examples):_\n\n1. Some employees don't like the new boss, some do (personality conflicts); there is resentment between employees; the boss seems to have favorites; the atmosphere is tense in the office; there is a loss of personal privileges.\n\n2. Terry spent a lot of money on Angela, which she accepted; they apparently were not communicating about their expectations of the relationship;\n\n3. The first teacher is a friend of the family; Phyllis's skills have improved to the point that the first teacher is not adequate; the first teacher thinks everything is fine; Phyllis has a chance to take lessons with a better instructor; Phyllis is fearful about talking to the first teacher.\n\n4. Everyone has been cheating without penalty, Jason was not involved in this incident (but he has cheated before); parents are involved in being upset about the discipline policy; a big deal is being made about something that Jason thinks is not even a problem; people have different opinions on what cheating is.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nHave students share their thoughts about the problems involved in each situation. Point out to students that there are several factors contributing to each problem situation.\n\n1. How could you condense each of the four problems into a simple statement? (For example, a new boss contributed to work problems, Angela didn't want to have sex with Terry, Phyllis wanted to dump her tennis coach, the teacher was upset with a class for cheating.)\n\n2. How does oversimplifying the situations change the whole way you look at the problem? (It makes you miss a lot of the subtleties that still contribute to the problem.)\n\n3. Do you think most problems involve lots of little factors, rather than one main problem? (Probably\u2014life is complex!)\n\n4. Is there a simple solution to the problem situation in example 1? Why or why not? (Many people are involved.)\n\n5. Does every person involved in that work situation have some choices? What? (Choice to comply, complain, talk to the boss, and so on.)\n\n6. Does only Angela have a problem in situation 2? (Both are involved.)\n\n7. Did Angela owe Terry an explanation of her feelings early on in the relationship?\n\n8. Does Angela owe Terry sex in return for the expensive dinners and presents?\n\n9. Does Phyllis owe loyalty to the first instructor in situation 3?\n\n10. How could Phyllis make the problem worse? (Keep going behind the instructor's back.)\n\n11. In situation 4, is the problem with cheating or _being caught_ cheating?\n\n12. What values are esteemed by the students and the teacher?\n\n13. Is there a way to handle this situation so that each and every student is treated fairly? (Not unless everyone confesses.)\n\n14. Should Richard be punished even though he didn't copy from anyone himself?\n\n15. Should Jason be punished even though he didn't cheat on this assignment? Is the punishment directed toward cheating in general or cheating on this specific activity?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students role-play the situations on the worksheet, taking care to explain how each of the participants might feel under the circumstances. You may want to have several groups of students redo the role-plays, showing different endings.\n\n2. Look through headlines of articles in the newspaper. Have students demonstrate how problems are brought to attention through a simple statement, and then elaborated on in the article to reveal more complex factors.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nDemonstrate how each of these \"simple\" problems could be expanded to reveal complex factors affecting the situation.\n\n1. You've been cut from the varsity football team.\n\n2. You didn't get a scholarship you were counting on.\n\n3. The rent in your apartment just went up $50 a month.\n\n#  **23.1 Understanding the Problem**\n\n##  **Directions:**\n\nRead the following situations. List several specific factors or problems that contribute to making the entire situation a problem.\n\n1. Everything seemed to be going along fine at the office until a new supervisor was hired. He wanted the employees to work faster, take no personal phone calls while on the job, and not talk about things that were not work-related. The entire atmosphere at the office changed. While some workers felt they were pressured unfairly to work harder, others felt rewarded and noticed for their dedication to the company and their performance. Those who liked the new boss were unfriendly to those who did not like the new boss. Every day there were people either talking of quitting, refusing to talk to other employees, or competing to get attention from the boss. **What problems do you see in this situation?**\n\n2. For the first few weeks that Angela dated Terry, everything was fun. He spent a lot of money on her every weekend, taking her out to expensive restaurants and buying her gifts. Angela liked Terry a lot as a friend, but wasn't sure she wanted to get more involved. Terry began pressuring her to have sex, and when she resisted, he became angry and hurt. Angela felt confused and hurt, also. Now they are not even talking at all to each other. **What problems do you see in this situation?**\n\n3. Phyllis was taking tennis lessons from a friend of the family who used to play a lot when she was in high school. Phyllis was getting to be quite good\u2014in fact, she was at the point that she was probably better than her instructor. She wanted to move up to a new level of training, but she didn't want to hurt her current instructor (who was planning to set her up in a city tournament). Phyllis found out about an instructor in town who was a professional player for awhile and is excited about taking Phyllis on as a new student. Phyllis is afraid to talk to the friend of the family about this.\n\n **What problems do you see in this situation?**\n\n4. Almost everyone in Jason's English class has been cheating on the last research assignment. They copied from Richard, who was making some money by selling copies to people in the class. Jason, however, did not copy from this person this time, although he has in the past. The teacher found out what was going on, and is furious. The school board is threatening to start expulsion procedures, and parents are in an uproar about that, too. Jason thinks it is unfair for everyone to be punished, especially because _he_ did not cheat on this assignment. Everyone does it\u2014why should the teacher be upset about this one time? **What problems do you see in this situation?**\n\n#  **23.2 Coping with Surprises**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify an appropriate coping strategy, given problem situations.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nEven though we may make elaborate plans, there are always things that can and do go wrong. Part of being a good problem solver is the ability to cope with mistakes or surprises that happen. This is a time to think, regroup, assess the situation, and attempt to get back on track. In this lesson, students are given problem situations and are asked to identify a coping strategy.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\nHave students consider the following situations. What possible things could go wrong?\n\n1. Planning an outdoor wedding\n\n2. Inviting your friends out to dinner without checking the prices on the menu\n\n3. Having two dates on the same night\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to read on the worksheet \"Coping with Surprises\" the examples of unpleasant surprises that can happen and to write a way to cope with the situation. Ideally, the students should try to focus on getting \"back on track\" toward the original plan.\n\n_Answers (Examples):_\n\n1. Continue to entertain your friends by watching a movie on TV.\n\n2. Ask the coach for more time if possible.\n\n3. Use humor to announce that you are going to speak from the heart!.\n\n4. Call for a ride, either with a cell phone or by finding a pay phone, or wait for a friend's to come to the parking lot and get a ride to a safe place.\n\n5. Make the best of it, and have a good time with the ones who are there.\n\n6. Try to find another truck (and another friend!).\n\n7. Explain your situation to the supervisor; get a doctor's excuse.\n\n8. Get up early and get to the school copier or another copier.\n\n9. Get off at the first stop and get going in the right direction; make phone calls if necessary to let people know where you are.\n\n10. Call a friend who is in your class and borrow his or her book.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nThings can go wrong unexpectedly. In each case, have students share their ideas for ways to cope with the problems and get back on track. In some cases, they may just have to accept the situation and make the best of things. In others, they can actually try to do something to find another way to achieve the goal.\n\n1. Why does it seem as though things go wrong at the worst possible time? Is this really true, or does it just seem that way? (Things may be more crucial at an important time.)\n\n2. How can you prepare for mistakes to happen? (Think ahead, go through all of the things that might go wrong.)\n\n3. When things are beyond your control, how can you use your personality to cope? (Show a sense of humor, ask for help, show strength and determination, and so on.)\n\n4. Do you think people are sympathetic to your situation when you are in an embarrassing position? (Probably.)\n\n5. In situations where you learn to cope with the unexpected, how do you think this could turn into a positive experience? (Prepare you for the same type of situation happening again, cause you to be more resourceful, and so on.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students locate copies of \"Murphy's Law,\" a humorous interpretation of how things go wrong. Have students write a few laws of their own as they apply to their situations.\n\n2. Have students locate cartoons, such as _The Far Side_ , which also depict situations in which things go horribly awry. Perhaps you have some artistic students who can draw their own renditions of humorous situations.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nHow could you cope with the following situations?\n\n1. You are in the middle of a math test. Suddenly the batteries in your calculator are dead.\n\n2. You are watching volleyball intramurals after school. A friend comes up to you and says, \"Aren't you supposed to be babysitting for Mrs. Peters?\" You realize you are an hour late and you totally forgot.\n\n3. You are out on a date at an amusement park with someone you think is really special. Your date sees an old friend and disappears for a very long time. You are not sure whether your date is coming back.\n\n#  **23.2 Coping with Surprises**\n\n##  **Directions:**\n\nHere are situations in which unplanned surprises come up. What could you do in each situation to cope with the problem and get yourself back on track?\n\n1. You are showing a video at a party to your friends when suddenly the VCR shuts off and the tape is jammed inside.\n\n2. You're on the track team, ready to run the biggest race of your season when you notice your shoe lace is about to break and one of the cleats is broken off.\n\n3. You are giving a speech to ask students to elect you for Student Council president when you realize you have forgotten your notes and don't even know what your next sentence will be.\n\n4. Your car won't start after play practice in the evening. It's dark, late, and you're alone. The parking lot is nearly empty.\n\n5. You planned a huge surprise party for your best friend. Everyone said they would come, but only three people show up.\n\n6. Fred promised you could use his pickup truck for your club's float for the parade. At the last minute, he informs you that he lent it to somebody else.\n\n7. Your throat hurts a lot. You want to call in sick to work, but you've missed a lot of work lately and you're afraid you'll lose your job.\n\n8. You're supposed to make copies of your report for the class, but the library copier is broken. It's 8 o'clock at night and nothing is open.\n\n9. You're running late to get downtown. Suddenly you realize that you are on the wrong bus. You're headed uptown!\n\n10. You have a huge algebra test tomorrow. You brought every book home from your locker\u2014except the algebra book!\n\n#  **23.3 Adjusting to Change**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify positive coping strategies that are necessary to handle changes in situations.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nLife is not predictable. There are often changes in schedules, personnel, resources, timing, and numerous other changes, many of which are unpredictable. Before allowing these unforeseen changes to throw us into a wild frenzy, it is helpful to stop, think, and decide how these changes will affect us. Some things will need to be done immediately; others may take longer. Coping with changes is a sign of maturation as well as a necessary life skill.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\nHow difficult would it be to adjust to these changes?\n\n1. Changing a dentist appointment from 4:00 to 5:00\n\n2. Going from blonde hair to black hair\n\n3. Transferring to a high school in another state\n\n4. Finding out your single parent is getting married again\n\n5. Finding out that you have juvenile diabetes\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nThe worksheet \"Adjusting to Change\" gives situations that involve changes. Students are to read the two possible responses for each situation and circle the one that better depicts the person coping well with the change. _Answers:_ 1. First 2. Second 3. First 4. Second 5. First 6. First\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nStudents should discuss why the chosen response reflects the better choice of behavior or attitude in the matter and why the other response is not appropriate.\n\n1. How many of the examples involve a change in attitude on the part of the main person? (Really, all of them involve having an attitude of wanting to work out the problem.)\n\n2. Some of the changes were a result of someone else's mistake. Which ones? (#3, #4.)\n\n3. Even if something is not your responsibility, do you still have a responsibility to deal with the change? (Yes, if you're involved at all.)\n\n4. How could a display of temper cause even bigger problems? (Might anger other employees, make a small problem seem larger, does nothing to solve the problem.)\n\n5. Why do you think many people dislike change? (They get used to doing something one way, get good at it and don't like to have things done differently.)\n\n6. If you knew that change in the way you did something would be hard at first, but would eventually make your life easier, would you do it? (Hopefully.)\n\n7. What are some technological changes that older people today are resisting or having difficulty with? (DVDs, computers, ATMs, and so on.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students look at a set of blueprints from the design of a house or other building project. Have them figure out why this is a good time to make changes, if changes are going to be made. What parallels can they determine between blueprints for a building project and planning other types of projects?\n\n2. Have students think of examples of other changes that occur all the time. For example, substitutions of players in a basketball game, food substitutions at lunch, substitute teachers, and so on. How do these changes affect others involved?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nWrite a paragraph describing a change in your life that affected you deeply in some way. Did this change affect others also? Would you view this as a positive change now?\n\n#  **23.3 Adjusting to Change**\n\n##  **Directions:**\n\nHere are six situations that are causing problems because there has been a change. Read the two possible responses for each and circle the one that shows the better coping response to the change.\n\n#  **23.4 When the Problem Is You!**\n\n**Objective:** The student will recognize characters who are causing a problem and state a solution.\n\n**Comments:** It is easy to blame others when things go wrong. It is much harder to see ourselves in a situation\u2014how we appear to others and how our behaviors (attitudes, comments, habits) affect others and the situation. In this lesson, students will focus on (1) problem-causers and (2) how to recognize themselves in a problem situation.\n\n**Introductory Activity:** Set up scenarios in which four students participate in a role-play. One of the students is secretly designated the problem-causer. Have the rest of the class be the audience to pick out the problem-causer and discuss how he or she could better participate. Possible situations: a person who disagrees with everything; a person who is inappropriately loud; a person who forgets to bring needed materials.\n\n**Activity:** On the worksheet \"When the Problem Is You!\" the student will read each scenario and identify the reason why the problem-causer is causing a problem.\n\n_Answers:_ 1. d 2. b 3. a 4. e 5. c\n\n**Discussion:** Emphasize how the problem-causer could become aware that he or she is causing or contributing to a problem.\n\n1. What kind of change would you like to see in these problem-causers?\n\n2. Do you think those characters realize that they are causing problems? Why, or why not?\n\n3. How have you handled situations in which one person is a problem?\n\n4. Have you ever been the one to cause a problem when everyone else is OK?\n\n5. How would you want to be informed if you were causing a problem?\n\n6. What would make you want to change?\n\n**Extension Activity:** Have students keep a journal for a few days or weeks, recording their thoughts about their own participation in causing problems for others or in situations affecting others. Questions to ponder might include: Am I sometimes the cause of a problem? For whom? Do I care? What do others probably say about me? What do I think about myself? What could I do to change my behavior (attitude, comments, habits)? What is a new approach I could try?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. What is one way that you could know that you were causing a problem?\n\n2. What is one step you could take to change?\n\n#  **23.4 When the Problem Is You!**\n\n##  **Directions:**\n\nOne person in each of these examples is causing a problem. Match the type of problem with each example.\n\na. being rude\n\nb. not doing your share\n\nc. being late\n\nd. arguing\n\ne. making mistakes\n\n1. I think we should paint the poster black.   \nWhy don't we make it a little bigger?   \nWe could put it up in the hallway.  \nNo, let's make it red.   \nNo, it's already too big. Make it smaller.   \nNo, it would look better in the gym.\n\n2. Who brought pretzels for the party?   \nWho brought drinks?   \nWho brought napkins?  \nI did!   \nI did.   \nOops, I forgot again. Sorry. I forgot last week,   \ntoo, didn't I?\n\n3. This is my friend Alicia.   \nI'd like you to meet Jessie. She's new.  \nHey. (Bored)   \nYeah, whatever.\n\n4. No one can figure out your directions.   \nWe need to have that for our group project   \nto be right. There are mistakes all over it.   \nWell, you can figure it out. I'm not doing it over.\n\n5. (Teacher) Late again? Every day this week.   \nSorry, Laurel always has to comb her hair and   \nmakes us wait for her.\n\n**Chapter 24**\n\n**Making Decisions**\n\n#  **24.1 Decision-Making Factors**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify examples in which individuals have considered several factors that would affect the outcome of the situation.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nFor many decisions, especially minor ones, there is probably little thought or planning that goes into the process of making that decision. But for more important decisions, one must consider a lot of factors. Sometimes how you \"feel\" at the time is not the way to make a productive decision. One should consider whatever factors are involved in that situation (price, efficiency, other people, deadlines, and so on). In this lesson, students are to identify individuals who have used a systematic plan to make a decision.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Present students with the following situation: If you had the choice between taking $500 cash or a one-hour shopping spree in your favorite store, which would you choose?\n\n2. Have students list what factors were involved in making their decision.\n\n3. Present students with this situation: There is a $100 bill hidden in the room. How would you go about trying to find it? List some of their strategies.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to read the situations on the worksheet \"Decision-Making Factors\" that involve an individual making a decision. The students are to decide which examples show the person considering the factors involved in the decision as opposed to those who are haphazard, or without a plan.\n\n_Answers:_ 1. No 2. Yes 3. Yes 4. No\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nHave students give and explain their responses to the worksheet.\n\n1. Did all of the examples show a plan, even if the plan was haphazard or unworkable? (Yes, you could argue that even a bad plan is still a plan.)\n\n2. In situation 1, if the word \"some\" was changed to \"all,\" would that be a more systematic plan? (Yes.)\n\n3. What are the important factors to consider in situation 1? (Academic goals, how much money you have to spend, geographic location, and so on.)\n\n4. Do you think this individual will make a good decision or will the decision be made for him? (Sounds like this is a passive person who probably won't get accepted to anything!)\n\n5. In situation 2, did you think this was a systematic plan? (Yes.)\n\n6. What factors did the person consider to be important? (Work qualifications.)\n\n7. In situation 3, what important factors were considered? (Flight times, rates.)\n\n8. Did the person in situation 4 have a plan? (Sort of\u2014just working on what he felt like.)\n\n9. What could go wrong with that system? (If you felt like quitting, your work would not get done.)\n\n10. Do you think most people put a lot of thought into daily decisions? (Probably not\u2014choose by habit.)\n\n11. Does any decision have important factors that affect it? (Yes.)\n\n12. Does the process of identifying the important factors that affect a decision help make the best decision more clear? (Ideally, it should.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students look through the national news section of the newspaper. What important decisions do government officials have to make? What are some of the important factors that must be considered before making a decision?\n\n2. Have students watch some of the congressional debates on television. What is involved in the decision-making process as far as considering important factors?\n\n3. Have students list five to ten decisions they have directly or indirectly been involved in during the past week. Have them rate the importance of the decision (for example, setting up the time of a dental appointment versus selecting a new car) and list the factors involved in making that decision.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nWhat factors are involved in making the following decisions:\n\n1. Whether to buy a St. Bernard puppy from a pet store or adopt a homeless adult small dog\n\n2. Whether to go to a movie you don't really want to see with a person you are interested in or go out to an expensive dinner and special event with someone you really don't like\n\n#  **24.1 Decision-Making Factors**\n\n##  **Directions:**\n\nEach of these individuals is trying to make a decision. Decide which of them are considering the factors involved and which are not. Circle YES or NO next to each situation.\n\n#  **24.2 Needs versus Wants**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nGiven examples, the student will differentiate a _need_ from a _want_.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nSometimes it is hard to distinguish between a need and a want. Do we _need_ those new jeans, or can we live without them? Is it necessary for our survival to have expensive shoes, or is it important because everyone else has them? Again, making a good decision must involve considering the factors. You have to have clothes, but you must consider the appropriateness of the occasion, cost, quality, and so on. In this lesson, students are to consider situations that can roughly be divided into wants and needs and to categorize them.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Inform students that a special holiday is coming early and they can have five things they want. Have them make their lists.\n\n2. Inform students they are being sent to the moon for a week. Have them make a list of five items they would take with them.\n\n3. Have students compare the items on the lists. What would qualify an item as a _want_ or a _need_?\n\n4. Have students come up with working definitions for the terms \"want\" and \"need.\" A want could be considered something that would be helpful to have, but not necessary to accomplish a certain goal. A need could be something that is crucial to the completion of a goal. In that respect, new shoes may be a want if a person already has shoes for walking around, but specific shoes may be a need if the person must have a certain type of footwear to play a sport.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to read the statements on the worksheet \"Needs versus Wants\" in which a desire for something is expressed. From the context, they are to determine whether the item involved is a \"want\" or a \"need.\" The purpose of the lesson is not so much to sort through the responses but to look for additional factors that would indicate what the goal is in each situation.\n\n_Answers:_\n\nThese are suggestions; allow for discussion to clarify the student's responses and thinking.\n\n1. Need (socially expected).\n\n2. Want.\n\n3. Want.\n\n4. Need (proper clothing).\n\n5. Need (medicine).\n\n6. Want.\n\n7. Need (tools for completing assignments).\n\n8. Depends on the situation\u2014because it is the \"ultimate,\" we can assume that the buyer has some choices and _wants_ this specific item.\n\n9. Need (hygiene).\n\n10. Want, but depends on the situation\u2014if a car is the only way that the individual can get to school, it would be a need.\n\n11. Could be either\u2014does the coursework depend a lot on using a personal computer for assignments?\n\n12. Need.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nIn each of the examples on the worksheet, there are other questions that can and should be asked to clarify the situation. Depending on that situation, either answer could be justified. Encourage students to think!\n\n1. What are some examples of items that would be considered needs in terms of social behavior? (Gifts, cards, bridesmaid dresses, taking someone out to dinner, and so on.)\n\n2. Besides oxygen, water, food, clothing, and shelter, what are some other needs that humans have? (Need to be loved, need for friendship, need to play, and so on.)\n\n3. Is it wrong to want something expensive if it is available in a cheaper model? (Not necessarily\u2014if you have the money to buy something nice, it's not a problem.)\n\n4. If your goal is to be the best football player in your school, what might be some of your equipment needs? (Padding, shoes, helmet, and so on.)\n\n5. What would be some of your other needs? (Time for training, good coaching, adequate sleep, proper nutrition, and so on.)\n\n6. Is it wrong to want things? (Not necessarily.)\n\n7. When you make decisions, should you consider \"wants\" as well as \"needs\"? (Absolutely! Focus on your goals!)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. For each of the examples on the worksheet, have students construct a situation in which the item is a want and then a need. By manipulating the situations, each item could conceivably fit into either category.\n\n2. Have students investigate Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Make a chart indicating this theory of what humans need and what is included at each level.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Give an example of something that is a need for you. Explain your example.\n\n2. Give an example of something that is a want for you. Explain your example.\n\n#  **24.2 Needs versus Wants**\n\n##  **Directions:**\n\nRead the following statements. Does each indicate something that the person **needs** or something that the person **wants**? Write your answer in the space below each statement.\n\n1. I got invited to Sarah's birthday party. I must decide what to get her for a gift.\n\n2. That was a great dinner. What shall I order for dessert?\n\n3. Oh, that little kitten is so cute. I' ll take her home with me.\n\n4. This sock has a huge hole in it. I' ll get new ones.\n\n5. Where is my cough medicine? Cough, cough, cough!\n\n6. I love how this perfume smells. And it's only $40 an ounce!\n\n7. Shoot! This pen ran out of ink! I' ll have to replace it.\n\n8. This is the ultimate stereo system. I don't care that I have to make many payments\u2014it's worth it!\n\n9. I like this brand of toothpaste.\n\n10. How am I going to get to school if I don't have a car?\n\n11. Everyone in the class has a personal computer but me.\n\n12. My calculator stopped working. It needs new batteries.\n\n#  **24.3 Immediate Needs versus Waiting**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nGiven a decision-making situation, the student will identify possible short-and long-term effects of a choice.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nSometimes students are tempted to make decisions that seem to be great for immediate satisfaction, but are not best in the long run. It might be hard to take the time to think through the consequences of making a decision, especially when a choice might yield something desirable right away. In this lesson, students are to consider situations that may yield better results if a choice is put off until a better time.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students if they would rather have $1,000 right now or $1,000,000 in ten years. Tally their responses.\n\n2. What would be the benefits of having money right away?\n\n3. What would be the benefits of waiting and having a much larger sum?\n\n4. What might be a drawback of waiting for the larger amount of money?\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nExplain to students that they are going to consider some situations on the worksheet \"Immediate Needs versus Waiting\" in which individuals must make a decision about some aspect of their life. They are to answer questions that direct them to consider short-term effects and long-term consequences.\n\n_Answers (Examples):_\n\n##  **Situation 1**\n\na. Whether he can join the truck driving program later or it has to be right now, whether he has any other sources of money, whether he can work and go through training at the same time.\n\nb. He would have to do the training program later, he would have money to pay his rent, he could start saving money.\n\nc. He might have to borrow the money until he is finished with the training and can get another job.\n\nd. Students may suggest that Jeff work part-time and try to get into the program later. Because he doesn't have any money saved up, he may need to learn to budget his money and activities.\n\n##  **Situation 2**\n\na. Whether Kari is going to work, how much money they have saved up, how much free time they want to spend with each other.\n\nb. Yes.\n\nc. Kari thinks she would have someone to take care of, maybe would not have to work; Sam would have to have a secure income to support the family; they might be spending a lot of time at home instead of going out.\n\nd. They could save money, have time together, get to know each other, plan for children when they are more settled.\n\n##  **Situation 3**\n\na. How much she needs the job, whether there is potential for advancement in the company, how much of her day is spent directly involved with the boss, how much she enjoys her work.\n\nb. She would start all over looking for work but she might be directed toward a better job and better situation.\n\nc. Learn patience, get respect from other employers who understand her situation, save money until she's in a better position to leave.\n\nd. Talk to another supervisor, possibly talk to the boss, ask for a transfer within the company. e. Students may say that the stress is not worth the job. If Elinor is a good worker, she will probably be able to find another job.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nStudents may have varied responses to the worksheet. Have them discuss how they arrived at their conclusions.\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Waiting seems hard to do, especially for a teenager. Have students make personal lists of things they consider worth waiting for. Depending on the student, this may include a college degree, marriage, sex, buying a house, and so on.\n\n2. Have students write endings for the situations on the worksheet. There are ways for all of the decisions to end positively.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nExplain your feelings about the following well-known adages:\n\nHe who hesitates is lost.   \nFools rush in where angels fear to tread.   \nLook before you leap.\n\n#  **24.3 Immediate Needs versus Waiting**\n\n##  **Directions:**\n\nEach of these individuals needs to make a decision about something in his or her life. The decision must be made right away; each individual needs your help to figure out the consequences of doing something immediately or waiting.\n\n##  **Situation 1**\n\nJeff can work at a hardware store for minimum wage right away, or he can enroll in a technical program that will train him for truck driving, which is what he really wants to do. However, he does not have any money saved up and needs to pay rent.\n\na. What factors does Jeff need to consider?\n\nb. If Jeff decides to work at the store, what effect would that have on the factors in (a)?\n\nc. If Jeff goes to truck driving school, how could he handle the factors in (a)?\n\nd. What do you think Jeff should do?\n\n##  **Situation 2**\n\nSam and Kari have been married for a few months. Kari wants to have a baby right away and wants to stay home to take care of it. Sam has a pretty good job, but he's not sure he wants to be a father so soon.\n\na. What factors do Sam and Kari have to consider?\n\nb. Is it important that Sam and Kari agree on their decision?\n\nc. What are some immediate results of having a baby right away?\n\nd. What are some reasons for them to wait?\n\n##  **Situation 3**\n\nElinor works for a man whom she detests. He is often unfair with how much work he gives her to do, never compliments her on a good job, and has temper tantrums. Elinor likes her work, but she comes home stressed and edgy. Every day seems to get worse.\n\na. What factors does Elinor have to consider?\n\nb. What results would probably happen if Elinor quit?\n\nc. What benefits might occur if she stayed on the job?\n\nd. Is there anything Elinor can do to change her situation?\n\ne. What do you think Elinor should do?\n\n#  **24.4 Following Through**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will state the importance of following through on a decision, particularly when it involves a commitment to others.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nSometimes decisions can, and should, be reversed. If new information comes in, or something happens that changes original plans and goals, decisions may have to be adjusted. When one is in a position of making decisions that affect other people and require planning, however, it is a good idea to recognize when to stick with the decision. In this lesson, students are given situations to evaluate.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\nAsk students to rate the following situations according to how important the decision is:\n\n1. Deciding to order pepperoni pizza and then changing your mind to sausage pizza\n\n2. Deciding to marry Tom and then changing your mind to marry Wayne\n\n3. Deciding to negotiate trade agreements with a European nation and then changing your mind to declare nuclear war instead\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nThis lesson involves following through on a decision. In the examples on the worksheet \"Following Through,\" the decisions are from the point of view of a person in a decision-making role; that is, others are subject to the effects of that decision. The decision is stated and the person is identified. The student must then decide which of the two responses indicates that the person is following through on the decision.\n\n_Answers:_ 1. B 2. A 3. A 4. B 5. A\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nEach situation involves identifying a group of people who are affected by the decision. The decision itself may also be questioned. Use the following questions to discuss students' ideas about the importance of following through on a decision.\n\n1. Would you say that the more people who are involved in a decision, the more important that decision is? (Possibly, but each individual decision that a person makes is very important to him or her.)\n\n2. In example 1, do you think the decision is unfair? (Depends on whether or not employees were abusing the privilege.)\n\n3. If some of the employees were spending half of their time talking on the phone, how would that affect the business?\n\n4. Do you think the boss would allow exceptions?\n\n5. In example 2, how many people are affected by the coach's decision? (The players.)\n\n6. If the situation changes, as it seemed to in the example, why shouldn't the coach change his mind? (The other players are expecting a certain play or pattern.)\n\n7. How would a last-minute change in plan affect the other players? (They might be confused, caught off guard.)\n\n8. In example 3, do you think the teacher's changing a due date is unfair to students? (Probably, unless the students had a few months' notice or were able to negotiate the due date with the teacher.)\n\n9. Do you know of examples of teachers changing assignment dates to make them later? How do you feel about that if you are one of the people who had planned to be finished on time?\n\n10. How many people are affected by the bride's decision in example 4? (The dressmaker.)\n\n11. When alterations have already been made, is it a fair policy to make someone purchase the dress if the person changes her mind? (Yes, because the alterations took time and involved work; there's usually a policy stated up front about this.)\n\n12. In example 5, what types of decisions needed to be made resulting from the decision to go to Florida? (When to go, reservations, time off from work, and so on.)\n\n13. Why would changing the geographical location of a vacation be an important decision? (Clothing, tickets, other plans.)\n\n14. In this case, if everyone involved agreed they would rather go skiing, is anyone inconvenienced by the change in decision? (Not particularly.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students tell of examples of decisions that are important to follow through on. They may have some anecdotes from personal experience about decisions that were not followed up on, leading to some interesting consequences.\n\n2. People are constantly making decisions. Many daily decisions are seemingly of little consequence; for example, what to wear, what to eat, what route to take walking home, and so on. Yet in particular situations, these decisions could be crucial (dietary restrictions, social events, who might be waiting along a certain route home, and so on). Others may involve a lot of people, time, or consequences. Have students make a list of twenty to thirty decisions that they have made in the past twenty-four hours. Have them rate the personal importance of each and describe the factors on their \"rating scale.\"\n\n3. Have students write and perform humorous role-plays in which a character cannot make up his or her mind about a decision. (\"I' ll have a strawberry shake. No, wait, make that chocolate. Well, maybe peach sounds good. No, wait\u2014I' ll have what she's having.\")\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nWrite a possible consequence of the person in each of these examples not following through on his or her decision:\n\n1. \"I know my doctor tells me I need to have gallbladder surgery, but I've changed my mind. I don't want an operation.\"\n\n2. \"I've decided not to sell the house after all.\"\n\n3. \"No one in the company is going to get a raise this year.\"\n\n#  **24.4 Following Through**\n\n##  **Directions:**\n\nIn each situation below, which response shows the person following through on a decision? Circle A or B.\n\n1. _**Boss**_ **.** _Decision:_ There will be no more personal phone calls made on office time.\n\na. \"Maybe that was a bad decision\u2014emergencies do happen from time to time.\"\n\nb. \"People will plan their time better if they make phone calls during breaks.\"\n\n2. _**Coach**_ **.** _Decision:_ Stretch Roberts will try for the last basket during this basketball game. He is the best shot on the team.\n\na. \"Give Stretch the ball!\"\n\nb. \"Wait! Ace is in a better position\u2014throw it to him.\"\n\n3. _**Teacher**_ **.** _Decision:_ The research paper will be due at the end of the semester.\n\na. \"Everyone knows the due date and should be finished. That will give you four months to prepare.\"\n\nb. \"I' m planning to go on vacation\u2014I' ll make the paper due in three weeks.\"\n\n4. _**Bride-to-Be**_ **.** _Decision:_ I' ll take that wedding dress. It will need alterations, however, or it won't fit me just right.\n\na. \"I want my deposit back\u2014I found another dress I decided I like better. I'm sure you can sell it again to someone who is my size.\"\n\nb. \"There are so many things to plan; I will stick with this dress.\"\n\n5. _**Father**_ **.** _Decision:_ We' re going to Florida over spring break.\n\na. \"Here are our plane tickets, hotel reservations, and new suitcases. I' m working on plans for what we' ll do.\"\n\nb. \"Let's go skiing instead. We'll all need new clothes.\"\n\n#  **24.5 Changing Bad Decisions**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will offer at least one option available to a given individual who had made a bad decision.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nUnfortunately, not all of our decisions turn out to be the \"right\" ones. In retrospect, we can sometimes see that we should have asked more questions, thought a little longer, or maybe done a little more homework before making a decision. In this lesson, students are given situations in which an individual made a decision that turned out to be a mistake. They are to come up with a new decision to better the situation.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Tell students: \"I want everyone in the class to jump out of their seats and squawk like a chicken.\" Observe the chaos for a minute or two and then try to get their attention back!\n\n2. Have students decide whether or not that was a good decision. (Probably not.) Why? (Loss of classroom control.)\n\n3. Ask students to predict what would probably happen if you (the teacher) asked students to toss pencils around the room and scream at the top of their lungs. (They would probably do it.) Why is it likely that you would not make the decision to ask them to do this, especially when your class was being observed? (From the first episode, you were able to see that the class was willing to follow crazy orders; also, it would make your discipline very questionable if the class were to be observed.)\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to read the situations on the worksheet \"Changing Bad Decisions\" and decide what each person in the example could do to make the best of a bad decision. In each case, have students think about making a new decision, hopefully with new knowledge of the situation.\n\n_Answers (Examples):_\n\n1. Decide to take back the keys until further notice.\n\n2. Decide to tell his parents that he doesn't know Amanda very well.\n\n3. Decide to keep the puppy at home until she has housetrained it.\n\n4. Decide to call home and get a ride with someone else.\n\n5. Decide to take back the game and get a gift certificate instead.\n\n6. Decide to politely inform them that they weren't expecting this number of people.\n\n7. Decide to pick up her daughter and look for a new babysitter.\n\n8. Decide to talk to the girl ahead of time about the problem and mention that there might be hard feelings.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nStudents may have various creative ideas for the situations. Listen to them and try, together, to come up with some good solutions.\n\n1. In situation 1, Mr. Wu felt he had made a bad decision. Why? (His daughter was not a careful driver.)\n\n2. If he had thought about the situation more carefully ahead of time, would he have been able to figure this out before buying her a car? (Probably.)\n\n3. What made this a bad decision? (His daughter was not a good recipient of a car; it would only get her into trouble.)\n\n4. Is a bad outcome the same thing as a bad decision? (It could be thought of that way; the outcome would determine the value of the decision.)\n\n5. In situation 2, at what point did Fred realize he had made a bad decision? (When he saw the way she was dressed.)\n\n6. Is there any way he could have foreseen that situation? (Possibly not; he didn't know her very well.)\n\n7. Could the problems in situation 3 been thought of ahead of time? (Yes, puppies are somewhat predictable in that department.)\n\n8. What was Debbie's bad decision? (To get into the car.)\n\n9. In situation 5, what could Peter have done ahead of time to pick a more appropriate present for his cousin? (Asked around to see what kind of games he liked.)\n\n10. In situation 6, the Robertsons made an attempt to do something nice for their neighbors, and apparently were taken advantage of. How would this affect what they will do the next time they invite someone to dinner? (Probably specify how many are invited.)\n\n11. What decision will Mrs. Greenberg make the next time she looks for a babysitter? (Decide to ask for references, observe the babysitter before deciding to use her or him.)\n\n12. In situation 8, do you think Paula will redo her next birthday list more carefully? (Probably.)\n\n13. How could Paula still end up with a successful birthday party? (Make sure everyone will behave themselves, uninvite the key problem girl.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students look for examples of bad decisions. They may find examples from politics; in particular, in political cartoons. Have them explain why the outcome was particularly bad for the individual who made the decision.\n\n2. Have students share anecdotes of their own dealings with decisions they have regretted.\n\n3. Have students talk to older adults who probably have some regrets about decisions they have made. If willing to share their ideas, have the adults talk about some of them in class.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nWrite a paragraph describing a decision in which you were involved that you would consider to be a bad decision. What was the outcome? Were there any clues that this decision would give this result? What would you do differently the next time, with this new knowledge?\n\n#  **24.5 Changing Bad Decisions**\n\n##  **Directions:**\n\nWhat could each of these people do to make a change in plans after realizing that he or she had made a bad decision? What new decision could be made?\n\n1. Mr. Wu had decided to buy his daughter a new car. He soon realized that she was going to end up crashing it because she was not a careful driver.\n\n2. Fred realized he had made a mistake when he asked Amanda out for a date and she showed up at his parents' house wearing outrageous clothes, with purple-and-green striped hair.\n\n3. Jill bought a new puppy and didn't think twice about taking it over to her girlfriend's apartment\u2014until it had several \"accidents\" on the floor.\n\n4. Debbie got into the car with Eddie and realized he had been drinking. She hoped he would get her home safely.\n\n5. Peter bought a video game for his cousin for a birthday present and then noticed that the cousin already had the game. The cousin made the comment that it was really a stupid game that only babies would play.\n\n6. Mr. and Mrs. Robertson invited their new neighbors over for dinner and were surprised when they showed up with their seven children, eight in-laws, and three of their friends.\n\n7. Mrs. Greenberg dropped her young daughter off at the new babysitter's and turned around to wave good-bye. The babysitter was already yelling at her daughter and threatening to spank her.\n\n8. Paula had sent out invitations to a birthday party at her house for Saturday night, when she realized that several of her friends were angry at one of the other girls she had invited because she was dating their boyfriends.\n**Chapter 25**\n\n**Resource Management**\n\n#  **25.1 What Are My Resources?**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify at least ten different resources available to him or her.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nMany types of resources are available to most people if they will stop and think about them. Not only are people available to help, but there are other resources, such as publications, institutions, possessions, and intangibles such as time, one's own skills, and creativity. In this lesson, students are to think about types of resources available to them.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\nAsk students what they could do in these situations:\n\n1. You need $10 to buy something. (Write a check, go to the bank.)\n\n2. A button comes off of your shirt. (Sew it back on, take it to your mother.)\n\n3. A friend asks if you will teach him or her how to play tennis. (Get the friend a book, go out on the court and spend time teaching.)\n\nDefine _resource_ (something that is available to help relieve a situation or achieve a goal; examples are people, skills, tools, institutions, equipment, publications, and so on).\n\n1. What resources did you come up with for #1? (Money, a bank.)\n\n2. What resources did you come up with for #2? (A skill, a parent.)\n\n3. What resources did you come up with for #3? (A skill, a book.)\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nMake sure students have a fairly good idea of what is meant by a resource. Explain that they will now have some situations to consider that require the use of resources to solve. They are given one example of a possible resource on the worksheet What Are My Resources and are to think of two additional resources. They can discuss how the resources can be used to solve the problem.\n\n_Answers (Examples):_\n\n1. Realtor, neighbor\n\n2. Friend, brochure\n\n3. Tuxedo shop, other clothes\n\n4. Friend who just turned eighteen, post office\n\n5. Department of motor vehicles, police department\n\n6. Friend, phone book\n\n7. Teacher, computer tutorial\n\n8. Bus station attendant, phone call\n\n9. Community bulletin board, friends\n\n10. Doctor, information that came with the medicine\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nHave students share their ideas of resources that would help solve the problems on the worksheet. You may want to keep a running list of what type of resource was selected; for example, person, skill, institution, and so on.\n\n1. What personal resources\u2014your talents, abilities, personality\u2014do you have?\n\n2. What kinds of problems or needs would someone who was new in town encounter? (Where to live, work, how to find places, and so on.)\n\n3. What are some community resources that would help someone in this situation? (Maps, phone book, neighbors.)\n\n4. What people are available as resources to you in situations in which you need advice or someone to listen? (Friends, family, counselor.)\n\n5. What people are resources for you if you needed help with physical tasks, such as moving, painting, or getting a ride? (Friends, neighbors.)\n\n6. In what ways could these resources be helpful to someone: the local YMCA, library, a workshop, computer lab, newspaper, correspondence school classes, computer, ability to touch-type, huge bank account?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students take personal inventory of the resources available to them. Do they have a sister who can cut hair? A driver's license? A savings account? A car? Have them come up with at least fifty different items.\n\n2. To help students remember the categories or types of resources, have them collectively or in small groups work on a wall poster, with drawings, magazine pictures, photographs, and so on depicting resources. You may want to title categories, such as People, Skills, Places, Tools, and so on.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. What is a definition for a resource?\n\n2. Give an example of a person who is a resource for you, a tool that you have used, a building or institution, and a skill or talent that is a personal resource. Explain how each has helped you achieve a goal or resolve a problem situation.\n\n#  **25.1 What Are My Resources?**\n\n##  **Directions:**\n\nRead the following problems. Next to each one is listed a possible resource that could help solve the problem. Add two other resources for each problem.\n\n**Problem** | **Resources**  \n---|---  \n1.| You are unfamiliar with a city that you have just moved to. You want to find a place to live.| City map  \n2.| You are responsible for planning a group trip to an amusement park. You think you heard something about a discount for more than ten people.  \nPhone book  \n3.| You need to rent a tuxedo for a wedding that you will be in, but you are not sure of your size.| Friend who does alterations  \nCity hall  \n4.| You just turned eighteen and want to register to vote.  \nParents  \n5.| You have to renew your driver's license.  \nGas station manager  \n6.| Your car is making funny noises, and you want a recommendation for a good mechanic in town.  \nTutor  \n7.| You are having trouble with your math and are afraid you aren't going to pass.  \nBus schedule  \n8.| You need to know what time the last bus leaves for the next town.  \nNewspaper  \n9.| You want someone to help you paint your house.  \nPharmacist  \n10.| You have a high fever, stomach ache, and dizziness. The medicine you took is making you feel worse.\n\n#  **25.2 Reliable Resources**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nGiven examples, the student will identify reliable resources and explain why they are reliable.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\n\"You can't believe everything you hear.\" Likewise, anyone can hang out a shingle but it is no guarantee that the person is a competent, trustworthy individual. Students need to learn to evaluate whether or not a resource is truly reliable. This might mean checking credentials, asking a friend for a recommendation, obtaining a written warranty, and considering the personal relationship of the person giving the comments. In this lesson, students are to evaluate resources and decide whether or not they are reliable.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\nGive students the following choice to consider:\n\nThey are taking a trip and are going to fly. They can choose between a flight on Airline A, which has a perfect flight record for the past thirty years, but is more expensive; or a flight on Airline B, which uses old planes with old parts and has the worst flight record of all major airlines, but offers economy rates.\n\nWhich airline would students probably choose? (Airline A) Why? (They value their life, it has a better record, it is more _reliable_.)\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nHave students complete the worksheet \"Reliable Resources,\" which has examples of statements describing some resources. They must decide whether or not the resource sounds reliable or not.\n\n_Answers:_\n\nThese are suggestions\u2014students may be able to justify different responses!\n\n1. No 2. Yes 3. Yes 4. No 5. No 6. No 7. Yes 8. Yes 9. Yes 10. No 11. Yes 12. No 13. No 14. Yes 15. Yes 16. No\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nHave students explain the reasoning for their answers on the worksheet. In some cases, more information about the situation would be helpful, but is not given.\n\n1. What makes a resource seem reliable?\n\n2. Why would you tend to doubt the reliability of a person who was trying to sell you a watch in a parking lot? (Don't know his reputation.)\n\n3. How important is reputation in evaluating a resource? (Very important.)\n\n4. How does a warranty or guarantee of a product or service protect your safety? (Can take it back if it's defective; it's like a promise that it will be satisfactory.)\n\n5. How important are credentials when checking out the services of a doctor, dentist, contractor, or other provider? (Very important.)\n\n6. How could you go about checking on the credentials of such a person? (Ask friends, ask questions, check with the Better Business Bureau, and so on.)\n\n7. Why might you trust the opinion of someone who was a family friend rather than someone with whom you did not get along personally? (The family friend would probably have your best interests in mind; the other person may not care.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students collect and display magazine ads of products that try to declare their reliability; for example, watches that \"keep on ticking.\"\n\n2. Have students take note of television commercials that promise services, such as personal injury lawyers. Have them evaluate whether or not, based on the ads, those services seem reliable.\n\n3. Have students examine warranties on items such as a car, pet, appliance, and so on. What does the small print indicate?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nGive an example of:\n\n1. A reliable person\n\n2. A reliable product\n\n3. A reliable form of transportation\n\n4. A reliable piece of equipment\n\nExplain your choices.\n\n#  **25.2 Reliable Resources**\n\n**Directions:** Do these items sound like examples of reliable resources to you? Circle Yes or No.\n\n1. A doctor who got his license from a mail order magazine. **YES NO**\n\n2. A builder who has built several houses in your neighborhood that appear to be very nice. **YES NO**\n\n3. A phone number in the local phone book. **YES NO**\n\n4. A salesperson for a used car dealership that is being investigated by the Internal Revenue Service for tax fraud. **YES NO**\n\n5. A story about aliens coming to Earth to steal people. **YES NO**\n\n6. An old car that is covered with rust, has a flat tire, and has a gas gauge on \"empty.\" **YES NO**\n\n7. The local weather report for tomorrow. **YES NO**\n\n8. The number of calories in a candy bar as reported by the wrapper. **YES NO**\n\n9. The warning label on a bottle of prescription medicine. **YES NO**\n\n10. The personal habits of your neighbor as reported by the town gossip. **YES NO**\n\n11. A thirty-day warranty on game parts for a computer game you purchased at a department store. **YES NO**\n\n12. A pair of jeans that is purchased from a rack marked \"As Is.\" **YES NO**\n\n13. A watch from a man in a trench coat in a parking lot behind a bar. **YES NO**\n\n14. A kitten purchased from a pet store with a two-month guarantee of good health. **YES NO**\n\n15. The opinion of the wiring in your house from an engineer who is a good friend of your father. **YES NO**\n\n16. The opinion of your piano-playing ability from someone who can't stand you. **YES NO**\n\n#  **25.3 Fact versus Opinion**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will correctly identify statements as being either fact or opinion.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nPart of making a judgment as to the reliability of a resource is considering whether the information is a person's opinion or if it is a fact. Some people can be very convincing and give seemingly logical arguments for statements that are not true. In this lesson, students are to examine statements and decide whether they are fact or opinion.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Define _fact_ (something that is always true, based on evidence that no one can argue with). 2. Define _opinion_ (an expression of how someone feels about something; may or may not be true). 3. Have students give an example of a fact about something in the classroom (such as the time shown on the clock, the color of the walls, and so on). 4. Have students give an example of an opinion on how they feel about the school cafeteria food.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to examine the statements on the worksheet \"Fact versus Opinion\" and decide whether it is an example of a fact or an opinion. Have them look for \"clue words\" or other subtleties that may indicate the comment is an opinion. _Answers:_ 1. Fact 2. Fact 3. Fact 4. Opinion 5. Opinion 6. Opinion\n\n7. Fact 8. Opinion 9. Opinion 10. Fact\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nMake sure students understand the reasoning behind the examples. Clarify any questions.\n\n1. Where is a good place to hear opinions expressed? (Cafeteria, pool hall, church socials, and so on.)\n\n2. When is a good time or during what events would you hear opinions expressed? (Political elections, debates, and so on.) 3. Who or what would be a good, reliable resource to give you factual information about investing your money? (Banker, investor.) About buying a good car? (Consumer reports, friend in the business.) About traveling to a foreign country? (Travel agent.) 4. If someone appeared to be truly sincere, would that make him or her more believable? (Probably.) 5. Why do we take into account the way a person acts and looks as much as the words they use? (We tend to look at the whole person.) 6. What were some clues on the worksheet that tipped you off that it was an opinion being expressed? (\"I think\"; words like \"always,\" \"never,\" \"everyone,\" and so on.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students come up with a list of twenty facts and twenty opinions. Have them cite their sources for the facts. 2. Have students circulate quietly in populated areas, listen for opinions being expressed, and write down the examples they hear (for example, \"I think the Bulls will win this year,\" \"I like pizza,\" and so on). Compare findings. 3. Tape and discuss television commercials. How much of what is presented is factual? How much is opinion? Does it depend on the product?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. What is a fact? 2. What is an opinion? 3. Give three examples of facts. 4. Give three examples of opinions. 5. Take one of your opinions and turn it into a fact.\n\n#  **25.3 Fact versus Opinion**\n\n##  **Directions:**\n\nAre the following statements examples of facts or opinions? Circle FACT or OPINION.\n\n1. The owner's manual states that you should rotate the tires on a car and change the oil regularly to maintain it properly. **FACT OPINION**\n\n2. Earth is the third planet from the sun. **FACT OPINION**\n\n3. There are about 140 calories in a can of non-diet soda. **FACT OPINION**\n\n4. When buying an appliance, you should purchase the most expensive warranty possible. **FACT OPINION**\n\n5. Fish make better pets than cats or dogs for people who live in apartments. **FACT OPINION**\n\n6. It is easy to drive through Chicago in the middle of the day. **FACT OPINION**\n\n7. Thomas Jefferson was our third president. **FACT OPINION**\n\n8. I think First Bank and Trust will give you a good deal on a car loan. **FACT OPINION**\n\n9. No one in New York City is friendly to strangers. **FACT OPINION**\n\n10. Blood travels in the body through the circulatory system. **FACT OPINION**\n\n#  **25.4 Time Management**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will be familiar with several strategies for using time efficiently when given several tasks to complete.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nIt seems as though there is never enough time to get everything done. Students may have their days filled with school, sports, working, friends, chores at home, and numerous other activities, all of which are important. Much can be accomplished if time is valued and used efficiently. In this lesson, students are introduced to several time-saving strategies.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students what they would do if they were given an extra hour in their day.\n\n2. To have students experience at least one dimension of \"time,\" select two or three volunteers and have them put their heads down on cue and, when they think one minute is up, raise their hands quietly. The rest of the class can observe. Did time seem to pass slowly for these students?\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nOn the worksheet \"Time Management,\" students are to read the story of a girl who has mismanaged her time to an extreme. They are to note (this can be done by underlining specific passages in the story) instances in which the girl in the story got \"off-track\" or did not use her time efficiently.\n\n_Answers:_ overslept, had not done homework from night before, had not done laundry, slept through study hall, looked through magazine instead of studying, watched more TV than necessary, forgot soap at the store, shopped for nail polish\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nHave students compare instances they selected as representative of mismanaged time.\n\n1. At what point did this day begin to go off-track for Sandy? (When she overslept, but she had set herself up for problems when she didn't do her homework or laundry the night before.)\n\n2. What could she have done the night before to be better prepared for this day? (Laundry, homework; perhaps gone to bed earlier so she wouldn't oversleep.)\n\n3. What activities could have been shortened? (Length of time she slept in, watched TV, or shopped.)\n\n4. What activities could have been rearranged? (Prepare food for dinner before doing homework or talking with a friend.)\n\n5. What activities could have been eliminated? (Shopping, talking with friend, watching TV.)\n\n6. How could making a list have helped Sandy with shopping and other chores? (Could have helped her shorten her shopping time, kept reminding her of what she was supposed to be doing.)\n\n7. Are there other shortcuts she could have taken to get everything done? (Ask friend to help with chores, shop on a different day.)\n\n8. What is an example of activities that Sandy can and did do at the same time? (Walking dog and thinking about science project.)\n\n9. What are some other activities that could be done simultaneously? (Doing laundry and thawing out frozen food, watching television and preparing food, walking the dog and practicing a speech, and so on.)\n\n10. What do you think is Sandy's basic problem? Is she lazy, disorganized, or just too busy?\n\n11. What would you suggest Sandy do to get ready for tomorrow? (Make sure she has clothes ready and homework done, sets the alarm, talks to mother about dinner plans, and so on.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students figure out approximately how many hours they spent on a typical school day involved in certain activities, such as sleeping, studying, recreation, and leisure. Help them construct a circle graph depicting the different categories.\n\n2. Have students design and maintain a daily time planner or schedule. Try it out for a week. Have them look for patterns of time that could be used in different ways.\n\n3. List the various strategies for efficiently using time, and have students make a conscious effort to try using them. You may want to make a colorful poster and put it in a conspicuous place. Strategies: shorten tasks, rearrange tasks, eliminate tasks, do tasks simultaneously, list tasks, prepare for tasks.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List and describe at least three time-management techniques.\n\n2. List at least two activities you would like to spend more time doing. How could you plan to give yourself more time?\n\n3. List at least two activities you could manage much more efficiently. Describe how you could do this.\n\n#  **25.4 Time Management**\n\n##  **Directions:**\n\nHere is a day in Sandy's life. Look for examples of how she did not use her time wisely to accomplish everything she wanted or needed to do that day. Underline those examples.\n\nThe day started out when the alarm clock went off and Sandy rolled over and went back to sleep. When she woke up again, she realized she had overslept, missed the bus to school, and did not have time to do the homework she had left over from the night before. She got up, found the laundry basket, and took out some clothes to wear. She wished she had remembered to get the laundry done the night before. Her mother was busy working overtime and wasn't able to do as many chores around the house as she used to.\n\nAfter getting a late pass from the office, Sandy went to the first class of the day\u2014study hall. Since there were only ten minutes left of class, she didn't feel she had time to start anything, so she put her head down and tried to catch up on some missed sleep.\n\nLater in the day, she realized she had a test (which she had put off studying for) and a paper that was due. She told herself she would get it done that night and turn it in the next day for at least partial credit.\n\nAfter school, Sandy had basketball practice. She got a ride home with a friend who wanted to know if she could stay for a while and work on math together. Sandy thought that would be fine, but instead of working on math, they decided to look through a magazine and pick out new hair styles.\n\nSoon, Sandy heard her mother's car pulling into the driveway and she panicked when she realized her mother had asked her to take out frozen meat and let it thaw after school. She quickly ran into the kitchen and put it in the microwave, hoping it would begin to thaw.\n\nSandy, her friend, and her mother called for a pizza to be delivered and watched television for an hour to relax. Sandy's friend left and Sandy was about to get out her homework, but the TV movie sounded really interesting and she decided to watch it with her mother instead.\n\nThe dog scratching at the door reminded her that she needed to feed Bozo and take him for a walk. While walking, she thought about what she would choose to do for her science project. She thought that an experiment comparing two detergents would be good\u2014and besides, she needed to catch up on the laundry so she would have something to wear to school tomorrow.\n\nAfter the walk, Sandy's mom asked her if she would run to the store to get some soap. Sandy did, and stopped to look at the new nail polish and perfume that had just come in. She decided that these would be good birthday gifts to get for her friend. When she got home, she realized she had forgotten to get soap.\n\nIt was getting late, so she told her mother she would shop right after school tomorrow\u2014if she had time!\n\n#  **25.5 Staying on Task**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify several reasons why it is understandable to get off task and will identify several strategies for staying on task.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nMany problems would be solved if the task causing the problem was simply completed. Task completion is sometimes complicated by factors such as a student's being distracted, tired, hyperactive, hungry, unfamiliar with the work, or just plain bored. Teachers can try to make material interesting, but at times there is work that simply must be done. The student needs to accept the importance of the task and stick with it until it is completed. In this lesson, students are to identify possible reasons why characters are off task.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\nInform students that you want them to take out a piece of paper and pencil and begin writing numbers counting by 3's (3, 6, 9, 12, 15, and so on). As they are writing, begin to tap a pencil on your desk, quietly and inconsistently at first, then making it louder and more distracting. Look for signs of students coming off task. If necessary, run over to the window and cry, \"Look at that!\" Do you have any students who are still on task?\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nInform students that on the worksheet \"Staying on Task\" they are going to look over examples of people who are having trouble staying on task. They are to identify a reason why the person is off task.\n\n_Answers:_ 1. Boring work 2. Meaningless work Distracted by person 4. Distracted by hunger 5. Distracted by noise Basically hyperactive 7. Not understanding what to do Work appears too hard 9. Tools broke 10. Work seems too long\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nHave students share their ideas for being on task.\n\n1. Why is it possible for someone to be unable to complete tasks at school but be able to watch television without blinking an eye for several hours? (Interest, motivation, time of day, less need for effort, and so on.)\n\n2. What are some tasks people have to do that are not especially interesting, but are necessary? (Laundry, other chores, maybe schoolwork, and so on.)\n\n3. How can you make dull tasks more interesting for yourself? (Think about something else that you will do when you are finished, time yourself, do it with a friend, and so on.)\n\n4. What are some ways to stay on task for a long period of time, especially when you are doing homework or studying? (Find a quiet place, eat a snack, move around once in awhile.)\n\n5. In each example on the worksheet, what could be done to help the person complete his or her task?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students come up with specific ideas for helping themselves stay on task. Ideas include the following:\n\n\u2022 Reward yourself for completing a task, perhaps at the end, or perhaps when you reach a halfway point (allow yourself to get a snack, take a break).\n\n\u2022 Work with a partner (agree to stay on task and help each other stay focused).\n\n\u2022 Break the task down into smaller steps (make a check mark on your list after each smaller task has been completed).\n\n\u2022 Be sure to ask questions if you don't understand what to do.\n\n\u2022 Allow yourself a certain amount of time to complete a task; set a timer and stick with it.\n\n\u2022 If you' re going to take a break, decide how many minutes long it will be.\n\n2. Have students select a task they find hard to stick with. Gradually increase the time spent on that task. Using a chart and a timer, set goals for how many minutes, laps, math problems, pages (or whatever unit is appropriate for the task) will be the ultimate goal.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List three tasks that are hard for you to complete.\n\n2. For each, give a reason why you find this task difficult to complete.\n\n3. What suggestion could you give yourself for staying on task for each of the three tasks selected?\n\n#  **25.5 Staying on Task**\n\n**Directions:** Each of these people is experiencing difficulty in staying on task. What do you think is the problem in each case?\n\n**Chapter 26**\n\n**Goal-Setting**\n\n#  **26.1 What Is a Goal?**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will give at least one example of an appropriate goal for specific situations or events.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nA goal can be thought of as simply the endpoint of a quest. It could be an educational degree, the acquisition of a desired possession, or a feeling of personal satisfaction in having achieved something. It can be different things to different people. In this lesson, students are to think about goals and how they relate to different situations.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students to help define what a goal is. List their ideas on the board. 2. Define a goal as the endpoint of a quest or target. 3. Have students give examples of some personal goals they have set for themselves. 4. Have students give examples of some goals that others have set for them.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to write at least two examples of goals that would be appropriate for the situations given on the worksheet \"What Is a Goal?\" At this point, the goals do not have to be extremely specific, but they should represent someone working toward the achievement of something. It may help them to think: \"I would like to...\" _Answers (Examples): Family:_ get along better with my father, to write more often to my aunt _Hobby:_ complete my art project, to get to the next level in karate _School:_ have perfect attendance, to pass all of my classes _Sports:_ get to all practices on time, to score fifteen points in the next game\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nAsk students to share their goals for the different areas represented on the worksheet.\n\n1. Do you think most people have goals whether or not they are actually aware of them? 2. What are some goals that students contend with every day? (Classes, homework, passing tests, and so on.) 3. Do you think goals mean more if you set them yourself rather than having someone else decide them for you? 4. How does actually setting a goal (for example, putting it in writing) help you achieve it? (It would be more specific, help you realize what it is that you need to do, and so on.) 5. What are some ways you can keep your goals in mind or stay aware of them? (Write them down, put the list on the refrigerator.) 6. How often do you think your goals change? (Probably pretty often.) 7. Do you think it is important to set goals for yourself?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students find interesting photos in popular magazines that indicate something or someone working toward a goal. It may be a monkey reaching for a banana, a secretary working on a computer, or any other type of picture. Have students share their ideas. (This may make a good bulletin board activity.)\n\n2. Have students select a personal or educational goal that can be shared with the class. Write the goal in huge letters and put it up somewhere in the room. You may want to have students come up with class goals for themselves and\/or a personal goal they want to work on for the next grading period.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Define _goal_. 2. Give two examples of goals. For each, indicate whether it is a personal goal, educational goal, and so on.\n\n#  **26.1 What Is a Goal?**\n\n##  **Directions:**\n\nFor each of these aspects of life, identify at least two goals that would be appropriate.\n\n_Example:_\n\nSchool\u2014to read five books about Russia, to get a high school diploma\n\n#  **26.2 Setting Priorities**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nGiven a situation and list of activities, the student will arrange them in a logical order of priority.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nIt is important to have defined goals so that we know when we have reached them. Part of goal-setting is figuring out what is truly important to us or what is worthy of being a goal.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Have students vote (by raising hands) on which of these pairs of activities they think is more important: math or science, reading or writing, playing baseball or playing football, voting for a politician or reading a book on philosophy, being a doctor or being a lawyer, and so on. 2. Define _priority_ (something that takes precedence, is done first or is most important). 3. Have students write down at least one activity they will give priority to when they get home from school\/work.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents will read over several situations and prioritize the tasks that need to be accomplished for each. Answers may vary, but should make sense. Students can explain their responses when finished.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nHave students talk about how they rated the activities on the worksheet and what variables they considered.\n\n1. What is the limiting factor in situation 1? (Time\u2014one week to accomplish everything.) 2. How would your priorities change if the fine on the library book was $10 a day? (You'd probably do it sooner.) 3. Did most students put the ten-page paper as a high priority? Why might this be high on the list? (Might require more time, more planning.) 4. For situation 2, what is the main factor that would determine how you prioritize the items? (Money.) 5. What item did most students put first and why? (Probably house, most expensive item\u2014or vacation, most interesting or important.) 6. For situation 3, if time and money are not the main factors to help set priorities, what do you think would be in this example? (Interest.) 7. Why would there probably be a lot of variation in the prioritizing of this list among students? (Students are interested in different things.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students make a list of at least ten activities that are presently important for them to do or are things they are thinking about. Then have them rate each priority according to what main factor (time, money, interest, and so on) is associated with that activity. 2. What are some goals that would be reflected by the priorities that are important to someone? Have students write examples of goals based on the ideas on the worksheet and their own examples.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Define _priority_. Give two examples of personal priorities. 2. What goal(s) is\/are reflected by the priorities you have chosen?\n\n#  **26.2 Setting Priorities**\n\n##  **Directions:**\n\nRead the following situations and prioritize the items by using numbers (1, 2, 3, and so on) to indicate what you would do first, second, third, and so on. Your answers may be different from those of other people.\n\n##  **Situation 1**\n\nYou have one week to get the following things done:\n\n__ Return a library book that is overdue at 10 cents a day.\n\n__ Jog a mile.\n\n__ Write a ten-page paper.\n\n__ Get ice cream for a party tonight.\n\n__ Get your hair cut.\n\n##  **Situation 2**\n\nYou have $100,000 to spend.\n\n__ Buy a toothbrush.\n\n__ Buy a dog.\n\n__ Buy a car.\n\n__ Buy a house.\n\n__ Plan for your vacation.\n\n##  **Situation 3**\n\nYou have some free time to do some things you normally may not have time to do. Money is not a problem. Don't feel rushed, either\u2014you have all the time in the world to get everything done.\n\n__ Cook a meal.\n\n__ Go to a movie with your best friend.\n\n__ Clean the toilet.\n\n__ Ski the slopes of Vail, Colorado.\n\n__ Learn to do ballroom dancing.\n\n#  **26.3 Doing Things in Sequence**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nGiven a specific goal as an example, the student will identify several steps that should be done in sequence to accomplish that goal.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nOnce a goal is determined, the steps needed to reach that goal must be thoughtfully sequenced. Some goals, of course, may not require many steps\u2014a short-term goal may be accomplished simply and quickly. Other goals, however\u2014such as completing a longer project, more intensive activity, or acquiring a skill\u2014may require more steps. In this lesson, students are to list steps that would be involved in working toward a goal.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\nHave students list the steps that would most likely be involved in a major project, such as building a house, planning a surprise anniversary party, making a yearbook for the school, painting a huge mural of the major events of the year, and so on.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to consider the goals on the worksheet \"Doing Things in Sequence\" and list several steps that would lead to the attainment of the goal. The point of the lesson is to put the steps in order, not just randomly list activities. Students may need some clarification of this.\n\n_Answers (Examples):_\n\n1. Study daily notes every day after class, review with a friend two days before the test, skim the notes the night before the test\n\n2. Start an exercise program cautiously, increase the intensity gradually, join a vigorous exercise program\n\n3. Clear off all food items, throw old papers into the trash, organize papers into files, put away all remaining loose items\n\n4. Take tennis lessons, practice often, play with a partner who is a good tennis player, try out for the team\n\n5. Set up a time to visit your grandmother, get the recipe, get the items on the recipe, have your grandmother show you any special tricks she uses\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nHave students compare their responses to the examples on the worksheet.\n\n1. Some tasks are easier to organize sequentially. What are some examples of such tasks? (Making something that results in an end product, such as sewing, cooking, building, repairing, and so on.)\n\n2. What are some examples of tasks or goals that don't necessarily have to be done in a particular order? (Cleaning a room, preparing a surprise party, collecting specimens for a nature collage, doing homework for several subjects.)\n\n3. Why is it important to follow steps in order? (Some later steps may depend on getting the first ones done right.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students write short plays (and then role-play them!) indicating what could happen if tasks were done with the steps in the wrong sequence. Skits might involve cooking, dressing, driving a car, and so on.\n\n2. Have students make a list of at least ten other important goals. What steps should be taken to complete the tasks necessary to reach the goal? Do they need to be done sequentially?\n\n3. Students may enjoy making a short (four-panel) cartoon depicting someone doing the tasks involved in reaching a goal. Depending on the interest and ability of the students, they may enjoy making a sort of \"puzzle\" out of the sheet by cutting the panels apart and having other students put them in the correct sequential order.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nWhat are three important sequential steps that are necessary to complete the following goals:\n\n1. To learn to write a report using the word processor\n\n2. To teach my dog to come when he hears me ring a bell\n\n3. To take orders and deliver chocolate bars to neighbors for a fund-raising project for the school\n\n#  **26.3Doing Things in Sequence**\n\n##  **Directions:**\n\nConsider each of these goals. List at least three steps that should be taken in order to help accomplish that goal.\n\n**Goal 1:** To get an A on the next science chapter test\n\n**Goal 2:** To become more physically fit\n\n**Goal 3:** To organize the mess all over my desk\n\n**Goal 4:** To make the varsity tennis team\n\n**Goal 5:** To learn how to cook lasagna the way my grandmother does\n\n#  **26.4 Realistic Goals**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nGiven situations, the student will identify and give examples of realistic goals.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nPart of good goal-setting is making sure that the goals are reasonable and attainable. Not everyone can become a president, rock star, millionaire, or bank president. Factors such as education, luck, training, personality, physical ability, and lots of others can affect how realistic a goal is for someone. In this lesson, students are to identify whether or not suggested goals are realistic for the individuals in the examples.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Hold up a huge book for students and inform them that your goal for them is to read the entire book by the next day and turn in a fifty-page paper explaining your opinion of the book. After a pause, ask them how they feel about your goal for them.\n\n2. Have students comment about why a goal may be attainable for one person but not another.\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to read examples of individuals and their goals on the worksheet \"Realistic Goals.\" They are to decide whether or not the goals seem realistic for the people involved.\n\n_Answers:_ 1. Yes 2. Yes 3. No 4. No 5. Yes 6. No 7. No 8. Yes\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nHave students explain their responses. In some cases, students may have a difference of opinion as to whether or not the individual could attain the goal. Some may insist that with hard work or good luck, a goal could be attained. Try to keep students directed toward using only the information given on the worksheet.\n\n1. Do you think any goal is attainable if someone tries hard enough or works long enough toward that goal? (No\u2014sometimes other factors work against you, such as a physical disability.)\n\n2. What if you don't have any ability in a certain area? Would you still experience some success if you worked toward a goal even if you didn't make the original goal? (Probably\u2014and that is a good reason for adjusting the goal.)\n\n3. Why is it important to consider your abilities and interests and other resources before making your goals? (You want to set yourself up for success.)\n\n4. What about people who \"beat the odds\" and do well even though others never thought they would reach their goals? How can you explain that? (This happens, but not very often!)\n\n5. There are other factors you must consider when thinking about goals. What factor is important for Alvin in situation 1 if he is to reach his goal of working the night shift? (He must perform well at night, he still has to get to work on time, and so on.)\n\n6. In situation 2, what is required besides simply having artistic ability for Andi to be successful as a fashion designer? (She may need some experience, further training, good luck.)\n\n7. Why is situation 3 probably unrealistic for Pete? (He just does not have the required physical type and ability.)\n\n8. How likely is it that Pete will \"beat the odds\"? (Not likely.)\n\n9. What could happen? (He could grow, practice a lot, and so on.)\n\n10. What might be a more attainable goal for Pete? (Become a good sports statistician or sports commentator.)\n\n11. What is one reason it would be difficult for Alana in situation 4 to become a doctor in a foreign (for her) country? (Language barrier.)\n\n12. What is the main reason this goal is probably unrealistic for Alana? (She doesn't enjoy science, and there is a lot of science involved in training to become a doctor.)\n\n13. How could the language problem be resolved for Alana, even if she decided not to pursue medicine? (She could take English classes, get a tutor, spend some time in an English-speaking country.)\n\n14. What is the problem with Amanda's goal in situation 6? (She hates to do the activity that would be the primary responsibility for the job.)\n\n15. Could Amanda still be successful at being a chef even though she did not enjoy it? (Sure.)\n\n16. Could someone be good at doing a job, even if he or she didn't enjoy the job? (Yes.)\n\n17. How much is enjoyment a factor in being successful in reaching a goal? (It is sometimes not even related at all.)\n\n18. What do you see as David's problem in situation 7? (He is not dedicated to following a plan that will help him reach his goal.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students complete a \"Goal Grid\" containing examples of the following information:\n\nTeacher: Add other goals as desired.\n\n2. Have students complete a personal \"Goal Grid.\" Have them select at least three areas such as educational, social, personal, and so on.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Give an example of a goal that is realistic for you in the area of school.\n\n2. Give an example of a goal that is desirable, but unrealistic for you in the area of sports.\n\n#  **26.4 Realistic Goals**\n\n##  **Directions:**\n\nRead the following situations. Do you think the individuals have set realistic goals for themselves? Write Yes or No after each situation.\n\n1. Alvin doesn't like to get up early in the morning. He would like to find a job working the night shift at a factory. Is this a realistic goal for Alvin?\n\n2. Andi is very artistic. She would like to go to art school to learn how to draw better and then become a fashion designer. Is this a realistic goal for Andi?\n\n3. Pete is short and not very athletic. When he is older, he wants to play on a professional basketball team. Is this a realistic goal for Pete?\n\n4. Alana is from a country where Spanish is spoken. She does not know very much English, although she is quick to learn. She is planning to stay in the new country and wants to become a doctor. She does not enjoy science classes. Is this a realistic goal for Alana?\n\n5. Rich likes to work on cars. In fact, he is very good at fixing all kinds of machines. Some day he would like to open a repair shop for small engines. Is this a realistic goal for Rich?\n\n6. Amanda hates to cook. When she tries, though, she can follow a recipe pretty well. She wants to open a restaurant and be the main chef. Is this a realistic goal for Amanda?\n\n7. David wants to lose ten pounds quickly. He has started jogging, eating salads for lunch, and limiting his other meals to having only three desserts. He followed this plan for two days. Is this a realistic goal for David?\n\n8. Danielle is very pretty and outgoing. She likes to be the center of attention and is doing well in her modeling classes. She has decided to try out for a small part in a local movie. Is this a realistic goal for Danielle?\n\n#  **26.5 Adjusting Goals**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will identify reasons why individuals may need to adjust their original goals.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nWhen it is evident to an individual that a particular goal is not realistic, attainable, or appropriate, it is important to recognize that a new goal is needed and to make those adjustments.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Announce to students that you have decided to play professional hockey for a living. After comments have died down, ask students to explain why they think that goal may not be appropriate for you. (Probably unrealistic.) 2. Have students assist you in developing a new, but related goal. Perhaps you will play another sport, perhaps you will become a passionate hockey fan, and so on. 3. Have students list reasons why your original goal may be unrealistic for you. (Ability, interests, geographical location, and so on.)\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to match situations with reason & for adjusting their goals. _Answers:_ 1. c 2. b 3. a 4. e 5. d\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nGo through the situations with students and have them select specific clues that indicated why the individual needed to adjust his or her goal.\n\n1. How often do you think people change their goals? (All the time.) 2. Are the reasons that people need to change goals periodically all bad or negative? (Not at all\u2014one may outgrow a goal that is too easy to achieve.) 3. When you adjust a goal \"downward,\" isn't that lowering your standards or just giving up? (Not necessarily; it could be more appropriate for the ability and interests of the individual.) 4. Can you think of some examples of when you changed goals because you became interested in something else? 5. What are some examples of changing a goal because you learned something new or obtained information that changed what you thought about something? 6. Have you had any unpleasant experiences that encouraged you to change your goals? 7. Why is it important to know when it is a good time to change your goals? (So you don't waste a lot of time pursuing something that is not really what you want.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students write a short story in which a character (perhaps based on a true experience) has a major change in goals. Have the other students identify the reason(s) why the change was necessary or beneficial. 2. Have students find cartoons (as in the Sunday paper) for examples of characters changing goals. Comics such as _Garfield_ and _Peanuts_ are good sources!\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. List three reasons why someone might have to adjust an original goal. 2. Give an example of each of the three reasons you listed above.\n\n#  **26.5 Adjusting Goals**\n\n##  **Directions:**\n\nThese people have to adjust their goals for various reasons. Match the reasons on the right with the situations on the left.\n\n1.| \"Ace\" couldn't make the varsity basketball team, so he decided to try out for the junior varsity team.| a.| Changing a goal because of a new interest  \n---|---|---|---  \n_________  \n2.| Jennifer realized that working a paper route was not going to get her enough money for her class trip in the spring, so she got several jobs cleaning houses, which earns her more money.| b.| Changing a goal because the original goal is off-track or won't bring you toward a larger goal.  \n_________  \n3.| After going to a concert, Belinda decided that she no longer wants to be an actress \u2014she wants to sing!| c.| Changing a goal to match your ability  \n_________  \n4.| Fred wanted to become a surgeon until he took his first medical class and got poor grades, hated the thought of blood, and was told by his professors that he would never make it.| d.| Changing a goal because of new information  \n_________  \n5.| Carter didn't realize he could get a scholarship that would completely pay his way through college until he talked to his counselor. Then he decided he wanted to transfer to the state school that offered the scholarship.| e.| Changing a goal because of an unpleasant experience  \n_________\n**Chapter 27**\n\n**Risk-Taking**\n\n#  **27.1 What Is a Risk?**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will define a risk and give at least two examples.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nLife is filled with risks. Every time you cross a street, sign your name, or smoke a cigarette you are dabbling with some form of risk. In this lesson students are given a simple definition of a risk\u2014something associated with danger or loss\u2014and consider several examples of risks.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students to raise their hands if they want to volunteer. Do not mention what they are volunteering for. Inform them that those with their hands up are risk-takers! 2. Ask students to consider the following situation: They have to pick Door 1 or Door 2\u2014behind one of them is a million dollars, and behind the other is something that will cause them great pain. Ask students to raise their hands if they would participate in this \"experiment.\" Are these students risk-takers? 3. Define _risk_ (something that potentially could involve danger or loss).\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nStudents are to consider the goals and situations on the worksheet \"What Is a Risk?\" and decide which of the two risks that would help attain the goal is more costly or is the greater risk. They are to put a check mark in front of that answer. _Answers:_ 1. Second\u2014you don't know the reputation of the person. 2. First\u2014assuming that you do not have a recommendation of the work of this facility. 3. First\u2014a signal is much safer. 4. First\u2014there are many dangers associated with hitchhiking. 5. Second\u2014this doesn't really prove anything. 6. Second\u2014young horses can have attitudes and accidents! 7. Second\u2014this is a definite commitment, perhaps one that could\/should be tried later. 8. Second\u2014it is putting off something that needs to be done soon.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nHave students discuss why the various responses are or are not risky toward achieving the goal.\n\n1. What are some examples of risks that you take every day? 2. How dangerous are these risks? (Probably not very.) 3. Are there any activities that people do that do not have some element of risk? 4. Does every risk involve a goal? (Of some sort!) 5. When you get in the habit of doing something often\u2014for example, crossing a busy street in the middle\u2014why does it seem to be less risky? (Becomes a habit, you get good at it.) 6. Are there things that are risky for one person but may not be for another? Explain. (Yes\u2014skill is associated with how much risk is involved, for example, sports, driving, and so on.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students cut out magazine or newspaper articles that show someone taking a risk. Try to decide what the goal is behind the risk being taken. 2. Have students list 15 risks they will probably face during that day.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. Define or explain what a risk is. 2. Give two examples of risks you have taken recently. 3. Explain what goal was behind each of the two risks.\n\n **Name _____ Date _____**\n\n#  **27.1 What Is a Risk?**\n\n##  **Directions:**\n\nRead through these goals and some risks that could be associated with achieving them. Decide which of the two is the greater risk. Put a check mark in front of your choice.\n\n#  **27.2 Why Take Risks?**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will state three to five reasons why people take risks.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nPeople take risks for a variety of reasons. Some may include: excitement or the thrill of danger; desire to improve their situation in some way (for example, gaining money); peer pressure; lack of knowledge; desire to push themselves to learn or become something different; or perhaps because there seems to be no other alternatives. In this lesson, these motives are examined.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Pass out a $1 bill (can be counterfeit or play money!) to each student. Inform them that they can give you the dollar to get a ticket that reveals whether they are the winner. The winner will get $100. Do they want to play? (Most will say yes.) Why? (The odds are good, the consequences are good, the risk is small.)\n\n2. Repeat the activity, but this time tell students that everyone will get a consequence, including one of the following: $100, a slow painful death, an hour's detention, a candy bar, a free concert ticket of their choice, or thirty hours of community service. Do they want to play? (Some will probably have mixed emotions now\u2014the risks are greater and not predictable.)\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nSeveral reasons why people take risks are listed on the right-hand side of the worksheet \"Why Take Risks?\" Students are to match the risks on the left with a possible reason why someone would take that risk from the choices on the right. There are several possibilities for each risk; students should explain their thinking.\n\n_Answers (will vary; examples):_ 1. a, d 2. a, b 3. b 4. b, c, e 5. a, d, e, f 6. a, d 7. b, d 8. c, e 9. a, f 10. a, d, e 11. b, e 12. d, f 13. a, b, d 14. a, f 15. e 16. a, d, f 17. c, f 18. b, e\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nThe students' responses should generate quite a bit of discussion, as their answers may vary widely.\n\n1. What risks do you consider exciting?\n\n2. Do you consider yourself a risk-taker or someone who is more conservative and likes to play it safe?\n\n3. What situations on the worksheet involve danger?\n\n4. What risks could you take in your life that would improve your situation\u2014for example, change your job, gain you more possessions, and so on?\n\n5. What is stopping you from taking those risks?\n\n6. Have you ever been in a situation in which you felt there was only one alternative\u2014and that was risky? (Perhaps involving disease or an accident.)\n\n7. What risks are a result of peer pressure in your group?\n\n8. What would happen if you resisted peer pressure from your group?\n\n9. Why would it be a risk to break away from peer pressure?\n\n10. What risks would you take to improve yourself? Do you desire to make self-improvement changes?\n\n11. What are ways to combat ignorance? (Experience, education, asking people for advice, and so on.)\n\n12. Why do you think some people are so hesitant to ask others for information that could prevent them from getting into a risky situation? (Embarrassed.)\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students write a paragraph or short story about the most exciting risk they have taken. What was it like? Was the outcome good or bad? Would they do it again?\n\n2. Have students do a book report on a famous risk-taker (for example, a race car driver, stunt person, aerialist, escape artist such as Harry Houdini or Criss Angle, and so on). What motivation drives these people to take risks?\n\n3. Have students make a personal list of at least five things they would like to do but are afraid to try or are unwilling to risk.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nGive one example of a risk that could be taken for each of the following reasons:\n\n1. Thrill\n\n2. Improve your life\n\n3. Last resort\n\n4. Peer pressure\n\n5. Self-improvement\n\n6. Being unaware of the risk\n\n**Name _____ Date _____**\n\n#  **27.2 Why Take Risks?**\n\n##  **Directions:**\n\nMatch the risks on the left with the reasons or motives on the right. There may be more than one possible correct answer. Be able to justify or explain your responses.\n\n##  **Risk**\n\n__ 1. Riding a roller coaster without holding onto the bar\n\n__ 2. Buying a lottery ticket\n\n **__** 3. Investing money in the stock market\n\n__ 4. Having surgery\n\n__ 5. Taking recreational drugs\n\n__ 6. Drinking more alcohol than you really want or intend to\n\n__ 7. Joining a union\n\n__ 8. Giving a speech in front of people you don't know\n\n__ 9. Having sex without using protection\n\n__ 10. Getting a very different haircut\n\n__ 11. Going back to school after you had quit\n\n__ 12. Not wearing a seatbelt\n\n__ 13. Gambling with a small amount of money\n\n__ 14. Gambling with your life savings\n\n__ 15. Refusing to join in a group that is teasing someone else\n\n__ 16. Driving 100 miles an hour along a country road\n\n__ 17. Introducing your boyfriend\/girlfriend to your very pretty\/handsome cousin\n\n__ 18. Taking a class on how to sell real estate\n\n##  **Reasons**\n\na. Desire for thrill, excitement, attention\n\nb. Wanting to improve your life or situation\n\nc. No other alternatives\n\nd. Peer pressure\n\ne. Wanting to change yourself, improve self\n\nf. Being unaware of the risks\n\n#  **27.3 Acceptable Risks**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will give a reason why a situation is or is not an acceptable risk.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nThere are times when taking a risk might result in a good or acceptable outcome. On the other hand, taking a foolish risk might end up costing you money, pride, time, or other loss. Wisdom is being able to look at the whole situation and take a risk that you are willing to live with.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Write \"acceptable risk\" and \"unacceptable risk\" on the board. Ask students to assign each of these situations to the appropriate category:\n\na. Crossing a busy street blindfolded\n\nb. Sampling five different types of candy bars to pick the best\n\nc. Letting your mother choose your clothes for your next date\n\nd. Swimming across a lake\n\n2. Every risk involves the possibility of some loss. Have students tell what is at stake in the examples above. (Life, stomach pain, status, safety.)\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nOn the worksheet \"Acceptable Risks,\" students are to read the examples and decide whether or not the risky situation is an acceptable risk. Discuss why or why not. _Answers:_ 1. Acceptable, if the teacher has been willing to accept changes in the past. 2. Not acceptable\u2014it will be hard not to bring up the situation after spending so much time together. 3. Not acceptable\u2014puppies chew. 4. Not acceptable\u2014friend doesn't have a good record for repaying.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\nWhat is \"acceptable\" for one person might not be tolerable for another. Be sure to have students explain their opinions.\n\n1. What are some risky things that would involve personal safety? ( Jumping out of an airplane, physical activities, getting into a fight.) 2. Why would it be important to understand the risk before getting involved? (Make sure you are up to the challenge.) 3. What are some activities that you might find an acceptable risk but someone else might have a problem with?\n\n##  **Extension Activity:**\n\nHave students conduct an informal survey called \"Would you ever...?\" and include items such as: Would you ever get in a car with a drunk driver? Would you ever eat something if you didn't know what it was? Would you ever jump out of an airplane? Get students talking about risk-taking and how others view a risk.\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\nGive an example of an acceptable risk and an unacceptable risk. Explain your answers.\n\nName **_____ Date _____**\n\n#  **27.3 Acceptable Risks**\n\n##  **Directions:**\n\nThese characters need to make a decision about taking a risk. Which decisions do you think would be acceptable risks for each one?\n\n1. Landon has a report due and his teacher wanted it done on a computer. Landon didn 't get to the computer lab before it closed, so he handwrote the report. His teacher usually is pretty understanding about schedules, so he thinks it will be OK if he turns it in as it is. **Acceptable risk Not acceptable**\n\n2. Melanie doesn't want to hurt her friend's feelings, so she isn't going to tell her about the party that everyone else is going to. She is supposed to spend the night with her friend, and they are going shopping after school together. **Acceptable risk Not acceptable**\n\n3. Dennis didn't want to pick up his clothes, even though his new puppy chews on everything. He left a brand-new shirt on the floor along with a good pair of jeans. And here comes the puppy. **Acceptable risk Not acceptable**\n\n4. Aaliyah's friend wants to borrow some money from her. The last time she lent her friend money, it took about two months for her friend to pay her back. She had to keep bothering her friend to get the money because her friend always had excuses for why she couldn't pay. **Acceptable risk Not acceptable**\n\n#  **27.4 Handling Fear**\n\n##  **Objective:**\n\nThe student will state several ways to handle a frightening situation.\n\n##  **Comments:**\n\nPeople are fearful of many things\u2014snakes, roller coasters, scary movies, new people, new places, unpleasant surprises, and so on. Special learners may need extra coaching and strategies to help cope with frightening situations.\n\n##  **Introductory Activities:**\n\n1. Ask students if they have ever watched the TV show _Fear Factor_. What are some common things that people are afraid of? (Some good ones to get them started are spiders, heights, darkness, storms.)\n\n2. Talk about examples of fearfulness in these situations: speaking in front of people, taking responsibility, having a confrontation, getting into trouble. What are some other things that cause people to be afraid?\n\n##  **Activity:**\n\nThere are some tips for handling scary situations on the worksheet \"Handling Fear.\" Students should consider each example and try to use at least one or two tips for each to show how the person could handle his or her fear. _Answers:_ 1. a\u2014Find out the schedule. c\u2014Ride with someone at first. 2. c\u2014Swim with someone else. d\u2014Know when he is too tired to go on. 3. a\u2014Find out how old the child is, what he's like, and so on. e\u2014Babysit for a short time with the parent close by. 4. a.\u2014Find out what the girl is interested in. c\u2014Go up to her with a friend. 5. a\u2014Find out how long the speech has to be. d\u2014Talk about something you know well. 6. a\u2014Find out whether the principal is angry or just wants information. d\u2014Don't go in with an attitude. 7. a\u2014Ask someone to help. b\u2014Watch someone else work the machine. 8 a\u2014Be prepared, find out where they will be. c\u2014Walk with a friend if you can.\n\n##  **Discussion:**\n\n1. Sometimes things you are afraid of will not be so scary if you are prepared ahead of time. Which examples on the worksheet fall into that category? (1, 5, 7) 2. If people or situations are frightening to someone, it can be helpful to have another person around. Who would be some people that you can count on for moral support?\n\n##  **Extension Activities:**\n\n1. Have students predict and then research common fears. The site www.faceyourfearstoday.com lists common fears and phobias, A through Z. How many of them did you already know? 2. Have students write a short paper, \"Facing My Fear.\" Why is their particular fear bothersome to them? What have they done about it? How have they shown bravery?\n\n##  **Evaluation:**\n\n1. What is one situation that makes you fearful? 2. What is one tip that would help you in this situation?\n\n **Name _____ Date _____**\n\n#  **27.4 Handling Fear**\n\n##  **Directions:**\n\nHow can these tips help someone who is frightened in the following situations? a. Ask questions. b. Watch someone else. c. Have a partner. d. Know your limits. e. Take a small step first.\n\n1. Vanessa is afraid to use public transportation.\n\n2. Connor is a good swimmer, but he isn't sure he can swim the length of the pool.\n\n3. Amanda was asked to babysit for a small child.\n\n4. Eric wants to talk to a new girl in class, but he feels nervous.\n\n5. Angelina is worried about giving a speech in front of the class.\n\n6. Ian is called into the principal's office for being involved in a food fight in the cafeteria.\n\n7. Michelle is not sure she knows how to work the cash register for her job.\n\n8. Whenever Devin walks home from school he is bullied by some boys who live near him.\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}}
+{"text":" \n# Forensic Fingerprints\n\n## Advanced Forensic Science Series\n\nMax M. Houck, PhD, FRSC\n\nManaging Director, Forensic & Intelligence Services, LLC, St. Petersburg, FL, USA\n\n# Table of Contents\n\nCover image\n\nTitle page\n\nCopyright\n\nSenior Editor: Biography\n\nList of Contributors\n\nForeword\n\nPreface\n\nSection 1. Introduction\n\nIntroduction\n\nPrinciples of Forensic Science\n\nWhat Is Forensic Science?\n\nThe Trace as the Basic Unit of Forensic Science\n\nTwo Native Principles\n\nNonnative Principles\n\nSee also\n\nForensic Classification of Evidence\n\nIntroduction\n\nMethods of Classification\n\nClass Level Information\n\nUniqueness and Individualization\n\nRelationships and Context\n\nSee also\n\nInterpretation\/The Comparative Method\n\nIntroduction\n\nAnalogy and Comparison within a Forensic Process\n\nThe Comparative Method within Forensic Science\n\nSee also\n\nFingerprints\n\nIntroduction\n\nWhat Is a Fingerprint?\n\nRecovery of Fingerprints from Scenes\n\nFingerprint Practice\n\nCurrent Issues in the Field\n\nConclusion\n\nSee also\n\nKey Terms\n\nReview Questions\n\nDiscussion Questions\n\nSection 2. Chemistry and Visualization\n\nIntroduction\n\nChemistry of Print Residue\n\nIntroduction\n\nSources of Fingerprint Residue\n\nFactors Affecting Fingerprint Composition\n\nFuture Directions and Conclusions\n\nSee also\n\nSequential Treatment and Enhancement\n\nIntroduction\n\nSequential Application of Fingerprint Development Techniques\n\nProcess Compatibility\n\nOther Factors to Be Considered\n\nPhotographic Recording of Developed Fingerprints\n\nFingerprints in Contaminants\n\nContaminated Exhibits\n\nPackaging and Handling of Evidence\n\nPreliminary Procedures\n\nSequence Selection and Complex Exhibits\n\nInitial Visual Examination\u2014All Exhibits\n\nInitial Fluorescence Examination\u2014All Exhibits\n\nSurface Compatibility and Performance\n\nOperational Performance\n\nProcess Selection Charts\n\nDifficult Surface Types\n\nMetal Surfaces\n\nFabrics\n\nSkin\n\nSee also\n\nVisualization or Development of Crime Scene Fingerprints\n\nIntroduction\n\nOrigins of Fingerprint Deposits\n\nFingerprint Patterns, Characteristics, and Details\n\nImaging of Developed Fingerprints\n\nDevelopment or Visualization of Latent Fingerprints\n\nLatent Fingerprint Chemical Constituents\n\nOperational Methods of Visualizing Fingerprints\n\nChoice of Technique\n\nPackaging and Handling of Evidence\n\nOperational Fingerprint Development Processes\n\nHealth and Safety Procedures\n\n1,8-Diazafluoren-9-one\n\nGun Bluing and Similar Metal-Toning Treatments\n\nIodine Vapor Fuming\n\nIndanedione\n\nNinhydrin\n\nPhysical Developer\n\nPowders\n\nPowder Suspensions\n\nSmall Particle Reagent\n\nBasic Violet 3 (Gentian Violet, Crystal Violet, CI 42555)\n\nSuperglue\n\nVacuum Metal Deposition\n\nDevelopment of Contaminated Fingermarks\n\nOther Reported Techniques\n\nSee also\n\nKey Terms\n\nReview Questions\n\nDiscussion Questions\n\nSection 3. Fingerprints\n\nIntroduction\n\nFingerprint Sciences\n\nIntroduction\n\nEarly History (221 BC\u2013AD 220)\n\nRecognition of Friction Ridge Skin (1684\u20131858)\n\nCriminal Applications and as a Means of Identification (1880\u20131905)\n\nDevelopments in Comparison and Identification (1914\u20131973)\n\nRecent (1990\u2013Present)\n\nEarly Scientific Foundation\n\nFurther Scientific Research\n\nFingerprint Detection and Enhancement\n\nSee also\n\nFriction Ridge Print Examination\u2014Interpretation and the Comparative Method\n\nFriction Ridge Print Examination\u2014Interpretation and the Comparative Method\n\nAnalysis, Comparison, Evaluation, and Verification\n\nACE-V as an Applied Science\n\nBlind Verification\n\nConsultation\n\nComplex Prints\n\nConflict Resolution\n\nDocumentation\n\nSee also\n\nAnalysis, Comparison, Evaluation, and Verification (ACE-V)\n\nIntroduction\n\nHistory and Etiology\n\nThe Process\n\nQuality and Quantity of Detail\n\nTesting\n\nForensic Disciplines That Have Not Adopted ACE-V\n\nConclusion\n\nSee also\n\nIdentification and Classification\n\nIntroduction\n\nDevelopment of Friction Ridge Skin\n\nStructure of Friction Ridge Skin\n\nHistorical Scientific Research into Friction Ridge Skin\n\nUniqueness and Permanence\u2014The Foundations of Friction Ridge Identification\n\nEarly Applications of Friction Ridge Identification\n\nCriminal Identification Prior to the Use of Fingerprints\n\nDevelopment of Friction Ridge Classification Systems\n\nIncorporation of Computers into the Science of Friction Ridge Identification\n\nConclusion\n\nSee also\n\nKey Terms\n\nReview Questions\n\nDiscussion Questions\n\nSection 4. Automation\n\nIntroduction\n\nAutomated Methods, Including Criminal Records Administration\n\nIntroduction\n\nBrief History of Fingerprint Classification\n\nHistory of Criminal Identification\n\nHistory of Fingerprint Automation\n\nCriminal History Information Systems\n\nCurrent Practice and Future Improvement\n\nConclusion\n\nSee also\n\nAutomated Fingerprint Identification Systems (AFIS)\n\nIntroduction\n\nExemplar Database\n\nSearching Latent Prints in AFIS\n\nAFIS Results\n\nInteroperability\n\nThe Future of AFIS\n\nSee also\n\nKey Terms\n\nReview Questions\n\nDiscussion Questions\n\nSection 5. Interpretation\n\nIntroduction\n\nFriction Ridge Skin Impression Evidence\u2014Standards of Proof\n\nIntroduction\n\nHistorical Milestone\n\nCurrent Views and Practice\n\nRange of Possible Conclusions in the Field\n\nThe Move toward Quality\n\nConclusion\n\nSee also\n\nSequential Unmasking: Minimizing Observer Effects in Forensic Science\n\nThe Concept of Sequential Unmasking\n\nThe Foundational Basis for Cognitive Effects\n\nSupport for Blind Testing in Forensic Science\n\nArguments against Blind Testing in Forensic Science\n\nSequential Unmasking in Forensic Science\n\nDomain-Relevant (and Domain-Irrelevant) Information\n\nExemplar Line-Ups\n\nConclusion\n\nSee also\n\nOverview and Meaning of Identification\/Individualization\n\nThe Identification Process: A Reduction Process to a Single Source\n\nThe Inferential Schemes\n\nRelationship with Probabilities\n\nThe Bayesian Framework for Evaluating Identification Findings\n\nConclusion\n\nSee also\n\nKey Terms\n\nReview Questions\n\nDiscussion Questions\n\nSection 6. Other Methods\n\nBarefoot Print Marks\n\nHistory\n\nCrime Scene Evidence Collection\n\nCollection of Exemplars from a Person of Interest\n\nMethodology for Examination of Foot Morphology Cases\n\nAnalysis of Crime Scene Impressions\n\nAnalysis of the Known Exemplars\n\nComparison\n\nEvaluation\n\nVerification\n\nSee also\n\nThe Friction Ridge Skin of the Feet\n\nIntroduction\n\nHistory\n\nEmbryology and Development of the Friction Ridges of the Foot\n\nRecording Known Impressions of the Foot\n\nRidge Flow of the Feet\n\nToes\n\nSee also\n\nPalm Prints\n\nInterdigital Region\n\nHypothenar\n\nThenar\n\nSee also\n\nKey Terms\n\nReview Questions\n\nDiscussion Questions\n\nSection 7. Professional issues\n\nIntroduction\n\nCrime Scene to Court\n\nIntroduction\n\nTask\n\nModels\n\nForensic Strategies\n\nIntegrated Case Management\n\nSummary\n\nSee also\n\nForensic Laboratory Reports\n\nContents of a Report\u2014A \"Science\" Standard\n\nContents of Report: Legal Standards\n\nReports: Stand-Alone Evidence or Support for a Testifying Expert\n\nEthical Considerations and Forensic Reports\n\nConclusion\n\nSee also\n\nHealth and Safety\n\nOccupational Health and Safety Policy\n\nSpecific Laboratory Hazards\n\nHazards in the Field\n\nSee also\n\nMeasurement Uncertainty\n\nGlossary\n\nNomenclature\n\nMeasurement\n\nMeasurement to Meaning\n\nMeasurement Uncertainty\n\nMeaning Requires Uncertainty\n\nSee also\n\nKey Terms\n\nReview Questions\n\nDiscussion Questions\n\nIndex\n\n# Copyright\n\nAcademic Press is an imprint of Elsevier\n\n125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, UK\n\n525 B Street, Suite 1800, San Diego, CA 92101-4495, USA\n\n50 Hampshire Street, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA\n\nThe Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, UK\n\nCopyright \u00a9 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.\n\nAll chapters are direct reprints from Encyclopedia of Forensic Science 2e.\n\nException: Chapter \"Identification and Classification\" 2013 Published by Elsevier Ltd.\n\nNo part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher's permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com\/permissions.\n\nThis book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).\n\nNotices\n\nKnowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.\n\nPractitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.\n\nTo the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and\/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.\n\nISBN: 978-0-12-800573-6\n\nISSN: 2352-6238\n\nBritish Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data\n\nA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library\n\nLibrary of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data\n\nA catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress\n\nFor information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at www.elsevier.com\n\nPublisher: Sara Tenney\n\nAcquisitions Editor: Elizabeth Brown\n\nEditorial Project Manager: Joslyn Chaiprasert-Paguio\n\nProduction Project Manager: Lisa Jones\n\nDesigner: Matthew Limbert\n\nTypeset by TNQ Books and Journals\n\nwww.tnq.co.in\n\nPrinted and bound in the United States of America\n\n# Senior Editor: Biography\n\nMax M. Houck is an internationally recognized forensic expert with research interests in anthropology, trace evidence, education, and the fundamentals of forensic science, both as a science and as an enterprise. He has worked in the private sector, the public sector (at the regional and federal levels), and in academia. Dr Houck has published in a wide variety of areas in the field, in books, book chapters, and peer-reviewed journals. His casework includes the Branch Davidian Investigation, the September 11 attacks on the Pentagon, the D.B. Cooper case, the US Embassy bombings in Africa, and the West Memphis Three case. He served for 6 years as the Chair of the Forensic Science Educational Program Accreditation Commission (FEPAC). Dr Houck is a founding coeditor of the journal Forensic Science Policy and Management, with Jay Siegel; he has also coauthored a major textbook with Siegel, Fundamentals of Forensic Science. In 2012, Dr Houck was in the top 1% of connected professionals on LinkedIn. Dr Houck is currently the Managing Director of Forensic and Intelligence Services, LLC, St. Petersburg, FL.\n\n# List of Contributors\n\nE. Burton, Greater Manchester Police Forensic Services Branch, Manchester, UK\n\nM. Carter, Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department Forensic Laboratory, Las Vegas, NV, USA\n\nC. Champod, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland\n\nF. Crispino, Universit\u00e9 du Qu\u00e9bec \u00e0 Trois-Rivi\u00e8res, Trois-Rivi\u00e8res, QC, Canada\n\nJ. Epstein, Widener University School of Law, Wilmington, DE, USA\n\nA.A. Frick, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia\n\nP. Fritz, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia\n\nI. Hamilton, Glasgow Fingerprint Unit, Forensic Services, Scottish Police Services Authority, Glasgow, UK\n\nM.M. Houck, Consolidated Forensic Laboratory, Washington, DC, USA\n\nL.A. Hutchins, US Government, Washington, DC, USA\n\nK. Inman, California State University, Hayward, CA, USA\n\nD. Johnson, Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department, Las Vegas, NV, USA\n\nR.B. Kennedy, Orleans, ON, Canada\n\nT. Kent, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, UK\n\nS.W. Lewis, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia\n\nA. Loll, Phoenix Police Crime Laboratory, Phoenix, AZ, USA\n\nA. Maceo, Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department Forensic Laboratory, Las Vegas, NV, USA\n\nS.L. Massey, Campbell River, BC, Canada\n\nD.L. Ortiz-Bacon, US Army Criminal Investigation Laboratory \u2013 Expeditionary Forensic Division, Forest Park, GA, USA\n\nK. Ramsey, Greater Manchester Police Forensic Services Branch, Manchester, UK\n\nM. Reznicek, Federal Bureau of Investigation \u2013 Latent Print Units, Quantico, VA, USA\n\nN. Rudin, Forensic DNA Consultant, Mountain View, CA, USA\n\nR.M. Ruth, Federal Bureau of Investigation \u2013 Latent Print Units, Quantico, VA, USA\n\nB. Saw, Australian Federal Police, Canberra, ACT, Australia\n\nD.M. Schilens, Federal Bureau of Investigation \u2013 Latent Print Units, Quantico, VA, USA\n\nN. Scudder, Australian Federal Police, Canberra, ACT, Australia\n\nB. Stromback, Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department Forensic Laboratory, Las Vegas, NV, USA\n\nC.L. Swanson, US Army Criminal Investigation Laboratory \u2013 Expeditionary Forensic Division, Forest Park, GA, USA\n\nL. Tierney, Gaithersburg, MD, USA\n\nTed Vosk, Criminal Defense Law Firm, Kirkland, WA, USA\n\n# Foreword\n\n\"The best thing for being sad\", replied Merlin, beginning to puff and blow, \"is to learn something. That's the only thing that never fails. You may grow old and trembling in your anatomies, you may lie awake at night listening to the disorder of your veins, you may miss your only love, you may see the world about you devastated by evil lunatics, or know your honor trampled in the sewers of baser minds. There is only one thing for it then \u2014 to learn. Learn why the world wags and what wags it. That is the only thing which the mind can never exhaust, never alienate, never be tortured by, never fear or distrust, and never dream of regretting. Learning is the only thing for you. Look what a lot of things there are to learn\".\n\nT.H. White, The Once and Future King\n\nForensic science has much to learn. The breadth of the discipline alone should render any reasonably learned person dizzy with expectations; insects, explosives, liver functions, DNA, firearms, textiles, adhesives, skeletons, and so on the list goes on forever. That is because anything, truly anything, can become evidence, from a single fiber to an entire ocean liner. Forensic science does not lack for specialized knowledge (some might stay too specialized), but what it is wanting is knowledge that is comprehensive, integrated, and foundational. Introductions to forensic science abound, and many highly specialized texts are also available, but a gap exists between the two: a bridge from novice to practitioner. As the 2009 NRC report noted:\n\nForensic science examiners need to understand the principles, practices, and contexts of scientific methodology, as well as the distinctive features of their specialty. Ideally, training should move beyond apprentice-like transmittal of practices to education based on scientifically valid principles.\n\nNRC (2009, pp. 26\u201327).\n\nThe Advanced Forensic Sciences Series seeks to fill that gap. It is a unique source, combining entries from the world's leading specialists who contributed to the second edition of the award-winning Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences and organizing them by topic into a series of volumes that are philosophically grounded yet professionally specialized. The series is composed of 12 volumes that cover the breadth of forensic science:\n\n1. Professional Issues\n\n2. Biology\n\n3. Chemistry\n\n4. Fingerprints\n\n5. Firearms\n\n6. Materials Analysis\n\n7. Pathology\n\n8. Anthropology\n\n9. Engineering\n\n10. Behavioral\n\n11. Digital and Documents\n\n12. Toxicology and Drugs\n\nEach volume contains sections common to all forensic sciences, such as professionalism, ethics, health and safety, and court testimony, and sections relevant to the topics in that particular subdiscipline. Pedagogy is included, providing review questions, discussion questions, the latest references in additional readings, and key words. Thus, each volume is suitable as a technical reference, an advanced textbook, or a training adjunct.\n\nThe Advanced Forensic Science Series provides expert information, useful teaching tools, and a ready source for instruction, research, and practice. I hope, like learning, it is the only thing for you.\n\nM.M. Houck, PhD, FRSC\n\nSeries Editor\n\n## Reference\n\nNational Research Council. _Strengthening Forensic Science in the U.S.: A Path Forward_. Washington, DC: National Academies of Science; 2009.\n\n# Preface\n\nOne of the first evidence types people think of when they hear \"forensic\" is fingerprints. Fingerprints have been noted and used for millennia, but around 1880, a 25-year surge in activity and popularity secured their use for government identification. Used for over 100 years by police, fingerprinting is a stalwart of forensic science: quick, cheap, and reliable. In fact, fingerprint experts claimed 100% reliability, a 0% error rate. Not long ago, fingerprint testimony sounded much like Mark Twain's character, Pudd'nhead Wilson, a lawyer who touted the power of fingerprints:\n\nEvery human being carries with him from his cradle to his grave certain physical marks which do not change their character, and by which he can always be identified\u2014and that without shade of doubt or question. These marks are his signature, his physiological autograph, so to speak, and this autograph cannot be counterfeited, nor can he disguise it or hide it away, nor can it become illegible by the wear and the mutations of time... This signature is each man's very own. There is no duplicate of it among the swarming populations of the globe!\n\nThe concept of absolute individualization was broad-sided by a case in Philadelphia which questioned the validity of fingerprints as a science, U.S. v. Byron Mitchell. In the admissibility hearing, the judge heard testimony that the FBI had never misidentified anyone. This was the party line for many years (\"Of all the methods of identification, fingerprinting alone has proved to be both infallible and feasible\".) (FBI, 1985). Legal challenges aside, fingerprinting had its validity questioned scientifically in spotlight cases, like Shirley McKie's, Stephan Cowans', and Brandon Mayfield's, among others (Cole, 2005). These cases have shown that fingerprinting is as fallible as any method or science and more susceptible to undue influence. A culture of resistance, refutation, and rebuttal grew around the myth that fingerprints were perfect (Cole, 2005). Accepting its flaws and moving on to improve the profession would have been sensible but that is not what happened. Arguments, name calling, and personal attacks were hurled at those who questioned the infallibility of fingerprints (Russell, 2009).\n\nThe community finally pulled itself together and began to make headway with a reasoned plan of improvement, created collaboratively with critics and stakeholders. A sourcebook was written in a project shepherded by the West Virginia University Forensic Science Initiative in collaboration with the International Association for Identification through an award from the National Institute of Justice (2011). Research began slowly from a variety of sources but led to more enlightened and professional discussions of error rates, bias, accuracy, and methodology. With much more work to be done, fingerprints has become a bellwether for the rest of traditional forensic science: Change or be changed, it is up to you.\n\n## Additional Readings\n\nCole S.A. More than zero: accounting for error in latent fingerprint identification. _Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology_. 2005;95:985 (2004\u20132005).\n\nCole S.A. Individualization is dead, long live individualization! Reforms of reporting practices for fingerprint analysis in the United States. _Law, Probability and Risk_. 2014 doi: 10.1093\/lpr\/mgt014 (online January 21, 2014).\n\nCole S.A. The innocence crisis and forensic science reform. In: Zalman M, Currano J, eds. _Wrongful Conviction and Criminal Justice Reform: Making Justice_. New York: Routledge; 2014:167\u2013185.\n\nChampod C. Fingerprint identification: advances since the 2009 National Research Council report. _Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B_. 2015;370 (1674), 20140259.\n\nEdmond G, Cole S.A. Identification technologies in policing and proof. In: _Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice_. New York: Springer; 2014:2407\u20132419.\n\nFederal Bureau of Investigation. _The Science of Fingerprints: Classification and Uses_. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice; 1985.\n\nLudwig A, Fraser J. Effective use of forensic science in volume crime investigations: identifying recurring themes in the literature. _Science & Justice_. 2014;54(1):81\u201388.\n\nMcCartney C, Walker C. Forensic identification and miscarriages of justice in England and Wales. In: Mallett X, Blythe T, Berry R, eds. _Advances in Forensic Human Identification_. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2014:391\u2013405.\n\nMnookin J, Cole S.A, Dror I, Fisher B.A, Houck M, Inman K, Kaye D, Koehler J, Langenburg G, Risinger D, Rudin N, Siegel J, Stoney D.A. The need for a research culture in the forensic sciences. _UCLA Law Review_. 2011;58:725.\n\nNational Institute of Justice. _Fingerprint Sourcebook_. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice; 2011.\n\nRussell S. Bias and the big fingerprint dust-up. _Pacific Standard_. June 18, 2009. Online at: <http:\/\/www.psmag.com\/politics-and-law\/bias-and-the-big-fingerprint-dust-up-3629>.\n\nSpecter M. Do fingerprints lie? _The New Yorker_. May 27, 2002.\nSection 1\n\nIntroduction\n\nOutline\n\nIntroduction\n\nPrinciples of Forensic Science\n\nForensic Classification of Evidence\n\nInterpretation\/The Comparative Method\n\nFingerprints\n\nKey Terms\n\nReview Questions\n\nDiscussion Questions\n\n# Introduction\n\nForensic science is about 100 years old, depending on how the accomplishments are counted. That is relatively young, for a science; chemistry goes back to at least 1661 with the publication of Boyle's The Sceptical Chymist, for example. Forensic science is only now beginning to delve into its methods and history to construct the scaffolding of a guiding philosophy. This foundation will be critically important as forensic research and operation moves forward but it will take several generations of forensic scientists before it becomes sturdy and robust.\n\n# Principles of Forensic Science\n\nF. Crispino Universit\u00e9 du Qu\u00e9bec \u00e0 Trois-Rivi\u00e8res, Trois-Rivi\u00e8res, QC, Canada\n\nM.M. Houck Consolidated Forensic Laboratory, Washington, DC, USA\n\n## Abstract\n\nForensic science is grounded on two native principles (those of Locard and Kirk) and the admission of a few other nonnative ones. This framework is one definition of a paradigm for the discipline to be considered a basic science on its own merits. The science explores the relationships in legal and police matters through the analysis of traces of illegal or criminal activities. In this way, forensic science is seen as a historical science, interpreting evidence in context with its circumstances and originating processes (at source and activity levels).\n\n### Keywords\n\nEpistemology; Forensic; Kirk; Locard; Paradigm; Science\n\nGlossary\n\nAbduction Syllogism in which one premise is certain whereas the other one is only probable, generally presented as the best explanation to the former. Hence, abduction is a type of reasoning in which we know the law and the effect, and we attempt to infer the cause.\n\nDeduction Process of reasoning which moves from the general to the specific, and in which a conclusion follows necessarily from the stated premises. Hence, deduction is a type of reasoning in which, knowing the cause and the law, we infer the effect.\n\nForensic intelligence Understanding on how traces can be collected from the scene, processed, and interpreted within a holistic intelligence-led policing strategy.\n\nHeuristic Process of reasoning by rules that are only loosely defined, generally by trial and error.\n\nHolistic Emphasizing the importance of the whole and the interdependence of its parts.\n\nInduction Process of deriving general principles from particular facts or instances, i.e., of reasoning that moves from the specific to the general. Hence, induction is a type of reasoning in which, knowing the cause and the effect (or a series of causes and effects), we attempt to infer the law by which the effects follow the cause.\n\nLinkage blindness Organizational or investigative failure to recognize a common pattern shared on different cases.\n\nScience The intellectual and practical activity encompassing the systematic study of the structure and behavior of the physical and natural world through observation and experiment. It is also defined as a systematically organized body of knowledge on a particular subject.\n\nGiven that it identifies and collects objects at crime scenes and then treats them as evidence, forensic science could appear at first glance to be only a pragmatic set of various disciplines, with practitioners adapting and developing tools and technologies to help the triers of fact (juries or judges) interpret information gained from the people, places, and things involved in a crime. The view could be\u2014and has been\u2014held that forensic science has no philosophic or fundamental unity and is merely the application of knowledge generated by other sciences. Indeed, many working forensic scientists regard themselves mainly as chemists, biologists, scientists, or technicians and rarely as practitioners of a homogeneous body of knowledge with common fundamental principles.\n\nEven the 2009 National Academy of Sciences National Research Council Report failed to recognize such a concept, certainly blurred by a semantic gap in the terminology itself of field practitioners, who confuse words like \"forensic science(s),\" \"criminalistic(s),\" \"criminology,\" \"technical police,\" \"scientific police,\" and so on, and generally restrict the scientific debate on analytical techniques and methods. An independent definition of forensic science, apart from its legal aspects, would support its scientific status and return the expert to his domain as scientist and interpreter of his analyses and results to assist the lay person.\n\n## What Is Forensic Science?\n\nIn its broadest sense, forensic science describes the utility of the sciences as they pertain to legal matters, to include many disciplines, such as chemistry, biology, pathology, anthropology, toxicology, and engineering, among others. (\"Forensic\" comes from the Latin root forum, the central place of the city where disputes and debates were made public to be solved, hence, defining the law of the city. Forensic generally means of or applied to the law.) The word \"criminalistics\" was adopted to describe the discipline directed toward the \"recognition, identification, individualization, and evaluation of physical evidence by application of the natural sciences to law-science matters.\" (\"Kriminalistik\" was coined in the late nineteenth century by Hans Gross, a researcher in criminal law and procedure to define his methodology of classifying investigative, tactical, and evidential information to be learned by magistrates at law schools to solve crimes and help convict criminals.) In the scheme as it currently stands, criminalistics is part of forensic science; the word is a regionalism and is not universally applied as defined. Difficulties in differentiating the concepts certainly invited the definition of criminalistics as the \"science of individualization,\" isolating this specific epistemologically problematic core from the other scientific disciplines. Individualization, the concept of determining the sole source of an item, enthroned a linear process\u2014identification or classification on to individualization\u2014losing sight of the holistic, variable contribution of all types of evidence. Assessing the circumstances surrounding a crime, where the challenge is to integrate and organize the data in order to reconstruct a case or propose alternative propositions for events under examination, requires multiple types of evidence, some of which may be quite nuanced in their interpretation. This is also true in the use of so-called forensic intelligence, which feeds investigative, police, or security needs, where one of the main reasons for failures is linkage blindness. Nevertheless, it seems that the essence of the forensic daily practice is hardly captured within the present definitions of both terms.\n\nForensic science reconstructs\u2014in the broadest sense\u2014past criminal events through the analysis of the physical remnants of those activities (evidence); the results of those analyses and their expert interpretation establish relationships between people, places, and objects relevant to those events. It produces these results and interpretations through logical inferences, induction, abduction, and deduction, all of which frame the hypothetico-deductive method; investigative heuristics also play a role. Translating scientific information into legal information is a particular domain of forensic science; other sciences must (or at least should) communicate their findings to the public, but forensic science is often required by law to communicate their findings to public courts. Indeed, as the Daubert hearing stated, \"[s]cientific conclusions are subject to perpetual revision as law must resolve disputes finally and quickly.\" This doubly difficult requirement of communicating to the public and to the law necessitates that forensic scientists should be better communicators of their work and their results. Scientific inferences are not necessarily legal proofs, and the forensic scientist must recognize that legal decisions based, in part, on their scientific work may not accord with their expert knowledge. Moreover, scientists must think in probabilities to explain evidence given possible causes, while jurists must deal in terms of belief beyond reasonable doubt. As Inman and Rudin state: \"Because we [the scientists] provide results and information to parties who lack the expertise to independently understand their meaning and implications, it is up to us to furnish an accurate and complete interpretation of our results. If we do not do this, our conclusions are at best incomplete, at worst potentially misleading.\"\n\n## The Trace as the Basic Unit of Forensic Science\n\nThe basic unit of forensic science is the trace, the physical remnant of the past criminal activity. Traces are, by their very nature, semiotic: They represent something more than merely themselves; they are signifiers or signs for the items or events that are its source. A fiber is not the sweater it came from, a fingerprint is not the fingertip, soot in the trachea is not the victim choking from a fire, blood droplets are not the violence against the victim, but they all point to their origin (source and activity) to a greater or lesser degree of specificity. Thus, the trace is a type of proxy data, that is, an indicator of a related phenomenon but not the phenomenon itself. Traces come from the natural and manufactured items that surround us in our daily lives. Traces are, in essence, the raw material available at a crime scene which becomes forensic intelligence or knowledge. Everyday items and their traces become evidence through their involvement in criminal activities; the activities add meaning to their existing status as goods in the world; a fireplace poker is transformed into \"the murder weapon\" by its use as such. The meaning added should also take into account the context of the case, the circumstances under which the criminal activities occurred, boarding the trier of fact mandate.\n\nTraces become evidence when they are recognized, accepted as relevant (if blurred) to the past event under investigation, and collected for forensic purposes. Confusing trace, sign, and evidence can obscure the very process of trace \"discovery,\" which lies at the root of its interpretation. Evidence begins with detection by observation, which is possible because of the available knowledge of the investigator or scientist; unrecognized traces go undiscovered and do not become evidence. When the investigator's or scientist's senses are extended through instrumental sensitivity, either at the scene or in the laboratory, the amount of potential evidence considerably increased. Microscopes, alternate light sources, instrumental sensitivity, and detection limits create increases in the number of traces that can be recognized and collected. More evidence, and more evidence types, inevitably led to increases in the complexity not only of the search for traces but also to their interpretation. Feeding back into this system is the awareness of new (micro)traces that changed the search methods at scenes and in laboratories, with yet more evidence being potentially available.\n\nTraces are ancillary to their originating process; they are by-products of the source activity, an accidental vestige of their criminal creation. To be useful in the determination of associations, traces whose ultimate sources are unknown must be compared to samples from a known source. Comparison is the very heart of the forensic science process; the method is essentially a diagnostic one, beginning with Georges Cuvier, and is employed by many science practitioners, including medical professionals. (Including, interestingly, Arthur Conan Doyle, a medical doctor and author, whose Sherlock Holmes character references Cuvier's method in The Five Orange Pips.) Questioned traces, or items, may have a provenance (a known location at the time of their discovery) but this is not their originating source; a few examples may help:\n\nTrace (questioned)| Source (known)  \n---|---  \nFiber on victim| Sweater  \nGunshot residue| Ammunition discharge  \nBlood droplet| Body  \nToolmarks in door jamb| Pry bar used to open door  \nShoeprint in soil| Shoe from suspect  \nFingerprint on glass| Finger from suspect\n\nThe collection of properly representative known samples is crucial to accurate forensic analyses and comparisons. Known samples can be selected through a variety of legitimate schemes, including random, portion, and judgment, and must be selected with great care. Thus, traces are accidental and known samples are intentional.\n\nSome of the consequences of what has been discussed so far induce the capacities and limitations of a forensic investigation based on trace analysis. A micro- to nanolevel existence allows forensic scientists to plan physical and chemical characteristics in their identifications and comparisons with other similar data. This allows forensic science to be as methodologically flexible as its objects of study require. Because time is asymmetric and each criminal action is unique, the forensic investigation and analysis in any one case is wedded, to a certain degree, to that case with no ambition to issue general laws about that event (\"In all instances of John Davis being physically assaulted with a baseball bat...\"). Inferences must be drawn with explicit uncertainty statements; the inferences should be revised when new data affect the traces' relevancy. Therefore, the search for traces is a recursive heuristic process taking into account the environment of the case at hand, appealing to the imagination, expertise, and competency of the investigator or scientist to propose explicative hypotheses.\n\n## Two Native Principles\n\nWith this framework, two principles can be thought of as the main native principles that support and frame philosophically forensic science. In this context, principles are understood as universal theoretical statements settled at the beginning of a deduction, which cannot be deduced from any other statement in the considered system, and give coherence to the area of study. They provide the grounds from which other truths can be derived and define a paradigm, that is, a general epistemological viewpoint, a new concept to see the natural world, issued from an empiricist corroborated tradition, accepted by the community of practitioners in the field. Ultimately, this paradigm can even pilot the perception itself.\n\nAlthough similar but nonequivalent versions are used in other disciplines, Locard's exchange principle exists as the central tenant of forensic science. The principle that bears his name was never uttered as such by Locard, but its universal statement of \"every contact leaves a trace\" stands as a universally accepted short-hand phrasing. Locard's principle embraces all forms of contact, from biological to chemical to physical and even digital traces, and extends the usual perception of forensic science beyond dealing only with physical vestiges.\n\nOne of its corollaries is that trace deposition is continual and not reversible. Increases in the number of contacts, the types of evidence involved, and cross-transfers (A\u2013B and B\u2013A) also increase the complexity of determining the relevance of traces in short duration and temporally close actions.\n\nEven the potentially fallacious rubric of \"absence of evidence is not evidence of absence\" leads to extended discussions on the very nature of proof, or provable, that aims to be definitive, notwithstanding the explanations for the practical aspects of the concept (lack of sensitivity, obscuring of the relevant traces, human weakness, actual absence, etc.). Applying Locard's principle needs to address three levels. First, the physical level, which deals with ease of transfer, retention, persistence, and affinity of materials, which could better support the exchange of traces from one source to another. Second is the situational or contextual level, which is the knowledge of circumstances and environments surrounding criminal events and sets the matrix for detection, identification, and proximate significance of any evidence. Third, the intelligence level, which covers the knowledge about criminal behavior in single events or series, specific problems related to current trends in criminal behavior, and communication between relevant entities (police, scientists, attorneys, etc.); these components help the investigator in the field to focus on more meaningful traces that might otherwise go undetected.\n\nThe second, and more debated, principle is Kirk's individuality principle; again, Kirk did not state this as such beyond saying that criminalistics is the science of individualization. In its strongest form, it posits that each object in the universe can be placed demonstratively into a set with one and only one member: Itself. It therefore asserts the universal statement, \"every object in our universe is unique.\" Philosophers like Wittgenstein have argued that without defined rules or limits, terms such as \"the same\" or \"different\" are essentially meaningless. There is little question that all things are unique\u2014two identical things can still be numerically differentiated\u2014but the core question is, can they be distinguished at the resolution of detection applied? Simply saying \"all things are unique\" is not useful forensically. For example, each fingerprint left by the same finger is unique, but to be useful, each print must also be able to be traced back to its source finger. Uniqueness is therefore necessary to claim individualization, but not sufficient. Thus, it is the degree of association that matters, how similar, how different these two things being compared are. Referring to Cole, \"What distinguishes...objects is not 'uniqueness'; it is their diagnosticity: our ability to assign traces of these objects to their correct source with a certain degree of specificity under certain parameters of detection and under certain rules governing such assignments,\" or as Osterburg stated, \"to approach [individualization] as closely as the present state of science allows.\" Statistics, typically, is required to accurately communicate levels of comparison that are reproducible. In fact, Kirk noted that individualization was not absolute. (\"On the witness stand, the criminalist must be willing to admit that absolute identity is impossible to establish....The inept or biased witness may readily testify to an identity, or to a type of identity, that does not actually exist. This can come about because of his confusion as to the nature of identity, his inability to evaluate the results of his observations, or because his general technical deficiencies preclude meaningful results\" (Kirk, 1953; emphasis added).)\n\n## Nonnative Principles\n\nNumerous guiding principles from other sciences apply centrally to forensic science, several of which come from geology, a cognate historical science to forensic science. That these principles come not from forensic science but from other sciences should not imply that they are somehow less important than Locard's or Kirk's notions. The first, and in many ways the most important, of the external principles is that of uniformitarianism. The principle, proposed by James Hutton, popularized by Charles Lyell, and coined by William Whewell, states that natural phenomena do not change in scope, intensity, or effect with time. Paraphrased as \"the present is the key to the past,\" the principle implies that a volcano that erupts today acts in the same way as volcanoes did 200 or 200 million years ago and, thus, allows geologists to interpret proxy data from past events through current effects. Likewise, in forensic science, bullets test-fired in the laboratory today do not change in scope, intensity, or effect from bullets fired during the commission of a crime 2 days, 2 weeks, or 2 years previously. The same is true of any analysis in forensic science that requires a replication or reconstruction of processes in play during the crime's commission. Uniformitarianism offers a level of objectivity to historical sciences by posing hypotheses or relationships generally and then developing tests with respect to particular cases.\n\nThree additional principles from geology hold as applicable to forensic science. They are as follows:\n\n\u2022 Superposition: In a physical distribution, older materials are below younger materials unless a subsequent action alters this arrangement.\n\n\u2022 Lateral continuity: Disassociated but similar layers can be assumed to be from the same depositional period.\n\n\u2022 Chronology: It refers to the notion of absolute dates in a quantitative mode (such as \"10:12 a.m.\" or \"1670\u20131702\") and relative dates in a relational mode (i.e., older or younger).\n\nThese three principles are attributed to Nicolaus Steno but were also formalized and applied by William Smith. A forensic example of applying the principle of superposition would be the packing of different soils in a tire tread, the most recent being the outermost. A good case of lateral continuity would be the cross-transfer of fibers in an assault, given that the chances of independent transfer and persistence prior to the time of the incident would be improbable. An example of absolute chronology in forensic science would be the simple example of a purchase receipt from a retail store with a time\/date stamp on it. Examples of relative chronology abound but could range from the terminus post quem of a product no longer made to something hotter or colder than it should be.\n\n## See also\n\nFoundations: Forensic Intelligence; History of Forensic Sciences; Overview and Meaning of Identification\/Individualization; Semiotics, Heuristics, and Inferences Used by Forensic Scientists; Statistical Interpretation of Evidence: Bayesian Analysis; The Frequentist Approach to Forensic Evidence Interpretation; Foundations\/Fundamentals: Measurement Uncertainty; Pattern Evidence\/Fingerprints (Dactyloscopy): Friction Ridge Print Examination \u2013 Interpretation and the Comparative Method.\n\n## Further Reading\n\nCole S.A. Forensics without uniqueness, conclusions without individualization: the new epistemology of forensic identification. _Law, Probability and Risk_. 2009;8:233\u2013255.\n\nCrispino F. _Le principe de Locard est-il scientifique? Ou analyse de la scientificit\u00e9 des principes fondamentaux de la criminalistique_. Sarrebr\u00fccken, Germany: Editions Universitaires Europ\u00e9ennes No. 523; 2006: 978-613-1-50482-2 (2010).\n\nCrispino F. Nature and place of crime scene management within forensic sciences. _Science and Justice_. 2008;48(1):24\u201328.\n\nDulong R. La rationalit\u00e9 sp\u00e9cifique de la police technique. _Revue Internationale de Criminologie et de Police Technique_. 2004;3(4):259\u2013270.\n\nEgger S.A. A working definition of serial murder and the reduction of linkage blindness. _Journal of Police Science and Administration_. 1984;12:348\u2013355.\n\nGiamalas D.M. Criminalistics. In: Siegel J.A, Saukko P.J, Knupfer G.C, eds. _Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences_. London: Academic Press; 2000:471\u2013477.\n\nGood G, ed. _Sciences of the Earth_. vol. 1. New York: Garland Publishing; 1998.\n\nHouck M.M. _An Investigation into the Foundational Principles of Forensic Science_ (Ph.D. thesis). Perth: Curtin University of Technology; 2010.\n\nInman N, Rudin K. _Principles and Practice of Criminalistics: The Profession of Forensic Science_. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2001:269\u2013270.\n\nKirk P.L. _Crime Investigation: Physical Evidence and the Police Laboratory_. New York: Interscience; 1953:10.\n\nKirk P.L. The ontogeny of criminalistics. _Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology and Police Science_. 1963;54:235\u2013238.\n\nKuhn T. _La structure des r\u00e9volutions scientifiques_. Paris: Flammarion; 1970.\n\nKwan Q.Y. _Inference of Identity of Source_ (Ph.D. thesis). Berkeley: Berkeley University; 1976.\n\nMann M. The value of multiple proxies. _Science_. 2002;297:1481\u20131482.\n\nMasterman M. The nature of a paradigm. In: Lakatos I, Musgrave A, eds. _Criticism and the Growth of Experimental Knowledge_. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1970:59\u201386.\n\nMoriarty J.C, Saks M.J. _Forensic Science: Grand Goals, Tragic Flaws, and Judicial Gatekeeping_ Research Paper No. 06-19. University of Akron Legal Studies; 2006.\n\nNational Research Council Committee. _Identifying the Needs of the Forensic Science Community, Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward_ National Academy of Sciences Report. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 2009.\n\nOsterburg J.W. What problems must criminalistics solve. _Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology and Police Science_. 1968;59(3):431.\n\nSchuliar Y. _La coordination scientifique dans les investigations criminelles. Proposition d'organisation, aspects \u00e9thiques ou de la n\u00e9cessit\u00e9 d'un nouveau m\u00e9tier_ (Ph.D. thesis). 2009 Universit\u00e9 Paris Descartes, Paris; Universit\u00e9 de Lausanne, Lausanne.\n\nSober E. Absence of evidence and evidence of absence: evidential transitivity in connection with fossils, fishing, fine-tuning, and firing squads. _Philosophical Studies_. 2009;143:63\u201390.\n\nStephens C. A Bayesian approach to absent evidence reasoning. _Informal Logic_. 2011;31(1):56\u201365.\n\nUS Supreme Court No. 92\u2013102. _William Daubert, et al., Petitioners v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc_. 1993 Certiorari to the US Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. Argued 30 March 1993. Decided 28 June 1993.\n\nWittgenstein L. _Tractacus Logico-Philosophicus_. Paris: Gallimard Tel 311; 1922.\n\nRelevant Websites\n\n<http:\/\/www.all-about-forensic-science.com>\u2014All-About-Forensic-Science.com, Definition of Forensic Science.\n\n<http:\/\/www.forensic-evidence.com>\u2014Forensic-Evidence.com.\n\n<http:\/\/library.thinkquest.org>\u2014Oracle ThinkQuest\u2014What Is Forensics?\n\n# Forensic Classification of Evidence\n\nM.M. Houck Consolidated Forensic Laboratory, Washington, DC, USA\n\n## Abstract\n\nEvidence is accidental: Items are transformed into evidence by their involvement in a crime regardless of their source or mode of production. By becoming evidence, their normal meaning is enhanced and expanded. Evidence is initially categorized much as the real world. Forensic science adds to this classification to further enhance or clarify the meaning of evidence relevant to the goals and procedures of the discipline. Most evidence, including DNA, has value at the class level, although it can be exceedingly specific in its classification. While uniqueness may be assumed, individualization in an inherently nonprovable claim, statistical interpretations of evidence may be required.\n\n### Keywords\n\nClassification; Crime; Evidence; Set; Taxon; Taxonomy\n\nGlossary\n\nSet Any group of real or imagined objects.\n\nTaxonomy The science of identifying and naming species with the intent of arranging them into a classification.\n\nTaxon (pl. taxa) A group of one or more organisms grouped and ranked according to a set of qualitative and quantitative characteristics; a type of set.\n\n## Introduction\n\nEvidence is accidental: Items are transformed into evidence by their involvement in a crime regardless of their source or mode of production. By becoming evidence, their normal meaning is enhanced and expanded. Evidence is initially categorized much as the real world; that is, based on the taxonomy created by manufacturers. Forensic science adds to this classification to further enhance or clarify the meaning of evidence relevant to the goals and procedures of the discipline.\n\n## Methods of Classification\n\n### Set Theory\n\nAny collection of objects, real or imagined, is a set; set theory is the branch of mathematics that studies these collections. Basic set theory involves categorization and organization of the objects, sometimes using diagrams, and involves elementary operations such as set union and set intersection. Advanced topics, including cardinality, are standard in undergraduate mathematics courses. All classification schemes are based on set theory, to a greater or lesser degree.\n\nThe notion of \"set\" is undefined; the objects described as constituting a set create the definition. The objects in a set are called the members or elements of that set. Objects belong to a set; sets consist of their members. The members of a set may be real or imagined; they do not need to be present to be a member of that set. Membership criteria for a set should be definite and accountable. The set, \"All people in this room are over 5\u20325\u2033 tall,\" is a well-defined, if currently unknown, set\u2014the height of the people in the room would have to be measured to accurately populate the set. If the definition is vague, then that collection may not be considered a set. For example, is \"q\" the same as \"Q\"? If the set is, \"The 26 letters of the English alphabet,\" then they are the same member; if the set is, \"The 52 uppercase and lowercase letters of the English alphabet,\" then they are two separate members.\n\nSets may be finite or infinite; a set with only one member is called a single or a singleton set. Two sets are identical if and only if they have exactly the same members. The cardinality of a set is the number of members within it, written |A| for set A. A set X is a subset of set Y if and only if every member of X is also a member of Y; for example, the set of all Philips head screwdrivers is a subset of the set of all screwdrivers. Forensic scientists would term this a \"subclass\" but that is a terminological and not a conceptual difference. Two more concepts are required for the remainder of our discussion. The union of X and Y is a set whose members are only the members of X, Y, or both. Thus, if X were (1, 2, 3) and Y were (2, 3, 4), then the union of X and Y, written X \u222a Y, would contain (1, 2, 3, 4). Finally, the intersection of two sets contains only the members of both X and Y. In the previous example, the intersection of X and Y would be (2, 3), written X \u2229 Y.\n\n### Taxonomy\n\nNatural items, such as animals, plants, or minerals, often occur as evidence. These items are classified according to schemes used in other sciences such as biology, botany, or geology. It is incumbent on the forensic scientist to be knowledgeable about the classification of naturally occurring items.\n\nIn biology, taxonomy, the practice and science of classification, refers to a formalized system for ordering and grouping things, typically living things using the Linnaean method. The taxa (the units of a taxonomic system; singular \"taxon\") are sufficiently fixed so as to provide a structure for classifying living things. Taxa are arranged typically in a hierarchical structure to show their relatedness (a phylogeny). In such a hierarchical relationship, the subtype has by definition the same constraints as the supertype plus one or more additional constraints. For example, \"macaque\" is a subtype of \"monkey,\" so any macaque is also a monkey, but not every monkey is a macaque, and an animal needs to satisfy more constraints to be a macaque than to be a monkey. In the Linnaean method of classification, the scientific name of each species is formed by the combination of two words, the genus name (\"generic\" name), which is always capitalized, and a second word identifying the species within that genus. Species names (genus species) are either italicized or underlined; for example, Homo sapiens (humans), Sus scrofa (pigs), Canis familiaris (domesticated dogs), and Rattus rattus (rats).\n\nThe term \"systematics\" is sometimes used synonymously with \"taxonomy\" and may be confused with \"scientific classification.\" However, taxonomy is properly the describing, identifying, classifying, and naming of organisms, while \"classification\" is focused on placing organisms within groups that show their relationships to other organisms. Systematics alone deals specifically with relationships through time, requiring recognition of the fossil record when dealing with the systematics of organisms. Systematics uses taxonomy as a primary tool in understanding organisms, as nothing about the organism's relationships with other living things can be understood without it first being properly studied and described in sufficient detail to identify and classify it correctly.\n\nIn geology, rocks are generally classified based on their chemical and mineral composition, the process by which they were formed, and by the texture of their particles. Rocks are classified as igneous (formed by cooled molten magma), sedimentary (formed by deposition and compaction of materials), or metamorphic (formed through intense changes in pressure and temperature). These three classes of rocks are further subdivided into many other sets; often, the categories' definitions are not rigid and the qualities of a rock may grade it from one class to another. The terminology of rocks and minerals, rather than describing a state, describes identifiable points along a gradient.\n\n### Manufacturing\n\nManufactured evidence is initially categorized by the in-house or market-specific system created by one or more manufacturers. Manufacturers of economic goods create their classifications through product identity or analytical methods. Set methods of production ensure a quality product fit for purpose and sale; the classification is based on the markets involved, the orientation of the company production methods, and the supply chain. Explicit rules exist on categories recognized by manufacturers and consumers, as either models or brands. Materials flow downstream from raw material sources through to a manufacturing level. Raw materials are transformed into intermediate products, also referred to as components or parts. These are assembled on the next level to form products. The products are shipped to distribution centers and from there on to retailers and customers.\n\n### Forensic Approaches to Classification\n\nThe supply network of raw materials, intermediate steps, production methods, intended consumer end use, and actual end use all contribute to the characteristics available for forensic taxonomic classification. While the forensic taxonomies are unique to that discipline, they are based on the production taxonomies used in manufacturing. These characteristics form the basis for statements of significance; that is, the relative abundance or rarity of any one particular item in a criminal context. Some objects are common but have a short-entrance horizon (e.g., iPods), but are essentially identical at the outset while others are common with long-entrance horizons (denim blue jeans), but have a high variance (regular, stonewashed, acid-washed, etc.). It is in the best interest of forensic scientists to understand the fundamental manufacturing processes of the items that routinely become evidence. This understanding can form the basis for statistical significance statements in courts and may provide the foundations for a more quantitative approach to testimony.\n\nForensic analytical methods create augmented taxonomies because the discipline uses different sets of methods and forensic scientists have different goals. Their taxonomies are based on manufactured traits, but also aftermarket qualities, and intended end use, but also \"as used.\" The \"as used\" traits are those imparted to the item after purchase through either normal or criminal use. Forensic science has developed a set of rules through which the taxonomies are explicated. For example, forensic scientists are interested in the size, shape, and distribution of delustrants, microscopic grains of rutile titanium dioxide incorporated into a fiber to reduce its luster. The manufacturer has included delustrant in the fiber at a certain rate and percentage with no concern for shape or distribution (but size may be relevant). The forensic science taxonomy is based on manufacturing taxonomy but is extended by incidental characteristics that help us distinguish otherwise similar objects.\n\nNatural, manufacturing, and forensic classifications lead to evidentiary significance because they break the world down into intelligible classes of objects related to criminal acts. Forensic science has developed an enhanced appreciation for discernment between otherwise similar objects but has yet to explicate these hierarchies to their benefit.\n\n## Class Level Information\n\nIdentification is the examination of the chemical and physical properties of an object and using them to categorize it as a member of a set. What the object is made of, its color, mass, size, and many other characteristics are used to identify an object and help refine that object's identity. Analyzing a white powder and concluding that it is cocaine is an example of identification; determining that a small translucent chip is bottle glass or yellow fibrous material and determining that they are dog hairs are also examples of identification. Most identifications are inherently hierarchical, such as classification systems themselves: In the last example, the fibrous nature of the objects restricts the following possible categories:\n\n\u2022 Hairs\n\n\u2022 Animal hairs\n\n\u2022 Guard hairs\n\n\u2022 Dog hairs\n\n\u2022 German shepherd hairs\n\nAs the process of identification of evidence becomes more specific, it permits the analyst to classify the evidence into successively smaller classes of objects. It may not be necessary to classify the evidence beyond dog hairs if human hairs are being looked for. Multiple items can be classified differently, depending on what questions are asked. For example, the objects in Figure 1 could be classified into \"fruit\" and \"nonfruit,\" \"sports related\" and \"nonsports related,\" or \"organic\" and \"inorganic.\"\n\nSharing a class identity may indicate two objects that come from a common source. Because forensic science reveals and describes the relationships among people, places, and things involved in criminal activities, this commonality of relationship may be critical to a successful investigation. Commonality can show interactions, limitations in points of origin, and increased significance of relationships. What is meant by a \"common source\" depends on the material in question, the mode of production, and the specificity of the examinations used to classify the object. For example, the \"common source\" for an automotive paint chip could be the following:\n\n\u2022 the manufacturer (to distinguish it from other similar paints),\n\n\u2022 the factory (to determine where it was made),\n\n\u2022 the batch or lot of production (to distinguish it from other batches at the same factory),\n\n\u2022 all the vehicles painted with that color paint, or\n\n\u2022 the vehicle painted with that color paint involved in the crime in question?\n\nAll of these options, and they are not exhaustive, could be the goal in an investigation of determining whether two objects had a \"common source.\"\n\n## Uniqueness and Individualization\n\nIf an object can be classified into a set with only one member (itself), it can be said to be unique. An individualized object is associated with one, and only one, source: It is unique. Uniqueness is based on two assumptions. The first assumption is that all things are unique in space and, thus, their properties are nonoverlapping. The assumption of uniqueness of space is considered axiomatic and, therefore, an inherently nonprovable proposition for numerous reasons. The population size of \"all things that might be evidence\" is simply too large to account. In addition, conclusive evidence is not readily available in typical forensic investigations. Because of this, as Schum notes, statistics are required:\n\nSuch evidence, if it existed, would make necessary a particular hypothesis or possible conclusion being entertained. In lieu of such perfection, we often make use of masses of inconclusive evidence having additional properties: The evidence is incomplete on matters relevant to our conclusions, and it comes to us from sources (including our own observations) that are, for various reasons, not completely credible. Thus, inferences from such evidence can only be probabilistic in nature (Schum, 1994, p. 2).\n\nFigure 1 A range of objects may be classified in a variety of ways, depending on the question being asked. For example, given the objects in this figure, the sets would differ if the question was, \"What is edible?\" rather than, \"What is sporting equipment?\"\n\nA statistical analysis is therefore warranted when uncertainty, of either accounting or veracity, exists. If an absolutely certain answer to a problem could be reached, statistical methods would not be required. Most evidence exists at the class level, and although each item involved in a crime is considered unique, it still belongs to a larger class. In reality, the majority of forensic science works at a class level of resolution. Indeed, even DNA, the argued \"gold standard\" of forensic science, operates with classes and statistics.\n\nIt has been argued that the concept of uniqueness is necessary but not sufficient to support claims of individualization. If it is accepted that uniqueness is axiomatic, then\n\nWhat matters is whether we have analytical tools necessary to discern the characteristics that distinguish one object from all others or, in the forensic context, distinguish traces made by each object from traces made by every other object... Every object is presumably unique at the scale of manufacture. The question is whether objects are distinguishable at the scale of detection. Since all objects in the universe are in some respects \"the same\" and in other respects \"different\" from all other objects in the universe, according to Wittgenstein, what really matters is not uniqueness but rather what rules we articulate by which we will make determinations of \"sameness\" and \"difference\" (Cole, 2009, pp. 242\u2013243).\n\nAlthough things may be numerically unique at the point of production, this does not help to distinguish between otherwise similar objects at the point of detection or interpretation. This is where forensic science adds value to the investigative and legal processes.\n\n## Relationships and Context\n\nThe relationships between the people, places, and things involved in crimes are central to deciding what items to examine and how to interpret the results. For example, if a sexual assault occurs and the perpetrator and victim are strangers, more evidence may be relevant than if they live together or are sexual partners. Strangers are not expected to have ever met previously and, therefore, would have not transferred evidence before the crime. People who live together would have some opportunities to transfer certain types of evidence (e.g., head hairs and carpet fibers from the living room) but not others (semen or vaginal secretions). Spouses or sexual partners, being the most intimate relationship of the three examples, would share a good deal of more information (Figure 2).\n\nStranger-on-stranger crimes beg the question of coincidental associations, that is, two things that previously have never been in contact with each other have items on them, which are analytically indistinguishable at a certain class level. Attorneys in cross-examination may ask, \"Yes, but could not [insert evidence type here] really have come from anywhere? Are not [generic class level evidence] very common?\" It has been proven for a wide variety of evidence that coincidental matches are extremely rare. The enormous variety of mass-produced goods, consumer choices, economic factors, biological and natural diversity, and other traits create a nearly infinite combination of comparable characteristics for the items involved in any one situation.\n\nFigure 2 The relationships between suspect, victim, and scene influence what evidence is collected, and what its significance is.\n\n## See also\n\nFoundations: Evidence\/Classification; Statistical Interpretation of Evidence: Bayesian Analysis; The Frequentist Approach to Forensic Evidence Interpretation.\n\n## Further Reading\n\nCole S. Forensics without uniqueness, conclusion without individualization: the new epistemology of forensic identification. _Law, Probability, and Risk_. 2009;8(3):233\u2013255.\n\nDevlin K. _The Joy of Sets_. Berlin: Springer; 1993.\n\nHaq T, Roche G, Parker B. Theoretical field concepts in forensic science. 1. Application to recognition and retrieval of physical evidence. _Journal of Forensic Sciences_. 1978;23(1):212\u2013217.\n\nHouck M.M. _Production Taxonomies as the Foundation of Forensic Significance_. Helsinki, Finland: European Academy of Forensic Sciences; 2006.\n\nJohnson P. _A History of Set Theory_. New York: Weber & Schmidt; 1972.\n\nKwan Q.Y. _Inference of Identity of Source_ (Ph.D. thesis). University of California; 1977.\n\nSchum D.A. _Evidential Foundations of Probabilistic Reasoning_. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 1994.\n\nThornton J. Ensembles of class characteristics in physical evidence examination. _Journal of Forensic Sciences_. 1986;31(2):501\u2013503.\n\nUnderhill P. _Why We Buy: The Science of Shopping_. New York: Simon & Schuster; 2000.\n\n# Interpretation\/The Comparative Method\n\nM.M. Houck Consolidated Forensic Laboratory, Washington, DC, USA\n\n## Abstract\n\nComparison is the central method in forensic science and is predicated on assumptions about the items or phenomena to be compared: The comparisons need to be structurally consistent, within shared systems of relationships, and have traits that are diagnostic. Typically, one or more sources (of known origin or relationship) are compared with one or more targets (of an unknown source) by mapping identified (and, therefore, classified) traits between them. The stronger the map, both in number and complexity of traits and relationships, the stronger is the conclusion that can be drawn about the shared relationship between the source and the target. Most things in the world are different when compared and, therefore, more salient differences are found between otherwise similar items.\n\n### Keywords\n\nAnalogy; Comparison; Method; Taxonomy\n\nGlossary\n\nAlignable differences Differences that are connected to the hierarchical system of relatedness of two or more things.\n\nAnalogous trait A characteristic that is similar between two things that is not present in the last common ancestor or precedent of the group under comparison.\n\nAnalogy A cognitive process that transfers information or meaning from one subject (the analog or source) to another subject (the target).\n\nDiagnosticity The degree to which traits classify an object.\n\nHomologous trait A characteristic shared by a common ancestor or precedent.\n\nNonalignable differences Differences with no correspondence at all between the source and the target.\n\n## Introduction\n\nAnalogy, and its more specific relative comparison, is a central component of human cognition. Analogy is the process behind identification of places, objects, and people and plays a significant role in many human mental operations, like problem solving, decisions, perception, memory, and communication. Some researchers, including Hofstadter, have even argued that cognition is analogy. Likewise, the cognitive process of analogy and the method of comparison lie at the heart of the forensic sciences. The ability to compare is predicated on some sort of classification (more properly, a taxonomy) that results in classes, groups, or sets.\n\nAristotle is considered the first to approach comparison as a way to arrange the world. His attempt to codify the process raised, however, an intractable problem that would only be addressed later: the classification of living things. Comparison, by itself, is a minimal technique, at best. A classification system\u2014a taxonomy\u2014is a prerequisite to a fuller comparative methodology. Comparative anatomy, one of the earliest formal applications of the method, goes beyond mere representation (mere comparison, that is) to explain the nature and properties of each animal.\n\nThe French naturalist Pierre Belon (1517\u20131564) compared the skeletal structures of birds to humans in his book L'Histoire de la Nature des Oiseaux (History of the Nature of Birds, 1555; Figure 1), and, along with the Flemish naturalist Andreas Vesalius (1514\u20131564), was one of the first naturalists to explicitly apply the comparative method in biology. Georges Cuvier (1769\u20131832) was the first to use comparative anatomy and taxonomy as a tool, not an end in itself, in his studies of animals and fossils. Cuvier was frustrated that biological phenomena could not be reconfigured into experimental conditions that would allow controlled testing, a difficulty common to many sciences (e.g., see Diamond). The intimate integration of a living organism's physiology with its anatomy created obstacles in teasing out and relating function to structure: Once an organism was dead and prepared for dissection, its function had ceased, thus confounding the relationship of form to function. Cuvier considered that careful examinations and the interrelating of structures between specimens might also prove to be useful in revealing principles of observation and comparison. Perhaps the original scientist-as-detective, Cuvier, used scattered, fractured bits of information to reconstruct the prehistory of the Earth and its animals. In a 1798 paper, Cuvier wrote on his realization of the form and function of bones as it relates to the overall identifiable anatomy of an animal, leading to the recognition of the creature from which the bone originated:\n\nThis assertion will not seem at all astonishing if one recalls that in the living state all the bones are assembled in a kind of framework; that the place occupied by each is easy to recognize; and that by the number and position of their articulating facets one can judge the number and direction of the bones that were attached to them. This is because the number, direction, and shape of the bones that compose each part of an animal's body are always in a necessary relation to all the other parts, in such a way that \u2013 up to a point \u2013 one can infer the whole from any one of them, and vice versa. (Rudwick, 1997, p. 36)\n\nThis has been called \"Cuvier's principle of correlation of parts\" and is a central tenet in biology and paleontology. It is important to note that Cuvier claimed to be able to identify an animal taxonomically from a single bone, but not completely reconstruct it, as the above quote might imply. The reconstruction would only be possible with a sufficient number of bones representing the animal in question. The comparative method has been a successful cornerstone of science ever since, with new or emerging sciences, such as ecology, moving from the purely observational or descriptive approach to that of comparison through experimental or analytical methods.\n\nFigure 1 A drawing from Pierre Belon's 1555 book, History of the Nature of Birds, comparing the skeletal anatomy of birds to humans which is one of the first books using the science of comparative anatomy. Source: Wikimedia Commons, open source.\n\nA short discussion of terms in biology will help clarify concepts used in biological comparisons. The concept of homology, the same structure under every variety of form found in different animals, is the organizing foundation for comparative anatomy. Animals share homologous traits because they also share a common ancestor with the same or related trait. By contrast, analogous traits are similarities found in organisms that were not present in the last common ancestor of the group under comparison; that is, the traits evolved separately. The canonical example of the difference between homologous and analogous traits is the wings of birds and bats: They are homologous as forearms but analogous as wings; the latter structures evolved their functions separately. A homologous trait is termed a homolog. In biology, evolution and natural selection formed the system within which these relationships developed and were maintained, homogenized, or differentiated.\n\nIn manufacturing, other external and internal constraints form the basis for homologous and analogous traits through design, function, form, and costs. Design follows from the product's intended end use, aesthetic concerns, and cost limitations. The function and form of an object tend to correlate and variances in design cluster around necessary and sufficient criteria. In Figure 2, for example, although the hammer heads, opposite sides, handles, materials, weight, shape, and components all vary, they are nonetheless identifiable as hammers. If Figure 2 were finches, as Darwin studied in the Galapagos in his historic voyage with the Beagle, the base process of taxonomy would be the same but the criteria and foundations\u2014the history and causes\u2014would obviously vary because of the vastly different processes that produce hammers and finches.\n\nBroadly speaking, the supply chains and distribution networks of material goods are like the phylogenetic trees based on evolutionary descent. Regardless of whether the items are biological or manufactured, the independence of traits should not be assumed. Comparative studies that do not control for historical relationships through phylogeny or supply chains may imply spurious relationships (coincidences). Forensic science is unique in its use of the comparative method to reconstruct past criminal events and sourcing of evidence, either biological or manufactured (in essence, reverse engineering to a level of distribution or manufacturing resolution).\n\nFigure 2 Hammers. All of the objects (a\u2013f) are recognizable as hammers even though their components vary. (a) Claw hammer; (b) framing hammer; (c) geological hammer; (d) ball-peen hammer; (e) rubber mallet; and (f) upholstery hammer. Source: Wikimedia Commons, open source.\n\n## Analogy and Comparison within a Forensic Process\n\nAnalogy is a cognitive process that transfers information or meaning from one subject (the analog or source) to another subject (the target); it thus implies at least two things: situations or events. The source is considered to be the more complete and more complex of the two and the target is thus less informative and incomplete in some way. The incompleteness may be due to any of several factors, alone or combined, such as damage, fracture, deterioration, or size. The elements or traits\u2014including their relationships, such as evolutionary or supply chains\u2014between the source and the target are mapped or aligned in a comparison. The mapping is done from what is usually the more familiar area of experience and more complete repository of information, the source, to the typically more problematic target.\n\nSalience of the elements or traits is of prime importance: there are an innumerable number of arbitrary differences in either elements or relations that could be considered but are not useful given the question at hand (\"Are both items smaller than the Empire State Building? Are they redder than a fire truck?\"). Ultimately, analogy is a process to communicate that the two comparators (the source and the target) have some relationship in common despite any arbitrary differences. Some notion of possible or hypothetical connection must exist for the comparison to be made. As a forensic example, consider trace debris removed from the clothing of a suspect and the body of a victim: Although there may be no physical evidence (hairs, fibers, glass, soil, etc.) in common, the suspect's clothing and the victim's body have, at least prima facie, a common relationship (the victim is the victim and the suspect is a person of interest in the crime) until proven otherwise. Thus, common relations, not common objects, are essential to analogy and comparison.\n\nThe comparison process as a method makes several assumptions. First, the space in which the comparators are mapped is assumed to be Euclidean. Second, the method embeds the comparators in a \"space of minimum dimensionality\" (Tversky) based on all observed salient similarities. Each object, a, is detailed and described by a set of elements or traits, A. Any observed similarities between a and another object b, denoted as s(a, b), are expressed as a function of the salient traits they are determined to have in common. The comparison and any observed familiarity can be expressed as a function of three arguments (Figure 3):\n\nFigure 3 A comparison of observed familiarities can be expressed as a function of three arguments; visualized here.\n\n\u2022 A \u2229 B, the features shared by a and b\n\n\u2022 A\u2013B, the features of a that are not shared by b\n\n\u2022 B\u2013A, the features of b that are not shared by a\n\nPsychological studies show that people tend to pay more attention to the target (the comparator with less information) than to the source. In forensic science, this means that analysts would pay more attention to the samples from the crime scene or actors than to the known samples collected. This is true even though the known has more salience, because arguably it has more information and a documented provenance than the questioned sample. For example, a toy ship is quite similar to a real ship because most of the main features of the real ship are expressed in the toy (otherwise it might not be recognized as a simulacrum of its referent). A real ship, however, is not as similar to the toy ship because many of the features of a real ship are not expressed in the toy (due to function, scale, or safety, among other factors). The reason for paying more attention to the target is, first and foremost, to determine if there is sufficiency of salient information in the target for the comparative process to occur (see Vanderkolk for a discussion on this).\n\nThe main determinant of feature salience for comparative purposes is the degree to which they classify an object, that is, their diagnosticity. A feature that serves as the basis to reassign an object from one class to another class with fewer members is more salient than one that does not. Salience is hierarchical and is based on how many members of a class share that feature; the goal is thus to place an object, by successive comparative features, into classes with increasingly fewer members. Salience of a feature, therefore, should increase inversely with the number of members of a class into which it places an object; A \u2229 B increases and may be thought of as an expression of diagnosticity. A comparative process that does not maximize diagnosticity or exploit features that do so will have low forensic utility.\n\n## The Comparative Method within Forensic Science\n\nThe comparative method involves the aligning of the relational structures between one or more targets (items of questioned source; Qs) and one or more sources (items of known provenance or source; Ks). This alignment, to work as a method, has three constraints or requirements:\n\n\u2022 The alignment has to be structurally consistent; that is, it has to observe a one-to-one correspondence between the comparators in an argumentative structure that is the same between the comparisons (parallel connectivity). One point of comparison can be aligned with at most one other point of comparison in the target or source. Similarly, matching relationships must have matching arguments to support them (the reason for the proposed relationship cannot be based on an unrelated argument).\n\n\u2022 The comparison has to involve common relations but does not have to involve common object descriptions. All the evidence that came from the crime scene, for example, need not have originated from only one source.\n\n\u2022 Finally, comparisons are not made merely between the objects at hand but also include all of the higher order \"constraining relations\" that they may share (systematicity). In biology, this would relate to the evolutionary and genetic connections; for manufactured materials, this would be the design factors and the supply chain of raw materials and intermediate processes that lead to a finished consumer good. The deeper the relational history, the more higher order classes that two objects share, the stronger the relationship they share, and, therefore, the greater is the chance of a shared origin. This obviates the significance of coincidental matches between otherwise similar but unrelated objects: A series of coincidences between two objects are not a salient relationship, no matter how many of them exist. Type I and type II errors stem from these coincidences.\n\nA comparison results in a type of cross-mapping of analogous traits or phenomena that have differential relational roles in two situations (e.g., victim's clothing and crime scene). A systematic mapping between source and target is a natural method for differentiating potentially ambiguous relationships. This relates to the classification of the target and source, the identification of traits or features each has that place them in one or more sets (classes) of items. The cross-mapping is of these traits within a class. Once a source has been aligned to a target, candidate inferences, based on the source, can be projected onto the target, such as a shared source or history. A handgun with blood on it, for example, can be compared to a bullet removed from a victim (through test firings of similar ammunition) and determined to have been the source (to some degree of certainty) of the bullet while the blood can be tested through DNA typing with the victim's known sample and be shown to have the victim as its source (again, to some degree of certainty); the fact that the victim's blood is on the handgun indicates a shared history of occurrence (lateral contemporaneity).\n\nComparison is selective. The requirement of systematicity is predicated on the idea that classes or sets are flexible and hierarchical. Higher-order connections predict lower-order relations, and commonalities that are not a part of the aligned system of relationships are considered inconsequential: A blue shoe and a blue car have little in common other than the stated color category; likewise, the fact that the source shoe and the target print might have the same kind of outsole design recedes in importance to the fact that none of the individual traits on the sole appears in the print. Differences that are connected to the hierarchical system of relatedness are called alignable differences; those differences with no correspondence at all between the source and the target are called nonalignable differences. Alignable differences are more meaningful and salient than nonalignable ones because they exist within the same relationship system making them more relevant to each other. The strange conclusion this observation leads to is that there should be more meaningful differences for comparators that are very similar (toy train\u2013real train) than for ones that are less similar (toy train\u2013toy ship) because the more similar comparators will have or be derived within more common systems of relationships and will have more alignable differences. As an example, consider all the possible differences for the pair automobile\u2013truck and for the pair duck\u2013baseball. More alignable differences could be found for the first pair than the second: After a few differences (\"You don't play sports with a duck. You don't hunt baseballs.\"), the list seems pointless because the two are not aligned. The details that could be elicited by comparing automobile with truck, however, could go on for some time, depending on the level of detail desired. Most sets of comparators in the world are dissimilar (which is why forensic comparisons tend to be stronger in exclusion than inclusion) and this \"nonconsideration\" heuristic makes sense given humans' cognitive load: \"Intuitively, it is when a pair of items is similar that their differences are likely to be important\" (Genter and Markman). Psychological experiments support this statement and it seems to be an integral part of human cognition. Related to this idea is Wittgenstein's proposal 5.5303 in his work Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus: \"Roughly speaking, to say of two things that they are identical is nonsense, and to say of one thing that it is identical with itself is to say nothing at all.\" This points to the need for a statistical evaluation of the strength of a comparison, either inclusive or exclusive.\n\n## See also\n\nFoundations: Forensic Intelligence; Overview and Meaning of Identification\/Individualization; Semiotics, Heuristics, and Inferences Used by Forensic Scientists.\n\n## Further Reading\n\nDiamond J, Robinson J.A, eds. _Natural Experiments of History_. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press; 2010.\n\nGentner D, Markman A.B. Structure mapping in analogy and similarity. _American Psychologist_. 1997;52(1):45\u201356.\n\nHofstadter D. Analogy as the core of cognition. In: Gentner D, Holyoak K, Kokinov B, eds. _The Analogical Mind: Perspectives from Cognitive Science_. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press\/Bradford Book; 2001:499\u2013538.\n\nMarkman A.B, Genter D. Structure mapping in the comparison process. _American Journal of Psychology_. 2000;113(4):501\u2013538.\n\nPellegrin P. _Aristotle's Classification of Living Things_. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press; 1986.\n\nRudwick M. _Georges Cuvier, Fossil Bones, and Geological Catastrophes_. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; 1997.\n\nTversky A. Features of similarity. _Psychological Review_. 1977;84:327\u2013352.\n\nVanderkolk J. _Forensic Comparative Science_. New York: Academic Press; 2009.\n\nWittgenstein L. _Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus_. London: Routledge; 1922 Translated by Ogden, C.K., 1922, prepared with assistance from Moore, G.E., Ramsey, F.P., and Wittgenstein.\n\n# Fingerprints\n\nI. Hamilton Glasgow Fingerprint Unit, Forensic Services, Scottish Police Services Authority, Glasgow, UK\n\n## Abstract\n\nFingerprints have been used by criminal justice to identify individuals for over 100 years. They were first used to identify arrested individuals by comparing one set of prints to another, but it was not long before they were used to compare fingerprints left by chance at a crime scene with those taken from a suspected individual. This allowed the police to connect a suspect with a crime scene or an object recovered. Fingerprint identification quickly became the \"best evidence,\" with the police and courts alike accepting its strength.\n\nFingerprints are left by the ridged skin found on the inside surfaces of the hands. This friction ridge skin comprises many tiny ridges and furrows. Fingerprint examiners study the features of friction ridge skin, and it is the appearance and relative position of ridge characteristics that comprise the main area of comparison in fingerprint identification. Using a methodology known as analysis, comparison, evaluation, and verification, an examiner can compare a mark left at a scene to a known print and reach a conclusion.\n\nFingerprint identification has found itself at the center of discussion, debate, and criticism in the past decade. Key concepts like absolute certainty and absolute identification, once the cornerstone of the strength of the field, are now being questioned.\n\n### Keywords\n\nBifurcation; Fingerprints; Friction ridge skin; Latent print; Marks; Pores\n\n## Introduction\n\nFingerprint identification is one of the oldest forensic tools used by police forces to investigate crime. The concept of identifying individuals using their fingerprints began in Asia, and the spread of the British Empire allowed observation and development of the process by civil servants in India who then publicized the practice in the United Kingdom. Initially, fingerprints were used to sign documents, but their use was expanded and developed before being adopted by the police in England at the turn of the twentieth century both as a means to identify repeat offenders and also to link individuals to crimes. It became accepted as one of the best forms of evidence available, a definitive way to identify an individual or to connect them to a crime scene. When DNA evidence was first introduced, it was called \"DNA fingerprinting\" in an attempt to link it to the perceived strength of fingerprint identification. The field has enjoyed almost a century of high regard, but, in recent times, a small number of highly publicized errors coupled with developments in other forensic sciences have meant that it is no longer universally viewed as the \"gold standard\" of evidence.\n\n## What Is a Fingerprint?\n\nA fingerprint is an impression left behind by the skin found on the inner surface of the fingers. The skin on this area is called friction ridge skin and is found on the palms of the hands, as well as on the toes and soles of the feet. Its main evolutionary use is for gripping, which is why it is only found in these areas; the same type of skin is found on the hands and feet of primates. Friction ridge skin comprises many tiny ridges and furrows, covering the surface. The ridges do not flow continuously but bend and curve, stop and start, come together and split apart, creating patterns and unique arrangements of features. The ridges form before birth, as the fetus develops in the womb, and barring a deep-seated injury which penetrates through the epidermal layer of skin, their arrangement will remain unchanged until after death. Their configuration is a combination of many factors including the stresses and strains on the skin in the womb as it develops, hormones, and genetics.\n\nEach ridge contains many sweat pores, which run along the crest of the ridge. These are always exuding sweat, and when a receptive surface is touched this sweat is left behind, leaving an impression of the ridge pattern. An impression in sweat will be left on every surface touched, but the impression is only of use if the surface is smooth and receptive. Flat plastic and glass are excellent surfaces to recover fingerprints from; rough surfaces like wood are more difficult. Recovering a print from a rough, textured, powdery surface like stone is unachievable. A mark left in sweat can be almost invisible, hence the name latent print, derived from the Latin \"latere\" meaning hidden. Fingerprints can also be left after touching contaminants such as paint, oil, or blood and in malleable substances such as putty.\n\nFingerprint examiners study the features of friction ridge skin, which can be divided into three areas or levels: level 1 is the pattern type and ridge flow, level 2 is the ridge characteristics, and level 3 is pores and ridge edge shapes. Each of these levels represents a more minute level of detail; the following sections will describe each of these in more detail.\n\n### Pattern Type and Ridge Flow\n\nThe topographical surface of the hand will determine the general pattern formed by the ridges. As they develop, they take the path of least resistance, and so will flow over flat areas, and around raised areas. The three main pattern types are known as arches, loops, and whorls, shown in Figure 1, but there are many variations and combinations within these pattern types.\n\nLooking at the patterns, it is possible to imagine the arch pattern being formed by ridges flowing over a flat area of skin; the whorl pattern resulting from ridges flowing around a raised area of skin; and a loop pattern being the result of a raised area on the right or left side which the ridge flow curves away from.\n\n### Ridge Characteristics\n\nThe ridges themselves do not flow in unbroken lines across the skin. They can come to a stop, making a feature called a ridge ending, or they can split apart, making a feature called a bifurcation. These features are known as ridge characteristics. These two basic characteristics can combine to form others, as shown in Figure 2.\n\nIt is the appearance and relative position of ridge characteristics that comprise the main area of comparison for fingerprint examiners.\n\nFigure 1 Three main pattern types.\n\n### Pores and Ridge Edge Shapes\n\nOn many prints, the ridges may appear to the naked eye to be solid lines, but on magnification, the pores which run along the crest of each ridge may be visible. They will appear as white dots inside the black of the ridge. The pores themselves are not evenly spaced or of uniform size, and so their size and location can also be used as a comparison feature.\n\nThe ridges are undulating and bumpy in places. On a fingerprint of good quality, the shape of the ridge edges can also be used as part of the comparison process. Figure 3 shows a magnified section of a fingerprint, showing the pores and ridge edge shapes.\n\nThe appearance of pores and ridge edge shapes is affected by several factors: the quality of the print, pressure used, the smoothness of the surface the print has been left on, and the type of ridges an individual has. Some individuals will have thick ridges, making pores and edge shapes more apparent, while others will have fine ridges making these features less apparent.\n\nFigure 2 Ridge features.\n\n### Other Discriminating Features\n\nAll of the features described above are biological features which develop before birth and are permanent. There are other features of the skin on the hands and feet which can be used for identification purposes. The friction ridge skin on the hands and feet is marked by creases, some permanent, where the joints bend; for example, and others which may change and develop over time, depending on how the skin is used, and as the skin ages.\n\nIf the skin is damaged badly enough to penetrate through to the dermal layer of the skin and affect the layer which holds the \"blueprint\" for the ridge pattern, the layout of the ridges will be affected. This will result in the formation of a scar. Although this will alter the fingerprint, the scar becomes an identifying feature itself as once the scar pattern is set, it will become part of the regenerating pattern of the ridges. Figure 4 shows a fingerprint with a large permanent scar.\n\nFigure 3 Enlargement of fingerprint showing pores and ridge edge shapes. Reproduced from Duncan, J.H., 1942. An Introduction to Fingerprints. Butterworth and Co., London.\n\nFigure 4 Fingerprint showing permanent scar.\n\n### Marks and Prints\n\nIn fingerprint identification, two terms are often used to distinguish between the two different types of fingerprint which are analyzed. Fingerprint identification consists of a comparison between an unknown fingerprint recovered at a crime scene and a known fingerprint from a fingerprint form. The fingerprint from a crime scene is commonly known as a \"mark\" and can vary greatly in quality. It may be a very high-quality reproduction of the skin's surface, showing a high level of detail including ridge flow, pattern, ridge characteristics, and even pore and ridge edge shape detail, or it may be of very poor quality, with details obscured by dirt, the texture of the surface, movement, pressure, smudging, or overlapping fingerprints.\n\nIn contrast, the fingerprint from a fingerprint form, known as a \"print,\" is almost always of good quality in comparison to the unknown mark. These fingerprints are taken in controlled circumstances, usually by a police officer. These prints can be taken by two different means: by coating the finger in ink and rolling it smoothly across paper, or using an electronic device known in the United Kingdom as Live Scan, which uses a computer scanning device to scan the surface of the skin and then prints this onto paper. Although these are usually of very good quality, this is not guaranteed; prints can still be of poor quality due to dirt or sweat on the hands, too much pressure, or if the finger is moved while being printed.\n\n## Recovery of Fingerprints from Scenes\n\nCrime scene examiners will examine every scene to attempt to recover fingerprints. Some marks may be visible to the naked eye; others may need some form of development.\n\nGenerally, marks left in sweat are invisible and will need to be developed in order to be recovered. The most common method used is dusting powder. The crime scene examiner will lightly brush a fine powder over an object or surface area, and the powder will adhere to any fingerprints left there. Any marks are then recovered by a process known as \"lifting\"; a piece of adhesive tape is smoothed over the mark and then carefully peeled away and adhered to a clear acetate sheet. The powder is transferred to the tape, and the mark is then visible on the acetate.\n\nThis method is generally used for smooth, clean surfaces. There are a range of powders available, the most commonly used being aluminum and magnetic metal flake powders; granular powders are also available in a variety of colors. The type of powder and the color used are dependent on the surface being examined; granular powders are often photographed rather than lifted, and colors can help contrast with the color of the underlying surface.\n\n### Chemical Development\n\nArticles are often removed from a crime scene to be treated at a lab. There are a wide range of treatments available to develop fingerprints on different surfaces; many of these require chemical processes not possible at the crime scene. Liquid chemical treatments such as ninhydrin and 1,8-diazafluoren-9-one are used to develop prints on porous surfaces such as paper and are probably the most common chemical treatments. Cyanoacrylate (superglue) vapor can develop prints on smooth nonporous surfaces, and vacuum-metal deposition employs vacuum-coating technology, which uses thermal evaporation of gold and zinc to coat surfaces such as plastic bags and reveal fingerprints on the surface. Different chemical treatments will react with different constituent components of sweat, and some can be used in sequence to get the best possible results.\n\n## Fingerprint Practice\n\n### Fingerprint Comparison Methodology\n\nOnce fingerprints have been recovered, either by the crime scene examiner or at the lab, they will be sent to the fingerprint department to be worked on. A fingerprint examiner will use a methodology known as analysis, comparison, evaluation, and verification (ACE-V) to conduct their analysis of a fingerprint. In most cases, when fingerprints arrive at a fingerprint department, they will be accompanied by a list of individuals to be compared against the crime scene prints. These individuals may be quoted as suspects: people suspected of committing the crime, or as eliminations: people with legitimate access to the scene or property and whose prints might therefore be expected to be found. ACE-V describes the various stages of the comparison process.\n\nDuring the first stage, analysis, the unknown mark is studied. Details such as the surface the mark has been left on, the substance it has been left in, and the development medium used will be noted where possible. The mark itself will be analyzed to determine the quantity and quality of information contained within it, such as pattern type, ridge flow, presence of scars, creases, ridge features, and pores. Using all of this information, the examiner will use his\/her judgment to best determine which area of skin, finger, or palm left the mark.\n\nFigure 5 Mark and print showing eight corresponding ridge features.\n\nIf there is too low a level of information contained within the mark, the examiner will deem it insufficient; there is not enough information present to make an identification.\n\nThe second stage is comparison; the unknown mark is compared against a known print. The examiner is looking for features in sequence and agreement, with none in disagreement, unless there is an explanation for such disagreement.\n\nOnce the mark and print have been compared, the next stage is evaluation. All of the information found is weighed up in the examiner's mind, and a conclusion is reached. Current practice, based on professional culture, allows for three different conclusions:\n\n1. Identified: the mark was left by that individual.\n\n2. Not identified: the mark was not left by that individual.\n\n3. Insufficient: there is not enough information to reach one of the above conclusions.\n\nSome jurisdictions allow for a fourth finding: inconclusive. This is used in situations where features are found in agreement, but there is not enough information to identify.\n\nThe final stage of the process is verification. Practices vary in different jurisdictions, but all identifications are verified by at least one other fingerprint examiner, working independently, before the result is passed out to the police. The verifier will carry out his\/her own analysis, comparison, and evaluation of the mark and determine whether the mark is identified. An identification is only passed out as a result by the fingerprint department if it is agreed by all examiners who have examined it.\n\nFigure 5 demonstrates the comparison process. The points highlighted can be seen on the mark and found in the same location on the print. For example, points 1 and 2 form a lake and are seen on the mark and the print. Looking at the mark, we can follow the ridge down and move one ridge to the right and find point 3, a bifurcation. Counting five ridges to the left from point 3, we find another bifurcation, point 4. Again, these points are found on the print. It is possible to work through all the points in this manner, finding them all in both mark and print, in the same relationship to each other.\n\n### Numeric Standards\n\nUntil recently, it was common for jurisdictions to work to a numeric standard in order to determine whether a mark was identified. In the United Kingdom, this standard was 16 points in common and in the United States of America, it was 12 points, although the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) worked with a standard of 8 points.\n\nIn 1973, the International Association for Identification (IAI) declared that \"no valid basis exists at this time for requiring that a predetermined minimum number of friction ridge characteristics must be present in two impressions in order to establish positive identification.\" The decision to require a minimum number of points in agreement for an identification arose as a way of ensuring commonality within a country between regions and police forces. The numbers decided upon were not the result of scientific research but rather on a need for safety and perceived objectivity.\n\nThe IAI announcement in 1973 prompted a move away from numeric standards, and many countries have now adopted a nonnumeric system. This development did create a problem; up until this point, an identification was easily explained by confirming that the required number of points had been found. Now something else was needed to replace it. A new explanation of fingerprint identification was developed by David Ashbaugh, a Canadian fingerprint examiner, and given the name \"ridgeology.\" Ashbaugh concentrated on the way the skin is formed, and its uniqueness, to explain that scientifically there could never be an arbitrary quantity of points required; instead, it depended on the mark itself and the quality, quantity, and clarity of available information. He coined the term ACE-V as a way to describe the identification procedure, taking into account all available information and the unique formation of the skin to reach a conclusion.\n\nAlthough many countries have been using a nonnumeric system for many years (e.g., the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, and Norway), there are still countries that prefer to work to a numeric standard. Some examples of these would be Holland, Greece, Finland, and Spain, which use a 12 point standard, as well as Germany and Sweden, which use an 8\u201312 point standard.\n\n### Computer Technology\n\nIf after the comparison process has been carried out the mark has not been identified, or if there are no individuals quoted to be compared, marks can be searched against a computer database. In the United Kingdom, this database is called Ident 1, and in the United States, it is the Automated Fingerprint Identification System. In 2011, the UK fingerprint database contained prints for 8.45 million individuals. When a set of fingerprints is taken for an individual, it is loaded onto the fingerprint database. Fingerprint examiners can then scan a mark from a crime scene, encode it with visible features, and search it against the database. These searches can be local, regional, or national searches and provide an excellent investigative tool, frequently providing \"cold\" hits against unsuspected individuals. A computer search is, however, by no means perfect; it does not provide unverified matches and all results must be checked by a fingerprint examiner to be confirmed.\n\nThe latest development in computer technology is direct transfer of marks from recovery at the locus to the fingerprint department. At present, marks from a crime scene are generally printed and sent in a hard copy or lift form to the fingerprint department, and this can result in a long processing time. Some areas of the United Kingdom are now beginning to use a form of electronic transfer, where fingerprints recovered from a scene can be photographed or scanned by a computer and sent directly to the fingerprint department, meaning that a delivery which might have taken days can now be conducted in seconds.\n\n### The Role of the Tenprint\n\nMuch of the public awareness about the uses of fingerprints relates to the recovery of fingerprints at crime scenes and their comparison to prints from a suspect. Within criminal justice, fingerprints play another important role. On arrest, an individual's fingerprints are taken and immediately searched on a computer against all held fingerprint forms. By this method, it can be established whether the individual already has a criminal record and can also confirm identity if a record is held. This ensures databases such as the Scottish Criminal History System and the Police National Computer in the United Kingdom remain accurate.\n\n## Current Issues in the Field\n\nRecent developments in fingerprint practice and forensic science as a whole have opened up fingerprint identification to new discussion, debate, and criticism in the past decade. The profession developed in the Victorian era, when the public were very open and accepting of new scientific advancements, and little has changed in the way the profession conducts its work since those early days. Critics have argued that there are weaknesses in the foundation of fingerprint identification as well as concerns regarding the methods used to reach conclusions. Many of these issues have arisen due to a greater awareness of scientific practice within the legal system.\n\nDaubert hearings in courts in the United States, regarding admissibility of evidence, have resulted in a desire within the fingerprint profession for scientific credibility, and this appears to have grown in strength since the removal of a numeric standard. Without a seemingly objective numeric standard, the concept of \"science\" has been used to convey the authority and objectivity of fingerprint practice. This has led to heated debate: critics have been quick to argue that it is not a science, and, as a result, the implication has been made that if it is not science, then it is useless. The fingerprint professionals have denied this and say that it is a science, and therefore valuable. These arguments revolve around a misconception: value and utility are not restricted to science.\n\n### Uniqueness\n\nThe uniqueness of friction ridge skin is seen as one of the key premises of fingerprint practice. However, an identification is made on an examination of a mark left behind, which can be of widely varying quality, rather than the skin on the finger itself. The biological uniqueness applies to the finger, not the print left behind, and by asserting that a print is as unique as the skin which made it, the profession has ignored investigation into how similar two prints from different people can be. Most examiners will have seen areas of similarity between fingerprints from different people, but this has not been empirically studied. Although biological uniqueness is important, it is the ability to perceive this information which is crucial.\n\n### Infallibility and Certainty\n\nFingerprinting is synonymous with absolute certainty and absolute identification. This type of reporting arose in the early days of fingerprint identification, and early texts show that fingerprint examiners were not seen to be giving an opinion, but reporting a fact. It is unusual that, although fingerprint identification is viewed as expert opinion evidence, the notion of conclusions as fact has not shifted. This view can still be found in recent publications, stating that the conclusions of fingerprint experts are absolute and final. Irrespective of whether or not this is \"scientific,\" it is irrational to make claims of absolute certainty and therefore eliminate all other possible donors in the world. No matter how much experience an examiner may have, they will only have viewed a tiny percentage of the fingerprints in the world, and of those which they have examined, they will not be able to retain in memory all of the other prints they may have examined.\n\nThe McKie case in Scotland, the subject of the Scottish Fingerprint Inquiry, is an example of the inherent problems of attempting to be certain about a conclusion which can only be an inference. This case was the first time disagreements between experts was brought to the attention of the general public and demonstrated that not all fingerprint examiners agree all of the time. The report, published in December 2011, concluded that fingerprint examiners cannot report their findings with 100% certainty and that it should be recognized as opinion evidence rather than fact. This will have far-reaching effects on the profession.\n\n### Probabilistic Evaluation\n\nOne possible solution for fingerprint practice would be to adopt a probabilistic model for reporting their findings, rather than a categoric one. Although statistics were discussed by some of the founding fathers of fingerprints, it has until recently been rejected outright by the fingerprint profession. There are three common reasons given for the rejection of a probabilistic approach: the first is that friction ridge skin is unique. Suggesting the possibility of commonality between different prints would suggest the possibility of duplication, which is not deemed possible. The second is that there is currently no model which could be used to calculate a probability. This, however, is changing; at the present time, there are models under development and these will only continue to be refined and become more accurate. The final reason given is that a probabilistic approach would weaken fingerprint evidence. The fingerprint profession views the certainty of its conclusions as its main strength, but as questions accumulate about the logic of such conclusions, this is no longer the case.\n\nCurrently, it is difficult to determine the reliability of the conclusions of a fingerprint examiner as they are based purely on observations made by the examiner, using their personal experience, training, and ability. A probabilistic model may be a way to add a more objective verification of an examiner's opinion.\n\n### Error Rate\n\nIt has been stated that the error rate of fingerprint examination is zero. As errors within the field have been discovered, this has been altered to claim that the methodological error rate is zero; that is, any error is not with the methodology, but with the examiner. These arguments were made most widely by fingerprint examiners in the United States, attempting to defend fingerprint identification against criticism in Daubert hearings, when they were asked about the error rate of their field. More recently, it has become widely accepted that such statements are not valid; the examiner is a key component of the process of fingerprint identification and it is illogical to discount their input.\n\n### Bias\n\nConfirmation bias can be defined as \"the tendency to confirm an initial theory or preconception and avoid disconfirming information\" and is an unconscious aspect of how our minds function.\n\nThe concept of confirmation bias in the comparison process of fingerprint identification can take various forms:\n\n\u2022 Being unconsciously affected by extraneous information, such as police case information\n\n\u2022 Being affected by the known conclusions of others about the mark in question\n\n\u2022 Rationalizing (explaining away) discrepancies because of a subjective confidence in the identification\n\n\u2022 Being led by the known print to find features in the unknown, and poorer quality, mark\n\n\u2022 Being more likely to observe features in agreement and not notice areas of disagreement\n\nFingerprint examiners are trained to look for discrepancies as well as similarities, but the human brain is programmed to weight positive instances more heavily than negative ones, so it can be quite possible to dismiss negative factors. A small amount of research has been done in this area; some studies have suggested that bias has a strong effect on fingerprint conclusions, while others have suggested the opposite.\n\n## Conclusion\n\nFrom the issues mentioned above, it is clear that fingerprint practice is at the beginning of a new era, with many issues to be resolved over the coming years. Currently, the main collection of knowledge used by fingerprint examiners is accumulated through their own experience, and \"common sense\" explanations, passed down from one examiner to another. The future of fingerprint identification will likely see this knowledge supplemented by empirical research. Fingerprint analysis must be seen to be logical and its processes transparent, its findings able to be demonstrated. It provides a highly valuable tool to police forces, giving fast and economical results. The current debates do not discredit fingerprint evidence, but they highlight areas for improvement to ensure the field maintains its position as a significant part of forensic science.\n\n## See also\n\nFoundations: History of Forensic Sciences; Overview and Meaning of Identification\/Individualization; Principles of Forensic Science; Management\/Quality in Forensic Science: Sequential Unmasking: Minimizing Observer Effects in Forensic Science; Pattern Evidence: Analysis, Comparison, Evaluation, and Verification (ACE-V); Bare Footprint Marks; Palm Prints; Pattern Evidence\/Fingerprints (Dactyloscopy): Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems (AFIS); Friction Ridge Skin Impression Evidence \u2013 Standards of Proof; Identification and Classification; Pattern Evidence\/History: Fingerprint Sciences; Professional: National Academy of Sciences (NAS).\n\n## Further Reading\n\nAshbaugh D.R. _Quantitative-Qualitative Friction Ridge Analysis: An Introduction to Basic and Advanced Ridgeology_. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 1999.\n\nCampbell A. _The Fingerprint Inquiry Report_. Edinburgh, Scotland: APS Group Scotland; 2011.\n\nChampod C, Lennard C.J, Margot P, Stoilovic M. _Fingerprints and Other Ridge Skin Impressions_. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2004.\n\nCole S.A. _Suspect Identities: A History of Fingerprinting and Criminal Identification_. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 2001.\n\nDror I.E, Charlton D. Why experts make errors. _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 2006;56(4):600\u2013616.\n\nMnookin J.L. The validity of latent fingerprint identification: confessions of a fingerprinting moderate. _Law, Probability and Risk_. 2008;7:127\u2013141.\n\nNational Research Council. _Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward_. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2009.\n\nNeumann C, Champod C, Puch-Solis R, Egli N, Anthonioz A, Bromage-Griffiths A. Computation of likelihood ratios in fingerprint identification for configurations of any number of minutiae. _Journal of Forensic Science_. 2007;52(1):54\u201364.\n\nPeterson P.E, et al. Latent prints: a perspective on the state of the science. _Forensic Science Communications_. 2009;11(4). Available from: <http:\/\/www.fbi.gov\/hq\/lab\/fsc\/backissu\/oct2009\/review\/2009_10_review01.htm> (accessed 16.06.10.).\n\nSaks M.J, Koehler J.J. The individualization fallacy in forensic science evidence. _Vanderbilt Law Review_. 2008;61(1):199\u2013219.\n\nScientific Working Group on Friction Ridge Analysis, Study and Technology. _The Fingerprint Sourcebook_. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs; 2011.\n\nZabell S.L. Fingerprint evidence. _Journal of Law and Policy_. 2005;13:143\u2013179.\n\n# Key Terms\n\nAnalogy, Bifurcation, Classification, Comparison, Crime, Epistemology, Evidence, Fingerprints, Forensic, Friction ridge skin, Kirk, Latent print, Locard, Marks, Method, Paradigm, Pores, Science, Set, Taxon, Taxonomy.\n\n# Review Questions\n\n1. How do Crispino and Houck define forensic science?\n\n2. What is the basic unit of forensic science? How is it defined?\n\n3. What are the native principles of forensic science?\n\n4. What are the nonnative principles\u2014that is, borrowed\u2014of forensic science?\n\n5. What are the two types of chronology? How could they be used in forensic science?\n\n6. How could fingerprints be considered \"transfer evidence\"?\n\n7. If, as Houck states, \"two sets are identical if and only if they have exactly the same members,\" what does this mean for fingerprint identification? Name three sets that would have exactly the same members.\n\n8. What are some of the criteria for the taxonomy of fingerprints? Name at least 10.\n\n9. What is the basis for the classification criteria used in fingerprints; that is, what processes form the taxonomy?\n\n10. What is the difference between uniqueness and individualization? Is that difference meaningful in forensic science? Is either a scientifically provable concept?\n\n11. Why has fingerprinting found itself at the center of discussion and debate as of late?\n\n12. Is ACE-V a true scientific method, like chromatography? Why or why not?\n\n13. What problem did moving to a nonnumeric system create?\n\n14. How does Cuvier's Correlation of Parts apply to fingerprint examination?\n\n15. What is the role of classification in creating a \"space of minimum dimensionality\"? How does this support or assist comparisons?\n\n16. Using a partial latent as an example, why would an examiner want to pay more attention to this \"target\" (the comparator with less information)? How does this help or hurt the comparison process?\n\n17. What is diagnosticity?\n\n18. What does parallel connectivity have to do with comparisons?\n\n19. When would one or more traits be inconsequential to a comparison?\n\n20. Why are alignable differences more significant than nonalignable ones?\n\n# Discussion Questions\n\n1. Are statistical interpretations of fingerprint evidence possible? Why or why not? If so, what might be the benefits? If not, why not and where does that leave fingerprinting as a science?\n\n2. Consider a burglary of a home. Using the principles offered by the previous entries, what evidence might be useful in the investigation, what principles are relevant, and what could or could not possibly be compared?\n\n3. Fingerprints is one of the disciplines that is almost wholly within forensic science. Without a relevant cognate in the academic world (biometrics is more about the engineering of the identification devices), the question remains: Is forensic fingerprinting examination a science? Is it merely a technique? Argue both sides of the issue, using pros and cons with references from the literature.\n\n4. How accurate are fingerprint examinations? How could you tell? Is absolute identification supportable?\n\n5. What is the difference between biometrics and fingerprinting? Is there one?\n\n## Additional Readings\n\nChampod C, Espinoza M. Forgeries of fingerprints in forensic science. In: _Handbook of Biometric Anti-Spoofing_. London: Springer; 2014:13\u201334.\n\nForbes P.G. _Quantifying the Strength of Evidence in Forensic Fingerprints_ (Doctoral dissertation). University of Oxford; 2014.\n\nKellman P.J, Mnookin J.L, Erlikhman G, Garrigan P, Ghose T, Mettler E, Charleton D, Dror I.E. Forensic comparison and matching of fingerprints: using quantitative image measures for estimating error rates through understanding and predicting difficulty. _PLoS One_. 2014;9(5):e94617.\nSection 2\n\nChemistry and Visualization\n\nOutline\n\nIntroduction\n\nChemistry of Print Residue\n\nSequential Treatment and Enhancement\n\nVisualization or Development of Crime Scene Fingerprints\n\nKey Terms\n\nReview Questions\n\nDiscussion Questions\n\n# Introduction\n\nForensic science makes the absent present; it brings history into the \"now\" by reconstructing past events through the physical remnants of the criminal activity. Fingerprint traces are the canonical example of this: They must be visualized to be useful and, in doing so, what was perceived as absent becomes visible in the present. The arsenal of chemical processes available to visualize latent prints is vast and complicated. Interestingly, this aspect of fingerprinting has not been challenged, probably because it is so heavily based in chemistry.\n\n# Chemistry of Print Residue\n\nA.A. Frick, P. Fritz, and S.W. Lewis Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia\n\n## Abstract\n\nThe impressions left by friction ridge skin on the grasping surfaces of the hands not only demonstrate contact, but are also sufficiently discriminating to allow personal identification. They are thus extremely important in criminal investigations to establish links between the objects, victims, and suspects. The most common forms of these impressions are latent (hidden) fingerprints, and successful recovery from a scene or object relies on their detection. A range of physical and chemical methods have been developed over the years for the visualization of latent fingerprints. These methods target differences between the latent fingerprint and the substrate on which it is laid and are based either on physical attraction or a chemical reaction. Knowledge of the chemistry of latent fingerprints is critically important in understanding the detection methods. This article provides an overview of the chemical composition of latent fingerprints and a discussion of recent approaches to investigate the factors affecting fingerprint composition.\n\n### Keywords\n\nComposition; Contaminants; Degradation; Development; Donor effect; Eccrine sweat; Latent fingerprints; Sebum\n\nGlossary\n\nApocrine glands Sweat glands associated with hair follicles around the axillary regions; that is, the armpits, groin, and chest.\n\nEccrine glands Sweat glands found in all skin areas.\n\nEccrine sweat Aqueous mixture of salts and amino acids secreted by the eccrine glands.\n\nSebaceous glands Secretory glands associated with hair follicles.\n\nSebum Mixture of lipids secreted by the sebaceous glands.\n\nAbbreviations\n\nDESI-MSI Desorption electrospray ionization mass spectrometry imaging\n\nGC-MS Gas chromatography\u2013mass spectrometry\n\nMALDI-MSI Matrix-assisted laser desorption\/ionization mass spectrometry imaging\n\nSIMS Secondary ion mass spectrometry\n\nThis article is a revision of the previous edition article by S.K. Bramble and J.S. Brennan, volume 2, pp. 862\u2013869, \u00a9 2000, Elsevier Ltd.\n\n## Introduction\n\nThe impressions left by friction ridge skin on the grasping surfaces of the hands (and feet) not only demonstrate contact, but are also sufficiently discriminating to allow personal identification. They are thus extremely important in criminal investigations to establish links between the objects, victims, and suspects. The most common forms of these impressions are latent (hidden) fingerprints, and successful recovery from a scene or object relies on their detection. A range of physical and chemical methods have been developed over the years for the visualization of latent fingerprints. These methods target differences between the latent fingerprint and the substrate on which it is laid and are based either on physical attraction or a chemical reaction. Knowledge of the chemistry of latent fingerprints is critically important in understanding the detection methods.\n\nLatent fingerprints are considered to be an emulsion of aqueous and lipid components derived from natural skin secretions, contaminants, and other skin debris such as dead skin cells. At deposition, they typically comprise a thin film of residue approximately 0.1 \u03bcm thick and less than 10 \u03bcg in weight. The chemistry of the latent fingerprint on deposition may be affected by a number of donor factors such as age, gender, diet, disease state, medication, and the presence of exogenous contaminants on the surface of the skin. Over time, the chemical nature of the deposit will change through evaporation of components, microbial action, and exposure to the air. The rate of change will be dependent on the chemistry of the original deposit and the surrounding environment. Donor variability and aging of the deposit will have a significant effect on the successful detection of latent fingerprints. However, most fingerprint detection procedures have been developed from the knowledge of human skin secretions without regard to these factors.\n\nSince most chemical reagents used in fingerprint recovery procedures are developed on this theoretical model of latent fingerprint residue, there is an incentive to pursue a more accurate understanding of fingerprint composition if researchers are to develop new and more effective reagents. The degradation of fingerprints presents a significant setback for criminal investigations, as many visualization techniques are ineffective on latent fingerprints more than a few months old. In addition to the discovery of new reagents, there is still a need for further research to gain a better understanding of the reaction mechanisms associated with established reagents and those still under development.\n\nOver the past few years, there have been several studies on fingerprint composition, namely, to establish if any compositional variations can be attributed to traits such as age or gender and to characterize the changes in fingerprint composition that occur with degradation under various conditions. This would enable the optimization of latent fingerprint development techniques currently used by forensic laboratories, as well as the development of new, more effective methods, thus providing improved fingerprint detection.\n\nThe most commonly used analytical technique is gas chromatography\u2013mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Other techniques employed in recent years include Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, desorption electrospray ionization MS imaging (DESI-MSI), matrix-assisted laser desorption\/ionization MS imaging (MALDI-MSI), and secondary ion MS (SIMS). These methods are advantageous over GC-MS, as they require little or no sample preparation and are nondestructive of fingerprints, allowing changes over time to be monitored.\n\nA major problem in analyzing the chemical composition of a latent fingerprint is overcoming the problem of sampling. Some studies analyze fingerprints prepared by having the donor rub a fingertip on the skin to collect sebum, whereas others clean the fingertip with a solvent and allow perspiration to accumulate before fingerprint deposition. Earlier studies have not used latent fingerprints at all but have collected material directly from the fingertip via solvent extraction. This creates some problems in making comparisons between studies, considering the solubilities of the various compounds in certain solvents, as these results will unsurprisingly only report compounds amenable to the solvent extraction procedure used. Due to the complex nature of fingerprints, most studies thus far have investigated only certain groups of components rather than the entire known range of compounds. Amino acids, fatty acids, and sebaceous lipids have been studied most often, as these compounds are of greatest forensic relevance.\n\nTo date, the results of the analysis of recently deposited fingerprints are consistent with those expected from the analysis of sweat and sebum. It has also been established that there are significant differences in the lipid content of latent fingerprints deposited by prepubescent children and adults, with children's fingerprints containing a greater proportion of volatile compounds. While many current fingerprint development methods are unable to detect the nonvolatile portion of children's fingerprints, potential target compounds in children's fingerprints for future detection techniques have recently been identified. Studies regarding the effects of time and environment on deposited fingerprints indicate a general trend of loss of material, especially within the first 3 months, attributed to bacterial action, oxidation, and evaporation of volatiles. Further studies are required to determine the effects that factors such as an individual's age, gender, ethnic background, or health may have on latent fingerprint composition.\n\nThis article provides an overview of the chemical composition of latent fingerprints and a discussion of recent approaches to investigate the factors affecting fingerprint composition. This overview by necessity is limited in length, and for a comprehensive review of the chemical composition of latent fingerprint residues, readers are directed to the chapter by Robert Ramotowski listed in the Further Reading.\n\n## Sources of Fingerprint Residue\n\nThe endogenous substances found in latent fingerprints are derived from the secretions of the eccrine (sweat), sebaceous, and apocrine glands located within the dermis, as well as the constant sloughing of dead cells by the epidermis (Table 1). Current models of latent fingerprint composition are based on medical research on the secretions of the skin glands, although this does not provide an exhaustive list of the hundreds of compounds that may be present. For the purpose of latent fingerprint detection, the most important sources of material are the secretions of the eccrine and sebaceous glands, as secretions from the apocrine glands are rarely a significant component of latent fingerprint residue due to their location in the body.\n\nEccrine glands serve to dissipate body heat through the evaporation of sweat from the skin surface and to excrete excess water, electrolytes, and waste products such as urea. These glands, located within the dermis, are coiled, tubular structures, which lead directly to the skin surface. As the eccrine glands are the sole type of secretory gland on the palms of the hands, located along the skin ridges, latent fingerprints always contain at least some eccrine sweat components. Eccrine sweat is an aqueous mixture consisting primarily of salts, amino acids, and some lipids. The response of the eccrine glands to elevated temperatures is gradual and weak but is much stronger and more immediate when stimulated by stress; the latter is thought to be an important factor in the deposition of latent fingerprints at crime scenes.\n\nTable 1\n\nHuman skin secretory glands\n\nTypes of glands| Secretion types| Body distribution| Role of gland  \n---|---|---|---  \nSebaceous| Sebum (lipids)| Typically localized to regions containing hair follicles| Inhibits the growth of bacteria, lubricates and protects the keratin of the hair shaft, and conditions the surrounding skin  \nSweat (sudiferous) glands  \nEccrine (merocrine)| Sweat (aqueous)| Entire body, highly concentrated on the palms of the hands and soles of the feet| Cooling the surface of the skin to reduce body temperature; excretion of water, electrolytes, and metabolites; and protection from environmental hazards  \nApocrine| Sweat (aqueous)| Associated with hair follicles around the axillary regions. In particular, the armpits, groin, and chest| Scent glands (pheromones)\n\nReproduced from Jelly, R., Patton, E.L.T., Lennard, C., Lewis, S.W., Lim, K.F., 2009. The detection of latent fingermarks on porous surfaces using amino acid sensitive reagents: a review. Analytica Chimica Acta 652, 128\u2013142, with permission from Elsevier.\n\nSebaceous glands are found all over the body, except for the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. The sebaceous glands consist of one or several lobes, encapsulated by highly vascularized connective tissue. The oily mixture produced by these glands, known as sebum, is usually secreted into hair shaft canals and is present in greatest density on the forehead and scalp. The main functions of sebum are thought to include lubricating the skin and hair, waterproofing the epidermis, transporting antioxidants, and providing individuals with a unique scent signature. The production of sebum is largely under the control of androgens, in particular, testosterone. These hormones cause an increase in sebaceous gland size, which has a direct effect on the production rate of sebum. Changes in androgen levels that occur with age therefore impact sebum production over the course of an individual's lifetime. Sebum is incorporated into latent fingerprints through the individual touching his\/her face or hair, and it provides the majority of the lipid content in fingerprint deposits.\n\nAs eccrine glands are the only glands present on the grasping surfaces of hands, they contribute greatly to the aqueous component of latent fingermarks. However, due to activities such as touching the face or hair, hands will often be contaminated with sebaceous secretions. Thus, while one type of secretion may predominate in a latent fingerprint, there can be no purely eccrine or purely sebaceous fingerprint (Table 2).\n\nTable 2\n\nSummary of main constituents of eccrine and sebaceous skin secretions\n\nSecretion| Constituents  \n---|---  \nOrganic| Inorganic  \nEccrine sweat| Amino acids| Water (>98%)  \n| Proteins| Chloride  \n| Urea| Metal ions (Na+, K+, Ca2+)  \n| Uric acid| Sulfate  \n| Lactic acid| Phosphate  \n| Sugars| Hydrogen carbonate  \n| Creatinine| Ammonia  \n| Choline|   \nSebum| Glycerides|   \n| Fatty acids|   \n| Wax esters|   \n| Squalene|   \n| Sterol esters|\n\nReproduced from Jelly, R., Patton, E.L.T., Lennard, C., Lewis, S.W., Lim, K.F., 2009. The detection of latent fingermarks on porous surfaces using amino acid sensitive reagents: a review. Analytica Chimica Acta 652, 128\u2013142, with permission from Elsevier.\n\nThe most abundant compounds in eccrine sweat include salts and amino acids. Sodium chloride is the most abundant compound present in eccrine secretions and makes up the majority of the inorganic salt content, together with potassium chloride. Lactate salts are the second most abundant component of eccrine sweat and are thought to be one of the target molecules for cyanoacrylate fuming. The presence of lactate is indicative of eccrine gland activity, as it is derived from glucose utilization; however, lactate concentration decreases as sweat rate increases over time. Eccrine sweat also contains trace amounts of various metals such as zinc, copper, and manganese, as well as drugs and hormones and their metabolites, which diffuse into the eccrine glands from blood plasma.\n\nFigure 1 Schematic cross section of a latent fingermark on a paper substrate at various stages after deposition. Reproduced from Lewis, S.W., 2011. Chemical Sensing and Detection in Forensic Science. Chemosensors: Principles, Strategies, and Applications. John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ, pp. 475\u2013496 (Chapter 22).\n\nTable 3\n\nSummary of main constituents of eccrine and sebaceous skin secretions\n\nAmino acid| Amount (\u03bcmol)  \n---|---  \nSerine| 0.106  \nGlycine| 0.071  \nOrnithine| 0.034  \nAlanine| 0.029  \nAspartic acid| 0.023  \nThreonine| 0.018  \nHistidine| 0.018  \nValine| 0.013  \nProline| 0.011  \nLeucine| 0.011\n\nReproduced from Jelly, R., Patton, E.L.T., Lennard, C., Lewis, S.W., Lim, K.F., 2009. The detection of latent fingermarks on porous surfaces using amino acid sensitive reagents: a review. Analytica Chimica Acta 652, 128\u2013142, with permission from Elsevier.\n\nThe presence of amino acids in human sweat has been widely reported in the biomedical literature, with a wide range of amino acids identified (Table 3). Up to 22 amino acids may be present in eccrine sweat, including those involved in the urea cycle. The most abundant amino acids include serine, glycine, ornithine, alanine, and aspartic acid, although the types and concentrations of amino acids present will depend on a variety of factors including general health, diet, gender, and age. It has also been reported that the abundance of amino acids may be up to 18 times higher in sweat produced during exercise than from thermal stimulation.\n\nAmino acids are of particular interest when considering the detection of latent fingerprints on paper. When transferred to such a substrate, the amino acids bind strongly without significant migration, provided the paper does not get wet or exposed to high levels of humidity (see Figure 1). Latent fingerprints formed this way can be developed decades after deposition.\n\nTable 4\n\nThe major lipids present on the skin surface\n\nLipid| Surface (%)  \n---|---  \nSqualene| 10  \nSterol esters| 2.5  \nSterols| 1.5  \nWax esters| 22  \nTriglycerides| 25  \nMono- and diglycerides| 10  \nFatty acids| 25  \nUnidentified| 4\n\nSebum consists of a mixture of lipid compounds including triglycerides, fatty acids, wax esters, cholesterol, and squalene (Table 4). As with eccrine sweat, the composition of sebum can be affected by various factors such as age, health, genetics, and diet. The lipids secreted by the sebaceous glands are unusual compared to other lipids found in the human body, in that they consist of a higher proportion of unsaturated and branched-chain molecular structures, allowing sebum to remain as a liquid film on the skin surface due to its low melting point of 30 \u00b0C. Some components of sebum, such as wax esters and some fatty acids, are produced exclusively by the sebaceous glands, and so their concentration is correlated directly to gland activity. Squalene is produced in all tissues, but it is usually rapidly metabolized to cholesterol. It is only in the skin that squalene reaches significant levels, but the reason for this is unknown. Sebum cholesterol itself is thought to be actually of epidermal origin. Free fatty acids are not produced in the sebaceous glands but on the skin surface, as epidermal and bacterial lipases hydrolyze triglycerides to fatty acids, diglycerides, monoglycerides, and glycerol. The durable nature of the nonvolatile sebaceous materials such as triglycerides and wax esters provides a means to detect latent fingerprints that have been exposed to water; for example, with physical developer.\n\n## Factors Affecting Fingerprint Composition\n\n### Substrate\n\nFor the purpose of latent fingerprint development, surfaces are broadly categorized into porous and nonporous, based on their ability to absorb fingerprint residue. Paper and cardboard typify the former; glass and metals, the latter. There is also a third, intermediate category of semiporous surfaces, which encompass any substrate with a combination of porous and nonporous surface properties, such as painted surfaces and some polymers. The surface type will largely determine the development techniques to be used, based on the interactions between certain fingerprint compounds and the surface, as well as the compatibility between the reagent and the surface.\n\nSubstrates with greater porosity will absorb fingerprint residue to some degree during deposition, with the end result that fingerprints on porous substrates typically contain more material than those on nonporous surfaces. For instance, it has been shown that up to three times more amino acid material is found in fingerprints on porous surfaces than those on nonporous surfaces. Eccrine sweat is more readily absorbed than sebum; therefore, the former is more efficiently transferred onto porous surfaces, while the latter will remain on the surface of the substrate for up to several years following deposition.\n\n### Deposition\n\nThe physical contact of the fingertip with a surface is clearly important in determining the initial composition of fingerprint residue. Not all substances on a fingertip are transferred on contact, which is easily demonstrated by the production of a depletion series of fingerprints. Parameters involved in the deposition process include duration of contact, contact angle, electrostatic forces, surface temperature, and pressure. For example, applying excessive pressure during deposition leads to a greater amount of residue being deposited but will cause the ridges of the fingertip to distort, reducing the clarity of the resulting fingerprint.\n\nIt is difficult to determine the precise influence of these parameters in isolation from the nature of the surface itself. Studies have indicated that both the quantity and type of material transferred are dependent on substrate type. Currently, it is not clear whether this transfer process is due to physical or chemical interactions and represents an important unexplored area of scientific study.\n\n### Donor\n\nThe chemical composition of material found on the fingertips of individuals is known to differ between people but it also varies over time with a single individual. There are numerous factors that affect perspiration rates and material secreted. It has been suggested that should a fingerprint be of insufficient clarity to provide identification, the composition of the fingerprint residue could provide important clues about an individual, such as age, gender, or personal habits.\n\nThere is a significant difference in fingerprint composition between prepubescent children and adults due to the marked increase in sebaceous gland activity that occurs at the onset of puberty. Anecdotal evidence has suggested that fingerprints deposited by young children evaporate within a relatively short time frame, whereas adults' fingerprints are rather more durable under the same conditions. This presents a great difficulty to the investigation of crimes involving children, such as abduction, as the victim's fingerprints will evaporate within a few days following deposition. It has since been established that children's fingerprints contain a greater proportion of volatile lipids, which accounts for their short-lived nature.\n\nAs sebum production is under the influence of androgen levels, males tend to produce more sebum than females across all age groups. However, attempts to distinguish between genders based on fingerprint composition have thus far failed to find any significant differences. Other factors known to affect the composition of eccrine and sebaceous secretions include health, diet, and medication, with xenobiotics and their metabolites excreted by the eccrine glands.\n\nTo date, no other significant compositional differences have been linked to donor traits apart from pre- and postpubescence. Rather, many studies have commented on the significant variation found between individuals, indicative of the combined influences of several factors contributing to fingerprint composition.\n\n### Contaminants\n\nIncidental contact with a wide range of materials through everyday activity can introduce a significant amount of exogenous contamination onto the fingertips, which are then incorporated into latent fingerprints. Such contaminants include commonplace substances such as food residues and cosmetic products; however, compounds of forensic relevance may also be present in fingerprints in detectable levels. To this effect, various studies have been conducted that have successfully identified contaminants from recently handled items, such as legal and illicit drugs (including metabolites, which indicate use rather than just handling), explosive residues, and fibers, from latent fingerprints.\n\n### Ambient Conditions and Time\n\nApart from the factors that affect the initial composition of fingerprint residue, there are a number of potential parameters that affect the chemical composition of latent fingerprints after deposition. Fingerprint residue begins to degrade almost immediately after deposition by processes including evaporation of volatile components, oxidation, environmental factors, and bacterial activity. The rate of degradation is dependent on the initial chemical composition of the residue, as well as the environmental conditions. Exposure to UV light, temperature, and humidity has some effect on degradation and thus on the ability of forensic personnel to recover latent fingerprints. In recent years, there has been increased interest on the factors affecting the degradation of fingerprint residue over time.\n\nOne of the first stages of fingerprint degradation is the evaporation of water and volatile lipid constituents, leaving an increasingly viscous, waxy residue. Up to 85% of a latent fingerprint may evaporate within 2 weeks following deposition; however, children's fingerprints evaporate much faster due to their higher proportion of eccrine and volatile compounds. The salts present in eccrine sweat are nonvolatile and crystallize on the surface becoming subject to degradation by both exposure to UV light and erosion by airflow. On porous surfaces, substances such as chloride and urea begin to diffuse through porous surfaces approximately 1 week following deposition, and the rate of diffusion will be hastened by humidity.\n\nIt has been observed that fingerprint lipids undergo a gradual breakdown to their constituent fatty acids and that fingerprints stored in the dark degrade less rapidly than those stored under direct light. Over a period of 60 days, there is an initial increase in the level of shorter chain fatty acids, followed by a subsequent decrease. This is possibly due to oxidation or bacterial degradation of long-chain fatty acids, wax esters, and triglycerides, generating short-chain fatty acids, which later evaporate or are degraded further. Squalene, being a highly unsaturated compound, is readily oxidized to hydroperoxides and squalene epoxide, which themselves degrade to volatile compounds such as aldehydes and ketones, in a process accelerated by exposure to UV light and deposition on a nonporous substrate. Children's fingerprints degrade differently than those left by adults because of the lower lipid content in their fingerprints.\n\nOther factors that can affect the detectability of a fingerprint include immersion and fire damage. As many amino acids and inorganic salts are water soluble, exposure to rain or high humidity has detrimental effects on these constituents. Lipid-specific reagents have proven effective on substrates submerged under laboratory conditions, although documents recovered from water sources may be less successful due to the presence of contaminants or degradation by microbial action.\n\nSeveral studies have investigated the effect of pyrolysis (as may be encountered in cases involving arson or firearms) on fingerprint constituents, indicating that excessive temperature can cause new pyrolytic products to form, which could be used as targets for development reagents. Exposure to temperatures in excess of 100 \u00b0C is a known cause of thermal degradation of some amino acids and urea fingerprints. Lactate is also subject to both thermal and photodegradation.\n\nIt has been suggested that knowledge of fingerprint degradation could be used to date fingerprints, thereby placing an individual at, or excluding them from, the scene of a crime at the time it occurred. More research is needed in this area to fully understand the factors affecting degradation with evidence to suggest that substrate type may influence some processes.\n\n## Future Directions and Conclusions\n\nGiven the value of fingermark evidence in law enforcement, improvements in their detection will have a significant effect on successful investigation of terrorism and crime. However, the ability to make future improvements to current fingermark detection methods and the development of new approaches to the visualization of latent fingermarks depend critically on a greater understanding of the chemistry of the fingermark residue.\n\nA major challenge is the development of a \"standard\" latent fingermark, vital for establishing the effectiveness of new detection methods and for quality assurance and quality control in fingermark detection. The lack of suitable analytical standards for research on the development and optimization of novel and existing formulations is a significant ongoing issue. Quality control tests of reagents and comparisons between different formulations and application methods are often performed using latent fingerprints collected from a small, local sample population. Due to variation in fingerprint composition, reproducibility thus becomes difficult, especially when comparing results across several studies. The absence of standard methodologies introduces additional variation, as some tests may collect \"charged\" fingerprint samples containing sebum, whereas others use \"natural\" fingerprints, further complicating objective comparisons.\n\nAttempts have been made to address this problem by spotting solutions of the relevant target compounds in serial dilutions onto strips of paper or using a modified ink-jet printer. In this way, \"fingerprints\" of consistent, uniform quality may be printed on paper for subsequent treatment with reagents such as ninhydrin and physical developer. However, as these test strips only contain the target compounds of specific development reagents, they are applicable to only a few techniques at best and cannot replicate any interactions between compounds, which may also affect development. A more realistic approach would be to use a standard more closely modeled on actual fingerprint composition.\n\nThe studies currently underway around the world on the fundamental chemistry of latent fingermarks will provide a platform for the development of the next generation of latent fingermark detection methods. They will also provide a step toward the development of a \"standard\" latent fingermark that may be used as an analytical standard, thereby ensuring experimental reproducibility and enabling comparisons between different laboratories by removing variables derived from natural fingerprint variation.\n\n## See also\n\nInvestigations: Fingerprints; Pattern Evidence\/Fingerprints (Dactyloscopy): Sequential Treatment and Enhancement; Visualization or Development of Crime Scene Fingerprints; Pattern Evidence\/History: Fingerprint Sciences.\n\n## Further Reading\n\nAlmog J, Azoury M, Elmaliah Y, Berenstein L, Zaban A. Fingerprints' third dimension: the depth and shape of fingerprints penetration into paper-cross section examination by fluorescence microscopy. _Journal of Forensic Science_. 2004;49:981\u2013985.\n\nAntoine K.M, Mortazavi S, Miller A.D, Miller L.M. Chemical differences are observed in children's versus adults' latent fingerprints as a function of time. _Journal of Forensic Sciences_. 2010;55:513\u2013518.\n\nBecue A, Eglie N, Champod C, Margot P.A. Fingerprints and other impressions left by the human body Review: 2007\u20132010. In: Daeid N.N, ed. _Proceedings of 16th International Forensic Science Symposium Interpol_. Glasgow: Interpol; 2010:222\u2013319.\n\nBhargava R, Perlman R.S, Fernandez D.C, Levin I.W, Bartick E.G. Non-invasive detection of superimposed latent fingerprints and inter-ridge trace evidence by infrared spectroscopic imaging. _Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry_. 2009;394:2069\u20132075.\n\nBond J.W. Imaging fingerprint corrosion of fired brass shell casings. _Review of Scientific Instruments_. 2009;80:075108.\n\nChampod C, Lennard C, Margot P, Stoilovic M. _Fingerprints and Other Ridge Skin Impressions_. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2004.\n\nGirod A, Ramotowski R, Weyermann C. Composition of fingermark residue: a qualitative and quantitative review. _Forensic Science International_. 2012 doi: 10.1016\/j.forsciint.2012.05.018 (Epub ahead of print).\n\nGrant A, Wilkinson T.J, Holman D.R, Martin M.C. Identification of recently handled materials by analysis of latent human fingerprints using infrared spectromicroscopy. _Applied Spectroscopy_. 2005;59:1182\u20131187.\n\nJelly R, Patton E.L.T, Lennard C, Lewis S.W, Lim K.F. The detection of latent fingermarks on porous surfaces using amino acid sensitive reagents: a review. _Analytica Chimica Acta_. 2009;652:128\u2013142.\n\nJones N.E, Davies L.M, Russell C.A.L, Brennan J.S, Bramble S.K. A systematic approach to latent fingerprint sample preparation for comparative chemical studies. _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 2001;52:504\u2013515.\n\nMcRoberts A, ed. _The Fingerprint Sourcebook_. Washington, DC: Department of Justice; 2011.\n\nRamotowski R. Composition of latent print residue. In: Lee H, Gaensslen R, eds. _Advances in Fingerprint Technology_. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2001:63\u2013104.\n\nThomas G.L. The physics of fingerprints and their detection. _Journal of Physics E: Scientific Instruments_. 1978;11:722\u2013731.\n\n# Sequential Treatment and Enhancement\n\nT. Kent University of Lincoln, Lincoln, UK\n\n## Abstract\n\nA crime scene latent fingerprint will usually consist of a mixture of eccrine and sebaceous sweat sometimes contaminated with materials from the local environment including blood or other body fluids. There are many treatments that may be used to develop latent fingerprints on the various surfaces encountered at crime scenes, these react with different classes of components such as amino acids, chlorides and oils or fats, and some common contaminants such as blood. As the proportions of each component in a donor's fingerprint are unknown, using several methods in sequence improves the chances of usable fingerprints being developed. It is important that these are used in a sequence which optimizes the performance of each. Consideration must be given to the requirements of forensic examinations for DNA and other types of evidence and these must be incorporated into the overall sequence of examination and treatment. A number of enhancement techniques are possible including fluorescence methods and imaging outside of the visible spectrum.\n\nFlow charts have been developed for most of the major surface types based on laboratory testing, field trials, and subsequent reported operational performance. Actual methods used will depend on the seriousness of the crime and resources available.\n\n### Keywords\n\nCharacteristic; Eccrine; Enhancement; Fingermark; Fingerprint; Fluorescence; Latent; Minutiae; Print; Ridges; Sebaceous; Sweat\n\nGlossary\n\nEccrine sweat It is exuded by the eccrine glands which are located over most of the body but the highest concentration is on the palmar surfaces of the hands, the soles of the feet, and on the scalp.\n\nSebaceous sweat It is exuded by sebaceous glands which are located in various concentrations over most parts of the body with the exception of the palmar surfaces of the hands and the soles of the feet.\n\nUnfortunately terminology in this area is not consistent. The \"undeveloped\" deposit of chemicals on a surface delineating the shape of the ridges of a finger will be referred to here as a \"fingermark\" or a \"latent fingerprint.\" These are sometimes referred to as \"fingerprints,\" \"latent impressions,\" or \"latent fingermarks\" or just, or sometimes simply as \"marks\" or \"prints.\" When they are visible but have not been enhanced they are sometimes referred to as \"patent prints.\"\n\nWhen they have been rendered visible by chemical or physical means they will be referred to here as fingerprints.\n\nIf papillary ridges have left visible impressions in soft materials such as putty or wax they may be referred to as \"plastic prints.\"\n\nRecord fingerprints of offenders or suspects taken by law enforcement agencies are commonly also referred to as \"prints\" or sometimes \"10 prints.\"\n\n## Introduction\n\nDevelopment of latent fingerprints is a vital part of the forensic examination of crime scenes and produces important evidence for the effective prosecution of offenders. As indicated elsewhere in this encyclopedia, there are many techniques that may be used on the various types of surface encountered at crime scenes.\n\nWith the advent of DNA as a powerful crime-scene investigation tool, it has become increasingly important that fingerprint development techniques do not compromise other aspects of the examination of the crime scene.\n\nIn addition to detecting DNA in body fluids and latent fingerprints, the range of forensic examination procedures which may be necessary at typical crime scenes includes handwriting, indented impressions, ballistics, blood pattern analysis, explosive or drug detection, footwear impressions, examination for fibers, and other trace evidence and other specialisms.\n\nIn principle, the application of, for example, even fingerprint powder or a solvent-based fingerprint reagent solution, could compromise many of these other forensic procedures. Sequence is therefore all important, with care it is usually possible to extract maximum value from all of the potential evidence. On rare occasions, one may have to compromise one type of evidence if it is judged that there is an interaction with treatment procedures and another should take precedence. This decision should be taken by a senior officer with responsibility for the investigation who has been fully briefed on the situation.\n\nAs various types of fingerprint development techniques detect several different classes of chemical compounds, there is considerable benefit in using several techniques one after the other. One therefore needs to consider which techniques are most appropriate for the surface; what sequence they will be applied in; and what other forensic examinations need to be incorporated into this overall protocol. Experts should work together to sequence examination procedures in a way that minimizes the loss of any type of forensic information. This can become quite a complex issue and the final sequence chosen will be dependent on a number of factors. These include the nature of the crime, the surfaces involved, any obvious contamination, the environmental conditions, and the time which has elapsed since the crime is believed to have been committed.\n\nSequencing protocols must be regularly reviewed as techniques change and in major cases a meeting between appropriate experts is advisable before starting any treatments. When new procedures are introduced, controlled experiments should be carried out to establish what interactions may be occurring and how any damaging effects can be minimized.\n\nIn addition to the obvious contamination by materials such as powders and the chemical effects of some developer solutions, it is also necessary to consider the effects of high-intensity visible or ultraviolet light, which will form part of many normal examination protocols for fingerprints.\n\n## Sequential Application of Fingerprint Development Techniques\n\nThe classes of compound present in natural latent fingerprints originating primarily from sebaceous and eccrine sweat glands are dealt with elsewhere in this encyclopedia. It also describes the types of reagent and the classes of compounds with which these reagents, in general terms, are believed to react. It also describes procedures for use when the deposit from a suspect's fingers may be wholly, or in part, some other known material such as blood or grease.\n\nUsually, the investigator will know nothing about the chemical distribution of sweat constituents on the hands of a suspect. The application of several techniques targeting different classes of compound and used sequentially is very likely, therefore, to increase the chances of obtaining useful fingerprints. Even different reagents that target the same classes of compound will sometimes develop different fingerprints for reasons, which are currently unclear. There is therefore merit, in important cases, in applying several techniques, if sequences can be established which minimize interference with subsequent processes.\n\nAny sequence of techniques should therefore incorporate one or more methods which\n\n\u2022 detect visible deposits on the surface; or impressions in soft materials such as wax or putty;\n\n\u2022 detect eccrine sweat secretions, water, inorganic salts, amino acids, etc.\n\n\u2022 detect sebaceous, fatty, or greasy deposits; or if appropriate,\n\n\u2022 detect known or suspected, contaminants such as grease or blood.\n\nSometimes a subsequent technique will improve fingerprints developed by a previous method, sometimes it may develop completely new fingerprints; and sometimes it will destroy or degrade those already developed.\n\nA process of logic, experimental trials, and operational trials has lead to sequences which have been generally agreed to maximize fingerprint yields. Flow charts have then been constructed for most types of surface. The first detailed recommendations for these sequences were published by the UK Home Office in 1986. These have been updated by the same team and researchers elsewhere have devised some variations to them.\n\n## Process Compatibility\n\nSome techniques are almost completely compatible with one another if used in a particular sequence. An example of this is the use of physical developer after ninhydrin when treating paper. Ninhydrin reacts primarily with amino acids and if a suitable solvent system is used, it has little or no effect on the heavier fats, waxes, or esters which are probably developed by the aqueous physical developer solution.\n\nIf physical developer solution were to be applied first, the aqueous constituent would wash out any amino acid present eliminating the possibility of subsequently detecting any fingerprints with ninhydrin.\n\nOther interactions are less obvious and many are not well understood but have been established pragmatically. The use of DFO (1,8-diazafluoren-9-one) before ninhydrin yields significant numbers of extra fingerprints although both are reacting with amino acids. If, however, ninhydrin is used first virtually no extra fingerprints are found by subsequent treatment with DFO.\n\n## Other Factors to Be Considered\n\nWhen planning a sequence of fingerprint treatments some other issues need to be considered:\n\n\u2022 What is the likely age of fingermarks of interest?\n\n\u2022 What is known about environmental conditions to which the article has been subjected?\n\n\u2022 Which forensic examination procedures are also necessary?\n\n\u2022 How important is the crime and what resources can be allocated to it?\n\nSome fingerprint treatments will not develop fingermarks which have been wetted. Some are ineffective on older fingermarks and some conversely show some improvement with older fingermarks.\n\nSome surfaces are so frequently touched by hands, for example door handles, handrails, and credit cards, that the surface has a very high background content of fingerprint constituents which will cause considerable problems for the detection of fresher fingerprints superimposed onto this background deposit. Some techniques are more likely to detect fresher fingerprints but none can be relied on as a method of estimation of the age of a fingerprint.\n\nIn serious crimes, the investigators will want to explore all possible sources of evidence. It must be appreciated, however, that a full implementation of all viable techniques to all exhibits in a case is rarely possible. Examining, for example, an entire house or business premises, in a kidnapping or terrorist case, could take many months of work. In reality, most examination procedures are a compromise.\n\nIn particular, examination using high-intensity light sources or lasers is very time-consuming and demanding on the examiner due to the number of possible excitation wavelengths and viewing filter combinations and the very faint fluorescence sometimes observed.\n\n## Photographic Recording of Developed Fingerprints\n\nSince subsequent processes may degrade fingerprints revealed by a previous process developed fingerprints on exhibits must be photographed between each stage of a sequential examination. All the usual protocols for photographic evidence must be implemented. The image must be in sharp focus, taken perpendicular to the surface, incorporate an accurate scale, and be captured at sufficiently high resolution for all identification purposes. Any digital imaging audit trail procedures, as required by local jurisdictions, must be complied with so that images may be presented in evidence at court.\n\nThe various development techniques result in different types of fingerprint and may require very different illumination and photographic procedures. If sequential processing is to be implemented routinely in a laboratory there are considerable advantages in establishing photographic workstations, which can be readily configured for the various types of image recording. Various light sources and filters will be needed and facilities for the use of various geometries of scattered, reflected, and transmitted light.\n\n## Fingerprints in Contaminants\n\nIf fingermarks are found at a scene of a violent crime where there is a considerable amount of blood, and it is believed that some articles have been handled by a bloody hand, special sequences may be more effective.\n\nNone of the techniques used for the development of fingerprints in blood is specific to blood so none can be used as presumptive tests for blood.\n\nSimilarly, at some crime scenes there may be obvious fatty or greasy contamination as, for example, in a kitchen or from the consumption of fast food. This may make conventional techniques such as powdering ineffective and inappropriate.\n\nExamples of other fingerprint contamination may be oils and greases from industrial or automotive premises, accelerants at scenes of attempted arson, lubricants from condoms, and drugs or explosives, or their precursors, in drug- or terrorist-related crime. Some of these may require specialist advice from chemists on likely interactions with reagents.\n\n## Contaminated Exhibits\n\nIn many cases, articles may have been exposed to contamination subsequent to latent fingerprints being deposited. Examples include water either from rain or immersion, soaking in accelerants such as gasoline in failed attempts at arson or other materials.\n\nMost agreed protocols cover situations where the article has been wetted, some other contamination may require specialist advice. Most accelerants do not prevent fingerprints being developed with amino acid reagents or physical developer.\n\n## Packaging and Handling of Evidence\n\nIt must be understood that any handling of exhibits from crime scenes, whether or not while wearing gloves, carries a serious risk of damaging latent fingerprints. Even superimposing, folding, or sliding surfaces together will have some effect on the fingerprint deposit, if it is on a smooth, nonporous, surface such as polythene.\n\nHandling nonporous exhibits during treatment and photography through a sequence of processes, therefore, requires considerable care.\n\nPorous surfaces such as paper absorb much of the deposit and handling is much less likely to cause damage.\n\n## Preliminary Procedures\n\nIf exhibits are wet in most cases it is advisable to allow to dry before any examination. Moderate temperature, usually no higher than 30 \u00b0C in a drying cabinet with a gentle forced draft may be used for such drying.\n\nInvestigators tasked with searching for fingerprints must have good eyesight and should be able to focus clearly on exhibits at a distance of 200 mm or less at low brightness levels. If necessary, spectacles must be worn to achieve sharp focus at this distance otherwise faint fluorescent fingerprints and some others may be missed.\n\n## Sequence Selection and Complex Exhibits\n\nAfter drying there should be an initial assessment of the exhibit and a number of questions need to be asked which will assist in the selection of an appropriate sequence of treatments.\n\n1. What materials are the main surfaces of the exhibit?\n\n2. Which areas are most likely to bear fingerprints?\n\n3. If the exhibit is made of more than one material, can it easily be separated into constituent materials for separate treatment?\n\n4. Are there indications that any fingermarks are likely to be contaminated with significant amounts of materials such as blood or grease which may influence the choice of reagent?\n\n5. What colors are the surfaces to be treated?\n\nIf the article has more than one surface type which cannot easily be separated, for example a paper label on a wine bottle, methods of treating areas separately need to be considered, or a sequence of compatible processes established.\n\n## Initial Visual Examination\u2014All Exhibits\n\nThe first step for most exhibits is a thorough visual examination with a source of uniform white light illumination. Reflective or textured surfaces may require manipulation of the light source to achieve high-angle and low-angle illumination which can considerably affect contrast and visibility of latent fingerprints.\n\nThere is some advantage in using relatively powerful sources but great care should be taken with light sources equipped with arc lamps. Some of these exceed the eye damage threshold, even for short period use, if looked at directly.\n\nVisible fingerprints are most likely to be observed if:\n\n1. the surface is particularly smooth,\n\n2. dirt or blood or some other colored contaminant has been deposited from the fingers,\n\n3. the surface was dusty in which case the finger ridges may have removed dust, leaving an image of the finger, and\n\n4. the surface is soft such as wax or putty and an impression of the ridges has been left.\n\n## Initial Fluorescence Examination\u2014All Exhibits\n\nSome latent fingerprints may fluoresce, as a result of either natural constituents or more likely contamination. In serious cases, a fluorescence examination should be carried out before chemical or physical treatments are applied. The background substrate color and fluorescence may influence the range of excitation and emission wavelengths, which are likely to be most effective.\n\nIn practice, relatively small numbers of fingermarks are usually detected during initial examination although on some surfaces such as polythene wrappers and bags; however, significant numbers may be detected if high-power sources such as lasers of appropriate wavelength are used. Currently, it would seem that solid-state lasers emitting several watts of light at around 532 nm are among the most practical and effective for preliminary searching.\n\nThere is a greater possibility of fluorescent fingermarks being detected at certain types of crime scenes. In particular, in kitchens or other areas where food is prepared and there may be contamination with vegetable oils, greases, and fats. Similarly, at some types of industrial premises such as garages where mineral oils and greases may be common. Many printing inks fluoresce so premises involved in, for example, forgery of currency may yield fluorescent fingerprints. Some of the precursors to drug and explosive manufacture also fluoresce so again fluorescence examination may be more productive in these cases but it will be necessary to use a number of excitation and viewing wavelengths as the characteristics of the chemicals will not normally be known.\n\n## Surface Compatibility and Performance\n\nIf we simply look at which processes will develop some fingerprints on a particular type of surface, we find that for smooth nonporous surfaces, powders, powder suspensions, small particle reagent, superglue, and vacuum metal deposition are all possible methods.\n\nIf one considers porous surfaces, ninhydrin, indanedione, DFO, silver nitrate, and physical developer are possible methods.\n\nLooking in more detail at the nature of the surface and examining the actual performance of these processes in substantial operational trials, significant variations are found.\n\nThe performance of dry powdering on low- or high-density polyethylene wrappings, a very commonly occurring substrate, for example, is generally poor. On the same surfaces, it has been found that superglue develops considerably more fingerprints than powders. Vacuum metal deposition will find even very old light fingermarks on some types of polythene but on recycled polythene bags, and some thick new low-density polythene the performance is poor.\n\nSome of the recently developed powder suspension formulations based on special grades of iron oxide or titanium dioxide, however, perform well on many types of polythene surface.\n\nAdhesive tapes can present particular problems, if they are stuck down we must decide whether to treat the back of the tape, before removing it and treating the adhesive side. If, for example, the tape is around a package of drugs in polythene wrappers it may be that a process such as superglue could be used to treat both surfaces before the tape is removed.\n\nSome types of adhesive are incompatible with most powder suspension formulations so testing a small corner may be advisable before treating a whole batch of exhibits.\n\n## Operational Performance\n\nUltimately, the analysis of actual operational performance over hundreds or thousands of cases is the most effective way of determining optimum process selection and sequencing procedures.\n\nKeeping records of the numbers of useful fingerprints developed on exhibits assists in improving future process selection but can also highlight problems with equipment, chemicals, or staff training. As packaging materials and technology change keeping accurate records can identify changes in substrates which require alternative methods or further research. Materials such as paper and more particularly plastics are evolving technologies which can significantly impact on fingerprint reagent performance.\n\n## Process Selection Charts\n\nThe sequences in the example charts in the section below have been developed by the UK Home Office. Large-scale laboratory trials were carried out on carefully constituted donor panels depositing depletion sequences of fingerprints repeatedly from the same finger. These were followed up by substantial operational trials in police forces of all major techniques. There are still, however, areas of uncertainty due to insufficient operational data.\n\nThe principle of these charts is that the most productive processes are on the main, wide routes but in important cases the additional techniques on the smaller side routes may be incorporated and sometime will lead to additional fingerprints being developed (Figures 1 and 2).\n\nRecent indications are that some combined indanedione\u2013zinc salt formulations could be used in place of DFO and subsequent ninhydrin treatment, in the sequence for paper and cardboard with similar overall results.\n\nSequences have also been established for the following other classes of surface:\n\n\u2022 Rough nonporous\n\n\u2022 Plastic packaging material\n\n\u2022 Vinyl, rubber, and leather\n\n\u2022 Wood\n\n\u2022 Metal\n\n\u2022 Adhesive tapes\n\n\u2022 Blood-contaminated surfaces\n\n## Difficult Surface Types\n\nSome of the surfaces listed above present particular problems for fingerprint development and for some there are no methods with significant success rates. The particular reasons for such difficulties are indicated below:\n\nRough surfaces\u2014the ability of the surface to retain sufficient information transfer from the fingerprint ridges. An additional problem, however, is that some techniques such as powdering will tend to enhance the surface topology rather than the fingerprint.\n\nVinyl (plasticized PVC)\u2014particular problems are encountered with plasticized PVC, as used in imitation leathers for bags, etc. The plasticizers used are generally fatty materials which interfere with the development process.\n\nAdhesive tapes\u2014many fingerprints are developed on tapes but they can present problems because it is usually desirable to develop fingerprints on both sides of the tape. There are many backing materials used for tapes and different types of adhesive. Establishing a treatment protocol in such cases can be difficult; some techniques such as superglue or powder suspension may develop fingerprints on both sides of some tapes.\n\nAdhesive tapes commonly have either acrylic or rubber-based adhesives which react very differently and sometimes adversely with methods such as powder suspensions. Testing on a small area before treating whole exhibits is recommended to determine whether background uptake is excessive.\n\nFreezing or solvents may be used to assist separating adhesive tapes from substrates, although removal from porous surfaces such as paper is difficult. Solvents need to be used with care and most have some detrimental effects on some adhesives.\n\n## Metal Surfaces\n\nSome specific metal items present problems for fingerprint detection and result in generally poor success rates. Firearms may be oily due to cleaning, or rusty, when secreted in damp conditions and much of the surface handled is often grooved or textured. These factors all mitigate against successful fingerprint development. Success rates on cartridge cases both unfired, and particularly fired, is low. This may be due to their limited size, method of handling, surface treatment, mechanical abrasion, and other factors.\n\n## Fabrics\n\nThere is no general technique for developing latent fingerprints on fabrics with a significant degree of success. Various workers have proposed osmium tetroxide, vacuum metal deposition, radioactive sulfur dioxide, and superglue. Some of these have shown some promise in laboratory experiments. Experimental results are usually significantly better on synthetic fabrics than natural fibers probably due to issues associated with absorption of sweat by the latter. Clothing items not in contact with the skin appear more likely to bear deposits which might be developed. Some ridge detail has been developed in a small number of cases by radioactive sulfur dioxide and a combination of the latter with a pretreatment with superglue. Trials by the UK Home Office in the 1980s indicated that a minimum thread density of around three threads per millimeter is necessary to have any chance of recording sufficient information for characteristics in a fingerprint to be resolved.\n\nFigure 1 Process selection chart for smooth, nonporous surfaces. From Bowman, V. (Ed.), Updated 2009. Manual of Fingerprint Development Techniques, second ed. Home Office, London.\n\nFigure 2 Process selection chart for paper and cardboard surfaces. From Kent, T. (Ed.), 1998. Manual of Fingerprint Development Techniques, second ed. Home Office, London.\n\nIf hands or fingers are contaminated with dirt, blood, or other materials there may be more chance of usable fingerprints being developed and there are significant numbers of cases of fingerprints in blood on fabrics being of operational value (e.g., Washington v. Hayden, 1995).\n\n## Skin\n\nThere is no generally accepted effective method for developing latent fingerprints on live or recently dead skin. There have been a number of trials of techniques for the detection of latent fingerprints on cadavers, recently Trapecar and Balazic in Slovenia examined a number of methods. There have been similar trials in Canada, the United Kingdom, and Germany. Techniques tried have included lifting and transfer methods with silver plates and iodine, glossy paper and magnetic black powder, and direct powdering techniques. Treatment with superglue has also been tried. The few-claimed successes are not well documented and in at least one case, reports indicated that this was due to contamination of the suspect's hands with oil.\n\nIn principle, fingerprints in blood on skin could be potentially of value although there are no generally available reported cases.\n\n## See also\n\nPattern Evidence\/Fingerprints (Dactyloscopy): Visualization or Development of Crime Scene Fingerprints.\n\n## Further Reading\n\nBowman V, ed. _Manual of Fingerprint Development Techniques_. second ed. London: Home Office, Police Scientific Development Branch; 2004: 1 85893 972 0.\n\nKent T. Standardizing protocols for fingerprint reagent testing. _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 2010;60(3):371.\n\nMerrick S, Gardner S, Sears V, Hewlett D. An operational trial of ozone-friendly DFO and 1,2-indanedione formulations for latent fingerprint detection. _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 2002;52(5):595\u2013605.\n\nOlsen Sr. R.D. _Scott's Fingerprint Mechanics_. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas; 1978.\n\nRamatowski R, ed. _Lee and Gaensslen's Advances in Fingerprint Technology_. third ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2009 ISBN-13:9781420088342.\n\nStoilovic M, Lennard C, Wallace-Kunkel C, Roux C. Evaluation of a 1,2-indanedione formulation containing zinc chloride for improved fingermark detection on paper. _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 2007;57(1):4\u201318.\n\nRelevant Websites\n\n<http:\/\/www.enfsi.eu>\u2014European National Forensic Institute Site.\n\n<http:\/\/www.fbi.gov>\u2014FBI Website.\n\n<http:\/\/onin.com>\u2014Fingerprints\/Biometrics: Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About Fingerprints, Palmprints and Other Means of Identifying Persons by Physical Traits.\n\n<http:\/\/www.latent-prints.com>\u2014Latent Prints: home page.\n\n<http:\/\/www.nij.gov>\u2014Scientific Working Group on Friction Ridge Analysis, Study and Technology (SWGFAST) (2011).\n\n<http:\/\/www.fpsociety.org.uk>\u2014The Fingerprint Society.\n\n<http:\/\/www.theiai.org>\u2014The International Association for Identification.\n\n<http:\/\/www.nij.gov>\u2014US National Institute of Justice SWGFAST Fingerprint Sourcebook.\n\n<http:\/\/www.nij.gov>\u2014US National Institute of Justice Website.\n\n# Visualization or Development of Crime Scene Fingerprints\n\nT. Kent University of Lincoln, Lincoln, UK\n\n## Abstract\n\nVisualization of fingerprints which may have been left by offenders is an important part of the examination of most types of crime scene. A variety of methods have been used historically but operational trials have eliminated many as being of little value. Many new methods have been introduced over the last two decades but researchers still seek to improve the sensitivity and effectiveness of methods. The latent deposit consists of minute quantities of a wide range of chemicals primarily from the eccrine and sebaceous sweat glands of the body. Chemical reagents which target specific components or general classes of the natural deposit are described together with methods of enhancing latent fingerprints contaminated with materials such as blood or grease. A variety of optical and physical techniques are also described. Some techniques may be used at crime scenes while others are more appropriately applied in dedicated fingerprint enhancement laboratories to which exhibits are taken. An important aspect of the examination procedure is to minimize interference with the retrieval of other types of forensic evidence.\n\n### Keywords\n\nCharacteristic; Eccrine; Enhancement; Fingerprint; Fluorescence; Latent; Minutiae; Print; Ridges; Sebaceous; Sweat\n\nGlossary\n\nAutomatic fingerprint recognition (AFR) and automatic fingerprint identification systems (AFIS) These systems encode fingerprint images, generally by locating the positions, relative angles, and ridge counts between fingerprint minutiae or characteristics. This enables database searching for likely matches.\n\nCCD and CMOS These are two types of solid-state digital imaging sensors with subtly different characteristics and are used in modern digital cameras.\n\nEccrine sweat This is exuded by the eccrine glands which are located over most of the body, but the highest concentration is on the palmar surfaces of the hands, the soles of the feet, and the scalp.\n\nMinutiae, characteristics, or Galton details These are ridge endings and bifurcations, or forks.\n\nSebaceous sweat This is exuded by sebaceous glands which are located in various densities over most parts of the body with the exception of the palmar surfaces of the hands and the soles of the feet.\n\n## Introduction\n\nFingerprints are widely associated with the identification of offenders in many types of major and minor crimes; although in recent years, DNA trace evidence has made an increasingly important and high-profile contribution to criminal identifications.\n\nThis increasing use of DNA analysis of swabs from crime scenes, while important, has not diminished the need for fingerprint examination. Generally, DNA analysis is still significantly more expensive, and does not necessarily prove actual contact between suspect and object. DNA is, however, capable of providing crucial identification evidence in some circumstances when there are no suitable surfaces available for fingerprint examination. The two techniques are therefore complementary, although generally in most countries fingerprints currently still produce more identifications.\n\nIncreased usage of forensic databases and crime-linking and data analysis tools allows combinations of fingerprints, DNA, footwear, toolmarks, and other data such as modus operandi to link multiple crime scenes with offenders.\n\nEfficient and effective visualization, referred to more commonly as development or enhancement, of latent fingerprints, is therefore a vital part of the forensic examination of a crime scene and of exhibits removed from crime scenes. It is important that it is carried out in a careful and methodical manner with due regard to preserving DNA and other evidence.\n\n## Origins of Fingerprint Deposits\n\nThe papillary ridges of the fingers, the palms, and the soles of the feet have located in them rows of sweat pores linked to eccrine sweat glands and they exude aqueous eccrine sweat in varying amounts. The fingers and palms are naturally in intermittent contact with other parts of the body, due to normal human behavior patterns, including the hair and face of an individual. These areas have traces of oily or greasy sebaceous sweat originating from sebaceous glands which are found in greatest abundance on the face and the scalp, some of this sebaceous sweat transfers to the fingers and palms resulting in these surfaces bearing a mixture of sebaceous and eccrine sweat. There may also be material from apocrine glands, which are restricted to the axillae, areola, and genitoanal regions. Although the division of aqueous and fatty deposit into clearly separate phases, or droplets, may often be observed microscopically, it is likely that some of the deposit is actually in the form of an emulsion.\n\nThis mixture, or emulsion, does not have any particular, fixed distribution and will contain hundreds of compounds in various concentrations, which depend on the climatic conditions, an individual's biochemistry, habits, lifestyle, and recent behavior such as hand washing.\n\nSometimes, the fingers and hands of a suspect may be contaminated with materials which do not have a bodily origin such as foodstuffs, soaps, cosmetics, industrial chemicals, and other materials from the environment.\n\nFigure 1 Enlargement of part of an interference micrograph of a fingerprint on a glass surface\u2014colors are created within the microscope. Courtesy: UK Home Office.\n\nWhen the ridges of the fingers, palms, or feet touch a surface, they will transfer some of this mixture of chemicals to that surface\u2014an example of Locard's exchange principle that \"every contact leaves a trace.\" Depending on the pressure and direction of contact, and the nature of the surface, some of the deposit may be in the form of a pattern reproducing the ridges on the skin surface.\n\nThese deposits are not usually in simple continuous lines but on smooth nonporous surfaces are usually in the form of a distribution of retracted droplets of various sizes on a thin film which may be only a few molecules thick. On porous surfaces, such as paper, wicking action results in the more mobile constituents being absorbed into the surface (Figures 1 and 2).\n\nFigure 2 Enlargement of part of an interference micrograph of a fingerprint with a very high eccrine sweat content which has dried out on a glass surface showing salt crystals\u2014colors are created within the microscope. Courtesy: UK Home Office.\n\nFingermarks may also contain solid matter such as dead skin cells shed from the hands and dust from the environment.\n\nAt some crime scenes, there may be gross contamination resulting in most of the fingerprint deposit being blood, grease, oil, drugs, explosives, and so on.\n\n## Fingerprint Patterns, Characteristics, and Details\n\nWhen fingermarks are to be developed or enhanced, in order that identifications may be made for judicial purposes, they must contain sufficient detail for comparison with record prints. This usually necessitates sufficient area of two or more of the following levels of details:\n\n1. the overall ridge flow pattern, namely loop, arch, whorl, and so on,\n\n2. characteristics, also known as Galton details or minutiae, essentially the patterns left by papillary ridge terminations and bifurcations, and\n\n3. the so-called third-level details which may encompass finer details of pore distribution, ridge width, ridge shape, and minor papillary ridge irregularities.\n\nThe development technique chosen may affect the amount or quality of information produced at these three levels.\n\n## Imaging of Developed Fingerprints\n\nUntil the end of the twentieth century, fingerprints would normally be photographed using film cameras of various formats. The resulting negatives would then be used to produce \"life-size\" hard copy prints on black-and-white photographic paper. Usually, the procedure was to produce such prints so that the ridges were black and the inter ridge spaces white; for detailed comparison and court presentation work, five times life-size enlargements would usually be printed.\n\nNow, imaging, or recording, is virtually entirely carried out using digital cameras or scanners. The capture systems may then download the digital image into an automatic fingerprint identification system (AFIS); when necessary, life-size, or enlarged, prints can be produced, normally still in black and white.\n\nImage quality is important and in digital systems is controlled by a number of factors:\n\n1. the quality of the charged coupled device (CCD) or complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) imaging chip;\n\n2. the effective pixel count per millimeter in the image plane;\n\n3. the quality of the optical system; and\n\n4. correct exposure and focus.\n\nLossy image compression techniques will also reduce the amount of information in the image and algorithms must be carefully assessed before adoption.\n\nImage scale is also important, different AFIS may tolerate varying amounts of distortion, but images should generally be captured within a linear tolerance of 1% or 2% to maximize hit rates.\n\nIt is good practice always to incorporate a scale into captured images unless fixed-focus camera systems are used.\n\n## Development or Visualization of Latent Fingerprints\n\nMany fingerprints are still retrieved at crime scenes with simple powdering techniques, which have changed little over several decades. There are, however, an increasing number of more sophisticated and sensitive processes which may sometimes be used at crime scenes, but which are more commonly applied in specialist fingerprint enhancement laboratories to which articles are sent. Studies in some law enforcement agencies have shown that half, or more, of the operationally useful fingerprints are now produced in such laboratories.\n\nThe wide range of chemicals which are likely to be present in fingermarks provides scope for many different chemical and physical reactions to be exploited. The amounts of material present, however, are very small, usually nanogram quantities, and some individuals leave exceptionally small amounts of deposit. Developing such latent fingerprints is a difficult technical challenge and presents problems which are at the extremes of current methods of detection.\n\nNot only do we want to detect the components on a variety of surfaces but we need to map them so that we produce a high-quality image of their distribution on a surface.\n\n## Latent Fingerprint Chemical Constituents\n\nWhile many studies have been carried out into the chemical constitution of sebaceous and eccrine sweat there are rather fewer of the actual deposits left by a finger on a surface. This is due partly to the technical challenges in analyzing the subnanogram quantities of components. One significant early review was carried out by Cuthbertson in the 1960s; he also carried out some early measurements of chloride content. More recently, Croxton in 2008 analyzed the content of actual fingerprints rather than sweat.\n\nFrom our knowledge of sebaceous and eccrine sweat, we would expect some of the materials in Table 1 to be in a fingerprint.\n\nAmounts of deposit vary widely within and between donors. A significant proportion of the original mass of some eccrine-rich fingermarks is actually thought to be water, which on a nonporous surface may evaporate over the first few hours or days depending on ambient temperature. Trapping of the aqueous component in a fatty matrix or emulsion may be responsible for some observed differences in evaporation rates. On a porous surface such as paper, this water will assist in the diffusion of some of the constituents into the surface. Studies in the early 1970s by Thomas indicated that on nonporous surfaces, many fingerprints lost significant volume by evaporation over the first few days after deposition (Figure 3).\n\nTable 1\n\nLatent fingerprint constituents\u2014after Cuthbertson\n\nGland type| Inorganic constituents| Organic constituents  \n---|---|---  \nEccrine| Chlorides| Amino acids  \n| Sodium| Urea  \n| Potassium| Lactic acid  \n| Ammonia| Sugars  \n| Sulfates| Creatinine  \n| Phosphates| Choline  \n| | Uric acid  \nApocrine| Iron| Proteins  \n| | Carbohydrates  \n| | Cholesterol  \nSebaceous| \u2013| Fatty acids  \n| | Glycerides  \n| | Hydrocarbons  \n| | Alcohols\n\n## Operational Methods of Visualizing Fingerprints\n\nThere are published papers on hundreds of chemical reagents and other techniques which are claimed to visualize latent fingerprints. Operational trials and experience have shown, however, that only around 15 basic techniques produce significant numbers of usable fingerprints under realistic crime scene conditions. We will not therefore include here the wide spectrum of possible techniques but rather focus on those which have so far been developed to the stage of being operationally of significant value and implemented successfully.\n\nSome reagents have been used in dozens, or even hundreds, of formulations and it is important that optimum formulations and treatment protocols are established and adhered to. Much of the research effort expended has been in refining formulations and procedures to optimize techniques. Subtle changes in solvent systems, humidity, or heating regimes can make substantial differences to the numbers of fingerprints developed with some methods.\n\nWhen new techniques are discovered, it is important that they are compared against existing techniques in a thorough manner using realistic sample fingermarks from a range of donors.\n\nSome researchers have used \"groomed\" or \"enhanced\" fingermarks by touching the nose or forehead before depositing test prints. This procedure cannot be relied upon to give an indication of operational performance. Recent research has shown that the lipid content of such groomed fingerprints may be many times that of a typical operational fingerprint (Table 2).\n\nFigure 3 Distribution of the mass (\u03bcg) of a single latent fingerprint. Reproduced from Croxton, R.S., 2008. Analysis of Latent Fingerprint Components by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (Ph.D. thesis). University of Lincoln, UK.\n\nFingerprint development or enhancement techniques fall into five broad categories:\n\n1. Chemical reagents which react with a known constituent or class of constituents of latent fingerprints stoichiometrically; with these techniques, the intensity of the reaction is quantitative and directly proportional to the amounts of the specific compounds in the latent fingerprint.\n\n2. Chemical or physical agents which are absorbed, or adhere to, or undergo some other nonspecific interaction with a class of compounds in the fingermark. Generally speaking, the reaction is approximately proportional to the amount of deposit present.\n\nTable 2\n\nFatty acid and squalene composition of latent fingerprint samples (nanograms per single fingerprint)\n\nConstituent| \"Natural\" fingerprint (mean (s.d.))| \"Groomed\" fingerprint (mean (s.d.))  \n---|---|---  \nDodecanoic acid| 14.96 (11.26)| 51.09 (41.75)  \nTetradecanoic acid| 33.77 (9.72)| 124.77 (115.24)  \nPentadecanoic acid| 16.08 (6.71)| 89.27 (85.82)  \nHexadecanoic acid| 141.26 (43.64)| 468.46 (340.73)  \nOctadecanoic acid| 46.47 (27.68)| 122.11 (65.94)  \nOctadecenoic acid| 66.71 (27.96)| 229.84 (175.78)  \nSqualene| 125.08 (80.52)| 1426.31 (1236.49)\n\nn = 18 donors aged between 18 and 57 and consisting of 9 males and 9 females.\n\nSource: Croxton, R.S., 2008. Analysis of Latent Fingerprint Components by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (Ph.D. thesis). University of Lincoln, UK.\n\n3. Chemical reagents which rely on a component of the fingermark to catalyze a chain reaction, which leads to a nonlinear enhancement or amplification of the fingerprint.\n\n4. Chemical or physical agents which are designed to target known contaminants such as blood or grease and used if these are seen on the surface under examination.\n\n5. Optical techniques which rely on the absorption, scattering, polarization, or fluorescence effects on radiation, which we can speak of as light, but which may be anywhere in the spectrum from the far ultraviolet (200 nm) to near the infrared (2 \u03bcm).\n\nSome developmental procedures are actually multistep, involving development and enhancement techniques where the initial reaction produces a low visibility product, which is then enhanced by a further step or steps.\n\n## Choice of Technique\n\nGenerally, the most significant factor influencing the choice of process will be the surface to be examined. Smooth, solid, essentially nonporous surfaces such as glass retain a \"sticky\" latent fingerprint residue on the surface which may be detected by careful application of powders, although there are other techniques which may be more sensitive.\n\nPorous surfaces such as paper or cardboard absorb varying amounts of the sebaceous and eccrine deposit and visualization may be best achieved by more specific chromogenic reagents; for example, those which react with amino acids.\n\nSome plastic surfaces present problems which are midway between the nonporous and porous classes.\n\nSome surfaces which are frequently handled can prove difficult for the investigator due to the buildup over time of a background level of the constituents of eccrine and sebaceous sweat; examples are door handles and credit cards.\n\nOther factors which can affect choice of process are as follows:\n\n1. Facilities available.\n\n2. Importance of the case.\n\n3. Possible age of the fingerprints of interest\u2014days, weeks, or months.\n\n4. Ambient conditions and the likely exposure to sun and rain and contamination from the environment.\n\n5. Presence of contaminants in the fingerprint such as grease or blood which may make up a significant part of the deposit.\n\n6. The need to carry out other forensic examinations including sampling for DNA, explosives, fibers, drugs, and so on. Documents may require examination of handwriting or indented writing. Some fingerprint development techniques can interfere with some of these procedures, so the correct sequence of examination is important.\n\n## Packaging and Handling of Evidence\n\nIt must be understood that any handling of exhibits from crime scenes, whether or not while wearing gloves, carries a risk of damaging latent fingerprints. Even superimposing, folding, or sliding surfaces together will have some effect on the fingerprint deposit if it is on a smooth, nonporous surface such as polythene or a weapon such as a gun or knife. Porous surfaces such as paper absorb much of the deposit into the surface, so careful handling is much less likely to cause damage. Hard, smooth items should preferably be tied, or wired down into boxes, and never carried in evidence bags.\n\n## Operational Fingerprint Development Processes\n\nThe processes that will be described here include most of the methods currently considered to be most productive and operationally effective. Brief details of each process, and where known, some details of the possible reactions and materials detected are given. Other similar variants are also listed but detailed formulations are available elsewhere, so no specific formulations are given here.\n\nMost are reagents for the usual constituents of latent fingerprints where the material on the fingers is primarily eccrine and sebaceous sweat.\n\nFour additional reagents\u2014amido black, acid yellow 1, acid violet 17, and solvent black 3\u2014are included, of which the first three are used for enhancing blood and the last for greases or fats from nonsweat sources. These are used when there is an indication that any fingerprints present may be significantly contaminated with such materials.\n\nOptical techniques, which may be used before or after chemical treatments, are described separately.\n\n## Health and Safety Procedures\n\nSome constituents of some reagent formulations present significant health and safety issues, including high flammability and toxicity by ingestion, by inhalation, or in some cases by skin absorption; for example, methanol. Safe working practices have been developed for most reagents but competent expert advice must be sought before implementing any chemical enhancement technique.\n\nThere are potentially serious eye safety considerations with many light sources used for fluorescence examination and even some used for white light examination. Hardwick and others published the only significant study of these sources in 1990; users should never look into the beam of such sources.\n\nLocal regulations and standard operating procedures must be complied with.\n\n## 1,8-Diazafluoren-9-one\n\n1,8-Diazafluoren-9-one (DFO) is a very effective reagent for amino acids in fingermarks and was proposed in 1990 by Grigg, although the chemical had been synthesized by CIBA in 1950. It reacts with amino acids from eccrine sweat, usually producing only a faintly pink-colored visible reaction product. The reaction product is, however, strongly fluorescent and, overall, the method is more sensitive than ninhydrin if exhibits are examined and photographed with the correct combination of excitation and viewing wavelengths.\n\nThe absorption and emission maxima are close with only a small Stoke's shift. Exhibits are usually best illuminated between 525 and 550 nm and viewed or photographed with a short-wave cutoff filter transmitting above about 560 nm.\n\nArticles are dipped into a solution containing DFO, acetic acid, and a carrier solvent mixture. They are then heated in a dry oven at 100 \u00b0C for 20 min. As with most amino acid reagents, the precise combination of solvents dramatically affects the operational success rates observed.\n\nDFO is generally used on the same types of porous substrates as ninhydrin, primarily paper, and cardboard. It does not develop all of the fingermarks detected by the latter, so additional fingerprints may be produced by subsequent treatment with ninhydrin.\n\nIf humidified conditions are used during the heating of DFO-treated articles, no fingerprints are detected (cf. ninhydrin).\n\nAs amino acids are soluble in water, reagents such as DFO, ninhydrin, or indanedione are ineffective on surfaces which have been wetted or exposed to very high humidities.\n\nDFO is not usually used at scenes of crime as it is difficult to generate sufficient heat in a room to produce an acceptable rate of fingermark development although local heating can be used for small areas. It is similar in performance to some indanedione formulations which incorporate zinc and is widely used.\n\n## Gun Bluing and Similar Metal-Toning Treatments\n\nLatent fingerprints usually have a significant proportion of sebaceous, or oily or fatty, components. This can provide a protective layer on some surfaces such as metals, and chemical toning techniques can be used to discolor the areas not protected by the fingerprints, thus rendering the latter visible. A number of commercial gun-bluing solutions have been used on cartridge cases and some other surfaces with variable success. Similar methods using selenic acid or sulfides or other metal toners or etching solutions have been reported and some are in operational use.\n\n## Iodine Vapor Fuming\n\nThe observation that iodine fumes could be used to both detect handwriting alterations and develop latent fingerprints was reported by Coulier in 1863; methods of application were described in the literature in 1891 and 1912.\n\nA temporary faint purple to brown stain is created which fades in minutes or hours although it may be enhanced, or fixed, by a number of techniques including starch powder or alpha-naphthoflavone applied in solution. Various iodine fuming chambers or \"guns\" have been used to treat paper or other porous or nonporous exhibits. It is most effective on fresh fingermarks that are hours or days old.\n\nThe vapor process is little used now partly due to the intensely corrosive and toxic nature of iodine but also because several techniques have generally surpassed it in terms of sensitivity.\n\nThe mechanism is not fully understood and may involve more than one reaction. It appears to be readily reversible and it has been proposed that it may be a reaction with unsaturated fats, a physical absorption by lipids, or a reaction with aqueous components.\n\n## Indanedione\n\nIn the late 1990s, the reaction of fingermark amino acids with indanedione was explored by researchers at the University of Pennsylvania. It is similar in application to DFO and reacts to form a faintly colored, but fluorescent, product. The original formulations were found to be operationally less effective than DFO during substantial trials in 2002 in the United Kingdom by West Midlands Police.\n\nIf treated subsequently with zinc, or other heavy metal-toning solution, a substantial increase in fluorescence is achieved with a resulting increase in numbers of fingerprints of value detected.\n\nRecently, incorporation of zinc salts into the indanedione primary reagent solution, by Stoilovic and others in Australia, and use as a single treatment, has produced a very effective reagent with a performance comparable to DFO followed by ninhydrin.\n\nThe treatment protocol is similar to ninhydrin or DFO, involving briefly dipping exhibits in the solution followed by heating either in an oven or a press; the former is more controllable. Various solvent formulations have been proposed and as with most amino acid reagents they have a critical effect on operational performance.\n\nSome workers have recorded improved results in a humidified oven if the ambient humidity is low but more research is probably needed.\n\nThere are a number of published spectra for reaction with specific amino acids but there are few data on optimum excitation and emission for typical fingerprints although most workers illuminate in the green\/yellow region and observe in the orange\/red.\n\nIt is now quite widely used as an alternative to DFO and, as a single treatment, can replace the DFO\u2013ninhydrin combination.\n\n## Ninhydrin\n\nNinhydrin was proposed by Oden in the 1950s as a reagent for detecting fingermarks. After the publication of the Crown formulation in 1969, and others, it became the most widely used reagent on paper, cardboard, and some other porous materials such as raw smooth wood. It is chromogenic, producing a purple reaction, Ruhemann's purple, with some amino acids. Various formulations have been developed with a range of solvents from flammable petroleum ether and chlorofluorocarbons to the more recently introduced hydrofluoroethers. The solvent system and pH significantly affect the operational performance, and the most effective formulations incorporate acetic acid. Where written documents are to be processed, it is important to consider the effects of solvents and possible ink running and loss of indented impressions.\n\nArticles are dipped into a solution containing ninhydrin, acetic acid, and the carrier solvent mixture and allowed to dry. For best results, they should then be heated at 80 \u00b0C for 3\u20134 min at 65% relative humidity (Figure 4).\n\nThe developed purple-colored fingerprints can be easily photographed in white light but a green filter is often used to improve contrast on some colored backgrounds.\n\nNinhydrin can be very effectively used at scenes of crime, with the same formulation being brushed onto the surfaces. Sealing the room and raising the temperature with domestic heaters will assist fingerprint development but it may take several days as it is difficult to control the temperature and humidity.\n\nFigure 4 Document with a number of ninhydrin-developed fingerprints. Courtesy: UK Home Office.\n\nWhen ninhydrin develops fingermarks on dark nonfluorescent backgrounds, or when the background is a very similar color to the fingerprint, zinc chloride toning solution can be applied and the exhibit gently heated to produce fluorescent fingerprints, which can then be photographed.\n\n## Physical Developer\n\nThis is essentially a stabilized silver-plating solution, which may be used on porous surfaces such as paper, cardboard, and wood. Jonkers and others at the Philips Eindhoven Laboratory published details of a solution for depositing silver onto printed circuit boards. Morris and others at the UK AWRE laboratory found that some long-lasting and persistent constituents of latent fingerprints would trigger the deposition of silver microspherules although there is still speculation as to which materials these are. It was found that as a fingerprint reagent it was capable of developing fingermarks on articles which have been soaked in water or exposed to rain.\n\nIt is a relatively slow multibath treatment but it has shown considerable operational success on old and wetted paper items. Items must be soaked in distilled water and washed in dilute acids such as maleic, to reduce background reaction, before carefully controlled treatment with the silver solution.\n\nThe reagent is an aqueous solution of silver nitrate containing an Fe(II)\/Fe(III) redox couple and two detergents. Subsequently, excess silver salts must be thoroughly washed out before drying. All glassware must be extremely clean to prevent triggering of the silver deposition.\n\nThe developed fingerprints are a light to medium gray in color and can be recorded using conventional photography. The exact reaction mechanism is unknown; it was thought that it was developing some of the heavier fats and waxes although it is possible that trapped chloride ions in sebaceous deposits could play a part.\n\nFingerprints developed by the physical developer may be enhanced by conversion to a radioactive sulfide and autoradiography, or X-ray mapping in an electron beam instrument.\n\n## Powders\n\nPowders are probably the oldest and most common techniques for the enhancement of latent fingerprints; Forgeot and others were experimenting with different powders in the latter part of the nineteenth century. In the early decades of the twentieth century, many powder combinations were in use including toxic mercury and chalk mixtures (hydrargyrum\u2013cum\u2013creta), and oxides of lead, and many other less toxic materials such as carbon and natural materials such as Lycopodium and dragon's blood.\n\nMany types of powders and brushes have been used over the intervening years and hundreds of combinations are commercially available.\n\nPowders with a flat, flake-like, structure, such as milled aluminum or brass, for example molybdenum disulfide, are among the more sensitive and are generally quite effective at developing fingerprints on smooth, clean surfaces. Stearic acid or similar fats are commonly added during the milling process of aluminum and it is thought that this may contribute to the sensitivity of the technique. A milled iron flake powder was developed at the University of Swansea in the late 1990s for application with a magnetic \"wand\" and is quite effective particularly on unplasticized polyvinyl chloride window frames. Other magnetic powders based on iron or nickel have been available for many years.\n\nAluminum and some other flake powders can be applied effectively with glass fiber or fine synthetic brushes. Fine black carbon-based powders are best applied with soft synthetic or animal hair brushes and trials have indicated that some of the fine carbon black powders are of similar sensitivity to flake powders.\n\nFlake powders are usually lifted with transparent adhesive tape or commercial tacky \"lifters,\" for scanning or photography, this assists with the removal of background and simplifies recording. Other powders may be lifted or photographed in situ.\n\nIf sensitive flake powders are used on surfaces which are dirty or contaminated, sometimes too much will deposit obscuring any fingerprints. In such cases, granular black or white powders may be more suitable, even if slightly less sensitive. Rough or grained surfaces may sometimes be treated using iron, cobalt, or nickel-based powders used with a magnetic applicator although other processes may be more suitable.\n\nMany fluorescent powders have been proposed for use with suitable light sources, and is referred to in several books on fingerprinting techniques, including that by Bridges in 1942, many of which are currently marketed. Although these may improve contrast between fingerprint and multicolored surfaces, some fluorescent powders are less sensitive than established nonfluorescent powders, probably due to their physical shape and size.\n\nPowders may be used on surfaces which have been wetted, but only after the articles have been thoroughly dried at temperatures not exceeding 30 \u00b0C.\n\nThe performance of powders generally deteriorates with the age of the latent fingerprint but occasionally very old ones are detected by this means; they are therefore not a reliable indicator of time since a latent fingerprint was deposited.\n\n## Powder Suspensions\n\nAlthough commonly referred to as suspensions, they are actually rather viscous mixtures of fine nontoxic powders such as iron oxide, carbon black, or titanium dioxide with a surfactant and various proportions of water. Bratton and others reported the use of a viscous mixture of black fingerprint powder and detergent for the development of fingermarks on the adhesive side of tapes in the mid-1990s.\n\nSeveral such powder suspensions or pastes were proposed or marketed under various names including \"Sticky-Side Powder\u2122\" for use on the adhesive side of adhesive tapes. They were usually based on mixtures of black fingerprint powder with surfactant and water. A fairly thick paste of the powder is applied to the adhesive side of the tape, either by dipping or careful brushing. The solution is left in contact with the tape for 10\u201315 s and then washed off under running water, resulting in gray to black images, which can be recorded using conventional photography.\n\nSubsequently, it has been found that such suspensions can be very effective on many smooth surfaces but particle size and shape are critical, as is the surfactant. Formulations using white and other colored or fluorescent powders have also been developed.\n\nThe process is becoming more widely used although further research is needed. They are easily applied in a laboratory where exhibits can be washed in a sink but more difficult at crime scenes where they cause gross contamination and require considerable cleanup.\n\n## Small Particle Reagent\n\nSmall particle reagent was developed by Morris and others at the Aldermaston Weapons Research Establishments in the United Kingdom in 1978, the original formulation being based on gray molybdenum disulfide flake in water and surfactant. Concentrations of powder and surfactant were much lower than the more recently developed powder suspensions, so the reagent has a very low viscosity, similar to water. It is most effectively applied in a tank in which the powder is agitated prior to immersion of the object to be treated. The main surface of interest should be uppermost, on which the powder is allowed to settle, then excess powder is carefully rinsed off and the exhibit is allowed to dry (Figure 5).\n\nFigure 5 Fingermarks on a polystyrene cup developed with small particle reagent. Courtesy: UK Home Office.\n\nThe grade of molybdenum disulphide is critical to its effectiveness. The Forensic Science Service in the United Kingdom promoted a spray version of the molybdenum disulphide version for use on wet cars, but it proved to be far less sensitive than the immersion process. Other researchers have developed white and fluorescent versions although in tests none has matched the original formulation for sensitivity.\n\n## Basic Violet 3 (Gentian Violet, Crystal Violet, CI 42555)\n\nThe use of aniline dyes for staining latent fingerprints was patented in the United States by Bock in 1917. A very effective formulation of Basic Violet 3 in phenol and ethanol solution was reported by the Italian Police in the late 1960s and has been used widely since the 1970s for the detection of latent fingerprints on the adhesive side of tapes. The reagent stains latent fingerprints purple and is usually applied by floating the tape on the surface of the solution with the adhesive side down. The tape is then washed in running water and dried. Fingerprints may then be photographed if the tape is light in color.\n\nIncreasing usage of black electrical tapes on improvised explosive devices resulted in the development of a technique by Kent in 1978 for transferring the image onto fixed, washed, and dried photographic paper.\n\nLow concentrations of Basic Violet 3 in fingerprint deposits will fluoresce in the far red if illuminated with yellow light.\n\nConcerns over the toxicity of phenol by skin absorption have resulted in the development of a number of surfactant-based formulations omitting phenol. Some of these, particularly those using aerosol OT surfactant, show similar or better performance than the original. Recent developments of powder suspensions have, however, reduced the usage of dye techniques on adhesive tapes.\n\n## Superglue\n\nThe reaction of the vapor of ethyl or methyl cyanoacrylate with latent fingerprint deposits appears to have been noticed independently in Japan in around 1977, and in subsequent years in Canada and the United Kingdom, as the Japanese discovery was not initially revealed in the West.\n\nFingermarks exposed to the vapor were observed to produce a white deposit of cyanoacrylate polymer, usually after a few hours although sometimes extended development times of up to 24 h were used. Kendall and others reported heating superglue to speed up the reaction in the early 1980s (Figure 6).\n\nResearch by the UK Home Office established that by raising the humidity to 80% and the glue temperature to around 120 \u00b0C, fingerprints development was much more rapid and even older fingermarks would often develop in about 20 min. These conditions were recommended in the Home Office Fingerprint Manual of 1986 after microscopic studies and extensive trials (Figure 7).\n\nElevation of the relative humidity to around 80% causes sodium chloride in latent fingerprints to take up water, forming minute droplets along the lines of the deposit. Other components in the deposit may be responsible for raising the pH and accelerating the reaction, which usually results in a white growth of \"cotton wool\" or \"noodle-like\" growth of microscopically fine fibers. Use of an aluminum container reduces the amount of cyanoacrylate, which polymerizes in the source vessel.\n\nFigure 6 Plastic molding with a number of superglue-developed fingerprints. Courtesy: UK Home Office.\n\nFigure 7 Electron micrograph of superglue-developed fingerprints. Courtesy: UK Home Office.\n\nOn many surfaces, the white deposit may simply be photographed by scattered light but enhancement with fluorescent dyes such as Rhodamine 6G was soon introduced by Menzel and others in 1983 with methanol as a solvent, and has been widely used since although methanol should not be used due to its high toxicity. In 1986, the UK Home Office introduced the use of Basic Yellow 40 in ethanol as a nontoxic extremely efficient fluorescent dye for superglue-developed fingerprints. Brief immersion followed by gentle washing in water and drying results in strongly fluorescent fingerprints which may be illuminated in the blue region and observed in the yellow region, making photography easier on some surfaces.\n\nThe exact nature of the initiation and growth process of the polycyanoacrylate is not well understood although several studies have examined possible mechanisms and initiators.\n\nThe technique has been exploited widely since its discovery with several types of commercial cabinets available, and several incorporating facilities to raise the humidity. It is a quick simple method for many types of plastic film, plastic moldings, and polystyrene foam and has been used on a wide range of other surfaces experimentally and operationally.\n\nFingermark development is also observed under vacuum conditions and was first reported by Watkins in 1989, although the fingerprints developed do not show the characteristic \"noodle-like\" growth, instead appearing as transparent glassy deposits which must then be enhanced with fluorescent dyes. It is generally agreed that this method is significantly less effective operationally as it has lower sensitivity with less uptake of dyes by the glassy deposits.\n\nSeveral researchers, including Weaver in 1993, have attempted, so far unsuccessfully, to synthesize a modified cyanoacrylate which is inherently fluorescent.\n\n## Vacuum Metal Deposition\n\nThis method is derived from a commercial process for coating surfaces with thin layers of metal or dielectric materials. It is carried out under vacuum and involves the thermal evaporation of metals onto the surface to be examined.\n\nThe process had been known for many years to be susceptible to fingerprint contamination, and in industry, degreasing procedures are used before glass or plastic items are coated with materials such as aluminum or chrome.\n\nIn 1964, Tolansky suggested that this technique might be of operational forensic value; in 1968, Theys in France proposed its use for detection of fingerprints on paper. Hambley, in 1972 at Royal Holloway College, investigated the behavior of a wide range of single metal and metal combinations. The use of gold followed by cadmium was then developed by Kent in the UK Home Office initially as an operational technique for the fingerprint treatment of low-density polyethylene bags and wrappings; due to health and safety concerns, cadmium was replaced by zinc in the early 1980s (Figure 8).\n\nIt is extremely sensitive, sometimes too sensitive, and it has been shown that a monolayer of fatty acid can sometimes inhibit metal film growth. It has found fingerprints in cases where polythene wrappings have been underwater for long periods of time.\n\nThe object being treated is placed inside a large metal chamber, most of the air is evacuated reducing the pressure to between 2 and 4 \u00d7 10\u22124 mbar, and metals are evaporated sequentially onto the surface. The generally recommended method for fingermarks on polythene is the evaporation of a few milligrams of gold from a molybdenum filament heated to a bright yellow to white heat, at about 1000 \u00b0C. A larger quantity of zinc is then evaporated from a molybdenum trough heated to a dull red at about 450 \u00b0C; the evaporated zinc deposits onto available gold nuclei and produces a gray image. Any developed fingerprints may appear as positive or negative images as the film growth is modified by surface contamination. The differential rates of film growth on substrate and fingerprint may be due to differences in gold nuclei size or penetration of the nuclei into the surface.\n\nFigure 8 Vacuum metal deposition-developed fingerprints using gold and zinc on low-density polyethylene. Courtesy: UK Home Office.\n\nThe process has been used very effectively operationally on polythene packaging. Experiments to apply the method on fabrics in the 1980s yielded some results with fresh fingerprints on finely woven fabrics but no operational successes during limited trials.\n\nSilver can be used as a single metal treatment and may be effective on some types of cling film. Coating of some types of recycled plastics is difficult and some other techniques such as powder suspensions are more effective.\n\n## Development of Contaminated Fingermarks\n\n### Fingermarks in Blood\n\nIf a fingermark on a porous surface looks as if it may consist of some eccrine sweat and some blood, amino acid reagents such as ninhydrin, DFO, and indanedione may be very effective. On nonporous surfaces, acid black, acid yellow 7, or acid violet 17 are most effective for detection of the bloody component.\n\nMany tests and dyes for blood have been reported in the literature.\n\n#### Acid black 1 (amido black)\n\nAcid black 1 or amido black, CI 20470, is a dye which has long been used to stain protein. It will bind to proteins present in blood or other body fluids to give a blue-black stain. It will not detect normal eccrine and sebaceous sweat components of natural fingerprints and is therefore used when it is believed that the fingermark consists largely or wholly of blood. Porous surfaces will take up the dye and often cause a high background coloration and alternative reagents may be preferable on such surfaces. It is usually used in an aqueous ethanolic solution but the bloody deposits must first be \"fixed\" either by heating or more commonly by application of solutions such as sulphosalicylic acid. This fixing prevents diffusion of the deposit during the staining stage and was reported by Faragher and others in 1981.\n\nFingerprints developed by amido black are dark blue\u2013black in color and can be recorded using conventional photography.\n\n#### Acid yellow 7\n\nThis has been introduced more recently as an extremely sensitive technique to enhance fingerprints in blood but is a fluorogenic reagent which must be examined and photographed using an appropriate combination of excitation and viewing filters. It is recommended in the UK Home Office Fingerprint Manual, which suggests excitation in the green region, between 445 and 478 nm and recording the emission in the green\u2013yellow region between 485 and 500 nm.\n\n### Fingermarks in Grease\n\nLight fingermarks contaminated with grease from, for example foodstuffs, or as may be encountered in engineering workshops, may be developed with conventional processes such as fingerprint powders. It is recommended that small areas be tested first, and if gross contamination resulting in substantial take-up on the background is observed, the following alternative reagents may prove more effective.\n\n#### Solvent black 3 (Sudan black 3)\n\nProposed as a fingerprint reagent by Mitsui and others in 1980, this method was investigated for developing latent fingermarks on surfaces such as polythene by Pounds in the UK Forensic Science Service but it was found to be less effective than established techniques. It was subsequently found to be of value in circumstances where there is a significant amount of fatty or greasy contamination. These surfaces can be difficult to treat with powders due to a high uptake across the surface. Treatment with fat dyes can selectively indicate areas of thicker or thinner deposit sometimes revealing fingerprints (Figure 9).\n\nIn the laboratory, articles are usually immersed in an ethanolic solution of solvent black 3 followed by careful washing. A less-flammable methoxypropanol (propylene glycol methyl ether) formulation has been proposed by the UK Home Office for use at crime scenes.\n\nFigure 9 Fingermarks in greasy contamination on food packaging developed with solvent black 3. Courtesy: UK Home Office.\n\nSolvent black 3 has been suggested by Castello of the University of Valencia as a method of enhancing lip prints.\n\n### Optical Techniques\n\n#### Visual examination with white light\n\nVisual examination in white light has the advantage of being nondestructive with regard to both the fingerprint deposit and any other forensic evidence. Sometimes on smooth surfaces, visible fingerprints will be seen that can be photographed by means of reflected or scattered light.\n\nIt is important to experiment with the angles of illumination and observation. In particular, reflective or textured surfaces may require manipulation of the light source to achieve high- and low-angle illumination, which can considerably affect contrast and visibility of latent fingerprints. On porous surfaces, only contaminated fingerprints are likely to be seen visually.\n\nSometimes on badly contaminated surfaces, such as where there is a substantial deposit of grease from foodstuffs and such application of chemical or physical development techniques may actually obscure fingerprints which can be seen visually.\n\n#### Epitaxial white light visual examination\n\nOn some surfaces, illumination and viewing coaxially, usually normal to the surface, can be effective in detecting untreated fingerprints (Figure 10).\n\nViewing devices have been marketed which incorporate white light sources in combination with prisms or other types of beam splitter to carry out such epitaxial, or coaxial illumination, and observation. This technique is probably most useful on smooth, flat, shiny surfaces when latent fingerprint ridges may appear dark against a light background; the method is, however, not widely used.\n\nFigure 10 Schematic showing optical path for epitaxial viewing.\n\n#### Reflected short-wave ultraviolet imaging\n\nReflected short-wave ultraviolet imaging (RUVIS) was proposed in the 1980s and several types of prototype or commercial systems have been built. Surface reflection characteristics in the ultraviolet can be very different to those in the normal visible spectrum. The shorter wavelengths are scattered more than in the visible spectrum so that, for example, superglue-developed fingerprints can often be easily separated from the background with good contrast and no use of fluorescent dyes.\n\nAs the eye is not capable of imaging UV light, special image converter tubes are used, usually in conjunction with 254 nm mercury light sources. This wavelength is potentially damaging for eyes and skin and full protective equipment is essential.\n\nSome fresh latent fingerprints on smooth surfaces are visible by short UV scattering by careful manipulation of illumination angle. After a few days, this effect is dramatically reduced and generally powdering or other techniques are more productive.\n\n#### Fluorescence examination\n\nAlthough there were some earlier experiments using ultraviolet lamps to attempt to detect latent fingerprints, the most significant step was that by Duff and Menzel in 1976. They reported seeing latent fingerprints in their laboratory using a high-power argon ion laser operating at 488 or 514.5 nm. Such lasers were expensive and the procedure was time-consuming and not very productive, but this triggered the development of a variety of detection and enhancement systems based on fluorescent processes.\n\nWork in the early 1980s in the United Kingdom, Australia, and Canada resulted in the introduction of various high-power nonlaser light sources. All these used focused arc lamps and dichroic filter combinations, giving relatively narrow bands of visible light which could be used to excite fluorescence. These were considerably cheaper and more portable than the argon ion lasers of the day and were capable of producing illumination over a wider wavelength range. Several light sources available today for forensic fluorescent examination are based on this technology although recent developments in light-emitting diode (LED) and solid-state lasers are also utilized in some systems.\n\nThe requirements of fluorescent examination are that the light source should provide a relatively uniform divergent or parallel beam capable of illuminating a few hundred square centimeters with a relatively narrow range of wavelengths, perhaps 20\u2013200 nm bandwidth depending on the application. Effective light power in the incident beam, not lamp power consumption, should be between 0.5 and 5 W in the band of interest; higher powers can be used but great care must be taken not to melt or damage substrates. Commonly, wavelength selection from arc lamp sources is by insertion of dichroic filters in the path of the lamp. Delivery of light to the surface under examination is usually by liquid light guide for higher powered systems although lasers will normally use optical fibers and LED sources may be simply handheld devices.\n\nFluorescent compounds have unique excitation and emission spectra and can require widely different excitation and viewing wavelengths. Absorption of a photon of short wavelength radiation usually results in an almost immediate release of a photon of lower energy, and hence longer wavelength: Stoke's law q.v.\n\nLight sources must have sharp cutoffs at the longer wavelength end of the power band and be used with viewing filters or camera filters which have a sharp cut-on close to the light source cut-off and transmit less than one part in 104 of the \"excitation\" range of wavelengths (Figures 11 and 12).\n\nFluorescence examination for fingerprints falls into two major categories:\n\n1. Initial examination of untreated, or latent, fingerprints for any inherent fluorescence which may be of natural or foreign origin.\n\n2. The enhancement of development fingerprints that have been treated with reagents which may or may not produce a fluorescent product.\n\n#### Fluorescence\u2014initial examination\n\nThis requires slow methodical careful examination under darkroom conditions by staff with good close vision and who are fully dark-adapted. Usually, any fluorescence of untreated fingerprints is very faint and easily missed. Most natural components of latent fingerprints do not fluoresce. There are three amino acids which fluoresce in the visible region: tryptophan, tyrosine, and phenylalanine. Some workers have reported measurable levels of phenylalanine in fingerprint deposits. It is extremely unlikely, however, that these materials are being detected during initial fluorescence examination procedures.\n\nIt may be more likely that when untreated fingerprints are found by fluorescence, they are contaminated with fluorescent materials from the environment. No reliable data are available in this area but many greases, creams, cosmetics, industrial chemicals, and even environmental dust, among others fluoresce.\n\nOperationally, it has been found that with suitable powerful light sources and correct viewing and camera filters, fluorescent fingerprints can be more frequently found on some polythene packaging, in kitchens and industrial premises, at illicit drug factories, in printing industry premises, and so on.\n\nA difficulty with effective initial fluorescence examination is that as the chemicals which may be detected are unknown, there is no single combination of excitation and viewing filter which will detect all materials. The wrong combination of wavelengths will not result in visible fluorescence. In a major investigation, it is therefore necessary to use a number of light source and filter combinations. Comprehensive detection can only be achieved by sequential examination with a range of excitation wavelengths from the violet to the yellow region that should be used with appropriate viewing filters. There is some evidence that excitation around 530 nm is particularly productive. This may be due in part to the fact that it is above the primary excitation range for most artificial brighteners which are incorporated into many man-made materials such as paper, plastic, and paint.\n\nFigure 11 Schematic showing absorption and emission bands of a fluorescent material and the relative light source and viewing filter characteristics necessary for detection of fluorescence.\n\nFigure 12 Schematic showing effect of correct viewing filter for the detection of fluorescence.\n\n#### Fluorescence\u2014enhancement of developed fingerprints\n\nSeveral of the established fingerprint development processes either produce a fluorescent product, such as DFO, or have supplementary treatment steps which produce a fluorescent result, such as superglue-enhanced with basic yellow 40, or indanedione with zinc salts.\n\nFigure 13 Superglue-developed fingerprints which have been dyed with basic yellow 40 and photographed by fluorescence. Courtesy: UK Home Office.\n\nFluorescent viewing and photography of such fingerprints can be very effective if the correct excitation and emission wavelengths are used (Figure 13).\n\nFluorescence examination can also be used to enhance some nonfluorescent-developed fingerprints by causing the background to fluoresce; for example, ninhydrin-developed fingerprints on colored paper surfaces may sometimes be enhanced in this way.\n\n#### Ultraviolet and infrared fluorescence and imaging\n\nUV fluorescence between 300 and 400 nm excited by UV at 277 nm was reported by Okhi in 1970. Long-wave and short-wave fluorescence were investigated and used by Creer in the UK Metropolitan Police in the late 1980s and 1990s. Some fingermarks on smooth papers were detected by background fluorescence of the paper with local absorption of UV by the fingermarks.\n\nSome natural constituents, such as phenylalanine, or contaminants, such as greases, may absorb light in the near ultraviolet and emit in the blue part of the spectrum. Some may absorb in the ultraviolet and emit in the ultraviolet, requiring specialist UV-sensitive imaging devices as used for reflected ultraviolet imaging, RUVIS, see earlier.\n\nMany inks and some oils absorb in the yellow\u2013red part of the spectrum and emit in the infrared region. To detect fingermarks in such contamination requires the use of infrared-sensitive viewing devices or cameras. Such procedures are not currently common although there is increasing interest in imaging outside of the visible part of the spectrum, referred to variously as chemical imaging, or hyperspectral or multispectral imaging.\n\nSilicon-based CCD and CMOS cameras have inherent sensitivity in the near infrared but many have internal blocking, which can make them unsuitable unless they can be removed.\n\n## Other Reported Techniques\n\nThe following techniques are not in widespread use but have either been reported to be worthy of investigation or have been used, or are used, in special circumstances, or are currently under development and assessment.\n\nRadioactive sulfur dioxide has been used to detect and image latent fingerprints on adhesive tape and experimentally to image them on some types of finely woven fabrics. First reported by Grant in 1963 and investigated at AERE Harwell, small quantities of a sulfur-containing compound are ignited and the exhibits after exposure are autoradiographed.\n\nThe use of bromine, iodine, or iodine monochloride incorporating radioactive isotopes was investigated in similar treatment protocols to the use of sulfur dioxide.\n\nVarious electron beam imaging methods are being investigated.\n\nModified physical developers and multimetal deposition techniques have been investigated by several workers including Saunders at Los Alamos, Cantu of the US Secret Service, Becue of the University of Lausanne, and others.\n\nNanoparticle methods in solution are being investigated by various research groups.\n\nThe use of sulfur nitride polymerization is a recent development by Kelly and King at the University of Loughborough.\n\nElectrostatic imaging methods for revealing fingerprint-induced corrosion on metals, such as cartridge cases, are under investigation.\n\nSilver nitrate solution, reported in the 1890s, reacts with chloride in the fingerprint to form insoluble silver chloride, which goes black on exposure to light. This was used for many years on porous surfaces such as paper and raw wood but has generally been superceded by amino acid reagents such as ninhydrin and physical developer.\n\nOsmium or ruthenium tetroxide has been used either in the vapor phases or in solution to develop latent fingerprints by their reaction with unsaturated fats, which results in gray deposits of the reduced metals. These have been used experimentally on fabrics but with limited success.\n\nDimethylaminocinnamaldehyde in solution was investigated by Morris and others at AWRE Aldermaston for fingerprints on paper but it proved less successful than ninhydrin. It has recently been used by a number of workers for developing fingerprints on thermal printing papers and has been applied in the vapor phase.\n\nMany authors have referred to heating paper at temperatures between 150 and 200 \u00b0C, which will eventually often result in fingermarks becoming visible as the deposit initiates local carbonization resulting in brown fingerprints. This method is not used operationally due to availability of other methods.\n\n## See also\n\nPattern Evidence\/Fingerprints (Dactyloscopy): Chemistry of Print Residue; Identification and Classification; Sequential Treatment and Enhancement.\n\n## Further Reading\n\nArcher N.E, Yannis C, Elliott J.A, Jickells S. Changes in the lipid composition of latent fingerprint residue with time after deposition on a surface. _Forensic Science International_. 2005;154(2\u20133):224\u2013239.\n\nBowman V, ed. _Manual of Fingerprint Development Techniques_. second ed. London, UK: Home Office, Police Scientific Development Branch; 2004.\n\nCroxton R.S. _Analysis of Latent Fingerprint Components by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry_ (Ph.D. thesis). UK: University of Lincoln; 2008.\n\nCuthbertson F, Cripps F.W. _SSCD SAC\/2\/65 Report_. Aldermaston, Berkshire, UK: Atomic Weapons Research Establishment; 1965.\n\nHardwick S.A, Kent T, Sears V.G. _Fingerprint Detection by Fluorescence Examination \u2013 A Guide to Operational Implementation_. Sandridge, UK: PSDB Publication No. 3\/90; 1990.\n\nJones N.E, Davies L.M, Brennan J.S, Bramble S.K. Separation of visibly-excited fluorescent components in fingerprint residue by thin-layer chromatography. _Journal of Forensic Sciences_. 2000;45(6):1286\u20131293.\n\nMerrick S, Gardner S, Sears V, Hewlett D. An operational trial of ozone-friendly DFO and 1,2-indanedione formulations for latent fingerprint detection. _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 2002;52(5):595\u2013605.\n\nMong G.M, Petersen C.E, Clauss C.R.W. _Advanced Fingerprint Analysis Project, Final Report \u2013 Fingerprint Constituents_. Richland, WA: Pacific Northwest Laboratory Report PNNL-13019; 1999.\n\nOlsen Sr. R.D. _Scott's Fingerprint Mechanics_. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas; 1978.\n\nRamatowski R, ed. _Lee and Gaensslen's Advances in Fingerprint Technology_. third ed. London: CRC Press; 2009.\n\nStoilovic M, Lennard C, Wallace-Kunkel C, Roux C. Evaluation of a 1,2-indanedione formulation containing zinc chloride for improved fingermark detection on paper. _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 2007;57(1):4\u201318.\n\nThomas G.L. The physics of fingerprints and their detection. _Journal of Physics E; Scientific Instruments_. 1978;11(8):722\u2013731.\n\nWilshire B, Hurley N. Development of latent fingerprints on paper using magnetic flakes. _Journal of Forensic Sciences_. 1995;40(5):837\u2013841.\n\nRelevant Websites\n\n<http:\/\/www.enfsi.eu>\u2014ENFSI.\n\n<http:\/\/www.theiai.org>\u2014International Association for Identification.\n\n<http:\/\/www.nij.gov>\u2014National Institute of Justice.\n\n<http:\/\/onin.com\/fp>\u2014The History of Fingerprints.\n\n<http:\/\/www.nij.gov>\u2014US National Institute of Justice SWGFAST Fingerprint Sourcebook.\n\n<http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org>\u2014Wikipedia, Fingerprints.\n\n# Key Terms\n\nCharacteristic, Composition, Contaminants, Degradation, Development, Donor effect, Eccrine, Eccrine sweat, Enhancement, Fingermark, Fingerprint, Fluorescence, Latent, Latent fingerprints, Minutiae, Print, Ridges, Sebaceous, Sebum, Sweat.\n\n# Review Questions\n\n1. What factors influence the ability to render and quality of latent mark visualization?\n\n2. What methods have been used to analyze the composition of fingerprint residue?\n\n3. What is fingerprint residue composed of?\n\n4. What produces fingerprint residue? Where does it come from?\n\n5. How does the substrate affect the visualization of prints?\n\n6. What other methods used at a crime scene might interfere with the processing of fingerprints?\n\n7. How could processing for latent prints affect other crime scene methods? What steps can be taken so evidence is not compromised?\n\n8. How could the necessities of a \"major case\" change the sequencing of processing?\n\n9. A sequence of techniques should incorporate methods that do what?\n\n10. What are some of the considerations necessary for photographing latents going through sequential processing?\n\n11. Can any of the techniques used for the development of fingerprints in blood be used as a presumptive test for blood?\n\n12. Do accelerants prevent fingerprint development?\n\n13. Under what conditions would fingerprints be found visible?\n\n14. Lasers of what wavelength are the most practical for preliminary screening for latents?\n\n15. What solid matter may be found in a latent print?\n\n16. List the factors that control image quality for digital imaging systems.\n\n17. What is a \"lossy image compression technique\"?\n\n18. List at least five factors which can affect the choice of visualization process.\n\n19. When was ninhydrin first proposed for fingerprint development?\n\n20. How does vacuum metal deposition work? What are some of its strengths and weaknesses?\n\n# Discussion Questions\n\n1. Why must examiners avoid over-interpreting class characteristics that display only slight differences? What are two examples of these \"slight differences\"?\n\n2. How is the photographing and viewing of patent prints different from latent prints (besides being immediately visible)?\n\n3. What are some factors that might effect the visualization of a latent print? How can protocols mitigate these issues?\n\n4. What factors in visualizing a latent print might effect its interpretation?\n\n5. What are the main quality concerns for a fingerprint examiner? What might reduce or prohibit quality work on fingerprint cases? How can these concerns be addressed?\n\n## Additional Readings\n\nKing R.S, Hallett P.M, Foster D. Seeing into the infrared: a novel IR fluorescent fingerprint powder. _Forensic Science International_. 2015;249:e21\u2013e26.\n\nMerritt D, Morgan Jr. J.P, Houlgrave S, Ramotowski R, Brock A, Shelar K. Development of latent prints on Tyvek Large Pak and Padded Pak shipping envelopes. _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 2015;65(5):828.\n\nRamotowski R. _Lee and Gaensslen's Advances in Fingerprint Technology_. third ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2012.\n\nWilliams S.F, Pulsifer D.P, Shaler R.C, Ramotowski R.S, Brazelle S, Lakhtakia A. Comparison of the columnar-thin-film and vacuum-metal-deposition techniques to develop sebaceous fingermarks on nonporous substrates. _Journal of Forensic Sciences_. 2015;60(2):295\u2013302.\n\nWilliams S.F, Pulsifer D.P, Lakhtakia A, Shaler R.C. Visualization of partial bloody fingerprints on nonporous substrates using columnar thin films. _Canadian Society of Forensic Science Journal_. 2015;48(1):20\u201335.\nSection 3\n\nFingerprints\n\nOutline\n\nIntroduction\n\nFingerprint Sciences\n\nFriction Ridge Print Examinationd\u2014Interpretation and the Comparative Method\n\nAnalysis, Comparison, Evaluation, and Verification (ACE-V)\n\nIdentification and Classification\n\nKey Terms\n\nReview Questions\n\nDiscussion Questions\n\n# Introduction\n\nThe utility of fingerprints was born of a time when people became more mobile, cultural and social norms were changing, and populations were growing. Crime expanded with these opportunities (what we would now call \"transnational crime\") as it has always done. It was no longer supportable to know everyone in your neighborhood or village\u2014there were too many \"new\" people coming through too often for authorities to keep track of. What could be more useful for personal identification than fingerprints? Easy to collect, examined with little to no equipment requirements, and (once a classification scheme was devised) eminently searchable. Note that the usefulness of fingerprints was not fully realized until they could be organized and searched. Without a systematic approach to searching, they were a research curiosity.\n\nWhile the friction ridges on an individual's fingertips are assumed to be unique (testing everyone is a practical impossibility), the prints or marks those ridges leave are not. That fingerprints that are unique was a leap of faith that became an article of faith in the forensic profession. Galton, the first of many to do so in different ways by varying criteria, calculated the chance of two people having the \"same\" friction ridge pattern to be 1 in 64 billion.1 Whether that number or another is adopted, is still a statistical calculation based on the sampling of a population and cannot be assumed to be \"too big to fail\" (to borrow a recent term). Fingerprints\u2014the marks\u2014are fallible and cases like McKie, Mayfield, and others have unequivocally demonstrated this.\n\nDoes this mean fingerprints are not useful? The question is not whether they work but how well do they work\u2014a very different question that requires a new perspective. Research into how well fingerprints and fingerprint examiners work is ongoing and should lead the profession to a far better place with statistical interpretations than the so-called \"good old days\" of absolutism.\n\n* * *\n\n1 Galton, F., 1892. Fingerprints. MacMillan & Co., London.\n\n# Fingerprint Sciences\n\nD.L. Ortiz-Bacon, and C.L. Swanson US Army Criminal Investigation Laboratory \u2013 Expeditionary Forensic Division, Forest Park, GA, USA\n\n## Abstract\n\nFor over a century, fingerprint science has been one of the primary forensic tools of the police and the court systems as a means of personal identification. This article presents a brief summation of the historical and scientific basis for the establishment of dactyloscopy\u2014the comparison of fingerprints for identification\u2014recognizing key scientists, researchers, and events that shaped its functionality and significance in criminal investigations.\n\n### Keywords\n\nAnthropometry; Differential growth; Francis Galton; Henry Faulds; Identification; International Association for Identification (IAI); Latent fingerprint development; Permanence; Sir Edward Henry; Sir William Herschel; Uniqueness; Volar pads\n\nGlossary\n\nAnthropometry Relating to measurements of the human body; Bertillonage was a classification system based on a number of these measurements.\n\nChiridium Hand or foot.\n\nDactyloscopy Comparison of fingerprints for purposes of identification.\n\nFriction ridge skin Specialized skin found on the palmar and plantar surfaces; characterized by raised ridges which assist with traction and increase tactile stimulation.\n\nLASER Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation; a device that emits a single wavelength of light and is employed as a forensic light source.\n\nMinutiae Characteristics or events along a ridge which are considered during the comparison of fingerprints; also referred to as Galton details.\n\nPapillary ridges Orderly rows of peglike structures emerging from the dermis.\n\nSpectroscopic Referring to the interaction between matter and radiated energy.\n\n## Introduction\n\nFor over 100 years, fingerprints have provided a reliable and efficient means of identification, proving its value in criminal investigations. The biological principles of permanence and uniqueness along with the capability to be classified have made fingerprints a fundamental tool in forensic science. A reproduction of the arrangement of the ridges present on the fingers can be deposited on an object or surface when the finger comes into contact with it. Recognition of this tendency as far back as the late 1800s has led to continued research and development of fingerprint visualization, detection, and recovery techniques to further their potential use for identification. Despite the established application of fingerprint identification over the past century, fingerprint science has recently faced challenges within the legal system regarding the legitimacy of individualizations. The information presented here is by no means an exhaustive review of the research performed nor are the scientists involved in unfolding the biological basis and classification methods of friction ridge skin comparison and identification, but it is the authors' intent to present a concise and sequential development of the science of dactyloscopy.\n\n## Early History (221 BC\u2013AD 220)\n\nThe first known evidence of the recognition of friction ridge patterns has been linked back to Kejimkujik Lake, Nova Scotia, Canada, where a tracing of the hand was found etched into slate rock. This is believed to be the first documented anthropological illustration depicting the friction ridges and flexion creases of the hand. Impressions of the hands have also been found in Altamira, Spain, and Lascaux, France, and are estimated to be over 17 000 years old. Similar impressions have been found in clay as far back as 5000 years ago. In addition to these findings, fingerprints are known to have been used as a form of signature and identification on the seals of contracts in China as early as 206 BC. Fingerprints were not scientifically researched until many years later during the seventeenth century.\n\n## Recognition of Friction Ridge Skin (1684\u20131858)\n\nThe first scientist to recognize and comment on friction ridge formations was the English Botanist Nehemiah Grew in 1684. In his publication Philosophical Transactions, Grew described friction ridge skin in detail to include the papillary ridges, the patterns they form, and the pores they contain. Grew is recognized as the first scientist to document his findings on friction ridge skin. In 1686, Marcello Malpighi, an Italian anatomist, mentioned the patterns of friction ridge skin while studying the skin using the recently invented microscope. Malpighi gathered his observations and formally published on the function, form, and structure of friction ridge skin in an article entitled Concerning the External Tactile Organs. A layer of the skin, the Malpighian layer, was later named after him in honor of his contribution to dactyloscopy.\n\nFor almost a century and a half after the work of Grew and Malpighi, little advancement was made in the science of friction ridge skin. Eventually, in 1823, Johan-Evangelist Purkinje classified nine principal configuration groups of fingerprints and assigned each a name. His work was the first published research to describe and attempt to classify fingerprint patterns; however, Purkinje did not research the subject any further. Years later in 1853, while serving with the British Civil Service in Bengal, India, Sir William Herschel noticed a great number of natives were receiving pensions from the government by impersonation. While Herschel held the position of Magistrate and Collector at Hooghly, near Calcutta, he was in charge of the criminal courts, the prisons, the registration of deeds, and the payment of government pensions, all of which he controlled through the collection of finger and palm prints. This marks the first use of friction ridge skin as a signature by a European. Throughout his career, Herschel continued to collect fingerprints and study them as a hobby. Eventually, Herschel realized fingerprints remain unchanged over time and differ from person to person. Herschel wrote a letter in 1877, later to be called the \"Hooghly Letter,\" explaining his belief that fingerprints should be used as the new system of identification in prisons in England. At the time, however, he received no response. Herschel continued empirical studies of permanence by publishing prints he took of himself in 1859, 1877, and 1916, demonstrating their persistence, echoing a previous study published by Hermann Welcker in 1898.\n\n## Criminal Applications and as a Means of Identification (1880\u20131905)\n\nShortly after Herschel wrote the \"Hooghly Letter,\" Dr Henry Faulds became interested in friction ridge skin after seeing ridge detail on pottery found on a Japanese beach while working there as a medical missionary from Scotland. In October 1880, he became the first ever to publish about friction ridge skin in a scientific journal. In his letter to the editor On the Skin-Furrows of the Hand, published in the journal Nature, Faulds discusses the value of friction ridge skin and its application in criminal investigations. Faulds provided two examples of how prints can be used to identify a person at a crime scene within the article. The first example involved a greasy print found on a drinking glass that helped Faulds discover who had been drinking distilled spirits in his lab, and the second described sooty fingerprints left on a white wall which resulted in the exoneration of an accused individual. On November 25, 1880, Herschel responded to Faulds' letter stating that he had already been using fingerprints for 20 years, since he first took the prints of Rajyadhar Konai in an attempt to prevent denial of his signature on a business contract and then, later, by recording the fingerprints of natives to prevent impersonation offering the \"Hooghly Letter\" as proof. Years later, in 1917 Herschel would acknowledge the difference between his and Faulds' use of fingerprints during their debate in 1880, giving credit to Faulds as the first to suggest the use of fingerprints for the identification of criminals from impressions left at crime scenes.\n\nPrior to publishing in Nature, Faulds had written a letter to Charles Darwin detailing his research and soliciting his aid in continued studies into the topic. Darwin's health at the time would not allow him to pursue the proposal but he forwarded the letter to his cousin, Francis Galton. Galton developed an interest in fingerprints at approximately the same time that Faulds and Herschel were researching the topic. Galton began correspondence with Herschel and eventually compiled his research into the first textbook on fingerprints, published in 1892, titled Finger Prints. In this book, Galton established that fingerprints are never duplicated and the arrangement of the ridges persists throughout the life of an individual. Galton was also the first to name and describe friction ridge minutiae which in recognition of his work are often referred to as \"Galton details.\"\n\nAround the same time Galton was publishing his work, the first working fingerprint classification system was being designed in Argentina by Juan Vucetich. Vucetich provided a viable filing system which he referred to as \"icnofalangometrica.\" Vucetich is credited with creating and implementing the first classification system leading to earliest replacement of anthropometric methods for filing criminal records.\n\nIn 1892, Inspector Eduardo Alvarez, a former student under Vucetich, played a crucial role in the investigation of the Rojas murders, a case in which a bloody fingerprint found at the crime scene was matched to the right thumb of Francisca Rojas, ultimately leading to her confession of the crime. This case was the first homicide to be solved by fingerprint evidence and, soon after, Argentina became the first country to rely solely on fingerprints as a method of identification.\n\nThe next working classification system came in 1897. This system was developed by Sir Edward Henry, Inspector General of Police for the Lower Provinces in Bengal, India. Henry developed this system with the help of two Indian police officers, Azizul Haque and Chandra Bose, who created a method of separating fingerprint records into a large number of groupings that were based on Galton's fingerprint pattern types and specific characteristics in those patterns such as ridge counts in loop patterns and tracings in whorl patterns. Soon after its development, the Henry system was introduced in Britain and for long was the most widely used classification system in the world eventually being replaced by the computerized systems in use today.\n\nPrior to implementation of the Henry system, Anthropometry was the practical identification and classification method in use. Introduced by Alphonse Bertillon, Anthropometry, also referred to as Bertillonage, was based on 11 body measurements meticulously taken using calipers. Bertillon was a clerk at the Prefecture of Police in Paris, France, and his system was originally put into use in 1882. Anthropometry was replaced by the Henry system in most countries by the early 1900s; however, its use continued in France until Bertillon's death in 1914.\n\nIn 1898, Sir Henry made an identification in a criminal case in Bengal, India, in which the fingerprint evidence was used to secure a conviction for the first time and in 1900, recognizing the superiority of fingerprints as a means of identification. As a result, the Belper Committee in England established that all criminal identification records would be classified by the Henry system. Ironically, in 1902, Alphonse Bertillon was responsible for the first use of fingerprints in Europe to solve a murder in Paris, France.\n\nShortly after the Henry system was put into use in Europe, fingerprint science was introduced to the United States by Detective John K. Ferrier in 1904 at the St Louis World's Fair. Det. Ferrier of New Scotland Yard was sent to guard the Crown's Jewels of the British Empire, which were on loan for exhibition. During the fair, New Scotland Yard set up an exhibition in which Ferrier demonstrated the use of fingerprints as a method of identification and how they were being used in England. It was here that the science of fingerprints was taught to the first group of Americans, eventually leading to the incorporation of the Henry system in prisons throughout the country and the utilization of fingerprint evidence in criminal investigations. Just a year later, in 1905, the Deptford murder trial in England became the first case in which fingerprint evidence was used to secure a conviction within the English court system.\n\n## Developments in Comparison and Identification (1914\u20131973)\n\nInevitably, the science of fingerprints continued to progress. In 1914, Edmond Locard, a former student of Alphonse Bertillon and the Director of the Laboratory of Police at Lyons, France, further promoted the use of fingerprints as powerful forensic evidence and he also introduced the theory of poroscopy. Locard explained how the study of pores and their locations on the ridges could be used to supplement fingerprint comparisons. In 1915, the International Association for Identification (IAI) was established and would grow to become the primary professional organization and governing body for practitioners of fingerprint science. A significant event occurred in 1924 when images of two fingerprints from different individuals exhibiting 16 points in agreement surfaced at New Scotland Yard. The images were originally published in a 1912 paper by Bertillon. Presented with the chance that the fingerprints from two different individuals could be so similar it was decided that the 12-point standard was not sufficient and 16 points became the new standard. Since that decision, examination of the prints in their original publication revealed that the images received by New Scotland Yard had been doctored. In 1953, a meeting was held between the then Deputy Director of Public Prosecutions, officials from the Home Office, and officers from several police forces, for the purpose of agreeing on a common standard in fingerprint identifications. As a result, the National Fingerprint Standard was created, which required 16 separate similar ridge characteristics. Also in 1924, under the direction of J. Edgar Hoover, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) developed its Identification Division bringing together the International Chiefs of Police fingerprint records and the records housed at the Federal Penitentiary at Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas\u2014a compilation that would become the master criminal file housed by the FBI.\n\nOne of the first cases of fingerprint fabrication occurred in 1943. On July 8, Harry Oakes was found murdered in his mansion in Nassau, Bahamas. Alfred de Marigny, Oakes' son-in-law, was accused of the crime. A fingerprint recovered at the scene and identified as de Marigny's was the major piece of evidence against him at trial. Police claimed that the print been developed on a Chinese screen in Oakes's bedroom where the body was found. Following a trial which lasted several weeks, he was eventually acquitted, after it was discovered that the print said to have been lifted from the screen had actually been lifted from a water glass that de Marigny had used during questioning by police and that the detectives had fabricated the evidence against him. Heightened awareness of the consequence of fingerprint identification was also evident outside of the realm of investigators and scientists with criminals such as Jack Klutas and Donald Darling Roguerre carving into their fingers to mutilate the patterns thus precluding identification. John Dillinger went as far as applying corrosive acid to what he must have learned were \"key areas\"\u2014the deltas and cores\u2014in order to destroy his fingerprints. Possibly the most infamous case of mutilation was Roscoe Pitts. With the assistance of a doctor, Pitts cut strips from the sides off his torso and removed as much skin as possible from his fingers. He then bound his hands to the skin strips for 3 weeks after which the edges of the torso skin strips were severed and the torso skin, which is absent of friction ridge detail, became grafted to the fingertips. Pitts was later identified from friction skin impressions of the second joints of the fingers.\n\nThroughout the 1930s and 1940s, interest in dermatoglyphics grew within the universities as well. Furthering studies endeavored by Harris H. Wilder and Inez Whipple at Smith College in Massachusetts, and Harold Cummins, from Tulane University in Louisiana, conducted research on volar pad development. In 1952, a colleague of Cummins at Tulane University, Alfred Hale, published further research on volar skin development in the human fetus. These researches are discussed in further detail later in this article. In 1962, Salil K. Chatterjee described the use of the ridge edges and shapes and how they could be used to supplement fingerprint comparisons\u2014which he termed edgeoscopy. Edgeoscopy along with poroscopy, described previously, would become what we refer to today as third-level details.\n\nShortly after Chatterjee introduced edgeoscopy, Andre Moenssens published the books Fingerprints & the Law and Fingerprint Techniques, in 1969 and 1971, respectively, which became authoritative textbooks in the training and teaching of fingerprint science for many decades. In 1973, the IAI passed a resolution stating that there is no need to require a predetermined minimum number of characteristics to make an identification. This assertion would become fundamental in the shift toward ridgeology\u2014a term introduced in 1991 by David Ashbaugh of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) in his paper Ridgeology. After the publication of his book Quantitative-Qualitative Friction Ridge Analysis in 1996, ridgeology or the study of ridges quickly became the philosophy and approach for latent print comparisons. Till today, this is the prevailing philosophy behind fingerprint comparison.\n\n## Recent (1990\u2013Present)\n\nAt the International Symposium of Fingerprint Detection and Identification in June 1995, the Ne'Urim Israeli Declaration was presented stating that \"No scientific basis exists for requiring that a pre-determined minimum number of friction ridge features must be present in two impressions in order to establish a positive identification.\" This declaration was unanimously accepted by all present at the time, and later, signed by 28 persons from the following 11 countries: Australia, Canada, France, Holland, Hungary, Israel, New Zealand, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America.\n\nTwo recent cases which have brought attention and challenges to the question of the reliability of fingerprint science are the Shirley McKie trial and the Madrid train bombing incident. In 1997, Shirley McKie, a detective with a Scotland Police Department, was identified by several Scottish Criminal Record Office (SCRO) latent print examiners as having been present and entered upon a crime scene she claimed to have never entered. External experts reviewing the case believed the identifications were erroneous while the local experts, and others associated with the case, maintained that the identifications were accurate. Debate and controversy persisted for over a decade, with neither side shifting on their position. This precipitated a major public judicial inquiry and on December 14, 2011 the report put the controversy to rest. The report sided with the external experts stating that both McKie's and the victim's fingerprints had been misidentified by the examiners involved. The report concluded that the identifications were a result of human error and that no impropriety had been committed by the SCRO examiners.\n\nAnother highly publicized error in fingerprint examination occurred in 2004 during the Madrid train bombing in which the FBI erroneously identified a latent fingerprint from the crime scene to Brandon Mayfield, an American living in Portland, Oregon, at the time of the incident. The case incited a tremendous amount of negative publicity for the fingerprint community and is used to challenge the soundness of fingerprint identifications in courts today.\n\nThe National Research Council (NRC) formed a committee through the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) to identify the needs of the forensic science community in the United States. The 2009 report emphasized the need for establishing an error rate and measuring the discriminability of features in latent print comparison work. It also addressed the lack of standardized training and procedures across agencies and practitioners in the fingerprint field. The national attention the report has received has stimulated the fingerprint community to critically evaluate the foundation of their science, fostering additional research in the field.\n\nIn 2010, the IAI passed a significant resolution (Resolution 2010\u20132018) which allows the use of mathematically based models to assess the associative value of latent print evidence to provide a numerical basis for supporting an examiner's opinion. This resolution was monumental because prior to it, latent print examiners were not permitted to offer qualifying statements regarding the likelihood or probability of an identification. Interest in statistical models began as early as the probative value of fingerprints as a means of identification was realized. Historically, scientists and mathematicians such as Galton, Balthazard, Roxburgh, Amy, and Osterburg have all attempted to describe a probabilistic estimate of fingerprint individuality. Most recently, computer-assisted models and statistical tools to provide likelihood ratios in fingerprint comparisons have been developed by Champod, Egli, and Neumann. The continued development of these models will offer the fingerprint community further support for their conclusions.\n\n## Early Scientific Foundation\n\nAs major advances were being made on the classification and comparison front of fingerprint science, study of the biological aspects of ridge development continued as well (Figure 1). Expanding on the external examinations of friction ridge skin described thus far, Arthur Kollmann was the first to publish, in 1883, concerning the embryological development of ridges and went on to describe the presence and location of the volar pads on the hands and feet. It was not until 1897 that Harris H. Wilder put forward that the centers of disturbances\u2014the core of the patterns\u2014corresponded with the location of the volar pads as opposed to earlier propositions basing the location of the pads on topographical observations which often confused the pads with muscle structure. Wilder also suggested an association between the location of the volar pads and the epidermic ridges that developed upon them. As a fellow professor in the Department of Zoology at Smith College in Massachusetts, Inez Whipple came to share his interest in dermatoglyphics and in 1904 published a landmark treatise describing the arrangement of the volar pads on the mammalian chiridium and their influence on the formation of ridges and patterns upon these elevated surfaces. Wilder also collaborated with American Police Commissioner Bert Wentworth and in 1918 they published research on the uniqueness and persistence of incipient ridges and pores. Our current understanding of the formation and development of the papillary ridges has built upon the pioneering work of these early researchers.\n\nIn 1946, Harold Cummins and Charles Midlo published the authoritative work entitled Finger Prints, Palms, and Soles (1946), which included many of Cummins' earlier papers and the body of knowledge established by their forerunners on the subject of dactyloscopy. Cummins described in detail the development of the volar pads on fetuses and concluded that the onset of friction ridge development coincides with the regression of the volar pads and that the stage of regression along with the location, size, and shape of the pads influences the overall pattern configuration. Another major advancement in establishing the scientific premises for the uniqueness and persistence of friction ridge skin was the research presented by Alfred Hale describing differential growth. In summary, development of the friction ridges of the palmar surfaces begins around 13\u201316 weeks of gestation, which corresponds with volar pad regression. Differential growth explains how stresses resultant from differences in growth rate of the ridge units influence their arrangement into lines. Although the overall pattern of friction ridge skin is influenced by heredity, the minutiae ensue from both localized surface tensions across the pads as ridges proliferate and pads regress, as well as, from environmental influences within the womb resulting in the randomized formation of ridge characteristics on which fingerprint identification is based.\n\n## Further Scientific Research\n\nResearch into both the morphological and embryological development of friction ridge skin has expanded the foundation laid previously. In 1976, Michio Okajima presented his research on incipient ridges and described the comparable double-row arrangement of the papillae under these smaller ridges to the double-row arrangement under normal ridges. Okajima's observations suggested that incipient ridges are primary ridges that were not completely matured at the cessation of ridge proliferation during differential growth. In 1984, Brigitte Lacroix et al. published the paper Early Human Hand Morphology: An Estimation of Fetal Age in which the authors used scanning electron microscopy to examine the development of pads and ridges on the hand. Their analysis confirmed original observations made by Katherine Bonnevie that development of the volar pads precedes the proliferation of ridges and also corroborated with the histological studies of Alfred Hale demonstrating the appearance of ridges as early as 13 weeks of gestation. Most recently (1991), William Babler has shown that not only the pattern formed by ridges is dependent on the shape and size of the volar pads, the timing of volar pad regression, and ridge proliferation but also prenatal bone dimension influences ridge configuration.\n\nFigure 1 The science of fingerprints: historical timeline.\n\n## Fingerprint Detection and Enhancement\n\nVisualization and, often, preservation of fingerprints is fundamental in their exploitation as a means of identifying individuals in contact with an object or crime scene. A plethora of methods are available for the enhancement of latent impressions on different surfaces each targeting different compounds\u2014inorganics, amino acids, lipids and fats, moisture, etc.\u2014in latent print residue. Traditional methods include powder dusting for nonporous surfaces, iodine fuming as a nondestructive method for porous surfaces, and physical developer for porous surfaces which may have been previously wetted. A major advancement in the development of latent impressions on porous surfaces came with the introduction of ninhydrin by the Swedish scientists Oden and von Hofsten in 1954. Ninhydrin, which forms a purple product upon reaction with amino acids, offered a nonfleeting method (as opposed to iodine fuming) for developing prints on papers and other porous surfaces. Analogous methods have since been developed which offer greater sensitivity and contrast by employing forensic light sources such as LASERs to visualize the developed prints. These include 1,8-diazafluoren-9-one developed by Tony Pounds (1990) and 1,2-indanedione synthesized by R.S. Ramatowski (1997).\n\nIn 1978, the Criminal Identification Division of the Japanese National Police Agency took notice of cyanoacrylate, or superglue, fuming and its ability to develop and preserve latent print residue on nonporous surfaces, a method that remains the workhorse of most forensic laboratories today. Superglue fuming techniques work through the polymerization of cyanoacrylate esters with the eccrine and sebaceous components in fingerprint residue forming a readily visible white polymer in the areas where friction ridge skin came into contact with the surface. Almost simultaneously, Roland Menzel, Brian Dalrymple, and J.M. Duff were considering LASERs as a means of detecting latent impressions. Photoluminescence was first exploited as a latent fingerprint visualization technique in 1976 when the Canadian researchers took notice of the inherent luminescence in fingerprint residue and employed an argon laser to induce the substance to luminesce. By 1980, Menzel had implemented the process of dye staining nonporous evidence with Rhodamine-6-G after superglue fuming as a means of making the fingerprint residue luminesce more intensely and to overcome background fluorescence and permit for optical filtering. Other detection techniques which expanded detection of latent impressions to more challenging surfaces and items exposed to varying environmental conditions have been introduced by the Home Office in Great Britain and include physical developer for the enhancement of impressions on previously wet items, vacuum metal deposition for developing prints on polyethylene bags, and radioactive labeling for developing prints on adhesive tapes. Most recently, methods employing spectroscopic techniques utilizing visible and infrared absorption and reflectance are being investigated as rapid and nondestructive methods to visualize latent impressions on a variety of surfaces. The arsenal from which fingerprint examiners can draw to detect, develop, and capture latent impressions will continue to grow as research continues.\n\n## See also\n\nAnthropology\/Odontology: Identification of the Living; Personal Identification in Forensic Anthropology; Foundations: Overview and Meaning of Identification\/Individualization; Investigations: Fingerprints; Methods: Spectroscopy: Basic Principles; Pattern Evidence\/Fingerprints (Dactyloscopy): Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems (AFIS); Automated Methods, Including Criminal Records Administration; Professional: National Academy of Sciences (NAS).\n\n## Further Reading\n\nAshbaugh D.R. Ridgeology. _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 1991;41:16\u201364.\n\nAshbaugh D.R. _Quantitative-Qualitative Friction Ridge Analysis_. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 1996.\n\nBerry J. The history and development of fingerprinting. In: Lee H.C, Gaensslen R.E, eds. _Advances in Fingerprint Technology_. New York: Elsevier; 1991.\n\nCampbell A. _The Fingerprint Inquiry Report_. Edinburgh: APS Group Scotland; 2011.\n\nChampod C, Lennard C, Margot P, Stoilovic M. _Fingerprints and Other Ridge Skin Impressions_. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2004.\n\nCowger J.F. _Friction Ridge Skin_. New York: Elsevier; 1983.\n\nCummins H, Midlo C. _Finger Prints, Palms and Soles_. Philadelphia, PA: The Blakiston Company; 1943.\n\nHome Office Scientific Development Branch. _Fingerprint Development Handbook_. Derbyshire: Heanor Gate Printing Limited; 2005.\n\nLangenburg G, Champod C, Genessay T. Informing the judgments of fingerprint analysts using quality metric and statistical assessment tools. _Forensic Science International_. 2010;219:183\u2013198.\n\nNational Research Council of the National Academies. _Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward_. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 2009.\n\nWertheim K, Maceo A. The critical stage of friction ridge and pattern formation. _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 2002;52:35\u201385.\n\nWhipple I. The ventral surface of the mammalian chiridium, with special reference to the conditions found in man. _Zeitschrift fur Morphologie und Anthropologie_. 1904;VII:261\u2013368.\n\nRelevant Websites\n\n<http:\/\/clpex.com\/>\u2014Complete Latent Print Examination.\n\n<http:\/\/www.theiai.org\/>\u2014International Association for Identification.\n\n<http:\/\/onin.com>\u2014Latent Print Examination: Fingerprints, Palmprints, and Footprints.\n\n<http:\/\/www.thefingerprintinquiryscotland.org.uk>\u2014The Fingerprint Inquiry of Scotland.\n\n# Friction Ridge Print Examination\u2014Interpretation and the Comparative Method\n\nR.M. Ruth, M. Reznicek, and D.M. Schilens Federal Bureau of Investigation \u2013 Latent Print Units, Quantico, VA, USA\n\n## Abstract\n\nThis article is an overview and discussion of the comparative method used for friction ridge print examinations. Analysis, Comparison, Evaluation, and Verification (ACE-V) is a holistic approach to examinations used in many comparative sciences. This article discusses ACE-V, as it is applied to friction ridge print examination. It addresses the theoretical and practical aspects of friction ridge print examinations including topics such as documentation of examinations, conflict resolution, effects of bias on examinations, and blind verification.\n\n### Keywords\n\nACE-V; Blind verification; Comparative sciences; Conflict resolution; Consultation; Examination documentation; Fingerprint; Friction ridge print examinations; Latent print; Transparency\n\nGlossary\n\nAnalysis Analysis is the first step of ACE-V, and it is the step used to determine if a print is suitable for comparison.\n\nApplied science Application of trusted scientific theories to real-life situations.\n\nBias Effect that perception and\/or mental processes may have on the reliability or validity of one's observations and conclusions. See also confirmation bias and contextual bias.\n\nBlind verification The independent application of ACE to a friction ridge print by another qualified examiner who does not know the conclusion(s) of the previous examiner(s) and has limited or no knowledge of case information.\n\nComparison The examination of two friction ridge prints to detect similarities and differences. This is the second step of ACE-V but may require return to analysis.\n\nConfirmation bias Seeing what one expects to see and rationalizing any information that disagrees with a preconceived notion.\n\nContextual bias The possible influence on the examiner of information that is not directly related to a friction ridge print examination.\n\nDistortion Variances in the reproduction of friction ridge arrangements of the skin caused by pressure, movement, force, contact surface, etc.\n\nEvaluation The formulation of a conclusion based on the interpretation of all the data gathered during analysis and comparison. This is the third step of ACE-V.\n\nExclusion A decision by a qualified examiner that there are sufficient features in disagreement to conclude that two areas of friction ridge prints do not originate from the same source, where source refers to the area of friction ridge skin that produced the latent print in question.\n\nIdentification (individualization) A decision by a qualified examiner that there are sufficient features in agreement to conclude that two friction ridge prints come from the same source.\n\nInconclusive A decision by a qualified examiner that means a conclusive decision (identification or exclusion) could not be reached. Inconclusive means that more information is required to come to a conclusive decision. The meaning of the inconclusive decision varies based on the definition of suitability for comparison that is used by the reporting agency.\n\nLatent print (mark) Unintentional or uncontrolled deposition of the friction ridge arrangements of the skin onto a substrate. These are often fragmentary and may require forensic light sources, chemicals, or powders to visualize.\n\nLevel I detail Overall ridge flow and print morphology.\n\nLevel II detail Individual friction ridge paths and friction ridge events (e.g., dividing ridges, ending ridges, and dots).\n\nLevel III detail Dimensional attributes of individual friction ridges (e.g., width, ridge shapes, and pores).\n\nPremises The knowledge that friction ridge arrangements are unique and persistent has been supported through study; therefore, the premises of uniqueness and persistency are used as a given allowing examiners to conduct friction ridge print examinations.\n\nQuality The clarity and the discriminating strength of the data contained in a friction ridge print.\n\nQuantity The amount of information contained in an area of a friction ridge print.\n\nSuitability Determination that a friction ridge print contains enough quantity and quality of information to be used for comparison. Some agencies use a suitable for identification standard, while others use a suitable for identification or exclusion standard. The terms of value and of no value are commonly used interchangeably with suitability.\n\nVerification Independent application of analysis, comparison, and evaluation by a qualified examiner. This fourth step of ACE-V may include a peer review of the data used to reach a conclusion.\n\n## Friction Ridge Print Examination\u2014Interpretation and the Comparative Method\n\nThe examination of friction ridge prints is a scientific endeavor that involves the application of information learned from many fields of science. A qualified examiner must have an understanding of the embryological development and biological regeneration of friction ridge skin in order to fully understand how it might appear when recorded. The understanding of the development and structure of skin gives qualified, trained examiners the ability to interpret the data left in two-dimensional (2D) recordings of the 3D surface of the skin.\n\nDue to the pliability of the skin, features may appear slightly different in each recording, but a qualified examiner will recognize that these features will move in concert as they are locked together in their arrangement. This means that while each recording of an area of friction ridge print will appear slightly different, the examiner must be trained to recognize the limitations of the movement of the skin.\n\nThe qualified examiner must also know, by understanding the development of the skin as well as through empirical review of friction ridge prints, the discriminating strengths of different features and how the discriminating strength changes in different areas of the friction ridge skin. An understanding of pattern force development will assist the examiner in recognizing that certain areas of the skin may require more features to have the same discriminating strength as fewer features in another area. This will also be evident when examining prints, and this is why a large amount of friction ridge prints should be studied before an examiner is considered qualified to conduct friction ridge print examinations.\n\nIn order to apply this knowledge in a systematic manner and properly interpret the data available in friction ridge print examinations, examiners apply ACE-V. ACE-V stands for analysis, comparison, evaluation, and verification and is the standard process used by friction ridge print examiners.\n\n## Analysis, Comparison, Evaluation, and Verification\n\nACE-V is a holistic process used in comparative sciences, such as friction ridge print examinations. ACE-V is a systematic way of conducting examinations. When following ACE-V, an analyst takes into account the quality (clarity of the features and the discriminating strength of those features) and quantity (amount of features in an area) of information present in a latent print. These quality and quantity are assessed during the analysis step.\n\nAnalysis is the information-gathering step of the ACE-V process. The prints are analyzed independently, usually beginning with the lower-quality print. Analysis serves to identify tolerance, classify and orient friction ridge prints, and reduce contamination, or bias, from information in the known print. During analysis, the expert assesses factors (distortions) that affect the appearance of the print. These factors include, but are not limited to, matrix (the substance the friction ridge print is left in, such as sweat or oil), substrate (the material the friction ridge print is left on), development medium (the chemical, forensic light source, or powder used to make a latent print visible), and pressure and movement. The three levels of detail, as detailed in Figure 1, contained within a print are also assessed.\n\nOnce all of the information contained in a print has been assessed, a determination of suitability for comparison is made. Suitability is the determination that a print has an adequate quality and quantity of information. This determination is based on the assessment of the discriminating strengths of the features and their arrangement within the print. There are two approaches to determining suitability for comparison. Some agencies determine that a print is suitable for comparison if it contains sufficient reliable information in order to determine that the print can be identified to a source, given the corresponding known print. Other agencies determine that a print is suitable for comparison if the print can be excluded or identified.\n\nFigure 1 Three levels of detail.\n\nComparison begins after a determination of suitability for comparison is made. During comparison, additional information is gathered in the form of a side-by-side examination of the latent, or unknown, print and the known print to determine agreement and disagreement. An examiner is not looking for the prints to be identical but is using the information gathered in analysis to determine whether areas of agreement or differences between the friction ridge arrangements exist. To ensure that examiners are properly interpreting data, strong quality assurance measures, including thorough documentation, are essential for transparency.\n\nAnalysis and comparison are not completely distinct steps. A thorough analysis must be conducted and documented prior to beginning comparison; however, once comparison has begun, it may be necessary to reanalyze information that was interpreted differently prior to comparison. It is imperative that any new data interpretation developed after the beginning of the comparison should be documented thoroughly to ensure a proper recording of the interpretive steps of the examination.\n\nDuring the evaluation phase, all the information gathered during analysis and comparison is used to generate a conclusion. The information is evaluated, and it is determined whether the prints come from different sources, the same source, or there is not sufficient information to render a conclusive decision. There are three corresponding decisions that can be reached: exclusion, identification, or inconclusive.\n\nExclusion is a decision made by a qualified examiner that there are sufficient features in disagreement to conclude that two areas of friction ridge impressions do not originate from the same source, where source refers to an area of friction ridge skin.\n\nIdentification (individualization) is a decision made by a qualified examiner that there are sufficient features in agreement to conclude that two friction ridge prints come from the same source. The identification of a friction ridge print to a source is the decision that the likelihood the impression was made by another (different) source is so remote that it is considered as a practical impossibility.\n\nAn inconclusive decision means that more information is required to reach a conclusive decision. The meaning of an inconclusive decision varies based on the definition of suitability for comparison that is used by the reporting agency.\n\nIf an agency is using the suitability for identification standard, then an inconclusive decision means that a latent print contains sufficient reliable information to be identified and more information is needed in the known print. This can happen if the comparable areas are not available for comparison. An example of this is if the latent print is from the tip area of the finger and this information is not available on the corresponding known print. More information is needed from the known print before an exclusion or identification decision can be made. This can also occur if the corresponding areas are recorded but are not of sufficient quality for comparison.\n\nIf an agency is using the suitability for exclusion and identification standard, then an inconclusive decision is rendered when there are features that are noted to be different, but there is not enough information to generate an exclusion decision. Alternatively, there may be some information in agreement but not enough to render an identification decision. This may include situations where more information is required in the known print.\n\nIn all cases where an inconclusive decision is rendered, regardless of the suitability standard, there is not enough information present between the prints being compared in order to generate either an exclusion or an identification decision.\n\nVerification is the final step in the ACE-V process. In verification, another qualified examiner performs an independent analysis on and comparison and evaluation of the two prints to verify the examination of the original examiner. It is a quality measure built into the process. It is a standard practice that all identification decisions must be verified, but in other instances when verification must be performed, it should be built into the quality system of an agency. Verification of an erroneous decision is equivalent to making the erroneous decision and is treated with the same gravity.\n\nEach step of ACE-V, as described above, involves interpretation of data. Because all the data interpretation is conducted and known only to the examiner's brain, thorough documentation is imperative.\n\n## ACE-V as an Applied Science\n\nACE-V is an applied process using information determined through studies previously conducted in other sciences. ACE-V is applied by a human being, so the risk of error must be mitigated through quality control measures. Verification, the quality control measure built directly into the process, is automatic for identifications but applicable to all conclusions (SWGFAST), but it should not be the only form of quality control used when conducting ACE-V.\n\n## Blind Verification\n\nBlind verification functions as a quality control measure, testing the reproducibility of decisions made during ACE-V by limiting the bias introduced into the examinations. Blind verification is the independent application of ACE to a friction ridge print by another qualified examiner who does not know the conclusion(s) of the previous examiner(s) and has limited or no knowledge of the case information. It should be used to eliminate confirmation bias and limit contextual bias in the examinations of friction ridge prints. Blind verification may be used at any step of the ACE process where a decision is made.\n\nBias is a term that can be used for any number of outside influences that may affect the cognitive decision process during the examination. Two types of bias are most commonly discussed in relation to the comparative sciences\u2014confirmation and contextual bias.\n\nConfirmation bias, in general terms, is seeing what one expects to see, and disregarding or minimizing any information that disagrees with a preconceived notion. There is concern that this type of bias may enter friction ridge print examination during verification or any peer review because the verifying\/reviewing examiner knows the conclusion of the original examiner.\n\nContextual bias is the potential influence exerted on the examiner by the details in the case that are not directly related to the print. Contextual bias may occur; for example, if the examiner knows specific details of the criminal activity or the investigative steps leading up to the submission of the evidence being examined.\n\n## Consultation\n\nIn any scientific endeavor, consultation may be necessary. At times, an examiner may need to consult someone with more experience, whether counted in number of years or prior exposure to a particular type of evidence, or a trusted colleague for their view of the evidence. This may occur if there are distortions affecting the appearance of a print, the surface that the print is on is unusual, or an examiner wants to ensure that he or she is interpreting the data correctly. Consultation is always encouraged, as it allows examiners to objectively discuss the information present in the friction ridge prints. Consultation should be documented, and it must not be substituted for verification. Verification must be conducted independently by a qualified examiner who has not been consulted in the examination process.\n\n## Complex Prints\n\nAt times, an examiner may determine that a print is complex. This may occur when a more in-depth analysis is needed due to the presence of distortion (i.e., extreme pressure, extreme movement, unusual matrix, and unusual development). More detailed documentation is required when examining complex prints.\n\n## Conflict Resolution\n\nOpinions may vary from expert to expert; therefore, agencies should have a process in place to attempt to resolve these technical conflicts. It is possible to develop multiple ways to resolve conflict. Some agencies may use a discussion-based approach where the experts attempt to resolve the conflict through documented discussion, possibly in conjunction with a third-party arbiter. Other agencies may adopt policies that involve reaching a consensus through a group, and still other agencies may choose to use blind verification as a means to resolve conflict. Conflicts may occur in multiple areas throughout the ACE-V process.\n\nThe key to a conflict resolution policy is that there should also be an attempt to determine if a corrective action is appropriate through review of the data and the interpretations generated using that data.\n\n## Documentation\n\nDocumentation of friction ridge print examinations must be such that another qualified examiner can determine what examinations were conducted and can interpret the data. It may also be helpful for the documentation to make clear specifically which data were used to generate the conclusions that were reached. This transparency not only helps the courts understand which data were used and how, but also helps in any quality review process should an error occur.\n\nAll relevant information that is available to the examiner should be documented. However, the extent of detail of the documentation may be different, depending on the complexity of the examination. The print alone is not enough documentation since it provides no understanding of how a conclusion was reached. The print must be accompanied by annotations or notes. An attempt should be made to thoroughly document all steps in the process where interpretation of data occurs.\n\nAnalysis is the initial data-gathering phase and should be documented prior to comparison to avoid any contamination of the brain by information from the known print. The minimum documentation that should be required for analysis is the anatomical source (fingerprint, palm print, toe print, footprint, impression), level I detail present (orientation, distal direction, etc.), and level II detail present. If they are known, the substrate, development medium, and preservation method (lift, photograph, etc.) should be documented as well. Other things that may need documentation could be the matrix, pressure, movement, level III detail (if reliably recorded), and any other features of the print that may affect a decision (creases, scars, etc.).\n\nAfter analysis, two or more prints are compared to each other. This comparison should also be documented. A legible copy of the known exemplar (or the original known exemplar) should be kept in the case record for any future verification uses, or the exemplar should be retrievable. The known exemplar should have some form of a unique identifier tying it to the individual being compared and separating it from anyone else. It should also be documented if the known exemplar is not suitable for comparison. Along with this documentation, any information that is used during the comparison that was not originally documented in analysis should be documented, and it should be clear what information was detected during the comparison versus what was detected during the analysis. This will provide transparency as to what data were interpreted at which phase of ACE.\n\nProper documentation is required in order to clearly state the conclusions reached in the evaluation phase. When documenting identifications, it must be made clear which friction ridge print has been identified. The individual identified must be documented as well as the anatomical origin (finger position, right\/left palm, etc.). It must be clear which examiner reached the conclusion and when he or she reached it. An exclusion should be documented in a similar manner. It must be clear from the case file which known print was compared to which latent print and which examiner reached a conclusion and when. Documentation for an inconclusive decision should contain all the same information, who reached the conclusion, when the conclusion was reached, the known print(s) used, the latent print examined, and the anatomical area(s) compared. Due to the different possible meanings of inconclusive decision based on the type of suitability for comparison standard used, an inconclusive decision needs more documentation for transparency. It must be made clear why this examination has been deemed inconclusive. If the print was compared under the suitable for identification standard, better known prints would be required, and this should be documented. If the print was compared under the suitable for exclusion and identification standard, it must be made clear if better known prints are required for conclusive comparisons, or if there was insufficient ridge detail in agreement based on the latent print alone. This allows investigators to know if they need to retrieve more known exemplars. All conclusions must be documented before having a conclusion verified. Documentation of a verification or blind verification must include all the same information as that of the original evaluation documentation.\n\nConsultations should also be documented for transparency. This should include which print was reviewed or discussed, what the consultation entailed, and what results were generated, along with an indication of which examiner was consulted and the date of the consultation.\n\nOwnership of the documentation is also imperative. All documentation should be dated and initialed, signed, or the equivalent, by the individual(s) who participated in each specific activity. This documentation will allow for transparency, ownership, and peer review.\n\n## See also\n\nPattern Evidence\/Fingerprints (Dactyloscopy): Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems (AFIS); Automated Methods, Including Criminal Records Administration; Chemistry of Print Residue; Friction Ridge Skin Impression Evidence \u2013 Standards of Proof; Identification and Classification; Sequential Treatment and Enhancement; Visualization or Development of Crime Scene Fingerprints.\n\n## Acknowledgment\n\nThis is publication number 11-2 of the Laboratory Division of the Federal Bureau of Investigation. Names of commercial manufacturers are provided for identification only, and inclusion does not imply endorsement by the FBI.\n\n## Further Reading\n\nAshbaugh D.R. _Quantitative \u2013 Qualitative Friction Ridge Analysis: An Introduction to Basic and Advanced Ridgeology_. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 1999.\n\nAshbaugh D.R. _Basic Forensic Ridgeology_. Quantico, VA: FBI Training Seminar; 2005.\n\nFBI Laboratory. _Latent Print Unit Operations Manual_. 2011 Standard operating procedures for examining friction ridge prints. Revision 5.\n\nFBI Laboratory. _Latent Print Unit Quality Assurance Manual_. 2011 Procedures for blind verification. Revision 1.\n\nHuber R.A. Expert witness. _Criminal Law Quarterly_. 1959\u20131960;2:276\u2013295.\n\nInterpol European Expert Group on Fingerprint Identification II (IEEGFI II). Method for Fingerprint Identification Part 2: Detailing the Method Using Common Terminology and through the Definition and Application of Shared Principles. 2004:12. Available from: www.interpol.int\/public\/Forensic\/fingerprint.WorkingParties\/IEEGFI2\/default.pdf (accessed 01.07.11.).\n\nLangenburg G. A performance study of the ACE-V process: a pilot study to measure the accuracy, precision, reproducibility, repeatability, and biasability of conclusions resulting from the ACE-V process. _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 2009;59(2):219\u2013257.\n\nLangenburg G, Champod C, Wertheim P. Testing for potential contextual bias effects during the verification stage of the ACE-V methodology when conducting fingerprint comparisons. _Journal of Forensic Sciences_. 2009;54(3):571\u2013582.\n\nMaceo A. Qualitative assessment of skin deformation: a pilot study. _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 2009;59(4):390\u2013440.\n\nNational Research Council of the National Academies. _Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward_. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2009 pp. 8, 9, 123, 142.\n\nPankanti S, Prabhakar S, Jain A.K. On the individuality of fingerprints. _IEEE Transactions on PAMI_. 2002;24(8):1010\u20131025. <http:\/\/biometrics.cse.msu.edu\/publications.html>.\n\nPeterson P, et al. Latent prints: a perspective on the state of the science. _Forensic Science Communications_. 2009;11(4). www.fbi.gov\/hq\/lab\/fsc\/current\/indes.htm (accessed 01.07.11.).\n\nRaven P.H, Johnson G.B. _Biology_. third ed. St. Louis, MO: Mosby; 1992:7.\n\nReznicek M, Ruth R.M, Schilens D.M. ACE-V and the scientific method. _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 2010;60(1):87\u2013103.\n\nScientific method. _Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology_. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 1992:1996.\n\nStoney D.A. Measurement of fingerprint individuality (Chapter 9). In: Lee H, Gaensslen R.E, eds. _Advances in Fingerprint Technology_. second ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2001:327\u2013387.\n\nSWGFAST. Friction Ridge Examination Methodology for Latent Print Examiners. Ver. 1.01. 2002. www.swgfast.org (accessed 01.07.11.).\n\nSWGFAST. Standards for conclusions, ver. 1.0. _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 2004;54(3):358\u2013359.\n\nSWGFAST. Quality Assurance Guidelines for Latent Print Examiners. Ver. 3.0. 2006. www.swgfast.org (accessed 01.07.11.).\n\nSWGFAST. Standard for the Documentation of Analysis, Comparison, Evaluation, and Verification (ACE-V) (Latent). Ver. 1.0. 2010. www.swgfast.org (accessed 01.07.11.).\n\nSWGFAST. Standards for Examining Friction Ridge Impressions and Resulting Conclusions. 2011 Draft for comment. Ver. 1.1. www.swgfast.org (accessed 01.07.11.).\n\nSWGFAST. Standard for the Application of Blind Verification of Friction Ridge Examination. Ver. 1.0. February 11, 2011. www.swgfast.org (accessed 01.07.11.).\n\nSWGFAST. Standard Terminology of Friction Ridge Examination. Ver. 3.0. February 11, 2011. www.swgfast.org (accessed 24.02.12.).\n\nSWGFAST Guidelines & Standards. www.swgfast.org.\n\nUlery B.T, Hicklin A.R, Buscaglia J, Roberts M.A. Accuracy and reliability of forensic latent fingerprint decisions. _Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences_. 2011;108(19):7733\u20137738.\n\nWertheim K, Maceo A. The critical stage of friction ridge and pattern formation. _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 2002;52(1):35.\n\nRelevant Websites\n\nwww.clpex.com\u2014Complete Latent Print Examination.\n\nwww.onin.com\u2014Onin.com. homepage.\n\nwww.swgfast.org\u2014Scientific Working Group on Friction Ridge Analysis, Study and Technology.\n\n# Analysis, Comparison, Evaluation, and Verification (ACE-V)\n\nL. Tierney Gaithersburg, MD, USA\n\n## Abstract\n\nMany of the forensic sciences compare evidence with known items in order to make a source determination. One method of comparison that is used in several forensic disciplines is analysis, comparison, evaluation, and verification (ACE-V). The ACE-V process serves as a framework to help guide the examiner through a thorough comparison of evidence. The first appearance of the concept of ACE-V was in a 1959 article by Roy Huber, a questioned document examiner with the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. Since then, the concept of ACE-V has spread to several different forensic disciplines, most notably friction ridge identification. Along with the history of ACE-V, several research projects undertaken to test the reliability and reproducibility of the steps in ACE-V, and the quality\/quantity aspect of ACE-V are discussed.\n\n### Keywords\n\nACE-V; Analysis; Comparison; Evaluation; Forensic science; Quality\/quantity; Reproducible; Suitability; Tolerance; Verification\n\n## Introduction\n\nAs viewed in many television shows such as CSI, The Mentalist, and Bones, forensic evidence has created a large impact in American society. This is due to the fact that forensic evidence has made an even larger impact on the criminal justice system. Determining the source of items, whether they may be carpet fibers, toolmarks, shoeprints, or fingerprints, has assisted law enforcement in solving many crimes. There are a great many items that can be linked to a source, helping to tell the chain of events that transpired, whether in criminal activities or everyday life. The essential component of using forensic evidence to identify a source is making a comparison between the evidence (or unknown) and a known sample of the source. One way this can be achieved is by comparing the item with a potential source using ACE-V process.\n\nACE-V is an acronym that stands for analysis, comparison, evaluation, and verification and is a systematic, careful approach for the examination and comparison of forensic evidence. It is used as a framework to maintain a maximum amount of objectivity and guide the forensic examiner through the comparison process in a thorough and orderly manner, requiring that all visible information be taken into account and weighed before reaching a conclusion. Several branches of forensic science follow ACE-V either formally or informally, including fingerprints, footwear\/tire tracks, and questioned documents.\n\n## History and Etiology\n\nThe concept of ACE-V as a process by which some forensic practitioners compare two or more items of evidence appears to have first been introduced by Roy Huber, a questioned document examiner with the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) in 1959. It was at this time that Huber published an article entitled \"Expert Witnesses \u2013 In Defence of Expert Witnesses in General and of Document Examiners in Particular\" in Criminal Law Quarterly in which he laid out analysis, comparison, and evaluation as the stages used to compare and identify a person or thing. At this time, no mention of the verification stage of the process was made.\n\nIn 1962, Huber presented this same information at an International Association for Identification (IAI) Document Seminar in St. Louis, Missouri. During this presentation, he stated that the scientific method \"...insists on verification as the most reliable form of proof\" but did not include verification as one of the stages in the comparison process. In 1972, Huber published a reiteration of the concept of ACE with the same quote regarding verification without the addition of a verification stage in the July\u2013August edition of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police Gazette in an article entitled \"The Philosophy of Identification.\"\n\nAt some point in the 1970s, the Ontario Police College adopted the concept of ACE-V but only for physical evidence. David Ashbaugh (at present, renowned as a major innovator in the field of friction ridge examination) trained at the Ontario Police College under Harold Tuthill. Tuthill believed that fingerprints did not fall under the category of physical evidence and thus ACE-V did not apply. Ashbaugh disagreed. He felt that ACE-V was relevant and began using it as a method for the examination of friction ridge impressions.\n\nIn 1979, Ashbaugh (then with the RCMP) began putting ACE-V forward as a process for the examination of friction ridge impressions. While initially ACE-V was resisted by the community, after years of Ashbaugh presenting material to support ACE-V one concept at a time, it is with friction ridge examiners that the process has been most fully fleshed out and adopted.\n\nAt about the same time when Ashbaugh was introducing friction ridge examiners to ACE-V, Michael Cassidy (also of the RCMP) wrote and published a book entitled Footwear Identification in which he espoused ACE (with a reexamination and confirmation of identification work for all inexperienced examiners) as the process for comparing footwear evidence.\n\nWhile ACE-V has been adopted by individual examiners or scientific working groups in several forensic sciences, including footwear identification, tire track identification, questioned documents, forensic photographic comparison, and forensic podiatry, only in the field of friction ridge identification has the adoption of the process (while not universal) been formal and widespread enough to result in numerous publications, testing, and extensive training.\n\n## The Process\n\nEach branch of forensic science using this process has its own definition for the steps of ACE-V, but they can be summed up generally as follows:\n\nAnalysis| A thorough assessment during which the available and relevant discriminating features are assessed for class characteristics and accidental\/individual characteristics (if applicable), quantity, clarity (quality), and reliability.  \n---|---  \nComparison| Details of the unknown and known are comparatively measured for similarities and dissimilarities.  \nEvaluation| Similarities and dissimilarities between the unknown and known are weighed and a conclusion is reached.  \nVerification| A quality check during which an independent ACE examination by a second, qualified examiner is completed.\n\nAn important aspect of the analysis phase is the determination of suitability to continue on to the comparison and evaluation phases of ACE. The determination of suitability is based on the assessment of the quality and quantity of the detail present and the discriminating strength of that detail. Any evidence that is determined not to possess enough detail with strong specificity of features will be determined to be unsuitable or not of value for comparison (or identification).\n\nWhile ACE is described as a three-step process and each step is followed through to its completion, the steps are not discrete and cannot be completely isolated from each other. Instead, a blending of the steps often takes place. For example, during the comparison of the unknown and known images, data regarding the similarities and\/or dissimilarities between them is gathered, and the examiner begins to see support for one conclusion over another and a tentative conclusion is reached. This is particularly apparent in the case of an exclusion or elimination where there is little or no similarity between the unknown and the known.\n\nFor simplicity sake, ACE is described as a linear process, but the steps do not always follow a linear progression and steps often recur. Just as noted above that blending of the steps may occur, an examiner may reenter the analysis phase during comparison or may reenter the comparison phase during evaluation. For example, during the comparison phase as the examiner notes a dissimilarity, he or she may be forced to reanalyze the known or unknown to determine if a true difference exists or if an error was made during analysis.\n\nA note should be made that successful use of the ACE-V process requires that experts have an in-depth understanding of the manufacturing processes, biological\/physiological aspects, etc., which go into making the relevant impression. Without this knowledge, a full analysis cannot be completed and the appropriate weight of different characteristics utilized during the evaluation phase cannot be determined. In fact, Huber, in his 1959 publication, stated that the true value of the expert lies in his ability to conduct a \"more efficient analysis\" by ignoring less valuable information and to use his \"knowledge, training, experience, and skill\" to make more accurate decisions during the evaluation phase.\n\n## Quality and Quantity of Detail\n\nThe pattern evidence disciplines (fingerprints, footwear\/tire tracks, firearms\/toolmarks, and questioned documents), in particular, have been the subject of much criticism in regards to quantitative thresholds for decision making. One point these criticisms miss is that the quantity of detail in an impression does not stand alone. A Galton feature or an accidental characteristic by itself is almost meaningless and cannot be given a discrete quantity on its own. The quality, reliability, and specificity of that detail also need to be considered and weighed (considerations made during the analysis phase). As an example, an unclear and thus potentially unreliable Galton feature in a friction ridge impression can certainly not be given the same weight or quantity as a very clear and reliable Galton feature. The result is a strong relationship between quality and quantity of detail, so that as the quality of the detail increases, the need for quantity of detail decreases. The inverse is true as well in that as the quality of the detail decreases, the need for quantity of detail increases.\n\nThe relationship between quality and quantity is best illustrated in Figure 1, depicting John Vanderkolk's quality\u2013quantity curve. In this illustration of the interplay between quality and quantity in reaching a conclusion of agreement or disagreement, the X\\- and Y-axis represent quality and quantity of detail present in the items to be compared. The right side depicts agreement and the left side depicts disagreement. The white areas above the curves represent a combination of quantity and quality of information sufficient to determine agreement or disagreement between the items compared, while the black areas below the curves represent a combination of quantity and quality of information insufficient to determine agreement or disagreement between the items compared. The gray area represents an area of doubt where the examiner will not be able to make a determination because of insufficient information observed during the examination. If this area of doubt is where an examiner remains at the conclusion of the ACE process, a determination of insufficiency (or inconclusive) must be made.\n\nAn integral part of quality\/quantity relationship is the setting of tolerances by the examiner. Tolerance refers the acceptable allowance in variation in appearance of the detail present in the evidence examined. When the detail is unclear or of low quality, the examiner may allow for a higher tolerance for acceptable variations in appearance of the same detail in the corresponding item. When the detail is clear or of high quality, the examiner can only allow minor tolerance for acceptable variations in appearance of the same detail in the corresponding item. These tolerances are established during the analysis phase and taken into consideration during both the comparison and evaluation phases of ACE.\n\nFigure 1 Quality\u2013quantity curve. Reprinted from Vanderkol, J.R., 2001. Levels of quality and quantity in detail. Journal of Forensic Identification 51 (5), 461\u2013468.\n\n## Testing\n\nTesting of a process such as ACE-V is undertaken to determine if the conclusions reached using the process are accurate and reproducible. Accurate meaning that an expert using the ACE-V process can be expected to reach the correct conclusion and reproducible meaning that all experts will reach the same conclusions.\n\nStudies that indicate in some way the accuracy and\/or reproducibility of the ACE-V process appear to primarily be limited to friction ridge identification. While several studies, each with their own limitations (found in the full publications), have been conducted which give results on the accuracy and reproducibility of friction ridge comparisons, only a few specifically reference the ACE-V process.\n\nIn 2004, Glenn Langenburg published \"Pilot Study: A Statistical Analysis of the ACE-V Methodology \u2013 Analysis Stage\" in the Journal of Forensic Identification. In this study, 24 fingerprint examiners and trainees in the state of Minnesota and 50 novices were asked to mark the minutiae (ridge endings, bifurcations, and dots) in a total of 12 latent and inked prints. The results showed that there was no statistically significant difference for the average number of minutiae marked by trainees, examiners, and certified examiners; there was a statistically significant difference in the average number of minutiae marked by experts and novices in 8 of the 10 life-sized (1:1) latent prints; experts correctly marked more minutiae than novices in the enlarged latent print; and both the experts and the novices marked more minutiae on average in the enlargement of the latent print than in the life-sized version of the same print.\n\nIn the 2006 article \"The potential (negative) influence of observational biases at the analysis stage of fingermark individualization\" published by Beatrice Schiffer and Christophe Champod in Forensic Science International, forensic science students were asked to mark and determine the type of minutiae in latent prints and assess the usefulness of the prints (\"exploitable\" or \"identifiable\"). Test I was conducted in an effort to determine whether exposure to specific theoretical and practical knowledge in forensic identification would alter the number of minutiae marked. The students were given 12 latent prints to analyze\u2014once before completing training in forensic identification and once after. Schiffer and Champod determined that after completing training, the students found more minutiae in the latents (especially in those with background noise or low contrast), and they considered nearly twice as many of the prints \"exploitable\" and more than twice as many prints \"identifiable.\" Test II was conducted to observe possible differences in the number of minutiae marked when a known print is presented with the latent and with differing background case information. They found that neither the presence of a known print nor the background case information made a significant difference to the number or type of minutiae marked or to whether the prints were determined to be \"exploitable\" or \"identifiable.\"\n\nIn 2006, Kasey Wertheim, Glenn Langenburg, and Andre Moenssens published an article entitled \"A Report of Latent Print Examiner Accuracy during Comparison Training Exercises\" in the Journal of Forensic Identification. While it may be safe to infer that, because the comparison exercises reported on in the main body of the article took place in the United States (where ACE-V is widely accepted and taught) not long after friction ridge identification came under heavy attack by critics, the ACE process was being taught and therefore used for the comparison exercises, the authors do not explicitly state this. Therefore, we will focus on the report of the \"follow-up experiment\" in which the authors state that the verification stage of ACE-V was tested. For this portion of the study, the authors prepared verification packets each containing two errors for 25 participants. Participants were given the conclusions of previous students and were then asked to indicate whether they agreed or disagreed with the answers. Of the 50 errors present, 49 were detected by the participants with the one error that was not detected being missed by a trainee with less than 1 year of experience, who was not yet performing unsupervised casework. This shows that verification as a quality assurance measure in the ACE-V process is effective for catching erroneous identifications. The authors also noted that not all of the correct identification answers given by previous students were agreed upon by the participants. In fact, nine of the participants with more than 1 year of experience disagreed with at least one of the correct identifications. While the exact reason for their \"disagreement\" was not noted on participant worksheets, the authors surmised that examiners serving in the quality assurance role as verifier \"assume a more critical and conservative opinion....\" The authors also suggest that because the verifiers were not just willing to just go along with all of the previous students' answers, criticism that the verification stage of the ACE-V is simply \"ratification\" was not supported by the observations made in the experiment.\n\nIn the 2009 \"Testing for Potential Contextual Bias Effects During the Verification Stage of the ACE-V Methodology when Conducting Fingerprint Comparisons\" by Glenn Langenburg, Christophe Champod, and Pat Wertheim published in the Journal of Forensic Sciences, an experiment involving 43 fingerprint experts and 86 novices and the effects of contextual bias was conducted. The experts and novices (tested separately) were divided into three groups, each exposed to differing levels of contextual bias. Each group was given a set of six side-by-side comparisons of an unknown fingerprint and a known fingerprint and asked to provide their conclusions. The control groups were given no contextual information, the low-bias groups were provided with the conclusions of a \"latent print examiner trained to competency,\" and the high-bias groups were provided with the conclusions of a \"latent print examiner trained to competency\" but were also told, in person, by an internationally known latent print expert, that the conclusions were his or hers. The results showed that the effect of contextual bias was stronger for the novice groups than for the experts. In fact, the results of the low- and high-bias groups showed that the experts were more susceptible to contextual bias toward an inconclusive result than toward identification results; that they were more likely to provide definitive (identification or exclusion) conclusions and thus make fewer errors; and that the high-bias group was no more swayed by the opinion of an internationally known expert than an anonymous examiner trained to competency.\n\nThe 2009 article \"A Performance Study of the ACE-V Process: A Pilot Study to Measure the Accuracy, Precision, Reproducibility, Repeatability, and Biasability of Conclusions Resulting from the ACE-V Process\" written by Glenn Langenburg and published in the Journal of Forensic Identification reports the results of testing of the ACE and ACE-V processes. For this experiment, six fingerprint experts participated in three phases of testing: Phase 1, which tested ACE; Phase 2, which tested ACE-V; and Phase 3, which involved re-presenting errors. In Phase 1, each expert was given 60 latent prints and 8 known exemplars and asked to compare the prints using the ACE. Allowable conclusions were identification, exclusion, inconclusive, and no value. The experts reached 100% consensus on 43 of the 60 latent prints (72%). One of the latent prints resulted in four experts correctly making an identification and two experts making erroneous exclusions\u2014this is explained by the author as being due to the mistaken inclusion of an image reversal (none of the participants were aware that an image reversal could be in the pool of latents). The remaining latents had mixed results in which some experts reached the correct definitive conclusion (identification or exclusion) and some experts felt that there was a lack of sufficiency in information (leading to an inconclusive determination) or that the latent was of no value for comparison.\n\nIn Phase 2, each of the six experts performed 30 ACE examinations and then passed his or her conclusions on to a second expert for verification, resulting in a total of 60 trials each. Before passing his or her conclusions on, the initial examiner was asked to change at least one of his or her responses to an erroneous identification (a close nonmatch). A total of nine erroneous identifications were passed on to verifiers and the verifiers detected all nine. In addition, a total of six false negatives were passed on to the verifiers and the verifiers detected none of them.\n\nPhase 3 tested the repeatability of the comparison conclusions by re-presenting the errors made by the experts in phases 1 and 2 to those who made them to determine whether the individual would maintain the error. In the ten re-presentations of errors, all three of the false positives were corrected by the examiner and four of the seven false negatives were also corrected.\n\n## Forensic Disciplines That Have Not Adopted ACE-V\n\nWhile ACE-V is outlined as a comparison process in publications for several different forensic disciplines, these disciplines have not necessarily adopted the acronym ACE-V or the terms analysis, comparison, evaluation, and verification as a whole.\n\nAccording to members of SWGGUN (the Scientific Working Group for Firearms and Toolmarks), the traditional comparison method in firearms and toolmarks identification is pattern matching. The four-step process involves (1) evaluation\u2014in which evidence is examined to determine if class characteristics between the two specimens are the same; (2) comparison\u2014in which a side-by-side comparison is conducted; (3) conclusion\u2014a conclusion is reached; and (4) verification\u2014an independent evaluation of the conclusion by another qualified examiner. These steps, while using different terminology, are essentially the same process as ACE-V.\n\nSWGTREAD (the Scientific Working Group for Shoeprint and Tiretread Evidence) at a recent meeting voted not to use the term \"ACE-V\" in a footwear\/tiretread comparison methodology document currently under development. While the group does not formally support ACE-V, they have developed a \"Guide for the Examination of Footwear and Tire Impression Evidence,\" which is published on their Web site. In the guide examination procedures include evaluating the impression evidence for quality, clarity, comparative, and enhancement potential, and the presence or absence of class characteristics and comparison with known footwear or tires. In addition, the Web site offers acceptable conclusions for the examinations. These procedures are very similar to ACE-V.\n\n## Conclusion\n\nThere are many different types of evidence that require examination, but for almost every type, a comparison must be conducted in order to relate the evidence to a specific source. For many disciplines of forensic science, this comparison is conducted using the analysis, comparison, evaluation, and verification or ACE-V process. As Huber states in his 1972 article \"Thus we find that various fields of identification work do have a common denominator, which is the reasoning process by which identifications are made.\" ACE-V acts as a framework to maintain a maximum amount of objectivity and guide the forensic examiner through the comparison process in a thorough and orderly manner so that all available information can be taken into account and weighed before reaching a conclusion.\n\n## See also\n\nAnthropology\/Odontology: Odontology; Documents: Handwriting; Foundations: Overview and Meaning of Identification\/Individualization; Interpretation\/The Comparative Method; Pattern Evidence: Bare Footprint Marks; Footwear Marks; Palm Prints; Vehicle Tire Marks and Tire Track Measurement; Pattern Evidence\/History: Fingerprint Sciences.\n\n## Further Reading\n\nAshbaugh D.R. The premises of friction ridge identification, clarity, and the identification process. _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 1994;44:499\u2013516.\n\nAshbaugh D.R. _Quantitative-Qualitative Friction Ridge Analysis_. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 1999 (Chapters I and IV).\n\nBudowle B, Buscaglia J, Schwartz P.R. Review of the scientific basis for friction ridge comparisons as a means of identification: committee findings and recommendations. _Forensic Science Communications_. 2006;8.\n\nCassidy M.J. _Footwear Identification_. Ottawa: RCMP GRC; 1980 (Chapter 5).\n\nChampod C. Fingerprint examination: towards more transparency. _Law, Probability, and Risk_. 2008;7:111\u2013118.\n\nChampod C, Lennard C, Margot P, Stoilovic M. _Fingerprints and Other Ridge Skin Impressions_. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2004 (Chapter 2).\n\nDiMaggio J.A, Vernon W. _Forensic Podiatry: Principles and Methods_. New York: Springer Science+Business Media; 2011 (Chapter 2).\n\nHaber L, Haber R.N. Letter to the editor. Re: a report of latent print examiner accuracy during comparison training exercises. _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 2006;56:493\u2013499.\n\nHaber L, Haber R.N. Scientific validation of fingerprint evidence under Daubert. _Law, Probability, and Risk_. 2008;7:89\u2013109.\n\nHuber R.A. Expert witnesses: in defence of expert witnesses in general and of document examiners in particular. _The Criminal Law Quarterly_. 1959;2:276\u2013295.\n\nHuber R.A. I.A.I. document seminar \u2013 St. Louis, Missouri. _Identification News_. 1962;12(11):5\u20138.\n\nHuber R.A, Headrick A.M. _Handwriting Identification: Facts and Fundamentals_. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 1999 (Chapter 3).\n\nLangenburg G. Pilot study: a statistical analysis of the ACE-V methodology \u2013 analysis stage. _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 2004;54:64\u201379.\n\nLangenburg G. A performance study of the ACE-V process: a pilot study to measure the accuracy, precision, reproducibility, repeatability, and bias ability of conclusions resulting from the ACE-V process. _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 2009;59:219\u2013257.\n\nLangenburg G, Champod C, Wertheim P. Testing for potential contextual bias effects during the verification stage of the ACE-V methodology when conducting fingerprint comparisons. _Journal of Forensic Sciences_. 2009;54:571\u2013582.\n\nNause L. _Forensic Tire Impression Identification_. Ottawa: Canadian Police Research Centre; 2001 (Chapter 13).\n\nRudin N, Inman K. _Fingerprints in Print, the Sequel_. CAC News, 2nd Quarter; 2005:6\u20138.\n\nSchiffer B, Champod C. The potential (negative) influence of observational biases at the analysis stage of fingermark identification. _Forensic Science International_. 2007;167:116\u2013120.\n\nSpeckles C. Can ACE-V be validated? _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 2011;61:201\u2013209.\n\nSWGFAST. Standards for Examining Friction Ridge Impressions and Resulting Conclusions \u2013 Revised Draft for Comment. 2011 (accessed 31.05.11.). <http:\/\/www.swgfast.org\/Documents.html>.\n\nSWGGUN. Elimination Factors Related to FA\/TM Identification. www.swggun.org.\n\nSWGGUN. SWGGUN Quality Assurance Guidelines. www.swggun.org\/swg\/index.php?option=com_content&view=section&id=3&Itemid=6.\n\nSWGIT. Best Practices for Forensic Image Analysis. 2007. www.theiai.org\/guidelines\/swgit\/guidelines\/section_12_v1\u20136.pdf.\n\nSWGIT. Best Practices for Forensic Photographic Comparison. 2009. www.theiai.org\/guidelines\/swgit\/guidelines\/section_16_v1\u20130.pdf.\n\nSWGTREAD. Guide for the Examination of Footwear and Tire Impression Evidence. 2006. www.swggun.org\/swg\/index.php?option=com_content&view=section&id=3&Itemid=6.\n\nSWGTREAD. Standard Terminology for Expressing Conclusions of Forensic Footwear and Tire Impression Examinations. 2006. www.swgtread.org\/standards\/published.html.\n\nTuthill H, George G. _Individualization: Principles and Procedures in Criminalistics_. second ed. Jacksonville: Lightning Powder Company; 2004.\n\nVanderkolk J.R. Levels of quality and quantity in detail. _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 2001;51:461\u2013468.\n\nVanderkolk J.R. ACE-V: a model. _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 2004;54:45\u201352.\n\nVanderkolk J.R. _Forensic Comparative Science_. Amsterdam: Elsevier Academic Press; 2009 (Chapter 5).\n\nVanderkolk J.R. _Examination Process. The Fingerprint Sourcebook_. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice; 2011.\n\nWertheim K, Langenburg G, Moenssens A. A report of latent print examiner accuracy during comparison training exercises. _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 2006;56:55\u201393.\n\nWertheim K, Langenburg G, Moenssens A. Authors' response to letter (of Haber and Haber). _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 2006;56:500\u2013510.\n\n# Identification and Classification\n\nL.A. Hutchins US Government, Washington, DC, USA\n\n## Abstract\n\nResearch into the physiology of friction ridge skin began in the late 1600s. The structure of friction ridge skin and the investigation into the fetal development of friction ridges led the way to the establishment that friction ridges are both unique and persistent. Having laid the scientific foundation of friction ridge skin growth and development, empirical studies into uniqueness and persistence paved the way for friction ridge impressions to become the primary means of personal identification. Without the establishment of biological uniqueness and persistence, the science of friction ridge identification and the application of a classification system would never have been possible.\n\nThe ability of known friction ridge impressions to be accurately and reliably sorted and filed allowing for one-to-many searching has been in existence for over 100 years. Friction ridge classification files came to supplant previous methods of personal identification, which resulted in the establishment and immediate success of identification and forensic science units within the law enforcement community. As with all forensic science endeavors, the continual modernization of a process is the key to its improvement and continuance as a staple procedure. As a result, the incorporation of friction ridge information into emerging technologies continues to advance the field of friction ridge identification.\n\n### Keywords\n\nAnthropometry; Arthur Kollmann; Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS); Basement membrane; Classification; Dermal papillae; Dermatoglyphics; Dermis; Desmosomes; Differential growth; Dr Alfred Hale; Dr Harold Cummins; Dr Henry Faulds; Dr William Babler; Embryology; Epidermis; Friction ridge patterns; Friction ridge skin; Friction ridge unit; Friction ridges; Genetics; Harris Hawthorne Wilder; J.C.A. Mayer; Johannes Evangelista Purkinje; Juan Vucetich; Latent print; Lights out; Marcello Malpighi; Minutiae; Nehemiah Grew; Palmar; Persistence; Personal identification; Plantar; Primary ridge; Recidivist; Secondary ridge; Sir Francis Galton; Sir Richard Henry; Sir William Herschel; Uniqueness; Volar pads\n\nGlossary\n\nAlgorithm A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or accomplishing some end, especially by a computer.\n\nAnthropometry Distinct measurements of the human body.\n\nArch A pattern type in which the friction ridges enter on one side of the impression and flow, or tend to flow, out the other side with a rise or wave in the center. Arches are subdivided into plain and tented arches.\n\nAutomated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) A generic term for a fingerprint matching, storage, and retrieval system.\n\nBifurcation The point at which one friction ridge divides into two friction ridges.\n\nClassification system Alphanumeric formula of finger and palm print patterns used as a guide for filing and searching.\n\nDermal papillae Peg-like formations on the surface of the dermis.\n\nDermis The layer of skin beneath the epidermis.\n\nDifferentiation Becoming different, that is, the cells of an embryo differentiate into organs and parts as it grows; specific friction ridge patterns become unique.\n\nEmbryology A branch of biology that deals with the formation and development of embryos.\n\nEnclosure A single friction ridge that bifurcates and rejoins after a short course and continues as a single friction ridge.\n\nEnding ridge A single friction ridge that terminates within the friction ridge structure.\n\nEpidermis The outer layer of the skin.\n\nFriction ridge A raised portion of the epidermis on the palmar or plantar skin consisting of one or more connected ridge units.\n\nFriction ridge skin Corrugated skin on the volar areas that enhances friction of the surface.\n\nFurrows Valleys or depressions between friction ridges.\n\nHenry classification An alphanumeric system of fingerprint classification named after Sir Edward Richard Henry used for filing, searching, and retrieving 10-print records.\n\nIdentification The determination by an examiner that there is neither sufficient agreement to individualize nor sufficient disagreement to exclude.\n\nImpression Friction ridge detail deposited on a surface.\n\nIncipient ridge An incipient ridge is an immature friction ridge.\n\nKnown fingerprints The fingerprints of an individual, associated with a known or claimed identity, and deliberately recorded electronically, by ink or another medium. Also known as exemplars.\n\nLatent print Transferred impression of friction ridge detail not readily visible. Generic term used for unintentionally deposited friction ridge detail.\n\nLoop A type of pattern in which one or more friction ridges enter upon either side, recurve, touch, or pass an imaginary line between delta and core and flow out, or tend to flow out, on the same side the friction ridges entered. Loops are subdivided into radial and ulnar loops.\n\nMinutiae Events along a ridge path, including bifurcations, ending ridges, and dots (also known as Galton details).\n\nMugshot Police photograph of a suspect's face or profile.\n\nPapillary ridges Orderly rows of eccrine glands positioned along the path of the friction ridge.\n\nPattern type Fundamental pattern of the ridge flow: arch, loop, whorl.\n\nPersistence Having lasting qualities; remaining the same; nonchanging.\n\nPrimary ridge Ridge on the bottom of the epidermis under the surface friction ridges.\n\nRecidivist A habitual criminal.\n\nSecondary ridges Ridges on the bottom of the epidermis under the surface furrows.\n\nShort ridge A single friction ridge beginning, traveling a short distance, and then ending.\n\nSpur A bifurcation with one short friction ridge branching off a longer friction ridge.\n\nVolar pad Palmar and plantar fetal tissue growth that affects friction ridge skin development and patterns.\n\nWhorl A fingerprint pattern type that consists of one or more friction ridges that make, or tend to make, a complete circuit, with two deltas, between which, when an imaginary line is drawn, at least one recurving friction ridge within the inner pattern area is cut or touched. Whorls are subdivided into plain whorls, double loops, pocket loops, and accidental whorls.\n\nThis article is a revision of the previous edition article by B. Dalrymple, volume 2, pp. 869\u2013877, \u00a9 2000, Elsevier Ltd.\n\n## Introduction\n\nThe classification and identification of friction ridge impressions rests on the two principal foundations of friction ridge skin: uniqueness and persistence. These two premises are rooted in the scientific research conducted on the development and structure of friction ridge skin coupled with empirical studies. It was this marriage of research and application that led to the establishment of friction ridge impressions as the primary method of personal and criminal identification.\n\n## Development of Friction Ridge Skin\n\nThe embryology of fetal growth is well researched and documented in the scientific literature. At 5 days postfertilization, embryonic cells are differentiating into nerve cells, blood cells, skin cells, and so on. At approximately 6 weeks gestational age, the hands have developed into flat-like scalloped paddles representing the five digits. At the same time, the volar pads begin to appear. Volar pads are areas of swollen undifferentiated connective tissue, known as mesenchymal tissue. The placements of the volar pads are predetermined in all normal and healthy human fetuses. Any deviations are due to genetic deformation or disease. While the initial placement of the volar pad is predetermined, the specific location, shape, and size of the volar pad influence the friction ridge pattern.\n\nThe volar pads stop growing at about 10 weeks, and by 12 weeks the pads are being reabsorbed back into the hand. As the volar pads shrink, the friction ridges of the fetus start to develop on the bottom of the epidermis, projecting down into the dermis. These ridges, known as primary ridges, continue to proliferate and within 3\u20134 weeks, the entire underside of the epidermis contains primary ridges that are anchored in the dermis. The proliferation of the primary ridges and the resulting paths and path deviations are random and dependent upon localized stresses and growth factors due to genetics and environment factors. It is this randomness both in the growth of the fingers and the proliferation of the ridges that contributes to the formation of a unique arrangement of friction ridge skin.\n\nEach ridge consists of ridge units that have formed together, with each unit containing a sweat gland (14th week). The number of ridge units that then form into a ridge is random and dependent on genetic and physical variances that constitute growth. By the 15th\u201317th week, primary ridge proliferation ceases. At this point, secondary ridges start growing between the rows of primary ridges and down into the dermis. Although the proliferation of primary ridges has ceased, growth continues and the ridges push up through the surface. Beginning at approximately 17 weeks, the epidermal ridges can be viewed on the epidermis. Unlike primary ridges, secondary ridges do not contain sweat glands. Secondary ridge proliferation continues until 24 weeks. At this point, there is a one-to-one correspondence between the primary and secondary ridge. The path of the primary ridge corresponds to the epidermal surface friction ridge, whereas the path of the secondary ridge corresponds to surface furrows that exist between friction ridges (Figure 1). By the fifth month of fetal development, all friction ridge growth and proliferation has taken place and is established in its permanent form. This permanent formation can be viewed as the template that is maintained throughout one's life. Once friction ridges and their paths are established, the only factor that may cause a change in the template is damage down into the dermis.\n\n## Structure of Friction Ridge Skin\n\nThere are two types of skin: thin and thick skin. Thin skin covers most of the body and contains hair follicles, pigment, smooth muscles, and sebaceous glands (glands that secrete a waxy matter called sebum that lubricates the skin and the hair). Friction ridge skin is considered thick skin and is hairless, has no pigment, and contains sweat glands. Friction ridge skin covers the palmar area of the hands and the plantar area of the feet. It is considered specialized skin that serves to aid in grasping and holding. Like all skin, friction ridge skin is composed of two layers: epidermis, the outermost layer, and dermis, the underlying vascular support for the epidermis.\n\nThick skin epidermis contains five layers (Figure 1), starting from the bottommost layer to the topmost: (1) stratum basale, (2) stratum spinosum, (3) stratum granulosum, (4) stratum lucidum, and (5) stratum corneum. The stratum basale is also known as the generating layer because this is the layer that generates new skin cells through mitosis that then migrate up through the remaining layers. Cells in this layer are columnar in shape and flatten out as they progress to the surface where they eventually die. Cells that move into the stratum spinosum layer start to synthesize keratin, the structural protein that makes up skin, and begin to take the shape of a polygon. In the stratum granulosum, cells are increasingly flattened and filled with keratin proteins and waterproofing lipids. This is the last layer of skin that is considered alive. The next layer of skin, the stratum lucidum, is only present in thick skin and is considered as a barrier layer of skin because of its waterproofing properties. The outermost layer, the stratum corneum, contains flat cells composed mainly of keratin protein in order to absorb water, provide strength, and serve as a protective layer. The progression of a cell from the stratum spinosum layer to the stratum corneum takes approximately 60 days. The structural integrity of the migrating skin cells is maintained by desmosomes, cell-adhesion proteins that tightly link adjacent cells together.\n\nFigure 1\n\nConnecting the epidermis to the dermis is the basement membrane. This connective tissue is strongly attached to the epidermis through fine fibers known as hemidesmosomes. The dermis is divided into two areas: (1) the papillary region and (2) the reticular region. The papillary region contains dermal papillae (Figure 1). Dermal papillae are fingerlike projections arranged into double rows, increasing the surface area between the epidermis and dermis, thereby strengthening the juncture with the epidermis and increasing the amount exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and waste. With regard to thick skin, the dermal papillae are extremely prominent. As a result, the epidermis follows the contour of the prominent double rows of dermal papillae. Each double row of dermal papillae corresponds to a surface friction ridge. The reticular region is composed of thick connective tissue that supports larger blood vessels and nerves.\n\n## Historical Scientific Research into Friction Ridge Skin\n\nThe use of fingerprints as a means of identification has existed for thousands of years. While early applications of fingerprint impressions specifically associated an impression left by a person with that person's identity, scientific research into the study of friction ridges did not start until the mid-to-late 1600s. This early research documented the anatomical and morphological structure of friction ridge skin.\n\nIn 1684, Nehemiah Grew studied the anatomy of the friction ridge skin and described the ridges, their arrangements, furrows, and sweat pores. His work contained accurate drawings of the palms, to include fingerprint patterns. A year later, Govard Bidloo (1649\u20131713) illustrated papillary ridges on the underside of the fingers. His book also contained a drawing of the friction ridges on a thumb. Marcello Malpighi (1628\u20131694) was the first to use the microscope to detail the different layers of skin and the form, structure, and function of friction ridge skin in his 1686 treatise Concerning the External Tactile Organs.\n\nContinuing scientific research led anatomist J.C.A. Mayer to conclude in his book Anatomical Copper-Plates with Appropriate Explanations (1788) that while friction ridge patterns may bear a certain likeness, the formation of the individual ridges is random and they are thus never duplicated. This was the first observation that friction ridge patterns can be classified while the specific arrangement of the ridges and deviations therein are unique.\n\nThe first detailing of the different types of fingerprint patterns was by Johannes Evangelista Purkinje in his 1823 thesis Commentary on the Physiological Examination of the Organs of Vision and the Cutaneous System. Purkinje classified and illustrated nine different patterns, which served as the historical basis for future systems of fingerprint classification.\n\nIn 1883, Dr Arthur Kollmann researched the fetal development of friction ridges in his book The Tactile Apparatus of the Hand of the Human Races and Apes in Its Development and Structure. Kollmann was the first scientist to determine that friction ridges are formed by the sixth month. Kollmann identified embryological volar pads, the swelling of loose connective tissue, present on the hands and feet. He also formulated the theory that differential growth, caused by random stresses on the forming friction ridge skin, influenced friction ridge development.\n\nOne of the most prolific researches into friction ridge skin was by Harris Hawthorne Wilder. Over a 30-year period, Wilder researched the evolution, genetics, formation, structure, and differential growth of friction ridge skin. In conjunction with Bert Wentworth, a Police Commissioner in Dover, New Hampshire, Wilder authored the influential book Personal Identification in 1918. In this book, Wilder and Wentworth formulated the premise that, due to differential growth, all friction ridge skin is unique.\n\nModern scientific research into the embryological growth and development of friction ridges continued to support the premise that friction ridges are unique due to differential growth. Dr Harold Cummins known as the \"Father of Dermatoglyphics\" conducted the most extensive research into the study of friction ridges. He researched volar pad formation, development during key stages of fetal growth, to include growth during times of disease and genetic abnormality, and uniqueness of friction ridge skin. With Charles Midlo, Cummins authored the book Fingerprints, Palms, and Soles \u2013 An Introduction to Dermatoglyphics in 1943.\n\nLike Cummins, Dr Alfred Hale conducted extensive research into the development and differential growth of friction ridges. Hale analyzed thin cross sections of fetal skin to document friction ridge growth and development at various stages. This significant research was published in his paper \"Morphogenesis of the Volar Skin in the Human Fetus.\" Building on the foundations established by Cummins and Hale, Michio Okajima, researched immature friction ridges, known as incipient ridges, and established their uniqueness and permanence.\n\nResearch by Dr William Babler into the prenatal development of friction ridge skin has solidified the theory that volar pad shape and the timing of primary ridge formation determine pattern type and the width of the volar pad is a factor in ridge configuration. In addition, Babler also established that the bone width of the distal phalanx, the last digit in each finger or toe, influences the friction ridge pattern.\n\n## Uniqueness and Permanence\u2014The Foundations of Friction Ridge Identification\n\nThe previous sections discussed the development and structure of friction ridge skin. The scientific research into both areas has established that friction ridge skin is both persistent and unique. The fact that epidermal cells are cemented together by desmosomes, coupled with the fact that the stratum spinosum is firmly attached to the dermis via the basement membrane, is the structural basis for the permanence of friction ridge detail. This structuring of the epidermis and the dermis allows for the renewal of skin cells while maintaining the friction ridge arrangements. As previously mentioned, the friction ridge template established in the developing fetus does not change throughout one's life except for the occurrence of damage to the dermis. However, while the damage may alter the friction ridges in a specific location, the resulting scar is both permanent and unique.\n\nThe principle of uniqueness of friction ridge configurations has been strongly supported by the research conducted in the fetal development of friction ridges. This research has demonstrated that primary ridge proliferation and the resulting ridge paths are mostly random and dependent upon random, localized stresses. Ridge units that make up each ridge populate randomly yet are influenced by the randomness of the units within the same vicinity. As a result, developing ridges are influenced by the random paths of other ridges that surround them. This random proliferation creates ridges that continue, stop, split, or develop spurs or islands. This random proliferation is also believed to be influenced by the environment of the growing fetus. While a fetus may be predisposed to a certain pattern type (arch, loop, or whorl) due to genetics (genotype), the specific path and its deviations are individual (phenotype) and not genetically controlled (although they may be highly influenced by pattern type or disease conditions). The prevailing theory of random ridge development is that the environmental experience of every fetus will never be duplicated. The exact pressures that a fetus experiences will always be unique to each fetus, including that of a twin growing in the same womb.\n\n## Early Applications of Friction Ridge Identification\n\nIn the mid-to-late 1800s numerous scientific studies proposed that friction ridges are both unique and persistent. However, these two premises of friction ridge identification had not been applied outside the scientific arena. It was not until Sir William Herschel, Dr Henry Faulds, and Sir Francis Galton articulated these premises that the groundwork was laid establishing that fingerprints could be used to identify recidivists, used in forensic science applications, and accepted as evidence in courts of law.\n\nAs a magistrate in India, Sir William James Herschel realized the utility of using friction ridge impressions for identification purposes on a large scale. He instituted the use of leaving one's fingerprints or palm prints as a signature for pension payments, authenticating transactions, and the fingerprinting of criminals to ensure that jail sentences were not carried out by a paid imposter. Herschel also researched fingerprint impressions obtained from friends and family members that he collected over the years and observed that friction ridges were both unique and persistent. While Herschel was instrumental in the institutionalization of fingerprints as a means of personal identification, his work did not extend to the realm of catching criminals.\n\nIn Japan, Dr Henry Faulds, a Scottish missionary, began research into the use of friction ridge impressions as a method of identification. After developing a method of recording inked impressions of each finger on a card, Faulds began to amass a large collection of fingerprint cards. Faulds analyzed this collection and determined that each impression in his sampling was unique. In addition to researching the individualizing power of friction ridges, Faulds explored the persistence of friction ridges by observing friction ridges growing back exactly the same after minor destruction. Faulds also observed persistence with relation to human growth by analyzing the friction ridges of children over a 2-year time period. The concept of uniqueness was first utilized in a criminal investigation when a member of Dr Henry Faulds' staff was accused of burglary. Faulds compared the latent print left by the perpetrator with the known prints of the accused staff member and concluded that the prints were not the same. This is considered the first latent print comparison used in relation to a criminal matter. In 1880, Nature magazine published an article written by Faulds in which he described the comparison of latent prints to known prints as evidence in criminal proceedings. Although Faulds specifically referenced the use of fingerprints left at crime scenes, the use of latent prints in criminal proceedings did not occur for a number of years and was not associated with the work of Faulds.\n\nIn 1888, Francis Galton, the cousin of Charles Darwin, began investigating fingerprints in preparation for a lecture on personal identification. In his investigations, Galton reviewed the work of Herschel and Faulds. Realizing the value of friction ridge impressions, Galton began his own scientific research. Galton collected over 8000 fingerprint impressions in order to study the fingerprint as a whole and the minutiae contained within each fingerprint. Four years of empirical studies resulted in Galton publishing his seminal work on friction ridges in 1892. In his book, Finger Prints, Galton detailed why and how fingerprints are unique and persistent. He also was the first to define and name the friction ridge deviations, known as minutiae, in a fingerprint. He described a bifurcation, ending ridge, short ridge, and enclosure. Galton's detailing of the uniqueness and persistence of friction ridges and its minutiae provided the foundation for the use of friction ridge identification in criminal proceedings (administrative and forensic).\n\nAfter proposing the principles of uniqueness and persistence of friction ridges, the ability to associate a latent print left at a crime scene with a record print became a reality. In the years following the publication of Galton's book, police agencies determined that accidental recordings of fingerprints left at crime scenes could be compared to the prints of known individuals in order to solve criminal cases. As a result, the use of latent print impressions as evidence in criminal proceedings has been institutionalized in both the criminal justice and forensic science arenas since the late 1800s.\n\n## Criminal Identification Prior to the Use of Fingerprints\n\nThe impetus for the development of a reliable and accurate means of criminal identification came with the technological revolution, also known as the Second Industrial Revolution. This era ushered in technological advances (transportation, electricity, modern manufacturing, and food processing) that brought more people into cities, thereby creating an atmosphere that nurtured the criminal element. As crime rates grew, police agencies recognized the need to document criminals and their record in order to identify recidivists. The first method of documentation came with the development of photography. Photography allowed for the creation of rogues galleries, posters for the police to reference, and mug shots. While the use of photography was an improvement, it certainly was not the solution to the problem of certain identity. A criminal could easily change their appearance by changing their hairstyle or shaving off facial hair. Additionally, police departments did not have standard procedures for photographing criminals. It was common to see men wearing hats and women wearing veils in mug shots.\n\nSeeing the need for a new method of criminal identification, Alphonse Bertillon, a police clerk in Paris, developed a system of body measurements for personal identification, known as anthropometry. The thought was that specific body measurements of an individual would not change over time. As such, once a person's measurements were recorded, that individual would be identified with his or her record. Bertillon's method of anthropometry was put into use in 1882. At that time, anthropometry was viewed as a truly scientific method of criminal identification and the technique spread worldwide. However, as more agencies came to use the system and as files grew, it became obvious that anthropometry was failing. It was realized that different technicians took dissimilar measurements of the same person, thereby either determining that an individual was not in the record or that they were the wrong person.\n\nIn 1888, Sir Francis Galton was asked to deliver a lecture on the methods of personal identification for the Royal Institution of Great Britain. Galton's research led him to conclude that anthropometry was a failing system that would not survive the test of time. Anthropometry did not account for natural variability due to growth or aging, interdependence of body parts, and suffered from the inability of technicians to take the exact measurement. All these reasons could potentially cause missed or erroneous identifications. As a result, Galton set out to develop a method of personal identification based on fingerprints. Having determined the uniqueness and persistence of friction ridges, Galton knew that fingerprints could be used as an accurate and reliable means of personal identification. As a result, Galton devised a 10-print classification system based on three classes of fingerprint patterns, the arch, loop, and whorl. While Galton's classification system was too rudimentary for large collections of fingerprint cards, his establishment of the three classes of fingerprint patterns laid the foundation for superior methods to be developed.\n\n## Development of Friction Ridge Classification Systems\n\nIn order to achieve a workable 10-print classification system, fingerprint cards had to be classified into a formula that could differentiate large amounts of fingerprint cards. Each card could then be systematically filed according to its classification formula. A classified incoming 10-print card could be searched in the filing system according to its formula. If the same formula was located, the incoming 10-print card was compared to each card assigned the same classification formula. If a match was not made, the incoming card would be filed with the same classification formula. If the comparison of the two cards resulted in the identification of a recidivist, then the police agency could add the applicable criminal charges to that person's rap sheet.\n\nIn addition to training police officers on the process of fingerprint comparison and identification, Juan Vucetich also developed his own 10-print fingerprint classification system. Vucetich's system divided the loop into two patterns (internal and external), added subcategories to further distinguish the patterns, incorporated ridge counts, and was expressed in the form of a ratio. In 1891, Vucetich successfully lobbied to have fingerprints replace anthropometry as a means of personal identification. Owing to the publication of his book, Comparative Dactyloscopy, in 1904, Vucitech's method of fingerprint classification received worldwide recognition.\n\nSir Richard Henry was also influenced by Galton's book. Realizing the need for a classification system that handles large amounts of data, Henry tasked two of his police officers in the Bengal District of India to create a workable 10-print fingerprint classification system. The two officers created a mathematical method that involved a pattern determination, ridge counts, and pattern tracings. In 1900, the Henry Classification System became the sole method of personal identification at Scotland Yard. Like Vucetich's classification system, the Henry system came to be used worldwide.\n\nNumerous other 10-print classification systems were developed that were considered offshoots or extensions of the Henry or the Vucetich classification systems. For example, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) modified the Henry system to account for its large volume of fingerprint cards. In addition to 10-print classification systems, palm print classification systems, sole print, and single fingerprint classification systems were also developed.\n\n## Incorporation of Computers into the Science of Friction Ridge Identification\n\nWith technological advances in computer systems, friction ridge records were automated, thereby revolutionizing criminal identification. The establishment of Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) was based on the incorporation of the premises of friction ridge identification into the theoretical development of mathematical algorithms. Building on the science of uniqueness and persistence, software developers created computer algorithms that could extract the friction ridge paths and deviations and record this information as binary (zeros and ones) and then create mathematical maps of the extracted information. When a fingerprint or palm print card is entered into an AFIS, the resulting map is a series of numbers that have a direct relationship to the unique friction ridges contained therein. When a card is searched in an AFIS, the system compares the mathematical maps of the incoming card with the maps of the cards in the system and generates a list of potential candidates. AFIS also provide an invaluable service to forensic science and latent print examinations. The technology developed for the extraction of minutiae of known cards allows for the encoding of minutiae in a latent print. The minutia within a latent print is encoded and, like a known print card, a mathematical map of the latent print is created. This mathematical map is searched in the database of known print cards, resulting in a list of potential candidates that a competently trained latent print examiner can manually compare and potentially make identifications to persons previously unknown.\n\n## Conclusion\n\nFriction ridge impressions remain the primary method of reliable identification due to the principles that friction ridges are unique and persistent. Friction ridge identification and classification has a long history rooted in scientific research and empirical observations. From the 1600s to the present day, the study and use of friction ridge information has served to modernize the criminal justice system and forensic science. The use of friction ridge classification systems as a method of personal identification revolutionized the criminal justice system by creating a reliable and usable method of identification.\n\nWhile classification systems were the workhorse of criminal identification for over 100 years, modern computing technologies have eliminated its use. Friction ridge impressions are now digitized. Current computer technologies allow for the application of mathematical algorithms to digitized friction ridge impressions in order to automatically recognize patterns, establish mathematical maps for every friction ridge impression based upon the type, location, and direction of minutiae, and the generation of a list of potential candidates as a match for a questioned print. This technology is not limited to known impressions taken under controlled conditions but also allows for the searching of latent prints from crime scenes in the digitized databases of known prints to establish previously unknown suspects.\n\n## See also\n\nManagement\/Quality in Forensic Science: Sequential Unmasking: Minimizing Observer Effects in Forensic Science; Pattern Evidence: Analysis, Comparison, Evaluation, and Verification (ACE-V); Bare Footprint Marks; Palm Prints; Physical Match; The Friction Ridge Skin of the Feet; Pattern Evidence\/Fingerprints (Dactyloscopy): Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems (AFIS); Automated Methods, Including Criminal Records Administration; Friction Ridge Skin Impression Evidence \u2013 Standards of Proof; Pattern Evidence\/Firearms: Laboratory Analysis; Pattern Evidence\/History: Fingerprint Sciences.\n\n## Further Reading\n\nAshbaugh D.R. _Quantitative-Qualitative Friction Ridge Analysis: An Introduction to Basic and Advanced Ridgeology_. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 1999.\n\nBabler W.J. Embryologic development of epidermal ridges and their configurations. In: Plato C, Garruto R.M, Schaumann B.A, eds. _Birth Defects: Original Article Series; Dermatoglyphics: Science in Transition_. New York: March of Dimes; 1991.\n\nBarnes J.G. History. Fingerprint Sourcebook. Rockville, MD: National Institute of Justice\/NCJRS; 2010 (Chapter 1). <http:\/\/www.ncjrs.gov\/pdffiles1\/nij\/225321.pdf>.\n\nCowger J.F. _Friction Ridge Skin: Comparison and Identification of Fingerprints_. New York: Elsevier Science Publishing Co., Inc; 1983.\n\nCummins H, Midlo C. _Finger Prints, Palms and Soles: An Introduction to Dermatoglyphics_. New York: Dover Publications, Inc; 1943.\n\nFaulds H. On the skin furrows of the hand. _Nature_. 1880;22:605.\n\nFederal Bureau of Investigation. _The Science of Fingerprints_ U.S. Department of Justice. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; 1984.\n\nGalton F. _Finger Prints_. New York: MacMillan; 1892.\n\nHale A. Morphogenesis of volar skin in the human fetus. _The American Journal of Anatomy_. 1952;91(1):147\u2013173.\n\nHenry E.R. _Classification and Uses of Fingerprints_. seventh ed. London: H. M. Stationery Office; 1934.\n\nHepburn D. The papillary ridges on the hands and feet of monkeys and men. _The Scientific Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society_. 1895;5(2):525\u2013537.\n\nHerschel W.J. _The Origin of Finger-Printing_. London: Oxford University Press; 1916.\n\nHolt S.B. _The Genetics of Dermal Ridges_. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas; 1968.\n\nNew Scotland Yard. _Fingerprint History: A Synopsis of the Development of the System of Fingerprint Identification with Particular Reference to New Scotland Yard_. London: Metropolitan Police, New Scotland Yard; 1990.\n\nWertheim K. Embryology and Morphology of Friction Ridge Skin. Fingerprint Sourcebook. Rockville, MD: National Institute of Justice\/NCJRS; 2011 (Chapter 1). <http:\/\/www.ncjrs.gov\/pdffiles1\/nij\/225321.pdf>.\n\nWilder H.H, Wentworth B. _Personal Identification_. Boston: The Gorham Press; 1918.\n\n# Key Terms\n\nACE-V, Analysis, Anthropometry, Arthur Kollmann, Automated fingerprint identification system (AFIS), Basement membrane, Blind verification, Classification, Comparative sciences, Comparison, Conflict resolution, Consultation, Dermal papillae, Dermatoglyphics, Dermis, Desmosomes, Differential growth, Dr Alfred Hale, Dr Harold Cummins, Dr Henry Faulds, Dr William Babler, Embryology, Epidermis, Evaluation, Examination documentation, Fingerprint, Forensic science, Francis Galton, Friction ridge patterns, Friction ridge print examinations, Friction ridge skin, Friction ridge unit, Friction ridges, Genetics, Harris Hawthorne Wilder, Henry Faulds, Identification, International Association for Identification (IAI), J.C.A. Mayer, Johannes Evangelista Purkinje, Juan Vucetich, Latent fingerprint development, Latent print, Lights out, Marcello Malpighi, Minutiae, Nehemiah Grew, Palmar, Permanence, Persistence, Personal identification, Plantar, Primary ridge, Quality\/quantity, Recidivist, Reproducible, Secondary ridge, Sir Edward Henry, Sir Francis Galton, Sir Richard Henry, Sir William Herschel, Suitability, Tolerance, Transparency, Uniqueness, Verification, Volar pads.\n\n# Review Questions\n\n1. Who was the first scientist to recognize friction ridge formations? When were these observations made?\n\n2. Who was Malpighi? Who was Purkinje? What were their contributions to fingerprinting?\n\n3. How did Herschel first use fingerprints?\n\n4. Who first used fingerprints left at a crime scene to identify criminals?\n\n5. How did Galton become involved in the study of fingerprints?\n\n6. When did the FBI establish its Identification Division?\n\n7. When was one of the first fabrications of fingerprint evidence? What were the circumstances?\n\n8. Why was the 2010 IAI resolution (2010\u201318) significant for fingerprinting?\n\n9. Why are exclusions stronger than inclusions?\n\n10. What was the role of the RCMP in the development of ACE-V?\n\n11. Name each step in ACE-V and describe it.\n\n12. One criticism of ACE-V is that it is too generic to be a \"method\" but rather is a process. Do you agree? Why or why not?\n\n13. What goes into the basis for deciding a comparison is \"inconclusive\"? Is this a repeatable process or is subjectivity involved?\n\n14. What is blind verification? Why is it important for forensic fingerprinting?\n\n15. What should go into the documentation of a fingerprint examination and comparison? Why? Who is this documentation for?\n\n16. When do primary ridges begin to form?\n\n17. What are the five layers of the thick skin?\n\n18. In what year did Kollmann publish on the development of friction ridge skin?\n\n19. What is the current system of fingerprint classification used by the FBI?\n\n20. Why was anthropometry considered to be \"defunct\" by Galton?\n\n# Discussion Questions\n\n1. Consider the case of the wrongful prosecution of Alfred de Marigny. What are the implications for this kind of malfeasance at the crime scene by police? How could this kind of misconduct be prevented?\n\n2. What is the basis for saying that friction ridge patterns are unique and permanent? Are these supportable claims? Why or why not?\n\n3. If friction ridge patterns in the skin are considered to be unique, what are the implications for transferring those patterns to a substrate? Is the resulting transferred print also unique? Why or why not? If they are unique, how could you prove this scientifically?\n\n4. Should an examiner testify solely to what is in their report or can they go beyond that information to assist the trier of fact? If they do, what is the basis for their statements?\n\n5. What is the error rate for fingerprints? How is it determined? Is this a reasonable assessment?\n\n## Additional Readings\n\nChampod C. Fingerprint identification: advances since the 2009 National Research Council report. _Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B_. 2015;370(1674):20140259.\n\nKukucka J. The journey or the destination? Disentangling process and outcome in forensic identification. _Forensic Science Policy & Management: An International Journal_. 2014;5(3\u20134):112\u2013114.\n\nMustonen V, Hakkarainen K, Tuunainen J, Pohjola P. Discrepancies in expert decision-making in forensic fingerprint examination. _Forensic Science International_. 2015;254:215\u2013226.\n\nUlery B.T, Hicklin R.A, Roberts M.A, Buscaglia J. Measuring what latent fingerprint examiners consider sufficient information for individualization determinations. _PLoS One_. 2014;9(11).\nSection 4\n\nAutomation\n\nOutline\n\nIntroduction\n\nAutomated Methods, Including Criminal Records Administration\n\nAutomated Fingerprint Identification Systems (AFIS)\n\nKey Terms\n\nReview Questions\n\nDiscussion Questions\n\n# Introduction\n\nIf fingerprints did not realize their full potential for identification until they could be organized and searched, computerization is then the pinnacle of their utility. Computerized searching not only sped up the identification of a suspect or victim in one jurisdiction, but held the potential to communicate the search and identification across the globe. Ironically, the communication part was left to the open market and multiple automation vendors devised incompatible proprietary methods for cataloging and searching print records. At one time, it was not possible for New York City and New Jersey to share a computerized fingerprint search; the print or a copy had to be physically sent to be manually entered into the computing system. This lack of interoperability is being solved, if slowly, through support from governments and the professional community. The old adage remains, however; \"garbage in, garbage out\" is still the cautionary mantra because a search is only as good as the print that is entered.\n\n# Automated Methods, Including Criminal Records Administration\n\nL.A. Hutchins US Government, Washington, DC, USA\n\n## Abstract\n\nThe history of fingerprint automation begins in the 1800s when scientific research into the persistence and uniqueness of fingerprints naturally led to the concept that fingerprints could be used as a means of personal identification. In order to achieve a manageable and reliable means of personal identification, a method of classifying fingerprint cards was developed. Inherent to the idea of personal identification is the ability to associate a person with a prior criminal history. The association of a rap sheet with a fingerprint card allowed agencies to accurately identify recidivists.\n\nAs files of classified fingerprints grew, the need to automate the process became vital. The birth of modern fingerprint automation came with the invention of computers. The development of computer technologies for automating criminal histories went hand in hand with the development of Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS). AFIS has allowed agencies to quickly and accurately search 10-print cards and latent prints in known print databases. Current technologies have integrated AFIS and criminal history records into one seamless unit. Fingerprint automation continues to advance, as new computer technologies introduce new functionalities that are more efficient, accurate, and faster.\n\n### Keywords\n\nAutomated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS); Biometric; Classification; Criminal record history; Fingerprint; Fingerprint patterns; IDENT1; Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS); Interstate Identification Index (III); Latent fingerprint; Minutiae; National Crime Information Center (NCIC); National Fingerprint File (NFF); Next-generation identification (NGI); Palm print; Personal identification; Rap sheet\n\nGlossary\n\nAlgorithm A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or accomplishing some end especially by a computer.\n\nAlias Otherwise known as.\n\nAnthropometry Distinct measurements of the human body.\n\nArch A pattern type in which the friction ridges enter on one side of the impression and flow, or tend to flow, out the other side with a rise or wave in the center. Arches are subdivided into plain and tented arches.\n\nAutomated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) A generic term for a fingerprint matching, storage, and retrieval system.\n\nClassification system Alphanumeric formula of finger and palm print patterns used as a guide for filing and searching.\n\nFriction ridge A raised portion of the epidermis on the palmar or plantar skin, consisting of one or more connected ridge units.\n\nHenry classification An alphanumeric system of fingerprint classification named after Sir Edward Richard Henry used for filing, searching, and retrieving 10-print records.\n\nIdentification The determination by an examiner that there is neither sufficient agreement to individualize nor sufficient disagreement to exclude.\n\nImpression Friction ridge detail deposited on a surface.\n\nIntegrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS) The acronym for Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System, the FBI's national AFIS.\n\nInteroperable The ability of computer hardware and software to be interchanged between manufacturers.\n\nJoint Automated Booking System (JABS) An information sharing system and a conduit for sending standard booking data directly to the Federal Bureau of Investigation's (FBI's) IAFIS.\n\nKnown fingerprints The fingerprints of an individual, associated with a known or claimed identity, and deliberately recorded electronically, by ink, or another medium. Also known as exemplars.\n\nLatent print Transferred impression of friction ridge detail not readily visible. Generic term used for unintentionally deposited friction ridge detail.\n\nLive-scan Technology used to capture fingerprints, palm prints, and descriptive information electronically.\n\nLoop A type of pattern in which one or more friction ridges enter on either side, recurve, touch, or pass an imaginary line between delta and core and flow out, or tend to flow out on the same side the friction ridges entered. Loops are subdivided into radial and ulnar loops.\n\nMinutiae Events along a ridge path, including bifurcations, ending ridges, and dots (also known as Galton details).\n\nMug shot Police photograph of a suspect's face or profile.\n\nNext-generation identification (NGI) FBI's incremental replacement for IAFIS that will offer state-of-the-art biometric identification services.\n\nPattern type Fundamental pattern of the ridge flow: arch, loop, and whorl.\n\nPersistence Having lasting qualities; remaining the same; nonchanging.\n\nProprietary Something that is used, produced, or marketed under exclusive legal right of the inventor or maker.\n\nRecidivist A habitual criminal.\n\nScotland Yard Metropolitan Police Service of London, United Kingdom.\n\nUniqueness Very uncommon, unusual, atypical, or remarkable; a degree of distinguishing distinctiveness.\n\nVerification The act or process of confirming.\n\nWhorl A fingerprint pattern type that consists of one or more friction ridges that make or tends to make, a complete circuit, with two deltas, between which, when an imaginary line is drawn, at least one recurving friction ridge within the inner pattern area is cut or touched. Whorls are subdivided into plain whorls, double loops, pocket loops, and accidental whorls.\n\n## Introduction\n\nThe root of fingerprint automation began with the concept of uniqueness and persistence of friction ridges and the ability of known fingerprints to be classified into a system in which fingerprint cards can be filed and retrieved. The invention of a classification system that was fairly easy to use and could accommodate fairly large amounts of data was a pivotal moment in the history of fingerprint automation. However, as classified fingerprint files became larger and larger, the time it took a fingerprint technician to find a specific fingerprint card became longer and longer. The solution to this time delay rested with the invention of the computer and the eventual automation of fingerprint and palm print files. The fingerprint files were associated with the valuable information regarding those individuals. Not only did the file hold one's fingerprint impressions but also contained the descriptive information of the individual and the previous criminal activity. As one can see, the act of automating fingerprint files was a major milestone in the advancement of modern forensic science.\n\n## Brief History of Fingerprint Classification\n\nThe first instance of the scientific recognition of friction ridges dates back to the early 1800s when Professor Johannes Evanglista Purkinje (1787\u20131869) wrote his thesis entitled \"A Commentary on the Physiological Examination of the Organs of Vision and the Cutaneous System\" (1823). In this, Purkinje illustrated nine different types of fingerprint patterns: transverse curves, central longitudinal stria, oblique stria, oblique sinus, almond, spiral, elliptical whorl, circular whorl, and double whorl. Although Purkinje's work was purely of the anatomical nature, the delineation of classifiable patterns as the basis of a method of personal identification was born.\n\nIt was not for another 50 years that the topic of fingerprint classification was broached. In 1880, Dr Henry Faulds, a Scottish missionary working in Japan, began his own research into fingerprint identification and classification. Faulds was crucial to the science of fingerprints in that he conducted experiments to prove that fingerprints were both unique and persistent. With this basis, he proposed that friction ridge impressions could be classified into a system and used to identify criminals. Faulds also was the first to develop a 10-digit fingerprint card to record all 10 fingerprint impressions using ink. Faulds began collecting fingerprints and soon had thousands of known fingerprint cards. With these cards in hand, Faulds attempted to create a system of fingerprint classification. His system was based on assigning syllables that he constructed to each finger of the hand and then syllables to the pattern characteristics within each finger. Faulds offered to bring his classification system to Scotland Yard, but it was declined because of the fact that Scotland Yard was currently using a method of personal identification known as anthropometry (officially named Bertillonage after its inventor, Alphonse Bertillon).\n\nSir Francis Galton (1822\u20131911) became interested in the use of fingerprints when he was asked to give a lecture on personal identification. In researching the current method of the time, Bertillonage, Galton realized its inadequacy and thus initiated his research into fingerprints. Galton amassed a large collection of fingerprints (approximately 8000 sets) and began formal studies into human friction ridges. In 1892, Galton published his seminal work, Finger Prints, in which he established the two tenets of fingerprint identification, uniqueness, and persistence. In this groundbreaking work, Galton described how friction ridges did not flow uninterrupted but may end, split into more ridges, split and then reconnect, or connect to other ridges. These deviations are commonly referred to as minutiae or Galton details. In this book, Galton also developed a classification method. Like Purkinje, 69 years earlier, Galton described distinct types of fingerprint patterns. While Purkinje detailed nine pattern types, Galton described only three, the arch, loop, and whorl. To this day, fingerprints are still divided into these three major classes of patterns. Galton's classification was based on analyzing the pattern of each finger impression, assigning the impression letter, and then grouping the fingers of the right hand and left hand into predetermined groups. This classification would create a string of 10 letters, representing each finger of the hand in a certain order. Although this classification system was the first system to be incorporated into criminal files within an organization (Scotland Yard), it was too general of a system to handle large numbers of files and proved useless.\n\nIn Argentina, Juan Vucetich (1858\u20131925), the head of the Office of Identification in the Buenos Aires Police Department, read a scientific review of Galton's work with fingerprints. Like Galton, Vucetich realized the value of fingerprint identification and began to collect the fingerprints of all those arrested by his police department. In 1891, Vucetich also realized that in order for fingerprints to be truly recognized as the foremost means of personal identification, it had to have a successful classification system. Using Galton's three-pattern classification system, Vucetich devised an alphanumeric system that added an additional pattern for a total of four (arch, internal loop, external loop, and whorl) and incorporated a secondary classification and ridge counts. His classification was expressed in the form of a ratio, with the right hand as the numerator and the left hand as the denominator. The incorporation of this additional discriminatory sorting allowed fingerprint cards to be categorized into small groups, which were easily searched. Having now created a successful classification system, in 1894, he successfully campaigned for the use of fingerprints to be the sole means of personal identification within his agency, thereby completely eliminating the use of anthropometry.\n\nDuring the same time that Vucetich was creating his classification, Sir Edward Henry (1850\u20131931) had also realized the need for a robust method of personal identification as a district Inspector General in India. After reading Galton's Finger Prints, Henry instituted that the fingerprints of all prisoners in his district be recorded. He also obtained all of Galton's research materials with the intent to create a formidable classification system. Henry assigned this task to two police officers from the Calcutta Anthropometric Bureau. By 1897, the two officers, Azizul Haque and Hem Chandra Bose, using Galton's three patterns, devised a classification system that involved three separate alphanumerical classifications, the primary, secondary, and subsecondary, and was expressed as a ratio, with the even fingers calculation as the numerator and the odd fingers calculation as the denominator. The primary classification was based on the presence of whorls on the fingers, the secondary was determined by the pattern types on the right and left index fingers, and the subsecondary represented the ridge counts or ridge tracings for the remaining fingers. In 1900, the Belper Committee in England, established to determine the best method of criminal identification, recommended that the Henry classification system be the sole means of criminal identification. With this recommendation, the Henry classification system was adopted by the Scotland Yard as its official means of personal identification in 1901.\n\nThe classification systems discussed above could only be used for cataloging and comparing fingerprint cards containing 10 fingerprint impressions. The systems were instituted to identify individuals for whom 10 fingerprint images could be recorded. This certainly worked for recidivists and other known individuals. However, these systems fell short with regard to the searching of single fingerprints obtained from crime scenes, commonly known as latent prints. In these cases, investigations could only go as far as the development of potential suspects and then obtaining a full set of fingerprint impressions in order to compare with the latent print. It was this obvious limitation that led to the development of single-fingerprint classification systems.\n\nSingle-fingerprint classification systems were based on either the existing 10-print classification systems or the original. Establishing single-fingerprint files involved creating entirely new cards for each fingerprint of an individual. Each card contained descriptive information, the written classification, and either the fingerprint image itself or a verbal description of the classification. If a latent fingerprint could be classified, it could then be searched in the single-fingerprint files. The most popular single-fingerprint system was developed at New Scotland Yard and was known as the Battley single-fingerprint system. While these files served a function that the 10 print files could not offer, they added another layer of time-consuming labor and volume.\n\n## History of Criminal Identification\n\nAn individual's criminal history record associates personal identifiers to arrest and disposition data. Until the mid-1850s, this information was haphazardly recorded as notes and associated with a name, of which could easily have been an alias. As populations and the criminal element grew, it became increasingly difficult to accurately document a person's criminal record and associate descriptive data with a record in order to accurately identify recidivists. The advent of photography was a pivotal moment in the criminal justice community. Officials could now attach a photograph (the mug shot) to a criminal history record. While the use of photographs greatly advanced the criminal justice system, it was not the be-all and end-all of criminal identification because of the fact that a criminal could easily change his\/her appearance. In addition, many police departments did not institute standard operating procedures for mug shots. Historic mug shots often contained people wearing hats, women with veils, and heads tilted.\n\nThe next milestone in criminal identification was initially viewed as the first truly scientific method of criminal identification. In 1882, Alphonse Bertillon, a police clerk in Paris, France, developed a system of body measurements to be used for identification. Known as anthropometry, the system involved distinct measurements of the human body. These measurements, a total of 11, were recorded with descriptive data such as height and eye color, body deformities or marks such as scars, mug shots, and the 11 measurements. In 1894, Galton's fingerprint classification was added to the Bertillonage record of criminal identification. Not long after Bertillonage was instituted as a means of identification, the problem with anthropometry was becoming apparent in three ways. First, different officers could record different measurements of the same body parts. The difference was enough that false identifications could be made or recidivists could be missed. Second, the system did not account for growth or aging of the body. Measurements taken from an individual throughout growth and the aging processing could be different enough to preclude an identification. Third, the system was proving unable to handle large amounts of data. As files grew, the time it took for the officers to search and locate a file became debilitating. As the problems with anthropometry intensified the use of a fingerprint classification system to accurately identify individuals emerged as the premier method of identification.\n\n## History of Fingerprint Automation\n\nAs agency files of classified fingerprint cards became larger and larger, the time it took to conduct a search became longer and longer, oftentimes taking months to report back that a 10-print card did or did not match an existing card in the files. In addition, departments that added single-fingerprint files compounded the man-hours it took to conduct an investigation. Obviously, the timeliness and high personnel costs of 10-print card searches coupled with the inefficient and inadequate single-print systems became a paramount concern for the criminal justice and forensic community.\n\nThe first attempt to automate was conducted by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in 1934. A mere 10 years after the United States Congress created the FBI and established it as the national fingerprint repository, whereby it took possession of over 800 000 fingerprint records from the Leavenworth prison, the FBI was feeling the pains of a large repository that was time-consuming to search. Even with modifications to the Henry classification system in order to create additional subclassification groupings, the FBI's files were bourgeoning and the bureau recognized the need for some type of automation. This automation came in the form of the data punch card and card-sorting machines. A data punch card is a stiff card that contains rows and columns of holes, each hole representing a piece of data. The data punch card would be encoded with descriptive information for individuals along with their fingerprint classification. Cards could later be searched with a card-sorting machine. If the machine detected a card with the same data (i.e., the desired Henry classification) then the fingerprint examiner could then manually pull that card and compare it to the submitted card from the contributor. Even though this process reduced the amount of time it took a fingerprint technician to search for a card, the FBI determined that the continued use of this automated punch card system was still not feasible for the collection of its size and abandoned the project. However, the use of the punch card systems for cataloging fingerprint files was adequate for smaller and more manageable fingerprint files, thus it was used by state and local agencies.\n\nIt was not until the 1960s that the advancement in computer technology opened the door for viable method of fingerprint automation. Computer technology had advanced to the point where the ability of computers to read and match fingerprints automatically was certainly within the realm of reality. With this in mind, agencies across the map began to initiate fingerprint automation projects.\n\nIn the late 1960s, the FBI's Identification Division initiated its Automated Identification Division System (AIDS) program and in conjunction with the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) (NBS; currently known as the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)) looked into the technological requirements needed to develop special purpose computers to automate fingerprint records. The FBI and the NBS determined that in order to build an Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS), new technologies would have to be developed. This involved a scanner that would be able to detect fingerprint impressions on a 10-print card, software to accurately read the fingerprint impression and detect minutiae, and computer algorithms that could accurately compare the information (pattern type and minutiae location) from the scanned print with a database of known prints. With these requirements, the FBI issued a request for proposal (RFP) to the community to build the AFIS demonstration models that would address the first two milestones. The third technology was addressed by the NBS. In the early 1970s, two additional RFPs were issued, which incorporated speed and accuracy requirements. By the mid-1970s, the FBI's AIDS program possessed five AFIS machines that were used for the digital conversion of the FBI's criminal fingerprint file. In 1979, the FBI was testing the search function of the new AFIS, and by 1983, automatic searches were routine.\n\nWhile the FBI was experimenting and developing their AFIS system, numerous other agencies, national and international, started down the same path of fingerprint automation. Some agencies successfully worked on in-house computer systems (United Kingdom's Home Office), while others either experienced budgetary constraints that caused them to shut the program down or developed systems with technology that was not as applicable as that developed by the FBI. Other agencies, such as the FBI, contracted with firms to develop their own AFIS. In France, the French National Police contracted with a subsidiary of Morpho Systems (Currently Safran Morpho, Inc.) to develop an AFIS. In Japan, the National Police Agency contracted with NEC Corporation to develop their AFIS. With the success of the AFIS technology, companies began marketing their own AFISs that were based on proprietary software. As a result, many agencies were purchasing systems that were not interoperable with each other. Some agencies developed funding strategies that allowed regions to combine resources in order to purchase a single-source AFIS, thereby creating a shared network of AFIS. For example, the Western Identification Network (WIN) in the United States combines the fingerprint records of Alaska, California, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming.\n\nKey to the success of AFIS was the fact that it was based on the AFIS pattern classifications, minutiae extraction, and matching algorithms. With this new technology, the fingerprint classification systems that were previously discussed became outdated, at least for those agencies utilizing the new AFIS technology. The new AFISs had no use for the traditional classification systems. Each fingerprint on a 10-print card was automatically classified by a computer algorithm into 8 possible patterns: arch, whorl, right-slant loop, left-slant loop, complete scar, amputation, unable to classify, and unable to print. AFIS fingerprint classification was now based strictly on the location of extracted minutiae (bifurcations and ending ridges only) and the spatial relationships between the minutiae. As a result, the minutiae extraction algorithms created mathematical maps of each fingerprint on the card. New cards entering the system would be automatically classified into AFIS pattern classifications, and the minutiae in each fingerprint would be automatically encoded.\n\nAFISs are composed of two subsystems: (1) known print subsystem and (2) latent subsystem. The known print subsystem achieves what the manual classification systems of the past did, identity verification. It is through this subsystem that identification queries take place. This subsystem is used for criminal identification and employment application processes. The latent subsystem incorporates additional software that facilitates the searching and matching of latent prints against a designated database. This latent aspect involves the encoding of the minutiae from the latent print in order to create a mathematical map. The mathematical map of the latent print can then be compared to the mathematical maps in the queried database. This comparison results in a list of potential candidates, which a latent print examiner trained to competency can compare and render a conclusion.\n\nIn an effort to institute some form of standardization across multiple AFIS vendors, in the early to the mid-1990s, the NIST established standards for the transmission of fingerprint information. These standards include types of records that are sent through the live-scan technology and AFISs. Record types include information on the sending and receiving agency; descriptive and arrest information; signatures; image resolution; latent and known images; marked minutiae; and facial, scars, marks, and tattoo image transmission. Additional standards exist regarding the image quality of equipment and the image compression for transmission.\n\n## Criminal History Information Systems\n\nThe integration of computer technologies into the criminal justice community also afforded agencies the ability to automate and then eventually centralize criminal history records. Up until the 1960s, criminal record histories were paper-based and in manual files. Obviously, paper-based files were only valuable for the area covered by that particular agency. Even if the files were automated, if it was not possible for the criminal history files to be shared between agencies, then they were no better than paper-based files. If the criminal justice community was going to address multijurisdictional offenders, then a centralized system was in order. Beyond traditional criminal justice purposes, a centralized database would assist in background checks for licensing, employment suitability, and national security clearances. The push for agencies in the United States to automate their criminal records began with the passage of the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968. The establishment of the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration provided grant money to states to develop computerized criminal history record systems. As of December 31, 2008, there were 85 836 300 automated criminal history files in the United States (Survey of State Criminal History Information Systems, 2008. SEARCH National Consortium for Justice Information and Statistics. US Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Published October, 2009.).\n\nThe National Crime Information Center (NCIC) was established in 1965 as the United State's centralized electronic criminal database of wanted and missing persons and stolen property. While the NCIC is maintained by and housed at the FBI's Criminal Justice Information Services (CJIS) Division of the FBI, since inception, it has operated under a shared management structure with the FBI and local, state, and other federal agencies. States, districts, and territories can access the NCIC through dedicated lines of telecommunication. The purpose of the NCIC was to create a database that could be constantly and immediately updated and searched by local, state, and federal agencies. The obvious advantages being that the agencies can conduct instant checks regarding people and property. This computerized database consists of personal records (fugitives, missing persons, and wanted individuals, etc.) and stolen property records that can be searched 24 h a day, 7 days a week.\n\nAssociated with the personal records database is the NCIC fingerprint classification. Like the Henry fingerprint classification system, the NCIC fingerprint classification was established to assist users in tentatively identifying wanted criminals. For example, police officers can query the system with a suspect's NCIC fingerprint classification to establish if that person may be in the NCIC personal records file as a wanted person. Unlike the Henry system, the NCIC fingerprint classification system is simpler to use and understand and could be transmitted with far less error than the Henry classification. The system is alphanumeric, consists of a 20-character code in a single row, where each finger is represented by two characters, and can be converted into the Henry classification. The code starts with the right thumb and ends with left little finger. For example, a person possessing plain arches on all fingers, with the exception that both index fingers have tented arches, would have an NCIC fingerprint classification of AA TT AA AA AA AA TT AA AA AA.\n\nThe FBI created the nation's automated criminal history record information, the Interstate Identification Index (III), in 1978. The III is an index of a person's federal or state arrest record and is accessed through the NCIC. Participation in the III is voluntary. In order to participate in the III, the state, district, or territory must be authorized by the FBI, possess an automated system that is compatible with the III system, be capable of providing electronic criminal history updates and responses to inquiries, and meet certain standards in order to ensure accuracy, completeness, integrity, and security of the information. Currently, all 50 states participate in the III. Agencies can query an individual's descriptive information (name, social security number, date of birth) or identification numbers (state identification or FBI number) in the III to determine if an existing record is in the system. If a record is located, the system automatically retrieves the information from the agency holding the record and forwards it to the requestor.\n\nThe National Fingerprint File (NFF) is a separate component of the III. The NFF contains fingerprint and palm print images of all federal offenders and participating states, districts, and territories. States, districts, and territories can participate in the III alone or in the III and the NFF. Like the III, the NFF is voluntary. Participating states submit the descriptive information, arrest information, state identification number, and the fingerprint and palm print images of an individual's first arrest and the FBI assigns an FBI number. Subsequent arrests are maintained at the local level. As of June 2010, 14 states participate in the NFF (Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Kansas, Maryland, Montana, North Carolina, New Jersey, Oklahoma, Oregon, Tennessee, and Wyoming) (<http:\/\/www.search.org\/about\/news\/2010\/nff.asp>; accessed 21.05.11.).\n\n## Current Practice and Future Improvement\n\nThe modernization of fingerprint and palm print information and criminal history records has resulted in the combination of both types of information through the use of a live-scan machine. Live-scan technology allows for the digital recording of physical descriptive information, arrest data, capturing of fingerprint and palm print images, mug shots, scars, marks, tattoos, and other information associated with the individual under arrest (i.e., aliases, known associates, addresses, and employment). A key aspect of the live-scan technology is the ability to conduct immediate searches to verify the identity of an individual while still in custody. Live-scan systems can be integrated into AFIS and criminal history systems, whereby the live-scan feeds information into the agency's other automated systems. A key element to the live-scan technology is the automated quality control function. This ensures that minimum quality standards of the recorded fingerprints and palm prints are met, thus ensuring that quality prints are entering the database. This quality control mechanism also guarantees that the 10 rolled fingerprints, the plane impressions, and the palm prints are validated (i.e., the rolled fingerprints of the right hand, the plain impressions of the right hand, and the right palm all correspond).\n\nIn the 1990s, the FBI initiated the next stage of fingerprint automation. The new AFIS technology that was developed achieved higher performance standards regarding all aspects of its operations. In July 1999, the FBI implemented this Integrated AFIS (IAFIS). IAFIS combined the new AFIS and the III into one system. A third system, the Identification Tasking and Networking (ITN) was established to manage the workflow information in IAFIS. This workflow involves the computer applications used for processing 10-print fingerprint submissions, latent print processing, and record search requests. Through IAFIS, the FBI provides the following services to its customers: criminal and civil 10-print submission service, providing electronic images (fingerprints and photographs), latent fingerprint matching, enrollment of unsolved latent prints into a database that is searched by all incoming criminal fingerprint cards, III access, and remote access to IAFIS. Access to IAFIS for latent print processing by external non-FBI-authorized users is achieved through the use of free software product provided by the FBI. This software can be installed on desktop personal computers, which are in compliance with the FBI's quality specifications.\n\nFederal agencies in the United States use the Joint Automated Booking System (JABS) as the interface between the live-scan system, the agency's AFIS and IAFIS. With regards to IAFIS, JABS sends the data to IAFIS to determine if the individual has a record in the system, and IAFIS responds back to JABS with the result. Not only does JABS securely and efficiently manage transactions to and from IAFIS but also the system stores the booking data from all the federal agencies. This allows federal agencies to search for arrests conducted by other federal agencies.\n\nIn 2001, the United Kingdom established an integrated identification service known as IDENT1. IDENT1 integrated friction ridge (fingerprints and palm prints) and criminal history information from Scotland, England, and Wales through the use of desktop workstations and live-scan machines. Features of IDENT1 include known 10-print and palm print services, latent fingerprint and palm print searching capabilities, enrollment of latent prints into a database that is searched by all incoming 10-print cards, the storage and searching of known prints and latent prints related to specific policing events, and the ability to interface with the United Kingdom's Immigration and Asylum Fingerprint System. Recent improvements include enhanced search accuracy and performance, incorporation of hand-held mobile fingerprint readers, and the development of an open architecture that will allow for the integration of additional biometrics.\n\nThe FBI is currently developing their next-generation identification (NGI). NGI will address the growing needs of international and national partners. NGI will incrementally replace the existing IAFIS with technical improvements and additional functionalities. Ten-print and latent fingerprint services have already been expanded to enable faster and more accurate searching capabilities. Additional capabilities will include the National Palm Print System, whereby agencies can submit known palm prints and can search latent palm prints against the database. An added Repository of Individuals of Special Concern (RISC) will enable agencies to rapidly identify wanted persons, sex offender registry subjects, known or suspected terrorists, and other individuals of special interest. A new \"Rap Back\" service will alert participating agencies of criminal activity by employees in positions of trust. The system will also include an interstate photo system to facilitate the submission and searching of mug shots, scars, marks, and tattoos. The FBI is moving from a single mode of biometrics (fingerprints) to multimodal. As a result, the NGI will eventually incorporate other biometrics such as iris scans, voice, and facial recognition. This flexible system design will allow for the incorporation of additional biometrics as they emerge.\n\n## Conclusion\n\nAs technological advances occur, the criminal justice and forensic science communities will continue to take advantage of emerging technologies. Within a 100-year time frame, the science of criminal identification has grown from rudimentary and manual means to automated and highly advanced technologies. With emerging threats to global security, innovation is the key to overcoming the never-ending challenge of an equally innovative criminal element. New technologies will enable international partnerships to be established whereby biometric and criminal history information can be exchanged on a global scale.\n\n## See also\n\nPattern Evidence: Analysis, Comparison, Evaluation, and Verification (ACE-V); Palm Prints; Pattern Evidence\/Fingerprints (Dactyloscopy): Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems (AFIS); Friction Ridge Skin Impression Evidence \u2013 Standards of Proof; Identification and Classification; Pattern Evidence\/Firearms: Laboratory Analysis; Pattern Evidence\/History: Fingerprint Sciences.\n\n## Further Reading\n\nAllen R, Sankar P, Prabhakar S. Fingerprint identification technology. In: Wayman J, Jain A, Maltoni D, Maio D, eds. _Biometric Systems: Technology, Design and Performance Evaluation_. first ed. London: Springer-Verlag; 2005.\n\nCole S.A. History of fingerprint pattern recognition. In: Ratha N.K, Bolle R, eds. _Automatic Fingerprint Recognition Systems_. first ed. New York: Springer-Verlag; 2004:1\u201326.\n\nGalton F. _Finger Prints_. New York: MacMillan; 1892.\n\nHutchins L.A. What the future can hold: a look at the connectivity of automated fingerprint identification systems. _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 2009;59(3):275\u2013284.\n\nKomarinski P, Higgins P.T, Higgins K.M, Fox L.K. _Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems_. first ed. New York: Elsevier Press; 2005.\n\nMaltoni D, Maio D, Jain A.K, Prabhakar S. _Handbook of Fingerprint Recognition_. second ed. London: Springer-Verlag; 2009.\n\nMoses K.R, Higgins P, McCabe M, Probhakar S, Swann S. Automated fingerprint identification system (AFIS). In: _Fingerprint Sourcebook_. Washington: National Institute of Justice (NIJ); 2010 (Chapter 6). <http:\/\/www.nij.gov\/pubs-sum\/225320.htm>.\n\nU.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment. _The FBI Fingerprint Identification Automation Program: Issues and Options \u2013 Background Paper_. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; 1991.\n\nU.S. Department of Justice Office of the Attorney General. _The Attorney General's Report on Criminal History Background Checks_. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; 2006.\n\n# Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems (AFIS)\n\nA. Loll Phoenix Police Crime Laboratory, Phoenix, AZ, USA\n\n## Abstract\n\nAutomated fingerprint identification systems (AFIS) have become an extremely efficient tool used by police organizations to identify latent prints from crime scenes that are of an unknown origin. Since their development in the 1960s, AFIS are now used throughout the world by local, national, and international organizations. The system uses a computer algorithm to correlate maps of minutiae on latent prints with similar maps of known records to provide a list of the best possible candidates to a forensic scientist. Even with millions of exemplars, searches can be completed within minutes to hours. The forensic scientist will compare the candidates provided by the AFIS in order to determine if any of the candidates are from the same source as the latent print, in which case, they will declare a \"Hit.\" Latent prints that do not result in a Hit may be stored in the system and compared to all future records that are added to the system until a Hit result is made. Owing to the impact of AFIS in crime suppression, research is currently underway to make these systems even more efficient in coming years by including the use of pores and ridge shapes.\n\n### Keywords\n\nAFIS; Biometric; Candidate; Fingerprints; Friction ridges; IAFIS; INTERPOL; Latent print; Palm prints\n\nGlossary\n\nAFIS Automated Fingerprint Identification System.\n\nBiometric system Any system that serves to identify an individual based on anatomical or behavioral traits.\n\nExemplar A controlled recording of the friction ridge skin used for the purpose of identification; may be taken using black printers ink or Live Scan.\n\nFriction ridge skin The skin on the hands and feet that has both ridges (raised skin) and furrows (depressed skin).\n\nHit An AFIS designation to indicate that the print that was entered into the system is from the same source as a candidate; some AFIS call this an Ident.\n\nIdentification A conclusion that may be reached by a latent print examiner after comparing the ridge flow, spatial relationships of minutiae, and, if possible, pore and ridge shapes between a latent print and a known print and finding sufficient agreement to conclude that the prints were made by the same individual.\n\nLatent print An impression of friction ridge skin that has been recovered from the scene of a crime through the use of powder, photography, and\/or chemical development.\n\nLive Scan An inkless fingerprinting technology that electronically records friction ridge skin by rolling the skin over a specially coated glass platform and recording the information on a charged coupled device.\n\nMinutiae Locations in the ridge flow on friction ridge skin where a ridge ends or bifurcates.\n\nNo Hit An AFIS designation to indicate that the print that was entered into the system is not from the same source as a candidate; some AFIS call this a non-Ident.\n\nPixel A single unit of a digital image.\n\nSpecificity A measure of how often an arrangement of minutiae occurs on the friction ridge skin.\n\n## Introduction\n\nAutomated fingerprint identification system (AFIS) is a biometric system that is used to identify individuals using fingerprints and palm prints. AFIS was developed in the early 1960s as a means to classify, search, and consolidate 10-print records in an automated manner rather than manually. The need for such a system was great, considering that the Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI) fingerprint database around this time consisted of over 15 million criminal files. In the United States, the FBI collaborated with engineer Joe Wegstein from the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in order to develop an algorithm capable of matching fingerprints. Fifteen years later, the FBI was using this technology and shortly thereafter, Minneapolis\u2013St. Paul became the first United States city to install an AFIS. Other nations were creating similar systems as well. Around the same time, France was focusing on creating automated latent print searches. These efforts led to the formation of Sagem Morpho Inc., which recently merged with Motorola's company, Printrak, to establish Morpho Trak in the United States. Together, Morpho and Morpho Trak are very prominent worldwide AFIS vendors. In the United Kingdom, research led to the first AFIS vendor that included ridge counts in latent print searches. NEC in Japan visited various AFIS sites before they began developing their AFIS. They began by working on the issue of matching inked records, and within a year of developing software to do that successfully (1982), they also began conducting latent print searches. In 2003, NEC AFIS software was rated the top performing system in a fingerprint vendor technology evaluation conducted by the NIST that included 18 AFIS vendors.\n\nIn the 1980s, there was an experiment conducted in San Francisco, CA, that conducted a test of competing fingerprint systems latent print matching capabilities. The competitors included Rockwell, NEC, Printrak, and Logica (developed for New Scotland Yard). NEC won the contract for the San Francisco Police Department AFIS. The system was installed in late 1983 and as a result, there were 10 times as many latent print identifications in 1984 and between 1984 and 1986, the city saw a 26% reduction in burglaries. Following this huge success, AFIS were rapidly purchased by police agencies; by 1999, the International Association for Identification recognized 500 AFIS sites in the world. The major vendors during this time were Printrak, NEC, Morpho, and Cogent; owing to competition and proprietary rights to the software of each AFIS vendor, interoperability of AFIS among different vendors remains a significant problem.\n\n## Exemplar Database\n\nAFIS contain a digital database of exemplars that is populated with a combination of inked print records that were scanned into the database using a flat-bed scanner and electronic recordings of the friction ridge skin taken using Live Scan technology. It is common for an AFIS database to contain millions of records including both criminal and civil files. Each AFIS record contains a rolled and plain impression of the first finger joint of all 10 fingers and, if obtained, both palms. Demographic data such as the individual's name, date of birth, sex, and any relevant identification numbers are linked to each record.\n\nBefore fingerprint and palm print records are added to the database, locations and orientations of bifurcations and ridge endings (collectively called minutiae) are coded, automatically by either the AFIS or a fingerprint technician. Exemplars typically have minimal background noise; therefore, the system can accurately determine where a ridge ends or bifurcates, as well as the direction of ridge flow, by measuring changes in the intensity value (zero being black (ridges) and white being a high pixel value (furrows)) of surrounding pixels. On the screen, the locations and orientations of minutiae are shown by a marker with a circle (and sometimes a square for bifurcations, depending on vendor) over the minutiae itself and a tail that points in the direction of the ridge flow. Collectively, the markers make a map of the Cartesian (x, y, \u03b8) coordinates of minutiae (with (0, 0) being the lower left corner of the image and \u03b8 measuring the angle of rotation from the horizontal). Exemplars of palms generally have hundreds to thousands of minutiae mapped out in this manner, and fingers can have approximately 50\u2013100 features. On the basis of the arrangements of the minutiae, the system defines a pattern type for fingers with the option to cross-refer more than one pattern.\n\nAfter the minutiae of a new record have been coded, the AFIS will search the record against all other records in the database to determine if an exemplar for the individual already exists. This can be done in a matter of minutes and it is particularly useful when linking fingerprint records that bear different names\/aliases. These types of searches are called exemplar to exemplar searches and they are almost 100% accurate in systems where 10-print operators check the candidate before consolidating records. When duplicate records do exist, the system may keep only the highest quality record, the most recent record, or several records for an individual depending on site location and the database capacity.\n\nThe number of records contained in AFIS databases worldwide is growing everyday as more records are constantly being added. The FBI maintains the largest digital database of 10-print records, which contains over 60 million records (both civil and criminal). Besides obtaining their own records, more than 18 000 agencies contribute daily to the database by electronically sending the FBI any felony records they collect. Consequently, the size of the FBI's database increases by up to 10 000 subjects each day, and 96% of those submissions are electronic. INTERPOL, the world's largest police organization, has a database of 104 000 fingerprint records.\n\n## Searching Latent Prints in AFIS\n\nThe major advantage of having AFIS technology in the field of forensics is the ability to search latent prints recovered from crime scenes against millions of records in a very short period of time. Many times latent prints are recovered at the scene of a crime where there is no suspect. Ideally, a forensic scientist will search recovered latent print evidence through an AFIS and then be able to provide a person of interest to law enforcement. Not all latent prints can be searched, however. The quality of the latent print must be fairly high; therefore, extreme care must be used when processing latent prints so as to provide the best possible evidence. The latent print must come from a part of the hand that is searchable in AFIS, and the forensic scientist should be confident in the orientation. One must also consider the specificity of the ridge detail and the number of high-quality minutiae; six minutiae in a delta (low specificity) are not considered an equal weight of evidence to six minutiae near the core of a tightly wound whorl (high specificity). Figure 1 shows an example of a latent print with a low count of minutiae that would be searched by most latent print examiners, and another latent print with a similar number of minutiae which may be deemed of no value for AFIS entry.\n\nLatent prints that are suitable for entry into the AFIS are uploaded from a digital capture device or other digital storage media. Figure 2 shows a representative screen shot using a Morpho system where two latent prints have been selected to be searched in AFIS. Each of the latent prints will be coded and searched independently using only the area within the selected boxed regions. The double bar in the box represents \"up\" in terms of latent print orientation.\n\nIf possible, the forensic scientist will try to limit the search parameters in order to increase the speed of the search and provide the best list of the candidates. This can be done in a variety of ways. The most common way is to designate the pattern type for a finger so that only fingers with those pattern type(s) are searched. The user may choose to limit which fingers or the specific area of the palm to search. If the fingerprint evidence is part of a simultaneous touch with two or more fingers, the user may designate the pattern types of adjacent fingers. If any of these parameters are unknown, the search may be completed with all possibilities of either\/both the fingers and\/or the palms. AFIS also has the option of marking the cores of the fingerprint and deltas on fingers and palms. There is a tool that allows the user to map the ridge flow if, for example, a palm has a large loop in the hypothenar area. It is recommended that the latent print be entered with the correct orientation; although some AFIS have the option of searching a latent print in all orientations, according to NIST Interagency\/Internal Report 7775, this can decrease the efficiency of the system by up to 18%. All of these tools and several others aid the forensic scientist in narrowing the number of records that will be searched, thereby decreasing the time it takes to receive results.\n\nFigure 1 Three latent prints that have a similar number of minutiae but different levels of specificity. The latent print labeled (a) is whorl pattern with high specificity and high quality; latent print (a) would be searched in Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) by most latent print examiners. Latent print (b) shows smearing and is of an unknown pattern type. Owing to the quality and low specificity, latent print (b) may not be searched in AFIS by some examiners. Latent print (c) shows a very high-quality latent print, however, it originates from the extreme distal finger tip, a region of the finger where minutiae are not recorded in AFIS, making latent print (c) unsearchable.\n\nFigure 2 A screenshot of a Morpho system which shows two latent prints that have been selected for Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) entry. The double bar at the top of the yellow boxes represents the upward direction. Note the enhancement tools on the right sidebar. Courtesy of Morpho, Inc.\n\nNext, the forensic scientist must code the minutiae in the latent print. Typically, latent prints contain significant \"noise\" that can potentially obscure the latent print because of a large variety of reasons (see Figure 1, right and Figure 3, left). This introduces many more shades of gray (or a wider range of pixel values) in latent print images compared to exemplars. This makes it more difficult for the AFIS to accurately autocode minutiae based on the pixel intensity. Most often, the forensic scientist will code the minutiae in latent prints manually to increase the accuracy of minutiae placement. There are several enhancement tools that allow the user to change the contrast, brightness, and magnification of the image to aid in this process.\n\nWhen all of the coding is complete, the latent print is searched by the system against all of the exemplar records that meet the specifications provided by the user. In most cases, the image is deleted and the only searchable information that remains are the (x, y, \u03b8) positions created by the forensic scientist, although a recent study by NIST indicates that performance increases when both the image and minutiae maps are kept. The arrangement of those coordinates is then compared by the system to every record in the database that fits within the parameters that the user specified to be searched. The thresholds on how different the minutiae can be from any given exemplar vary from vendor to vendor, and because of the proprietary nature of the computer algorithms of these vendors, the exact thresholds are not known. However, each system allows for a given amount of rotation from vertical and x, y positional shifts when searching for a corresponding candidate to account for distortions and the flexibility of the skin.\n\n## AFIS Results\n\nThe forensic scientist specifies how many of the closest matching candidates they would like returned, and the number chosen varies widely between users, agencies, and crime types. There may also be a default option to have the system designate the number of candidates. When the search is complete, typically in a matter of minutes to just a few hours, the list of candidates will be numerically ranked based on the amount of agreement between the (x, y, \u03b8) coordinates of the minutia between the latent print and the known record. The images of the latent print and the known record are displayed side-by-side and the forensic scientist can begin comparing them to determine if they are from the same source (see Figure 3). The forensic scientist may use the enhancement tools on both the latent print and exemplar if necessary. Some systems also have tools that allow the forensic scientist to place markers on both prints in order to more easily note the features they are comparing. The system can also display which minutiae were correlated during the search and also which minutiae were not correlated. Demographic information, such as the candidate's name, ethnic background, or criminal history, is typically not available. If a latent print and a candidate are determined to be from the same source, the forensic scientist will declare a \"Hit\" or \"Ident\" and will proceed to use the information contained in the AFIS to locate the original record. If the latent prints are not of the same source, the forensic scientist declares a \"no Hit\" or \"non-Ident\" and then continues to compare the next candidate until either a Hit is declared or all of the candidates have been cleared.\n\nFigure 3 A screenshot of a Morpho, Inc. results screen. The latent print is on the left and the known print is on the right. Circle markers represent ridge endings and square markers represent bifurcations. Courtesy of Morpho, Inc.\n\nIf an entire AFIS search is conducted and no candidates result in a Hit, the latent print may be maintained in the unsolved latent print database. The latent prints in this database are searched against every incoming AFIS record on a daily basis and will continually be searched until the latent print is taken out of the system by either deletion or a future Hit. Reasons for deleting a latent print may be based on quality factors, crime type, or statute of limitations; the retention policies are determined by the administration of each agency.\n\nThe success rate of AFIS returning the proper candidate, provided that candidate exists in the database, is completely dependent on the correlation between the minutiae map of the exemplar and the minutiae map of the latent print. Differences in the coding processes and also the image quality between exemplars and latent prints will inevitably cause slight differences in the exact locations and orientations of the minutiae. Still, care in the coding process is crucial to the success of the system; if there are minutiae incorrectly marked in the latent print, the rank associated with the correct candidate will decrease proportionately, possibly below other (incorrect) candidates. The same is true if the latent print is significantly distorted but accurately mapped, which may cause the relationships of the minutiae to be outside of the system-defined tolerances and then the corresponding candidate would not make the candidate list. Often an unsolved latent print may Hit to an individual that has a new record added to the database but who also had a record in the system at the time of the original search; this demonstrates that the correct candidate may be missed based on minutiae maps being coded by two different sources. Studies by NIST of various vendors showed that success of AFIS is very dependent on the number of minutiae present and the quality of the latent print. It is intuitive that a high-quality latent print with 20 minutiae is more likely to Hit than a low-quality latent print with a low minutiae count. Orientation can also significantly affect the matching capability of the system by up to 18%. If the AFIS being used differentiates between bifurcations and ridge endings, there is the added possibility that bifurcations were marked as ridge endings and vice versa. AFIS with ridge counts may introduce additional error of differing ridge counts in regions where the latent print quality is low. Another factor is having large gaps between coded minutiae\u2014coded clusters of minutiae in latent prints are more effectively searched than latent prints that cover a large surface area but which have minutiae sporadically coded throughout. Creases, especially in the thenar area of the palms, also complicate the agreement between the minutiae coded by the forensic scientist and the autocoded records. Personal communiqu\u00e9 and unpublished studies by Ron Huston (OH, USA) have shown that 50% of palm Hits come from the hypothenar region, the area with the fewest number of creases. The interdigital and lower thenar region each make up about 23\u201325% of palm Hits, and only about 2% of palm Hits come from the upper thenar area. Note that these statistics may be influenced by the number of latent prints that come from each area of the palm and are not necessarily due to AFIS matching capabilities.\n\nThere is growing concern that the use of AFIS could result in more erroneous identifications. It is argued that proper testing has not been conducted dealing with the likelihood of an AFIS search producing candidates who have incidental similarities, but are not from the same source. The latent print community uses the term \"close nonmatch\" for latent prints that have candidates with similar but not completely corresponding prints. Some researchers believe that latent print examiners must be more cautious when identifying a print as a result of an AFIS search verses identifying a latent print to a requested comparison subject. This reasoning is based on the premise that the probability of coincidental correspondence between a latent print and an exemplar print is less likely for a single specific individual (often provided as a result of intelligence during a police investigation) versus the same latent print compared to 60 million individuals. The idea is similar to the well-known statistical birthday problem which estimates the probability that a group of any given size will contain two people with the same birthday. Caution should be used when comparing and identifying AFIS candidates, especially for latent prints of low quality, low minutiae count, and low specificity. These factors should be weighed heavily during the analysis phase when a latent print examiner is determining AFIS suitability. Very high quality and specificity is recommended in regions of converging ridge systems (i.e., deltas) which are common in almost all pattern types and in the palm. It is also important that an agency has an effective quality control system that includes verification by a second latent print examiner in order to reduce the chances of an erroneous identification being reported. Current statistical and probabilistic research in the field of latent print identifications are underway and may be used in the future to provide a quantitative way to describe the likelihood that two prints came from the same source, which could be proved to be very useful in the case of low minutiae count AFIS cases.\n\n## Interoperability\n\nThe existence of several AFIS vendors, each of which have developed proprietary algorithms, has led to a problem of interoperability between agencies who may have a reason to search a given latent print through a different database. In 1985, NIST developed standards for how fingerprint records could be shared between various agencies; however, these standards were not mandatory to specific vendors. The FBI developed the Universal Latent Workstation (ULW), which is a free software that provides access to the Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS) to non-FBI authorized users around the world, as an attempt to make their database available to those who need it. The INTERPOL fingerprint database is accessible to 188 member countries. Unfortunately, private vendors have not made the same efforts and interoperability between neighboring cities, counties, and states remains a serious problem in many areas.\n\n## The Future of AFIS\n\nLatent prints and DNA are the only two forensic sciences that have the ability to link a specific individual to a crime scene, and with the speed of the AFIS searches and the low cost of developing latent prints compared to DNA analysis, latent prints remain a crucial part of forensic evidence that is used in the criminal justice system. As such an important identifying tool, there is a significant amount of research being conducted that will improve the system in the future. Research is highly focused on the possibility of including additional features such as pores, creases, and ridge edge shapes, incipient ridges, and dots in AFIS searches. Reproducibility of these features is dependent on the development methods, whether the evidence is porous or nonporous, and the condition of the donor's skin. In the case of pores, research studies showed that the improvement in matching accuracy was considerably dependent on the quality of both the latent print and the exemplar. The quality and clarity of a latent print must be very high for pore detail to be seen, and the resolution of both the latent print and exemplar should have a minimum of 1000 ppi (pixels per inch) to be useful for this purpose. The implementation of searches that include the abovementioned details may be conducted after a search using only minutiae did not result in a Hit. Still, the quality must be present in the latent print to include information such as creases and pores, therefore, and the extra time it will take to perform all of the extra coding of the latent print must also be considered. NIST research suggests that the improvement to latent print searches using more than just minutiae is only significant in latent prints with very low numbers of minutiae. Significantly, this means that AFIS usually work very well using only the minutiae (second-level information) to locate candidates. There are also plans for some vendors to begin including the second and third finger joints in AFIS searches. Like the thenar area of the palm, though, large amounts of creases complicate the ability to accurately code the minutiae in these regions. Currently, the research indicates that third-level details improve the matching capability of AFIS only for high-quality latent prints that have a low minutiae count.\n\nThe FBI is planning a major upgrade to IAFIS to include more accurate results, upgraded ULW software, and a searchable palm database, called Next Generation Identification and built by Lockheed Martin with the algorithms provided by Morpho Trak. Additionally, it is intended to further increase the interoperability of the FBI's fingerprint database to other federal, state, local, and international AFIS. The first increment of this upgrade was implemented in February 2011, and replaced AFIS with Advanced Fingerprint Identification Technology to provide significantly improved matching algorithms. The full system upgrade is planned for 2014.\n\nWith the speed, accuracy, and many aspects of functionality, the AFIS has become a critical component to the law enforcement system. The amount of information searched in a few hours using an AFIS system could not be completed in a human lifetime. AFIS is arguably the most significant addition to the forensic science discipline in the last 25 years with respect to the cost, speed, and number of investigative leads that have come from these algorithm-based searches. It is an ever evolving system that will continue to be researched and improved upon for years to come.\n\n## See also\n\nInvestigations: Fingerprints; Pattern Evidence: Palm Prints; Pattern Evidence\/Fingerprints (Dactyloscopy): Automated Methods, Including Criminal Records Administration; Identification and Classification; Pattern Evidence\/History: Fingerprint Sciences.\n\n## Further Reading\n\nAnthonioz A, Champod C. Integration of pore characteristics into the evaluation of fingerprint evidence. _Impression and Pattern Evidence Symposium_. 2010.\n\nAnthonioz A, Egli N, Champod C, Neumann C, Puch-Solis R, Bromage-Griffiths A. Investigation of the reproducibility of third-level characteristics. _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 2011;61(2):171\u2013178.\n\nChampod C. Edmond Locard \u2013 numerical standards and 'probable' identifications. _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 1995;45(2):136\u2013163.\n\nDror I.E, Mnookin J.L. The use of technology in human expert domains: challenges and risks arising front the use of automated fingerprint identification systems in forensic science. _Law, Probability and Risk_. 2010;9(1):47\u201367.\n\nHutchins L.A. What the future can hold: a look at the connectivity of automated fingerprint identification systems. _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 2009;59(3):275\u2013283.\n\nIndovina M, Hicklin R.A, Kiebuzinski G.I. _ELFT-EFS Evaluation of Latent Fingerprint Technologies: Extended Feature Sets [Evaluation #1]_. 2011 NIST Interagency\/Internal Report 7775.\n\nNeumann C, Champod C, Puch-Solis R, Egli N, Anthonioz A, Bromage-Griffiths A. Computation of likelihood ratios in fingerprint identification for configurations of any number of minutiae. _Journal of Forensic Sciences_. 2007;52(1):54\u201364.\n\nScientific Working Group on Friction Ridge Analysis, Study and Technology, Moses K.R, Higgins P, McCabe M, Probhakar S, Swann S. The Fingerprint Sourcebook. 2011 (Chapter 6). <http:\/\/www.nij.gov\/pubs-sum\/225320.htm>.\n\nU.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General. A Review of the FBI's Handling of the Brandon Mayfield Case. 2006. <http:\/\/www.justice.gov\/oig\/>.\n\nUlery B.T, Hicklin R.A, Buscaglia J, Roberts M.A. Accuracy and reliability of forensic latent fingerprint decisions. _Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America_. 2011;19:7733\u20137738.\n\nZhao Q, Feng J, Jain A.K. _Latent Fingerprint Matching: Utility of Level 3 Features_. 2010 MSU Technical Report, MCU-CSE-10\u201314.\n\nRelevant Websites\n\n<http:\/\/www.nist.gov>\u2014ANSI\/NIST-ITL Standard.\n\n<http:\/\/www.fbi.gov>\u2014FBI IAFIS.\n\n<http:\/\/www.interpol.int\/>\u2014INTERPOL.\n\n<http:\/\/www.nist.gov>\u2014NIST.\n\n<http:\/\/www.nij.gov\/pubs-sum>\u2014The Fingerprint Sourcebook.\n\n# Key Terms\n\nAutomated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS), Biometric, Candidate, Classification, Criminal record history, Fingerprint, Fingerprint patterns, Friction ridges, IDENT1, Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS), INTERPOL, Interstate Identification Index (III), Latent fingerprint, Latent print, Minutiae, National crime information center (NCIC), National fingerprint file (NFF), Next generation identification (NGI), Palm print, Personal identification, Rap sheet.\n\n# Review Questions\n\n1. What does AFIS stand for? What about IAFIS?\n\n2. Who was the first to develop a ten-digit fingerprint card? Why wasn't it adopted?\n\n3. Who is Juan Vucetich?\n\n4. When was the Henry System adopted by Scotland Yard?\n\n5. Although mug shots were useful for criminal identification, what were some of the early problems with them?\n\n6. What were the main problems with finding a file using the Bertillon System?\n\n7. The FBI was the first national fingerprint repository, inheriting 800 000 fingerprint records from Leavenworth Prison. What were some of the problems in searching that collection of records? How were they initially addressed?\n\n8. What agency assisted the FBI in the development of AFIS? What was its role?\n\n9. What are the subsystems of AFIS?\n\n10. What law helped to push for automation of criminal records, including fingerprints?\n\n11. What is the NFF?\n\n12. What is \"live-scan\"?\n\n13. What is a \"rap back\" service and what does it do?\n\n14. What is contained in an AFIS file?\n\n15. How many minutiae can each exemplar finger have plotted in a file?\n\n16. How many records are currently in the FBI database?\n\n17. What is the most common way to limit search parameters for faster searching in AFIS?\n\n18. Why would a latent be deleted a fingerprint from the database?\n\n19. How much of a factor is orientation in the matching capability of a AFIS search?\n\n20. When is Level three detail important in an AFIS search?\n\n# Discussion Questions\n\n1. What does an AFIS \"hit\" mean? Is it an identification? What role does\u2014and should\u2014the human expert play in this process?\n\n2. Read Dror's article on cognitive neurosciences in forensic science. Could a person bias an AFIS search? How? Could the results of an AFIS search bias an expert? How? What could be done to prevent this from happening?\n\n3. Standardization is essential to the success of large-scale database searches. Why haven't standards been established and enforced for AFIS systems? What role do the vendors who make the systems play in this?\n\n4. NIST (then NBS) had the first forensic laboratory in the US, with Wilmer Souder being a key scientist (he assisted in the Lindberg Kidnapping). What role did NIST play in the development of AFIS? Why that agency?\n\n5. Why is interoperability of AFIS systems so important? With 18 000 law enforcement agencies in the US alone, how do jurisdictional borders affect AFIS searches that cross them?\n\n## Additional Readings\n\nAlberink I, Jongh A, Rodriguez C.M. Fingermark evidence evaluation based on AFIS matching scores: sensitivity of likelihood ratios to different types of conditioning. _Journal of Forensic Sciences_. 2014;59(1):70\u201381.\n\nDror I.E. Cognitive neuroscience in forensic science: understanding and utilizing the human element. _Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B_. 2015;370(1674):20140255.\n\nKrish R.P, Fierrez J, Ramos D, Veldhuis R, Wang R. Evaluation of AFIS-ranked latent fingerprint matched templates. In: _Image and Video Technology_. Berlin: Springer; 2014:230\u2013241.\n\nLangenburg G, Hall C, Rosemarie Q. Utilizing AFIS searching tools to reduce errors in fingerprint casework. _Forensic Science International_. 2015;257:123\u2013133.\n\nPersinger M, Ericson L, Greene M. _Latent Fingerprint Interoperability Survey: A National Study of Automated Fingerprint Information Systems (AFIS) Maintained by Law Enforcement Agencies: Summary Reporting of Data Provided by Responding Agencies_. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice; 2014.\n\nSouder W. Crime laboratory science clears up mysteries. _The Science News-Letter_. 1936;29(793):394\u2013395.\nSection 5\n\nInterpretation\n\nOutline\n\nIntroduction\n\nFriction Ridge Skin Impression Evidenced\u2014Standards of Proof\n\nSequential Unmasking: Minimizing Observer Effects in Forensic Science\n\nOverview and Meaning of Identification\/Individualization\n\nKey Terms\n\nReview Questions\n\nDiscussion Questions\n\n# Introduction\n\nWhether Saks and Koehler's paper in Science about the coming paradigm shift in individualization in forensic science heralded the change or caused it is immaterial\u2014the article was a watershed moment, regardless. No longer could any forensic science hide behind the claim of infallibility or a century of pairwise comparisons that purported to represent uniqueness throughout all time and space. That it took two nonforensic scientists to publish that article in one of the most prestigious science journals in the world says a great deal about the nonscientific culture of the forensic profession. The interpretation of all evidence, including forensic, must be probabilistic in nature:\n\nOne attribute of human inference common across different situations is that conclusive evidence is either in very short supply or is quite impossible to obtain... Such evidence, if it existed, would make necessary a particular hypothesis or possible conclusion being entertained. In lieu of such perfection we often make use of masses of inconclusive evidence having additional properties: the evidence is incomplete on matters relevant to our conclusions, and it comes to us from sources that are, for various reasons, not completely credible. Thus inferences from such evidence can only be probabilistic in nature, and our conclusions have to be hedged in some way.1\n\nDNA forced forensic science to confront the probabilistic nature of evidence, but the profession has been slow to adopt it. Change should come from within a discipline for it to be mature and valid. For too long, forensic science has waited for others to push it in the directions it needs to go. Maybe the issues surrounding fingerprints over the last several years will provide impetus for the profession to take the lead on its future.\n\n* * *\n\n1 David A. Schum, 1994. Evidential Foundations of Probabilistic Reasoning. John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp. 1\u20132.\n\n# Friction Ridge Skin Impression Evidence\u2014Standards of Proof\n\nC. Champod University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland\n\n## Abstract\n\nIn the context of evidence derived from the comparison of friction ridge skin impressions, the standards of proof commonly used by practitioners are reviewed. It is shown that from an early pragmatic guide given in 1914 by Edmond Locard, the practice has broadly evolved into two main approaches.\n\nThe first approach, the empirical approach, espoused by numerous countries in continental Europe and South America, invites the examiner to consider a fixed number of corresponding minutiae between the fingermark and the exemplar print (varying from country to country)\u2014without a discrepancy\u2014as the key decision threshold before declaring an identification. Under such a practice, experts would not be prepared to commit themselves to the conclusion that a mark originated from the same area of friction ridge skin as the print unless there were at least a fixed number of minutiae in agreement.\n\nThe second approach, the holistic approach, commonly used in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom, allows the examiner to consider both the quantitative factors (e.g., number of minutiae) and qualitative factors (e.g., the clarity of the ridges and pores) in the decision process. The International Association for Identification (IAI) 1973 resolution, confirmed at numerous points until 2011, anchored the view that there is no scientific basis for requiring a minimum number of minutiae in order to declare an individualization. Each case has to be assessed on its own merit by the expert as a function of his\/her training and experience. What can be viewed as a \"laissez-faire\" approach starts to be regulated by two main recent developments that are discussed: (1) the elaboration of standards by professional bodies such as Scientific Working Group on Friction Ridge Analysis, Study and Technology (SWGFAST) and (2) the move toward quality assurance and accreditation of friction ridge skin examination under an EN ISO\/IEC 17025 umbrella.\n\nExperts in this area have also been very inclined, by tradition, to avoid making any statement that could be viewed as different from a statement of certainty. Providing corroborative evidence has been banned for numerous years (an official position of the IAI since 1979\/1980). The entry shows that changes are expected, thanks to the availability of rigorous statistical models, allowing assigning a probabilistic weight of evidence to comparisons that will not be retained as \"individualization\" or \"exclusion.\"\n\n### Keywords\n\nCorroborative evidence; Fingerprint identification; Friction ridge skin; Numerical standard\n\n## Introduction\n\nPapillary surfaces are covered in fine lines, or \"ridges\" arranged generally in patterns such as loops, whorls, and arches. The ridges form characteristics called minutiae, such as bifurcations, ridge endings (or combined minutiae), and also smaller features (pores, ridge edges, and structures). These detailed features are the consequence of a morphogenesis, so sensitive to outside influence that they are difficult to predict, unlike general patterns, in their position and their form. The variability is such that even monozygotic twins have distinguishable friction ridge skin in this respect.\n\nFollowing a comparison between a mark (recovered, for example, in association with a crime) and a print (controlled impression associated with a suspect), suppose that the examiner observes agreement\u2014within allowed tolerances given the flexibility of the skin, the distortion during the deposition process, etc.\u2014between the mark and the print without any significant discrepancy. The question is then often expressed as follows: \"how many similarities are required to identify?\" or \"what is the required sufficient agreement to conclude an individualization?\" Both terms \"identification\" and \"individualization\" are used here and hereinafter as synonymous.\n\nThe aim of this article is to try to address these questions of the \"standard of proof,\" by reviewing international views and practices. The perspective adopted here is essentially the one of the forensic practitioners dealing with friction ridge skin and not the perspective of the court or judiciary.\n\n## Historical Milestone\n\nThe first rule establishing the minimum number requirements for fingerprint identification can be attributed to the French Edmond Locard, in 1911\u20131912 and officially published in 1914. He suggested a tripartite rule, which followed from the discovery of the use of pores when visible to help in the identification process (often referred to as poroscopy). Locard's rule can be summarized as follows:\n\n1. If more than 12 concurring points are present and the fingerprint is sharp, then the certainty of identity is beyond debate. (The imperative requirement for the absence of significant differences is implicit.)\n\n2. If there are 8\u201312 concurring points, then the case is borderline and the certainty of identity will depend on (1) the sharpness of the fingerprint; (2) the rarity of its type; (3) the presence of the center of the figure (core) and the triangle (delta) in the exploitable part of the print; (4) the presence of pores; and (5) the perfect and obvious identity regarding the width of the papillary ridges and valleys, the direction of the lines, and the angular value of the bifurcations. In these instances, certainty can only be established after discussion of the case by at least two competent and experienced specialists.\n\n3. If a limited number of characteristic points are present, the fingermark cannot provide certainty for an identification, but only a presumption proportional to the number of points available and their clarity.\n\nLocard based his tripartite rule on various sources of information: the discovery of poroscopy, the practice gathered by the identification bureaux around the world, and the early statistical models by Galton and Balthazard. This approach persists throughout the extensive writings of Locard. His considerations (principally the first two) were largely taken up by the most eminent dactyloscopists or criminalists of the first half of this century.\n\n## Current Views and Practice\n\nOn the fringe of the pragmatic view expressed above, the practice has led to various positions. The different positions that currently exist were not established without controversy after the views expressed by Locard.\n\n### Approach Based on a Predetermined Minimum Number of Minutiae\n\nThe majority of European examiners (and examiners from South America) have favored a purely quantitative approach, leaving qualitative aspects in the background, by fixing a numerical standard: a minimum number of minutiae necessary to establish identification. It is also referred to as the \"numerical standard\" approach or the \"empirical\" approach.\n\nThe numerical standard approach represents a lower limit; above this value, the identification is considered as beyond doubt, regardless of the type of minutiae that is found. The interpretation of the concept of numerical standard may vary from agency to agency; some positions are summarized in Table 1.\n\nDespite the systematic use of a numerical standard, various countries (e.g., Greece, Holland, Israel, and Portugal) have developed methods to bypass the rigid number when certain features (visibility of pores, ridge structures, or rare combinations of minutiae) are observed in the comparison. The adoption of a range from 8 (or 10) to 12 points is a way to relax a rigid threshold. It is also reported in numerous countries that in some cases, an expert with more experience and a high standing in the profession can make an identification that does not meet the usual standard.\n\n### Approach Based on a Nonnumerical Standard\n\nBefore the 1970s, American examiners followed Locard's view. As a result, the 12-point rule was generally respected, and below this threshold, qualitative factors in the comparison were taken into consideration. In 1970, a commission of experts from the IAI was established to study the question of the relevance of a fixed numerical standard for decision-making in this area. The work of this committee (for \"standardization\") resulted in a number of articles and reports tracing the state of empirical and scientific knowledge. Apart from the fact that the justification of any number could not be based on statistical research pertaining to fingerprints, another powerful argument against any numerical standard derives from knowledge of the morphogenesis of the papillary lines. The development of papillary lines on corresponding surfaces is initiated (for the fingers) after 7 weeks of fetal life with the growth of volar pads on a papillary area. After 10 weeks, as the volar pads regress, primary ridges begin to grow in the dermis followed by secondary ridges. The various stresses involved in this process (regression of the volar pads, development of size, meeting of multiple development fronts) induce a highly variable formation of minutiae (in terms of type and positioning). Around week 25, the development of papillary lines is completed on the dermis and is projected onto the epidermis of the skin. The fact that the complete pattern is secured on the dermis explains the durability of the fingerprints. From that moment, a final differentiation occurs on the papillae, which dictates the form of pores and ridge edges. This final stage also produces a highly variable pattern (however, less reproducible from mark to mark). Hence, it is clearly not legitimate to reduce the fingerprint discriminative power to the minutiae as is suggested with any numerical standards. The number of specific features is much broader than minutiae alone. The nature of the papillary variability prevents the adoption of any predefined number of ridge characteristics necessary (without significant differences) for identification. Following such arguments, the following resolution was adopted by the IAI in 1973: \"The International Association for Identification, based upon a 3-year study by its Standardisation Committee, hereby state that no valid basis exists for requiring a predetermined minimum number of friction ridge characteristics that must be present in two impressions in order to establish positive identification.\"\n\nTable 1\n\nPrincipal positions regarding numerical standards adopted in some countries\n\nCountry(ies)| Numerical standard| Origin (when known) and specificity  \n---|---|---  \nItaly| 16\u201317| Probabilistic calculation by Balthazard dating back to 1911. The minimum standard is expressly mentioned from a jurisprudence referring to Balthazard's work. The jurisprudence dated back to 1954 but has been confirmed in 1959 and 1989  \nEngland and Wales (1924\u20132000), Scotland (before 2006), Australia (prior to 1941)| 16| The origins of this standard (adopted by New Scotland Yard in 1924) dated back to an erroneous interpretation of a document published by Bertillon in 1912. The work by Balthazard had probably also played a role, as it was taken at face value in fingerprint training manuals. The numerical standard was virtually impossible to circumvent  \nBosnia, Germany, Romania, Switzerland (before 2007)| 8\u201312| In agreement with Locard, even though in practice, there is a clear tendency to respect a \"12-point\" rule  \nAlbania, Australia (from 1942 to 1999), Belgium, England, and Wales (before 1924), Finland, France, Hong Kong, Israel, Greece, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia, Spain, the Netherlands, Turkey, the USA (before 1973), South American countries| 12| Number probably derived from the first rule of Locard (although Locard's writing stated \"more than 12\"). Note that in numerous countries, mechanisms to bypass the rigid threshold are in place. For example, in the Netherlands, a case of identification can be submitted with 10 minutiae if a committee of three examiners concurred to that conclusion  \nCzech Republic, Denmark| 10| In Czech Republic, based in part on a statistical model developed by Jozefek in 1972 along with a survey of the relative occurrences of different types of minutiae  \nRussia, South Africa| 7| According to a recent survey carried out by the IAI Standardization II Committee\n\nThis resolution is also endorsed by practical observations as follows:\n\n\u2022 Some minutiae are rare than others (for example, a double bifurcation in the periphery of the pattern is six times less frequent than two separate bifurcations). Hence, counting minutiae up to a predefined number without taking into account their relative and distinct values is not adequate.\n\n\u2022 The absence of any minutiae, from a papillary surface is as relevant as their presence. It would be very exceptional to observe a core area or a delta area where the ridges do not display any minutiae.\n\n\u2022 The pore structure and ridge edge structure can be used to discriminate and, when visible, contribute to the identification decision.\n\nIt is hence accepted that the concept of identification cannot be reduced to counting minutiae; each identification represents a specific set of circumstances and the identification value of concurring points between a mark and a print on a variety of conditions that automatically excludes any minimum standard. This approach is then also known as the \"holistic\" approach or the \"nonnumerical\" approach.\n\nIn 1995, a conference meeting on fingerprint detection techniques and identification in Ne'Urim (Israel) unanimously approved a slight variation of the IAI 1973 resolution. The 1973 resolution was reassessed and reaffirmed by the Standardization II committee in 2011 which now reads: \"There currently exists no scientific basis for requiring a minimum amount of corresponding friction ridge detail information between two impressions to arrive at an opinion of single source attribution.\"\n\nWhen an expert concludes an identification, he reaches a decision threshold (refer to Entry 197). This threshold may be a number of concurring points and, in addition to this quantitative element, consideration of other factors such as the rarity of the general pattern, the type of minutiae observed, the relative frequencies of these minutiae, or the visibility of ridge edges or pores. In this way, the identification process is a global assessment that balances both quantitative and qualitative aspects. The term ridgeology refers to this global assessment.\n\nVarious countries follow the IAI position, as indicated in Table 2.\n\nTable 2\n\nMain positions and dates regarding the abandon of a numerical standard\n\nCountry(ies)| Origin (when known) and specificity  \n---|---  \nUSA and Canada| Since 1973, following the IAI resolution  \nNorway| Other Scandinavian countries (Sweden, Finland) have now moved toward the abandonment of any numerical standard  \nEngland and Wales (from 2001), Scotland (from 2006)| In 1988, a committee was named by ACPO (Association of Chief Police Officers) and the Home Office to undertake a review of the origin and relevancy of the 16-point standard. Following this report, the abandonment of the numerical standard was recommended. It took more than 10 years to implement in England and Wales, longer in Scotland because of the McKie\/Asbury case  \nAustralia, New Zealand| In Australia, the move toward the abandonment started in some states and territories in 1992. The \"12-point rule\" was nationally abandoned in favor of the IAI resolution in 1999  \nSwitzerland (from 2007)| Taking advantage of the debate in the UK and Australia and following the Ne'Urim declaration, a committee was created in 1998 to manage the change toward a nonnumerical practice. The change was approved by the heads of fingerprint bureaux in 2007. The previous standard was 12 and has been kept as a Q\/A filter to distinguish between simple and complex cases\n\nIt must be noted that the work done by the English committee has been a determinant in the various moves toward the late adoption of the IAI resolution in countries that applied a numerical standard. In 1989, a collaborative study among 130 fingerprint examiners in England and Wales was conducted by Evett and Williams. Each participant was sent 10 mark\/print comparisons (nine associations and one exclusion) and was asked to mark the number of concordant minutiae and to express an opinion with respect to the identification. No erroneous identifications were reported. But, when examining genuine pairs of prints, examiners varied widely in the number of points of comparison they found. In the case of one print, it varied from 11 to 40 minutiae reported by examiners. In other words, some examiners would not have gone to court with this pair of impression, although most would have done so. An identical survey in Switzerland in 1997 led to analogous results.\n\nThese studies led to the following conclusions:\n\n\u2022 The dogma adopted by some examiners that fingerprint identification is an \"exact\" science is a misconception. The essence of science is inductive inference. Inference is a mental process that cannot be exact (or deductive). Fingerprint identification is scientific in that sense.\n\n\u2022 The precision implied by any number (12, 16, etc.) is also a lure because of the high variability in feature selection between examiners. The determination of individual minutiae or features is highly dependent on training and experience but over all the quality of the mark itself.\n\nAs a means of achieving quality, adopting only a numerical standard is rather a poor instrument. The way forward is to concentrate on professional standards rather than on rules about numbers of minutiae. A scheme of quality management should be instituted, including training, certification testing, performance testing, file audits, and blind trials. This is part of the mandate of the FBI-sponsored Scientific Working Group on Friction Ridge Analysis, Study and Technology (SWGFAST) that proposes standards covering the above-mentioned quality components.\n\nIn relation to the standard of proof, the latest SWGFAST document: Standards for Examining Friction Ridge Impressions and Resulting Conclusions stresses three aspects:\n\n\u2022 It is aligned with the 1973 IAI resolution through a statement saying that: \"The use of a fixed number of friction ridge features as a threshold for the establishment of an individualization is not scientifically supported.\"\n\n\u2022 It is acknowledged that a conclusion is a decision (REFER TO ENTRY 197), for example, it states that \"Individualization is the decision by an examiner that there are sufficient features in agreement to conclude that two areas of friction ridge impressions originated from the same source. Individualization of an impression to one source is the decision that the likelihood the impression was made by another (different) source is so remote that it is considered as a practical impossibility.\"\n\n\u2022 It proposed a sufficiency graph (Figure 1) that reflects the interplay between quality of the mark and quantity of minutiae observed during the analysis of the mark and its relation to the decision thresholds and levels of complexity based on a consensus of collective experience. The sufficiency graph is intended to illustrate the intellectual process involved with the examination of friction ridge detail and the ensuing decisions. It illustrates thresholds wherein examiners should recognize the need for, and provide, enhanced documentation supporting their conclusions.\n\nFigure 1 Sufficiency graph showing the interplay between quality and quantity of minutiae observed during the analysis of the mark and its relation to the decision thresholds and levels of complexity. Adapted from Scientific Working Group on Friction Ridge Analysis Study and Technology (SWGFAST), Standards for Examining Friction Ridge Impressions and Resulting Conclusions, Ver. 1.0, <http:\/\/www.swgfast.org\/documents\/examinations-conclusions\/111026_Examinations-Conclusions_1.0.pdf>.\n\nHence, it is important not to view the IAI 1973 resolution and its progeny as the promotion of a \"laissez-faire\" approach. It has to be deployed within explicit guidelines defining quality and quantity.\n\n## Range of Possible Conclusions in the Field\n\nMost contemporary experts refuse to give qualified opinions on friction ridge skin comparisons that do not meet the minimum requirements for an identification. From this standpoint, it is not encouraged to speak of association of strengths weaker than an individualization. It means that the last part of Locard's tripartite rule is not used in most countries. Only a few other countries are using such evidence as corroborative evidence. For example, in Belgium where there are between 8 and 12 points of agreement between a questioned fingermark and a fingerprint (without discrepancies), it is stated that \"the fingerprint could be the same as the fingermark being examined.\" Therefore, apart from a few exceptions, Locard's third directive was totally forgotten as the use of dactyloscopy became widespread, thus giving this form of evidence its very distinctive character compared to other forms of impression evidence. In widespread practice, nowadays, the comparison between a mark and a print can be proof of identification or exclusion or it is declared as \"inconclusive,\" without conveying any assessment of its evidential value. This is sometimes described as the \"positivity\" of the field. In 1979, during the annual IAI conference, a resolution was approved prohibiting members from giving testimony on qualified identifications. This resolution was widely debated before being revised and accepted in 1980. The IAI experts then rejected the idea of using friction ridge skin evidence as corroborative evidence in the following terms (Resolution 1980\u20135, Amending Resolution 1979\u20137): \"THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED that any member, officer or certified latent print examiner who initiates or volunteers oral or written reports, or testimony of possible, probable or likely friction ridge identification, or who, when required in a judicial proceeding to provide such reports or testimony, does not qualify it with a statement that the print in question could be that of someone else, shall be deemed to be engaged in conduct unbecoming such member,...\".\n\nAdopting such a policy means that in countries using numerical standards, for instance Italy, a fingerprint comparison with 16 concordant minutiae is an identification, whereas a comparison presenting only 15 points is not a probative evidence and should not be presented in court. Such a rule can easily result in difficult situations when, for example, a suspect is arrested and identified in one country on the basis of an identification with 12 points is to be judged in a neighboring country where 16 points are explicitly required.\n\nSome authors and sources consider that the resolution voted by the IAI in 1980\u2014rejecting any testimony providing support in favor of identification or exclusion\u2014is opposed to the scientific principles governing the interpretation of evidence in forensic science. They propose that it is erroneous to consider that evidence from friction ridge skin comparison is only a dichotomic form of proof, uniquely applicable to identifications or nonidentifications. The interpretation cannot be so drastic, so clear-cut; there is an increasing scale of strength from exclusion to identification.\n\nIn fact, there is no logical reason to suppress these levels between exclusion and identification. Each piece of evidence is relevant if it tends to make the matter at issue more or less probable than otherwise. The refusal of qualified opinions is only a policy decision.\n\nOften, probabilities have been excluded from the field arguing that each portion of a friction ridge skin impression, no matter how small, can only have come from one finger. It is the individuality of the papillary impression that is at question and not the individuality of the skin surface that produced it. The transfer of material in criminalistics, as defined by Locard, logically implies, by definition, a loss of information. For friction ridge skin, this loss may be of two types: quantitative (due to the limited size of the trace) and qualitative (blurring, bad definition, loss of pore details, etc.). The concept encapsulates a continuum of values in that a feature may have a discriminative value ranging from very low to very high.\n\nLocard's third directive is fundamental and permits evidence from friction ridge skin to be on the same level as other types of impression evidence (or more generally forensic evidence). Some will no doubt argue that judges expect such evidence to be univocal and without compromise. This idea is false. It is obvious that any judge will prefer indisputable forms of proof but would also wish to be informed of any evidence that can lead closer to the truth. Much useful evidence should not be kept out of the courts on decision of technicians; it is up to the court to decide whether the evidence adduced is relevant.\n\nThe perceived absence of extensive statistical data on fingerprint individuality can be viewed as the main reason to prevent giving qualified opinions. Statistical data could make experts feel more comfortable in this area and make statements based on sound data obtained from significant samples. The Standardization II committee indeed recognized \"the potential value that a validated probability model would have when expressing what is currently viewed as an 'inconclusive' conclusion.\" Following its committee report, the IAI 1979\/1980 resolutions have been recently rescinded (Resolution 2010\u201318).\n\nRecently, Neumann et al. have shown that very high weights of evidence (appropriately measured using a likelihood ratio) could be obtained from comparisons between marks and prints possessing a limited number of corresponding minutiae. When mark and prints are originating from the same source, an average likelihood ratio of 105 is obtained for comparison involving only four minutiae. This strongly shows the feasibility of evaluating evidence from friction ridge skin in a probabilistic way. It is possible to obtain, with some specific minutiae on a surface (or in the absence of minutiae on a large papillary surface), probability figures that exceed the value proposed in other forensic fields (e.g., DNA), even with fewer than 12 minutiae.\n\n## The Move toward Quality\n\n### Occurrences of Errors\n\nAnalysis of results from proficiency testing or from casework clearly indicates that error is possible and that some examiners do not reach adequate quality standards. The publications of S. Cole and J. Koehler are important here. The two most notorious cases of misattribution are the case against Brandon Mayfield (USA) and the case against Shirley McKie and David Asbury (Scotland). The largest controlled study by Ulery et al. involved 17 121 presentations to a pool of examiners (N = 169). It led to six cases of false identifications\u2014a false positive rate of 0.2%.\n\nBut the evaluation of the standard of proof (or the quality of the evidence) cannot be limited to the examination of proficiency testing programs. Indeed, the corrective actions taken in an agency, following an erroneous identification, are far better indicators of quality than the report of errors (or successes). A global assessment of quality is then needed. The inquiry reports associated with the Mayfield case and the McKie\/Asbury show the importance of a quality management system.\n\n### Total Quality Management\n\nA total quality management system, based for example on the European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM) model, can be recommended and is the basis of the most recent changes in the fingerprint practice. The various aspects of such a system are illustrated in Figure 2; the program is divided here into three parts: examiners, processes, and products. For each category, the quality management scheme must specify the needs and objectives, along with the quality indicators used to monitor the system and the corrective actions available. Audits (internal and independent) permit the claims to be checked regularly.\n\nIn such a general context, proficiency testing must be regarded as only one block of the building. The value of identifications based on the examination of friction ridge skin will be better assessed on the basis of a strict quality assurance program. A large number of laboratories have now implemented quality assurance programs. A convergence is currently seen toward the adoption of the EN ISO\/IEC 17020 or 17025 standards. In 2009, the European Council issued a decision (EU Council Framework Decision 2009\/905\/JHA) requiring all forensic laboratories dealing with friction ridge skin impressions to gain accreditation under EN ISO\/IEC 17025 by 2018.\n\nFigure 2 Outline of a total quality management system for a service dealing with friction ridge skin examinations.\n\n## Conclusion\n\nLocard proposed the basic concepts determining the value of fingerprint evidence. Locard's opinions were enlightening and, above all, the most topical. From this early perspective, a large number of countries adopted a fixed (sometimes negotiable) standard in the form of a minimum number of matching minutiae required in order to conclude to an identification. This is now known as the numerical (or empirical) approach. Even if some practitioners rely on minimum numbers, they do not escape, thanks to the arbitrary limit, from the quality issues because, depending on the examiners, the interpretation of the number of minutiae in a comparison may vary to a large extent.\n\nHowever, the detailed analysis of the factors contributing to the discriminating power of friction ridge skin shows that there is no scientific argument in favor of any predefined number of minutiae (in the absence of discordance) in order to pronounce an identification. Every comparison bears its own specificity, which refrains from defining a priori the amount or volume of information needed for the identification. The decision is then taken on a case-by-case basis by the expert. The approach is called holistic (or nonnumeric). It forces the field to rely on experience, professionalism, and integrity of the examiners.\n\nFinally, following this description of fingerprint practices, what is the standard of proof? Definitely, the standard is not a predefined number of minutiae. Indeed, insisting dogmatically on any particular minimum number of points is not an effective way of insuring quality. But the holistic approach should not promote a culture of \"laissez-faire\" without boundaries. The recent document by SWGFAST provides essential limits to the practitioner. The way forward goes also hand in hand with the adoption of a scheme of quality management dealing with the various aspects of education and training, laboratory procedures, and audits.\n\nConcerning the possibility of giving corroborative opinions based on such evidence (in favor or otherwise of an individualization), it seems that from a scientific point of view, there is no argument to justify the so-called \"positivity\" of the field. Nothing opposes the use of such evidence as corroborative evidence in the same way as other forensic evidence.\n\n## See also\n\nFoundations: Overview and Meaning of Identification\/Individualization.\n\n# Sequential Unmasking\n\n## Minimizing Observer Effects in Forensic Science\n\nK. Inman California State University, Hayward, CA, USA\n\nN. Rudin Forensic DNA Consultant, Mountain View, CA, USA\n\n## Abstract\n\nBehavioral psychologists have identified numerous effects that may induce cognitive bias as humans process the external stimuli that constantly bombard them. However, these biases can work against those who make judgments and decisions about physical evidence in a forensic context. Sequential unmasking is a term that encourages the forensic scientist to reimagine conventional blind testing in a way that is more pertinent to the way forensic science is practiced. In this format, a forensic scientist receives all relevant information in an orderly fashion. The idea is to minimize the opportunities for inadvertent bias, while still providing the examiner with all the information needed for a complete and relevant analysis.\n\n### Keywords\n\nBias; Blind testing; Cognitive bias; Confirmation bias; Context effects; Domain-relevant; Forensic science; Line-up; Observer bias; Psychology; Sequential unmasking\n\nGlossary\n\nBlind testing Blind testing is a method of testing in which an examiner records the results of any test or procedure without knowing the identity of the samples or what result might be expected. In forensic science most blind testing is done in a situation where the examiner knows he\/she is being tested, but does not know what the answer is or should be. Double-blind testing is a procedure in which neither the analyst performing the testing nor the persons administering or assigning the testing (case) know the expected results of the examination. A double-blind procedure is used to guard against both confirmation bias and observer effects.\n\nConfirmation bias The tendency to test a hypothesis by looking for instances that confirm it rather than by searching for potentially falsifying instances. In a less scientific setting, the tendency to seek and interpret information that confirms existing beliefs.\n\nContext effects The influence of environmental factors on one's perception of a stimulus using top-down cognitive processing of sensory information to construct a completed perception of the observation or phenomenon.\n\nDomain-relevant The domain of a model that necessitates a restriction on the values that can be used in the task at hand. In forensic science, this comprises only that information necessary and sufficient (domain-relevant) for an analysis, comparison, or interpretation of an item or items of evidence. It is information without which the most basic physical evidence examination, analysis, and comparison cannot be correctly accomplished.\n\nObserver bias Errors that occur when the observers (or researcher team) know the goals of the study or the hypotheses and allow this knowledge to influence their observations during the study. Error is introduced into measurement and judgment when observers overemphasize results that they expect to find and fail to notice results that they do not expect.\n\nObserver effects The tendency for the desires and expectations that a person possesses to influence his\/her perception and interpretation of what he\/she observes. In other words, the results of an observation depend upon the state of the observer as well as the thing observed.\n\nSequential unmasking A process of testing whereby relevant information about the evidence is revealed (unmasked) in an orderly fashion, providing the appropriate level of domain-relevant information necessary and sufficient to perform an analysis, comparison, or interpretation on a piece of physical evidence.\n\n## The Concept of Sequential Unmasking\n\nIn 2008, a letter to the editor of Journal of Forensic Science, entitled Sequential Unmasking: A Means of Minimizing Observer Effects in Forensic DNA Interpretation, was published. Although this certainly was not the first time the concept of blinding a forensic examiner to extraneous information had been suggested, it was the first publication in the knowledge of the authors that included forensic practitioners among the authors. Other disciplines represented among the diverse group included law, psychology, economics, and statistics.\n\nThe initiative used forensic DNA typing as a model system, in part because both the existing procedures and the data itself are relatively well defined. The main contribution of the piece was to reimagine conventional blind testing in a way that would be more pertinent to the way forensic science is practiced. Hence the authors proffered the term \"sequential unmasking\" to highlight the idea that forensic scientists would receive all relevant information in an orderly fashion. The idea was to minimize the opportunities for inadvertent bias, while still providing the examiner with all the information needed for a complete and relevant analysis.\n\nSeveral key points attempted to address the practical implementation of sequential unmasking procedures. In addition to the idea of sequentially unmasking of (rather than withholding) information, the authors suggested using a case manager (not a new idea in and of itself) to manage the flow of information. Another concept discussed was the idea of domain-relevant and domain-irrelevant information. The abbreviated nature of a letter to the editor did not allow for expansion of this idea, and it will be explored further in this article. Finally, the authors proposed that, although it undoubtedly would be more challenging, sequential unmasking procedures should certainly be applied to forensic disciplines other than DNA.\n\n## The Foundational Basis for Cognitive Effects\n\nThe previous edition of this Encyclopedia included an article by William C. Thompson on observer effects, context effects, and confirmation bias in forensic science. So as not to be repetitive, the reader is referred to that article for more extensive background information that is only briefly summarized here. An extensive list of references is also provided at the end of this article.\n\nAlthough many different terms are used to describe different aspects of effects that may induce cognitive bias, the reader is cautioned to avoid being distracted by the different terms of art such as observer effects, context effects, confirmation bias; the important point is that no human being, and forensic practitioners are human beings, operates in a vacuum. Human beings live in the real world and are constantly bombarded by external stimuli. The way in which humans process those stimuli allows them to function at a high level. However, the filters (schemata in the language of psychology) that higher brain functions use to organize information prioritize and emphasize some information over other information. While this is useful and necessary for survival, it can affect, indeed bias, the way we make decisions. Judgment and decision making lie at the heart of interpreting forensic data.\n\nThe underlying idea of context and observer effects derives from a rich and well-documented cognitive psychology literature. Certainly, the idea that human beings do not always recognize all of the factors that influence their judgments and decisions is widely accepted in the field of psychology. Additionally, an extensive knowledge base documenting the existence of cognitive effects exists in the history of science itself, as well as current systematic empirical studies, and syntheses and meta-analyses of experimental data, and case reports. It is simply impossible to disassociate the inherent characteristics of an object or event from the state of the observer and the context in which the observation takes place; the very act of human observation alters the ultimate perception. The tendency of observers to perceive and interpret data in a manner consistent with their preconceptions is exhibited most strongly in the face of ambiguous data, and either strong emotions or clear expectations.\n\n### Cognitive Effects Occur at a Subconscious Level\n\nIt is worthwhile emphasizing two key concepts that seem to be perpetually misunderstood. First, the type of potential bias exerted by context, observer, and other related effects occurs without humans being aware of it; it works at a level that cannot be accessed by the conscious mind. Therefore, no matter how well meaning, well educated, and well trained the analyst, he\/she is incapable of simply willing away such influences; expertise does not insulate one from the influence of expectation and situation. This means that the most effective way to minimize opportunities for potential bias is procedural.\n\n### Susceptibility to Cognitive Effects is Not a Flaw\n\nSecond, susceptibility to context effects is not a weakness or failing in the expert; it derives from the way the human brain processes and organizes information, a capability essential to the functioning and survival of humans in the natural world. However, in the situations previously described, including the examination of physical evidence in a forensic context, it can work against individuals.\n\n### The Most Effective Antidote to Cognitive Effects is Procedural\n\nIn order to combat the potential biasing effects inherent in the observer and ubiquitous in context, blind testing protocols have become standard operating procedure in many scientific disciplines, including clinical \"evidence-based\" medicine, research science, and other applied sciences; the idea is culturally embedded to the point that it is simply taken for granted as \"good practice.\" It is even exemplified in scholarly publications as the well-known anonymous peer-review process. Blind and double-blind testing protocols further pervade such diverse arenas as consumer product testing, music auditions, and grading student exams.\n\n## Support for Blind Testing in Forensic Science\n\nGiven that physical evidence items associated with crime events can, by their very nature, present extremely ambiguous data, and that, unquestionably, the criminal arena, and even the civil arena, represent some of the most emotionally heightened contexts imaginable, the forensic examination of physical evidence provides a strong confluence of factors provoking cognitive effects. Additionally, subjective judgment by the human observer pervades the interpretation of forensic evidence. Although no discipline is immune, including DNA typing, it is pattern evidence (e.g., fingerprints, shoe prints, toolmarks, and firearms) that appears most vulnerable to biasing influences. The random pattern nature of this type of evidence is both strength and weakness. The randomness of the patterns generates the diversity; however, that same characteristic also creates challenges in defining objective interpretation criteria. Additionally, as currently practiced, the comparisons rely almost entirely on human judgment to form conclusions about whether a particular evidence item could derive from a specific source. Lest the reader infer that DNA and other types of instrumental evidence are immune to observer effects, it is important to point out that any physical evidence loses clarity and gains ambiguity as it increases in complexity and decreases in quantity and quality. Interestingly, while research has been performed to investigate the consequence of context effects on fingerprints, proposals to investigate whether the same phenomenon occurs with ambiguous DNA profiles have been dismissed as unnecessary research (personal knowledge, authors).\n\nNevertheless, no one, not even the most vocal critics, has suggested that most, or even many, conclusions derived from the comparison of pattern evidence are patently erroneous due to the subtle influence of observer effects. However, psychology predicts and a growing body of research confirms that in a demonstrable number of cases in which ambiguous evidence is analyzed by an examiner who is presented with information that is unnecessary to perform the initial comparison, his\/her conclusion may change substantively and directionally with the extraneous information. Sufficient evidence exists, both from research and from casework examples, that the potential for observer bias can no longer be refuted or ignored.\n\nPsychological and social studies of science inform us that context information, such as expectations about what one is supposed to see or conclude, has been found to exert a small but relentless impact on human perception, judgment, and decision-making. Given the potentially momentous consequences of an erroneous conclusion made in the forensic setting, it seems surprising to many observers that safeguards to minimize the chance of analyst bias are not instituted as a matter of course. Even if a frank error resulting from one of several types of cognitive bias occurs only rarely, is not the cost (whether monetary or in human resources) worth the potential benefit (life or liberty of a human being)? And if the cost is relatively small, would it not be easier for forensic scientists to be able preemptively to dismiss any accusation of possible bias affecting their examination? In the next section, some of the objections voiced from within the forensic community to implementing sequential unmasking protocols are discussed.\n\n## Arguments against Blind Testing in Forensic Science\n\nAlthough isolated pockets of support exist, the forensic science profession as a whole has yet to embrace the idea of instituting infrastructural and procedural solutions that minimize the opportunity for analyst bias. Although the profession appears to be slowly accepting the idea that potential for inadvertent bias exists, there remains a general resistance to embrace procedural solutions to minimize the opportunity for context and observer effects. Why is this?\n\nPerhaps because forensic scientists operate in an adversarial situation imposed by the legal system, they tend to be sensitive to perceived accusations implying a lack of integrity. Some, whether through mishearing or misunderstanding, confuse observer effects with deliberate fraud or base incompetence. They point to the fact that examples of patent fraud are relatively rare (true, but irrelevant) and that competence should be addressed through training and education (also true, and also irrelevant). Although some instances of these other problems may be detected using procedures to minimize bias, the directed goal of sequential unmasking is to address the unintentional and unintended influences of observer and context effects on forensic examinations. They should be welcomed as protective measures to insulate the expert from both the actuality and the perception of bias.\n\nAnother argument is that the potential cost in both monetary and human resources to institute sequential unmasking protocols outweighs the benefit of reducing the relatively small number of frank errors resulting from observer effects. Some argue that it would be very difficult to make the changes in an institutionalized system, and that efficiency would be so severely affected as to render implementation of sequential unmasking procedures unworkable. Certainly, some of this depends on the extent of the changes, as well as how they are implemented. Supporters argue that relatively simple measures can be put in place immediately, and more complex institutional changes could be introduced over time. One way to actually measure impact and efficiency might be first to implement variations of sequential unmasking procedures on a limited basis, perhaps using a model system. This would be particularly useful for disciplines in which the information flow is less obvious than for forensic DNA typing. On the other hand, several laboratories are known which have already implemented at least first level type sequential unmasking procedures (analyzing and documenting evidence items before comparison with reference items) in their DNA sections virtually seamlessly.\n\nYet another objection to implement sequential unmasking procedures via a case-manager approach decries a waste of expertise among laboratory personnel. Those who make this argument have apparently misunderstood the intention of a case-manager system in the context of sequential unmasking. The case manager would be a high-level scientist within the laboratory (not a law enforcement officer external to the laboratory, as has been suggested by at least one critic), and no reason exists why the duty should not rotate among qualified examiners. The assumption of a static case-manager role that would relegate all other analysts in the laboratory to mere technicians is an artificial and insubstantial roadblock. Said another way, it is the proverbial straw man.\n\nA more substantial complaint about sequential unmasking is that it would somehow deprive the examiner of information required to competently and fully interpret forensic evidence in the context of the case. Again, the fear appears to embody the image of a laboratory full of mere technicians, supervised by detectives and attorneys, who would direct the flow of information and interpret the evidence in the context of the case. This could not be further from the intention of the architects of sequential unmasking. Assuming the forensic scientist has received the appropriate education and training, and acquired some reasonable amount of experience, that expert can and should assist the justice system in understanding the evidence in the context of the case; in fact it would be incompetent and irresponsible not to provide this expertise. However, it is not necessary for the practitioner to receive all the information at the beginning of the examination to accomplish this goal. The examiner can be protected from context and observer effects by sequentially revealing information to him\/her in a sequential fashion, on an as-needed basis. This might begin with the minimal information required to properly and adequately sample and analyze a piece of evidence. At each subsequent step of analysis and interpretation, additional information required to proceed would be revealed. At the end of any particular procedure, the analyst would be privy to all domain-relevant information; when the technical analysis has been completed and documented, information that might only be questionably domain-relevant can be unveiled as well. This allows for the documentation of results in an orderly fashion, including any modifications resulting from the new information. This will generate a complete record of how conclusions may have been updated with the acquisition of new knowledge about the case.\n\nSome have acknowledged that the potential for cognitive bias exists, but that those concerns are completely addressed by quality assurance measures already in place. Specifically they offer that \"peer review\" and \"blind verification\" offer protection equivalent to or better than sequential unmasking procedures. First, the term \"peer review\" properly applies to a specific process through which a manuscript submitted for publication in a professional journal is anonymously reviewed by several individuals in the same field to determine its suitability for publication. Co-opting this term as a synonym for the internal technical review performed in a forensic laboratory is inappropriate and misleading. It implies greater weight and authority to an internal technical review than is merited, conferring upon it a false sense of autonomy and independence.\n\nUse of the term \"verification\" to describe an independent examination of an item or data is also problematic. The term strongly implies that the conclusion of the primary analyst will in fact be verified and would seem to leave little room for refutation. As thought follows language, it has been suggested that more neutral terms, such as independent examination, analysis, or interpretation, are more appropriate than verification. Most importantly though, there is no knowledge of any published data that indicate that the implementation of these types of quality assurance measures, as used by forensic laboratories today, minimizes observer bias. These procedures, while useful and necessary for other reasons, do not substitute for sequential unmasking.\n\nOne highly debated parallel is the experience of clinical medicine, in particular, radiology. Some advocates of blinding procedures in forensic science point to the interpretation of body scans as an analogy for interpreting forensic evidence. They offer that radiologic films are always interpreted by technicians who are expert in reading the data, but who are never provided with information about other symptoms. The physician, then, is the expert who puts the blind conclusion of the radiologist into context with the rest of the symptoms and diagnoses the disease. Many in the forensic community are offended by this analogy, arguing that (1) the forensic practitioner is more analogous to the physician than to the radiologic technician and (2) many radiologists are provided with patient histories, and in fact are not blinded to extraneous information. A paucity of information, published or otherwise, makes it difficult to determine whether strong support exists for either point of view.\n\nFinally, critics have complained that advocates of sequential unmasking intend that it should be imposed only upon prosecution laboratories, while independent experts working mostly for the defense remain privy to all case information from the beginning of their review. While implementation is certainly more challenging in the private sector for a variety of reasons, independent experts should not be immune from implementing sequential unmasking procedures. The most critical aspect, that of analyzing evidence items, as well as documenting the characteristics of the evidence before comparison to any reference items, can be readily accomplished even by the sole practitioner. Any laboratory, government or independent, would require additional infrastructure to completely implement sequential unmasking protocols.\n\n## Sequential Unmasking in Forensic Science\n\nBecause so many forensic practitioners interpret blind testing procedures to mean that they will be forever and enduringly blind to any and all case information, and will be restricted to performing a simple technician-type comparison as an endpoint, it is important to clarify the basic sequential unmasking protocol. Both descriptors, sequential and unmasking, are meaningful and critical. Together, they describe a linear flow of information, beginning with only the most essential pieces, and then in an orderly stepwise fashion, revealing additional information that may expand to include the entire case circumstance, if appropriate. The idea is that observations, results, and conclusions will be documented at each step. The practitioner is not locked into any particular statement made at some point in the analysis; rather, if his\/her conclusions change, the reasoning supporting that change is documented such that it may be subject to future review. While, at first, this may seem restrictive, even burdensome, such a stepwise procedure not only minimizes opportunities for potentially biasing context and observer effects but also protects the analyst from gratuitous accusations of bias. If the analyst has documented the initial characterization of the evidence and the subsequent comparison, he\/she may then properly consider additional information, and eventually, interpret the evidence in the context of the case, secure in the knowledge that he\/she has protected herself from undue influences during the initial evaluation, examination, analysis, and comparison. Such a process patently precludes any notion that the analyst would ultimately lack information relevant to a complete and informed conclusion.\n\nThe responsible forensic professional not only may, but must, eventually consider the evidence in the context of the case. Both the initial blinding and the subsequent revelation are critical to the competent practice of forensic science. Interpreting the evidence in context with other physical evidence analyses, case facts, or other information should not be left to law enforcement or legal players, who may lack critical expertise in the examination or interpretation of physical evidence. In the perennial words of Robert Rosenthal, the practitioner should be kept \"as blind as possible for as long as possible.\" The requisite addition to that statement is that the practitioner should receive information in an orderly, documented fashion so as to fully assist the judicial system in understanding the import of the physical evidence.\n\n## Domain-Relevant (and Domain-Irrelevant) Information\n\nThe idea of domain-relevant (and conversely domain-irrelevant) information may have been introduced in the seminal paper by Saks et al. It is a fundamental concept in applying sequential unmasking and is mentioned in the JFS letter, but because it has not been subject to subsequent discussion or expansion, the concept has remained unnecessarily mysterious. Consequently, a fair amount of consternation has ensued about this concept. This concern is exacerbated by the fact that no detailed discussion has followed, nor has any guidance been provided as to how to incorporate it into an evidence examination protocol.\n\nThe idea of domain relevance is probably better defined dynamically rather than statically. In other words, although examples and general guidelines can be proffered, determining the relevancy of various pieces of information on a case-by-case basis is, in fact, one of the roles of the case manager. In a larger sense, determining what information is necessary and sufficient (domain-relevant) for a technical comparison and at what stage it should be provided is likely a discipline-specific exercise. It cannot and should not be imposed from above or from outside the discipline. That would be a recipe for disaster. Only those intimately involved in the examination and analysis of a particular type of evidence know what information is intrinsic and essential to an initial analysis or comparison, and which information can be revealed at later stages in the process to optimize the sequential unmasking procedure for the best analysis with the least opportunity for bias.\n\nGenerally, domain-relevant information can be understood as that without which the most basic physical evidence examination, analysis, and comparison cannot be accomplished. The primary items obviously include the evidence sample and, after the evidence examination is complete and fully documented, the reference or exemplar sample. However, the comparison of the two might require additional information that is not intrinsic to the items being compared. For example, the presence of a scale is required for both the evidence and exemplar prints in a shoeprint comparison; otherwise an insufficient basis exists on which to base a comparison. In DNA analysis, information that the evidence derives from an intimate sample would be revealed early in the process so that the analyst could proceed with mixture deconvolution, but only after the evidence sample was analyzed and a commitment made (in the form of documentation) to the types present. It would certainly be appropriate to reveal the profile of the intimate reference source so as to deconvolve a mixture before comparison with a suspect reference sample. Some examiners have argued that knowledge about the substrate on which a fingerprint was deposited is critical domain-relevant information required for a competent analysis; other observers, however, have argued that the pattern inherent in the print can and should be interpreted first absent this knowledge, or even that this information would and should not change determination of characteristics in the evidence print. Another point of current discussion in the fingerprint community is when an examiner should be informed that a set of exemplars is the result of an Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) database search.\n\nOne might ask whether an examiner should consider the results of a related analysis from another discipline in the interpretation of his\/her results. For example, assume that a usable fingerprint is located on a gun, and a small portion of the ridge detail is also tested for DNA. Assume that they implicate different individuals. One would not want to take the chance that either analyst would be influenced by the conclusions of the other, especially if the evidence is ambiguous. However, clearly, someone eventually has to think about an explanation for the apparently discrepant results. Was there an error in collection or analysis? Was another fluid present on the weapon underneath the fingerprint? Was an adjacent area sampled that would inform the examiner about background material? Does another possible case-related explanation exist that could reconcile the results? Again, this is the value of the case manager. But ultimately, after each discipline-specific examiner has completed his\/her analysis, and documented his\/her results and conclusions, no reason exists to withhold this information, or not to solicit his\/her input as to explanations for the apparent discrepancy. The solution lies in the orderly sequence of unmasking information, and careful and complete documentation of data, interpretations and conclusions at each step.\n\nFinally, examples of information that are clearly domain-irrelevant are considered. For example, the physical evidence examiner does not need to know that the suspect has a rap sheet 12 miles long, or that he\/she has confessed to the crime, or that eyewitness reports place him\/her at the scene. He\/she does not need to know that this is a high-profile case commanding media attention. Yet this type of information is regularly included in sensational fashion on requests for evidence examination. A generalization of such a request is to name the suspect as the factual perpetrator of the crime, and to emphasize that positive results are required to arrest and charge a suspect, or to apprehend him\/her because he\/she is a flight risk. Every examiner has seen specific variations of this transmittal. While the back story certainly serves to put a human face on what might otherwise be a mundane, even boring, occupation, providing this information up front jeopardizes the objective analysis that can, in the end, provide the most reliable and useful results to the judicial system. No one is suggesting that the analyst never learn the case story; in fact by the conclusion of a case, often after a conversation with the detective, and certainly if a case proceeds to trial, the examiner will be fully informed, fully aware, perhaps even immersed, in the case details. However, if the order of information revelation is controlled, both the practitioner and the analysis are protected and the information offered to the criminal justice system is more secure.\n\nIt is neither an easy nor a trivial exercise to formulate standards for domain-relevant information or to determine a dividing point between that and domain-irrelevant information. Nevertheless, such difficulties do not justify the complete absence of standards of practice that now exist. A useful and practical plan would be for the various disciplines that comprise forensic science to meet and begin discussing this matter. The forensic community would do well to take ownership of this issue before it is imposed upon them from the outside.\n\n## Exemplar Line-Ups\n\nA procedure that is different from conventional blind testing, and which could be very useful to incorporate into a sequential unmasking protocol, is exemplar line-ups. This procedure has in the past been referred to as \"evidence line-ups.\" This is a misnomer, hence confusing. The line-up consists of several known reference samples that might be considered as the source of the evidence; no additional evidence samples are introduced.\n\nEveryone is familiar with photo line-ups presented to eyewitnesses. It is standard practice for the photo pack to be presented as a line-up (a group of images at the same time), and officers are instructed to avoid either verbal or physical cues to the eyewitness that might prejudice them toward a particular photo. How well this is accomplished in practice can be debated, but the intent is correct.\n\nA physical evidence line-up would proceed in a similar fashion. For example, the fingerprint examiner would receive a group of ten-print exemplars, one of which is from the suspect; the others would be prints exhibiting similar patterns, but unrelated to the crime event. In this way, the examiner avoids the inherent bias that the suspect is the source of the evidence print simply because his\/her 10-print card was submitted as the only exemplar for comparison to the evidence print. This procedure is readily extended to just about any discipline in which comparisons are required to determine source. Certainly, detractors will argue that the extra time and work to perform multiple comparisons is not worth the cost in human and monetary resources to achieve the potential benefit. These questions could be addressed by simple experiments using model systems.\n\n## Conclusion\n\nWhile the existence of cognitive effects leading to observer bias is well documented in the cognitive psychology literature, and the idea of blind testing is widely accepted across various scientific and medical disciplines, these ideas have historically been dismissed by the forensic profession. Although the potential for bias is beginning to be more widely accepted by forensic practitioners, resistance to procedural solutions remains significant. The reader is referred to the extensive bibliography offered below for additional information and education on these current and critical issues.\n\n## See also\n\nBiology\/DNA: Forensic DNA Advisory Groups: DAB, SWGDAM, ENFSI, and BSAG; Low-Template DNA Testing; Mixture Interpretation (Interpretation of Mixed DNA Profiles with STRs Only); Chemistry\/Trace\/Fibers: Fiber: Protocols for Examination; Identification and Comparison; Interpretation of Fiber Evidence; Chemistry\/Trace\/Glass: Interpretation of Glass Evidence; Chemistry\/Trace\/Miscellaneous Unknowns: The Forensic Analysis of Chemical Unknowns; Chemistry\/Trace\/Paint and Coating: Interpretation of Paint Evidence; Foundations: Evidence\/Classification; Forensic Intelligence; History of Forensic Sciences; Overview and Meaning of Identification\/Individualization; Principles of Forensic Science; Semiotics, Heuristics, and Inferences Used by Forensic Scientists; Statistical Interpretation of Evidence: Bayesian Analysis; The Frequentist Approach to Forensic Evidence Interpretation; Foundations\/Fundamentals: Measurement Uncertainty; Legal: DNA Exonerations; Expert Witness Qualifications and Testimony; Forensic Laboratory Reports; History of the Law's Reception of Forensic Science; International Courts and Forensic Science; Legal Aspects of Forensic Science; Legal Systems: Adversarial and Inquisitorial; The Innocence Project; When Science Changes, How Does Law Respond; Management\/Quality in Forensic Science: Accreditation; Certification; Effectiveness; Risk Management; Standard Methods; Pattern Evidence: Analysis, Comparison, Evaluation, and Verification (ACE-V); Bare Footprint Marks; Footwear Marks; Palm Prints; Physical Match; Plastic Bag Striations; The Friction Ridge Skin of the Feet; Tools; Vehicle Tire Marks and Tire Track Measurement; Pattern Evidence\/Fingerprints (Dactyloscopy): Friction Ridge Print Examination \u2013 Interpretation and the Comparative Method; Friction Ridge Skin Impression Evidence \u2013 Standards of Proof; Pattern Evidence\/History: Fingerprint Sciences; Professional: Continuing Professional Development; Education and Accreditation in Forensic Science; Ethics; National Academy of Sciences (NAS); Research and Publishing; Training to Competence.\n\n## Further Reading\n\nAsimov E. _Wine's Pleasures: Are They All in Your Head?_ New York Times; May 7, 2008.\n\nBalcetis E, Dale R. 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A perspective on errors, bias, and interpretation in the forensic sciences and direction for continuing advancement. _Journal of Forensic Sciences_. 2009;54(4):798\u2013809.\n\nBuss D.M, ed. _The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology_. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons; 2005.\n\nByrne A, Eysenck M.V. Individual differences in positive and negative interpretative biases. _Personality and Individual Differences_. 1993;14:849\u2013851.\n\nCahen L.S. _An Experimental Manipulation of the 'Halo Effect': A Study of Teacher Bias_. 1965 Unpublished manuscript, Stanford University (Cited In: Rosenthal, R., 1976. Experimenter Effects in Behavioral Research, enlarged ed. Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York).\n\nCampbell D.T. Systematic errors to be expected of the social scientist on the basis of a general psychology of cognitive bias. In: Blanck P.D, ed. _Interpersonal Expectations: Theory, Research, and Applications_. New York: Cambridge University Press; 1993.\n\nCaverni J.P, Peris J.L. The anchoring-adjustment heuristic in an \"information rich, real world setting\": knowledge assessment by experts. In: Caverni J.P, Fabre M, Gonzalez M, eds. _Advances in Psychology_. vol. 68. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers B.V; 1990:35\u201346.\n\nCharlton D, Fraser-Mackenzie P, Dror I.E. Emotional experiences and motivating factors associated with fingerprint analysis. _Journal of Forensic Science_. 2010;55:385\u2013393.\n\nCordaro L, Ison J.R. Observer bias classical conditioning of the planarian. _Psychological Reports_. 1963;13:787\u2013789.\n\nDas-Smaal E.A. Biases in categorization. In: Caverni J.P, Fabre M, Gonzalez M, eds. _Advances in Psychology_. vol. 68. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers B.V; 1990:349\u2013386.\n\nDaston L.J. Scientific error and the ethos of belief. _Social Research_. 2005;72(18):1\u201318.\n\nDitto P.H, Lopez D.F. Motivated skepticism: use of differential decision criteria for preferred and non preferred conclusions. _Journal of Personality and Social Psychology_. 1992;63:568\u2013584.\n\nDror, I.E. Friction Ridge Sourcebook, SWGFAST, NIJ. <http:\/\/www.ojp.usdoj.gov\/nij\/pubs-sum\/225320.htm>.\n\nDror, I.E. How can Francis Bacon help forensic science? the four idols of human biases. Jurimetrics: The Journal of Law, Science, and Technology.\n\nDror, I.E. Paradoxical functional degradation in human expertise. In: Kapur, N., Pascual-Leone, Ramachandran, V.S. (Eds.), The Paradoxical Brain. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.\n\nDror I.E, Charlton D. Why experts make errors. _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 2006;56(4):600\u2013616.\n\nDror I.E, Charlton D, Peron A. Contextual information renders experts vulnerable to making erroneous identification. _Forensic Science International_. 2006;156:74\u201378.\n\nDror, I.E., Cole, S.A. The vision in 'blind' justice: expert perception, judgment and visual cognition in forensic pattern recognition. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review.\n\nDror I.E, Fraser-Mackenzie P.A.F. Cognitive biases in human perception, judgment, and decision making: bridging theory and the real world. In: Rossmo K, ed. _Criminal Investigative Failures_. Oxford, UK: Taylor & Francis; 2008.\n\nDror, I.E.,Mnookin, J. The use of technology in human expert domains: challenges and risks arising from the use of automated fingerprint identification systems in forensics. Law, Probability and Risk.\n\nDror I.E, Peron A.E, Hind S.-L, Charlton D. When emotions get the better of us: the effect of contextual top-down processing on matching fingerprints. _Applied Cognitive Psychology_. 2005;19:799\u2013809.\n\nDror I.E, Rosenthal R. Meta-analytically quantifying the reliability and biasability of forensic experts. _Journal of Forensic Sciences_. 2008;53(4):900\u2013903.\n\nEdwards K, Smith E.E. A disconfirmation bias in the evaluation of arguments. _Journal of Personality and Social Psychology_. 1996;71:5\u201324.\n\nFeinstein A.R. The stethoscope. A source of diagnostic and conceptual errors in rheumatic heart disease. _Journal of Chronic Diseases_. 1960;11:91\u2013101.\n\nFisher R.A. Has Mendel's work been rediscovered? _Annals of Science_. 1936;1:115\u2013137.\n\nGilovich T. _How We Know What Isn't So: The Fallibility of Human Reason in Everyday Life_. New York, NY: The Free Press; 1991.\n\nGirotto V, Politzer G. Conversational and world knowledge constraints on deductive reasoning. In: Caverni J.P, Fabre M, Gonzalez M, eds. _Advances in Psychology_. vol. 68. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers B.V; 1990:87\u2013108.\n\nGoldin C, Rouse C. Orchestrating impartiality: the impact of \"blind\" auditions on female musicians. _The American Economic Review_. 2000;90(4):715\u2013741.\n\nGoldstein R, Almenberg J, Dreber A, Emerson J.W, Herschkowitsch A, Katz J. _Do More Expensive Wines Taste Better? Evidence from a Large Sample of Blind Tastings_ AAWE Working Paper No. 16. American Association of Wine Economists; 2008.\n\nGuerin B. What do people think about the risks of driving? Implications for traffic safety interventions. _Journal of Applied Social Psychology_. 1994;24:994\u20131021.\n\nHarris M.J, Rosenthal R. The mediation of interpersonal expectancy effects: 31 meta-analyses. _Psychological Bulletin_. 1985;97:363\u2013386.\n\nHartl D.L, Fairbanks D.J. Mud sticks: on the alleged falsification of Mendel's data in perspectives. In: Crow J.F, Dove W.F, eds. _Anecdotal, Historical and Critical Commentaries on Genetics_. Bethesda, MD: Genetics Society of America; 2007.\n\nHaselton M.G, Nettle D, Andrews P.W. The evolution of cognitive bias. In: Buss D.M, ed. _Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology_. Hoboken: Wiley; 2005:724\u2013746.\n\nHeuer Jr. R.J. _Psychology of Intelligence Analysis. Center for the Study of Intelligence_. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency; 1999.\n\nHodge E. Guarding against error. _Journal of the Association of Firearms and Toolmark Examiners_. 1988;20:290\u2013292.\n\nJStBT E. _Bias in Human Reasoning: Causes and Consequences_. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum; 1989.\n\nJStBT E, Barston J.L, Pollard P. On the logic and belief in syllogistic reasoning. _Memory and Cognition_. 1983;11(3):295\u2013306.\n\nJStBT E, Pollard P. Belief bias and problem complexity in deductive reasoning. In: Caverni J.P, Fabre M, Gonzalez M, eds. _Advances in Psychology_. vol. 68. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers; 1990:131\u2013154.\n\nKennedy J.L, Uphoff H.F. Experiments on the nature of extra-sensory perception: III. The recording error criticism of extra-chance scores. _Journal of Parapsychology_. 1939;3:226\u2013245.\n\nKerstholt J.H, Paashuis R, Sjerps M. Shoe print examinations: effects of expectation, complexity and experience. _Forensic Science International_. 2006;165:30\u201334.\n\nKety S. Biochemical theories of schizophrenia. _Science_. 1959;129 1528\u20131532; 1590\u20131596.\n\nKrane D.E, Ford F, Gilder J.R, et al. Sequential unmasking: a means of minimizing observer effects in forensic DNA interpretation. _Journal of Forensic Sciences_. 2008;53(4):1006\u20131007.\n\nKunda Z. The case for motivated reasoning. _Psychological Bulletin_. 1990;108(3):480\u2013498.\n\nLangenburg G, Champod C, Wertheim P. Testing for potential contextual bias effects during the verification stage of the ACE-V methodology when conducting fingerprint comparisons. _Journal of Forensic Sciences_. 2009;54(3):571\u2013582.\n\nLee L, Frederick S, Ariely D. 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In: _94th Semi-Annual Seminar of the California Association of Criminalists, Ontario, CA, 14\u201316 October_. 1999.\n\nZhaoping L, Guyader N. Interference with bottom-up feature detection by higher-level object recognition. _Current Biology_. 2007;17:26\u201331.\n\n# Overview and Meaning of Identification\/Individualization\n\nC. Champod University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland\n\n## Abstract\n\nTwo traditional inferential schemes for the question of identification of source are presented. The first leads to decisions (typically individualization or exclusion) and the second to the provision of corroborative information (e.g., possible, probable, very probable association, etc.). Both of these schemes are traditionally applied with reference to a relevant population size set to its maximum in what has been called an open set framework (or the Earth population paradigm). One of them requires, in addition, a decision step implying a cost\/benefit analysis. The logical difficulties associated with both schemes are exposed to a final question if these practices are reasonable for forensic cases.\n\nAn alternative scheme, the Bayesian interpretation framework, overcomes most of these difficulties, in particular, by relaxing the necessity of adopting a given prior framework and applying decision thresholds. It provides to the forensic scientist and the fact finder clarification of their duties and a coherent way of assessing and presenting identification evidence.\n\n### Keywords\n\nBayesian framework; Identification; Individualization; Inference of source\n\n## The Identification Process: A Reduction Process to a Single Source\n\nThe definition of identification in forensic science may differ largely from the one accepted in science, where the term \"identification\" is simply used to describe the attribution of an object to a definite class. In criminalistics, the identification process seeks, ultimately, individualization. For forensic scientists, identifying an object means it is possible to distinguish this object from all the objects considered. In the forensic literature, the problem of identity of source is often and unfortunately treated by reference to \"class\" and \"individual\" characteristics (Table 1).\n\nComparisons that lead to agreement, only in terms of class characteristics (without significant differences), will end up with \"group identification\" conclusions. Only when corresponding individual characteristics are present in conjunction with class characteristics, positive identification or individualization conclusions can be drawn. The definitions of \"class\" and \"individual\" characteristics are only conventional ways of describing selectivity.\n\nHowever, the problem of inferring identity of source is more complex than a simple dichotomy between class and individual characteristics. As illustrated in Table 2, practitioners have traditionally distinguished the forensic fields that can lead to individualization and those leading rarely (in the present state of the art) to individualization, but more commonly to corroborative information of various strengths.\n\nThe arguments developed in this article should bring the reader to realize that these contrasts (class vs individual; corroborative vs individualization) have no foundation. All identification disciplines constitute corroborative information of strengths that change from one discipline to the other as a function of the discriminative ability of the features revealed by the unknown mark under consideration.\n\nIn most forensic scenarios, the pool of potential sources is not entirely forensically investigated, but the inquiry will focus on a limited set of suspected sources. Had all the other sources but the suspect been excluded by forensic examination, then identity of source would be declared applying a trivial deductive argument (regardless of the features considered). But in typical casework, such a deductive process is not feasible, and therefore, identity of source must be inferred and the process is probabilistic in nature. We had to wait for Kwan in 1977 to provide a reasoned account of how criminalists infer identity of source. The identification process can be seen as a reduction process, from an initial population to a restricted class or, ultimately, to unity. The initial population constitutes control objects or persons, depending on the type of evidence. The process combines two factors:\n\n\u2022 A relevant population of control persons or objects defined by its size (and\/or other particularities). Put in another way, each member of this population of sources can be seen as a possible source.\n\n\u2022 A reduction factor resulting from the combination of concordant characteristics of determined selectivity. In fact, the reduction is proportional to the rarity or relative occurrence of these observed characteristics in that relevant population. We will call it at times, the match probability. As Kwan indicates: \"this is the sheer rarity of a feature that is important as rarity of that feature with respect to the set of suspected sources being considered. It is important to stress that rarity is relative to the situation at hand.\"\n\nWith respect to the size of the relevant population, an \"open set\" framework will be distinguished from a \"closed set\" framework.\n\n\u2022 The open set framework implies that the population at large is considered; meaning, for example, that all living persons on Earth or all produced objects on Earth are taken into consideration as potential sources. Given the population considered here, the term \"Earth population paradigm\" is sometimes used synonymously to describe this framework.\n\n\u2022 The closed set framework corresponds to a situation in which the number of control objects or persons is restricted to a specified set of suspected sources (e.g., by taking into account other evidence available from the inquiry describing the putative sources).\n\nTo illustrate the identification process graphically, we will assume the following generic case leading to an association. A mark is found in association with a crime. Following inquiry, a potential source is submitted to the laboratory for examination. The comparison shows that the recovered and the control materials share some common features (named hereinafter forensic findings or results). Moreover, there is no significant difference to be accounted for. It is worth noting that the arguments will hold, without loss of generality, when the features would guide toward exclusion. Given this scenario, the identification process may be illustrated as shown in Figure 1. The identification process (in an open set or a closed set framework) is a narrowing-down process, reducing the number of possible sources or hypotheses.\n\nTable 1\n\nDistinction between \"class\" and \"individual\" characteristics in some identification fields\n\nField| \"Class\" characteristics| \"Individual\" characteristics  \n---|---|---  \nFingermark identification| General pattern, ridge count, ridge tracing| Minutiae, pore structure, ridge structure  \nShoemark identification| General patterns, size, manufacturing characteristics| Cuts, accidentally acquired characteristics, transient wear features  \nBullet identification| Caliber, number of grooves\/lands impressions, angles of grooves\/lands impressions, width of lands\/grooves| Striations on grooves\/lands impressions\n\nTable 2\n\nClassification of forensic evidence types with respect to their identification capabilities\n\nIndividualization| Corroborative  \n---|---  \nFingermarks (more generally marks left by friction ridge skin)| Microtraces (glass, paint, hairs, fibers)  \nFootwear marks| Biological fluids (now mostly DNA)  \nEarmarks| Drugs and toxicology  \nToolmarks and firearms| Explosives and fire residue analysis  \nHandwriting and signature examination| Soils\n\nThe hypothesis that a designated suspect or object is the source is considered \"proven\" by showing that all alternative hypotheses that could explain the phenomenon at hand are excluded. The term \"proven\" is used loosely here as the decision process itself will be covered in the next section.\n\nThe importance of selecting features judiciously cannot be overemphasized. The criteria for selecting features fall into five areas (without taking cost into account): distinguishability, high intersource-to-intrasource variance, known variance in time, normalization (standardization), and independence. Of course, each field is focused on different features, and it is worth giving a few examples of adequately chosen features in some forensic areas (Table 3).\n\nFigure 1 Schematic description of the identification process (here focused individuals, but will apply by analogy to objects as well).\n\nTable 3\n\nFeatures used to identify in some forensic fields\n\nField| Features used to characterize or (ultimately to individualize)  \n---|---  \nFingerprints| General pattern, minutiae, pores, and ridge structures  \nShoesoles| Manufacturing characteristics (pattern, size, peculiarities of the manufacturing process) and acquired characteristics (wear features, cuts)  \nDNA| Various polymorphic loci on the DNA molecule  \nMicrotraces| Optical (color, microscopic features, refractive index), physical (size, length, diameter), and chemical characteristics (FTIR, elemental composition, pyrolysis coupled with gas chromatography, etc.)\n\n## The Inferential Schemes\n\nIn practice, for obscure reasons, the identification process leading to individualization is generally operated in an open set framework. The Earth population paradigm prevails. This leads to two types of inferential schemes: toward an individualization decision, complemented, and, when allowed to the practitioners, by the provision of corroborative information.\n\n### Individualization Decision\n\nFor Tuthill and George:\n\nThe individualization of an impression is established by finding agreement of corresponding individual characteristics of such number and significance as to preclude the possibility (or probability) of their having occurred by mere coincidence, and establishing that there are no differences that cannot be accounted for.\n\nFollowing this definition, the size of the control population is indeed systematically set to its maximum (the open set framework). This practice is generally used and implicitly required in fields like those of fingerprints, footwear marks, toolmarks, or firearms. For example, for footwear\/tire marks, SWGTREAD (Scientific Working Group for Shoeprint and Tire Tread Evidence) indicated in 1996 that the individualization opinion means that \"the particular shoe or tire made the impression to the exclusion of all other shoes or tires.\"\n\nThe conclusion of individualization is then an opinion, a statement expressing the view that the chance of observing on Earth another object or person presenting the same characteristics is considered as negligible. For the expert, at this stage, he\/she cannot conceive that any contrary evidence (e.g., an alibi) will ever shake his\/her certainty. As to the mechanism used by examiners to reach this belief of certainty, Stoney describes a decision analogous to a \"leap of faith.\"\n\nThe move from a given probability of association to a decision of individualization is fully described by Biedermann, Bozza, and Taroni in the context of formal Bayesian decision theory. Formally, the decision requires, after the establishment of a probability of association, the use of a gain\/loss function amounting to weighing of the benefits and costs associated to the possible decisions. The schematic description of the identification process can now include this decision step toward individualization (Figure 2).\n\nOverall, the decision scheme calls for the following comments:\n\n\u2022 It is odd to set the size of the relevant population at its maximum a priori in all cases. Indeed, the number of potential sources from which the mark could originate may be restricted by other evidence available (witness testimonies, other forensic evidence, etc.). Presenting the forensic findings in an open set framework is too conservative, adopting systematically the extreme defense attorney's position in trying to make the court believe that all persons or objects on Earth could be the origin of the marks of interest. The forensic scientists or the courts rarely question this systematic reliance on the Earth population paradigm.\n\n\u2022 The decision threshold, the leap of faith, is in essence a qualification of the acceptable level of reasonable doubt (weighted by a gain\/loss function) adopted by the expert. Jurists may interpret this threshold as an expression of the criminal standard \"beyond reasonable doubt\" regarding the issue of the identification. However, courts have generally accepted delegating that burden. The recent calls for caution were addressed to the perceived 100% factual certainty that the term \"individualization\" may convey, but not on the fact that the scientist decides on the source issue. As long as the scientist is not claiming to 100% certainty or an establishment of an uncontroversial fact, courts will generally not object to him\/her expressing an opinion of individualization. This leads to the development of phraseology of the kind: \"he is the bitter to a reasonable degree of dental certainty\" or \"the bullet is identified to that barrel to a reasonable degree of ballistic certainty.\"\n\nThe fact that individualization is a decision that accounts for a probabilistic assessment starts to be recognized by practitioners. For friction ridge skin, SWGFAST in 2011 defines individualization as the \"decision by an examiner that there are sufficient features in agreement to conclude that two areas of friction ridge impressions originated from the same source. Individualization of an impression to one source is the decision that the likelihood the impression was made by another (different) source is so remote that it is considered as a practical impossibility.\" However, the framework (\"open set\" or \"closed set\") and the gain\/loss function (admission of a cost\/benefit analysis before taking the decision) remain completely implicit. As soon as it is made explicit, the author will argue that such a decision scheme is no longer tenable in forensic science.\n\nFigure 2 Schematic description of the identification process completed with a decision of individualization.\n\n### Provision of Corroborative Information\n\nIn some forensic fields (typically fingerprints), practitioners have voluntarily excluded corroborative statements\u2014other than exclusion and individualization\u2014from their conclusions. All results between these extremes are classified as \"inconclusive.\" There is no logical reason for avoiding such corroborative statements, and the author would support any move to bring corroborative information in these fields. Each piece of information is relevant if it tends to make the matter that requires proof more or less probable than otherwise. Hence, a piece of information that only approaches the extremes constitutes relevant information that should not be ignored, and it is necessary for the expert to express a probability statement, verbally or numerically, which attempts to assess the weight of the forensic findings.\n\nExaminers have expressed the meanings of corroborative conclusion terms pragmatically. Their respective meaning relates somewhat to their power of reduction of the initial population. An agreement on the terms has been achieved in some disciplines. For example, in the area of footwear marks, the range of recommended corroborative terms are probably made, could have made, inconclusive (could not be determined), and probably did not make. Another example is the ASTM standard E 1658\u201304 for document examination that enforces the terms: strong probability (highly probable, very probable), probable, indications (evidence to suggest), no conclusion (totally inconclusive, indeterminable), indications did not, probably did not, and strong probability did not.\n\nThis identification process scheme leading to the provision of corroborative information is illustrated in Figure 3. Note that there is no decision required here, the conclusion being only a verbal translation of the position reached down the funnel (combination of the population of controls with the reduction factor).\n\nThis inferential scheme calls for two comments:\n\n\u2022 Conversion between the end position in the reduction process and the verbal statement is never declared or explained. This naturally leads to obvious variations between examiners when assessing the same case.\n\n\u2022 Allegiance to the Earth population paradigm is either not questioned or the logic of the terminology is justified using a highly debatable 0.5 prior probability as discussed by Biedermann, Taroni, and Garbolino. Adopting a prior probability of 50% is akin to consider that, outside any consideration of the case circumstances, only two potential sources are considered initially, the source under investigation being one of them. The adoption, by the forensic scientist, of such a default starting position is highly prejudicial to the source under investigation.\n\n## Relationship with Probabilities\n\n### Individualization\n\nFrom a probabilistic point of view, to conclude individualization would mean that the probability (Pr) of the event, here the event is \"identification,\" after examining the forensic material at hand, is equal to 1. Because of the probabilistic nature of the identification process, such a probability of 1 is an absolute that cannot ever be reached. Hence, the examiner expresses an opinion of individualization when this probability is so near 1 that it maximizes his\/her implicit expected utility. It is worth asking ourselves the order of magnitude of that probability (and that of the relative occurrence of the features) in the mind of an examiner at the moment of its decision.\n\nFigure 3 Schematic description of the identification process leading to the provision of corroborative information.\n\nThis probability of individualization, given the forensic findings, can be represented in the form Pr(ID|E), where ID denotes the event individualization, which is uncertain, and E denotes the information available, the results of the forensic examination, which has been taken into account. In this way, the vertical line can be seen as shorthand for the word \"given.\"\n\nWe have seen, at this stage, that the identification process is related to the specificity of the mark under examination\u2014its relative occurrence in the relevant population\u2014and the size (N) of the relevant population being considered. The probability that we are interested in is then conditioned on both E and N and becomes Pr(ID|E, N).\n\nWe can derive the probabilities of interest by simply using the odds form of the Bayes' theorem.\n\nPr(ID|E,N)Pr(ID\u00af|E,N)=Pr(E|ID,N)Pr(E|ID\u00af,N)Pr(ID|N)Pr(ID\u00af|N)\n\n  [1]\n\nLet us denote Pr(E|ID\u00af,N) , the relative occurrence of the features, by \u03b3, note that Pr(ID|N) = 1\u2212Pr(ID|N) and Pr(ID\u00af|E,N)=1\u2212Pr(ID|E,N) , and finally assume for the sake of the example that Pr(E|ID, N) = 1 and Pr(ID|N) = 1\/N, we obtain by rearranging eqn [1]:\n\nPr(ID|E,N)=1[1+(N\u22121)\u03b3]\n\n  [2]\n\n\u03b3=1\u2212Pr(ID|E,N)Pr(ID|E,N)(N\u22121)\n\n  [3]\n\nAt this stage, a note on the assumption of a prior probability Pr(ID|N) equals to 1\/N is necessary. The Earth population paradigm invites to assign to each member of that population a prior probability higher than 0. Indeed, by definition, to be considered in the pool of possible sources requires the prior probability for each source to be higher than 0. The form of the probability distribution that should be adopted is not a trivial matter. However, if a forensic scientist operates within an open set framework, in the absence of any information, and in order to maintain fairness between all potential sources, he\/she will have no choice than to adopt a uniform prior between all members, hence the suggestion for 1\/N. In any case, that constraint will be relaxed later in this article.\n\nWe turn back to the question of the orders of magnitude of Pr(ID|E, N) and \u03b3 in the mind of an examiner at the moment of its decision. If the population is set to N = 7 billion (including the control) as suggested by the Earth population paradigm, and \u03b3 = 1 in 7 billion, then, using eqn [1], Pr(ID|E, N) is very close to 0.5. This means that if you have a control object or person at hand with such a rare relative occurrence, the probability that you have the wrong one is about 0.5! It means that in order to have probabilities on the individualization higher than 0.5, we need match probabilities \u03b3 that are much lower than the inverse of N, the size of the considered population. This is counterintuitive, but correct in the context of the present Earth population paradigm.\n\nIf we accept that Pr(ID|E, N) must be above a certain threshold value in order to declare an individualization (hence maximizing the expected utility function), then it is possible to calculate the match probability (\u03b3) that must be considered to achieve such a preset value. If Pr(ID|E, N) is fixed at 0.9998\u2014meaning \"I want to be sure at 99.98% of the individualization\"\u2014with N = 7 billion, using eqn [3], we see that \u03b3 must be equal to 2.9E-14, which represents 1 in about 5000 times the size of the initial population of 7 billion.\n\nIf a conclusion of individualization (according to this threshold and in an open set framework) must be at least the expression of such a small match probability in order to maximize the gain function, then we face the prospect of articulating probabilities out of reach from today's systematic research. Taking fingerprints as an example, the recent published statistical research would allow us to quote confidently match probabilities in the order of one in a billion. Articulating any smaller number (down to the probability of zero) is difficult if not impossible to support.\n\nThe above treatment tends to demonstrate that decisions of individualization taken by practitioners cannot be made in the open set framework, but they certainly operate implicitly in an undefined closed set. The probabilistic analysis of corroborative information will reinforce that point.\n\n### Corroborative Information\n\nWhat is the probabilistic meaning, in the open set framework, of conclusions such as \"it is possible (or probable or highly likely) that this print\/mark has been made by this particular item\"? Such verbal scales can be translated into numbers expressing Pr(ID|E, N). These terms are understood quite uniformly (in a numerical conversion) by forensic scientists or jurists. The numerical conversion is given in Table 4 (columns 1 and 2). From these probabilities, their corresponding match probabilities (\u03b3) can be derived, using eqn [3], considering an open set framework (N = 7 billion) as shown in Table 4 (column 3).\n\nThe analysis of Table 4 leads to a paradox. In the open set framework (as claimed to be adopted mostly all forensic fields), the rarity of the shared features, which corresponds to the most negative verbal statement (likelihood bordering certainty for the exclusion), is quite small (1.4E-7). For the court, every piece of information that would lead to such small match probability will be considered as highly indicative (by analogy with DNA findings, for example). Hence, the verbal statement proposed here does not make this evidential value very clear. To escape this paradox, forensic scientists could be tempted to adjust the size of the relevant population, hence to pass from an open set framework to a closed set framework. As aforementioned, some have even suggested to adopt a default prior probability Pr(ID|N) of 0.5\u2014qualified as fair and neutral\u2014in every case!\n\nTable 4\n\nRelationship between verbal statements in qualified opinions and the probability of identification along with the corresponding match probabilities \u03b3 (assuming a relevant population of 7 billion, including the control)\n\nVerbal statement| Pr(ID|E, N) (%)| Match probability (\u03b3)  \n---|---|---  \nTerms in favor of individualization  \nLikelihood bordering to certainty for the individualization| 99.98| 2.9 \u00d7 10\u221214  \nHighly (very) likely| 98| 2.19 \u00d7 10\u221212  \nLikely| 85| 2.5 \u00d7 10\u221211  \nVery well possible (plausible)| 75| 4.8 \u00d7 10\u221211  \nPossible| 60| 9.5 \u00d7 10\u221211  \nTerms in favor of exclusion  \nPossible not| 40| 2.1 \u00d7 10\u221210  \nVery well possible (plausible) not| 25| 4.3 \u00d7 10\u221210  \nNot likely\/unlikely| 15| 8.1 \u00d7 10\u221210  \nHighly (very) unlikely| 2| 7.0 \u00d7 10\u22129  \nLikelihood bordering certainty for the exclusion| 0.1| 1.4 \u00d7 10\u22127\n\nThe analysis of these two inferential schemes with their counterintuitive and paradoxical consequences shows that there is an urgent need to find a common, coherent, and harmonized framework to assess such information. The proposal below advocates the use of a Bayesian model to properly position and convey the value of identification information.\n\n## The Bayesian Framework for Evaluating Identification Findings\n\nIn the Bayesian framework, both closed set and open set situations can be handled; the open set constitutes a specific situation. From information gathered through normal investigation or through the use of a database, a limited number of people or objects, or a single person or object, can be pinpointed in a general or limited population. There is no way to go back along the time axis and deduce the identification. The only way to evaluate the strength of the forensic findings is to consider them from two perspectives: that the designated person or object is, or is not, the source. The Bayesian approach permits the revision of a measure of uncertainty about the truth or otherwise of an issue (here the individualization ID) based on new information. It shows how data can be combined with prior or background information to give posterior probabilities for particular issues. The following events can be defined from the previous example:\n\nI| Some background information has been collected before the forensic examination. For example, data from police investigation, eyewitness statements, or data from the criminal historical record of the suspect will contribute to I. Typically this information will reduce the number of potential suspects or objects that could be at the origin of the mark  \n---|---  \nE| The features agreement (without significant differences) reported as the forensic results between the mark left at a scene and a person or object under examination  \nID| The mark has been produced by this person or object in examination  \nID\u00af | The mark has not been produced by this object or person, and another unknown person or object is at the origin of the mark. The definition of the two exclusive hypotheses (ID and ID\u00af ) requires consideration of the context of the case (the defense's strategy, for example); they are not always as straightforward or exhaustive as could be deduced from our example\n\nThe Bayes' formula (eqn [4]\u2014similar to eqn [1]) shows how prior odds on ID are modified by the results E to obtain posterior odds on the issue:\n\nO(ID|E,I)=Pr(E|ID,I)Pr(E|ID\u00af,I)O(ID|I)\n\n  [4]\n\nwhere O(ID|I) = the odds on the individualization before forensic examination, the prior odds on ID equal to the ratio Pr(ID|I)\/Pr(ID|I\u00af) ; O(ID|E, I) = the odds on the individualization given the results E, the posterior odds on ID equal to the ratio Pr(ID|E,I)\/Pr(ID\u00af|E,I) ; Pr(E|ID, I) = the probability of the shared features between the mark and the control, given that the mark has been left by the suspect or object in examination (ID is true)\u2014generally, this value is close to 1, but this is not a requirement; Pr(E|ID\u00af,I)  = the probability of the shared features between the mark and the control, given that the mark has not been left by this person or object (ID\u00af  is true); \u03b3 has been used throughout to refer to this probability.\n\nIn this Bayesian perspective, the open set framework covers the situation where the prior odds are estimated in reference to the total population possible (I represents no prior knowledge at all); any other situation with an estimate of the prior odds can be viewed as a closed set framework.\n\nCompared to eqn [1], the only difference is that I is used instead of N. It was previously suggested (eqn [2]) that the prior probability was strictly in relation to N. Here, N is omitted and replaced by I to stress upon the fact that the prior probability will depend on more factors than only on N, that is, investigation, eyewitness statements, or data from the criminal historical record of the suspect, etc. In fact, each case bears its own specificity in this regard. But, generally, these data are not known to the forensic examiner and are outside his or her province. Hence, the assessment of the prior odds remains the confines of the fact finder (judges, members of the jury, etc.). As a consequence, before the presentation of the expert results, it will be up to the fact finder and not the forensic scientist to assess the prior odds on the individualization. By the way of consequence, it is up to the fact finder to take the final decision (and applying their own gain\/loss function).\n\nFigure 4 Schematic representation of the Bayesian framework positioning the actors of the judicial system.\n\nFigure 5 Schematic representation of the value of forensic findings (or results) in the identification process.\n\nThe framework itself, here, does not belong anymore to the forensic scientist but belongs to the fact finder. The statement (numerical or subjective) made to the court by the forensic scientist should then only be the expression of the reduction factor to be applied to the prior odds (opinion of the court without the knowledge derived from the scientific results). Without the information about the prior odds, it is not possible for the scientist to state the fact itself (the probability that this particular person or object has produced this mark): he can only state the degree of support given to this hypothesis (or version) versus the alternative. The strength of the forensic findings is then given by the probability of observing them under two chosen propositions. This ratio is called the \"likelihood ratio.\"\n\nThe statement given by the scientist alone is not sufficient to decide on the issue. The scientist's statement is then completely different from assessing the fact itself. The concept of the weight to be assigned to forensic results is therefore relative: it shows how observations should be interpreted as support for ID versus its counterpart, but it makes no mention of how those observations should be interpreted as evidence in relation to ID alone. Therefore, the same piece of information may be an insufficient proof for a fact finder in one context, but may be the factor essential in clinching the case in another. The odds, in favor of the individualization itself, that the person or object in examination has produced the mark given the circumstances of the case (background I) and the observations made by the forensic scientist (the results E) is a judgment based on posterior odds combined with the results. The essence of the decision on the individualization remains the province of the fact finder. This logical tool permits an understanding of how events interact mathematically. It clarifies the position of the scientist as well as that of the judge and defines their relationship. The scientist is concerned solely with the likelihood ratio, whereas the fact finder deals with the odds on the individualization (Figure 4) and ultimately the associated decisions.\n\nThe Bayesian model helps us to understand the respective duties of the fact finder and of the forensic scientists (Figure 4). Our schematic representation of the identification process can then be refined, taking into account the Bayesian perspective (Figure 5).\n\n## Conclusion\n\nThe traditional inferential schemes for the question of identification of source have been presented. They lead either to decisions of individualization\/exclusion or to the provision of corroborative opinions (possible, probable, very probable, etc.). Both of these schemes are operated with reference to a relevant population size set to its maximum in what has been called an open set framework (or the Earth population paradigm).\n\nThese schemes perpetuate the vision that forensic scientists can deal\u2014sometimes without being aware of\u2014with prior or posterior probabilities on the issue and with gain\/loss function when making decisions. Moreover, the probabilistic relationship between verbal opinions and probability of occurrence of the shared features has shown counterintuitive and paradoxical consequences.\n\nIt appears legitimate to question if these practices are reasonable for forensic cases. Another scheme, the Bayesian interpretation framework, overcomes most of these difficulties, in particular, by relaxing the necessity of adopting an open set framework and avoiding the final decision step. It provides a coherent way of assessing and presenting identification evidence. From a logical point of view, the strength to be attached to forensic findings is essentially relative to the case and its value is best expressed using a likelihood ratio. The question of the size of the relevant population\u2014which impacts on prior probabilities\u2014and decision thresholds are finally outside the province of forensic scientists but rightly belong to the fact finder.\n\n## See also\n\nBehavioral: Interpretation; Foundations: Statistical Interpretation of Evidence: Bayesian Analysis; Pattern Evidence\/Fingerprints (Dactyloscopy): Friction Ridge Skin Impression Evidence \u2013 Standards of Proof.\n\n## Further Reading\n\nBiedermann A, Bozza S, Taroni F. Decision theoretic properties of forensic identification: underlying logic and argumentative implications. _Forensic Science International_. 2008;177(2\u20133):120\u2013132.\n\nBiedermann A, Taroni F, Garbolino P. Equal prior probabilities: can one do any better? _Forensic Science International_. 2007;172(2\u20133):85\u201393.\n\nChampod C. Fingerprint examination: towards more transparency. _Law, Probability and Risk_. 2008;7(2):111\u2013118.\n\nChampod C, Evett I.W. A probabilistic approach to fingerprint evidence. _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 2001;51(2):101\u2013122.\n\nCole S.A. Forensics without uniqueness, conclusions without individualization: the new epistemology of forensic identification. _Law, Probability and Risk_. 2009;8(3):233\u2013255.\n\nKaye D.H. Probability, individualization, and uniqueness in forensic science evidence: listening to the academies. _Brooklyn Law Review_. 2011;75(4):1163\u20131185.\n\nKaye D.H, Bernstein D.E, Mnookin J.L, eds. _The New Wigmore, A Treatise on Evidence: Expert Evidence_. second ed. New York: Aspen Publishers Inc; 2011:665\u2013697 (Chapter 15).\n\nKirk P.L. The ontogeny of criminalistics. _Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology and Police Science_. 1963;54:235\u2013238.\n\nKwan Q.Y. _Inference of Identity of Source_ (Ph.D. thesis). Berkeley: University of California; 1977.\n\nStoney D.A. What made us ever think we could individualize using statistics? _Journal of the Forensic Science Society_. 1991;31(2):197\u2013199.\n\nTuthill H, George G. _Individualization: Principles and Procedures in Criminalistics_. Jacksonville: Lightning Powder Co; 2002.\n\n# Key Terms\n\nBayesian framework, Bias, Blind testing, Cognitive bias, Confirmation bias, Context effects, Corroborative evidence, Domain-relevant, Fingerprint identification, Forensic science, Friction ridge skin, Identification, Individualization, Inference of source, Line-up, Numerical standard, Observer bias, Psychology, Sequential unmasking.\n\n# Review Questions\n\n1. What were Locard's rules for the minimum requirements for a fingerprint identification?\n\n2. What are the two main objections to a numerical approach to fingerprint identifications?\n\n3. Are all minutiae equally rare? Why or why not?\n\n4. Is it feasible to evaluate fingerprint evidence in a probabilistic way?\n\n5. What is the false error rate for fingerprint identifications? What is the best evidence for this value?\n\n6. Is there any scientific support for a fixed number of points to be required for an identification?\n\n7. What are observer effects?\n\n8. What is sequential unmasking? Does it relate to fingerprint examinations?\n\n9. Are cognitive effects conscious?\n\n10. If an examiner is susceptible to cognitive effects, does that make them a \"bad\" examiner? Why or why not?\n\n11. What is the best way to overcome cognitive effects?\n\n12. How does sequential unmasking supposedly avoid cognitive effects?\n\n13. What is the difference between domain relevant and domain irrelevant information? Why does this matter?\n\n14. If a submitting officer tells an examiner, \"We need to have this guy match the prints at the crime scene because he's a flight risk,\" is that information relevant to the fingerprint comparison process? What could be the problem with this kind of statement made to an examiner?\n\n15. What is an exemplar line-up? How could it assist the forensic fingerprint examiner?\n\n16. According to Champod, the identification process is reductive and combines two factors. What are they?\n\n17. What is the difference between an open set and a closed set framework?\n\n18. The criteria for selecting features for a fingerprint identification fall into what five areas?\n\n19. What is Tuthill and George's definition of individualizing an impression? Which framework does this definition use?\n\n20. Why are two hypotheses or propositions required for an examiner to reach an opinion?\n\n# Discussion Questions\n\n1. Is fingerprint identification an exact science? Defend your answer.\n\n2. What are the arguments against the IAI's 1980-5 Resolution (Amending Resolution 1979\u20137): \"...any member, officer or certified latent print examiner who initiates or volunteers oral or written reports, or testimony of possible, probable or likely friction ridge identification, or who, when required in a judicial proceeding to provide such reports or testimony, does not qualify it with a statement that the print in question could be that of someone else, shall be deemed to be engaged in conduct unbecoming such member,...\"? Why is this Resolution problematic?\n\n3. When Champod says, \"All identification disciplines constitute corroborative information of strengths that change from one discipline to the other as a function of the discriminative ability of the features revealed by the unknown mark under consideration,\" what do you think that means? What are the practical implications of this statement for casework?\n\n4. Is individualization of a fingerprint a fact or an opinion? Defend your answer.\n\n5. How does the Bayesian interpretation approach overcome the difficulties of the other two methods (name them)? Is it practical to use in reporting and court? Why or why not?\n\n## Additional Readings\n\nAnthonioz N.E, Champod C. Evidence evaluation in fingerprint comparison and automated fingerprint identification systems\u2014modeling between finger variability. _Forensic Science International_. 2014;235:86\u2013101.\n\nEdmond G, Cole S.A. Identification technologies in policing and proof. In: _Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice_. New York: Springer; 2014:2407\u20132419.\n\nPacheco I, Cerchiai B, Stoiloff S. _Miami-Dade Research Study for the Reliability of the ACE-V Process: Accuracy & Precision in Latent Fingerprint Examinations_. Washington, D.C: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice; 2014.\n\nSaks M.J. Forensic identification: from a faith-based \"science\" to a scientific science. _Forensic Science International_. 2010;201(1):14\u201317.\n\nSaks M.J, Koehler J.J. The individualization fallacy in forensic science evidence. _Vanderbilt Law Review_. 2008;61(1):199\u2013219.\n\nServick K. Forensic labs explore blind testing to prevent errors. _Science_. 2015;349(6247):462\u2013463.\nSection 6\n\nOther Methods\n\nOutline\n\nBarefoot Print Marks\n\nThe Friction Ridge Skin of the Feet\n\nPalm Prints\n\nKey Terms\n\nReview Questions\n\nDiscussion Questions\n\n# Barefoot Print Marks\n\nS.L. Massey Campbell River, BC, Canada\n\nR.B. Kennedy Orleans, ON, Canada\n\n## Abstract\n\nForensic barefoot morphology involves the comparison of the weight-bearing impressions of a barefoot, when ridge detail is not present, to a known individual(s) footprint impressions, in order to eliminate or include a person as the source of the impression.\n\nThe most common use of barefoot morphology is in the comparison of a suspect's foot impressions with barefoot or sock-clad foot impressions found at a crime scene. Foot morphology comparison may also be used to link a wearer of footwear to footwear that has already been linked to a crime scene by comparing the stains and damage and indented weight-bearing impressions left by the wearer's foot inside the shoe.\n\n### Keywords\n\nBarefoot impression; Barefoot morphology; Barefoot print; Insole impression; Multistep impression; Single-step impression; Socked-foot impression; Weight-bearing impression\n\nGlossary\n\nBarefoot morphology comparison A comparison conducted of the shapes of the weight-bearing impression of the foot, barefoot, socked foot, or three-dimensional, in the case where a friction ridge comparison cannot be conducted.\n\nBarefoot print mark The weight-bearing impression of the human foot, either barefoot, socked foot, or left inside of footwear. The impression can be two- or three-dimensional and created in a single step or through multiple steps of the foot in one location, such as inside of footwear.\n\nMultistep impression The impression of the foot left inside footwear created overtime through repeated steps of the foot, creating indentations, and darkened sweat stains of the wearer's foot.\n\nSingle step impression The impression of the foot left by a single step of the foot either two- or three-dimensional.\n\nSock foot impression The impression of a foot clad in a sock.\n\nWeight-bearing impression The impression the foot left on a surface when weight is borne on the foot.\n\nThis article is a revision of the previous edition article by R.B. Kennedy, volume 3, pp. 1189\u20131195, \u00a9 2000, Elsevier Ltd.\n\n## History\n\nBarefoot evidence was introduced in courts as early as 1888 in France, when a criminal by the name of LeDru was identified through the analysis of footprints. Early cases were based simply on the assumption of the uniqueness of barefoot impressions; however, it is only in the past few decades that research has been conducted, published, and peer-reviewed, which supports this earlier assumption.\n\nIn 1909, G.W. Gayer commented that the footprint features have as much character as the features of the face and that it was obvious that every individual footprint must have a distinct individuality.\n\nSome of the earliest research that sought to determine if the human footprint is highly individual was conducted in India. One such study, in 1980, involved a collection of 725 individuals' footprints and found that a comparison of the foot impressions indicated that combined probabilities could prove reasonably reliable circumstantial evidence to link a criminal with crime.\n\nResearch is often case inspired; for instance, in 1981 in New Jersey, USA, a case involved a partial bloody socked foot impression at a homicide scene, which was compared to the foot impressions of two suspects. One suspect's foot impressions were eliminated as having created the impression at the crime scene while the other suspect's foot impressions were found to be such that the expert declared a high probability that the impression was hers. Researchers, in this case, collected 100 persons' footprints and compared them to the suspect's known foot impressions. They compared the suspect's impressions with the 100 research subjects' foot impressions and concluded that the more unique the individual features of a particular print, the smaller will be the probability that another individual could have left a sufficiently similar print to allow nonexclusion of that person. In addition, they conducted an independent test of this theory where a series of partial prints taken from research volunteers were selected for testing. Identifiers were removed and compared to a random sample of 50 barefoot. The results demonstrated the accuracy of nonexclusion method applied to partial prints and complete prints.\n\nAnother research project conducted by the FBI started in 1986 included 500 adults' footprints in order to provide more information about the degree of individuality expressed in the impression left by the human foot. This study too found that basic size and shape features varied considerably among the footprints collected reflecting a highly significant degree of individuality. Blind searches of impressions that were either in or not in the database were made as a measure of determining how these factors could be used to discriminate footprint impressions from one another, and it was determined that only five or fewer of the more general characteristics were necessary to either identify or discriminate these footprints from all others in the study.\n\nIn 1989, the largest scale research project to date was initiated by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, which sought to build on the earlier research conducted, taking into account intraindividual differences of persons' footprints contrasted against interpersonal differences between individuals encompassing a cross section of male\/female and Caucasian\/non-Caucasian (self-declared) sampling.\n\nThe initial pilot project included 960 people, with a repetitive sample of 20 persons who provided footprint impressions three times a day, over 3 days during a week period to provide the intrapersonal differences. Subsequently, a larger study was undertaken, involving 5755 people with a repetition sample of 134 people.\n\nIn this study, foot impressions of monozygotic twins (Figure 1) and numerous contributors who donated their foot impressions to the research database multiple times over the span of 5\u201315 years demonstrated both the high degree of variability and the persistency of the weight-bearing impressions of the foot. The friction ridge skin of the plantar surface of the foot has the same individualizing ability based on its uniqueness even in a small area, as well as its persistence over the life span of the individual, as the friction ridges on the palmar surfaces. In the case of foot morphology, however, the morphological weight-bearing impressions left by the foot are examined, where the friction ridges are not visible or do not display sufficient clarity to conduct a friction ridge comparison. The repeated donors of weight-bearing impressions over the span of a number of years have shown that the morphological shape of the weight-bearing impressions of the foot are persistent over time and unique to the individual (Figure 2).\n\nFoot impressions were measured and scanned, and the foot impressions were searched against all other impressions in the database. At first, exact measurements were used to search the database to see whether any two barefoot impressions matched, and it quickly became apparent that after only three to five measurements, every foot was found to be new to the database, even those from repeat donors. This demonstrated that barefoot impressions from the same donor could not be repeated exactly. As in any impression-making process, it is highly unlikely that two impressions of the same items will be identical; therefore, even barefoot impressions from the same donor show small, but measurable, differences. As new foot impressions were entered into the database, they were automatically measured by the program and searched against the existing database as it was being entered, initially using a 5-mm window on each measurement to increase the chances of finding two feet that were similar. This was successful in finding apparent matches by the computer search; however, every pair selected was examined and confirmed to be two impressions from the same volunteer. Only when the search window was widened to 15 mm, impressions from two different individuals come up as a match based on the measurements. In each case, when an examination by a trained forensic specialist was conducted, it was confirmed that the impressions were in fact easily distinguishable as being from different people.\n\nFigure 1 Inked barefoot impressions of the left feet of a pair of monozygotic twins. This shows the differences between the placement of the toes, the presence of toe stems, and differences in the arches between the two persons' foot impressions, demonstrating the high degree of variability.\n\nA statistical analysis has been carried out using only 19 of the possible 119 measurements of 5755 pairs of inked barefoot impressions, which resulted in the probability of a random match of 1 in 1.27 billion, indicating the high degree of variability of barefoot impressions. It is recognized, however, by forensic specialists conducting examinations, that the research completed utilized ideal footprint impressions, which are whole, clear, distinct barefoot walking impressions on paper by a cooperative donor. Poor-quality samples, or ones that were smeared or unclear, were not utilized in the research. In actual case work, the impressions collected at a crime scene will likely not meet these specific criteria, and the crime scene examiner does not have the option of choosing only the pristine impressions. Consequently, barefoot morphology examiners use a much more conservative approach in expressing the level of certainty of their conclusions and do not use a numerical statistical probability.\n\nFigure 2 Inked right barefoot impressions of the same person taken 11 years apart. Demonstrates persistence of the foot morphology of the weight-bearing impression over time.\n\n## Crime Scene Evidence Collection\n\nThe forensic investigator who attends the scene of a crime is the first person who will determine whether there is barefoot impression evidence present and collect it for later examination by a barefoot morphology examiner. It is recommended that all impressions visible be photographed before enhancement and post enhancement using proper forensic photography principles and protocols. Examination of quality photographs of the barefoot impression evidence must be taken using a scale in the photographs with the film plane or charge-coupled device of the camera parallel to the impression being photographed (Figure 3).\n\nFigure 3 Examination quality photograph of a barefoot crime scene impression enhanced chemically with Amido Black. Photo taken by Cst J. Jackson.\n\nEnhancement techniques may be necessary, including but not limited to the use of forensic lighting techniques and chemical enhancement techniques. Impressions may need to be lifted using electrostatic lifting devices, gelatin lifting if dust impressions are present, or regular footwear impression lifting techniques may be necessary depending on the development technique utilized. Whenever possible, if the case warrants it, cutouts of the impressions should be considered as well. Items are marked as exhibits, and continuity should be strictly maintained.\n\n## Collection of Exemplars from a Person of Interest\n\nThe collection of known impressions from individuals is the next step in the process.\n\nEvery effort should be taken by the investigators collecting the exemplars to adhere to the standard operating procedures or guidelines available, and appropriate care is taken to ensure that the necessary and best possible exemplars are collected. The list of specific types of exemplars will be based on the crime scene impressions, and whether they are two- or three-dimensional.\n\nWhen footwear is the questioned\/unknown exhibit requiring foot morphology analysis and comparison, in addition to the other exemplars previously described, the footwear worn by the suspect should be seized as well, either pursuant to arrest or by judicial warrant. If possible, other footwear known to be worn by the suspect should be seized.\n\nPhotographs should be taken of the subject's feet with scale, including the soles, tops of the toes, sides of the feet, and heels. Photography is normally followed by the taking of three-dimensional weight-bearing impressions of the soles of the feet, using a foam material such as Biofoam or Foam Art, which is used by chiropodists (podiatrists). The impressions are taken by having the subject place weight on the foot into the foam material. An actual-sized representation of the bottom of the subject's feet will later be prepared by pouring dental stone into the foam impressions, making a positive cast of the individual's foot (Figure 4).\n\nFigure 4 Photograph of a three-dimensional dental stone cast created from an impression of a subject's foot in Biofoam.\n\nActual-sized casts are made of the tops of the toes using a silicone-casting material such as Ruthinium Labor Mass, a silicone material commonly used by dentists. The material is mixed with catalyst, which is placed over the subject's toes, and allowed to harden before being removed. This too will later be cast with dental stone by the foot morphology examiner, making a positive cast of the subject's toes (Figure 5).\n\nNext, inked impressions should be taken of the subject's feet. It is important that both standing and walking impressions, with and without socks, are taken. The inked impressions are taken from an individual on a piece of paper approximately 5\u20136 m long and approximately 1 m wide. An inking pad is made using an acetate-covered piece of cardboard large enough for a person to stand on. Fingerprint ink is spread over the acetate using an ink roller to smooth out the ink. The individual stands barefoot on the inked pad, rocking back and forth to ensure that the feet are inked properly. He\/she then walks the length of the paper to the right side and walks back on the left side of the paper. Sufficient ink must be applied to ensure that the subject deposits a diminishing series of foot impressions of each foot (8\u201312 impressions of each foot). Attention should be paid to the individual's feet to ensure that the person is walking normally. Ink is reapplied and static (standing) impressions are taken barefoot. Next close fitting, thin socks are supplied to the subject and the walking and static impressions are taken in the same manner as the barefoot impressions described previously (Figure 6).\n\nIf the specifics of the creation of the crime scene impression are known, for example, through surveillance video footage, it is a possible attempt to take additional exemplars recreating unusual barefoot impressions. An example of this would be if there existed evidence that the crime scene impression was produced while running, or traveling up or down a set of stairs. Any additional exemplars that might be considered should only be done after consultation with the barefoot morphology examiner, with the authority of the court, and after taking the standard format exemplars already described.\n\nFigure 5 A three-dimensional dental stone cast created from a Ruthinium Labor Mass Silicone cast of the top of a subject's toes.\n\nFigure 6 Inked barefoot walking impressions and inked socked foot walking impressions taken for foot morphology comparison purposes.\n\n## Methodology for Examination of Foot Morphology Cases\n\nWhen a forensic specialist receives a case for examination, strict evidence continuity must be maintained for court purposes. When exhibits are received, they should be initialed and dated by the examiner to maintain the continuity. The examination is conducted, following accepted forensic methodology, known as ACE-V. The acronym ACE-V is commonly used to describe the process involving analysis, comparison, evaluation, and verification. The crime scene impressions or unknowns are analyzed first, before analyzing the known exemplars, and the comparison is conducted from unknown to known. An evaluation of the similarities and differences is undertaken, after which the examiner reaches a conclusion of elimination, inclusion as the possible source of the crime scene impressions, or, in rare circumstances, individualization.\n\n## Analysis of Crime Scene Impressions\n\nCrime scene impressions are invariably not pristine impressions. They may be partial impressions, multitap, distorted impressions, or stepped on by other feet\/footwear. During the analysis phase, the examiner must attempt to determine what variables existed in the depositing of the crime scene impressions so that they can be taken into consideration. For example, the impression could be wet or dry in origin. A wet-origin blood impression on a tile surface floor has different inherent traits than a dry-origin dust impression on a fabric surface. An impression may have been deposited in a normal walking stride, or it may have been deposited with significant movement during a quick turn during a running stride. All factors concerning the deposition of the impression must be analyzed by the examiner.\n\nFactors that affect the impression-making process are analyzed by the examiner. Areas to consider, when possible to determine, are the surface on which the impression is deposited, the medium of which it is made, deposition pressure, movement and pressure distortion, the development medium, and any inherent signatures of that process. Although all these factors are analyzed and considered, the primary limiting factor of the weight-bearing foot impression is the clarity of detail visible.\n\nAll crime scene impressions supplied to the examiner are enlarged to actual size and analyzed. If necessary, digital enhancements will be used, adhering to established protocols and making a record of all adjustments made, on a copy of the original image. The actual-sized photograph is overlaid with acetate and the examiner will trace all visible detail and make other bench notes concerning their analysis of each crime scene impression.\n\nWhen the unknown crime scene impression is inside footwear, the shoes will be photographed, paying close attention to the location of general and specific wear on the outsole of the footwear. The wear on the outsole of shoes and the weight-bearing impressions inside footwear are multistep impressions, created by stepping thousands of times per day, leaving wear on the outsole and sweat stains, wear marks, holes, and indentations on the insoles. The degree of wear and visibility of the damage is dependent on multiple factors of the footwear itself and the wearer of the shoes. The top portion will be cut from the shoe and any foreign material present (hair, fibers, soil, dirt, etc.) will be collected from inside the footwear and provided to the investigator who can then submit this trace evidence for analysis to the appropriate section of a forensic laboratory. An examination of the inside upper and insole of the shoe will be conducted, and all visible damage, wear marks, and stains that may have been caused by the feet will be photographed (Figures 7 and 8).\n\nTo date, the best enhancement techniques have been found to be in the use of specialized forensic light sources. The light source that provides optimum results will be used to photographically record the impressions within the footwear. The photographs taken with the scale of damage and weight-bearing impressions inside the footwear are enhanced, enlarged to actual size, and analyzed similar to the process used for two-dimensional impressions described above. Analyses of the impressions inside footwear are also limited by the clarity of the weight-bearing impressions and stains and damage visible within them.\n\n## Analysis of the Known Exemplars\n\nPersons of interest to the investigation may have a vested interest and may attempt to provide inaccurate representations of their weight-bearing foot impressions. The subject may deliberately attempt to disguise their impressions by scrunching their feet, walking in a manner that is not normal for them, or twisting their feet while walking. It is important to visually observe, and if possible, have video recording of the person of interest walking before being advised of the reason of the collection of the exemplars, as well as during the impression taking procedure. This assists the barefoot morphology examiner by allowing them to view the video and determine if attempts were made to deliberately change their weight-bearing impressions. The examiner will view and enlarge if necessary the photographs taken of the subject's feet for visualization and recording of any peculiarities or damage to the feet that may have been caused by the footwear.\n\nThe three-dimensional molds that were made of the subjects' feet will be cast with dental stone, to create life-sized molds of the subject's feet. The inked impressions are examined to discern if there are any discrepancies that might be present between the standing and walking impressions. When examining the walking impressions, all left-foot impressions should have similar shapes and size, as should all right-foot impressions. Representative samples are cut out from the roll of walking impressions. All material such as other footwear, molded impressions, and photographs obtained of the feet of the subject should be examined.\n\nFigure 7 The weight-bearing impression visible on the insole of a shoe cut apart for foot morphology comparison.\n\nFigure 8 The inside upper portion of a shoe that has been cut apart, showing the marks and damage left by the tops and ends of the toes inside the shoe.\n\n## Comparison\n\nIt is preferable, but not absolutely necessary, to compare the like impressions, that is, comparing two-dimensional impressions with two-dimensional impressions and three-dimensional impressions with three-dimensional impressions. Actual-sized photographs that had been prepared along with traced overlays created by the examiner of both the known and the exemplar impressions are used. Traced overlays are an invaluable investigative tool when comparing the location and shape of various characteristics or areas of the foot.\n\nThe comparison of barefoot impressions is treated as any other physical match and incorporates the same methodologies and scientific approaches. Clarity is one of the most important elements. All characteristics in a physical match must be analyzed, compared, and evaluated before a conclusion is reached.\n\nExaminers work from unknown to known, with the first goal being to attempt to eliminate the person as the source of the impression if possible. If elimination of the person is not possible, then the comparison process continues.\n\nThe first step in the comparison process is to examine what may be described as class characteristics. Class characteristics are those that are common to more than one foot; for example, the overall size of the foot, the fact that the correct number of toes are present, and the width of the ball and heel of the foot. The finer details of the foot impressions are then compared. For example, the examiner should look at the shape and placement of each toe, the spatial relationship of the toes to one another, the distance from the ridge that separates the ball of the foot from the toe pads, the contour of that ridge, the contour of the ball of the foot, and the shape and length of the arch, shape and size of the heel area.\n\nWhile each feature individually may not be unique, the features in combination can make the impressions of different persons distinguishable. An examiner must also evaluate any temporary changes in characteristics that may have been caused by injury to the foot and that are not part of the permanent foot morphology. Accidental characteristics such as a nail through the sole of the shoe, which has damaged the foot, or visible permanent features such as creases can be used in conjunction with foot morphology to individualize the barefoot.\n\nWhen comparing impressions inside a shoe, the same process is used. All details present in the shoe are examined in a similar manner, and all known exemplars available are used in the comparison process. If no shoes known to be worn by the subject are available for comparison purposes, comparisons can be conducted with the use of inked barefoot impressions to the weight-bearing impressions inside of unknown shoes. One researcher who specifically explored this type of comparison found that inked impressions as known exemplars can be used though caution should be employed.\n\n## Evaluation\n\nThe examiner reaches a conclusion based on the evaluation of the comparison process and the similarities and differences noted during comparison. For example, there may be differences noted, which are explainable from the factors or distortions observed during the analysis of the unknown impressions or known impressions. The examiner articulates the process used and, ultimately, expresses an opinion. Once their opinion has been reached, the examiner prepares a written report and submits this with all of the materials used to a second qualified examiner for independent analysis, and if they agree with the conclusion stated, verify the original examiner's opinion.\n\nThe opinion or conclusion reached can range from the following:\n\n1. A lack of sufficient detail for a meaningful comparison, whereby in the opinion of the examiner, there is insufficient detail in the unknown impression to conduct a meaningful comparison\/evaluation.\n\n2. Elimination\/exclusion, whereby in the opinion of the examiner, there are sufficient differences, without explanation, such that the examiner would eliminate the suspect as a source of the unknown impressions.\n\n3. Inclusion of the source of the known exemplars as being the possible donor of the unknown foot impressions, whereby in the examiner's opinion, there is an agreement of morphology of the weight-bearing impression, such that they could have made the unknown impressions.\n\n4. Individualization of the unknown impression as having originating from the subject who provided the known exemplars, whereby in the examiner's opinion, there is an agreement of the morphology of the weight-bearing impression and the presence of additional accidental characteristics (e.g., flexion creases, scars) that are visible and also found to be in agreement between the unknown and known impressions.\n\n## Verification\n\nOnce the examiner has conducted a full examination, involving analysis, comparison, and evaluation, a full report is prepared, and the case file and all materials used are submitted to a second qualified examiner for a peer review of the process and conclusions reached. The second examiner's role is to repeat the process used, verify the methodology that was followed, and reach their own opinion, which if in agreement, verifies the opinion of the first examiner.\n\nBarefoot morphology comparison should only be undertaken by properly trained forensic specialists, using established comparison methodologies of forensic physical evidence comparison, which may provide circumstantial evidence to assist in the exclusion or inclusion of a person as the potential source of the crime scene barefoot impression, providing additional information to the courts if required.\n\n## See also\n\nPattern Evidence: Footwear Marks; Palm Prints; The Friction Ridge Skin of the Feet.\n\n## Further Reading\n\nBodziak W.J. _Footwear Impression Evidence: Detection, Recovery and Examination_. second ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC; 2000:381\u2013411.\n\nCassidy M.J. _Footwear Identification_. Quebec, Canada: Government Printing Center; 1980.\n\nGupta S.R. Footprint and shoeprint identification. _International Criminal Police Review_. 1967;205:55\u201361.\n\nKennedy R.B. Preliminary study on the uniqueness of barefoot impressions. _Canadian Society of Forensic Science Journal_. 1996;29(4):233\u2013238.\n\nKennedy R.B. Uniqueness of bare feet and its use as a possible means of identification. _Forensic Science International_. 1996;82(1):81\u201387.\n\nKennedy R.B. Bare Footprint Marks. In: Siegel J.A, Saukko P.J, Knupfer G.C, eds. _Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences_. vol. 3. London: Academic Press; 2000:1189\u20131195.\n\nKennedy R.B. Ongoing research into barefoot impression evidence. In: Rich J, Dean D.E, Powers R.H, eds. _Forensic Medicine of the Lower Extremity_. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press; 2005:401\u2013413.\n\nKennedy R.B, Gel S, Massey S, Saunders G. Use of barefoot morphology in criminal investigations. _Identification Canada_. 2002;25(4):4\u20136.\n\nLaskowski G.E, Kyle V.L. Barefoot impressions: a preliminary study of identification characteristics and population frequency of their morphological features. _Journal of Forest Science_. 1988;33(2):378\u2013388.\n\nLemieux M. Histoire de pied\/a foot story. _Identification Canada_. 2002;25(4):16\u201317.\n\nMassey S.L. Persistence of creases of the foot and their value for forensic identification purposes. _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 2004;54(3):296\u2013315.\n\nNayar P.S, Das Gupta S.K. Personal identification based on footprints found on footwear. _International Criminal Police Review_. 1976;236:83\u201387.\n\nPuri D.K.S. Footprints. _International Criminal Police Review_. 1965;187:106\u2013111.\n\nQamra S.R, Sharma B.R, Kaila P. Naked foot marks: a preliminary study of identification factors. _Forensic Science International_. 1980;16(2):145\u2013152.\n\nSmerecki C.J, Lovejoy C.O. Identification via pedal morphology. _Identification News_. 1985;35(12):5\u201312.\n\n# The Friction Ridge Skin of the Feet\n\nD. Johnson Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department, Las Vegas, NV, USA\n\n## Abstract\n\nFriction ridge skin has been used for over a hundred years for personal identification and for the identification of latent prints left at crime scenes. A majority of the focus of the study of friction ridge skin has been on the fingers and palms. The same type of friction ridge skin that covers the surface of the hand also covers the soles of the feet. It is both persistent and unique through the same mechanisms as that of the friction ridge skin of the hands. However, the general ridge flow and pattern types found on the feet can be very different. The notable differences in physiology and embryology of the foot and volar pad size, shape, and placement on the foot lead to some stark differences in the ridge flow and crease patterns on the plantar surface. This causes the distribution of patterns to be different on the toes than they are on the fingers as well as the types and frequencies of patterns that can be found on the soles of the feet.\n\n### Keywords\n\nBall; Creases; Feet; Fingerprint; Foot; Friction ridge skin; Hallucal; Latent print; Palm print; Plantar; Sole\n\n## Introduction\n\nFriction ridge skin has been used for over a hundred years for personal identification and for the identification of latent prints left at crime scenes. A majority of the focus of the study of friction ridge skin has been on the fingers and palms. The same type of friction ridge skin that covers the surface of the hand also covers the soles of the feet. It is both persistent and unique through the same mechanisms as that of the friction ridge skin of the hands. However, the general ridge flow and pattern types found on the feet can be very different. The notable differences in physiology and embryology of the foot and volar pad size, shape, and placement on the foot lead to some stark differences in the ridge flow and crease patterns on the plantar surface.\n\n## History\n\nThe use of friction ridge footprint evidence in US courts dates back to 1938 with the case of the Commonwealth versus Bartolini. Bartolini had been identified as the person who left a barefoot print on the floor of a homicide scene. The defense challenged the use of footprints citing that the expert in the case may have been familiar with fingerprints but was not qualified to give testimony on footprints. The court affirmed the conviction of Bartolini stating that the expert in the case had sufficient knowledge of footprints and that there was \"ample evidence that footprints, like fingerprints, remain constant throughout life and furnish and adequate and reliable means of identification.\"\n\nThe first use of toe prints in the United Kingdom dates back to 1952. In HMA versus William Gourley, a bakery was broken into and several footwear impressions and two impressions of the left foot were recovered. The lock on the safe had been blown and a pry bar was used to open the safe. The two impressions recovered from the safe contained sufficient detail of what appeared to be the left big toe. Gourley was arrested, exemplars of his feet and toe prints were taken, and he was identified to the toe print that was recovered from the safe. The defense challenged the identification saying that the witness did not have enough experience to testify on toe prints. This was the first case in the United Kingdom where a toe print was the sole evidence against the suspect. The jury found Gourley guilty within 15 min and he was sentenced to 3 years in prison.\n\nLater that year, in December 1952, in the United Kingdom, there was a break-in at an Aberdeen warehouse. The scene was processed for fingerprints, but only glove marks and the impressions of stockinged feet were recovered. The suspect had taken care not to leave footwear impressions and fingerprints by removing his shoes and wearing gloves. The stockings appeared to have holes in them allowing the transfer of some of the friction ridge detail from the feet to be recovered. James Walker Adams was identified as a suspect because he had used a similar Modus Operandi in previous break-ins and had been identified through the use of fingerprint and footwear on previous occasions. Adams was identified as having left three impressions. The same defense counsel that represented Gourley was used in HMA versus James Walker Adams, and the defense questioning of the expert witness followed much the same line. The jury found Adams guilty in only 5 min and he was sentenced to a year of jail time.\n\nRecent court challenges using the Daubert or Frye standard in the United States have focused their attacks on the friction ridges of the fingers and the palm. Subsequently, research conducted to answer those Daubert and Frye challenges has only been on the fingers and the palms. While the courts currently recognize the acceptance of friction ridge identification in general, research could be conducted to strengthen this area of the science.\n\n## Embryology and Development of the Friction Ridges of the Foot\n\nThe development of the foot, the friction ridges, and the creases takes place over an estimated gestational age of 6\u201318 weeks. The sequence of events in the foot is very similar to that of the palms and fingers; however, the timing of events in the feet is delayed by about a week to 2 weeks. Several different factors help determine the overall ridge flow and pattern types present in the toes and feet. The shape and growth stresses of the foot and the genetic, environmental, and random factors cause the individual ridge and crease paths to be random. To understand this critical time in friction ridge development is to understand the resulting friction ridge patterns that can be seen on the skin.\n\nBetween 6 and 13 weeks of gestation, the feet will develop from flat paddlelike structures to something that resembles an infant's foot. Although at 6 weeks there are interdigital notches in the hands, they do not form in the feet till about 7 weeks. At about 8 weeks, the toe rays have formed and the heel is raised. At 9 weeks of gestation, the thenar, hypothenar, and interdigital pads are formed and one of the primary creases, the metatarsophalangeal creases, is visible. At 11 weeks of gestation, the pads have begun to regress, and by 13 weeks, the pad regression is all but complete on both the hands and the feet. Most of the primary creases have formed, but there is still some development of creases up until 20 weeks of gestation. While all fetuses will undergo the sequence of events described above, there will be variation between the size, shape, and timing of the regression of the volar pads. All these factors help contribute to the unique friction ridge pattern that is formed on the feet (Figure 1).\n\n### Development of the Arch\n\nChildren are born with flat feet and, the foot will continue to grow and develop as they age. It is not until 2\u20133 years of age that the arch begins to develop. The development of the arch can cause the formation of many new secondary creases in the tibial thenar. These creases are the result of the new concave shape of the foot in this area. In cases of flat-footedness, these creases are absent.\n\n## Recording Known Impressions of the Foot\n\nOne method that is used to obtain inked prints of the feet is to apply ink to the soles of the feet and have the individual walk across a large sheet of paper. This will typically record the weight-bearing areas of the foot as well as the friction ridge detail. This can make these types of known prints useful for not only latent print comparison but also for the comparison of the shape of barefoot impressions. The disadvantage of this method is that it will not give the friction ridge examiner a complete recording of the friction ridge detail of the feet. Most of the surface of the toes, the arch, and the outer portions of the hypothenar and the heel will not be recorded.\n\nSimilar to the method used for rolling palm prints, a large cylinder \u223c5\u2033 in diameter and a legal size piece of paper (8.5\u2033 by 14\u2033) can be used to roll an impression of the feet. Just as in the procedure for palm prints, the foot should be rolled across the surface of the cylinder in one continuous motion, from the heel to the toes.\n\nAlternatively, a light coating of powder can be applied to the surface of the feet and a white adhesive lifter (e.g., Quikprint, Handiprint). This technique has the advantage of being able to wrap the lifter around the surface of the foot, thereby recovering a more complete recording of the friction ridge detail.\n\nFigure 1 Kimura, et al., 1988.\n\nWhen taking exemplars of infants, it is suggested that a ceramic inkpad and a rigid surface such as a clipboard will produce the most reliable images. Several steps are necessary to capture infant footprints. The foot should be washed to remove any biological fluid and thoroughly dried. Using an inkpad, a light coating of ink should be applied and using very light pressure pressed against a rigid surface.\n\n## Ridge Flow of the Feet\n\nLatent prints from the feet are occasionally recovered from the crime scene. When the impression is of sufficient quality and size, it is very easy to determine the source as having come from a foot. However, when the latent print is of a reduced size and quality, it can be difficult to determine that the source is a foot. These impressions can often be confused as having come from a palm (Figure 2).\n\nThe same principles of identification that are employed in fingerprint and palm print identification should be used in footprint identification. As footprints and toe prints are not routinely compared by latent print examiners, care should be employed. The question of how much is enough, still an unanswered question in the areas of fingerprint and palm print identification, has received even less attention in the footprint identifications.\n\nThe foot can be divided into eight areas that can aid in classification. Distal and proximal retain their meaning; however, the terms ulnar and radial should be replaced with tibular and fibular, respectively, to reflect the bones of the calf rather than the bones of the forearm (Figure 3).\n\nFigure 2 Footprint developed with rhodamine 6G.\n\n### Hallucal (Distal Thenar and First Interdigital Area)\n\nThis is the major pattern area of the foot. This is the combination of the first interdigital area and the distal thenar. This is the most patterned area of the foot and can contain a wide variation of loops, whorls, and arches. Understanding the types and shapes in this area can greatly aid in identifying latent prints, as having come from the foot as the hallucal is one of the more common areas that will leave a latent print (Figure 4).\n\nIn a small collection of 84 feet, there were only two distal arches.\n\n### II, III, and IV Interdigital Areas\n\nThe remaining interdigital area can be divided into three separate pattern areas. The five triradii that are typically found in the interdigital area can be used to delineate the different pattern areas as shown in Figure 5. These triradii bear the same designation as they would in the palm, with the exception of \"E\" under the great toe, which has no corresponding delta in the palm.\n\nInterdigital area| Whorl (%)| Loop, distal (%)| Loop, proximal (%)| Open (%)  \n---|---|---|---|---  \nII| 0.15| 6.6| 2.05| 91.2  \nIII| 0.65| 57.7| 0.2| 41.55  \nIV| 0.0a| 8.05| 0.1| 91.9\n\na There were no occurrences of a whorl in the IV interdigital area.\n\nBased on data from Takeya 1933, 1000 right and 1000 left feet.\n\n### Distal\/Proximal Hypothenar\n\nWhen examining the weight-bearing portion of the distal and proximal hypothenar, it was found that most feet exhibited horizontal flowing ridges. When the fully rolled impression was recorded, a loop in the distal portion was found with increasing frequency. While different variants of pattern types are possible in this area, they were fairly uncommon with the distal loop near the IV interdigital being the most common pattern.\n\n| Open field (%)| Vestige (%)| Loop (%)  \n---|---|---|---  \nDistal hypothenar| 27.0| 37.1| 35.9  \nProximal hypothenar| 81.7| 15.3| 3.1\n\nBased on data from Takeya 1933, 1000 right and 1000 left feet.\n\nFigure 3 Holt, Genetics of Dermal Ridges. Areas of the foot: hallucal (I interdigital and thenar distal); II, III, and IV interdigital; hypothenar distal; hypothenar proximal; thenar proximal; and calcar.\n\n### Tibial Thenar\n\nThe tibial thenar area is most typically highly creased and the ridge flow is very similar to the weight-bearing portion of the hypothenar. The most common feature of this area is the straight horizontally flowing ridges with little to no patterning. In the proximal portion of the tibial thenar lies the thenar rudiment. The thenar rudiment is a wedge-shaped ridge flow pattern that is commonly found where the arch of the foot ends and the heel begins. As this area is not often fully recorded, additional variants of the ridge flow are possible.\n\n### Calcar\n\nThe calcar or heel area of the foot is predominantly an open field. The calcar area bears patterns in approximately 1.0% of the cases. Some of the subsets of populations surveyed had percentages ranging from 0.7% to 2.2%. It is still fairly clear that any type of pattern in the calcar region is a rare event. There is some evidence to suggest that patterning in the calcar region is genetic and can be shared among siblings and passed down from generation to generation. However, as most recording of the heels are incomplete, the calcar loop may be more common than is currently thought.\n\n## Toes\n\nThe distribution of pattern types on the fingers is fairly well known and studied. Again, this is an area that has received little attention in the feet. There is very little information that has been published on the toes. The toes provide some difficulties to researchers, and the pattern area is not recorded on typical plain impressions. The big toe is typically flat, but the remaining toes curl under so that only the tips are recorded (Figure 6).\n\nFigure 4 Picture of whorl, loop, open, and arch. Whorls, 30.7%; distal loops, 48.5%; tibial loops, 7.3%; and open, 12.2%. Based on data from Takeya 1933, 1000 right and 1000 left feet.\n\nFigure 5 Interdigital area of the left foot.\n\nThe distribution of pattern types on the toes is very different than that of the fingers. Arches are far more common and whorls are less common. The loops, however, only occur about 5% less than they do in the fingers.\n\n| Arches (%)| Loops (%)| Whorls (%)  \n---|---|---|---  \nEuropean Americans (Neman)| 13| 64.4| 22.6  \nGermans (Steffens)| 19| 59.3| 21.7  \nChinese (Takeya)| 21.8| 59.9| 20.7  \nJapanese (Hasebe)| 21.8| 61| 17.2\n\nToe patterns tend to have smaller ridge counts than the fingers. In a study of twins, it was found that the average ridge count for the fingers was \u223c14.3 and for the toes 10.6 (Figure 7).\n\nWithout knowledge of the ridge flow of the feet, this impression may be interpreted as being from the thumb and part of a palm. If the latent print had been identified as having come from the thumb or part of the palm, it would have resulted in the exclusion of the subject in the case.\n\nFigure 6 Different pattern types of the toes.\n\nFigure 7 Latent lift of the toes and the hallucal area from a safe.\n\n### Creases\n\nThe flexion creases of the feet have been used for many years in the identification of the footprints of infants. Owing to the difficulty of obtaining legible friction ridge impressions from the feet of infants, latent prints examiners have had to rely on the flexion creases to identify the subjects. As early as 1959, the use of flexion creases to identify infants was being used and accepted by the courts. In the case of the People versus Iavaroni\u2014County Court, Brooklyn, NY\u2014an infant found in the possession of Mrs Iavaroni was identified as Lisa Rose Chioncho. She had been kidnapped from the nursery of St. Peter's Hospital. The hospital had taken impressions of Lisa Rose's footprints at birth, but due to the lack of training of the hospital staff, the impressions did not contain any legible ridge detail. When Lisa Rose was found 9 days after the kidnapping, the examiners in the case, Detectives Mandella and Fusci, were able to identify the girl based on the flexion creases alone.\n\n### Formation of the Creases\n\nThe formation of most of the primary creases is independent of the movement of the hands and feet. Spontaneous movement does not occur in the hands and feet until 11.5 weeks and some of the major primary creases have already formed by this time. Additionally, there are cases in which the primary creases are absent, but the individual still has normal movement. Primary crease formation is more closely related to the volar pads than to the movement of the hand and foot. Secondary creases form after the friction ridge skin, and many continue to form in the feet as a person ages.\n\nCreases in the feet are highly variable. Unlike the consistent pattern of the major primary creases in the palm, the feet show a wide variety of crease patterns both in number and configuration. There are anywhere from 0 to 90 creases in the weight-bearing area of the feet, with an average of 15 creases per foot. If the tibular thenar area (arch) were to be included, the number of creases would be much higher.\n\nIt is the combination of the differences in physiology, embryology of the foot and volar pad size, shape, and placement on the foot that leads to some stark differences between the ridge flow and crease patterns on the plantar surface and that of the fingers and palms. Familiarity with the different ridge flow and crease patterns of the feet will help friction ridge examiners identify possible foot impressions and avoid erroneous exclusions.\n\n## See also\n\nAnthropology\/Odontology: Personal Identification in Forensic Anthropology; Investigations: Fingerprints; Pattern Evidence: Analysis, Comparison, Evaluation, and Verification (ACE-V); Bare Footprint Marks; Palm Prints; Pattern Evidence\/History: Fingerprint Sciences.\n\n## Further Reading\n\nBlake J.W. Identification of the new-born by flexure creases. _Identification News_. 1959;9(9):3\u20135.\n\nCummins H. The topographic history of the volar pads (walking pads; tastballen) in the human embryo. _Contributions to Embryology_. 1929;113:103\u2013126.\n\nCummins H, Midlo C. _Finger Prints, Palms, and Soles: An Introduction to Dermatoglyphics_. Philadelphia: The Blakiston Company; 1943.\n\nFox K.M, Plato C.C. Toe and plantar dermatoglyphics in adult American Caucasians. _American Journal of Physical Anthropology_. 1987;74(1):55\u201364.\n\nHolt S.B. _The Genetics of Dermal Ridges_. Springfield: Charles C. Thomas; 1968.\n\nKimura S, Schaumann B.A, Plato C.C, Kitagawa T. Developmental aspects of human palmar, plantar, and digital flexion creases. In: Durham N.M, Plato C.C, eds. _Trends in Dermatoglyphic Research: Proceedings of a Symposium from the 12th International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences_. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers; 1988:84\u201398.\n\nLohnes R.C. Infant footprint identification by flexure creases. _Identification News_. 1986;36(8):10\u201313.\n\nMassey S.L. Persistence of creases of the foot and their value for forensic identification purposes. _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 2004;54(3):296\u2013315.\n\nMontgomery R.B. Sole patterns of twins. _The Biological Bulletin_. 1926;50(4):293\u2013300.\n\nMontgomery R.B. Sole patterns. A study of the footprints of two thousand individuals. _The Anatomical Record_. 1926;33(2):107\u2013114.\n\nMontgomery R.B. Classification of foot-prints. _Journal of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology_. 1927;18(1):105\u2013110.\n\nTaylor R.A. Flexure creases: alternative method for infant footprint identification. _Identification News_. 1979;29(9):12\u201314.\n\nWilder H.H. Palm and sole studies. _The Biological Bulletin_. 1916;30(2\u20133):135\u2013252.\n\n# Palm Prints\n\nA. Maceo, M. Carter, and B. Stromback Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department Forensic Laboratory, Las Vegas, NV, USA\n\n## Abstract\n\nThe palmar patterns in 800 pairs of inked palm prints were classified and counted. The left and right palms were divided into three regions: interdigital, hypothenar, and thenar. The interdigital region was further divided into volar pad (VP) II, III, and IV positions. In the interdigital region, the most common pattern type was a loop in the VP III or IV position. In the hypothenar region, the most common pattern type in both the left and right palms was an ulnar loop. In the thenar region, a vestige accompanied by a proximal loop\/column and a distal loop\/column was the most common pattern combination. The interdigital region was the most pattern-rich region of the palms. The thenar region contained the least number of patterns.\n\n### Keywords\n\nArch; Carpal delta; Column; Delta; Friction ridge skin; Hypothenar; Interdigital; Loop; Palm; Tented arch; Thenar; Vestige; Volar pad; Whorl\n\nThe friction ridges on the palmar surface of the hands develop in utero during the first and second trimester. Like fingerprints, the ridge flows and patterns that emerge on the palms are the product of the growth stresses and strains on the surface of the skin at the time of friction ridge development. These growth stresses, and the size and shape of any volar pads (VPs) present, influence the resulting patterns displayed on the palms (Wertheim and Maceo).\n\nThe friction ridge skin on the palmar surfaces has been studied for more than a century. In the late 1890s through the early 1900s, Inez Whipple researched the ventral surfaces of various species of monkeys' feet, focusing on the apical pads, ridge patterns, deltas, and other \"epidermal markings,\" comparing them to human hands and feet. Harris Wilder, in his Palm and Sole Studies, created a system for recording the configurations of various features on the palms and soles into a formula, easily understood and visualized by someone knowing the system. Cummins and Midlo researched pattern frequencies and intensities (number of deltas) in both right and left palms and soles of chimpanzees. Penrose also studied the pattern frequencies of palms and soles, and he and Loesch classified palmar dermatoglyphics, both normal and abnormal. Malhotra et al. researched the methodology for palmar pattern ridge counts, specifically in Indian genetics. Most recently, in 2001, Tietze and Witthuhn published their work on palm patterns, flows, and deltas, including statistical data in left and right palms. Given that the book is written in German, translation and interpretation is limited; however, the charts and graphs and numerous images are most useful.\n\nTo further study the distribution of the various patterns on the palms, the authors devised a classification scheme and recorded the various pattern types present in 800 pairs of inked palm prints (left and right). The palm prints were randomly selected from male arrestees in Clark County, Nevada, from the 1990s. The palms were divided into three regions: interdigital, hypothenar, and thenar. Figure 1 illustrates the different regions of the palm.\n\n## Interdigital Region\n\n### Deltas\n\nThe interdigital region is the most complex area of the palm. In this study, the interdigital region contained anywhere from three to seven deltas. These deltas often existed in various combinations with tented arches (TAs), loops, columns, or whorls in the interdigital region. Seven possible delta positions were documented. Four of the delta positions were situated at or near the base of each finger (finger deltas) and were labeled index (I), middle (M), ring (R), and little (L). The remaining three delta positions occurred between the fingers and were labeled index\/middle (I\/M), middle\/ring (M\/R), and ring\/little (R\/L). Occasionally, more than one delta was located in a position (e.g., two deltas under the ring finger). Table 1 shows the number of palms with the corresponding number of deltas from the 800 left and right palms. The most common number of interdigital deltas in the left and right hands was four.\n\nFigure 1 Three palmar regions: interdigital, hypothenar, and thenar.\n\nTable 1\n\nNumber of deltas in the interdigital region (n = 800 for left and right palms each)\n\nNumber of deltas| Left palm| Right palm  \n---|---|---  \n3| 32 (4.0%)| 19 (2.4%)  \n4| 586 (73%)| 605 (76%)  \n5| 154 (19%)| 137 (17%)  \n6| 28 (3.5%)| 37 (4.6%)  \n7| 0| 2 (0.25%)\n\nTable 2\n\nThe number of palms containing 0, 1, or 2 deltas in each interdigital delta position (n = 800 for left and right palms each)\n\nDelta position| Left palm| Right palm  \n---|---|---  \nNumber of deltas present| Number of deltas present  \n0 Delta| 1 Delta| 2 Deltas| 0 Delta| 1 Delta| 2 Deltas  \nIndex (I)| 0| 800 (100%)| 0| 0| 800 (100%)| 0  \nI\/M| 773 (97%)| 27 (3.4%)| 0| 732 (92%)| 68 (8.5%)| 0  \nMiddle (M)| 1 (0.12%)| 799 (99.9%)| 0| 0| 800 (100%)| 0  \nM\/R| 797 (99.6%)| 3 (0.38%)| 0| 782 (98%)| 18 (2.2%)| 0  \nRing (R)| 69 (8.6%)| 726 (91%)| 5 (0.62%)| 39 (4.9%)| 755 (94%)| 6 (0.75%)  \nR\/L| 696 (87%)| 94 (12%)| 10 (1.2%)| 661 (83%)| 132 (16%)| 7 (0.88%)  \nLittle (L)| 1 (0.12%)| 799 (100%)| 0| 3 (0.38%)| 797 (100%)| 0\n\nFigure 2 Right palm interdigital region displaying the index (I), middle (M), ring (R), and little (L) deltas.\n\nThe position of each delta and the number of deltas in each position were also recorded. Table 2 shows the number of palms that contained 0, 1, or 2 deltas in each delta position in the interdigital region. As shown in Table 2, the overwhelming majority of palms had a delta associated with each finger.\n\nIt was very common for the palms to have only the four finger deltas: 553 of the 586 left palms and 591 of the 605 right palms with four interdigital deltas had only the four finger deltas (I, M, R, and L). Figure 2 is a right palm interdigital region displaying the four finger deltas.\n\nIn palms containing only three interdigital deltas, the most common configuration was a delta under the index, middle, and little finger each (the ring finger delta was absent): 31 of 32 left palms and 19 of 19 right palms with three interdigital deltas were missing the ring finger delta. Figure 3 shows the interdigital region below the right ring finger. In this palm, the ring finger delta is absent.\n\nInterdigital regions with four or more deltas often contained at least one pattern area in the interdigital region. The more patterns present in the interdigital region, generally the higher the number of deltas present. Figure 4 is a right palm interdigital region displaying six deltas associated with three interdigital loop patterns. In this study, 13 left palms (1.6%) and 18 right palms (2.2%) presented this configuration of six deltas and three loops.\n\nFigure 3 Interdigital region below the right ring finger. The ring finger delta is absent.\n\nFigure 4 Right palm interdigital region with six deltas (I, I\/M, M, R, R\/L, and L) and three loop patterns (highlighted in blue).\n\nFigure 5 Patterns of the interdigital region. (a and b) Tented arch, (c) loop, (d) column, and (e) whorl.\n\nFigure 6 Volar pad (VP) regions of the right palm interdigital region.\n\n### Patterns\n\nThe position and types of patterns in the interdigital region were also documented. These patterns included TAs, loops, columns, and whorls. Figure 5 illustrates the different patterns. Designation as TAs, loops, and whorls followed basic fingerprint classification rules. In the interdigital region, however, a TA was a ridge flow over an interdigital delta that formed a looplike pattern (Figure 5(a) and (b)). Columns are a series of three or more ending ridges flanked on one or both sides by a delta (Figure 5(d)).\n\nThe interdigital region was divided into VP regions II, III, and IV as depicted in Figure 6. The VP II region is between the index and middle fingers. The VP III region is between the middle and ring fingers. The VP IV region is between the ring and little fingers.\n\nThe patterns present in each VP position were recorded for the 800 left and right palms. Only 40 of the 800 (5%) left palms and 29 of the 800 (3.6%) right palms displayed no patterns in the interdigital region. Table 3 indicates the number of palms with the various patterns in the VP II position, including the number of palms with TAs over the middle finger delta. Table 4 indicates the number of palms with the various patterns in the VP III position, including the number of palms with TAs over the ring finger delta. Table 5 indicates the number of palms with the various patterns in the VP IV position, including the number of palms with TAs over the little finger delta. In the VP IV position, there could be a single loop or two loops, which is the reason Table 5 has \"1 Loop\" and \"2 Loops\" indicated.\n\nTable 3\n\nNumber of palms with the designated patterns present in the volar pad (VP) II position (n = 800 left and right palms each)\n\nVP II| Loop| Column| Tented arch middle delta  \n---|---|---|---  \nLeft palm| 25 (3.1%)| 3 (0.38%)| 0  \nRight palm| 53 (6.6%)| 16 (2.0%)| 1 (0.12%)\n\nTable 4\n\nNumber of palms with the designated patterns present in the volar pad (VP) III position (n = 800 left and right palms each)\n\nVP III| Loop| Column| Whorl| Tented arch ring delta  \n---|---|---|---|---  \nLeft palm| 185 (23%)| 2 (0.25%)| 0| 192 (24%)  \nRight palm| 373 (47%)| 3 (0.38%)| 2 (0.25%)| 111 (14%)\n\nTable 5\n\nNumber of palms with the designated patterns present in the volar pad (VP) IV position (n = 800 left and right palms each). The VP IV position was the only VP position in this study where two loops occurred in the same VP position\n\nVP IV| 1 Loop| 2 Loops| Column| Whorl| Tented arch little delta  \n---|---|---|---|---|---  \nLeft palm| 438 (55%)| 31 (3.9%)| 58 (7.2%)| 4 (0.50%)| 1 (0.12%)  \nRight palm| 374 (47%)| 9 (1.1%)| 36 (4.5%)| 2 (0.25%)| 0\n\nLoops and columns were more prevalent on the right hand (versus the left hand) in the VP II position. This naturally correlates with the higher occurrence of I\/M deltas in right palms. The right palms had an equal occurrence of loops in the VP III and IV positions, while left palms had the highest occurrence of loops in the VP IV position. Figure 7 illustrates a rare and complex VP IV position in a left palm. This palm has a column (a) and two loops (b and c) in the VP IV position.\n\nFigure 7 Left palm volar pad (VP) IV region containing a column (A) and two loops (B and C).\n\nTable 6\n\nThe number of left palms with different configurations of loops in the three volar pad (VP) positions (n = 800)\n\nLeft palm  \n---  \nNo. of palms| VP II loop| VP III loop| VP IV loop  \n1 (0.12%)| 1| |   \n111 (14%)| | 1|   \n363 (45%)| | | 1  \n13 (1.6%)| 1| 1| 1  \n5 (0.62%)| 1| 1|   \n56 (7.0%)| | 1| 1  \n6 (0.75%)| 1| | 1  \n31 (3.9%)| | | 2  \n0| 1| 1| 2  \n0| | 1| 2  \n0| 1| | 2\n\nLoops are the most common pattern in the interdigital region of palms. Tables 6 and 7 demonstrate the number of left and right palms containing specific configurations of loops in the various VP positions. For example, there were 111 left palms (14%) with a loop in the VP III position only. There were 13 left palms (1.6%) with a loop in all three VP positions. These tables only refer to loops; other patterns may be present in the VP regions.\n\nTable 7\n\nThe number of right palms with different configurations of loops in the three volar pad (VP) positions (n = 800)\n\nRight palm  \n---  \nNo. of palms| VP II loop| VP III loop| VP IV loop  \n7 (0.88%)| 1| |   \n255 (32%)| | 1|   \n276 (34%)| | | 1  \n18 (2.2%)| 1| 1| 1  \n23 (2.9%)| 1| 1|   \n75 (9.4%)| | 1| 1  \n5 (0.62%)| 1| | 1  \n7 (0.88%)| | | 2  \n0| 1| 1| 2  \n2 (0.25%)| | 1| 2  \n0| 1| | 2\n\nFigure 8 Right palm hypothenars displaying an \"ulnar loop\u2014top\" (A), a radial loop (B), and an \"ulnar loop\u2014base\" (C).\n\n## Hypothenar\n\nThe hypothenar region also contained a variety of patterns. Like fingers, the loops found in the palms flow in a certain direction. For the purposes of this study, the direction the top of the loop was pointing to is indicated (this is reverse from fingerprint classification). For instance, a loop pointing toward the outer edge of the palm is called an \"ulnar loop.\" A loop pointing toward the center of the palm is called a \"radial loop,\" and a loop pointing toward the base of the palm is called a \"proximal loop.\" The ulnar loops are further described by the origin of the ridge flow. If the ridges flow into an ulnar loop pattern from the top of the palm, it is called an \"ulnar loop\u2014top.\" If the ridges flow into an ulnar loop pattern from the bottom of the palm, it is called an \"ulnar loop\u2014base.\" Figure 8 illustrates two right hand hypothenars. One hypothenar has an \"ulnar loop\u2014top\" (a) and a radial loop (b). The other hypothenar has an \"ulnar loop\u2014base\" (c). The pattern counts for ulnar loops may be artificially low due to the manner in which the palms were recorded. Sometimes ulnar loops are located far out on the edge of the palm and are not displayed during the recording process; for this reason, the data should be viewed with caution.\n\nFigure 9 Right palm hypothenars classified as proximal loop (a), arch (b), and proximal loop\/arch (c).\n\nFigure 10 Right palm hypothenars classified as a proximal tented arch (a) and an ulnar tented arch (b).\n\nFigure 9 illustrates the patterns classified as proximal loop, arch, and proximal loop\/arch combination. The proximal loop in the proximal loop\/arch classification approaches the radial loop classification; however, it is distinguished by the distinct arch pattern.\n\nFigure 10 illustrates the TA patterns noted in the hypothenar region. The TAs can point in the proximal direction (a) or the ulnar direction (b).\n\nFigure 11 Left palm hypothenar classified as a double-loop whorl (a) and a right palm hypothenar classified as a plain whorl (b).\n\nWhorl patterns can also be found in the hypothenar region. Figure 11 illustrates a double-loop whorl (a) and a plain whorl (b) in the hypothenar.\n\nColumns of ridges can also be present in the hypothenar. These columns can manifest vertically near the carpal delta (delta typically found at the base of the palm that separates the hypothenar and thenar regions) or horizontally throughout the hypothenar. Figure 12 illustrates a right palm hypothenar with a vertical column (a) and a right palm hypothenar with a horizontal column (b) and an ulnar loop (c).\n\nThere was no pattern present in 547 of the 800 (68%) left palm hypothenars and 514 of the 800 (64%) right palm hypothenars. The most common pattern found in the hypothenar was an ulnar loop\u2014top: 156 (20%) left palms and 146 (18%) right palms. The most common pattern combination in the hypothenar was an ulnar loop\u2014top and a radial loop: 9 (1.1%) left palms and 11 (1.4%) right palms. Figure 8(a) and (b) illustrates this combination.\n\nFigure 12 Right palm hypothenars displaying a vertical column (A), a horizontal column (B), and an ulnar loop (C).\n\nTable 8\n\nHypothenar patterns (n = 800 for left and right palms each)\n\nPatterns| No. of left palms| No. of right palms  \n---|---|---  \nNo pattern| 547 (68%)| 514 (64%)  \nUlnar loop\u2014top (1)| 156 (20%)| 146 (18%)  \nUlnar loop\u2014top (2)| 1 (0.12%)| 0  \nUlnar loop\u2014base (1)| 6 (0.75%)| 15 (1.9%)  \nUlnar loop\u2014base (2)| 1 (0.12%)| 0  \nRadial loop (1)| 71 (8.9%)| 69 (8.6%)  \nRadial loop (2)| 1 (0.12%)| 1 (0.12%)  \nProximal loop| 7 (0.88%)| 12 (1.5%)  \nProximal loop\/arch| 1 (0.12%)| 9 (1.1%)  \nArch| 2 (0.25%)| 8 (1.0%)  \nProximal tented arch| 1 (0.12%)| 5 (0.62%)  \nUlnar tented arch| 0| 2 (0.25%)  \nPlain whorl| 2 (0.25%)| 9 (1.1%)  \nDouble-loop whorl| 6 (0.75%)| 10 (1.2%)  \nHorizontal column (1)| 10 (1.2%)| 21 (2.6%)  \nHorizontal column (2)| 0| 1 (0.12%)  \nVertical column| 3 (0.38%)| 12 (1.5%)\n\nTable 8 shows the number of palms containing the various hypothenar patterns. Occasionally, two ulnar loops, two radial loops, or two horizontal columns appeared in the hypothenar. A single pattern is designated \"(1)\" and a double pattern is designated \"(2).\" One palm could have multiple patterns (e.g., a loop and a horizontal column).\n\n## Thenar\n\nThe thenar region displays fewer overall patterns than the other regions of the palm. There is, however, one pattern unique to the thenar\u2014the vestige. A vestige is a ridge flow that runs opposite to the main flow of the ridges. A vestige can be small and independent, or it may be quite large and accompanied by loops, columns, or whorls.\n\nThe loops and columns were counted together; hence the combined classification of \"loop\/column.\" A loop\/column above the vestige was termed \"proximal loop\/column\" because the nose of the loop or ending ridges of the column point toward the base of the palm. Occasionally, both a loop and a column appeared above the vestige. The loop\/column below the vestige was termed a \"distal loop\/column\" because the nose of the loop or the ending ridges of the column generally pointed toward the top of the palm.\n\nFigure 13 illustrates right palm thenars with an independent vestige (a and b), a vestige with a narrow proximal loop\/column and narrow distal loop\/column (c), and a vestige with a wide proximal loop\/column and wide distal loop\/column (d).\n\nFigure 14 illustrates the whorl (a) and double-loop whorl (b) that can be found accompanying vestiges in the thenar region. The whorl and vestige are also associated with proximal loops\/columns above the vestige. Occasionally, a proximal loop\/column (c) or a distal loop\/column can occur in the thenar independently (no vestige).\n\nFigure 13 Right palm thenars displaying vestiges.\n\nFigure 14 Left palm thenars displaying vestiges associated with a plain whorl (a) and a double-loop whorl (b). Also shown is an independent proximal loop\/column in the thenar (c).\n\nTable 9\n\nThe number of palms containing the various patterns (and combinations of patterns) in the thenar region (n = 800 for left and right palms each)\n\nPattern| No. of left palms| No. of right palms  \n---|---|---  \nNo pattern| 659 (82%)| 745 (93%)  \nVestige (in any configuration)| 119 (15%)| 49 (6.1%)  \nVestige only| 12 (1.5%)| 9 (1.1%)  \nVestige, proximal loop\/column, and distal loop\/column| 72 (9%)| 27 (3.4%)  \nVestige and proximal loop\/column only| 16 (2.0%)| 7 (0.88%)  \nVestige and distal loop\/column only| 10 (1.2%)| 2 (0.25%)  \nVestige, proximal loop\/column, and plain whorl| 7 (0.88%)| 3 (0.38%)  \nVestige, proximal loop\/column, and double-loop whorl| 2 (0.25%)| 1 (0.12%)  \nProximal loop\/column only (no vestige)| 20 (2.5%)| 5 (0.62%)  \nDistal loop\/column only (no vestige)| 1 (0.12%)| 1 (0.12%)\n\nTable 9 contains the number of palms displaying a different pattern and combinations of patterns, found in the thenar region.\n\nPalm prints display four different basic patterns: arches, loops, whorls, and columns. These patterns can occur, independently or in combination, in the interdigital, hypothenar, or thenar regions. The interdigital region displayed the highest frequency of patterns\u2014more than 95% of palms displayed at least one pattern in the interdigital region. Less than 15% of the thenar regions contained a pattern, while \u223c34% of hypothenar regions displayed a pattern.\n\nLatent palm prints are routinely encountered in forensic casework. Through training and experience, analysts develop a sense of the rarity of features, including patterns, in the various regions of the palm. Using data such as these, analysts can better inform their judgments regarding the rarity of these features.\n\n## See also\n\nPattern Evidence: Bare Footprint Marks; Footwear Marks; The Friction Ridge Skin of the Feet.\n\n## Further Reading\n\nCummins H, Midlo C. _Fingerprints, Palms and Soles_. Philadelphia: Blakiston Co; 1943.\n\nCummins H, Spragg S.D.S. Dermatoglyphics in the chimpanzee: description and comparison with man. _Human Biology_. 1938;10:457\u2013510.\n\nDurhan N.M, Plato C.C, eds. _Trends in Dermatoglyphic Research_. _Studies in Human Biology_. vol. 1. The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic; 1990.\n\nLoesch D. Genetics of dermatoglyphic patterns on palms. _Annals of Human Genetics_. 1971;34:277\u2013293.\n\nMalhotra K.C, Karmaker B, Vijayakumar M. _Genetics of Palmar Pattern Research. Technology Report No. Anthropology 1_. Calcutta: Indian Statistical Institute; 1981.\n\nMidlo C, Cummins H. _Palmar and Plantar Dermatoglyphics in Primates_ American Anatomical Memoris No. 20. Philadelphia: Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology; 1942:1\u2013198.\n\nPenrose L.S, Loesch D. Topological classification of palmar dermatoglyphics. _Journal of Mental Deficiency Research_. 1970;14:111\u2013128.\n\nTietze S, Witthuhn K. _Papillarleistenstruktur der Menschlichen Handinnenflache_. Germany: Luchterhand; 2001.\n\nWertheim K, Maceo A. The critical stage of friction ridge and pattern formation. _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 2002;52(1):35\u201385.\n\nWhipple I.L. The ventral surface of the mammalian chiridium. _Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Morphologie und Anthropologie_. 1904;7:261\u2013268.\n\nWilder H.H. Palm and sole studies. _Biology Bulletin_. 1916;30:135\u2013172.\n\n# Key Terms\n\nArch, Ball, Bare footprint, Barefoot impression, Barefoot morphology, Carpal delta, Column, Creases, Delta, Feet, Fingerprint, Foot, Friction ridge skin, Hallucal, Hypothenar, Insole impression, Interdigital, Latent print, Loop, Multistep impression, Palm, Palm print, Plantar, Single-step impression, Socked-foot impression, Sole, Tented arch, Thenar, Vestige, Volar pad, Weight-bearing impression, Whorl.\n\n# Review Questions\n\n1. Does the friction ridge skin on the plantar surfaces have the same significance for identification as friction ridges on the palmar surfaces? What is your answer based on?\n\n2. What studies have been conducted on bare footmarks? List them with their year of publication and their relevant findings.\n\n3. How should bare footmarks be dealt with at a crime scene?\n\n4. How are exemplar footmarks taken?\n\n5. How does the examination of footmarks differ from that of fingerprint examination? How are they the same?\n\n6. What conclusions can be drawn from a footmark examination?\n\n7. Identify the areas of friction ridge skin. Which can be used for identification purposes?\n\n8. When was the first case of a bare footprint in a criminal case?\n\n9. Compare and contrast the development of the friction ridge skin on the hands and the feet.\n\n10. How does the development of the foot effect the development and use of friction ridge skin for identification?\n\n11. What is the major pattern area of the foot called?\n\n12. What flow patterns do most feet exhibit in the weight-bearing region of the foot?\n\n13. How often does the heel present patterns?\n\n14. Are creases useful for identification purposes? Why or why not?\n\n15. How long has friction ridge skin on the palms been studied?\n\n16. Which region of the palm is the most complex?\n\n17. How does the friction ridge skin of the fingers compare to that of the palm area? Why would this be?\n\n18. What is the value of the study of Maceo et al. to palm print examinations?\n\n19. List the regions of the palm.\n\n20. Why should the terms fibular and tibular be used instead of radial and ulnar?\n\n# Discussion Questions\n\n1. In what kinds of cases can footmarks be useful? Why is this?\n\n2. Can footmarks provide identification to the same level as fingerprints? Why or why not?\n\n3. Consider the circumstances of the Iavaroni case from Brooklyn in 1959. How would that case likely be resolved now? What differences would there be in timeliness and accuracy given the methods used?\n\n4. Given fingerprints, footmarks, and palm prints at a crime scene, which would be most probative? Why?\n\n5. If fingerprints are a valid form of identification, does that validity transfer or translate to palm and footprints? Why or why not?\n\n## Additional Readings\n\nBurrow J.G. Ghosting of images in barefoot exemplar prints collection: issues for analyses. _Journal of Forensic Identification_. 2015;65(5):884.\nSection 7\n\nProfessional issues\n\nOutline\n\nIntroduction\n\nCrime Scene to Court\n\nForensic Laboratory Reports\n\nHealth and Safety\n\nMeasurement Uncertainty\n\nKey Terms\n\nReview Questions\n\nDiscussion Questions\n\n# Introduction\n\nLike any other forensic science, fingerprints require a high level of professionalism. Identifying or excluding individuals, whether suspects or victims, in criminal cases is an awesome responsibility and will effect the lives of many for decades. The various chemicals and materials used to visualize latent prints require health and safety awareness and expertise. Fingerprint examiners enjoy the luxury of working with an evidence type that is readily understood and appreciated; this does not change the examiner's responsibility to write reports and provide testimonies that are intelligible and accurate.\n\n# Crime Scene to Court\n\nK. Ramsey, and E. Burton Greater Manchester Police Forensic Services Branch, Manchester, UK\n\n## Abstract\n\nThis article outlines the development of forensic support to criminal investigations during the twentieth century and the traditional approaches to forensic submission strategies. It considers a more holistic approach to obtaining test results that are of better value to investigations and law enforcement priorities.\n\n### Keywords\n\nBest evidence; Forensic; Holistic approach; Integrated case management; Investigations; Strategy; Submissions\n\nGlossary\n\nCBRN Chemical, biological, radiation, and nuclear incidents.\n\nCCTV Closed circuit television (cameras or evidence from).\n\nCPD Continuous professional development.\n\nCPS Crown Prosecution Service (UK).\n\nHTCU Hi-tech crime unit (examination of hardware\/software\/data\/images from any system or device).\n\nL2 Level 2 investigations, specific skills required for, e.g., covert operations, deployment and substitution of items, forensic markers.\n\nLCH Local Clearing House (firearms).\n\nNABIS National Ballistics Intelligence Service (UK).\n\nNCA National Crime Agency (UK).\n\nNOS National Occupational Standards.\n\nT1\/2\/3 CSI Skill tiers defined for crime scene investigation officers, with 1 being the most basic level of training (usually volume crime offenses only); 2 being the range of volume, serious, and major crime investigations; and 3 being trained in crime scene management\/the coordination of complex investigations.\n\nVSC\/ESDA Video spectral comparison\u2014the analysis of inks, primarily in fraudulent documents; electrostatic detection analysis\u2014the examination of (writing) indentations on paper.\n\n## Introduction\n\nA multitude of disciplines evolved within forensic science during the twentieth century, resulting in highly specialized fields of evidential opportunities to support criminal investigations. Many of the more traditional disciplines, for example, footwear analysis and blood pattern interpretation, now have well-established principles and methodologies that have been proven in a criminal justice context; developments in these areas are largely confined to technical support systems and information sharing through databases. The very rapid rate of development of DNA profiling techniques during the 1980s and 1990s led to the emergence of national and international DNA databases; however, the pace of change has now significantly reduced. Conversely, the end of the twentieth century and the early part of the twenty-first century have seen an explosion of new forensic evidence types that are less established in court\u2014disciplines such as CCTV, mobile phone, computer analysis, and the use of digital images and social media are collectively referred to as e-forensics.\n\nOwing to the highly specialized nature of each forensic discipline and the varied rate of evolution, forensic science effectively represents a composite of interrelated, and often distinct, opportunities to support criminal investigations.\n\nMost current models of forensic service delivery, especially where part of a wider organization, for example, police forces and enforcement agencies, have arisen over time by bolting on additional elements and clustering together within related fields. If the current capability of forensic science were to be designed from scratch as an effective entity, it is certain that a more integrated, and hence effective, structure would be proposed.\n\nIn addition, there has been a professionalization of forensic science in the workplace and increasing requirements for regulation; as recently as the 1980s, crime scene investigation, for example, was widely undertaken by police officers and was largely restricted to recording\/recovering visible evidence; this was used in a limited capacity to support that particular investigation without scope for wider intelligence development. Now, crime scene investigation is predominantly undertaken by specialist staff employed to exclusively undertake these duties.\n\nTo practice in a forensic discipline, specialized training, qualifications, and competency levels are required. The range of evidence types that have potential to support investigations has widened considerably. Some disciplines lend themselves to cross-skilling.\n\nPublic expectations of what forensic science can deliver have been heightened by highly popular mainstream television programs, both documentary and fictional. Often, the expectation of what can be delivered exceeds what is either possible or financially sensible. This leads to a requirement on service providers and users to make informed (evidential and financial) decisions regarding the best use of forensic evidence in support of investigations.\n\nThis article considers options to optimize the use of forensic evidence types recovered from crime scenes in the context of the different models available to criminal justice systems; the concept of integrated case management is outlined and discussed.\n\n## Task\n\nTo bring together all potential forensic evidential opportunities, holistically review their significance to the investigation, prioritize the progression of work, deliver the best evidence to the court for testing (complying with all continuity, integrity, and quality requirements), and ensure the best value for money when determining spend on forensic evidence.\n\nInternationally, there are variable constraints and opportunities due both to the different criminal justice models and the commercial market situation at state\/regional and country levels.\n\n## Models\n\n1. All forensic evidence sourced within a law enforcement agency, for example, a police laboratory.\n\n2. All forensic evidence provided by external specialists contracted to a law enforcement agency.\n\n3. Composite of (1) and (2).\n\n## Forensic Strategies\n\nThe recovery of evidence from the crime scene is only the start of the forensic process. Once the evidence has been collected, packaged, and preserved, it needs to be analyzed in order to provide meaningful information to the investigation and subsequently to the courts.\n\nForensic examinations are carried out in order to implicate or eliminate individuals and also in order to establish what has occurred during the commission of an offense or incident.\n\nDeciding what analysis is required can be a complex process. Some of the issues for consideration include the following:\n\n\u2022 Is it necessary to examine all the evidence that is recovered?\n\n\u2022 Should every possible test be carried out?\n\nIn an ideal world, it would be preferable to carry out every possible analysis; however, in reality, it is likely that this will be neither practicable nor financially viable. In addition, carrying out every possible analysis would overload forensic laboratories.\n\nWhen making decisions about what forensic analysis should be carried out, it is vitally important that consideration is given to both the potential prosecution and defense cases. An impartial approach must be taken to assessing examination requirements. It is often not necessary to carry out an examination of every item of evidence recovered, but examinations should be directed to where value could potentially be added to an investigation.\n\nA forensic strategy should be developed around every case where forensic evidence plays a part and may relate to an overall case or to an individual item of evidence. A forensic strategy should be developed in a holistic manner taking into account all potential evidence types and should direct and coordinate the forensic examinations\/analyses that are required.\n\nForensic strategies can be developed in different ways by one or more of the following:\n\n\u2022 Investigating officer\n\n\u2022 Crime scene investigator (CSI) or crime scene manager\n\n\u2022 Forensic scientist\/forensic specialist\n\n\u2022 Forensic submissions officer (forensic submissions officer is a role that can be variably named; this role relates to an informed individual within a police force or law enforcement agency who uses knowledge and expertise to advise on forensic analysis and who has decision-making authority and control of the budgetary spend. He\/she may also be known as forensic advisor, scientific support manager, etc.)\n\n\u2022 Legal representative\n\n\u2022 Pathologist\n\nForensic strategies are generally initially developed and applied by individuals involved in the prosecution aspects of a crime. Although this is the case, it is vitally important that a balanced and unbiased approach is taken to the development of a strategy and consideration is given to information that may support the defense case as well as the prosecution case. Examinations that are likely to add value or provide information to an investigation (irrespective of whether it will support or weaken the prosecution case) should be carried out and all results must be disclosed to the defense team. Defense should also be given the opportunity to carry out any review of strategies, examination processes, and\/or results that they require and be provided with access to any items of evidence that they want to examine themselves in order to build the defense case.\n\nIn order to develop the forensic strategy and make appropriate decisions about which forensic examinations will be of value to the investigation, the following are necessary:\n\n\u2022 To be able to gather as much information as possible about the circumstances of the case\n\n\u25cb circumstances of evidence recovery\n\n\u25cb accounts given by victim(s), witnesses, suspect(s), etc.\n\n\u2022 To have an understanding and knowledge of forensic science and its application to investigations\n\nA forensic strategy meeting is a useful way of ensuring that all relevant parties are aware of the full circumstances of the case and enables a \"multiagency\" discussion about the processing of all exhibits to optimize evidential potential in a comprehensive and coordinated manner.\n\nIt can often be the case that police officers do not have a full understanding or knowledge of forensic science, likewise forensic scientists historically have had a relatively poor understanding of police and investigative processes; this can lead to miscommunication and confusion in relation to the application of forensic science to meet investigative needs. A joint approach to the development of forensic strategies helps to improve the communication and understanding on a case-by-case basis.\n\nA formal forensic strategy meeting is often required only in more serious cases; however, the general approach can be applied to any investigation. Even in the most simple of cases, it is often beneficial for discussions to take place between the investigating officer, the CSI, the forensic advisor\/budget holder\/decision maker, and the prosecutor. Alternatively, generic strategies can be implemented; for example, for a particular crime type or modus operandi.\n\nWhen making an assessment regarding the potential examination of a particular item and the development of a forensic strategy, the requirements of the investigation are the primary concern and consideration should be given to the following issues:\n\n\u2022 The type and nature of the item\/exhibit\n\n\u2022 The context of the item\n\n\u25cb Exactly where and when it was recovered\n\n\u25cb Condition of the item, that is, wet, damaged, etc.\n\n\u2022 The integrity of the item\n\n\u25cb Has it been appropriately recovered, handled, packaged, and preserved?\n\n\u25cb Is the security and continuity of the item intact?\n\n\u2022 The potential evidence that may be obtained from the item; for example, DNA, fingerprints, fibers, footwear marks\n\n\u2022 The information these evidence types may provide to the investigation\n\n\u2022 Whether this potential information is likely to add value to the investigation\n\n\u25cb Is it possible that new information will be provided?\n\n\u25cb Is it possible that an account given by a witness, victim, or suspect will be supported or refuted?\n\n\u25cb Will the information help to establish what has occurred?\n\n\u2022 Whether there is a conflict between potential evidence types, and if so, which evidence type will be of most value under the circumstances?\n\n\u25cb For example, swabbing\/taping for DNA may damage fingerprints, but where the DNA is likely to be at low levels and requires specialized low-template DNA analysis, the presence of DNA may not necessarily prove contact with an item, whereas fingerprints will always prove that contact has occurred\n\n\u2022 The chances of success, that is, obtaining a result\/information of value to the investigation (this may be inclusive or exclusive)\n\nMuch work has historically been completed in relation to developing and understanding the success rates relating to DNA profiling; however, relatively little work has been undertaken to fully understand the success rates associated with other forensic evidence. This is largely due to the fact that other evidence types, such as fibers, gunshot residue, footwear marks, etc., are generally more complex to interpret than DNA. In relation to DNA profiling, success rates are generally based on the chances of obtaining a DNA profile; however, with the other evidence types, the value of the outcome is very much dependent on the circumstances of the investigation. For example, when searching an item of clothing taken from a suspect for glass, the absence of glass or the presence of glass could both be of value to the investigation depending on the circumstances. The presence of glass on the clothing that matches control sample(s) from the crime scene is only of value if its presence cannot be accounted for in any legitimate way; conversely, the absence of glass on the item of clothing may lead to a conclusion that the suspect was not involved in the offense, depending on the circumstances of the offense and arrest.\n\nIn addition to being able to understand and evaluate the chances of being able to obtain a meaningful result, it is also vital that the value of the overall contribution to the entire case is understood. This involves being able to understand the value and contribution of the forensic examination to the detection of the offense as well as the outcome of the court process. This is an even more difficult issue to evaluate and understand than the chances of being able to obtain a forensic test result.\n\nBecause the value of forensic evidence is so dependent on the individual case circumstances, decisions about examinations must be made on an individual case basis. There have been recent developments in some agencies\/forces to better understand the chances of success of different types of forensic evidence and the value to investigations; this will help to better inform decisions about evidential potential and examination viability as well as assisting to achieve value for money. This approach is best described as forensic effectiveness.\n\nThe forensic strategy should also take into account the timescales associated with the investigative process and the criminal justice system, and it should be ensured that forensic analysis can meet the requirements of the criminal justice process, including court dates and any requirements to disclose appropriate information to the defense team(s).\n\nEach police force\/law enforcement agency will have its own approach to the submission of exhibits for forensic examination\/analysis; irrespective of whether the analysis is carried out in an internal police laboratory, external commercial company, or government-owned laboratory, these approaches can be applied to all examinations and all evidence types.\n\nFigure 1 Conceptual structure modeling.\n\nThese approaches help to ensure that decisions are made based on scientific knowledge, viability, and evidential value taking into account all aspects of the investigation. They will help to ensure that the best evidence is obtained while considering value for money and that it can be applied to any investigation irrespective of the seriousness of the offense or the scale of the investigation.\n\n## Integrated Case Management\n\nThe concept and use of forensic strategies in directing investigations is not new, but is often limited by the evolved structure of forensic disciplines within investigative agencies. Classically, DNA and fingerprint evidence from volume crimes will be independently submitted at the same time by different routes and this often results in wasted effort\/spends and duplicated results. The development and use of forensic intelligence has been variable. Emerging thinking includes organizational redesign of forensics to better integrate with related functions such as intelligence collection, targeted deployment of resources, and prioritized forensic submissions.\n\nThe concept of integrated case management draws together informed operational deployment (e.g., of crime scene investigators) followed by a more holistic approach to submissions for testing. The strategy takes greater account of supporting intelligence and desired outcomes. Regular reviews and trigger points are included for the staged submission of potential evidence, and communication with investigators is enhanced so allowing for a more responsive and directed investigation.\n\nUltimately, the production of intelligent identifications can be better achieved by having an integrated process that links the enforcement priorities, available resources, potential forensic evidence, intelligence, and prosecutor requirements; this model provides flexibility to respond to changing demands and gives an increased likelihood of efficient and effective spend on forensic support to investigations. There is no single way to achieve this, but an illustration of how to rethink some of the traditional silo-based forensic disciplines is provided in Figure 1.\n\n## Summary\n\nThe single biggest challenge to the forensic science community during the twenty-first century is to modernize delivery of integrated services in support of investigations. This must:\n\n\u2022 build on the previous development of each discipline;\n\n\u2022 accommodate the new and emerging technological disciplines;\n\n\u2022 meet the regulatory requirements;\n\n\u2022 reflect the changing workforce and skills;\n\n\u2022 deliver the best evidence to courts in support of investigations.\n\n## See also\n\nFoundations: Forensic Intelligence; History of Forensic Sciences; Principles of Forensic Science.\n\n## Further Reading\n\nFaigman, et al. _Modern Scientific Evidence: The Law and Science of Expert Testimony_. 2006.\n\nFisher B.A.J, Fisher D.R. _Techniques of Crime Scene Investigation_. eighth ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC; 2012.\n\nHouck M, Crispino F, McAdam T. _The Science of Crime Scenes_. Elsevier; 2013.\n\nInnocence Project, 2011. <http:\/\/www.innocenceproject.org\/Content\/Facts_on_PostConviction_DNA_Exonerations.php> (accessed 10.03.11.).\n\nKirk P.L. In: Thornton J.L, ed. _Crime Investigation_. second ed. New York: Wiley; 1974 (1985 reprint edn. Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing Company).\n\nNAS. _Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward. NAS Report: Committee on Identifying the Needs of the Forensic Sciences Community_. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 2009.\n\nWhite P. _Crime Scene to Court: The Essentials of Forensic Science_. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry; 2010: 978-1-84755-882-4.\n\n# Forensic Laboratory Reports\n\nJ. Epstein Widener University School of Law, Wilmington, DE, USA\n\n## Abstract\n\nThere is no precise formula, dictated by law or science, as to what a forensic laboratory report must contain when it reports test results or analysis outcomes. On the contrary, report formats and contents may be determined by lab protocol; local, state, or national law; and\/or ethical constraints.\n\nThis article discusses recent criticism of forensic reports in the United States, identifies several models for forensic laboratory reports, explains how discovery (disclosure) rules for criminal cases and ethical standards of forensic examiner organizations may inform the content of such reports, and reviews how and when the reports themselves may stand as evidence, without testimony from the forensic analyst.\n\n### Keywords\n\nBias; Brady material; Confrontation; Discovery; Ethical considerations; Forensic laboratory report; Testimony\n\nThere is no precise formula, dictated by law or science, as to what a forensic laboratory report must contain when it reports test results or analysis outcomes. Its content may be determined by the individual examiner's predilections, internal laboratory policy, the law of the jurisdiction, accreditation organization standards, or the reason(s) for its production. What can be said with certainty is that by understanding the current criticism of the practice of producing forensic laboratory reports and trends in standards for reports, and by considering the use to which the report may be put in the court process and the legal and ethical commands regarding reporting and, more generally, the duties of the forensic scientist, a model for forensic laboratory reports can be identified.\n\nBefore discussing these factors, it bears mention that the term \"report\" itself lacks clarity, as it may refer to the complete case file documenting the examination or just to the compilation of results. For this article, the term \"report\" denotes the latter\u2014the document prepared for the consumer (the investigator, counsel, or court official who directed that the examination and testing be conducted). Even this report may vary in degree of detail, as there can be the summary report advising the requesting party of the outcome; a more formal report prepared for disclosure to the court or opposing counsel as part of pretrial discovery; an amplification of the initial discovery-generated report when it is determined that the expert will in fact testify; and a report that will be presented in lieu of actual testimony. Additional documentation may include an administrative or dispositional report detailing the receipt or return of the item(s) sent for analysis.\n\nWhat must also be acknowledged is that the expert's role in the adjudicative process is in some ways defined by whether the system is adversarial, with the expert being called by the party seeking to establish a point, as in the United States; or \"inquisitorial\/common law,\" where the expert is a court witness, presumed to be neutral, and without allegiance to a particular party, as in France, Belgium, and Germany. These demarcations are not always adhered to, as American law permits a trial judge to appoint and take testimony from a \"court\" expert under Federal Rule of Evidence 706, and in some cases involving offenses of fraud and falsification, as France permits competing experts. These differing roles, however, do not alter the necessary components of a forensic laboratory report (and, as is detailed below); both ethical and legal considerations as well as a commitment to the role of science may require the report to be neutral and to acknowledge any limitations and\/or weaknesses.\n\n## Contents of a Report\u2014A \"Science\" Standard\n\nAt least in the United States, there has been substantial criticism of forensic laboratory reporting. This is found in Strengthening Forensic Science: A Path Forward, the 2009 report of the National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences. After reporting that forensic laboratory reports lack precise terminology, it concluded that most laboratory reports do not meet the standard it proposed:\n\nAs a general matter, laboratory reports generated as the result of a scientific analysis should be complete and thorough. They should describe, at a minimum, methods and materials, procedures, results, and conclusions, and they should identify, as appropriate, the sources of uncertainty in the procedures and conclusions along with estimates of their scale (to indicate the level of confidence in the results). Although it is not appropriate and practicable to provide as much detail as might be expected in a research paper, sufficient content should be provided to allow the nonscientist reader to understand what has been done and permit informed and unbiased scrutiny of the conclusion.\n\nThis criticism does not stand in isolation. A 2011 British court decision also expressed concern over the sufficiency of detail and documentation in a forensic (latent print) prosecution. After noting the failure of the examiner to contemporaneously record \"detailed notes of his examination and the reasons for his conclusions[,]\" the court added that \"[t]he quality of the reports provided by the Nottinghamshire Fingerprint Bureau for the trial reflected standards that existed in other areas of forensic science some years ago, and not the vastly improved standards expected in contemporary forensic science.\"\n\nThe Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) standard is more detailed than that of various forensic organizations. ASCLD\/LAB, for example, requires that only written reports be generated for \"all analytical work\" and must contain conclusions and opinions and a clear communication of \"the significance of associations made....\"\n\nOther standards address the need for full documentation, but do not distinguish between a laboratory's bench notes and the final product. For example, International Organization for Standardization's ISO\/IEC Standard 5.10.5 requires that \"the laboratory shall document the basis upon which the opinions and interpretations have been made\" without specifying where that information is to be recorded. Similar language is used for ballistics reports, as recommended by the Scientific Working Group on firearms (SWGGUN) requiring that \"[w]hen opinions and interpretations are included, the laboratory shall document the basis upon which the opinions and interpretations have been made. Opinions and interpretations shall be clearly marked as such in the test report.\"\n\nYet, the more detailed mandate urged by the NRC report is not unique. Scholars and agencies have articulated similar or at least substantial standards. A publication of The Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC) in 2004 suggested the following information as appropriate for inclusion in an expert report:\n\n\u2022 A summary of the event to contextualize the scientific test(s);\n\n\u2022 An outline of the scientific work conducted;\n\n\u2022 A listing of items examined;\n\n\u2022 Description of the work performed;\n\n\u2022 A statement interpreting the findings; and\n\n\u2022 An overall conclusion.\n\nThe RSC text also urges that the report identifies the assistants in the testing and the role each played and includes appendices with tables or similar displays of test results.\n\nFor DNA analysis, the Federal Bureau of Investigation's standards for DNA laboratories require reports to include a description of the evidence examined and the technology, results and\/or conclusions, and a \"quantitative or qualitative interpretative statement.\"\n\nOne final scientific issue regarding the contents of a report is the concern over bias. Research has shown that information received by the analyst might affect his\/her judgment, as when the examiner receives domain-irrelevant information such as the fact that the suspect whose fingerprints are being examined \"confessed to the crime\" or when the verification is not \"blind.\" Documentation of such information in a laboratory report (or the bench notes) is one responsive action, as is an internal laboratory policy to reduce analyst or verifier exposure to potentially biasing information.\n\n## Contents of Report: Legal Standards\n\nThat which science requires is to some extent mirrored in legal requirements for expert reports. These vary from nation to nation and within nations when states or regions have their own authority to legislate criminal practice.\n\nIn the United Kingdom, Rule 33.3, Criminal Procedure Rules 2010, mandates contents of a full report, that is, one for submission in court, as follows:\n\n1. The findings on which they have relied in making the report or statement;\n\n2. Details of which of the findings stated in the report or statement are within their own knowledge, which were obtained as a result of examinations, measurements, tests, etc., carried out by another person and whether or not those examinations, measurements, tests, etc., were carried out under the expert's supervision;\n\n3. The identity, qualifications, relevant experience, and any certification of the person who carried out the examination, measurement, test, etc.;\n\n4. Details of any statements of fact, literature, or other information upon which they have relied, either to identify the examination or test requirements, or which are material to the opinions expressed in the report or statement or upon which those opinions are based;\n\n5. A summary of the conclusions and opinions reached and a rationale for these;\n\n6. A statement that if any of the information on which their conclusions or opinions are based changes then the conclusions or opinions will have to be reviewed;\n\n7. Where there is a range of opinion on the matters dealt with in the report or statement, a summary of the range of opinion, and reasons for the expert's own opinion;\n\n8. Any information that may cast doubt on their interpretation or opinion; and\n\n9. If the expert is not able to give an opinion without qualification, what the qualification is.\n\nMuch less specific is the legislated mandate for federal criminal prosecutions in the United States. Under Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure 16, the Government must permit the defense to inspect and to copy or photograph the results or reports of any scientific test or experiment and must produce before trial a written summary of any proposed expert testimony that describes the witness's opinions, the bases and reasons for those opinions, and the witness's qualifications. Defense counsel in criminal cases has a reciprocal disclosure requirement. Despite the seeming generality of these terms, American courts have at times interpreted them to require some greater detail in the reports, such as underlying documentation.\n\nIn the United States, an additional requirement derived from the Constitution's guarantee of Due Process of Law may affect what must be included in a laboratory report issued by a police or other government agency. The prosecution must disclose information that is \"favorable to the accused\" and \"material either to guilt or to punishment\" as well as \"evidence that the defense might have used to impeach the Government's witnesses by showing bias or interest.\" This extends to \"evidence affecting credibility[.]\" This information is generally denominated \"Brady material.\"\n\nThe applicability of these rules to official (police or state) laboratories is settled. The US Supreme Court has held that the disclosure obligation extends to police agencies working with the prosecution, and this has been extended to forensic examiners. Hence, in a report or some other communication, a forensic examiner in government employ must ensure that \"Brady material\" is disclosed.\n\nWhat remains to be defined are the terms \"exculpatory\" or \"impeachment\" information. The core of each is easily described. Evidence is \"exculpatory\" if it tends to reduce the degree of guilt or question proof of culpability; \"impeachment\" information is proof of a bias or interest, or otherwise information that could be used to contradict or attack the credibility of the analyst or report. This type of disclosure parallels that of forensic laboratory reports imposed by the United Kingdom's evidence code. The code requires inclusion in the report of \"a summary of the range of opinion and reasons for the expert's own opinion; [] any information that may cast doubt on their interpretation or opinion; and if the expert is not able to give an opinion without qualification, what the qualification is.\"\n\n## Reports: Stand-Alone Evidence or Support for a Testifying Expert\n\nWhether a laboratory report may stand on its own as evidence in a trial, or instead must be accompanied by testimony of the forensic analyst, is a function of the law of the jurisdiction in which the case is tried. In the United States, a prosecution expert's report may not be admitted on its own, as this is deemed to violate the defendant's right to confront adverse witnesses. The Supreme Court in Melendez-Diaz versus Massachusetts held that a certificate of analysis fell within the core class of testimonial statements because it was a solemn \"declaration or affirmation made for the purpose of establishing or proving some fact.\" In the 2011 follow-up of the Melendez-Diaz decision, the Court further held that another lab analyst may not come in to testify to the report's contents, at least where the other analyst neither supervised nor observed the initial testing. (This applies only to prosecution expert reports, as in the United States only the defendant has a guarantee of the right to confront witnesses. Admissibility of a defense forensic report without examiner testimony would be determined by the state's rules of evidence, but is generally unheard of.)\n\nAt the same time, the confrontation right does not mean that the analyst must testify. A state may create a notice and demand statute under which the prosecution notifies the defendant of its intent to use an analyst's report as evidence at trial, after which the defendant has a specified period of time in which to demand the expert's live testimony. A defendant's failure to \"demand\" waives the need for the analyst's presence and allows use of the report. As well, an accused may always agree to stipulate to the report's content, eliminating the need for any live testimony.\n\nThe Melendez-Diaz approach is not followed uniformly on an international basis. Canada permits proof by means of an expert report, without live testimony, where the proponent of the report has provided it to the opposing party and the trial court recognizes the author as a legitimate expert. The court retains discretion to mandate the expert's appearance for cross-examination. Australia's Evidence Act of 1995 similarly authorizes expert proof by certificate, but the opposing party may require the offering side to \"call the person who signed the certificate to give evidence.\" In the United Kingdom, expert reports are themselves admissible as evidence, subject to the judge's discretion in requiring the analyst or examiner to appear.\n\n## Ethical Considerations and Forensic Reports\n\nThe decision of what to include in a forensic laboratory report, beyond that required by law or by science, may be informed by ethical considerations. Forensics organizations often have ethical codes, but they may be silent as to the particulars of report writing. Illustrative is the Code of the American Board of Criminalistics, which only asserts general obligations such as \"[e]nsure that a full and complete disclosure of the findings is made to the submitting agency[.]\" Other codes may not mention reporting at all but instead address only the delivery of information without distinguishing between the written report and a courtroom presentation of evidence. An exception is that of the Australian and New Zealand Forensic Science Society, Inc., which requires that a report be nonpartisan when results are ambiguous. \"Where test results or conclusions are capable of being interpreted to the advantage of either side in a legal proceeding, each result or conclusion should be given weight according to its merit.\"\n\nEthical considerations may also be imposed by law. In the United Kingdom, the expert is deemed to hold only one allegiance, that to the court, regardless of the party who retained the individual. Specific ethical obligations are imposed for written reports. First, where there is a range of opinion, the expert must summarize the various positions. Second, if the opinion rendered cannot be given without qualification, the expert must disclose that and state the qualifying aspects or concerns.\n\n## Conclusion\n\nWithin and across nations, there is no clear standard for forensic reports intended for court use, except where prescribed by law. What should be manifest is that the more detailed the report, and thus the more it is capable of rigorous assessment by an independent expert evaluator, the more credibility will be attributed to both the results and the examiner.\n\n## See also\n\nLegal: History of the Law's Reception of Forensic Science; Legal Aspects of Forensic Science; Legal Systems: Adversarial and Inquisitorial; Management\/Quality in Forensic Science: Sequential Unmasking: Minimizing Observer Effects in Forensic Science; Professional: Ethics.\n\n## Further Reading\n\nCodes of Practice and Conduct for Forensic Science Providers and Practitioners in the Criminal Justice System 44\u201345 (United Kingdom). <http:\/\/www.homeoffice.gov.uk\/publications\/police\/forensic-science-regulator1\/quality-standards-codes-practice?view=Binary>.\n\nDror I.E, Cole S. The vision in 'blind' justice: expert perception, judgment and visual cognition in forensic pattern recognition. _Psychonomic Bulletin and Review_. 2010;17(2):161\u2013167.\n\nDror I.E, Rosenthal R. Meta-analytically quantifying the reliability and biasability of forensic experts. _Journal of Forensic Sciences_. 2008;53(4):900\u2013903.\n\nNational Research Council. Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 2009. <http:\/\/www.ncjrs.gov\/pdffiles1\/nij\/grants\/228091.pdf>.\n\nQuality Assurance Standards for Forensic DNA Testing Laboratories, Standard 11.2. <http:\/\/www.cstl.nist.gov\/strbase\/QAS\/Final-FBI-Director-Forensic-Standards.pdf>.\n\n _Reviewing Historical Practices of Forensic Science Laboratories_. September 29, 2010. <http:\/\/www.ascld.org\/>.\n\nRothwell T. Presentation of expert forensic evidence. In: White P, ed. _Crime Scene to Court: The Essentials of Forensic Science_. second ed. Cambridge: RSC; 2004:430\u2013432 (Chapter 15).\n\nSpencer J.R. _Evidence. European Criminal Procedures_. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2002:632\u2013635 (Chapter 15).\n\nRelevant Websites\n\n<http:\/\/www.criminalistics.com\/ethics.cfm>\u2014American Board of Criminalistics, Rules of Professional Conduct.\n\n<http:\/\/www.forensicdna.com\/Media\/Bias_FS.htm>\u2014An Extended List of Articles on the Issue of Bias in Forensic Examinations.\n\n<http:\/\/www.afte.org\/AssociationInfo\/a_codeofethics.htm>\u2014Association of Firearms and Toolmarks Examiners, AFTE Code of Ethics.\n\n<http:\/\/www.anzfss.org.au\/code_of_ethics.htm>\u2014Australian and New Zealand Forensic Science Society.\n\n<http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/home.html>\u2014International Organization for Standardization.\n\nhttp:\/\/www.swggun.org\/swg\/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=25:transition-from-ascldlab-legacy-to-isoiec-17025&catid=10:guidelines-adopted&Itemid=6\u2014SWGGUN, Transition from ASCLD\/LAB Legacy to ISO\/IEC 17025.\n\n<http:\/\/www.ascld.org\/>\u2014The American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors.\n\n<http:\/\/www.ascld-lab.org\/>\u2014The American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors Laboratory Accreditation Board.\n\n<http:\/\/webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk\/+\/http:\/\/www.justice.gov.uk\/criminal\/procrules_fin\/contents\/rules\/part_33.htm>\u2014United Kingdom, Criminal Procedure Rules 2010.\n\n# Health and Safety\n\nN. Scudder, and B. Saw Australian Federal Police, Canberra, ACT, Australia\n\n## Abstract\n\nThe health and safety of people at work are vitally important. The health and safety of forensic practitioners, who have to contend with a unique range of hazards, pose a challenge for both practitioners and management. While there are a myriad of hazards to deal with, effective controls of the risks can be undertaken, provided a systematic process is in place.\n\nForensic practitioners work within the office and laboratory, as well as external environments outside of the control of management. Forensic practitioners can respond to major crime scenes in residential, corporate, industrial, and public places, ranging from a murder in a park to a postblast scene or an international deployment involving Disaster Victim Identification. The diverse role performed by forensic practitioners has challenged health and safety in this unique environment.\n\nThis article discusses the value of documented risk assessments and introduces the concept of dynamic risk assessments and hierarchy of controls, besides providing specific information about a range of hazards identified in the laboratory and in the field.\n\n### Keywords\n\nHazard; Health; Occupational health and safety (OHS); Risk; Safety\n\nGlossary\n\nClandestine laboratory (\"Clan Labs\") Setting up of equipment or supplies for the manufacture of illegal compounds such as drugs or explosives.\n\nConfined space An enclosed or partially enclosed space that is not intended or designed primarily for human occupancy, within which there is a risk of one or more of the following: (1) an oxygen concentration outside the safe oxygen range. (2) A concentration of airborne contaminant that may cause impairment, loss of consciousness, or asphyxiation. (3) A concentration of flammable airborne contaminant that may cause injury from fire or explosion. (4) Engulfment in a stored free-flowing solid or a rising level of liquid that may cause suffocation or drowning.\n\nDynamic risk management The continuous assessment of risk in the rapidly changing circumstances of an operational incident, in order to implement the control measures necessary to ensure an acceptable level of safety.\n\nHazard The potential for a substance to cause adverse effects.\n\nHierarchy of control measures Ranking of measures taken to prevent or reduce hazard exposure according to effectiveness, from the most effective measures that eliminate hazards to the least effective, that achieve only limited protection.\n\nOHS policy A policy document indicating an organization's commitment to OHS, its intentions, objectives, and priorities and identifying roles and responsibilities.\n\nRisk The likelihood of injury or illness arising from exposure to any hazard(s) and the magnitude of the adverse effect.\n\n## Occupational Health and Safety Policy\n\nThe legislation in many countries places the onus of responsibility on employers to provide a healthy and safe working environment under occupational health and safety (OHS) legislation and common law. Employers should ensure that all managers, supervisors, and staff are aware of their OHS responsibilities. Management leadership can positively influence OHS outcomes for an organization.\n\nWorkplace health and safety is an ongoing process. Subject to the legislative requirements of each jurisdiction, in most instances a documented OHS policy is required. The development of such a policy requires the commitment of both staff and management. Once commitment has been achieved, the OHS policy should be developed with involvement from all stakeholders, and promulgated.\n\nThe OHS policy should:\n\n\u2022 articulate the organization's commitment to OHS;\n\n\u2022 indicate that sufficient resources (both financial and personnel) will be provided to promote and maintain OHS standards and meet OHS requirements;\n\n\u2022 outline the organization's intentions, objectives, and priorities OHS;\n\n\u2022 describe in broad terms the means by which the objectives will be met;\n\n\u2022 identify the roles and responsibilities of management, supervisors, and staff in meeting OHS requirements; and\n\n\u2022 be signed off by the most senior manager of the organization, reflecting the importance of the policy.\n\nThe OHS policy should be reviewed periodically to ensure its currency.\n\nThe OHS policy is, however, only one part of an appropriate OHS strategy for a forensic organization. The OHS policy must be underpinned by risk assessments and incident\/accident reports that enable the organization to assess its OHS exposure, to meet legislative requirements such as reporting obligations, and to respond to risks appropriately.\n\nAn organization can develop a list of the main hazards that its staff are likely to be exposed to in the course of their duties, utilizing OHS reports, incident\/accident reports, and previous risk assessments. Prioritizing the main health and safety issues allows the organization to develop appropriate action plans to meet the objectives of its OHS policy.\n\nForensic organizations may consider integration of some OHS requirements with their quality assurance system. Many laboratories effectively use their quality system to embed OHS requirements in their documented procedures, to review OHS hazards as part of a periodic audit program, or to manage elements of their OHS action plans through their corrective action system. OHS, like quality, can then be viewed as an important yet integrated component of an effective management system.\n\n### Risk Assessments\n\nOnce potential OHS hazards have been identified, forensic organizations should evaluate the likelihood of injury from the interaction to the hazard and the magnitude of the adverse effect. The process of risk assessment will be very useful for managing potential OHS hazards within the facility and the expected external work environment. The purpose of the risk assessment process is to ensure that all workplace hazards have been identified, recorded, assessed, controlled, and reviewed. The desired outcome of this process is to eliminate, as far as practicable, the risk of injury or illness to personnel, damage to property, and damage to the environment. The process of developing risk assessment is often better suited to the known work environment. An OHS assessment of an office or laboratory can quickly identify specific hazards that may require attention. Obviously, this works well for the office and laboratory environment within one's control; however, each external scene will be different.\n\nIt is important that the range of potential hazards in external crime scenes and work environments is considered. While some risks can be grouped and managed collectively, the specific hazard and risk mitigation and control will vary from scene to scene given the circumstances. Given this, forensic practitioners should have an ability to undertake dynamic risk assessments, or \"risk on the run\" as it is known in some jurisdictions.\n\n### Dynamic Risk Management\n\nDynamic risk assessments are conducted by a forensic practitioner as part of the attendance and examination process. In some instances, such as attendance at a clan lab, a person may be designated as the Site Safety Officer and have carriage of this as well as health and safety for all personnel at the site. Practitioners should be trained to assess the risk given the circumstances at the time, considering the actual hazards present at a crime scene.\n\nA designated forensic practitioner or Site Safety Officer should undertake a quick reconnaissance of the crime scene to ensure the safety of forensic practitioners and others working at the scene. A review of the scene should be repeated whenever the situation at the scene changes. This could involve a visual inspection without entering the crime scene and asking a number of questions. For example:\n\n\u2022 Does the crime scene involve structures that are now unstable?\n\n\u2022 Has confirmation been obtained from the Fire Brigade or other emergency responders that power, gas, and water to the site have been turned off?\n\n\u2022 Is there adequate shelter so that practitioners can rest without succumbing to environmental stressors such as heat, cold, wind, or rain?\n\nIt is important to close the loop and incorporate any strategic elements of each dynamic risk assessment in OHS policy and planning. After each incident, any relevant information obtained during the dynamic risk assessment should be recorded and collated for strategic analysis.\n\n### Hierarchy of Control Measures\n\nWithin OHS, there is a \"hierarchy of control\" designed to mitigate or resolve a risk deemed unacceptably high.\n\nThe hierarchy of control is a sequence of options which offer a number of ways to approach the hazard control process. Various control options may be available. It is important to choose the control that most effectively eliminates the hazard or minimizes the risk in the circumstances. This may involve a single control measure or a combination of different controls that together provide the highest level of protection that is reasonably practicable.\n\n1. Eliminate the hazard. If this is not practical, then:\n\n2. Substitute the hazard with a lesser risk. If this is not practical, then:\n\n3. Isolate the hazard. If this is not practical, then:\n\n4. Use engineering controls. If this is not practical, then:\n\n5. Use administrative controls, such as safe work practices, instruction, and training. If this is not practical, then:\n\n6. Use personal protective equipment (PPE), such as gloves, eye protection, boots, and respirators.\n\nIt is important that management and staff discuss and consult, where possible, during all phases of the hazard identification, risk assessment and risk control process.\n\n#### Examples\n\n1. If an organization is considering purchasing a piece of analytical equipment, and two products have the same capabilities but substantially different noise levels during operation, the organization may consider the noise level of the equipment during procurement and opt for the quieter system. This example demonstrates the principle of eliminating the hazard at source, which is the most effective control measure, when compared to training and provision of PPE such as hearing protection.\n\n2. In the case of a fire scene of a building, applying a hierarchy of control approach, it is first necessary to consider the elimination or substitution of hazards. In a fire scene, this is not possible. It is, however, possible to isolate the scene to prevent danger to the public and to maintain the integrity of the scene. Power, water, and gas to a building should be disconnected prior to entering the site. A structural engineer's opinion may be necessary prior to entry to the building. Safe entry and exit to the site can be established. Other administrative controls, such as briefing practitioners and maintaining records of the entry and exit of personnel, may be applied. Finally, practitioners can be prevented from entering the fire scene unless utilizing the appropriate PPE.\n\n## Specific Laboratory Hazards\n\nThe likely hazards within a laboratory environment include the following.\n\n### Chemicals\n\nChemical exposure may occur through inhalation, skin absorption, or direct ingestion and, once absorbed, are either stored in a particular organ or tissue, metabolized, or excreted. The effect of a chemical on a person is dependent on a number of factors such as duration and frequency of exposure, concentration of the chemical, and an individual's metabolism. A synergistic effect may occur when the undesirable effects of one substance are intensified if exposure has occurred to another substance.\n\nSome nanomaterials exhibit different chemical properties compared to what they exhibit on a macroscale. As this is a relatively new field, there is insufficient knowledge regarding the hazards posed by nanomaterials. The potential hazards associated with nanomaterials may include increased reactivity because of their increased surface-area-to-volume ratio, the ability to cross some of the body's protective mechanism, and the lack of the body's immunity against such small particles. Because of this lack of knowledge, the suggested control strategy to be used when working with nanomaterials should be \"as low as reasonably achievable\" (ALARA) approach to reduce exposure.\n\nThe effects of chemicals on the body may be categorized:\n\n\u2022 poisonous or toxic chemicals are absorbed into the body and exert either an acute or short-term effect, such as headache, nausea, or loss of consciousness, or a long-term effect such as liver or kidney damage, cancer, or chronic lung disease;\n\n\u2022 corrosive chemicals burn the skin, eyes, or respiratory tract;\n\n\u2022 irritants can inflame the skin or lungs, causing conditions such as dermatitis or bronchitis;\n\n\u2022 sensitizers may exert long-term effects, especially to the skin (such as contact dermatitis) and to the respiratory tract (such as occupational asthma) by inducing an allergic reaction; and\n\n\u2022 explosive or flammable substances pose immediate danger of fire and explosion, causing damage to the body through direct burning, or through inhalation of toxic fumes emitted during combustion.\n\nSafety Data Sheets (SDS), also known as Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS), are designed to provide relevant information regarding the identity, physical characteristics, safe storage, use, disposal, first aid treatment, and spill management of substances that are handled in the workplace. The information includes whether the substance is deemed to be a hazardous and\/or a dangerous goods item. At a minimum, the SDS should be consulted before the first use of a chemical or other substance within a laboratory, or if practitioners are unfamiliar with the product. Copies of SDS should be retained according to legislative requirements. In some jurisdictions, electronic SDS management systems can allow an efficient way of accessing up-to-date SDS information.\n\n### Sharps\n\nSharps are objects that have sharp edges or points that have the potential to cut, scratch, or puncture the skin. Sharps can cause physical injury and have the potential to introduce infectious and toxic agents through the wounds created in the skin. Examples include hypodermic syringes and needles, knives, or broken glassware.\n\nAll forensic practitioners have a responsibility to handle and package sharps safely. Particular care should be given to ensuring that sharps are appropriately labeled when packaged. Sharps such as knives could, for example, be packaged in clear plastic tubes, making it easier for a person opening the item to identify the contents and the direction the sharp items are facing. Forensic labs should be encouraged to develop policies that encourage forensic practitioners and others that submit items to develop safe-packaging procedures.\n\n### Biological Material\n\nExamples of \"biological material\" commonly encountered in forensic examinations include body tissue, blood, and body fluids (urine, saliva, vomit, pus, seminal fluid, vaginal fluid, and feces). Biological material is potentially hazardous as it may contain infectious agents such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites that cause a variety of communicable diseases.\n\nHair, fur, and items of clothing that have been in close contact with humans or animals may also harbor parasites such as fleas or nits.\n\nWhen examining plant material such as cannabis, consideration should be given to the presence of Aspergillus sp. mold. If the Aspergillus spores are inhaled into the lungs, a serious, chronic respiratory or sinus infection can result. If mold is visible, the cannabis should be treated as a biological and respiratory hazard.\n\nIt is impossible to determine the prevalence of infectious or communicable diseases in the environment in which forensic practitioners work. Consequently, practitioners should adhere to recommended procedures for handling biological material and adopt an approach known as the \"standard precautions.\" This approach requires practitioners to assume that all biological material is a potential source of infection, independent of diagnosis or perceived level of underlying risk.\n\nVaccinations should be offered for practitioners. The types of vaccinations given may depend on whether work is confined to the laboratory or whether work is performed in the field, as well as whether forensic practitioners are likely to be deployed overseas where other diseases may be more prevalent.\n\n### Firearms\n\nForensic practitioners may retrieve firearms from crime scenes. All personnel who may be required to handle firearms, either in the field, in the laboratory, or in support roles such as property or exhibit stores should be trained in how to render a firearm safe. As with the \"standard precautions,\" it is important to consider all firearms as potentially loaded and adopt the practice of never pointing a firearm in the direction of another person, even after it has been rendered safe.\n\nFirearms examiners, who undertake firearms investigations including test firing and bullet recovery, will be exposed to hazards such as noise and lead. They should have their hearing and blood lead levels monitored on a regular basis, to ensure that hearing protection is being worn and is functioning correctly, and any exposure to lead from the firearms is quickly identified and addressed.\n\n### Computer Forensics Laboratory\n\nComputer forensic examiners specialize in obtaining, analyzing, and reporting on electronic evidence stored on computers and other electronic devices. Crimes involving a computer can range across the spectrum of criminal activity, from child pornography to theft of personal data to destruction of intellectual property. Potential hazards involve static postures, occupational overuse, and stress from viewing graphic images.\n\nSome suggestions to minimize the stress from viewing graphic images are as follows:\n\n\u2022 psychological assessment before and after viewing graphic material, and periodically;\n\n\u2022 exposure to only one medium, for example, visual material only, rather than examining both sound and visual material simultaneously;\n\n\u2022 specifying limits as to the amount of time spent examining explicit material in a day; and\n\n\u2022 ceasing any examination of explicit material the end of their shift, to allow themselves time to refocus attention away from this stressor.\n\n### Electrical\/Machinery\n\nForensic laboratories use a wide range of electrical equipment and machinery. Practitioners need to ensure that any inherent risk from electric shock is mitigated. The use of residual current devices (safety switches) is an appropriate strategy, as is visual inspection and periodic testing and tagging of power cords, to detect obvious damage, wear, and other conditions which might render it unsafe by a person qualified to do so under the legislation in effect in the jurisdiction.\n\n### Fume Cupboards\n\nFume cupboards are integral to minimizing the risk of exposure to chemical and biological hazards. Not all fume cupboards are suitable for all hazards. Fume cupboards should be maintained and inspected periodically. During maintenance, attention should be given to:\n\n\u2022 The fume cupboard itself, including flow rates and replacement of absorbents or filters.\n\n\u2022 In the case of externally vented fume cupboards, the ductwork and location of external vents. This is particularly important during any building maintenance or refurbishment.\n\n\u2022 Fume cupboards must be used for all operations that have the potential to release hazardous fumes, mists, or dusts.\n\n\u2022 Before commencement of work, ensure that the fume cupboard is clean and free from contamination.\n\n\u2022 Ensure the minimum of equipment is stored in the fume cupboard and is placed toward the back of the cupboard to reduce disturbance to the air flowing into the fume cupboard.\n\n\u2022 Lower the sash as far as practicable during use to improve fume containment.\n\nRecirculating fume cabinets rely on filtration or absorption to remove airborne contaminants released in the fume cabinet before the exhaust air is discharged back into the laboratory. They are suitable for light-to-moderate use with a known range of substances. The range of substances for which each cabinet can be used is limited by the need for compatibility with the chemicals in use as well as with the particular type of absorbent or filter fitted to the cabinet.\n\n### Robotics\n\nThe introduction of automated robotic platforms has significantly enhanced the efficiency of forensic analysis. The use of robotics is becoming more common and is very useful for a range of repetitive laboratory tasks. Besides saving time, robotics overcomes the need for repetitive work involved in pipetting, eliminating musculoskeletal injuries.\n\nHazards associated with robotics include the risk of exposure to the chemicals used in the work, electrocution, and cutting, stabbing, or shearing from the moveable parts of the robot. The interlocks on the robots should not be bypassed.\n\n### X-rays\n\nX-rays are used in analytical and imaging instrumentation. Potential exposure to X-rays is generally localized to specific parts of the body, usually the hands or fingers. Depending on the X-ray energies delivered, effects may range from erythema (redness) at point of exposure, blood changes, cancer through to death. Depending on the legislative requirement in each country, practitioners working with X-ray equipment may be required to use dosimeters to assess radiation dose.\n\n### Lasers\n\nLasers span the visible and nonvisible electromagnetic spectrum and have many applications in forensic science, including Raman spectroscopy. Lasers are generally classified according to the level of risk they represent. Damage from laser beams can be thermal or photochemical. The primary sites of damage are the eyes and skin. Hazards associated with laser work may include:\n\n\u2022 fire,\n\n\u2022 explosion,\n\n\u2022 electrocution, and\n\n\u2022 inhalation of contaminants from laser interactions.\n\nPrecautions for use of lasers include:\n\n\u2022 Display the class of laser in use.\n\n\u2022 Appropriate protective eye wear with side protection and appropriate attenuation for the wavelength(s) in use must be worn.\n\n\u2022 Interlocks on the laser should not be bypassed.\n\n\u2022 Keep the laser beam path away from eye level whether one is seated or standing.\n\n### High-Intensity Light Sources\n\nHigh-intensity light sources such as the Polilight\u00ae provide a range of colored light bands and white light for forensic work.\n\n\u2022 Care should be taken that high-intensity white light is not directed onto any object at short distances from the end of the light guide, as this can cause severe heat damage to the object and may result in a fire.\n\n\u2022 The light beam should never be directed at eyes as the light can cause permanent damage.\n\n### Manual Handling\n\nManual handling refers to any activity that involves lifting, lowering, carrying, pushing, pulling, holding, restraining, or the application of force. Only a very small number of manual handling injuries are caused by the lifting of heavy weights alone. Actions such as reaching, twisting, bending, or maintaining static postures contribute to injury affecting the muscle or skeletal systems of the body. These musculoskeletal injuries predominantly involve the neck, back or shoulder or arm muscle, tendon, ligament, or joints.\n\nInjuries may be caused from activities such as maintaining static postures while working at fume cupboards, repetitive keyboard and mouse work, pipetting, prolonged use of comparison microscopes.\n\nSome preventative strategies include:\n\n\u2022 Seeking further assistance to have the activities assessed to minimize the manual handling risks inherent in the activity.\n\n\u2022 Planning tasks so that rest breaks are scheduled.\n\n\u2022 Choosing the best tools for the tasks.\n\n\u2022 Alternate hands while using a mouse, if possible.\n\nThere is a move to make instruments smaller and more portable for use at crime scenes. While this has significant benefits, including potentially reducing the number of exhibits collected, moving equipment can also raise manual handling concerns.\n\n### General Laboratory Management\n\nHousekeeping is important in laboratories. It is important to maintain clear passageways, proper labeling of chemicals, clean and uncluttered work areas, and appropriate storage. The handling of powders is a potentially hazardous operation, and good housekeeping can help minimize airborne contamination from spilled materials. Having a planned preventative maintenance program and regular inspections of the workplace, plant, and equipment are essential for the smooth running of the laboratory.\n\n### Handling of Exhibits in Court\n\nEach evidential item must be appropriately packaged and sealed, if this is not already the case, before it is exhibited in court. Items such as clothing which are normally stored in paper may need to be repackaged in clear plastic allowing the item to remain sealed, and minimizing the risk of cross contamination when handled in court. Caution should be exercised against opening exhibits in court, in case any hazards such as mold or irritant fumes are released.\n\n## Hazards in the Field\n\nForensic practitioners are often required to work or train in the field. Consideration should be given to managing hazards which may affect practitioners, including:\n\n\u2022 environmental hazards such as heat, cold, humidity or wet weather, the terrain, and fauna or flora at the scene;\n\n\u2022 the type of operation, for example, working in a clandestine laboratory often involves quite specific hazards;\n\n\u2022 the possible presence of offenders or other security risks such as booby traps at a scene; and\n\n\u2022 the availability of first aid and emergency response domestically and overseas.\n\nThe risks from these hazards should be considered within the scope of the exercise or operation. Some possible responses to hazards, which may be considered in a dynamic risk assessment, include:\n\n\u2022 Designating a location for emergency equipment, such as a crime scene vehicle, and ensuring that disinfectants, antiseptics, and a first aid kit are easily accessible;\n\n\u2022 Planning an emergency exit from the scene and ensuring that this is communicated to all personnel present;\n\n\u2022 Establishing a decontamination point if there is exposure to chemical or biological material;\n\n\u2022 The use of appropriate PPE including sunglasses, sunscreen, and hats when working outdoors;\n\n\u2022 Depending on the external temperature, work activity, duration, and PPE worn, practitioners should have access to shade for rest and adequate fluids if required during hot weather to prevent heat stress. The wearing of PPE including chemical suits and respirators requires longer and more frequent periods of rest break for recovery in hot temperatures and humid environment;\n\n\u2022 In cold weather, provision should be made to have adequate warm clothing and a sheltered area;\n\n\u2022 The risk of animal or dog bites while attending a crime scene should not be discounted. If practitioners are searching in vegetated areas, the risk of snake or tick bites should be considered, along with possible exposure to plants such as poison ivy or stinging nettles.\n\n### Confined Spaces\n\nForensic practitioners may have to enter confined spaces. Due to the high risks associated with entering the confined space, many jurisdictions mandate that entry into a confined space must not be made until a confined-space permit has been issued. Practitioners must receive specific training before work or entry into confined spaces.\n\n### Chemical Biological and Radiological and Nuclear Incidents\n\nForensic practitioners may be required to attend a chemical biological and radiological and nuclear (CBRN) incident. CBRN incidents where forensic practitioners may attend and conduct examinations include:\n\n\u2022 chemical (warfare agent, toxic industrial chemical);\n\n\u2022 biological (weaponized agent, natural disease);\n\n\u2022 radiological (discrete, or wide area contamination); and\n\n\u2022 nuclear.\n\nDepending on the response agency protocol in place, forensic practitioners may be working closely with the Fire Brigade and other emergency first responders. Entry must not be made into the \"warm\" or \"hot\" zone of the scene without consultation with the other emergency first responders.\n\n### Clan Labs\n\nClan labs pose a significant threat to the health and safety of police officers, forensic practitioners, the general public, and the environment. There are many hazards associated with clan labs including:\n\n\u2022 flammable materials and\/or explosive atmosphere;\n\n\u2022 acutely toxic atmospheres;\n\n\u2022 leaking or damaged compressed gas cylinders; and\n\n\u2022 traps and hazards deliberately set to cause injury or death to police and other responders.\n\nAs a result of the frequency at which clan labs are encountered and the severe and variable risks associated with the investigation, many jurisdictions have developed specific policies and procedures concerning clan lab investigations.\n\nFor forensic practitioners to deal with clan labs requires a high level of fitness as well as technical expertise. Practitioners have to understand:\n\n\u2022 illicit drug chemistry;\n\n\u2022 how to neutralize the risks of explosions, fires, chemical burns, and toxic fumes;\n\n\u2022 how to handle, store, and dispose of hazardous materials; and\n\n\u2022 how to treat medical conditions caused by exposure.\n\nPractitioners must also wear full protective equipment including respirators and may be required to move equipment at the clan lab in the process of collecting evidence. The storage and handling of unknown chemicals from clandestine laboratories or seizures should also be considered. Preliminary identification should take place, before its storage or disposal.\n\nWhen unknowns such as \"white powders,\" chemicals (in liquid, solid, or gas state), or biological materials are encountered in the field, it is prudent to be cautious and obtain up-to-date intelligence to shed more light on what is at the scene. It may be an explosive material or contain anthrax spores or ricin or something as innocuous as talc.\n\nSome precautions include:\n\n\u2022 wearing the appropriate level of protective clothing\/equipment for the activity;\n\n\u2022 avoiding direct contact with the substance, even if only in small quantities;\n\n\u2022 not smelling or tasting anything from the scene;\n\n\u2022 noting physical characteristics such as color, form, and consistency;\n\n\u2022 where it is safe to do so, looking for hazard symbols on packaging or labels if available; and\n\n\u2022 seeking specialist advice if unable to identify the substance.\n\n### Potential Hazards during an Overseas Deployment\n\nForensic practitioners can be required to work overseas to assist with large-scale disasters. An example was the Thailand Tsunami Victim Identification process involving forensic practitioners from 30 countries working to recover and identify bodies. Forensic practitioners need to be mindful of hazards likely to be encountered during an overseas deployment depending on the location, magnitude of the operation, and how many practitioners are deployed. Some hazards to be considered include:\n\n\u2022 climatic demands;\n\n\u2022 remote and sometimes dangerous terrain;\n\n\u2022 different cultural sensitivities;\n\n\u2022 security requirements;\n\n\u2022 different levels of infrastructure support at the locality;\n\n\u2022 logistics, including the transport of large quantities of equipment, manual handling, setting up, and packing up;\n\n\u2022 different hygiene levels;\n\n\u2022 diseases that can be transmitted by insect and or animal vectors;\n\n\u2022 the possibility of infectious diseases; and\n\n\u2022 asbestos and other hazards in buildings.\n\n### Work-Related Stress\n\nPractitioners at work may experience work-related stress. There are some specific stressors unique within forensic work. Forensic practitioners may experience workplace-related stress due to their attendances at morgues, violent crime scenes, Disaster Victim Identification or from requirements to view explicit or graphic material or images.\n\nIndicators of stress include changes in eating habits, tiredness due to changes in sleep patterns, frequent absences from work, reduced productivity, concentration, motivation, and morale. Physical symptoms may include headaches, abdominal pains, diarrhea, constipation, high blood pressure, insomnia, anxiety state, and depression.\n\nMany organizations offer programs to provide assistance to employees, including counseling to help practitioners to deal with work-related stress or resilience training to manage work-life balance.\n\n## See also\n\nManagement\/Quality in Forensic Science: Principles of Quality Assurance; Risk Management; Principles of Laboratory Organization.\n\n## Further Reading\n\nClancy D, Billinghurst A, Cater H. Hazard identification and risk assessment \u2013 understanding the transition from the documented plan to assessing dynamic risk in bio security emergencies. In: _World Conference on Disaster Management, Sydney, Australia_. 2009. <http:\/\/www.humansafety.com.au\/getattachment\/da338cb7-29b0-4d3a-8a06-d7dc0b569a87\/C20.aspx>.\n\nFurr K. _Handbook of Laboratory Safety_. fifth ed. Florida: CRC Press; 2000.\n\nGreen-McKenzie J, Watkins M. Occupational hazards: law enforcement officers are at risk of body fluid exposure. Here's what to expect if it happens to you. _Law Enforcement Magazine_. 2005;29(9):52\u201354 56, 58.\n\nHanson D. Hazardous duty training officers to tackle hazmat emergencies. _Law Enforcement Technology_. 2007;34(4):80\u201385.\n\nHaski R, Cardilini G, Bartolo W. _Laboratory Safety Manual_. Sydney: CCH Australia Ltd; 2011.\n\nHorswell J. _The practice of crime scene investigation_. _Florida_. CRC Press; 2000.\n\nJackel G. The high cost of stress. _AUSPOL: The Official Publication of the Australian Federal Police Association and ALAJA_. 2004;1:4\u201337.\n\nMayhew C. Occupational health and safety risks faced by police officers Australian Institute of Criminology. _Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice_. 2001;196:1\u20136.\n\nMayhew C. Protecting the occupational health and safety of police officers Australian Institute of Criminology. _Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice_. 2001;197:1\u20136.\n\nRothernbaum D. Exposed: an officer's story. _Clan Lab Safety Alert_. 2010;7(2):1\u20132.\n\nSmith D. Psychosocial occupational health issues in contemporary police work: a review of research evidence. _Journal of Occupational Health and Safety, Australia and New Zealand_. 2005;21(3):217\u2013228.\n\nTillman C. _Principles of Occupational Health and Hygiene: An Introduction_. Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin; 2007.\n\nWhitman M, Smith C. The culture of safety: no one gets hurt today. _Police Chief LXXII_. 2005;11:20\u201324 26\u201327.\n\nWinder C. _Hazard Alert: Managing Workplace Hazardous Substances_. Sydney: CCH Australia Ltd; 2011.\n\nWitter R, Martyny J, Mueller K, Gottschall B, Newman L. Symptoms experienced by law enforcement personnel during methamphetamine lab investigation. _Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene_. 2007;4:895\u2013902.\n\nRelevant Websites\n\n<http:\/\/www.ccohs.ca\/oshanswers\/occup_workplace\/labtech.html>\u2014Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS).\n\n<http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/niosh\/>\u2014Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).\n\n<http:\/\/www.forensic.gov.uk\/html\/company\/foi\/publication-scheme\/health-and-safety\/>\u2014Forensic Science Service, Health and Safety.\n\n<http:\/\/www.hse.gov.uk\/services\/police\/index.htm>\u2014Health and Safety Executive (HSE).\n\n<http:\/\/www.police.qld.gov.au\/Resources\/Internet\/rti\/policies\/documents\/QPSForensicServicesHealth_SafetyManual.pdf>\u2014Health and Safety Manual, Police Forensic Services, Queensland Police.\n\n<http:\/\/www.londonhealthandsafetygroup.org\/archive.html>\u2014London Health and Safety Group.\n\n<http:\/\/www.osha.gov\/>\u2014Occupational Safety & Health Administration.\n\n<http:\/\/www.ccohs.ca\/oshanswers\/occup_workplace\/police.html>\u2014What Do Police Do?.\n\n# Measurement Uncertainty\n\nTed Vosk Criminal Defense Law Firm, Kirkland, WA, USA\n\n## Abstract\n\nScientific measurements provide an empirical method for obtaining information about the physical world. No matter how sophisticated, there are inherent limitations on how narrowly they can characterize the value of a quantity of interest. If these limitations are not accounted for, any inferences we make based on a measured value, whether or not they ultimately prove correct, are inherently flawed.\n\nError analysis has traditionally been relied upon to determine these limitations on the basis of frequentist statistical theory. The best it can provide is an ill-defined upper limit on a measurement's total error, revealing the worst a measured value might be without conveying how good it actually is.\n\nMeasurement uncertainty provides a metric for strictly defining the inferences that can be made on the basis of a measured value. Grounded in Bayesian probability theory, it delineates how a measured value maps into those values believed to be attributable to the measurand based on our state of knowledge concerning the measurand and measurement process. Where it is important to know the value(s) attributable to a measurand, a result is not complete and cannot be properly interpreted unless it is accompanied by a quantitative statement of its measurement uncertainty.\n\n### Keywords\n\nBayesian; Bias; Confidence interval; Coverage interval; Degree of belief; Frequentist; GUM; Measurement; Measurement error; Probability; Probability distribution; Propagation of distributions; Propagation of uncertainty; Random error; Systematic error; Type A uncertainty; Type B uncertainty; Uncertainty\n\nGlossary\n\nBias The quantitative characterization of systematic error.\n\nCombined uncertainty The standard uncertainty associated with the final measurement result determined by \"adding\" up the standard uncertainties associated with each of the individual sources of uncertainty.\n\nCoverage factor A positive, real number that when multiplied by a measurement's combined uncertainty yields the expanded uncertainty. The coverage factor determines the level of confidence associated with a coverage interval.\n\nCoverage interval An interval about the best estimate of a measurand's \"true\" value that will contain those values believed to be attributable to the measurand with a specified level of confidence.\n\nExpanded uncertainty Measure of uncertainty obtained by multiplying a measurement's combined uncertainty by a coverage factor. It defines the half width of a coverage interval.\n\nLevel of confidence The probability, defined as a degree of belief, that the \"true\" value of a measurand lies within the range defined by a coverage interval.\n\nMeasurand The quantity whose value is sought to be determined by a measurement.\n\nMeasurement function A function that describes the relationship between the measurand value and those quantities required to determine it.\n\nQuantity Physical properties subject to measurement, such as length, time, weight, and concentration.\n\nRandom error The inherent unpredictable fluctuation in measured values under fixed conditions.\n\nSensitivity coefficients The partial derivatives of a measurement function that describe how the measurand's value varies with changes in the values of the input quantities.\n\nStandard uncertainty Measurement uncertainty expressed as the standard deviation of a frequency- or belief-based probability distribution.\n\nSystematic error The tendency of a set of measurements to consistently (on average) underestimate or overestimate the \"true\" value of a measurand by a given value or percentage.\n\nUncertainty The quantitative characterization of the dispersion of values that, based on one's universe of information concerning a measurement, are believed to be reasonably attributable to a measurand.\n\n## Nomenclature\n\nbias Bias\n\ny\u00afc  Bias corrected mean measured value\n\nYb Best estimate of \"true\" measurand value\n\n\u03bcc Combined uncertainty\n\nk Coverage factor\n\nU Expanded uncertainty\n\nX Input quantities\n\n\u03b5m Maximum total error\n\ny\u00af  Mean measured value\n\nf(X1,X2,...,XN) Measurement function\n\n\u03b5 Measurement error\n\ny Measured value\n\nY99% Measurand value with 99% level of confidence\n\n\u03b5ran Random error\n\n\u03bcr Relative standard uncertainty\n\n\u2202f\/\u2202xi Sensitivity coefficients\n\n\u03c3 Standard deviation\n\n\u03bc Standard uncertainty\n\n\u03b5sys Systematic error\n\nY \"True\" measurand value\n\n\u229e Unspecified method for combining \u03b5sys and \u03b5ran\n\n## Measurement\n\nMeasurement constitutes a specific category of scientific investigation. It is an empirical process whereby a researcher seeks to determine the numerical magnitude attributable to some physical\/phenomenological quantity of interest referred to as the \"measurand.\" Many naively consider measurement to be a mechanical process whereby the quantity of interest is sensed\/probed by a measuring instrument yielding directly the value attributable to the measurand. This mechanical activity is simply one step in the overall measurement process, however. Alone, it does not tell us what we want to know about the value(s) attributable to a measurand. Rather than a passively mechanical process of probing and discovery, measurement is more completely understood as an empirically grounded, information-based inference requiring active input from the researcher before any value can be attributed to a measurand. Measurement uncertainty identifies in an explicit, quantitatively rigorous manner the limitations governing the rational inferences that can be made concerning the value(s) attributable to a measurand based on the results of measurement.\n\n## Measurement to Meaning\n\n### Measurement Error and Error Analysis\n\nWhat does a measurement result mean? In other words, given a measured value y, what value(s) can actually be attributed to a measurand. Lay people often interpret the value reported by a measurement as representing the singular \"true\" value attributable to a measurand (Figure 1):\n\nY=y\n\n  [1]\n\nFigure 1 Measurement as singular \"true\" value.\n\nFigure 2 Measurement in reality inherent error.\n\nScience has long realized, however, that \"error\" is an inherent characteristic of measurement distinguishing measured values from the \"true\" quantity values sought to be determined (Figure 2).\n\nError analysis is the traditional approach to the interpretation of measurement results. It is based on the premise that if the error associated with a measurement can be determined, then a measurand's \"true\" value can also be determined:\n\nY=y\u2212\u03b5\n\n  [2]\n\nThere are two types of errors associated with every measurement: random and systematic. Systematic error is the tendency of a method\/instrument to yield values that are consistently (on average) artificially inflated or depressed with respect to the \"true\" values of the quantities being measured. It is quantitatively characterized as bias (Figure 3).\n\nThe identification of systematic error can be one of the most difficult aspects of the measurement process. The reason is that if one is measuring an unknown quantity, the measured values themselves provide no basis for concluding that they are systematically offset from the measurand's \"true\" value. Thus, one can never know whether all systematic errors associated with a measurement have been identified. Some sources of systematic error can be identified and quantified through measurement of reference materials. Even when rigorously determined in this manner, however, the magnitude of the bias can never be exactly known.\n\nRandom error is the unpredictable\/random fluctuation in measured values under fixed conditions. It introduces inherent variability into the measurement process placing a fundamental limitation on the repeatability of measured results. For many common situations, the random variation in a measurement's results can be approximately characterized by a Gaussian (normal) distribution (Figure 4).\n\nFigure 3 Systematic error and bias.\n\nFigure 4 Random error and variability.\n\nRandom error is quantitatively characterized by a set of measurement's standard deviation:\n\n\u03c3y=\u2211i=1n(yi\u2212y\u00af)2n\u22121\n\n  [3]\n\nThe standard deviation provides a measure of the variability of individually measured values about their mean. If there is significant variability, the standard deviation will be large. If variability is slight, the standard deviation will be small.\n\nSystematic and random errors describe aspects of the physical state of a measurement. It is not always clear whether an error should be categorized as systematic or random, and the determination may be context-dependent. Taken together, they constitute what is formally known as \"measurement error\" (Figure 5).\n\nThe total error associated with a measurement can never be absolutely determined; that is, it is unknowable. As a result, error analysis can never supply a measurand's \"true\" value. Instead, the goal of error analysis is to identify, minimize, and eliminate as best as possible all identifiable sources of error so as to provide an estimate of a measurand's value that is as close as possible to its \"true\" value (Figure 6).\n\nThis requires some method for combining systematic and random components of error to obtain a characterization of a measurement's total error:\n\n\u03b5=\u03b5sys\u229e\u03b5ran\n\n  [4]\n\nTo understand where this leads, one must have an idea of the mathematical underpinnings of error analysis. Error analysis is ground in frequentist statistical theory. Frequentist theory defines probability in terms of relative frequency of occurrence. This means that the probability that a particular condition will be found to exist is determined by how frequently it occurs within the universe of all possible events. Although these probabilities can seldom be known because the universe of all possible events can seldom be completely known, they can be \"objectively\" estimated as the relative frequency of occurrence over sample data sets. What is critical is that in error analysis, the estimation of probabilities is \"objectively\" based solely on statistical sampling according to the frequentist paradigm.\n\nThe analysis of random error fits well within the frequentist paradigm. On the other hand, except in limited circumstances, the evaluation of systematic error does not. Because systematic and random errors are different in nature, each requires distinct treatment. There is no rigorously justifiable manner within the frequentist paradigm by which systematic and random errors can be combined to yield a statistically meaningful estimate of a measurement's total error.\n\nFigure 5 Measurement error.\n\nFigure 6 Error analysis estimate as close as possible.\n\nDue to the frequentist underpinnings of error analysis, the best it can provide is an upper limit on a measurement's total error. This bounded error is often expressed as some linear combination of the bias and standard deviation associated with a measurement:\n\n\u03b5m=bias+3\u03c3\n\n  [5]\n\nThis places a bound on the maximum separation expected between a measured and \"true\" value. It does not, however, denote how close together the two values are actually expected to lie. In other words, it tells us the worst a measurement result could be without any indication of how good it actually is. Moreover, the meaning of this bounded error is vague as it fails to tell us how probable it is that a measured value lies within the prescribed range of the measurand's \"true\" value. Given a measured value y, the best error analysis provides is an incompletely defined estimate of the maximum separation between a measured value and a \"true\" value. It cannot tell us the values that are likely to be attributable to the measurand given a particular measured value.\n\n### The Meaning of Meaning\n\nA significant epistemological question surrounds any scientific proposition: Is a scientific proposition intended to describe some physical state of the universe itself or simply to describe our state of knowledge about such a physical state? If it is the former, the direct object of the proposition is an external fully independent reality. If it is the latter, the direct object of the proposition is an internal cognitive position that is information-dependent. Many claim that if scientific propositions are to be objectively meaningful, they must fall into the first category. Others counter that regardless of the objective content of scientific propositions, they necessarily reside in the second category as all we can ever actually claim to know is our internal cognitive state, not some independent external reality.\n\nAlthough seemingly esoteric, the position adopted can have practical implications. It may change not only the interpretation of scientific statements but also the manner in which they can be investigated. And so it is with scientific measurement. When a measurement result is reported, is it to be interpreted as a statement about the physical state of a measurand? Or, is it simply an expression of our state of knowledge about the measurand's physical state? And what are the practical implications of the choice made?\n\nMeasurement error is an aspect of the physical state of a measurement. It is related to a measurand through error analysis that purports to convey the bounds of its actual physical state through the determination of a bounded error. Where a precise estimate of a measurand's actual value is not critical, the bounded error may provide a result with sufficient meaning to be useful. Where a measurand's actual value is important, however, this level of meaning may be inadequate. If possible, one would like to understand the meaning of a measured value in terms of how it maps into those values that are likely to be attributable to the measurand.\n\n## Measurement Uncertainty\n\n### The New Paradigm\n\nMeasurement uncertainty addresses the shortcomings of error analysis by fundamentally redefining the way measurement is interpreted and providing a quantitative metric for mapping measured values into those believed to be reasonably attributable to a measurand. In this new paradigm, error is replaced as the focus of analysis by a new entity: uncertainty. This is not a matter of mere semantics. Uncertainty and error are completely distinct concepts. While measurement error concerns the actual physical state of a measurand, measurement uncertainty relates to the state of knowledge about the measurand.\n\nThis does not mean that those phenomena formerly understood as systematic and random errors are ignored. To the contrary, they are fully encompassed within the uncertainty framework. What they represent, however, has been reconceptualized to overcome the limitations inherent in frequentist philosophy. Central to the uncertainty paradigm is the alternative Bayesian notion of probability as a degree of belief. That is, probability is defined by how strongly one believes a given proposition. This formulation permits consideration of information about a measurand beyond that cognizable in frequentist theory and provides a common basis for its analysis whether statistically or nonstatistically based.\n\nIn the uncertainty paradigm, as in error analysis, a measurand's \"true\" value is unknowable. However, this is not due to the physical phenomenon of irreducible error, but due to the impossibility of our ever-possessing perfect knowledge concerning a measurand's state. Uncertainty focuses on this limitation interpreting a measurement result as a probability distribution that characterizes one's state of knowledge about a measurand's value. While measurement error as a physical phenomenon is as unknowable as a measurand's \"true\" value, the characterization of a result as a probability distribution in this manner permits a result's uncertainty to be rigorously determined.\n\nWhen a measurement is performed, it always takes place against a backdrop of existing information about the measurement to be made and the measurand itself. Some of this information may be in the form of statistically obtained data, while some may be based on other sources such as general knowledge of the behavior and properties of relevant materials, methods, and instruments. When a measurement is performed, the discrete value obtained adds to our universe of information and updates our state of knowledge concerning the measurand. Because our information is necessarily incomplete, our knowledge concerning the measurand remains fuzzy. Given the information possessed, the discrete value obtained represents a packet of values dispersed about the measured result, all of which are believed to be attributable to the measurand with relative degrees of conviction (Figure 7).\n\nIt is the identification of probabilities as degrees of belief that transforms this packet of values into a probability distribution. In this context, the meaning of a measured value corresponds to a probability distribution characterizing the relative likelihood of the values believed to be attributable to a measurand based on the totality of currently available information (Figure 8).\n\nFigure 7 Measurement as packet of values.\n\nFigure 8 Measurement as probability distribution.\n\nThis distribution completely specifies our state of knowledge concerning the values attributable to a measurand. Moreover, it delineates in a mathematically rigorous manner how a measured value, y, maps into those values believed to be attributable to a measurand. By doing so, it also determines the inferences that can be made concerning a measurand's value based on the values measured.\n\nAs an example, given a measured value, the distribution permits one to determine the probability that a measurand's value lies within any given range of values. In this context, one can think of the probability associated with the distribution as being equal to the area under the curve representing it. The probability that a measurand's value lies within a specified range is given by the proportion of the area under the curve spanning the range in question to the total area under the curve (Figure 9).\n\nFigure 9 Probability = ratio of areas under curve.\n\nFigure 10 Values reasonably attributable to a measurand.\n\nGiven a measured value, y, the question of what values can reasonably be attributed to a measurand involves two competing considerations. First, we want to exclude values that, although possible, are highly improbable. Second, we need to include enough values so that there is a significant probability that the measurand's value is actually among those considered. The measurement's probability distribution provides a conceptually straightforward way of accomplishing this. Simply slice off the tails of the distribution while including enough of its middle so that the area of the remaining region represents a significant probability that the measurand's value lies within it (Figure 10).\n\nFrom this, we can obtain a range of values reasonably attributable to a measurand, along with an associated probability that the value of the measurand lies within it. This defines the uncertainty of a measurement. Measurement uncertainty is the quantitative characterization of the dispersion of values that, based on the universe of information concerning a measurement, are believed to be reasonably attributable to a measurand. The half width of this range of values is known as a result's expanded uncertainty, U (Figure 11).\n\nThe expanded uncertainty defines what is known as a \"coverage interval\" about a measured value. The coverage interval conveys the set of quantity values reasonably attributed to the measurand along with the specific probability that its \"true\" value actually lies within this range. The probability is referred to as the interval's associated \"level of confidence.\" Coverage intervals having an associated level of confidence between 95% and 99.7% are typically selected (Figure 12):\n\nCoverageintervaly\u2212U<Y99%<y+U\n\n  [6]\n\nFigure 11 Expanded uncertainty.\n\nFigure 12 Coverage interval.\n\nCoverage Interval versus Confidence Interval\n\nCoverage intervals and confidence intervals are distinct tools and should not be confused. A coverage interval is a metrological concept based on Bayesian analysis. In this framework, parameters of interest can be treated as random variables so that they can be the subject of probabilistic statements without logical inconsistency. The level of confidence associated with a coverage interval refers to the probability, understood as a degree of belief, that a measurand's value lies within the interval.\n\nA confidence interval is a statistical concept based on frequentist methodology. In this framework, the stochastic nature of the investigation lies entirely in the sampling process, not the parameter value. Accordingly, the level of confidence associated with a confidence interval does not associate a probability with the measurand value. Rather, its object is the interval itself. If one were to conduct multiple sets of measurements and generate a confidence interval for each set, the level of confidence tells you the proportion of these intervals that would be expected to cover\/overlap a measurand's value (Figure 13).\n\nFigure 13 Interpretation of a confidence interval.\n\nThere are two types of uncertainties: type A and type B. Unlike the two types of errors, type A and type B uncertainties are not distinguished by the nature of their source. Instead, they are defined by the manner in which they are determined. Type A uncertainty refers to the uncertainty that has been determined by statistical (frequentist) methods utilizing observed frequency distributions. Type B uncertainty refers to the uncertainty that has been determined by nonstatistical means relying on knowledge, experience, and judgment to create belief-based a priori distributions.\n\nType A evaluations are often referred to as \"objective\" and type B as \"subjective.\" However, this does not mean that type B evaluations are any less real or valid than type A. Both evaluations rely on accepted notions of probability. Nor is one approach necessarily superior to the other. Whether type A or type B analysis yields better results is context-dependent.\n\nRegardless of the approach employed to determine them, a foundational tenant of this paradigm is that the uncertainties themselves do not differ in nature. Once determined, all distributions are interpreted in the Bayesian manner, representing models of our state of knowledge quantified according to degree of belief. This permits type A and type B uncertainties to be treated on equal footing as standard deviations of the distributions they are based on, providing rigorous justification for their combination into a \"combined uncertainty\" using traditional methods of analysis.\n\nThe importance of this lies in the fact that a measurement's uncertainty is usually made up of the combination of uncertainties from several distinct sources. To understand the significance, recall the inability of error analysis to combine systematic and random errors in a rigorously justifiable manner to determine a measurement's total error. To avoid confusion, in the context of uncertainty, systematic errors are referred to as \"systematic effects.\" For pedagogical purposes, systematic effects were not included in the above discussion. Nonetheless, the determination of uncertainty assumes that every measurement has been corrected for significant systematic effects.\n\nWhat the uncertainty paradigm permits us to do, regardless of the nature of a systematic effect or how it has been quantified, is to treat it as a probability distribution. When this is done, the distribution's expectation yields the required systematic correction (hereinafter referred to as bias) and its standard deviation characterizes the uncertainty associated with the bias. Treated in this manner, systematic effects and their associated uncertainties are placed on equal footing with measured values and their associated uncertainties, so that those phenomena formerly understood as systematic and random errors can now be combined in a logically consistent and rigorously justifiable manner. In general, the evaluation of the uncertainty arising from systematic effects may be either type A or type B.\n\nReturning to the above discussion, it can now be seen that the uncertainty paradigm naturally incorporates systematic effects into the mapping of measured values to those believed to be attributable to a measurand (Figure 14).\n\nThe correction shifts the position of the probability distribution along the axis of values while the uncertainty associated with the correction will modify the shape of the distribution. As would be expected, this will shift the coverage interval in the direction of the correction as well.\n\nFigure 14 Mapping measurement to \"reality.\"\n\nSomething that must be considered at this point is that given the inherent variability of measured values, it is seldom acceptable to base the determination of a measurand's value on a single measurement. Good practice requires acquisition of multiple measured values combined to determine their mean. The best estimate of a measurand's \"true\" value is then given by the bias corrected mean of the measured values:\n\nBestestimate=biascorrectedmeanYb=y\u00afc\n\n  [7]\n\nIt is a fundamental principle of measurement that where the actual value of a measurand is important, a result is not complete and cannot be properly interpreted unless it has been corrected for bias and is accompanied by a quantitative statement of its uncertainty. Accordingly, a complete measurement result consists of the best estimate of the measurand's \"true\" value accompanied by its uncertainty:\n\nMeasurementresult=bestestimate\u00b1uncertaintyY99%=Yb\u00b1U\n\n  [8]\n\nCoverageintervalYb\u2212U<Y99%<Yb+U\n\n  [9]\n\n### Measurement Uncertainty: A Forensic Example\n\nThe value of a measurand can be critical to the determination of certain criminal matters. For example, some states define the offense of driving under the influence of alcohol (DUI) by an individual's \"true\" breath alcohol concentration (BrAC). The measurement of BrAC, like any other scientific measurement, is accompanied by uncertainty. Thus, by themselves, the values reported by a breath test machine tell us little about an individual's \"true\" BrAC and whether they have actually committed a crime. Consider tests administered to two different individuals on different instruments in a state where DUI is defined by a BrAC of 0.08 g\/210 l (Figures 15 and 16).\n\nEach test reports identical BrAC values in excess of the state's per se limit with a mean value of 0.0825 g\/210 l. Without more, these \"breath test tickets\" clearly seem to indicate that the BrACs in question exceed the legal limit. Moreover, given that the external standard readings are both reading true, there is actually no way to distinguish between these two tests.\n\nFigure 15 Identical measurement results, different measurement meaning: breath analysis.\n\nFigure 16 Breath analysis.\n\nFigure 17 BrAC test 1.\n\nFigure 18 BrAC test 2.\n\nThe two tests' uncertainties reveal a different picture though. Despite identically measured values, the uncertainty of each, expressed as coverage intervals, is different (Figures 17 and 18).\n\nFigure 19 BrAC test 1.\n\nFigure 20 BrAC test 2.\n\nClearly, the computed uncertainty associated with test 1 is greater than that associated with test 2. Moreover, further examination reveals that the likelihood that each individual's BrAC is actually less than 0.08 g\/210 l is nearly 20% and 10% for tests 1 and 2, respectively (Figures 19 and 20).\n\nThus, not only do these \"identical\" tests not have identical meanings, but each represents a sizable likelihood in the context of reasonable doubt that the BrACs in question are less than the relevant limit. Proper interpretation of these results clearly requires knowledge of their uncertainty.\n\n### Determining Measurement Uncertainty\n\nThere are several different methods for determining a measurement's uncertainty. The first step in each is to identify and quantify all systematic effects and appropriately correct for each.\n\nFigure 21 Cause and effect diagram.\n\nThe second step is typically the identification of relevant sources of uncertainty. A common way to document these is through a cause and effect diagram, which depicts each source of uncertainty and their relationship to each other and the final result (Figure 21).\n\nWhen all the quantities on which a measured value depends can be varied simultaneously, a result's uncertainty can be determined, directly using statistical methods. Except for simple measurements, however, this approach is typically not practical.\n\nGenerally, then, the next step is to determine the magnitude of each of the relevant uncertainties. Each is quantified as a standard deviation and referred to as a \"standard uncertainty\":\n\nStandarduncertainity\u03bc\u2261\u03c3\n\n  [10]\n\nThe relative standard uncertainty is the ratio of the standard uncertainty to the best estimate of the measurand value. It can be useful when combining or comparing uncertainties of separate measurements:\n\nRelativestandarduncertainity\u03bcry=\u03bcy|Yb|\n\n  [11]\n\nFor some measurements, each source of uncertainty may be associated with the measurement as a whole and manifest itself independently as a direct effect on the final result. Such is the case with direct measurements. In these circumstances, a result's \"combined uncertainty,\" \u03bcc, is given by the root-sum-square of the standard uncertainties:\n\n\u03bcc=\u2211i=1n\u03bci2\n\n  [12]\n\nMost measurements are indirect in nature, determining a measurand's value through its relationship to other measured quantities. The most common method of determining uncertainty in these circumstances is discussed in the Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement (the GUM). Application of the GUM requires that a measurement be modeled as a mathematical function, referred to as the measurement function:\n\nMeasurementfunctionY=f(X1,X2,...,XN)\n\n  [13]\n\nThis function describes the relationship between the measurand value and those quantities required to determine it. For example, if the measurand is the volume of a cylinder, the measurement function might be given as\n\nV(r,h)=\u03c0r2h\n\n  [14]\n\nThe combined uncertainty of the measurand is determined by \"adding\" up the individual standard uncertainties using the method of \"propagation of uncertainty\":\n\n\u03bcc=\u2211i=1N(\u2202f\u2202xi\u00b7\u03bcxi)2+2\u2211i=1N\u22121\u2211j=i+1N\u2202f\u2202xi\u00b7\u2202f\u2202xj\u00b7\u03bcxixj\n\n  [15]\n\nIf each of the input quantities is independent, the expression simplifies to\n\n\u03bcc=\u2211i=1N(\u2202f\u2202xi\u00b7\u03bcxi)\n\n  [16]\n\nFor the volume of a cylinder, the combined uncertainty would be given by the expression\n\n\u03bccv=(2\u03c0rh\u03bcr)2+(\u03c0r2\u03bch)2\n\n  [17]\n\nPropagation of Uncertainty: Applied to Measurement Functions with Independent Input Quantities\n\n1. Measurement function:\n\nY=a\u00b7X\n\n  [18]\n\nYb=a\u00b7xb\n\n  [19]\n\n\u03bcy=a\u00b7\u03bcx\n\n  [20]\n\n2. Measurement function:\n\nY=Xn\n\n  [21]\n\nYb=xbn\n\n  [22]\n\n\u03bcry=\u03bcy|Yb|=|n|=\u03bcx|xb|\n\n  [23]\n\n3. Measurement function:\n\nY=X\u2212W+\u22ef+Z\n\n  [24]\n\nYb=xb\u2212wb+\u22ef+zb\n\n  [25]\n\n\u03bcy=\u03bcx2+\u03bcw2+\u22ef+\u03bcz2\n\n  [26]\n\n4. Measurement function:\n\nY=X\u00d7\u22ef\u00d7WZ\u00d7\u22ef\u00d7Q\n\n  [27]\n\nYb=xb\u00d7\u22ef\u00d7wbzb\u00d7\u22ef\u00d7qb\n\n  [28]\n\n\u03bcry=\u03bcy|Yb|=(\u03bcxxb)2+(\u03bcwwb)2+\u22ef+(\u03bczzb)2+(\u03bcqqb)2\n\n  [29]\n\nFigure 22 Coverage factors and levels of confidence: Gaussian distribution.\n\nThe expanded uncertainty is obtained by multiplying the combined uncertainty by a coverage factor, k:\n\nExpandeduncertaintyU=k\u03bcc\n\n  [30]\n\nThe coverage factor determines the coverage interval's level of confidence. It is commonly based on a t-distribution. Where a measurement's degrees of freedom are sufficiently large, the level of confidence bestowed by a given coverage factor is approximately that associated with a Gaussian distribution (Figure 22).\n\nFigure 23 Propagation of distributions.\n\nThe coverage factor is typically chosen to yield a level of confidence of 95% or greater. For the volume of a cylinder, the expanded uncertainty yielding a 99% level of confidence would be given by the expression\n\nU=2.576(2\u03c0rh\u03bcr)2+(\u03c0r2\u03bch)2\n\n  [31]\n\nFor the GUM to apply, the distribution characterizing a final result must not depart appreciably from normality. Where this is not the case, or where a measurement function is complicated or unknown, a more general approach to the determination of uncertainty is based on the propagation of distributions. Instead of determining the standard uncertainty of each input quantity and combining them, the distributions characterizing the quantity value of each input quantity are directly combined to construct the distribution characterizing our state of knowledge of the measurand's value (Figure 23).\n\nThe standard deviation of the final distribution yields a result's standard uncertainty. It should be noted that the resultant distribution and, hence, its uncertainty (coverage interval) need not be symmetric about the mean. The Monte Carlo method, a computer-based iterative simulation process, is an example of this approach.\n\nA final approach to the determination of uncertainty is the top-down method, so-called because it focuses on the measurement process as a whole instead of its detailed breakdown into distinct sources of uncertainty. It utilizes overall reproducibility estimates, based on measurement trials, as a direct estimate of the uncertainty associated with a measurement method. This approach is often utilized where a measurement function is complicated or unknown. Although each has its advantages, in certain circumstances, the GUM and top-down approaches can be used together to determine the uncertainty of a measurement where desirable.\n\n## Meaning Requires Uncertainty\n\nScientific measurement provides a powerful tool for investigating physical phenomena. No matter how good a measurement is, we can never know the \"true\" value of the quantity of interest. Error analysis focuses on the measurand itself, with the intent of providing a value that is as close as possible to its \"true\" value. What it actually provides is an ill-defined upper limit on a measurement's total error, revealing the worst a measured value might be without conveying how good it actually is. Uncertainty analysis focuses on our state of knowledge about a measurand, providing a quantitative mapping of measured values into those values believed to be actually and reasonably attributable to the quantity of interest. This conveys the meaning of a result by rigorously defining and constraining the inferences that can be drawn from it. Accordingly, where the actual value of a measurand is important, a result is not complete and cannot be properly interpreted unless it is accompanied by a quantitative statement of its uncertainty.\n\n## See also\n\nFoundations: Statistical Interpretation of Evidence: Bayesian Analysis; The Frequentist Approach to Forensic Evidence Interpretation; Legal: Legal Aspects of Forensic Science; Methods: Chemometrics; Toxicology: Interpretation of Results; Toxicology\/Alcohol: Breath Alcohol.\n\n## Further Reading\n\nEhrlich C, Dybkaer R, W\u00f6ger W. Evolution of philosophy and description of measurement. _Accreditation and Quality Assurance_. 2007;12:201\u2013218.\n\nEstler W.T. Measurement as inference: fundamental ideas. _CIRP Annals_. 1999;48(2):611\u2013631.\n\nEURACHEM. _Quantifying Uncertainty in Analytical Measurement (2000)_. 2000 QUAM:2000.1.\n\nEURACHEM. _Measurement Uncertainty Arising from Sampling: A Guide to Methods and Approaches_. 2007.\n\nISO. _Guidance for the Use of Repeatability, Reproducibility and Trueness Estimates in Measurement Uncertainty Estimation_. 2004 ISO\/TS 21748.\n\nJCGM. _Evaluation of Measurement Data \u2013 Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement (GUM)_. JCGM 100; 2008.\n\nJCGM. _Evaluation of Measurement Data \u2013 Supplement 1 to the 'Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement' \u2013 Propagation of Distributions Using a Monte Carlo Method_. JCGM 101; 2008.\n\nJCGM. _International Vocabulary of Metrology \u2013 Basic and General Concepts and Associated Terms (VIM)_. JCGM 200; 2008.\n\nJCGM. _Evaluation of Measurement Data \u2013 An Introduction to the 'Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement' and Related Documents_. JCGM 104; 2009.\n\nKacker R, Sommer K, Kessel R. Evolution of modern approaches to express uncertainty in measurement. _Metrologia_. 2007;44:513\u2013529.\n\nKirkup L, Frenkel B. _An Introduction to Uncertainty in Measurement: Using the GUM (Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement)_. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2006.\n\nNIST. _Guidelines for Evaluating and Expressing the Uncertainty of NIST Measurement Results_. NIST 1297; 1994.\n\nVosk T. Trial by numbers: uncertainty in the quest for truth and justice. _The NACDL Champion_. 2010;56:48\u201356 (reprinted with permission in The Voice for the Defense 40 (3), 24\u201333 (2011)).\n\n# Key Terms\n\nBayesian, Best evidence, Bias, Brady material, Confidence interval, Confrontation, Coverage interval, Degree of belief, Discovery, Ethical considerations, Forensic, Forensic laboratory report, Frequentist, GUM, Hazard, Health, Holistic approach, Integrated case management, Investigations, Measurement, Measurement error, Occupational health and safety (OHS), Probability, Probability distribution, Propagation of distributions, Propagation of uncertainty, Random error, Risk, Safety, Strategy, Submissions, Systematic error, Testimony, Type A uncertainty, Type B uncertainty, Uncertainty.\n\n# Review Questions\n\n1. Are the models offered for forensic service provision suggested by Ramsey and Burton the only ones available? What other models might there be?\n\n2. What is a \"forensic strategy\"? What questions are part of developing one? Why is it important to a case and to a laboratory?\n\n3. Why is integration of forensic cases \"the single biggest challenge to the forensic science community\"?\n\n4. What is currently in forensic reports? How do these differ from other scientific reports? How do they differ from published articles in peer-reviewed journals? What should be in forensic reports? Make a table listing each component and compare.\n\n5. Who is the \"audience\" of forensic reports? The police using the technical information to investigate the case or other scientists who must review the technical information? Is it both? How does this affect the content of forensic reports? Should it?\n\n6. How do the legal requirements of the contents of a forensic report differ between the UK and the US?\n\n7. Can forensic reports stand on their own (that is, without an expert's testimony)? What determines this?\n\n8. Are there ethical obligations to the format and content of a forensic report? If so, what are they?\n\n9. What is \"Brady material\"?\n\n10. What is \"OHS\"? What should this policy articulate?\n\n11. What is a risk, in OHS terms? How is it prevented or mitigated? What is the hierarchy of control measures?\n\n12. Why is stress a health and safety issue? What types of analysis are particularly prone to mental or stress issues?\n\n13. Why is good housekeeping important in a forensic laboratory?\n\n14. What is a \"measurand\"? What does error mean in the context of measurement?\n\n15. What are the two types of error associated with every measurement? How are they identified and dealt with?\n\n16. What is measurement uncertainty? What are the types of uncertainty? How are they different than \"errors\"?\n\n17. How does measurement of uncertainty tie into other forensic statistical methods, like the frequentist approach?\n\n18. Is the true value of a measurement ever known?\n\n19. What types of measurement uncertainty are there in firearms examinations? Why are they relevant?\n\n20. Should firearms reports contain measurement uncertainty (like a +\/\u2212 on trigger pull measurements)? Why or why not?\n\n# Discussion Questions\n\n1. How should forensic examinations and analyses be \"integrated\"? With laboratory specialization, how can cases move through a forensic laboratory in an integrated fashion? What are the benefits to doing this? What are the problems?\n\n2. Why are forensic reports formatted they way they are? Is there a better way to present this information? Who are they written for and who should they be written for?\n\n3. Why would police and prosecutors be unwilling to consider a wrongful conviction? What professional or social pressures might be at play? What is the role of forensic science in these cases, especially if science was used to prosecute the person in the first place?\n\n4. Why is uncertainty of measurement analytically important to forensic science? Is it important ethically? Why or why not?\n\n5. Are some types of forensic science more prone to hazards and health risks than others? If so, list them and explain why they are; if not, why not?\n\n## Additional Readings\n\nCole S.A. History of forensic science in policing. In: _Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice_. New York: Springer; 2014:2153\u20132158.\n\nHowes L, Kirkbride K, Kelty S, Julian R, Kemp N. Forensic scientists' conclusion: how readable are they for non-scientist report-users? _Forensic Science International_. 2014;231(1\u20133):102\u2013112.\n\nde Keijser J, Elffers H. Understanding of forensic expert reports by judges, defense lawyers and forensic professionals. _Psychology, Crime & Law_. 2012;18(2):191\u2013207.\n\nRoland M.C. Quality and integrity in scientific writing: prerequisites for quality in science communication. _Journal of Science Communications_. 2009;8(02):A04.\n\nSiegel J, King M, Reed W. The laboratory report project. _Forensic Science Policy & Management_. 2013;4(3\u20134):1\u201311.\n\n# Index\n\nNote: Page numbers followed by \"f\" indicate figures and \"t\" indicate tables.\n\nA\n\nAbsolute chronology,\n\nAcid black 1 (amido black),\n\nAcid yellow 7,\n\nAdhesive tapes,\n\nAlignable differences,\n\nAmino acid, 28\u201330, 30t, , ,\n\nAnalogous traits,\n\nAnalogy, , 15\u201316,\n\nAnalysis, comparison, evaluation, and verification (ACE-V), 21\u201322, 22f, 68\u201369\n\nas an applied science,\n\nbarefoot print marks, _See_Barefoot print marks\n\netiology,\n\nfoot morphology cases examination,\n\nhistory,\n\nnonadoption of, 76\u201377\n\noverview,\n\nprocess,\n\nquality and quantity of details, 74\u201375\n\nreproducibility and accuracy,\n\ntesting, 75\u201376\n\nAnalysis, in ACE-V, 73\u201375,\n\n _See also_Analysis, comparison, evaluation, and verification (ACE-V)\n\nAnatomy,\n\nAnthropometry, , 83\u201384, 88\u201390\n\n _See also_Identification\n\nApocrine glands, , 29t, , 45t\n\nArches pattern type of, , 20f, , , 130f, , , ,\n\nAristotle,\n\nAshbaugh, David, 22\u201323\n\nAutomated fingerprint identification system (AFIS), 44\u201345, , 90\u201391, 95\u201396\n\nexemplar database,\n\nfuture of,\n\nand live scan system,\n\nIntegrated AFIS (IAFIS),\n\ninteroperability,\n\nresults, 98\u201399\n\nsearching latent prints in, 96\u201398\n\n _See also_Computer technology\n\nB\n\nBabler, William, 63\u201365,\n\nBall of the foot,\n\nBarefoot print marks\n\ncomparison,\n\ncrime scene\n\nevidence collection,\n\nimpressions analysis, 133\u2013134\n\nevaluation,\n\nexemplars collection from person of interest, 131\u2013133\n\nfoot morphology cases, examination methodology,\n\nhistory, 129\u2013131\n\nknown exemplars analysis, 134\u2013135\n\nverification, 135\u2013136\n\n _See also_Ridge flow of the feet\n\nBasement membrane, 81\u201382\n\nBasic Violet 3, 50\u201351\n\nBayesian framework, for identification findings evaluation, 124\u2013126, 125f\n\nBelon, Pierre,\n\nBest evidence, ,\n\nBias, 68\u201370, 111\u2013112, , 173f, , 177\u2013178\n\ncognitive bias, ,\n\nconfirmation bias, , 69\u201370,\n\ncontextual bias, 69\u201370,\n\nobserver bias, 113\u2013114,\n\nin reports, 160\u2013161\n\nBifurcation, , , , , 98f, ,\n\nand ridge endings,\n\nBiological comparisons,\n\nBiological material, laboratory hazard, 165\u2013166\n\nBiometrics, ,\n\nBlind testing\/Blind verification, 69\u201371,\n\narguments against, 113\u2013114\n\nsupport for, 112\u2013113\n\nBlood, fingermarks in, 52\u201353\n\nacid black 1 (amido black),\n\nacid yellow 7,\n\nBrady material, 160\u2013161\n\nBromine,\n\nC\n\nCalcar,\n\nCandidate inferences, 16\u201317, , , 95\u201396, 98\u201399\n\nCarpal delta,\n\nCharacteristics, , , , 51\u201352\n\nridge characteristics,\n\nChemical biological and radiological and nuclear incidents, field hazards,\n\nChemical constituents, of latent fingerprints,\n\nChemicals, laboratory hazard,\n\nChildren's fingerprints,\n\nChronology,\n\nCI 20470,\n\nCI 42555, 50\u201351\n\nClan labs, field hazards, 168\u2013169\n\nClass level information, 8\u20139\n\nClassification and identification of friction ridge impressions, _See_Friction ridge classification systems, Friction ridge identification, Friction ridge skin\n\nCognitive effects,\n\nprocedural antidote,\n\nand subconscious level,\n\nsusceptibility to, and flaw,\n\nColumns, , 147\u2013151, 147f, 147t, 148f, 150f\u2013151f, 151t\n\nCommon relations, comparative methods,\n\nCommonality of relationship,\n\nComparative anatomy, 13\u201314\n\nComparative method, 13\u201315, 21\u201322, 22f\n\nComparative science, 68\u201371\n\nComparison, in ACE-V, 73\u201377\n\n _See also_Analysis, comparison, evaluation, and verification (ACE-V)\n\nComparison process\n\nassumptions in, 15\u201316\n\nconstraints,\n\ndiagnosticity,\n\npaying more attention to the target,\n\nand traces, 3\u20134\n\nComplex prints, friction ridge print,\n\nComputer forensics laboratory, laboratory hazard,\n\nComputer technology\n\nAFIS, _See_Automated fingerprint identification system (AFIS)\n\nfingerprint comparison,\n\nin friction ridge identification,\n\nConfidence interval, 176\u2013177\n\nConfined spaces, field hazards,\n\nConflict resolution, friction ridge print,\n\nConfrontation,\n\nConsultation, friction ridge print, 70\u201371\n\nContaminants, , 27\u201328, 31\u201332, , ,\n\nContaminated fingerprints,\n\nfingermarks in blood, 52\u201353\n\nfingermarks in grease,\n\nContext effects, 112\u2013113\n\nsusceptibility to,\n\nCorroborative evidence, ,\n\nCorroborative information\n\ninferential schemes,\n\nprobabilities, 123\u2013124\n\nCoverage interval, 176\u2013178, 176f, 180\u2013181\n\nCreases, 20\u201322, 99\u2013100, ,\n\nformation of,\n\nCriminal record history, 89\u201390,\n\nCrime scene impressions analysis, 133\u2013134\n\n _See also_Analysis, comparison, evaluation, and verification (ACE-V)\n\nCrime scene to court, 153\u2013154\n\nforensic strategies, 154\u2013157\n\nintegrated case management,\n\nmodels,\n\ntask,\n\nCriminal applications, of fingerprint sciences, 60\u201361\n\nCriminal history information system, 91\u201392\n\nCriminal identification\n\nhistory of, 89\u201390\n\nprior to fingerprints use, 83\u201384\n\n _See also_Identification\n\nCriminalistics,\n\nCross-mapping of analogous traits, 16\u201317\n\nCrystal Violet, 50\u201351\n\nCummins, Harold, 62\u201363,\n\nCuvier, Georges, , 13\u201314\n\nCuvier's principle of correlation of parts, 13\u201314\n\nCyanoacrylate (superglue) vapor,\n\nD\n\nDegradation, ,\n\nDegree of belief, ,\n\nDeltas, palm prints, 145\u2013146\n\nDermal papillae, , 81f\n\nDermatoglyphics, 62\u201363, ,\n\nDermis, , 80\u201382, 81f, 104\u2013105\n\nDesmosomes, 80\u201381\n\nDesorption electrospray ionization mass spectrometry imaging (DESI-MSI),\n\nDetails, of fingerprints,\n\nDevelopment of (latent) fingerprints, 35\u201336\n\nin contamination, _See_Contaminated fingerprints, Contaminants\n\ndifficult surface types,\n\nfabrics, 39\u201342\n\nhealth and safety procedures,\n\ninitial fluorescence examination,\n\ninitial visual examination,\n\nmetal surfaces,\n\nnonwidespread reported techniques, 56\u201357\n\noperational process,\n\noperational performance, 38\u201339\n\noptical techniques, 53\u201356\n\npackaging and handling of evidence,\n\nphotographic recording of developed fingerprints,\n\npreliminary procedures,\n\nprocess selection charts, , 40f\u201341f\n\nsequence of fingerprint treatment\n\nissues to consider, 36\u201337\n\nprocess compatibility,\n\nsequential application,\n\nsequence selection and complex exhibits, 37\u201338\n\nskin,\n\nsurface compatibility and performance,\n\ntechniques categories,\n\n1, 8-Diazafluoren-9-one (DFO), , , 47\u201348\n\nDifferential growth, 63\u201365,\n\nDigital imaging, 44\u201345\n\nDimethylaminocinnamaldehyde,\n\nDiscovery, of trace, ,\n\nDistal\/proximal hypothenar,\n\nDocumentation, friction ridge print, 70\u201371\n\n _See also_Examination documentation, Forensic laboratory reports\n\nDomain-relevant information, 111\u2013112, 114\u2013116\n\nDonor effect, 27\u201328, , ,\n\nDynamic risk management,\n\nE\n\nEarth population paradigm, 119\u2013120, 122\u2013123,\n\nEccrine glands, 28\u201331, 29t, , , 45\u201346, 45t\n\nElectrical\/machinery, laboratory hazard,\n\nElectron beam imaging,\n\nElectrostatic imaging methods,\n\nEmbryology, , 137\u2013138\n\nEnhancement, 45\u201346, , 130\u2013131,\n\n _See also_Development of (latent) fingerprints\n\nEpidermis, , 80\u201381, 81f\n\nEpistemology, 3\u20134\n\nEthical considerations, and forensic reports,\n\nExamination documentation, 69\u201370, 114\u2013116\n\ncomplex prints,\n\nphotographic records,\n\n _See also_Forensic laboratory report\n\nEvaluation, in ACE-V, 73\u201374,\n\n _See also_Analysis, comparison, evaluation, and verification (ACE-V)\n\nEvidence, ,\n\nclassification methods\n\nforensic approaches to,\n\nmanufactured evidence,\n\nset theory,\n\ntaxonomy, 7\u20138\n\nidentification of, 8\u20139\n\nrelationships and context,\n\nuniqueness and individualization, 9\u201310\n\nF\n\nFabrics, 39\u201342\n\nFaulds, Henry, 60\u201361, 82\u201383,\n\nFeet\/foot, _See_Barefoot print marks\n\nField hazards, 168\u2013169\n\nchemical biological and radiological and nuclear incidents,\n\nclan labs, 168\u2013169\n\nconfined spaces,\n\npotential hazards during an overseas deployment,\n\nwork-related stress,\n\nFingerprint automation\n\nAFIS, _See_Automated fingerprint identification system (AFIS)\n\ncriminal history information system, 91\u201392\n\ncurrent practice and future development, 92\u201393\n\nhistory of, 90\u201391\n\nFingerprint classification, history of, 88\u201389\n\nFingerprint deposits, origins of, 43\u201344, 44f\n\nFingerprint residue, 27\u201328\n\nanalytical techniques,\n\nchildren's fingerprints,\n\nfactors affecting fingerprint composition\n\nambient conditions and time,\n\ncontaminants, 31\u201332\n\ndeposition,\n\ndonor,\n\nsubstrate,\n\nfuture directions, 32\u201333\n\nsampling issues,\n\nsources, 28\u201331\n\nFingerprint sciences,\n\ncomparison and identification, developments in, 61\u201362\n\ncriminal applications, 60\u201361\n\nearly history,\n\nearly scientific foundation,\n\nfingerprint detection and enhancement,\n\nfriction ridge skin, recognition of,\n\nfuture scientific research, 63\u201365\n\nhistorical timeline, 64f\n\nas identification means, 60\u201361\n\nrecent developments and trends, 62\u201363\n\nFingerprints,\n\nchemical development,\n\ncomparison methodology, 21\u201322, 22f\n\ncomputer technology,\n\nconfirmation bias,\n\ndatabases,\n\ndefinition, 19\u201321\n\nerror rate of examination,\n\ninfallibility and certainty,\n\nissues, 23\u201324\n\nlifting,\n\nmarks and prints, 21\u201322, 22f\n\nnumeric standards, 22\u201323\n\npattern type and ridge flow, , 20f\n\nand permanent scars, , 21f\n\npores and ridge edge shapes, , 20f\n\nprobabilistic evaluation,\n\nrecovery from scenes,\n\nridge characteristics, , 20f\n\ntenprint,\n\nuniqueness,\n\nFirearms, laboratory hazard,\n\nFluorescence examination, ,\n\nenhancement of developed fingerprints, 55\u201356\n\ninfrared fluorescence,\n\ninitial examination, 54\u201355\n\nultraviolet fluorescence,\n\nFoot morphology cases, examination methodology,\n\n _See also_Barefoot print marks\n\nForensic intelligence,\n\nForensic laboratory reports\n\ncontents\n\nlegal standards, 160\u2013161\n\nscience standard, 159\u2013160\n\nethical considerations,\n\nstand-alone evidence or support for a testifying expert,\n\nForensic science, 73\u201374\n\nACE-V, _See_Analysis, comparison, evaluation, and verification (ACE-V)\n\ndefinition of,\n\nFourier transform infrared spectroscopy,\n\nFreezing,\n\nFrequentist theory, 173\u2013174,\n\nFriction ridge classification systems\n\ndevelopment of,\n\nFriction ridge identification\n\ncriminal identification prior to the use of fingerprints, 83\u201384\n\nearly applications of, 82\u201383\n\nfoundations, uniqueness and permanence,\n\nincorporation of computer technologies,\n\nFriction ridge patterns, , 137\u2013138\n\nFriction ridge print\n\nanalysis, comparison, evaluation, and verification (ACE-V), 68\u201369\n\nas an applied science,\n\nblind verification, 69\u201370\n\ncomplex prints,\n\nconflict resolution,\n\nconsultation,\n\ndocumentation, 70\u201371\n\nintroduction,\n\nFriction ridge skin,\n\ndevelopment of,\n\nhistorical scientific research, 81\u201382\n\nrecognition of,\n\nstructure of, 80\u201381\n\n _See also_Fingerprints\n\nFriction ridge skin, of the feet,\n\nembryology and development of, 137\u2013138\n\ndevelopment of the arch,\n\nhistory,\n\nrecording known impressions of the foot, 138\u2013139\n\nridge flow of the feet, 139\u2013140\n\ncalcar,\n\ncreases,\n\ncreases formation,\n\ndistal\/proximal hypothenar,\n\nhallucal (distal thenar and first interdigital area),\n\ninterdigital areas (II, III, and IV),\n\ntibial thenar,\n\ntoes, 140\u2013142\n\nFriction ridge skin, impression evidence\n\ncurrent views and practice, 104\u2013107\n\nnonnumerical standard-based approach, 104\u2013107\n\npredetermined minimum number of minutiae-based approach,\n\nhistorical milestone,\n\noverview,\n\nquality\n\nerrors occurrences,\n\ntotal quality management,\n\nrange of possible conclusions in the field, 107\u2013108\n\nFume cupboards, laboratory hazard, 166\u2013167\n\nG\n\nGalton, Sir Francis, , , , 82\u201384, 88\u201389,\n\nGas chromatography\u2013mass spectrometry (GC-MS),\n\nGeneral laboratory management, laboratory hazard, 167\u2013168\n\nGenetics, 30\u201331, , , 140f\n\nGentian Violet, 50\u201351\n\nGeology,\n\nGrease, fingermarks in,\n\nsolvent black 3 (Sudan black 3),\n\nGrew, Nehemiah, ,\n\nGroomed fingerprints, 45\u201346\n\nGuide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement (the GUM), 179\u2013181\n\nGun bluing,\n\nH\n\nHale, Alfred, 62\u201363,\n\nHallucal (distal thenar and first interdigital area), , 140f, 142f\n\nHandling of exhibits in court, laboratory hazard,\n\nHazards, _See_Health and safety\n\nHealth and safety\n\nfield hazards, 168\u2013169\n\nchemical biological and radiological and nuclear incidents,\n\nclan labs, 168\u2013169\n\nconfined spaces,\n\npotential hazards during an overseas deployment,\n\nwork-related stress,\n\nlaboratory hazards\n\nbiological material, 165\u2013166\n\nchemicals,\n\ncomputer forensics laboratory,\n\nelectrical\/machinery,\n\nfirearms,\n\nfume cupboards, 166\u2013167\n\ngeneral laboratory management, 167\u2013168\n\nhandling of exhibits in court,\n\nhigh-intensity light sources,\n\nlasers,\n\nmanual handling,\n\nrobotics,\n\nsharps,\n\nX-rays,\n\noccupational health and safety policy, 163\u2013165\n\ndynamic risk management,\n\nhierarchy of control measures, 164\u2013165\n\nrisk assessments,\n\nHeating paper technique,\n\nHenry, Sir Edward, ,\n\nHenry, Richard,\n\nHenry classification system, , ,\n\nHerschel, Sir William, 60\u201361, 82\u201383\n\nHigh-intensity light sources, laboratory hazard,\n\nHolistic approach, , , , 154\u2013155\n\n _See also_Analysis, comparison, evaluation, and verification (ACE-V)\n\nHomologous traits,\n\nHuman skin secretory glands, 29t\n\nHutton, James,\n\nHypothenar, 148\u2013150\n\nI\n\nIDENT1,\n\nIdentification, 60\u201361, 119\u2013120\n\nanthropometry, , 83\u201384, 88\u201390\n\nBayesian framework, 124\u2013126\n\nevidence, 8\u20139\n\nIAI, _See_International Association for Identification (IAI)\n\ninferential schemes, 120\u2013122\n\ncorroborative information provision,\n\nindividualization decision, 120\u2013122\n\nnext generation identification (NGI), ,\n\nprobabilities\n\ncorroborative information, 123\u2013124\n\nindividualization, 122\u2013123\n\nrecidivist identification, 82\u201384, 89\u201390\n\nrelationship with probabilities\n\ncorroborative information, 123\u2013124\n\nindividualization, 122\u2013123\n\n _See also_Criminal identification, Friction ridge identification, Personal identification\n\nImaging of developed fingerprints, 44\u201345\n\nIndanedione,\n\nIndividualization\n\ninferential schemes, 120\u2013122\n\nprobabilities, 122\u2013123\n\nscience of,\n\nuniqueness and, 9\u201310\n\nInferential schemes, 120\u2013122\n\ncorroborative information provision,\n\nindividualization decision, 120\u2013122\n\nInsole impression, , 134f\n\nIntegrated automated fingerprint identification system (IAFIS),\n\nIntegrated case management, ,\n\nInterdigital areas,\n\npalm prints\n\ndeltas, 145\u2013146\n\npatterns, 147\u2013148\n\nInternational Association for Identification (IAI), , 61\u201363, , 104\u2013108\n\nINTERPOL, ,\n\nInterpretation, 13\u201315\n\nInterstate Identification Index (III),\n\nIodine,\n\nIodine monochloride,\n\nIron vapor fuming,\n\nK\n\nKirk's individuality principle,\n\nKnown exemplars analysis, 134\u2013135\n\nKnown sample,\n\nKollmann, Arthur, ,\n\nL\n\nLaboratory hazards\n\nbiological material, 165\u2013166\n\nchemicals,\n\ncomputer forensics laboratory,\n\nelectrical\/machinery,\n\nfirearms,\n\nfume cupboards, 166\u2013167\n\ngeneral laboratory management, 167\u2013168\n\nhandling of exhibits in court,\n\nhigh-intensity light sources,\n\nlasers,\n\nmanual handling,\n\nrobotics,\n\nsharps,\n\nX-rays,\n\nLasers, laboratory hazard,\n\nLatent fingerprint residue, _See_Fingerprint residue\n\nLateral continuity,\n\nLifting process,\n\nLine-up,\n\nLinnaean method of classification, 7\u20138\n\nLive Scan,\n\nLocard, Edmond, 61\u201362, 104\u2013105,\n\nLocard's exchange principle, 3\u20134,\n\nLocard's tripartite rule, , 107\u2013108\n\nLoops pattern type of, , 20f, , , , , 141f, 146\u2013150, 146f\u2013147f, 147t, 148f, 148t, 149f, 150t, 151f, 151t\n\nLyell, Charles,\n\nM\n\nMalpighi, Marcello, ,\n\nManual handling, laboratory hazard,\n\nManufactured evidence,\n\nMarks and prints, 21\u201322, 22f,\n\n _See also_Barefoot print mark, Fingerprints, Friction ridge print\n\nMatrix-assisted laser desorption\/ionization mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI-MSI),\n\nMayer, J.C.A.,\n\nMeasurement,\n\nto meaning, 172\u2013174\n\nmeaning of meaning,\n\nmeasurement error and error analysis, 172\u2013174\n\nMeasurement uncertainty, 174\u2013181\n\ndetermination, 179\u2013181\n\nforensic example, 178\u2013179\n\nmeaning requires uncertainty,\n\nType A and Type B uncertainties,\n\nMetal surfaces,\n\nMetal-toning treatments,\n\nMinutiae, , , , , 83\u201384, 88\u201391, , 97f, 98\u2013100, 104\u2013105, 107\u2013109, 107f\n\nModified physical developers and multimetal deposition techniques,\n\nMultistep impression,\n\nN\n\nNanoparticle methods in solution,\n\nNational Crime Information Center (NCIC), 91\u201392\n\nNational Fingerprint File (NFF),\n\nNative principles, 3\u20134\n\nKirk's individuality principle,\n\nLocard's exchange principle, 3\u20134\n\nNext generation identification (NGI), ,\n\nNinhydrin, , , 48\u201349\n\nNonalignable differences,\n\nNonnative principles,\n\nNonnumerical standard, friction ridge skin impression evidence, 104\u2013107\n\nNumeric standards, fingerprint comparison, 22\u201323, 104\u2013107, 105t\u2013106t\n\nO\n\nObserver bias, 113\u2013114,\n\nOccupational health and safety policy, 163\u2013165\n\ndynamic risk management,\n\nhierarchy of control measures, 164\u2013165\n\nrisk assessments,\n\n _See also_Health and safety\n\nOptical techniques, 53\u201356\n\nepitaxial white light, 53\u201354\n\nfluorescence examination,\n\nenhancement of developed fingerprints, 55\u201356\n\ninitial examination, 54\u201355\n\ninfrared fluorescence,\n\nreflected short-wave ultraviolet imaging (RUVIS),\n\nultraviolet fluorescence,\n\nwhite light,\n\nOsmium,\n\nOverseas deployment, potential field hazards during,\n\nP\n\nPackaging and handling of evidence, ,\n\nPalm prints, ,\n\nhypothenar, 148\u2013150\n\ninterdigital region\n\ndeltas, 145\u2013146\n\npatterns, 147\u2013148\n\nthenar, 150\u2013151\n\nParadigm,\n\nPatterns,\n\npalm prints, 147\u2013148\n\nand ridge flow, , 20f\n\nPermanence,\n\nfriction ridge identification,\n\nPermanent scars, , 21f\n\nPersistence, of friction ridges, 83\u201384\n\nPersonal identification, , 83\u201384, 88\u201389\n\n _See also_Anthropometry\n\nPhotographic recording,\n\nof developed fingerprints,\n\nPlantar, , ,\n\nPlastic prints,\n\nPores and ridge edge shapes, fingerprints, , 20f\n\nPowder suspensions,\n\nPowders, 49\u201350\n\nPredetermined minimum number of minutiae, friction ridge skin impression evidence,\n\nPrimary ridge, 63\u201365, , 81f,\n\nProbabilities, identification process and\n\ncorroborative information, 123\u2013124\n\nindividualization, 122\u2013123\n\nProbability distribution, , 175\u2013177, 175f\n\nPropagation of distributions, , 181f\n\nPropagation of uncertainty,\n\nProcess selection charts,\n\nfor paper and cardboard surfaces, 41f\n\nfor smooth, nonporous surfaces, 40f\n\nPsychology, 112\u2013113\n\nPurkinje, Johannes Evangelista, , , 88\u201389\n\nQ\n\nQuality\/quantity details, ACE-V, 74\u201375\n\nR\n\nRadioactive sulfur dioxide,\n\nRaman spectroscopy,\n\nRandom error, 172\u2013174, 173f,\n\n _See also_Bias\n\nRap sheet, ,\n\nRecidivist identification, 82\u201384, 89\u201390\n\nReconstruction of past criminal events,\n\nRelative chronology,\n\nReports, _See_Documentation, Examination documentation, Forensic laboratory reports\n\nReproducible, ,\n\nRidge characteristics, fingerprints, , 20f\n\nRidge flow of the feet, 139\u2013140\n\ncalcar,\n\ncreases,\n\nformation of,\n\ndistal\/proximal hypothenar,\n\nhallucal (distal thenar and first interdigital area),\n\ninterdigital areas (II, III, and IV),\n\ntibial thenar,\n\ntoes, 140\u2013142\n\n _See also_Barefoot print marks\n\nRidgeology, 22\u201323\n\nRisk\n\ndynamic risk management,\n\nrisk assessment, 163\u2013164\n\n _See also_Health and safety\n\nRobotics, laboratory hazard,\n\nRough surface,\n\nRuthenium tetroxide,\n\nS\n\nSafety, _See_Health and safety\n\nScientific information, translated into legal information,\n\nSebaceous glands, 28\u201331, 29t\u201330t, , , 45t,\n\nSebum, 29\u201331, 29t,\n\nSecondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS),\n\nSecondary ridge, , 81f, 104\u2013105\n\nSequence of fingerprint treatment\n\nissues to consider, 36\u201337\n\nprocess compatibility,\n\nsequence selection and complex exhibits, 37\u201338\n\nsequential application,\n\nSequential unmasking\n\nblind testing\n\narguments against, 113\u2013114\n\nsupport for, 112\u2013113\n\ncognitive effects,\n\nprocedural antidote,\n\nand subconscious level,\n\nsusceptibility to, and flaw,\n\nconcept of, 111\u2013112\n\ndomain-relevant (and domain-irrelevant) information, 115\u2013116\n\nexemplar line-ups,\n\nin forensic science, 114\u2013115\n\nSet theory,\n\ncardinality,\n\nelements,\n\nidentical set,\n\nsingleton set,\n\nsubset,\n\nunion and intersection,\n\nSharps, laboratory hazard,\n\nSilver nitrate solution,\n\nSingle-fingerprint classification system, 89\u201390\n\nSkin,\n\nSmall particle reagents,\n\nSmith, William,\n\nSocked-foot impression, , 133f\n\nSole,\n\nSolvents,\n\nSource, and trace,\n\nStand-alone evidence, reports,\n\nStatistical analysis, 9\u201310\n\nSteno, Nicolaus,\n\nStrategies, forensic, 154\u2013157\n\nStructurally consistent, comparative methods,\n\nSubmissions, , 156\u2013157\n\nSuitability analysis, for comparison, 68\u201369, ,\n\nSulfur nitride polymerization,\n\nSuperglue, 51\u201352\n\nSuperposition,\n\nSupport for a testifying expert, reports,\n\nSurface\n\ncompatibility and performance,\n\ntypes, 39\u201342\n\nSuspensions,\n\nSweat, , , 28\u201330, 29t,\n\n _See also_Eccrine glands\n\nSystematic effects,\n\nSystematic error, , 173f,\n\n _See also_Bias\n\nSystematic mapping, 16\u201317\n\nSystematicity, comparative methods, 16\u201317\n\nSystematics,\n\nT\n\nTaxon\/taxa, 7\u20138\n\nTaxonomy, 7\u20138,\n\n _See also_Evidence, classification methods, Friction ridge classification systems\n\nTenprints (10 prints), ,\n\nTented arch, , , , 147f, 147t, , 149f, 150t\n\nTestimony, , 159\u2013161\n\nThenar, 150\u2013151\n\nTibial thenar,\n\nToes, 140\u2013142\n\nTolerance, quality\/quantity relationship, 74\u201375\n\nTraces, 2\u20133\n\ncomparison process, 3\u20134\n\ndeposition,\n\ndiscovery of, ,\n\nsource and,\n\nTransparency, 69\u201371\n\n _See also_Documentation, Examination documentation, Forensic laboratory reports\n\nType A uncertainty,\n\nType B uncertainty,\n\nU\n\nUniformitarianism,\n\nUniqueness, ,\n\nfriction ridge identification,\n\nand individualization, , 9\u201310\n\nUncertainty, _See_Measurement uncertainty\n\nV\n\nVacuum-coating technology,\n\nVerification, in ACE-V, 73\u201377\n\n _See also_Analysis, comparison, evaluation, and verification (ACE-V)\n\nVesalius, Andreas,\n\nVestige, , , 150\u2013151, 150f\u2013151f\n\nVinyl (plasticized PVC),\n\nVisual examination,\n\nVisualization, , 45\u201346\n\nBasic Violet 3, 50\u201351\n\n1, 8-diazafluoren-9-one (DFO), 47\u201348\n\nindanedione,\n\niron vapor fuming,\n\nmetal-toning treatments,\n\noperational methods, 45\u201346\n\nphysical developer,\n\npowder suspensions,\n\npowders, 49\u201350\n\nsmall particle reagents,\n\nsuperglue, 51\u201352\n\ntechnique choice, 46\u201347\n\nvacuum metal deposition,\n\nVolar pads, , , , 104\u2013105, , , 145\u2013146, 147f\u2013148f, 148t\n\nVucetich, Juan, ,\n\nVucetich classification system, ,\n\nW\n\nWeight-bearing impression, , 131f, , , 134f,\n\nWhewell, William,\n\nWhorls pattern, , 20f, , , , 88\u201389, , 97f, , , 141f, , , 147f, 147t, 149\u2013151, 149f, 150t, 151f\n\nWilder, Harris Hawthorne, 62\u201363, ,\n\nWittgenstein, L.,\n\nWork-related stress,\n\nX\n\nX-rays, laboratory hazard, \n\n# Table of Contents\n\n  1. Cover image\n  2. Title page\n  3. Table of Contents\n  4. Copyright\n  5. Senior Editor: Biography\n  6. List of Contributors\n  7. Foreword\n  8. Preface\n  9. Section 1. Introduction\n    1. Introduction\n    2. Principles of Forensic Science\n      1. What Is Forensic Science?\n      2. The Trace as the Basic Unit of Forensic Science\n      3. Two Native Principles\n      4. Nonnative Principles\n      5. See also\n    3. Forensic Classification of Evidence\n      1. Introduction\n      2. Methods of Classification\n      3. Class Level Information\n      4. Uniqueness and Individualization\n      5. Relationships and Context\n      6. See also\n    4. Interpretation\/The Comparative Method\n      1. Introduction\n      2. Analogy and Comparison within a Forensic Process\n      3. The Comparative Method within Forensic Science\n      4. See also\n    5. Fingerprints\n      1. Introduction\n      2. What Is a Fingerprint?\n      3. Recovery of Fingerprints from Scenes\n      4. Fingerprint Practice\n      5. Current Issues in the Field\n      6. Conclusion\n      7. See also\n    6. Key Terms\n    7. Review Questions\n    8. Discussion Questions\n  10. Section 2. Chemistry and Visualization\n    1. Introduction\n    2. Chemistry of Print Residue\n      1. Introduction\n      2. Sources of Fingerprint Residue\n      3. Factors Affecting Fingerprint Composition\n      4. Future Directions and Conclusions\n      5. See also\n    3. Sequential Treatment and Enhancement\n      1. Introduction\n      2. Sequential Application of Fingerprint Development Techniques\n      3. Process Compatibility\n      4. Other Factors to Be Considered\n      5. Photographic Recording of Developed Fingerprints\n      6. Fingerprints in Contaminants\n      7. Contaminated Exhibits\n      8. Packaging and Handling of Evidence\n      9. Preliminary Procedures\n      10. Sequence Selection and Complex Exhibits\n      11. Initial Visual Examination\u2014All Exhibits\n      12. Initial Fluorescence Examination\u2014All Exhibits\n      13. Surface Compatibility and Performance\n      14. Operational Performance\n      15. Process Selection Charts\n      16. Difficult Surface Types\n      17. Metal Surfaces\n      18. Fabrics\n      19. Skin\n      20. See also\n    4. Visualization or Development of Crime Scene Fingerprints\n      1. Introduction\n      2. Origins of Fingerprint Deposits\n      3. Fingerprint Patterns, Characteristics, and Details\n      4. Imaging of Developed Fingerprints\n      5. Development or Visualization of Latent Fingerprints\n      6. Latent Fingerprint Chemical Constituents\n      7. Operational Methods of Visualizing Fingerprints\n      8. Choice of Technique\n      9. Packaging and Handling of Evidence\n      10. Operational Fingerprint Development Processes\n      11. Health and Safety Procedures\n      12. 1,8-Diazafluoren-9-one\n      13. Gun Bluing and Similar Metal-Toning Treatments\n      14. Iodine Vapor Fuming\n      15. Indanedione\n      16. Ninhydrin\n      17. Physical Developer\n      18. Powders\n      19. Powder Suspensions\n      20. Small Particle Reagent\n      21. Basic Violet 3 (Gentian Violet, Crystal Violet, CI 42555)\n      22. Superglue\n      23. Vacuum Metal Deposition\n      24. Development of Contaminated Fingermarks\n      25. Other Reported Techniques\n      26. See also\n    5. Key Terms\n    6. Review Questions\n    7. Discussion Questions\n  11. Section 3. Fingerprints\n    1. Introduction\n    2. Fingerprint Sciences\n      1. Introduction\n      2. Early History (221 BC\u2013AD 220)\n      3. Recognition of Friction Ridge Skin (1684\u20131858)\n      4. Criminal Applications and as a Means of Identification (1880\u20131905)\n      5. Developments in Comparison and Identification (1914\u20131973)\n      6. Recent (1990\u2013Present)\n      7. Early Scientific Foundation\n      8. Further Scientific Research\n      9. Fingerprint Detection and Enhancement\n      10. See also\n    3. Friction Ridge Print Examination\u2014Interpretation and the Comparative Method\n      1. Friction Ridge Print Examination\u2014Interpretation and the Comparative Method\n      2. Analysis, Comparison, Evaluation, and Verification\n      3. ACE-V as an Applied Science\n      4. Blind Verification\n      5. Consultation\n      6. Complex Prints\n      7. Conflict Resolution\n      8. Documentation\n      9. See also\n    4. Analysis, Comparison, Evaluation, and Verification (ACE-V)\n      1. Introduction\n      2. History and Etiology\n      3. The Process\n      4. Quality and Quantity of Detail\n      5. Testing\n      6. Forensic Disciplines That Have Not Adopted ACE-V\n      7. Conclusion\n      8. See also\n    5. Identification and Classification\n      1. Introduction\n      2. Development of Friction Ridge Skin\n      3. Structure of Friction Ridge Skin\n      4. Historical Scientific Research into Friction Ridge Skin\n      5. Uniqueness and Permanence\u2014The Foundations of Friction Ridge Identification\n      6. Early Applications of Friction Ridge Identification\n      7. Criminal Identification Prior to the Use of Fingerprints\n      8. Development of Friction Ridge Classification Systems\n      9. Incorporation of Computers into the Science of Friction Ridge Identification\n      10. Conclusion\n      11. See also\n    6. Key Terms\n    7. Review Questions\n    8. Discussion Questions\n  12. Section 4. Automation\n    1. Introduction\n    2. Automated Methods, Including Criminal Records Administration\n      1. Introduction\n      2. Brief History of Fingerprint Classification\n      3. History of Criminal Identification\n      4. History of Fingerprint Automation\n      5. Criminal History Information Systems\n      6. Current Practice and Future Improvement\n      7. Conclusion\n      8. See also\n    3. Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems (AFIS)\n      1. Introduction\n      2. Exemplar Database\n      3. Searching Latent Prints in AFIS\n      4. AFIS Results\n      5. Interoperability\n      6. The Future of AFIS\n      7. See also\n    4. Key Terms\n    5. Review Questions\n    6. Discussion Questions\n  13. Section 5. Interpretation\n    1. Introduction\n    2. Friction Ridge Skin Impression Evidence\u2014Standards of Proof\n      1. Introduction\n      2. Historical Milestone\n      3. Current Views and Practice\n      4. Range of Possible Conclusions in the Field\n      5. The Move toward Quality\n      6. Conclusion\n      7. See also\n    3. Sequential Unmasking: Minimizing Observer Effects in Forensic Science\n      1. The Concept of Sequential Unmasking\n      2. The Foundational Basis for Cognitive Effects\n      3. Support for Blind Testing in Forensic Science\n      4. Arguments against Blind Testing in Forensic Science\n      5. Sequential Unmasking in Forensic Science\n      6. Domain-Relevant (and Domain-Irrelevant) Information\n      7. Exemplar Line-Ups\n      8. Conclusion\n      9. See also\n    4. Overview and Meaning of Identification\/Individualization\n      1. The Identification Process: A Reduction Process to a Single Source\n      2. The Inferential Schemes\n      3. Relationship with Probabilities\n      4. The Bayesian Framework for Evaluating Identification Findings\n      5. Conclusion\n      6. See also\n    5. Key Terms\n    6. Review Questions\n    7. Discussion Questions\n  14. Section 6. Other Methods\n    1. Barefoot Print Marks\n      1. History\n      2. Crime Scene Evidence Collection\n      3. Collection of Exemplars from a Person of Interest\n      4. Methodology for Examination of Foot Morphology Cases\n      5. Analysis of Crime Scene Impressions\n      6. Analysis of the Known Exemplars\n      7. Comparison\n      8. Evaluation\n      9. Verification\n      10. See also\n    2. The Friction Ridge Skin of the Feet\n      1. Introduction\n      2. History\n      3. Embryology and Development of the Friction Ridges of the Foot\n      4. Recording Known Impressions of the Foot\n      5. Ridge Flow of the Feet\n      6. Toes\n      7. See also\n    3. Palm Prints\n      1. Interdigital Region\n      2. Hypothenar\n      3. Thenar\n      4. See also\n    4. Key Terms\n    5. Review Questions\n    6. Discussion Questions\n  15. Section 7. Professional issues\n    1. Introduction\n    2. Crime Scene to Court\n      1. Introduction\n      2. Task\n      3. Models\n      4. Forensic Strategies\n      5. Integrated Case Management\n      6. Summary\n      7. See also\n    3. Forensic Laboratory Reports\n      1. Contents of a Report\u2014A \"Science\" Standard\n      2. Contents of Report: Legal Standards\n      3. Reports: Stand-Alone Evidence or Support for a Testifying Expert\n      4. Ethical Considerations and Forensic Reports\n      5. Conclusion\n      6. See also\n    4. Health and Safety\n      1. Occupational Health and Safety Policy\n      2. Specific Laboratory Hazards\n      3. Hazards in the Field\n      4. See also\n    5. Measurement Uncertainty\n      1. Glossary\n      2. Nomenclature\n      3. Measurement\n      4. Measurement to Meaning\n      5. Measurement Uncertainty\n      6. Meaning Requires Uncertainty\n      7. See also\n    6. Key Terms\n    7. Review Questions\n    8. Discussion Questions\n  16. Index\n\n# List of Figures\n\n  1. Figures in Forensic Classification of Evidence\n    1. Figure 1\n    2. Figure 2\n  2. Figures in Interpretation\/The Comparative Method\n    1. Figure 1\n    2. Figure 2\n    3. Figure 3\n  3. Figures in Fingerprints\n    1. Figure 1\n    2. Figure 2\n    3. Figure 3\n    4. Figure 4\n    5. Figure 5\n  4. Figures in Chemistry of Print Residue\n    1. Figure 1\n  5. Figures in Sequential Treatment and Enhancement\n    1. Figure 1\n    2. Figure 2\n  6. Figures in Visualization or Development of Crime Scene Fingerprints\n    1. Figure 1\n    2. Figure 2\n    3. Figure 3\n    4. Figure 4\n    5. Figure 5\n    6. Figure 6\n    7. Figure 7\n    8. Figure 8\n    9. Figure 9\n    10. Figure 10\n    11. Figure 11\n    12. Figure 12\n    13. Figure 13\n  7. Figures in Fingerprint Sciences\n    1. Figure 1\n  8. Figures in Friction Ridge Print Examination\u2014Interpretation and the Comparative Method\n    1. Figure 1\n  9. Figures in Analysis, Comparison, Evaluation, and Verification (ACE-V)\n    1. Figure 1\n  10. Figures in Identification and Classification\n    1. Figure 1\n  11. Figures in Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems (AFIS)\n    1. Figure 1\n    2. Figure 2\n    3. Figure 3\n  12. Figures in Friction Ridge Skin Impression Evidence\u2014Standards of Proof\n    1. Figure 1\n    2. Figure 2\n  13. Figures in Overview and Meaning of Identification\/Individualization\n    1. Figure 1\n    2. Figure 2\n    3. Figure 3\n    4. Figure 4\n    5. Figure 5\n  14. Figures in Barefoot Print Marks\n    1. Figure 1\n    2. Figure 2\n    3. Figure 3\n    4. Figure 4\n    5. Figure 5\n    6. Figure 6\n    7. Figure 7\n    8. Figure 8\n  15. Figures in The Friction Ridge Skin of the Feet\n    1. Figure 1\n    2. Figure 2\n    3. Figure 3\n    4. Figure 4\n    5. Figure 5\n    6. Figure 6\n    7. Figure 7\n  16. Figures in Palm Prints\n    1. Figure 1\n    2. Figure 2\n    3. Figure 3\n    4. Figure 4\n    5. Figure 5\n    6. Figure 6\n    7. Figure 7\n    8. Figure 8\n    9. Figure 9\n    10. Figure 10\n    11. Figure 11\n    12. Figure 12\n    13. Figure 13\n    14. Figure 14\n  17. Figures in Crime Scene to Court\n    1. Figure 1\n  18. Figures in Measurement Uncertainty\n    1. Figure 1\n    2. Figure 2\n    3. Figure 3\n    4. Figure 4\n    5. Figure 5\n    6. Figure 6\n    7. Figure 7\n    8. Figure 8\n    9. Figure 9\n    10. Figure 10\n    11. Figure 11\n    12. Figure 12\n    13. Figure 13\n    14. Figure 14\n    15. Figure 15\n    16. Figure 16\n    17. Figure 17\n    18. Figure 18\n    19. Figure 19\n    20. Figure 20\n    21. Figure 21\n    22. Figure 22\n    23. Figure 23\n\n# List of Tables\n\n  1. Tables in Chemistry of Print Residue\n    1. Table 1\n    2. Table 2\n    3. Table 3\n    4. Table 4\n  2. Tables in Visualization or Development of Crime Scene Fingerprints\n    1. Table 1\n    2. Table 2\n  3. Tables in Friction Ridge Skin Impression Evidence\u2014Standards of Proof\n    1. Table 1\n    2. Table 2\n  4. Tables in Overview and Meaning of Identification\/Individualization\n    1. Table 1\n    2. Table 2\n    3. Table 3\n    4. Table 4\n  5. Tables in Palm Prints\n    1. Table 1\n    2. Table 2\n    3. Table 3\n    4. Table 4\n    5. Table 5\n    6. Table 6\n    7. Table 7\n    8. Table 8\n    9. Table 9\n\n# Landmarks\n\n  1. Cover image\n  2. Title page\n  3. Table of Contents\n\n  1. i\n  2. ii\n  3. iii\n  4. iv\n  5. ix\n  6. xi\n  7. xii\n  8. xiii\n  9. xiv\n  10. xv\n  11. xvi\n  12. \n  13. \n  14. \n  15. \n  16. \n  17. \n  18. \n  19. \n  20. \n  21. \n  22. \n  23. \n  24. \n  25. \n  26. \n  27. \n  28. \n  29. \n  30. \n  31. \n  32. \n  33. \n  34. \n  35. \n  36. \n  37. \n  38. \n  39. \n  40. \n  41. \n  42. \n  43. \n  44. \n  45. \n  46. \n  47. \n  48. \n  49. \n  50. \n  51. \n  52. \n  53. \n  54. \n  55. \n  56. \n  57. \n  58. \n  59. \n  60. \n  61. \n  62. \n  63. \n  64. \n  65. \n  66. \n  67. \n  68. \n  69. \n  70. \n  71. \n  72. \n  73. \n  74. \n  75. \n  76. \n  77. \n  78. \n  79. \n  80. \n  81. \n  82. \n  83. \n  84. \n  85. \n  86. \n  87. \n  88. \n  89. \n  90. \n  91. \n  92. \n  93. \n  94. \n  95. \n  96. \n  97. \n  98. \n  99. \n  100. \n  101. \n  102. \n  103. \n  104. \n  105. \n  106. \n  107. \n  108. \n  109. \n  110. \n  111. \n  112. \n  113. \n  114. \n  115. \n  116. \n  117. \n  118. \n  119. \n  120. \n  121. \n  122. \n  123. \n  124. \n  125. \n  126. \n  127. \n  128. \n  129. \n  130. \n  131. \n  132. \n  133. \n  134. \n  135. \n  136. \n  137. \n  138. \n  139. \n  140. \n  141. \n  142. \n  143. \n  144. \n  145. \n  146. \n  147. \n  148. \n  149. \n  150. \n  151. \n  152. \n  153. \n  154. \n  155. \n  156. \n  157. \n  158. \n  159. \n  160. \n  161. \n  162. \n  163. \n  164. \n  165. \n  166. \n  167. \n  168. \n  169. \n  170. \n  171. \n  172. \n  173. \n  174. \n  175. \n  176. \n  177. \n  178. \n  179. \n  180. \n  181. \n  182. \n  183. \n  184. \n  185. \n  186. \n  187. \n  188. \n  189. \n  190. \n  191. \n  192. \n  193. \n  194. \n  195. \n  196. \n  197. \n  198. \n  199. \n  200. \n  201. \n  202. \n  203. \n  204. \n  205. \n  206. \n  207. \n  208. \n  209. \n  210. \n  211. \n  212. \n  213.\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}}
+{"text":" \n#\n\n#  \nPhotos and text copyright \u00a9 2015 by Abigail R. Gehring\n\nRecipes on the following pages and accompanying photographs are copyright \u00a9 2014 by Wendy Polisi: , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and .\n\nAll rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any manner without the express written consent of the publisher, except in the case of brief excerpts in critical reviews or articles. All inquiries should be addressed to Skyhorse Publishing, 307 West 36th Street, 11th Floor, New York, NY 10018.\n\nSkyhorse Publishing books may be purchased in bulk at special discounts for sales promotion, corporate gifts, fund-raising, or educational purposes. Special editions can also be created to specifications. For details, contact the Special Sales Department, Skyhorse Publishing, 307 West 36th Street, 11th Floor, New York, NY 10018 or info@skyhorsepublishing.com.\n\nSkyhorse\u00ae and Skyhorse Publishing\u00ae are registered trademarks of Skyhorse Publishing, Inc.\u00ae, a Delaware corporation.\n\nVisit our website at www.skyhorsepublishing.com.\n\n10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1\n\nLibrary of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data\n\nGehring, Abigail R.\n\nQuintessential quinoa desserts \/ Abigail R. Gehring.\n\npages cm\n\nIncludes index.\n\nISBN 978-1-62914-494-8 (alk. paper) -- ISBN 978-1-63220-099-0 (Ebook)\n\n1. Desserts. 2. Cooking (Quinoa) 3. Gluten-free diet--Recipes. I. Title.\n\nTX773.G3654 2015\n\n641.86--dc23\n\n2014032203\n\nCover photos by Abigail R. Gehring\n\nPrinted in China\n\nContents\n\nThe What, How, and Why of Quinoa\n\nChoosing Sweeteners\n\nGluten-Free Baking\n\nCookies, Bars, and Candies\n\nCakes and Cupcakes\n\nTea Breads, Muffins, and Scones\n\nPies, Tarts, Crisps, and Crumbles\n\nPuddings and Other Sweet Treats\n\nMake-Ahead Mixes\n\nConversion Charts\n\nAbout the Author\n\nIndex\n\nTHE WHAT, WHY, AND HOW OF QUINOA\n\nIf you're buying this book, you're probably already quite familiar with quinoa. But just in case, you should know that it's pronounced kee-nwah and it's a gluten-free ancient grain now grown primarily for its seeds. The seeds are full of protein and fiber, and also contain iron, lysine (essential for tissue growth and repair), magnesium (helps control blood sugar and often alleviates migraines), riboflavin (essential for metabolic energy production), and manganese (an antioxidant). I recommend white quinoa for the recipes in this book, but feel free to experiment with black or red quinoa as well. There is no significant difference in flavor, texture, or nutrition between the varying colors.\n\nQuinoa should always be rinsed before use. The seeds are coated with saponins, a naturally occurring type of soap that repels birds and insects. It's great for the quinoa and for the quinoa farmers, but not so great to eat.\n\nQUINOA FLOUR\n\nQuinoa flour is simply ground up quinoa seeds, so it's pretty simple to make on your own. You can grind in a grain mill or a little bit at a time in a coffee grinder. I recommend roasting the quinoa flour after grinding it as you'll get a richer, slightly sweeter flavor (unroasted quinoa flour has a noticeably bitter flavor) and it will be easier to digest. To do so, preheat oven to 215\u02daF. Spread flour about \u00bc to \u00bd inch thick on a rimmed cookie sheet and bake for 2\u00bd to 3 hours. Remove from oven, allow to cool, and store in an airtight container in the freezer.\n\nMany of the recipes in this book call for Quinoa Flour Mix. Used alone, quinoa flour can lead to heavy or overly crumbly results, but with a little brown rice flour and some starch, it's beautiful. Since many people choose to use quinoa because of a gluten allergy or sensitivity, this flour mix is gluten-free. If you don't have any issues with gluten, you could substitute the brown rice flour and starch for whole wheat or all-purpose flour.\n\nQUINOA FLOUR MIX\n\nMakes 6 cups.\n\n2 cups brown rice flour\n\n2 cups quinoa flour, roasted (see page 8)\n\n2 cups potato starch, tapioca starch, or arrowroot powder\n\nMix ingredients together and store in an airtight bag or container. For long-term storage, keep in the freezer.\n\nCOOKED QUINOA SEEDS\n\nTo cook quinoa, first rinse the quinoa thoroughly. To do so, pour the quinoa into a fine mesh strainer and run water over it until there aren't any bubbles left. After it's thoroughly rinsed, place it in a saucepan with an equal amount of water and turn the heat on high. Once the water begins to boil, reduce to a simmer and cook for about 40 minutes. Many of the recipes in this book call for cool or chilled cooked quinoa. For these, you'll want to plan ahead to give your quinoa plenty of time to cool down. Remember this ratio when deciding how much quinoa to cook:\n\n1 cup raw quinoa + 1 cup water = 3 cups cooked quinoa.\n\nQUINOA FLAKES\n\nQuinoa flakes resemble oats and can, in fact, be used as a replacement for oats in most recipes. You can buy them in many health food stores or online.\n\nCHOOSING SWEETENERS\n\nIf using granulated sugar, look for pure cane sugar. If sugar isn't labeled as cane, it is probably made at least partially from beets\u2014and in America, sugar beets are mostly genetically modified. Many of the recipes in this book call for natural, less processed sweeteners, such as the following.\n\nHoney: The best honey\u2014both for nutrition and flavor\u2014is in its raw form. Raw honey is a powerful antioxidant and has antiviral, antibacterial, and antifungal properties. It strengthens the immune system and can fight allergies (particularly if the honey is from local bees).\n\nMaple Syrup: Maple syrup is, well, delicious. I'm from Vermont, so I grew up tapping trees and boiling down the sap to make our liquid gold. Maple syrup doesn't rank quite as high as honey on the health scorecard, but it does have a lot of anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. Be sure to use 100% real maple syrup, not a syrup that's artificially flavored.\n\nCoconut Sugar: Evaporated sap from coconut palm trees, coconut sugar has a delicate caramel flavor, similar to brown sugar. It contains many vitamins and minerals and less fructose than cane sugar.\n\nWhat about Agave? Agave, sometimes called \"the great Mexican aloe,\" produces a sweet sap, or nectar, that is traditionally extracted from the leaves, filtered, and heated to become a concentrated syrup\u2014sort of like the tropical version of maple syrup. However, most agave sweeteners you can find in stores come from the blue agave plant, and rather than the sap being extracted from the leaves, it comes from the starchy root bulb. The agave glucose is converted to syrup through an enzymatic and chemical process that is similar to how cornstarch is converted to high fructose corn syrup (HFCS) and results in a product that's very high in fructose. Fructose in highly concentrated forms wreaks havoc on your liver and can result in long-term health problems.\n\nGLUTEN-FREE BAKING\n\nGoing gluten-free is a whole lot easier now than it ever has been before. Unfortunately though, many gluten-free products are not particularly healthy. Many are comprised mainly of starches and gums that are basically devoid of nutrition and saturated with unhealthy oils and lots of processed sugars. They may be \"safe,\" but they're far from nourishing. My goal in this cookbook is to provide recipes for desserts that are safe for those avoiding gluten and relatively nutritious and definitely delicious for anyone. Though some starches and gums are helpful for holding baked goods together in the absence of gluten, the focus of these recipes is on using quinoa with a variety of whole grains and nut flours.\n\nIt takes some time to recognize which ingredients are safe and which are not. Wheat, rye, and barley are the gluten-laden culprits you must avoid. Unfortunately, that's not as simple as it sounds, since those three grains show up in a myriad of forms. See page 15 for a list of common grains to watch out for.\n\nDanger List: Ingredients That Contain Gluten\n\nBarley, barley malt, barley extract\n\nBran\n\nBread flour\n\nBulgur wheat\n\nCereal\n\nDurum\n\nEinkorn\n\nFarina\n\nFarro\n\nGluten\n\nGraham flour\n\nKamut\n\nMalt extract, malt flavoring, malt syrup\n\nMatzo\n\nRye\n\nSemolina\n\nSpelt*\n\nSprouted wheat\n\nWheat, wheat berry, wheat bran, wheat germ, wheat grass, wheat starch, wheat berries\n\n*Spelt is an ancient variety of wheat, so it is not safe for individuals with celiac disease and is not used in any recipes in this book. However, some people with gluten-sensitivity or intolerance find that they can tolerate spelt just fine.\n\nThe below ingredients do not always contain gluten, and when they do, it's trace amounts. But, especially if you have celiac disease, you should be careful about what brand of the following items you are buying. Look for ones that are specifically labeled \"gluten-free.\" For a longer list, check out www.celiac.com.\n\nMaybe List: Ingredients That May Contain Gluten\n\nAlcohol\n\nArtificial color\n\nBaking powder\n\nBrewer's yeast\n\nChocolate\n\nDextrin\n\nDextrimaltose\n\nDry-roasted nuts\n\nFlavoring and flavor extracts\n\nGlucose syrup\n\nGravy cubes\n\nGround spices\n\nInstant coffee\n\nMaltose\n\nMiso\n\nModified food starch\n\nNon-dairy creamer\n\nOats, oat bran, oat fiber, oat syrup*\n\nRice malt\n\nRice syrup, brown rice syrup**\n\nSeitan\n\nSoba noodles\n\nSoy sauce\n\nStock cubes\n\nTeriyaki sauce\n\nVegetable broth\n\n*Oats do not actually contain gluten, but are often processed in facilities that also process wheat. Look for certified gluten-free oats to ensure they're safe.\n\n**Rice syrup is often processed using barley enzymes. Check with the manufacturer to ensure the brand you use is safe\n\nAnd now for the good news. Here are the exciting grains and starches that are gluten-free! To be sure your grains are not processed in facilities that also process wheat or other unsafe grains, still look for those specifically labeled \"gluten-free.\"\n\nSafe List: Grains That Don't Contain Gluten\n\nAgar-agar\n\nAlmond flour\n\nAmaranth\n\nArrowroot flour or starch\n\nBuckwheat flour\n\nCashew flour\n\nChestnut flour\n\nChickpea\/garbanzo flour\n\nCoconut flour\n\nCornmeal and cornstarch\n\nFlaxseeds\n\nGelatin\n\nMillet flour\n\nOats (if they're certified gluten-free)\n\nPecan flour\n\nPotato flour\n\nPotato starch\n\nQuinoa\n\nRice flour, brown rice flour, sweet rice flour\n\nSorghum\n\nSoy flour\n\nSweet potato\/yam flour\n\nTapioca flour and tapioca starch\n\nTeff flour\n\nXanthan gum\n\nTips for Successful Gluten-Free Baking\n\n\u2022 Use a mix of flours and starches. On page 9 you'll find a basic recipe for a gluten-free quinoa flour mix. Using a variety of flours and starches helps to ensure a nice texture in your finished dessert. Gluten-free flours and starches are fairly easy to find these days in bigger grocery stores, health food stores, or online. If you wish, use a little sweet rice flour in your flour mix\u2014it adds some \"stickiness\" to your batter or dough that is sometimes lacking in gluten-free flours. I recommend brown sweet rice flour (rather than white), since it's a bit more nutritious. (Note: Sweet rice flour is sometimes called \"sweet rice glutinous flour,\" but it doesn't contain any gluten.)\n\n\u2022 Go small. Smaller cakes, muffins, and cookies hang together more easily than really big ones.\n\n\u2022 Add moisture. Applesauce, pumpkin puree, and yogurt add moisture and nutrition to gluten-free baked goods. Using brown sugar instead of white also helps, as does using a little honey, maple syrup, or gluten-free brown rice syrup.\n\n\u2022 Chill your cookie dough. Gluten-free cookie dough tends to spread out a lot. This will happen less if you drop your cookie dough onto the pan and then stick the whole pan in the refrigerator for half an hour or so before baking.\n\n\u2022 Darker baking pans will lead to better browning.\n\n\u2022 Store your baked goods in the refrigerator or freezer to keep them from getting stale.\n\n\u2022 One man's baking disaster is another man's gorgeous trifle. There are plenty of good uses for baked goods that fall apart, including trifles and cake pops!\n\nCookies, Bars, and Candies\n\nNo-bake Carob Cookies\n\nMakes about 2 dozen.\n\nIn a medium saucepan, heat the coconut oil, honey, and carob powder, stirring until fully combined. Remove from heat and add the peanut butter and vanilla, and stir. Add the cooked quinoa and mix until combined.\n\nLine a baking sheet with parchment paper and drop tablespoon-sized dollops of batter onto it. Press the cookies down a little to flatten. Freeze for at least an hour.\n\nPerfect for a hot day when you don't want to turn on the oven but want a sweet treat, these cookies are as healthy as they are delicious. If desired, toss in a half cup of chocolate chips, dried fruit, or coconut flakes to the batter.\n\n4 cups cooked quinoa\n\n\u00bc cup coconut oil\n\n\u00bc cup honey\n\n\u00bd cup unsweetened carob powder\n\n\u00bd cup peanut butter\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla\n\nVegan Pumpkin Brownies\n\nMakes one 9 x 13-inch pan.\n\nPreheat the oven to 350\u02daF. Grease a 9 x 13-inch baking pan. In a medium size mixing bowl, stir together the flours, sugar, cocoa powder, baking powder, and salt. Pour in juice, vegetable oil, pumpkin puree, applesauce, and vanilla. Mix until well blended.\n\nSpread evenly in baking pan. Sprinkle chocolate chips evenly over the top.\n\nBake for 25 to 30 minutes or until the top is no longer shiny. Let cool for at least 10 minutes before cutting into squares.\n\nRich in flavor and low in fat, these brownies will appeal to vegans and non-vegans alike!\n\n1 cup quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n1 cup oat flour\n\n1 cup white sugar\n\n\u00be cup unsweetened cocoa powder\n\n1 teaspoon baking powder\n\n1 teaspoon salt\n\n1 cup fruit juice (apple is great, but any variety will do)\n\n\u00bc cup vegetable oil\n\n1 cup pumpkin puree\n\n\u00bd cup applesauce\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\n1 cup dairy-free chocolate chips\n\nQuinoa Brownies\n\nMakes 16 small brownies.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u02daF and grease an 8 x 8-inch baking dish. Combine all ingredients in a food processor and blend until smooth.\n\nPour into greased pan and bake for 30 to 40 minutes, or until firm on top. Insides will still be a bit gooey. Allow to cool slightly before cutting.\n\nFor variations on these chewy brownies, toss \u00bd cup of chocolate chips, dried fruit, chopped nuts, or dried coconut into the batter.\n\n2 cups cooked quinoa, cooled\n\n\u00be cup sugar\n\n\u00bd cup cocoa powder\n\n1 teaspoon baking powder\n\n\u00bc cup milk\n\n2 tablespoons butter or coconut oil, melted\n\n2 large eggs\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\nMocha Brownies\n\nMakes 16 small brownies.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u02daF and grease an 8 x 8-inch baking dish. Combine all ingredients except coffee granules and chocolate chips in a food processor and blend until smooth. Fold in coffee granules and chocolate chips.\n\nPour into greased pan and bake for 30 to 40 minutes, or until firm on top. Insides will still be a bit gooey. Allow to cool slightly before cutting.\n\n2 cups cooked quinoa, cooled\n\n\u00be cup sugar\n\n\u00bd cup cocoa powder\n\n1 teaspoon baking powder\n\n\u00bc cup milk\n\n2 tablespoons butter or coconut oil, melted\n\n2 large eggs\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\n1 tablespoon instant coffee granules\n\n\u00be cup chocolate chips\n\nAlmond Butter Brownies\n\nMakes 16 small brownies.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u02daF and grease an 8 x 8-inch baking dish. Combine all ingredients in a food processor and blend until smooth.\n\nPour into greased pan. Heat the almond butter in the microwave or on the stovetop to soften. Use a spoon to drizzle the almond butter in stripes across the top of the batter. Cut across the batter perpendicular to the almond butter stripes, creating a swirled pattern. Bake for 30 to 40 minutes, or until firm on top. Insides will still be a bit gooey. Allow to cool slightly before cutting.\n\n2 cups cooked quinoa, cooled\n\n\u00be cup sugar\n\n\u00bd cup cocoa powder\n\n1 teaspoon baking powder\n\n\u00bc cup milk\n\n2 tablespoons butter or coconut oil, melted\n\n2 large eggs\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\n1 cup almond butter\n\nCream Cheese Brownies\n\nMakes 16 small brownies.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u02daF and grease an 8 x 8-inch baking dish. Combine all ingredients except cream cheese in a food processor and blend until smooth.\n\nPour \u00be of batter into greased pan. Spread the softened cream cheese on top and then pour the remaining brownie batter on top. Use a knife to cut back and forth across the batter to create a marbled pattern. Bake for 30 to 40 minutes, or until firm on top. Insides will still be a bit gooey. Allow to cool slightly before cutting.\n\n2 cups cooked quinoa, cooled\n\n\u00be cup sugar\n\n\u00bd cup cocoa powder\n\n1 teaspoon baking powder\n\n\u00bc cup milk\n\n2 tablespoons butter or coconut oil, melted\n\n2 large eggs\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\n4 ounces cream cheese, softened\n\nChocolate Quinoa Crunch\n\nMakes about ten 1-inch square pieces.\n\nLine a cookie sheet with parchment paper, spread quinoa on it, and bake at 350\u02daF for 6 to 8 minutes. You're toasting the quinoa, so remove as soon as it's golden and well before it's blackened.\n\nIn a small saucepan, melt the coconut oil over low heat, add cocoa powder and honey, and stir. When fully combined, pour onto another cookie sheet lined with parchment paper. Sprinkle toasted quinoa and dried cherries evenly over the surface. Place in the freezer for at least ten minutes, or until firm. Break into pieces and enjoy immediately or store in a sealed container in the freezer.\n\nMaking your own chocolate from coconut oil and cocoa powder is surprisingly easy! You can adjust the sweetness by adding more or less honey, and sprinkle whatever nuts, dried fruit, or seeds on top that you like.\n\n\u00bc cup quinoa, raw\n\n5 tablespoons coconut oil\n\n5 tablespoons unsweetened cocoa powder\n\n1 tablespoon honey\n\n\u00bd cup dried cherries (optional)\n\nSalted Quinoa Chocolate Bark with Pistachios\n\nMakes about 6 servings.\n\nLine an 8-inch pan with parchment paper. Mix melted chocolate with cayenne pepper and stir well. Pour chocolate into prepared pan and smooth with a dry spatula. Top with popped or toasted quinoa, pistachios, and sea salt.\n\nChill for 30 minutes, or until set. Remove from pan and break into pieces.\n\nThis recipe comes from Gluten-Free Quintessential Desserts by Wendy Polisi. To pop the quinoa, place coconut oil in a popcorn popper and allow to get warm. Add quinoa and cook about 5 minutes, until quinoa is lightly brown. Alternatively, pop the quinoa in a covered saucepan, shaking to prevent burning.\n\n8 ounces good quality chocolate, melted (such as Green & Black's dark chocolate)\n\n\u215b teaspoon cayenne pepper (optional)\n\n\u00bc cup popped quinoa (see note in box below)\n\n\u00bd cup shelled pistachios, chopped\n\n\u00bc to \u00bd teaspoon sea salt\n\nCranberry Quinoa Cookies\n\nMakes 2 dozen cookies.\n\nPreheat oven to 375\u02daF and grease 2 cookie sheets. Place dried cranberries in a bowl and cover with hot water. Allow to soak while preparing the batter.\n\nCream together the butter, granulated sugar, and brown sugar. Add the eggs, one at a time, beating until mixed. Add vanilla and mix.\n\nIn a separate bowl, whisk together the quinoa flour mix, baking soda, salt, and cinnamon. Add wet batter to the dry ingredients and stir to incorporate. Add quinoa flakes and stir. Drain cranberries and fold into batter.\n\nDrop by tablespoonfuls onto greased cookie sheets. Bake for about 10 minutes or until edges are just barely golden. Remove from oven, allow to cool about two minutes, and then transfer to cooling racks. Store in an airtight container.\n\nQuinoa flakes can be found at many health food stores or online. Whatever you don't use for baking can be cooked just like oatmeal and eaten for breakfast!\n\n1 cup dried cranberries\n\n1 cup butter, softened\n\n1 cup granulated sugar\n\n\u00be cup brown sugar\n\n2 eggs\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\n2\u00bd cups quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n1 teaspoon baking soda\n\n\u00bd teaspoon salt\n\n1\u00bd teaspoons ground cinnamon\n\n3 cups quinoa flakes\n\nEnergy Cookies\n\nMakes 2 dozen cookies.\n\nSoak the dates in hot water for about 5 minutes and then drain. Preheat oven to 375\u02daF and line 2 baking sheets with parchment paper.\n\nIn the bowl of a food processor, process the dates until they become nearly paste. Add the peanut butter, chickpeas, flax seeds, milk, and vanilla, and process until smooth. Add the quinoa flour mix and baking soda and process just until mixed. Stir in chocolate chips.\n\nDrop by tablespoonful onto cookie sheets and press down lightly with the back of a fork. Cookies will not spread, so they can be placed close together on the sheet. Bake for about 10 minutes, or until edges are lightly browned.\n\nThese cookies came about one morning when I was feeling particularly sluggish and wanted a pick-me-up that wouldn't pull me down with a sugar crash later. Full of protein and sweetened only with dates, they were just what I needed.\n\n1 cup dried and pitted dates\n\n\u00bd cup peanut butter\n\n1 can chickpeas, drained and rinsed\n\n1 tablespoon ground flax seeds\n\n\u2153 cup milk (I used almond milk)\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\n\u00bd teaspoon baking soda\n\n1 cup quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n\u00bd cup dark chocolate chips (optional)\n\nQuinoa Chocolate Truffles\n\nMakes about 35 truffles.\n\nLine a cookie sheet with parchment paper, spread quinoa on it, and bake at 350\u02daF for 6 to 8 minutes. The goal is to toast the quinoa, so remove as soon as it's golden and well before it's blackened.\n\nPlace the chocolate pieces in a medium-size mixing bowl. In a small saucepan, heat the cream until it begins to simmer, and then pour over the chocolate. Add the vanilla and stir until the mixture becomes smooth. Add toasted quinoa, mix, and refrigerate for about 2 hours.\n\nLine a baking sheet with parchment paper. Remove the ganache mixture from the refrigerator. Scoop out small spoonfuls of the ganache and then roll between your palms to form smooth balls. Place on the lined baking sheet and refrigerate for another 30 minutes.\n\nStore in the refrigerator in an airtight container.\n\n\u00bc cup quinoa, raw\n\n12 ounces semisweet or dark chocolate, chopped into small pieces\n\n\u00bd cup heavy cream\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\nHazelnut Rocher Truffles\n\nMakes about 50 truffles.\n\nLine a cookie sheet with parchment paper, spread quinoa on it, and bake at 350\u02daF for 6 to 8 minutes. The goal is to toast the quinoa, so remove as soon as it's golden and well before it's blackened.\n\nIn a food processor, pulverize the hazelnuts. Add the Nutella and liqueur and pulse until mixed. Add toasted quinoa and pulse a few more times until mixed.\n\nRefrigerate mixture for about 20 minutes. When firm enough to handle, form into bite-size balls. Place on a baking sheet lined with parchment paper and freeze for 10 to 15 minutes.\n\nIn a double boiler, melt the chocolate. Dip each ball in the chocolate and set on the lined tray to set. Refrigerate another 10 minutes or so before serving. Store in the refrigerator.\n\n1 cup quinoa, raw\n\n2 cups toasted hazelnuts\n\n1 cup Nutella\n\n\u00bc cup hazelnut liqueur (optional)\n\n8 ounces dark chocolate, chopped\n\nCrunchy Mocha Fudge\n\nMakes about 16 squares.\n\nLine a cookie sheet with parchment paper, spread quinoa on it, and bake at 350\u02daF for 6 to 8 minutes. The goal is to toast the quinoa, so remove as soon as it's golden and well before it's blackened.\n\nGrease an 8 x 8-inch baking pan.\n\nIn a medium saucepan, heat sweetened condensed milk and chocolate chips. Stir and heat until mixture becomes smooth. Remove from heat and add vanilla, instant coffee granules, and toasted quinoa.\n\nPour into pan and allow to cool until set. Slice into 1-inch squares.\n\n\u00bc cup quinoa, raw\n\n1 (14-ounce) can sweetened condensed milk\n\n12 ounces semisweet chocolate chips\n\n\u00bd teaspoon vanilla extract\n\n1 teaspoon instant coffee granules\n\nChocolate Peanut Butter Cups\n\nMakes about 2 dozen candies.\n\nLine a cookie sheet with parchment paper, spread quinoa on it, and bake at 350\u02daF for 6 to 8 minutes. The goal is to toast the quinoa, so remove as soon as it's golden and well before it's blackened.\n\nMix together the peanut butter and softened butter until smooth. Add the confectioners' sugar and salt and mix. Add toasted quinoa and mix to distribute.\n\nMelt the chocolate in a double boiler or in the microwave. Remove from heat and use a teaspoon to drop a little melted chocolate in the bottom of each candy cup. Use the brush to \"paint\" the inside sides of the cups with chocolate.\n\nScoop a little of the peanut butter mixture into each cup, and then top with more melted chocolate. Refrigerate until set.\n\nPeanut butter cups are my favorite candy, and these are even better than the store-bought varieties! The toasted quinoa adds a delightful crunch.\n\n\u00bd cup quinoa, raw\n\n\u00be cup smooth peanut butter\n\n3 tablespoons unsalted butter, room temperature\n\n\u00bd cup confectioners' sugar\n\n\u00bc teaspoon salt\n\n12 ounces chocolate, chopped\n\n24 foil candy cups\n\nPastry brush\n\nPecan Quinoa Toffee\n\nMakes about 1\u00be pounds.\n\nLine a cookie sheet with parchment paper, spread quinoa on it, and bake at 350\u02daF for 6 to 8 minutes. The goal is to toast the quinoa, so remove as soon as it's golden and well before it's blackened.\n\nLine a baking sheet with aluminum foil and lightly grease the foil with oil. Spread 1\u00bd cups pecan pieces evenly over the foil.\n\nCombine sugar, butter, water, and salt in a medium saucepan and cook over medium heat, stirring regularly. When mixture begins to boil, insert candy thermometer.\n\nWhen mixture reaches 300\u02daF (hard crack stage), pour over the pecan pieces. Sprinkle remaining pecan pieces, toasted quinoa, and chocolate pieces over the top. Allow to cool and then break into pieces.\n\n\u00bd cup quinoa, raw\n\n2 cups pecans, chopped\n\n1 cup sugar\n\n1 cup butter, cut into tablespoons\n\n\u00bd teaspoon salt\n\n\u00bc cup water\n\n6 ounces chocolate, finely chopped\n\nQuinoa Cracker Jacks\n\nMakes 20 cups.\n\nPreheat oven to 250\u02daF.\n\nLine a cookie sheet with parchment paper, spread quinoa on it, and bake at 350\u02daF for 6 to 8 minutes. The goal is to toast the quinoa, so remove as soon as it's golden and well before it's blackened.\n\nPour popcorn onto the baking sheet with the toasted quinoa and cranberries or cherries. Stir with a spatula to distribute.\n\nIn a medium saucepan over medium heat, melt butter. Add brown sugar, water, and salt. When the mixture begins to bubble, set a timer and boil for 5 minutes without stirring.\n\nRemove from heat, add baking soda and vanilla, and stir until the mixture foams. Pour the mixture over the popcorn in a thin stream, stirring with a wooden spoon to coat.\n\nBake for 1 hour, stirring every 15 minutes. Store up to a month in an airtight container.\n\n1 cup quinoa, raw\n\n6 quarts popped popcorn (1 cup unpopped)\n\n1 cup dried cranberries or cherries (optional)\n\n1 cup butter\n\n2 cups packed brown sugar\n\n1 cup water\n\n1 teaspoon salt\n\n1 teaspoon baking soda\n\n2 teaspoons vanilla extract\n\nMaple Quinoa Nut Brittle\n\nMakes about 2 pounds of brittle.\n\nLine a cookie sheet with parchment paper, spread quinoa on it, and bake at 350\u02daF for 6 to 8 minutes. The goal is to toast the quinoa, so remove as soon as it's golden and well before it's blackened. Once toasted, pour quinoa into a separate dish. Remove parchment paper from cookie sheet and grease sheet thoroughly.\n\nIn a medium saucepan, heat the sugar, water, and maple syrup. Continue at a slow boil, stirring gently, until mixture reaches 245\u02daF. Add the nuts and stir.\n\nWhen the mixture reaches 300\u02daF, add the baking soda, stir, and remove from heat. Mixture will foam, so be careful.\n\nPour onto the greased pan and use a wooden spoon or spatula to spread the mixture. Sprinkle toasted quinoa evenly over the top. Cool completely before breaking into pieces.\n\nBrittles are easy to make, but have all your ingredients ready before you start because you can't waste any time between steps. If you find that your brittle isn't hardening, you can scoop it up, return it to the saucepan, and reheat it\u2014chances are you didn't cook it quite long enough the first time.\n\n\u00bd cup quinoa, raw\n\n2 cups roasted and salted nuts (peanuts, pecans, or walnuts)\n\n2 cups sugar\n\n\u00bd cup water\n\n1 cup maple syrup\n\n1 teaspoon baking soda\n\nCandy-Coated Nuts\n\nMakes 4 cups.\n\nLine a cookie sheet with parchment paper, spread quinoa on it, and bake at 350\u02daF for 6 to 8 minutes. The goal is to toast the quinoa, so remove as soon as it's golden and well before it's blackened. Once toasted, pour quinoa into a separate dish. Remove parchment paper from cookie sheet and grease sheet thoroughly.\n\nPreheat oven to 275\u02daF. Beat egg whites until stiff, add granulated sugar, brown sugar, vanilla, cinnamon, and salt and continue to beat for about a minute.\n\nCombine mixture with nuts and toss to coat the nuts. Spread the nuts on the greased cookie sheet and bake for about 45 minutes, stirring every 15 minutes. Remove from oven and immediately pour into a bowl, add the toasted quinoa, and toss to coat. Store in an airtight container.\n\n\u00bd cup quinoa, raw\n\n2 egg whites\n\n\u00bd cup granulated sugar\n\n\u00bd cup brown sugar\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\n1 teaspoon cinnamon\n\n\u00bd teaspoon salt\n\n4 cups raw pecan halves, peanuts, or cashews\n\nQuinoa Halvah\n\nMakes about 2 pounds.\n\nLine a cookie sheet with parchment paper, spread quinoa on it, and bake at 350\u02daF for 6 to 8 minutes. The goal is to toast the quinoa, so remove as soon as it's golden and well before it's blackened.\n\nLightly grease a 6-cup mold or cake pan.\n\nBeat or stir the tahini to incorporate the oil into the sesame paste. In a medium saucepan over low heat, bring the honey to a simmer. Insert candy thermometer and heat to 240\u02daF (soft ball stage).\n\nRemove from heat and allow to cool to 120\u02daF. Add the vanilla, nuts, and toasted quinoa and then the tahini and stir gently.\n\nPour into the greased pan, cover with plastic, and refrigerate for 24 to 36 hours.\n\n\u00bd cup quinoa, raw\n\n2 cups honey\n\n1\u00bd cups tahini\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\n1 cup nuts (almonds, pistachios, or hazelnuts), peeled and lightly toasted\n\nDried Cherry and Chocolate Balls\n\nMakes about 2 dozen balls.\n\nLine a cookie sheet with parchment paper, spread quinoa on it, and bake at 350\u02daF for 6 to 8 minutes. The goal is to toast the quinoa, so remove as soon as it's golden and well before it's blackened.\n\nCombine cherries, almond butter, honey, and coconut oil in a food processor and pulse until chopped and combined. Scoop into a large mixing bowl, add toasted quinoa, and mix. Roll mixture into 1-inch balls and set on the lined baking sheet. Refrigerate for about 30 minutes.\n\nMelt chocolate in a double boiler. Dip each ball in the chocolate and return to the baking sheet. Refrigerate for about 30 minutes. Store in airtight container in refrigerator about 2 weeks.\n\nModify this recipe to your own palate by adding other dried fruits or nuts!\n\n1 cup quinoa, raw\n\n1 cup dried cherries\n\n\u00bd cup almond butter\n\n3 tablespoons honey\n\n3 tablespoons coconut oil\n\n8 ounces bittersweet chocolate, chopped\n\nSugar Plums\n\nMakes about 1\u00bd cups of sugar plums.\n\nLine a cookie sheet with parchment paper, spread quinoa on it, and bake at 350\u02daF for 6 to 8 minutes. The goal is to toast the quinoa, so remove as soon as it's golden and well before it's blackened.\n\nIn a food processor, pulse together the dried fruit and nuts. Add the toasted quinoa and other remaining ingredients (except for the sugar) and pulse until mixture starts to clump together.\n\nRoll the dough into small balls and roll in the sugar. Store in an airtight container between layers of waxed paper for up to a month.\n\n\u00bd cup quinoa, raw\n\n\u00bc cup almonds, hazelnuts, or walnuts (or a mix)\n\n\u00be cup Medjool dates, prunes, dried cranberries, or raisins (or a mix)\n\n1 tablespoon honey\n\n3 tablespoons nut butter (almond, peanut, or cashew)\n\n\u215b teaspoon almond extract\n\n\u215b teaspoon vanilla extract\n\n\u00bd teaspoon cinnamon\n\n\u215b teaspoon cloves\n\n\u00bd cup raw, coarse sugar or coconut sugar\n\nQuinoa Date Snowballs\n\nMakes 16 servings.\n\nPlace coconut in a shallow dish. In a food processor combine dates, quinoa, almonds, sugar, cinnamon, vanilla, and sea salt. Process until smooth.\n\nForm into very small balls, about \u00bd teaspoon in size. Roll the balls in the coconut, pressing to coat as needed.\n\nThis recipe comes from Gluten-Free Quintessential Desserts by Wendy Polisi.\n\n3 tablespoons unsweetened shredded coconut\n\n5 ounces pitted dried dates\n\n\u00bd cup cooked quinoa\n\n\u00bc cup raw almonds\n\n1 tablespoon coconut sugar (optional)\n\n\u00bd teaspoon cinnamon\n\n\u00bd teaspoon vanilla extract\n\n\u215b teaspoon sea salt\n\nChocolate Quinoa Apple Wedges\n\nMakes 8 servings.\n\nLine a baking sheet with parchment or wax paper.\n\nCombine lemon juice and water and add apple wedges. Toss to coat and set aside.\n\nHeat coconut oil over medium heat. Add quinoa, oats, and coconut sugar. Toast, stirring frequently for 5 to 7 minutes or until quinoa is golden brown. Place in a shallow dish and allow to cool slightly.\n\nPlace chocolate in the top of a double boiler over low heat. Stir until melted, making sure that no water reaches the chocolate.\n\nDrain apple wedges on a paper towel. Carefully dip apple wedges in chocolate, holding from the skin side. Alternately, you may use a spoon to spread the chocolate over the wedges, holding over the boiler to allow any excess to drip back. Place on the prepared baking sheet and sprinkle with quinoa mixture, pressing lightly so that it adheres. Refrigerate for 20 minutes, or until set. Store in the refrigerator.\n\nThis recipe comes from Gluten-Free Quintessential Desserts by Wendy Polisi.\n\n1 tablespoon lemon juice\n\n1 cup water\n\n2 large apples, cut into wedges\n\n1 tablespoon coconut oil\n\n\u00bc cup quinoa, raw\n\n\u00bc cup regular or gluten-free oats\n\n1 tablespoon coconut sugar\n\n6 ounces chocolate, chopped fine\n\nBlondies\n\nMakes one 8 x 8-inch pan.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u02daF and grease an 8 x 8-inch pan.\n\nIf using toasted quinoa, line a cookie sheet with parchment paper, spread quinoa on it, and bake at 350\u02daF for 6 to 8 minutes.\n\nBeat together the butter and brown sugar until fluffy. Add egg and vanilla and beat until combined. Add flour and salt and stir to combine before folding in chocolate chips, raisins, or toasted quinoa (if using).\n\nPour into greased pan and bake for 20 to 25 minutes, or until set in the middle.\n\nBlondies are one of the most versatile bar cookies you can make. Go wild with nut, fruit, or flavoring additions!\n\n\u00bc cup quinoa, raw (optional)\n\n\u00bd cup (1 stick) unsalted butter, softened\n\n\u00be cup brown sugar\n\n1 egg\n\n2 teaspoons vanilla extract\n\n\u215b teaspoon salt\n\n1 cup quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n1 cup semisweet chocolate chips\n\n\u00bd cup raisins or other dried fruit (optional)\n\nRaspberry Bar Cookies\n\nMakes one 8 x 8-inch pan.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u02daF and line an 8 x 8-inch pan with parchment paper.\n\nIn a medium mixing bowl, combine brown sugar, flour, baking soda, salt, and quinoa flakes or rolled oats. Add the softened butter and mix together with your fingers or two forks, until mixture resembles coarse crumbs.\n\nPress 2 cups of the crumbly mixture into the bottom of the lined pan. Spread the jam over top and then distribute the remaining crumbly mixture evenly over the top.\n\nBake for 35 to 40 minutes or until topping is lightly browned. Remove from oven, cool, and then cut into squares.\n\n\u00bd cup light brown sugar\n\n1 cup quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n\u00bc teaspoon baking soda\n\n\u215b teaspoon salt\n\n1 cup quinoa flakes or rolled oats\n\n\u00bd cup butter, softened\n\n\u00be cup raspberry jam\n\nCoconut Florentine Lace Cookies\n\nMakes 2 dozen cookies.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u02daF. Line 2 rimmed cookie sheets with foil. Grease foil and set aside.\n\nIn a medium saucepan, combine sugar, butter, coconut milk, and agave nectar. Cook over low heat for about 5 minutes or until sugar is dissolved, stirring near constantly.\n\nBring to a boil. To prevent sugar from crystallizing, brush down sides of saucepan with a wet pastry brush. Cook until thermometer registers 238\u02daF. Remove from heat and immediately stir in quinoa flakes, quinoa, almonds, coconut, flour, lemon peel, and vanilla extract.\n\nDrop by the tablespoon on prepared pans. (Keep about 3 inches apart.) With a fork dipped in cold water, flatten the cookies. Bake for 5 minutes. Switch racks and bake for 3 to 5 minutes longer.\n\nCool on baking sheets and then lift from foil. Place on a large sheet of parchment paper.\n\nPlace chocolate in the top of a double boiler and melt over simmering water. Stir in cayenne pepper. Drizzle cookies with chocolate and let sit until chocolate has set.\n\nThis recipe comes from Gluten-Free Quintessential Desserts by Wendy Polisi.\n\n\u00be cup coconut sugar\n\n\u00bd cup Earth Balance or butter\n\n\u2153 cup canned coconut milk\n\n2 tablespoons agave nectar or maple syrup\n\n\u00bd cup quinoa flakes\n\n\u00bd cup cooked quinoa\n\n1 cup finely chopped almonds\n\n\u00bd cup shredded unsweetened coconut\n\n3 tablespoons quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n\u00bd teaspoon grated lemon peel\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\nCHOCOLATE DRIZZLE (optional)\n\n\u215b teaspoon cayenne pepper (optional)\n\n4 ounces dark chocolate\n\nApple Granola Bars\n\nMakes 18 bars.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u02daF. Combine quinoa flakes, oats, almonds, and sunflower seeds and place on a rimmed, parchment-lined baking sheet. Bake for 15 minutes, stirring halfway through.\n\nMove to a large bowl and stir in quinoa flour, flax seeds, dried apples, and coconut.\n\nMelt almond butter and coconut oil in a medium saucepan. Stir in honey and applesauce and cook on medium for 2 minutes. Stir in egg, vanilla, cinnamon, and sea salt.\n\nPrepare baking sheet by covering it with parchment paper and spraying the parchment lightly with cooking spray. Press quinoa\/oat mixture onto baking sheet and bake for 15 to 18 minutes, until edges are brown. Cool on a wire rack and cut into bars. Store in an airtight container.\n\nThis recipe comes from Gluten-Free Quintessential Desserts by Wendy Polisi.\n\n2 cups quinoa flakes\n\n1 cup gluten-free oats\n\n1 cup almonds, chopped\n\n\u00bd cup raw sunflower seeds\n\n1 egg\n\n\u00bd cup roasted quinoa flour (see page 8)\n\n\u00bc cup ground flax seeds\n\n\u00bd cup dried apples, chopped\n\n\u00bd cup coconut flakes\n\n\u00bd cup almond butter\n\n\u2154 cup coconut oil\n\n\u2154 cup honey or agave nectar\n\n\u00bd cup applesauce\n\n2 teaspoons vanilla extract\n\n1 teaspoon ground cinnamon\n\n\u00bc teaspoon sea salt\n\nQuinoa Power Bars\n\nMakes 12 bars.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u02daF. Line a rimmed baking sheet with parchment paper. Toss the quinoa flakes, cashews, and sunflower seeds and toast for 25 to 30 minutes, stirring occasionally.\n\nPlace in a large bowl and allow to cool slightly. Add in flax seeds, chia seeds, dried cherries, and chocolate chips.\n\nIn a small saucepan melt coconut oil. Add almond butter, applesauce, and maple syrup. Bring to a boil and lower heat to medium low. Cook for 3 minutes and stir in vanilla and sea salt. Pour mixture over dry ingredients and stir.\n\nTransfer mixture to a rimmed baking sheet lined with parchment paper and press into a rectangle. Bake for 10 minutes. Allow to cool and then place into refrigerator until firm. Cut into desired shape. Drizzle with chocolate if desired.\n\nThis recipe comes from Gluten-Free Quintessential Desserts by Wendy Polisi.\n\n2 cups quinoa flakes\n\n1 cup chopped cashews\n\n\u00bd cup raw sunflower seeds\n\n\u2153 cup ground flax seeds\n\n\u2153 cup chia seeds\n\n\u00be cup dried cherries, chopped\n\n\u00bd cup carob or chocolate chips\n\n2 tablespoons coconut oil\n\n2 tablespoons almond butter\n\n\u00bd cup unsweetened applesauce\n\n\u2154 cup maple syrup\n\n2 teaspoons vanilla extract\n\n\u00bd teaspoon sea salt\n\nOptional: melted chocolate, for drizzling\n\nLemon Bars\n\nMakes one 9 x 13-inch pan.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u02daF. Grease a 9 x 13-inch baking pan.\n\nIn a medium mixing bowl, combine the butter, 2 cups quinoa flour mix, and \u00bd cup sugar. Press mixture into the bottom of the baking pan and bake for about 15 minutes and remove from oven.\n\nIn a separate bowl, beat together the eggs, lemon juice, remaining 1\u00bd cups sugar, and \u00bc cup quinoa flour mix. Pour over the partially baked crust and bake for another 20 minutes. Remove from oven and allow bars to cool to firm up before cutting into squares.\n\n1 cup butter, softened\n\n2 cups white sugar, divided\n\n2\u00bc cups quinoa flour mix, divided (page 9)\n\n4 eggs\n\nJuice from 2 lemons\n\nGranola Bars\n\nMakes one 9 x 11-inch pan.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u02daF and line a 9 x 11-inch pan with parchment paper.\n\nCombine quinoa flakes, almonds, salt, cherries or raisins, and flax seeds in a large bowl.\n\nIn a small saucepan over low heat, combine coconut oil, honey, maple syrup, and almond or cashew butter, and stir until melted and combined. Pour over quinoa flake mixture and stir to coat.\n\nPress mixture evenly into the bottom of the pan and bake for 25 to 30 minutes or until edges begin to brown.\n\n2 cups quinoa flakes\n\n1 cup sliced almonds\n\n\u00bc teaspoon salt\n\n1 cup dried cherries or raisins\n\n\u00bd cup flax seeds\n\n\u00bc cup coconut oil\n\n\u00bd cup honey\n\n\u00bc cup maple syrup\n\n\u2153 cup almond or cashew butter\n\n2 teaspoons vanilla extract\n\nEnglish Tea Squares\n\nMakes one 8 x 8-inch pan.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u02daF and grease an 8 x 8-inch pan.\n\nIn a medium bowl, beat together the butter and sugar until fluffy. Add egg and vanilla and beat until combined.\n\nAdd the quinoa flour mix and ground allspice and stir to combine. Fold in the chopped nuts.\n\nPour half the mixture into the greased pan, spread jam over top, and then add remaining batter in an even layer on top.\n\nBake about 40 minutes or until top is golden. Remove from oven and cool before cutting into squares.\n\n\u00be cup butter, softened\n\n1 cup granulated sugar\n\n1 egg\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\n2 cups quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n\u00bc teaspoon ground allspice\n\n1 cup chopped almonds or walnuts\n\n\u00bd cup strawberry jam\n\nDate Sandwich Bars\n\nMakes one 9 x 13-inch pan.\n\nPreheat oven to 400\u02daF and grease a 9 x 13-inch pan.\n\nIn a medium saucepan, combine granulated sugar, dates, and water and simmer several minutes until mixture thickens. Remove from heat.\n\nIn a mixing bowl, beat together the butter and brown sugar until fluffy.\n\nIn a separate bowl, whisk together the quinoa flour mix, baking soda, and salt. Add to the butter and brown sugar mixture and stir to combine. Fold in the quinoa flakes or oats.\n\nSpread half the batter in the greased pan and then spread the date mixture evenly over the top. Add the remaining batter on top and then bake 25 to 30 minutes or until just barely golden.\n\nDates are naturally very sweet, so, depending on how sweet you like your bar cookies, you may reduce the brown sugar to as little as \u00bd cup.\n\n\u00bc cup granulated sugar\n\n3 cups pitted and chopped dates\n\n1\u00bd cups water\n\n\u00be cup butter, softened\n\n1 cup brown sugar\n\n1\u00be cup quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n\u00bd teaspoon baking soda\n\n1 teaspoon salt\n\n1\u00bd cups quinoa flakes or oats\n\nChocolate Chip Quinoa Cookies\n\nMakes 2 dozen cookies.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u02daF. Line a baking sheet with parchment paper.\n\nIn a large bowl combine almond meal, quinoa flakes, baking soda, and salt and stir until well combined. In a separate bowl, combine eggs, almond butter, applesauce, maple syrup, and vanilla. Mix well and add to the quinoa and almond mixture slowly. Add in chocolate chips.\n\nUsing a tablespoon measure, drop cookies onto prepared parchment paper. Flatten slightly with clean fingers. Bake for 12 to 15 minutes, until lightly golden brown. Remove from oven and allow to sit in the pan for 5 minutes. Move to a cooling rack and allow to cool completely.\n\nThis recipe comes from Gluten-Free Quintessential Desserts by Wendy Polisi.\n\n2 eggs\n\n1\u00bc cups almond meal\n\n1 cup quinoa flakes\n\n\u00be teaspoon baking soda\n\n\u00be teaspoon salt\n\n\u00bd cup almond butter (peanut or sunflower seed butter would work too)\n\n\u00bc cup applesauce\n\n\u00bc cup maple syrup (or other liquid sweetener)\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\n\u00be cup chocolate chips\n\nFlourless Chocolate Quinoa Cookies\n\nMakes 1 dozen cookies.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u02daF. Line a baking sheet with parchment paper.\n\nIn a food processor combine almonds and quinoa. Process for 1 minute, or until you have a fine meal. Add baking soda and salt and process until blended.\n\nHeat a small saucepan to medium low and add almond butter and coconut oil. Cook until coconut oil and almond butter are melted, whisking occasionally. Add in applesauce and maple syrup and whisk until heated through. Remove from heat and stir in vanilla and eggs.\n\nAdd the warm almond butter mixture to your food processor and process until a dough has formed. Immediately add in the chocolate chips and process until chocolate is melted and blended, stopping to scrape down the sides as necessary.\n\nRoll the dough into small balls and flatten with your fingers. (You could also use a fork.) Bake for 12 to 15 minutes. Allow to cool for 5 minutes in the pan and then transfer to a wire rack to cool completely.\n\nThis recipe comes from Gluten-Free Quintessential Desserts by Wendy Polisi.\n\n1 cup blanched almonds\n\n1 cup cooked quinoa\n\n\u00be teaspoon baking soda\n\n\u00be teaspoon salt\n\n\u2153 cup almond butter\n\n1 tablespoon coconut oil\n\n\u00bc cup applesauce\n\n\u00bc cup maple syrup\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\n2 eggs\n\n\u00be cup chocolate chips\n\nQuinoa-Flax Chocolate Chip Cookies\n\nMakes 2 dozen cookies.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u02daF. Line 2 baking sheets with parchment paper.\n\nIn a medium bowl combine flour, quinoa flakes, flaxseed, baking soda, sea salt, and ground cinnamon.\n\nBeat together the butter, applesauce, and sugars on medium high speed until fluffy, about 3 or 4 minutes. Add eggs, one at a time, ensuring the first is fully incorporated before adding the next. Add vanilla and reduce the speed to low. Add in flour mixture and beat until just combined. Stir in chocolate chips.\n\nDrop in teaspoonfuls onto prepared baking sheets. Bake for 9 to 11 minutes. Remove from oven and let the cookies cool for 4 minutes on the baking sheets and then transfer to racks to cool completely.\n\nThis recipe comes from Gluten-Free Quintessential Desserts by Wendy Polisi.\n\n1\u00bd cups quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n1 cup quinoa flakes\n\n\u00bc cup ground flaxseed\n\n1 teaspoon baking soda\n\n1 teaspoon sea salt\n\n\u00bd teaspoon ground cinnamon\n\n1 stick unsalted butter or coconut oil, softened\n\n\u00bd cup applesauce\n\n1 cup coconut sugar (or sugar of choice)\n\n\u00bd cup packed dark brown sugar\n\n2 large eggs\n\n1\u00bd teaspoons vanilla extract\n\n1 cup semisweet chocolate chips\n\nChocolate Mint Ice Cream Sandwiches\n\nMakes 8 ice cream sandwiches.\n\nPlace chocolate chips and coconut oil in the top of a double boiler. (A metal bowl on top of a sauce pan works too.) Melt over medium low until smooth. Remove from heat and allow to cool.\n\nMeanwhile, sift together flour, cocoa powder, baking powder, and salt.\n\nIn the bowl of an electric mixer, combine the sugar, applesauce, eggs, mint extract, and vanilla. Beat for 2 \u00bd minutes on medium speed. Reduce speed to low and add the chocolate. Add flour mixture until just combined. Transfer mixture to a bowl and refrigerate for (at least) 1 hour.\n\nLine 2 baking sheets with parchment paper. Preheat oven to 325\u02daF. Form 16 balls with the cookie dough. Divide the balls between the 2 cookie sheets and flatten slightly. Bake for 15 minutes, rotating the trays halfway through. Let cool for 5 minutes on the pan and then transfer to a wire rack to cool completely.\n\nAllow the ice cream to soften and then spread onto the flat side of one of the cookies. Top with another cookie and wrap with parchment paper, wax paper, or plastic wrap. Freeze for 1 hour, or until firm.\n\nThis recipe comes from Gluten-Free Quintessential Desserts by Wendy Polisi.\n\n1 cup semisweet chocolate chips\n\n\u2153 cup coconut oil\n\n1 cup quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n3 tablespoons unsweetened cocoa powder\n\n\u00be teaspoon baking powder\n\n\u00bc teaspoon sea salt\n\n\u00bd cup coconut sugar\n\n\u00bc cup applesauce\n\n2 eggs, at room temperature\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\n\u00bd teaspoon mint extract\n\nMint chocolate chip or vanilla ice cream\n\nChocolate Mint Cookies\n\nMakes 2 dozen cookies.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u02daF. Line a baking sheet with parchment paper.\n\nPlace 2 ounces of chocolate chips and cooked quinoa into a food processor. Process until smooth.\n\nSift together flour, cocoa powder, palm sugar, baking powder, baking soda, and sea salt. Stir in quinoa mixture.\n\nIn a separate bowl combine coconut oil, maple syrup, applesauce, vanilla extract, and mint extract. Whisk until well combined and add to dry ingredients. Stir until just mixed and add in remaining 2 ounces of chocolate chips.\n\nDrop by the tablespoon to prepared baking sheet. Using a wet spoon, flatten the tops of the cookies. Bake for 12 to 18 minutes. Allow to cool for 5 minutes in the pan and then transfer to a rack to cool completely. If desired, top with mint drizzle.\n\nTo make mint drizzle combine all ingredients in a small bowl. Add additional milk by the teaspoon until desired texture is reached. Drizzle with a spoon onto cooled cookies. Alternatively, place icing in a small plastic bag and cut the corner to create an icing bag.\n\nThis recipe comes from Gluten-Free Quintessential Desserts by Wendy Polisi.\n\n4 ounces chocolate chips, divided\n\n\u00bd cup cooked quinoa\n\n1 cup quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n\u00bc cup cocoa powder\n\n\u00bc cup coconut sugar\n\n1 teaspoon baking powder\n\n\u00bd teaspoon baking soda\n\n\u00bc teaspoon sea salt\n\n\u00bc cup coconut oil, melted\n\n\u2153 cup maple syrup\n\n\u00bc cup applesauce\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\n\u00bd teaspoon mint extract\n\nMINT DRIZZLE (optional)\n\n\u00bd cup confectioners' sugar\n\n\u00bd tablespoon almond milk\n\n\u00bd teaspoon mint extract\n\nCherry and Dark Chocolate Biscotti\n\nMakes about 1 dozen biscotti.\n\nHeat oven to 350\u02daF and grease a baking sheet. In a medium mixing bowl, whisk together the first seven ingredients. In a separate bowl, whisk the two eggs. Place 2 tablespoons of the eggs into a separate dish and set aside. Whisk the olive oil and vanilla into the remaining eggs.\n\nPour egg, oil, and vanilla mixture into the dry mixture and stir to combine. Fold in the dried cherries and chocolate chips.\n\nDust a surface with quinoa flour mix and roll out the dough to about \u00bd inch thickness. Use hands to shape it into a rectangle. Brush with the remaining egg and sprinkle with sliced almonds.\n\nBake for about 30 minutes, or until top begins to brown. Remove from oven, reduce heat to 250\u02daF, and allow biscotti to cool for about 15 minutes. Transfer biscotti to a cutting board and use a serrated knife to slice into \u00bd-inch wide strips. Place strips cut-side down on baking sheet and return to oven. Bake for 20 minutes, turn biscotti over, and bake another 20 minutes. Transfer biscotti to a wire rack to cool. Store in an airtight container.\n\n\u00be cup oat flour\n\n\u00be cup quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n\u00bd teaspoon xanthan gum\n\n\u00bd cup brown sugar\n\n\u215b teaspoon salt\n\n1\u00bd teaspoons baking powder\n\n\u00bd teaspoon cinnamon\n\n2 eggs\n\n2\u00bd tablespoons olive oil\n\n2 teaspoons vanilla extract\n\n\u00bd cup dried cherries\n\n\u00bc cup dark chocolate chips\n\n\u00bc cup sliced almonds\n\nAlmond-Orange Biscotti\n\nMakes 2 dozen biscotti.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u02daF. Line a baking sheet with parchment paper.\n\nIn a medium bowl sift together flour, baking powder, and salt. Stir in cooked quinoa.\n\nIn a large bowl, beat maple syrup and butter at medium until creamy. Add eggs slowly, scraping down the sides as needed. Add in vanilla, almond extract, and coconut oil.\n\nReduce mixer to low and add in flour mixture just until combined. Add in almonds and orange zest.\n\nUse floured hands and shape dough into a loaf on parchment-lined baking sheet. Pat the loaf flat on top and smooth with the back of a spoon that had been dipped in cold water. Bake for 35 minutes and remove from oven. Allow to cool on the baking sheet. Reduce oven temperature to 325\u02daF.\n\nUse a serrated knife to cut loaf into \u00bd-inch slices lengthwise. Cut lengths to about 2 \u00bd to 3 inches long. Place the slices on the baking sheet and bake for 20 to 25 minutes, flipping after 10 minutes. Allow to cool on a wire rack for 1 hour prior to serving.\n\nThis recipe comes from Gluten-Free Quintessential Desserts by Wendy Polisi.\n\n2 cups quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n1 teaspoon baking powder\n\n\u00bc teaspoon salt\n\n\u00bd cup cooked quinoa\n\n\u2154 cup maple syrup\n\n4 tablespoons Earth Balance or unsalted butter, softened slightly\n\n3 room-temperature eggs\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\n\u00bd teaspoon almond extract\n\n2 tablespoons melted coconut oil\n\n2 teaspoons orange zest\n\n\u00be cup toasted almonds, chopped\n\nQuinoa Applesauce Cookies\n\nMakes 5 dozen cookies.\n\nPreheat oven to 325\u02daF. Grease a cookie sheet.\n\nIn a food processor, process sugar and butter until fluffy. Add applesauce, cooked quinoa, and vanilla and process until smooth.\n\nIn a large mixing bowl, combine quinoa flour mix, baking soda, salt, cinnamon, and cloves. Add batter from the food processor to your dry mix and stir to combine. Fold in raisins.\n\nBake for 10 to 12 minutes, or until the edges begin to brown. Remove from oven and allow to cool for a few minutes before transferring cookies to a wire rack.\n\n\u00be cup brown sugar or coconut sugar\n\n\u00be cup butter, softened\n\n1 cup applesauce\n\n1 cup quinoa, cooked\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\n1\u00bd cups quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n\u00bd teaspoon baking soda\n\n\u00bd teaspoon salt\n\n1 teaspoon cinnamon\n\n\u00bc teaspoon cloves\n\n1 cup raisins (optional)\nCakes and Cupcakes\nBoston Cream Pie\n\nMakes one 9-inch round cake.\n\nPreheat oven to 375\u02daF. Grease two 9-inch cake pans and dust lightly with gluten-free flour. Beat together the butter and sugar until light and fluffy. Add the vanilla and the eggs, beating after each egg.\n\nIn a separate bowl, whisk together the quinoa flour mix, baking powder, and salt. Add to the wet batter alternately with the milk, beating continuously. Divide batter between cake pans and bake for about 25 minutes or until a toothpick inserted into the middle comes out clean. Remove from oven and allow to cool a few minutes before carefully removing from pans and transferring to cooling racks.\n\nTo make the filling, in a small bowl, mix together the quinoa flour mix, salt, water, egg, and butter. In a medium saucepan, bring the milk to a slow boil. Add the flour mixture and stir until the filling thickens to a pudding consistency (several minutes). Remove from heat and allow to cool. Add vanilla and mix.\n\nAssemble the cake before making the glaze. Place first cake layer on a cake plate, spread cream filling over the top, and place second cake layer on top.\n\nTo make the glaze, place chocolate and heavy cream in a small saucepan and heat slowly, stirring constantly until melted. Pour over top of the cake and use a spatula or wide knife to spread as needed.\n\nCAKE\n\n\u00bd cup butter, softened\n\n1\u00bd cups granulated sugar\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\n2 eggs\n\n2\u00bc cup quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n2\u00bd teaspoons baking powder\n\n1 teaspoon salt\n\n1 cup milk\n\nCREAM FILLING\n\n1 cup granulated sugar\n\n2 tablespoons quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n\u00bc teaspoon salt\n\n2 tablespoons cold water\n\n1 egg\n\n1 tablespoon butter\n\n1 cup milk\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\nCHOCOLATE GLAZE\n\n4 ounces quality chocolate\n\n\u00bd cup heavy cream\n\nGingerbread Pumpkin Cupcakes with Spiced Cream\n\nMakes 1 dozen cupcakes.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u02daF. Grease a muffin tin and dust with gluten-free flour, or line with cupcake liners.\n\nIn a large mixing bowl, whisk together the flour, baking powder, ginger, cinnamon, salt, and brown sugar. In a separate bowl, whisk together the oil, eggs, vanilla, and pumpkin. Add the flour mixture to the wet mixture and stir to combine.\n\nFill muffin cups about \u00be full and bake for about 15 minutes, or until a toothpick inserted in the center of a cupcake comes out clean. Remove from oven and allow to cool completely.\n\nWhile cupcakes are cooling, make the spiced cream. In a medium bowl, beat the heavy cream until it becomes light and fluffy. Add the honey and vanilla and beat until desired consistency is reached. It should be fairly stiff to hold its shape on the cupcakes. Scoop cream into a pastry bag fitted with a wide round tip. Arrange cupcakes on serving tray. Just before serving, swirl cream on top of each cupcake. Sprinkle with ground cinnamon and serve immediately.\n\nCUPCAKES\n\n2 cups quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n2 teaspoons baking powder\n\n2 teaspoons ground ginger\n\n1 teaspoon ground cinnamon\n\n\u00bc teaspoon salt\n\n1 cup dark brown sugar\n\n\u00bd cup vegetable oil\n\n2 eggs\n\n2 teaspoons vanilla extract\n\n1 cup pumpkin puree\n\nSPICED CREAM\n\n1 cup heavy cream\n\n1 tablespoon honey\n\n\u00bd teaspoon vanilla\n\nGround cinnamon\n\nChocolate Bundt Cake with Sour Cream Glaze\n\nMakes 1 bundt cake.\n\nPreheat oven to 375\u02daF. Brew coffee. Grease the bundt pan and generously sift cocoa powder over it to prevent the cake from sticking after it's baked.\n\nIn a large bowl, whisk together the brewed coffee, buttermilk, butter, and cocoa powder. Add the sugar and whisk until dissolved. Allow to cool.\n\nIn a separate bowl, whisk together the flour, baking soda, and salt. Allow butter mixture to cool if it's still hot from the brewed coffee. Whisk in the egg and vanilla and mix until combined.\n\nPour the mixture into the bundt pan and bake 20 to 25 minutes, or until a toothpick inserted into one comes out clean. Remove from oven and allow to cool completely before removing from pan.\n\nMeanwhile, prepare the glaze. In a double boiler, melt the chocolate pieces, stirring constantly. Add the butter and continue stirring until incorporated. Gradually add the confectioners' sugar, and then the sour cream. Whisk until glossy.\n\nCarefully remove the bundt cake from the pan and place on large cutting board or other work surface. Drizzle the glaze over the cake and then allow to sit until glaze sets. Garnish as desired.\n\nCAKE\n\n\u00bd cup brewed coffee\n\n\u00bd cup buttermilk (or \u00bd cup milk mixed with \u00bd teaspoon vinegar)\n\n\u00bd cup unsalted butter, melted\n\n\u00bd cup cocoa powder, plus more for dusting the pan\n\n1 cup granulated sugar\n\n1 cup quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n\u00be teaspoon baking soda\n\n\u00bc teaspoon salt\n\n1 egg\n\n\u00bd teaspoon vanilla extract\n\nSOUR CREAM GLAZE\n\n6 ounces bittersweet chocolate, chopped\n\n\u00be cup unsalted butter\n\n1 cup confectioners' sugar\n\n\u00bd cup sour cream or Greek-style yogurt\n\nGARNISH (optional)\n\nFresh berries, crushed nuts, or sifted confectioners' sugar\n\nCranberry Pound Cake with Lemon Glaze\n\nMakes 1 loaf.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u02daF. Grease a loaf pan and generously dust with confectioners' sugar to prevent the cake from sticking after it's baked.\n\nIn a medium mixing bowl, beat together the butter and brown sugar. Add the eggs, one at a time, while beating, and then add the vanilla.\n\nIn a separate bowl, whisk together the flour, baking powder, and salt. Add the flour mixture to the wet mixture, stirring to combine. Fold in the cranberries and then pour into loaf pan. Bake 30 minutes, or until a toothpick inserted into the center comes out clean. Remove from oven and allow to cool completely before removing from pan.\n\nMeanwhile, prepare the glaze. Mix together confectioners' sugar and milk until smooth. Add lemon juice and whisk.\n\nCarefully remove the cake from the pan and place on large cutting board or other work surface. Drizzle the glaze over the cake and then allow to sit until glaze sets.\n\nCAKE\n\nConfectioners' sugar (for dusting pan)\n\n1 cup butter, unsalted\n\n1\u00bc cups brown sugar\n\n3 eggs\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\n1\u00bd cups quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n1\u00bd teaspoons baking powder\n\n\u00bd teaspoon salt\n\n2 cups cranberries\n\nLEMON GLAZE\n\n2 cups confectioners' sugar\n\n2 tablespoons milk\n\n2 teaspoons lemon juice\n\nApple Raspberry Quinoa Cake\n\nMakes one 9-inch round cake.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u02daF and grease a 9-inch cake pan. Beat together the butter and sugar until fluffy. Add applesauce and egg and beat until well mixed. Add cooked quinoa and stir.\n\nIn a separate bowl, combine quinoa flour mix and baking powder. Add to wet mixture and stir. Fold in apple chunks and raspberries.\n\nBake for about 50 minutes, or until a toothpick inserted into the center comes out fairly clean.\n\nIf you use honey instead of sugar in this recipe, reduce the oven temperature to 325\u02daF and bake for slightly longer. Honey makes baked goods brown more quickly than sugar, and you don't want a dark brown cake with a raw center.\n\n4 tablespoons butter, softened\n\n\u00be cup brown sugar or honey\n\n\u00bd cup applesauce\n\n1 egg, lightly beaten\n\n1 cup cooked quinoa\n\n1 cup quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n1\u00bd teaspoons baking powder\n\n2 apples, peeled and cut into small chunks\n\n1 cup fresh or thawed raspberries\n\nRich Chocolate Honey Cake\n\nMakes 1 double-layer cake.\n\nPreheat oven to 325\u02daF. Grease two 9-inch cake pans.\n\nPour the buttermilk and honey into a food processor and blend for about a minute. This will add air to the mixture, resulting in a lighter cake. Add the cooked quinoa and eggs and process until smooth. Add vanilla, butter, and applesauce, and blend until fully combined. Add remaining ingredients and pulse just until mixed.\n\nPour into two cake pans and bake for about 45 minutes or until a toothpick inserted into the center comes out relatively clean. Remove from oven and allow to cool before removing from pans.\n\nTo make the whipped topping, beat heavy cream with the vanilla and honey until light and fluffy. Spread over first cake, place second cake on top, and then spread over top. Serve immediately.\n\nCAKE\n\n\u00bc cup buttermilk\n\n\u00be cup honey\n\n2 cups cooked quinoa, cooled\n\n4 eggs\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\n\u00bd cup butter, softened\n\n\u00bd cup applesauce\n\n1 cup unsweetened cocoa powder\n\n1 teaspoon baking soda\n\n1\u00bd teaspoons baking powder\n\n\u00bd teaspoon salt\n\nTOPPING\n\n1 pint heavy cream\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla\n\n1 teaspoon honey\n\nRich Chocolate Cake with Chocolate Mascarpone Frosting\n\nMakes 1 double-layer cake.\n\nPreheat oven to 325\u02daF. Grease two 9-inch cake pans and dust with gluten-free flour.\n\nPour the milk, eggs, and vanilla in a food processor and blend for about a minute. Add the cooked quinoa and applesauce and process until smooth. Add coconut oil or butter and sugar and blend until fully combined. Add remaining ingredients and pulse just until mixed.\n\nPour into two cake pans and bake for about 45 minutes or until a toothpick inserted into the center comes out relatively clean. Remove from oven and allow to cool before removing from pans.\n\nTo make the frosting, beat heavy cream with the honey until light and fluffy. Add mascarpone and cocoa powder and beat until frosting consistency. Spread over first cake, place second cake on top, and then spread over top and sides. Sprinkle coconut flakes over the top and gently press into sides.\n\nCAKE\n\n\u2153 cup milk (dairy, almond, coconut, or soy)\n\n4 eggs\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\n2 cups cooked quinoa, cooled\n\n\u00bd cup applesauce\n\n\u00bd cup coconut oil or butter\n\n1 cup sugar\n\n1\u00bd teaspoons baking powder\n\n\u00bd teaspoon baking soda\n\n\u00bd teaspoon salt\n\nFROSTING\n\n1 pint heavy cream\n\n8 ounces mascarpone cheese\n\n3 tablespoons cocoa powder\n\n1 teaspoon honey\n\n2 cups coconut flakes, for garnish\n\nPumpkin Cheesecake with a Quinoa Maple Crust\n\nMakes one 9-inch round cheesecake.\n\nPreheat oven to 375\u02daF.\n\nTo make the crust, mix together all crust ingredients. Grease a 9-inch pie plate or springform pan, and then press the mixture into the bottom of the plate and up the sides. Bake for 10 minutes and then remove from oven.\n\nTo make the filling, beat the cream cheese until fluffy. Add the brown sugar, pumpkin, sour cream, vanilla, cinnamon, ginger, and salt, and beat until well combined. Add eggs one at a time, beating after each addition.\n\nPour filling into the crust and bake for about 45 minutes, or until filling is set. If you find that the crust is getting too dark while the cheesecake is baking, wrap the edges in tinfoil, being careful not to burn your fingers on the pie plate. Remove from oven.\n\nMix together topping ingredients in a medium bowl and then spread evenly over the top of the cheesecake. Bake for another 5 minutes and then remove from oven.\n\nAllow to cool on a wire rack and then refrigerate several hours or overnight.\n\nCRUST\n\n2 cups cooked quinoa\n\n\u00bd cup brown rice flour\n\n1 egg\n\n\u00bc cup butter or coconut oil, melted\n\n4 tablespoons maple syrup\n\n\u00bd teaspoon ground cinnamon\n\n\u00bd teaspoon ground ginger\n\nFILLING\n\n1\u00bd (8-ounce) packages cream cheese, softened\n\n\u00bd cup light brown sugar\n\n1 cup pumpkin puree\n\n\u00be cup sour cream\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\n\u00bd teaspoon ground cinnamon\n\n\u00bd teaspoon ground ginger\n\n\u00bc teaspoon salt\n\n2 eggs\n\nTOPPING\n\n\u00be cup sour cream\n\n\u00bc cup granulated sugar\n\n1 tablespoon maple syrup\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\nKey Lime Pie with a Quinoa Honey Crust\n\nMakes one 9-inch pie.\n\nPreheat oven to 375\u02daF.\n\nTo make the crust, mix together all crust ingredients. Grease a 9-inch pie plate or springform pan, and then press the mixture into the bottom of the plate and up the sides. Bake for about 20 minutes and then remove from oven.\n\nReduce oven temperature to 325\u02daF. To make the filling, beat together the eggs, sweetened condensed milk, and lime juice. Pour into crust and bake for about 15 minutes. Remove from oven and chill in the refrigerator for at least 2 hours before serving.\n\nKey lime pie should really be made with key limes, but since they're not readily available to many of us for most of the year, any fresh lime juice will do.\n\nCRUST\n\n2 cups cooked quinoa\n\n\u00bd cup brown rice flour\n\n1 egg\n\n\u00bc cup butter or coconut oil\n\n4 tablespoons honey\n\n\u00bd teaspoon ground cinnamon\n\n\u00bd teaspoon ground ginger\n\nFILLING\n\n3 eggs\n\n2 (14-ounce) cans sweetened condensed milk\n\n\u00be cup fresh-squeezed lime juice\n\nPeanut Butter Pie with a Raspberry Quinoa Crust\n\nMakes one 9-inch pie.\n\nPreheat oven to 375\u02daF.\n\nTo make the crust, mix together all crust ingredients. Grease a 9-inch pie plate or springform pan, and then press the mixture into the bottom of the plate and up the sides. Bake for about 20 minutes and then remove from oven and allow to cool completely. Spread the raspberry jam over the bottom of the shell.\n\nTo make the filling, in a large bowl, beat together the cream cheese, sugar, and peanut butter until fluffy. In a separate bowl, whip the cream with the vanilla until stiff peaks form.\n\nUse a big spoon or a rubber spatula to fold the whipped cream into the other batter. Pour the mixture into the baked pie shell and chill for at least 4 hours.\n\nCRUST\n\n2 cups cooked quinoa\n\n\u00bd cup brown rice flour\n\n1 egg\n\n\u00bc cup butter or coconut oil\n\n4 tablespoons maple syrup\n\n\u00bd teaspoon ground cinnamon\n\n\u00bd teaspoon ground ginger\n\n1 cup raspberry jam\n\nFILLING\n\n1 (8-ounce) package cream cheese\n\n\u00bd cup granulated sugar\n\n1 cup smooth peanut butter\n\n1 cup heavy whipping cream\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\nBlueberry-Peach Upside Down Cake\n\nMakes one 9-inch cake.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u02daF and grease a 9-inch round cake pan. Fresh fruit should be washed and dried before using; frozen fruit should be used frozen (don't thaw).\n\nFor the Topping: Place the cake pan over a burner and turn the heat to low. Add 3 tablespoons butter and allow to melt. Add sugar and stir until dissolved. Turn off the burner. Arrange the berries and peach slices on the bottom of the cake pan, in the sugar-butter syrup.\n\nFor the Cake: In a food processor, cream together the butter or coconut oil and brown sugar or coconut sugar. Add quinoa and process until smooth. Add yogurt, applesauce, vanilla, and eggs, and process another 30 seconds or until fully combined. In a separate large bowl, combine the quinoa flour mix, baking powder, baking soda, salt, and ginger. Pour wet mixture from the food processor into the dry mixture and stir to combine.\n\nPour batter over top of the fruit and bake for 30 to 40 minutes, or until the top is golden and a toothpick inserted into the center comes out clean. Remove from oven. While the cake is still hot, place a plate or baking sheet over top of the cake and, using oven mitts, flip it over. You may need to run a knife around the edge of the pan to loosen the sides.\n\nTOPPING\n\n3 tablespoons butter or coconut oil\n\n\u00bc cup light brown or coconut sugar\n\n1\u00bd cups fresh or frozen blueberries\n\n1 cup fresh or frozen peach slices (peeled)\n\nCAKE\n\n4 tablespoons butter or coconut oil, melted\n\n\u2153 cup light brown sugar or coconut sugar\n\n1 cup cooked quinoa\n\n\u00bd cup plain yogurt\n\n\u00bc cup unsweetened applesauce\n\n2 teaspoons pure vanilla extract\n\n2 eggs\n\n\u00be cup quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n2 teaspoons baking powder\n\n\u00bd teaspoon baking soda\n\n\u00bd teaspoon salt\n\n\u00bd teaspoon ginger\n\nCinnamon Coffee Cake\n\nMakes one 9-inch cake.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u02daF and grease a 9-inch round cake pan.\n\nFor the Cake: In a food processor, cream together the butter or coconut oil and brown sugar or coconut sugar. Add quinoa and process until smooth. Add yogurt, applesauce, vanilla, and eggs, and process another 30 seconds or so until fully combined.\n\nIn a separate large bowl, combine the quinoa flour mix, baking powder, baking soda, salt, and ginger. Pour wet mixture from the food processor into the dry mixture and stir to combine. Pour into prepared pan.\n\nFor the Topping: Combine oats, cooked quinoa, almonds, sugar, and butter and mix. Sprinkle evenly over cake.\n\nBake about 30 minutes, or until topping is gold and a toothpick inserted into the center comes out clean.\n\nCAKE\n\n4 tablespoons butter or coconut oil, melted\n\n\u2153 cup light brown sugar or coconut sugar\n\n1 cup cooked quinoa\n\n\u00bd cup plain yogurt\n\n\u00bc cup unsweetened applesauce\n\n2 teaspoons pure vanilla extract\n\n2 eggs\n\n\u00be cup quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n2 teaspoons baking powder\n\n\u00bd teaspoon baking soda\n\n\u00bd teaspoon salt\n\n\u00bd teaspoon ginger\n\nCRUMB TOPPING\n\n\u00be cup gluten-free oats\n\n\u00be cup cooked quinoa\n\n\u00bd cup sliced almonds\n\n\u00be cup brown sugar or coconut sugar\n\n1 stick (\u00bd cup) butter, softened\n\nGinger Lemon Coffee Cake\n\nMakes one 9-inch cake.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u02daF and grease a 9-inch round cake pan.\n\nFor the Cake: In a food processor, cream together the butter or coconut oil and brown sugar or coconut sugar. Add quinoa and process until smooth. Add yogurt, applesauce, lemon juice, lemon zest, and eggs, and process another 30 seconds or so until fully combined.\n\nIn a separate large bowl, combine the quinoa flour mix, baking powder, baking soda, salt, and ginger. Pour wet mixture from the food processor into the dry mixture and stir to combine.\n\nFor the Topping: Combine oats, cooked quinoa, sugar, and butter and mix. Stir in crystallized ginger. Sprinkle topping evenly over cake.\n\nBake about 30 minutes, or until topping is gold and a toothpick inserted into the center comes out clean.\n\nCAKE\n\n4 tablespoons butter or coconut oil, melted\n\n\u2153 cup light brown sugar or coconut sugar\n\n1 cup cooked quinoa\n\n\u00bd cup plain yogurt\n\n\u00bc cup unsweetened applesauce\n\n2 teaspoons lemon juice\n\n1 teaspoon lemon zest\n\n2 eggs\n\n\u00be cup quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n2 teaspoons baking powder\n\n\u00bd teaspoon baking soda\n\n\u00bd teaspoon salt\n\n1 teaspoon ginger\n\nCRUMB TOPPING\n\n\u00be cup gluten-free oats\n\n\u00be cup cooked quinoa\n\n\u00be cup brown sugar or coconut sugar\n\n1 stick (\u00bd cup) butter, softened\n\n\u00bc cup crystallized ginger, cut into small pieces\n\nPear and Pecan Coffee Cake\n\nMakes one 9-inch cake.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u02daF and grease a 9-inch round cake pan.\n\nFor the Cake: In a food processor, cream together the butter or coconut oil and brown sugar or coconut sugar. Add quinoa and process until smooth. Add yogurt, applesauce, and eggs, and process another 30 seconds or so until fully combined.\n\nIn a separate large bowl, combine the quinoa flour mix, baking powder, baking soda, salt, and cinnamon. Pour wet mixture from the food processor into the dry mixture and stir to combine. Add chopped pears and stir.\n\nFor the Topping: Combine oats, cooked quinoa, sugar, and butter and mix. Stir in chopped pecans. Sprinkle evenly over cake.\n\nBake about 30 minutes, or until topping is gold and a toothpick inserted into the center comes out clean.\n\nCAKE\n\n4 tablespoons butter or coconut oil, melted\n\n\u2153 cup light brown sugar or coconut sugar\n\n1 cup cooked quinoa\n\n\u00bd cup plain yogurt\n\n\u00bc cup unsweetened applesauce\n\n2 eggs\n\n\u00be cup quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n2 teaspoons baking powder\n\n\u00bd teaspoon baking soda\n\n\u00bd teaspoon salt\n\n1 teaspoon ground cinnamon\n\n2 pears, peeled, seeded, and chopped\n\nCRUMB TOPPING\n\n\u00be cup gluten-free oats\n\n\u00be cup cooked quinoa\n\n\u00be cup brown sugar or coconut sugar\n\n1 stick (\u00bd cup) butter, softened\n\n\u00bd cup chopped pecans\n\nCherry Almond Coffee Cake\n\nMakes one 9-inch cake.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u02daF and grease a 9-inch round cake pan.\n\nFor the Cake: In a food processor, cream together the butter or coconut oil and brown sugar or coconut sugar. Add quinoa and process until smooth. Add yogurt, applesauce, eggs, and almond flavoring, and process another 30 seconds or so until fully combined.\n\nIn a separate large bowl, combine the quinoa flour mix, baking powder, baking soda, and salt. Pour wet mixture from the food processor into the dry mixture and stir to combine. Add chopped cherries and stir.\n\nFor the Topping: Combine oats, cooked quinoa, sugar, and butter and mix. Stir in chopped almonds. Sprinkle evenly over cake.\n\nBake about 30 minutes, or until topping is gold and a toothpick inserted into the center comes out clean.\n\nCAKE\n\n4 tablespoons butter or coconut oil, melted\n\n\u2153 cup light brown sugar or coconut sugar\n\n1 cup cooked quinoa\n\n\u00bd cup plain yogurt\n\n\u00bc cup unsweetened applesauce\n\n2 eggs\n\n1 teaspoon almond flavoring\n\n\u00be cup quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n2 teaspoons baking powder\n\n\u00bd teaspoon baking soda\n\n\u00bd teaspoon salt\n\n1 cup pitted, chopped cherries\n\nCRUMB TOPPING\n\n\u00be cup gluten-free oats\n\n\u00be cup cooked quinoa\n\n\u00be cup brown sugar or coconut sugar\n\n1 stick (\u00bd cup) butter, softened\n\n\u00bd cup chopped almonds\nTea Breads, Muffins, and Scones\n\nQuinoa Oat Pumpkin Muffins\n\nMakes 1 dozen muffins.\n\nPreheat oven to 375\u02daF. Grease a 12-cup muffin tin or line with cupcake liners. Whisk together all the dry ingredients. In a separate bowl, whisk together the pumpkin, oil, milk, vanilla, and eggs and add to the dry ingredients, mixing until incorporated.\n\nAdd the chocolate chips, raisins, cranberries, or chopped apple and stir just until evenly distributed. Fill muffin tins nearly full and bake for about 20 minutes or until a toothpick inserted into the center of a muffin comes out fairly clean.\n\nI like the flavor of oats in these muffins, but you could certainly replace the oats with quinoa flakes if you wish!\n\n1\u00bd cups quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n1\u00bd cups gluten-free, old-fashioned oats\n\n\u00bd cup brown sugar or \u2153 cup maple syrup or honey\n\n1 teaspoon baking powder\n\n\u00bd teaspoon baking soda\n\n\u00bd teaspoon salt\n\n1 teaspoon cinnamon\n\n1 teaspoon ground ginger\n\n1\u00bd cups pumpkin puree\n\n3 tablespoons olive oil or melted coconut oil\n\n\u00bc cup milk (dairy, almond, coconut, or soy)\n\n2 teaspoons vanilla extract\n\n2 eggs, lightly beaten\n\n\u00bd cup dark chocolate chips, raisins, cranberries, or peeled, chopped apple (optional)\n\nLemon Poppy Seed Muffins\n\nMakes 1 dozen muffins.\n\nPreheat oven to 400\u02daF and grease a 12-cup muffin tin.\n\nIn a medium bowl, stir together all the dry ingredients.\n\nIn a separate bowl, mix together the melted butter or coconut oil, eggs, milk, and lemon juice. Add the dry ingredients to the wet and mix just until combined. Add poppy seeds and stir to distribute.\n\nPour batter into prepared pan and bake for about 20 minutes, or until a toothpick inserted into the center of a muffin comes out clean.\n\n2 cups quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n\u00bd teaspoon xanthan gum\n\n\u00bd teaspoon salt\n\n1 tablespoon baking powder\n\n\u00bd cup brown sugar\n\n4 tablespoons unsalted butter or coconut oil, melted\n\n2 large eggs\n\n1 cup milk\n\n1 teaspoon lemon juice\n\n2 tablespoons poppy seeds\n\nChocolate Chip Muffins\n\nMakes 1 dozen muffins.\n\nPreheat oven to 400\u02daF and grease a 12-cup muffin tin.\n\nIn a medium bowl, stir together all the dry ingredients.\n\nIn a separate bowl, mix together the melted butter or coconut oil, eggs, and milk. Add the dry ingredients to the wet and mix just until combined. Add chocolate chips and stir to distribute.\n\nPour batter into prepared pan and bake for about 20 minutes, or until a toothpick inserted into the center of a muffin comes out clean.\n\n2 cups quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n\u00bd teaspoon xanthan gum\n\n\u00bd teaspoon salt\n\n1 tablespoon baking powder\n\n\u00bd cup brown sugar\n\n4 tablespoons unsalted butter or coconut oil, melted\n\n2 large eggs\n\n1 cup milk\n\n\u00be cup semisweet chocolate chips\n\nCinnamon Carrot Muffins\n\nMakes 9 muffins.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u02daF. Line a muffin tin with 9 paper cups.\n\nIn a large bowl combine quinoa flour mix, cooked quinoa, coconut palm sugar, cinnamon, baking powder, baking soda and sea salt.\n\nCombine milk and lemon juice in a small bowl. Set aside to curdle.\n\nIn a medium bowl combine milk mixture, eggs, and applesauce. Whisk until well combined. Add coconut oil and vanilla extract. Stir until combined and then add wet mixture to the dry mixture.\n\nStir in carrots until just combined and spoon batter into cups. Bake for 22 to 28 minutes, until a toothpick comes out clean.\n\nCool in pan for 10 minutes and then transfer to a wire rack to continue cooling. Top with cinnamon drizzle if desired.\n\nFor the drizzle: Combine all ingredients in a small bowl. Add additional milk until desired texture is achieved.\n\nThis recipe comes from Gluten-Free Quintessential Desserts by Wendy Polisi.\n\n1 cup quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n\u00bd cup cooked quinoa\n\n\u00bd cup coconut palm sugar\n\n1 teaspoon ground cinnamon\n\n2 teaspoons baking powder\n\n1 teaspoon baking soda\n\n\u00bc teaspoon sea salt\n\n\u2153 cup dairy or soy milk\n\n1 teaspoon lemon juice\n\n2 room-temperature eggs\n\n\u00bc cup applesauce\n\n\u2153 cup coconut oil, melted\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\n2 cups shredded carrots\n\nCINNAMON DRIZZLE (optional)\n\n\u00bd cup powdered sugar\n\n\u00bd teaspoon cinnamon\n\n\u00bd tablespoon almond milk or milk of choice\n\nSweet Potato Scones\n\nMakes 1 dozen scones.\n\nPreheat oven to 425\u02daF and grease a baking sheet. Heat a pan of water to boiling. Peel and chop the sweet potato into 1-inch chunks. Boil for about 6 minutes or until soft when pricked with a fork. Drain, mash, and place in refrigerator to chill.\n\nWhisk together flours, brown sugar, baking powder, xanthan gum, salt, and cinnamon. Cut the butter or oil into the flour mixture and use your fingers to incorporate until the mixture resembles coarse crumbs.\n\nIn a small bowl, whisk together the egg, milk, and vanilla. Pour into the flour mixture, add mashed sweet potato, and stir to combine. Turn the dough onto a lightly floured surface, divide into two balls, and knead each 7 or 8 times. Place dough balls on cookie sheet and flatten each into circles that are about \u00be-inch thick. Slice into sixths but don't separate the wedges.\n\nBake for about 20 minutes or until tops and edges begin to brown. Dough will still be moist in the center. Remove from oven, use a spatula to separate the wedges, and cool on racks. Store in an airtight container in the refrigerator or freezer.\n\nKeeping all the ingredients cold while preparing the dough will result in flakier scones. Scones are best served warm and are delicious with jam.\n\n1 medium sweet potato (about 1 cup mashed)\n\n1\u00bd cups quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n\u00be cup oat flour\n\n\u00bc cup brown sugar\n\n2 teaspoons baking powder\n\n\u00bd teaspoon xanthan gum\n\n\u00bc teaspoon salt\n\n1 teaspoon cinnamon\n\n6 tablespoons butter or coconut oil, cold\n\n1 egg\n\n4 tablespoons cold milk\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla\n\nCranberry Quinoa Scones\n\nMakes 8 scones.\n\nPreheat oven to 400\u02daF. Line a baking sheet with parchment paper.\n\nIn a small bowl, combine almond milk and lemon juice. Set aside to curdle.\n\nIn a large bowl sift together brown rice flour, sorghum flour, quinoa flour, potato starch, tapioca starch, xanthan gum, sugar, baking powder, baking soda, and salt. Stir in orange peel. Using fingers or a pastry cutter, mix in butter until you have a coarse meal. Stir in cranberries.\n\nMix in milk mixture, \u00bc cup at a time, mixing with a fork as you go. Place mixture on a sheet of parchment paper and knead briefly. Form into a round, about an inch thick. Cut into 8 pieces.\n\nTransfer pieces to parchment-lined baking sheet. Bake for about 25 minutes. Remove from oven and allow to sit on the baking sheet for another 10 minutes. Serve warm.\n\nThis recipe comes from Gluten-Free Quintessential Desserts by Wendy Polisi.\n\n1 cup chilled almond milk (or milk of choice)\n\n1 tablespoon lemon juice\n\n1 cup extra-fine brown rice flour\n\n\u00be cup sorghum flour\n\n\u00bd cup quinoa flour, roasted (page 8)\n\n\u00bd cup potato starch\n\n\u00bc cup tapioca starch\n\n1\u00bd teaspoons xanthan gum\n\n\u2153 cup coconut palm sugar\n\n3 teaspoons baking powder\n\n\u00bd teaspoon baking soda\n\n1\u00bc teaspoons kosher salt\n\n1 tablespoon grated orange peel\n\n\u00be cup chilled Earth Balance or unsalted butter\n\n\u00be cup dried cranberries\n\nCherry Clafoutis\n\nMakes 1 dozen clafoutis.\n\nPreheat oven to 325\u02daF. Grease 12 muffin cups. In a large mixing bowl, beat together eggs, sugar, lemon zest, and vanilla. Add milk and beat another 30 seconds or so. Stir in the flour and salt.\n\nFill each muffin cup about \u2154 of the way, place 3 or 4 cherry halves on top of the batter in each cup, and bake for 20 to 25 minutes, or until a toothpick inserted in the middle of one comes out clean.\n\nJust before serving, dust with confectioners' sugar.\n\nDainty and delicious, clafoutis are perfect with a cup of afternoon tea!\n\n4 eggs\n\n\u00be cup sugar\n\n2 teaspoons lemon zest\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla\n\n1 cup milk (dairy, coconut, soy, or almond)\n\n\u00be cup quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n\u00bc teaspoon salt\n\n1 cup halved and pitted cherries\n\nConfectioners' sugar, for dusting\n\nMoist Zucchini Quick Bread\n\nMakes 1 loaf.\n\nPreheat oven to 375\u02daF and grease a loaf pan.\n\nIn a large bowl, mix together the quinoa flour mix, baking soda, baking powder, and salt. In a food processor, combine quinoa, sugar, eggs, butter or coconut oil, and vanilla. Process until smooth.\n\nPour into the large bowl containing the dry ingredients and stir to mix. Fold in zucchini and then pour batter into greased loaf pan.\n\nBake for about 45 minutes, or until a toothpick inserted into the center comes out relatively clean.\n\n1 cup quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n\u00bd teaspoon baking soda\n\n\u00bc teaspoon baking powder\n\n\u00bd teaspoon salt\n\n1 cup cooked quinoa, cooled\n\n1 cup sugar\n\n2 eggs\n\n3 tablespoons butter or coconut oil, melted\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\n2 cups shredded zucchini\n\nQuinoa Banana Bread\n\nMakes 1 loaf.\n\nPreheat oven to 375\u02daF and grease a loaf pan.\n\nIn a large bowl, mix together the quinoa flour mix, baking soda, and salt. In a food processor, combine quinoa, sugar, bananas, egg, butter or coconut oil, and vanilla. Process until smooth.\n\nPour into the large bowl containing the dry ingredients and stir to mix. Fold in chocolate chips and then pour batter into greased loaf pan.\n\nBake for about 45 minutes, or until a toothpick inserted into the center comes out relatively clean.\n\n1 cup quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n\u00bd teaspoon baking soda\n\n\u00bd teaspoon salt\n\n1 cup cooked quinoa, cooled\n\n\u00bd cup sugar\n\n2 very ripe bananas\n\n2 eggs\n\n3 tablespoons butter or coconut oil, melted\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\n\u00be cup chocolate chips\n\nQuinoa and Almond Flour Banana Bread\n\nMakes 1 loaf.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u02daF and grease a loaf pan.\n\nIn a large mixing bowl, whisk together all dry ingredients. In a separate bowl, mix together the wet ingredients. Fold the wet ingredients into the dry and mix to incorporate. Mix in chocolate chips, raisins, or walnuts if using.\n\nPour into the loaf pan and bake 35 to 40 minutes or until a toothpick inserted into the center comes out fairly clean. Allow to cool until pan can be handled and then remove from pan and continue cooling on a wire rack.\n\n1\u00bd cups quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n1\u00bd cups almond flour\n\n1 teaspoon baking soda\n\n\u00bd teaspoon baking powder\n\n\u00bd teaspoon salt\n\n3 eggs\n\n2 to 3 very ripe bananas, mashed\n\n\u2153 cup brown sugar, honey, or maple syrup\n\n\u00bc cup butter or coconut oil, softened\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\n1 cup chocolate chips, raisins, or walnuts (optional)\n\nPumpkin Pancakes\n\nMakes 6 servings.\n\nCoat a griddle or skillet with cooking spray and heat to medium low or 350 to 375\u02daF.\n\nSift together flour blend, baking powder, baking soda, cinnamon, ginger, and sea salt.\n\nIn a separate bowl combine almond milk, pumpkin puree, lemon juice, eggs, sweetener, melted coconut oil, and vanilla extract.\n\nCombine wet ingredients with the flour mixture and stir until combined. Add quinoa and mix well. Add more milk one tablespoon at a time if a thinner pancake is desired.\n\nDrop batter onto griddle using \u00bc-cup measure. Cook until the bottom is golden brown and the air bubbles start to pop. Flip and cook 3 to 5 minutes longer.\n\nThis recipe comes from Gluten-Free Quintessential Desserts by Wendy Polisi.\n\n2 cups quinoa flour mix (see page 9)\n\n2 teaspoons baking powder\n\n1 teaspoon baking soda\n\n1 teaspoon cinnamon\n\n\u00bd teaspoon ground ginger\n\n\u00be teaspoon sea salt\n\n1\u00be cups milk or almond milk\n\n\u00be cup pumpkin puree\n\n2 teaspoons lemon juice\n\n2 eggs\n\n1 tablespoon coconut nectar, maple syrup or agave\n\n1 tablespoon melted coconut oil\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\n1 cup cooked quinoa\nPies, Tarts, Crisps, and Crumbles\n\nCherry Mascarpone Tartlets\n\nMakes about 2 dozen tartlets.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u00b0F. Generously grease a mini tart tin with cooking spray or butter. In a large mixing bowl, whisk together the flour, almond meal, xanthan gum, sugar, and salt. Add the melted butter, vanilla, and milk, and mix. Use your hands to knead the dough until it hangs together and becomes smooth.\n\nTake a small chunk of dough, roll it into a ball between your palms, and place it in one of the tart cups. Use a pestle (from a mortar and pestle) to press the dough down so that it spreads up the sides of the cup. Repeat until all cups are filled.\n\nPlace mini tart tin in the oven and bake for about 10 minutes or until the shells are slightly golden. Remove from oven, press the dough down again if it has puffed up, and allow to cool.\n\nIn a medium bowl, mix together mascarpone cheese, cherries, almond extract, and honey. Fill each tartlet shell with the mixture and garnish with the toasted almonds or pistachios.\n\nSHELLS\n\n1 cup quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n\u00bd cup almond meal\n\n\u00bd teaspoon xanthan gum\n\n\u00bc cup sugar\n\n\u00bc teaspoon salt\n\n4 tablespoons butter, melted\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla\n\n3 tablespoons milk\n\nFILLING\n\n1 cup mascarpone cheese\n\n\u00bd cup pitted cherries, crushed into small pieces\n\n1 teaspoon almond extract\n\n1 tablespoon honey\n\n1 cup toasted almonds, chopped, or pistachios\n\nRaspberry Peach Cobbler\n\nMakes 8 to 10 servings.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u02daF.\n\nIn a large bowl, mix together peach slices, raspberries, and cornstarch. Divide between 8 to 10 ramekins.\n\nIn a medium mixing bowl, combine oats, flour, brown sugar, cinnamon, and nutmeg. Mix the butter in, using two forks, a pastry cutter, or your fingers to incorporate.\n\nPlace ramekins on a cookie sheet and divide topping between them. Bake for 35 to 40 minutes, or until topping is golden and bubbly. Cool before serving so that ramekins don't burn your fingers.\n\nRather than baking in ramekins, you can bake in a 2-quart casserole dish or a deep pie plate and then scoop into tea cups to serve, as shown here.\n\n5 medium peaches, peeled and sliced\n\n2 cups fresh or frozen raspberries\n\n1 tablespoon cornstarch\n\n\u00be cup gluten-free oats\n\n\u00be cup quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n1 cup brown sugar\n\n1 teaspoon cinnamon\n\n\u00bd teaspoon nutmeg\n\n1 stick (\u00bd cup) butter, cut into pieces\n\nRustic Plum Galettes\n\nMakes about 6 small galettes.\n\nIn a food processor, combine flour, almond flour, xanthan gum, salt, and sugar and pulse to mix. Add the coconut oil and pulse until coarse crumbs form. Add cider and 4 tablespoons water, pulse, and then add 1 tablespoon water at a time until dough hangs together. Place a large piece of parchment paper on a flat work surface, form dough into a ball, and place the ball on top of the paper. Cover with another large piece of parchment paper and roll out to about \u215b inch thick. Refrigerate for about 20 minutes.\n\nMix together the maple syrup or honey, ground almonds, cornstarch, and preserves in a small mixing bowl. When the dough is chilled, preheat oven to 375\u02daF. Cut the dough into circles about 4 inches in diameter and arrange on a baking sheet. Gather dough scraps and repeat.\n\nSpread the dough rounds with the filling mixture, leaving a 1-inch border. Dot with coconut oil, and then arrange a few plum slices on each one. Fold up the pastry edges, pressing lightly to adhere as necessary.\n\nBake for 40 to 45 minutes, or until pastry is golden. Remove from oven and cool on wire racks.\n\nMake sure the coconut oil is soft but not liquid when you use it. If it's too hard, heat it briefly until it softens up. If it's too liquidy, chill it before use.\n\nPASTRY\n\n1\u00bd cups quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n\u00bd cup almond flour\n\n2 teaspoons xanthan gum\n\n\u00bc teaspoon salt\n\n2 tablespoons sugar\n\n8 tablespoons coconut oil, soft but not liquid\n\n2 teaspoons cider vinegar\n\n6 to 8 tablespoons ice water\n\nPLUM FILLING\n\n\u00bc cup maple syrup or honey\n\n3 tablespoons ground almonds\n\n1 tablespoon cornstarch\n\n\u00bd cup plum, apricot, or raspberry preserves\n\n2 tablespoons coconut oil\n\n2 pounds fresh plums, pitted and sliced into thin wedges\n\nClassic Whoopie Pies\n\nMakes about 8 whoopie pies.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u02daF with rack in middle. Line two baking sheets with parchment paper or silicone baking mats and set aside.\n\nSift cocoa powder, flour, baking powder, baking soda, and salt into a large bowl. In a separate bowl, beat together butter and sugar until fluffy. Add egg and vanilla and mix until all are combined. Add half the dry mixture to the butter mixture and mix well. Slowly add in buttermilk and continue mixing. When mixture is consistent, add remaining dry mixture and mix until smooth.\n\nScoop heaping tablespoons of batter onto the prepared pans. Allow about 2 inches of space between each as cakes will spread as they bake.\n\nBake on center rack for 15 to 18 minutes, until a toothpick inserted comes out clean and the cakes spring back when touched. Remove from oven and immediately transfer cakes and parchment paper onto a cooling rack to cool completely.\n\nTo prepare the filling, beat together the butter, fluff, and sugar. Add the confectioners' sugar gradually, while beating. Add 1 teaspoon vanilla extract and mix so all ingredients are thoroughly combined. Transfer the filling to a pastry bag with a round tip. Pipe a dollop of filling on the flat side of half of the cooled cakes. Sandwich with remaining cookies.\n\nCAKE\n\n\u00bd cup Dutch process cocoa powder\n\n2\u00bd cups quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n1 teaspoon baking powder\n\n1 teaspoon baking soda\n\n\u00bd teaspoon salt\n\n1 stick unsalted butter, room temperature\n\n1 cup sugar\n\n1 large egg, room temperature\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\n1 cup buttermilk (if you don't have buttermilk, you can make your own by mixing 1 cup of milk with 3\u00bd teaspoons of lemon juice or white vinegar)\n\nFILLING\n\n\u00bd cup (1 stick) unsalted butter\n\n1 cup marshmallow fluff\n\n1 cup confectioners' sugar\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\nPop Tarts\n\nMakes about a dozen pop tarts.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u02daF. Line a baking sheet with parchment paper.\n\nIn a large mixing bowl, whisk together the flour, xanthan gum, sugar, and salt. Add the melted butter, vanilla, and milk and mix. Use your hands to knead the dough until it hangs together and becomes smooth.\n\nLine a flat work surface with parchment paper and dust with flour. Turn the dough onto the surface and place another piece of parchment paper over top. Roll out the dough to about \u00bc-inch thick. Peel away the top piece of parchment paper and slice dough into squares, hearts, or circles. Gather scraps into a ball, roll out again, and repeat until dough is all used up.\n\nSpoon a little jam into the center of the pastry. Place another pastry cut-out on top. Use the back of a fork to seal the edges. Transfer to the lined baking sheet and bake for 8 to 10 minutes, or until the edges begin to turn golden. Transfer to wire rack to cool.\n\nIf you like your pop tarts sweeter, mix up some confectioners' sugar with a bit of milk or water and drizzle the glaze over the cooled pop tarts.\n\nPASTRY\n\n1\u00bd cups quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n\u00bd teaspoon xanthan gum\n\n\u00bc cup sugar\n\n\u00bc teaspoon salt\n\n4 tablespoons butter, melted\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\n3 tablespoons milk\n\nFILLING\n\n6 tablespoons jam\n\nEmpanaditas\n\nMakes about 10.\n\nIn a medium mixing bowl, beat together the butter and cream cheese. Gradually add the flour and cornmeal, beating at low speed, until all the flour is incorporated. Gather the dough into two balls, wrap each in plastic wrap, and refrigerate for at least 2 hours.\n\nHeat oven to 375\u02daF and grease a baking sheet. Place a large sheet of waxed paper on a flat work surface, place one ball of dough in the center, and lay a second sheet of waxed paper over the top. Roll out the dough to about \u215b-inch thick.\n\nCut dough into 3 x 3-inch squares. Spread a little dulce de leche on half the squares and place a few thin slices of banana on top. Cover with another pastry square and use a fork to seal the edges. Sprinkle with cinnamon sugar.\n\nBake for 12 to 15 minutes or until golden.\n\nDulce de leche is a South American treat that is essentially caramelized milk. You can find it in specialty stores or online.\n\n1 cup unsalted butter, softened\n\n1 (8-ounce) package cream cheese, softened\n\n1\u00bd cups quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n\u00bd cup cornmeal\n\n1 cup dulce de leche\n\n2 medium bananas\n\nCinnamon sugar for sprinkling\n\nSummery Strawberry Crisp\n\nMakes 8 to 10 servings.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u02daF. Divide strawberries between 8 to 10 ramekins or place in a pie plate. To make the topping, combine oats, cooked quinoa, sugar, and butter and mix. Sprinkle evenly over strawberries. Bake for 20 to 30 minutes, or until tops are golden and berries are bubbly.\n\nTo make the whipped cream, beat all ingredients together until light and fluffy. Serve a dollop on each serving of crisp.\n\nSTRAWBERRY CRISP\n\n\u00be cup gluten-free oats\n\n\u00be cup cooked quinoa\n\n\u00bd cup sliced almonds\n\n\u00be cup brown sugar or coconut sugar\n\n1 stick (\u00bd cup) butter, softened\n\n1 pound strawberries (fresh or frozen), hulls removed and sliced\n\nWHIPPED CREAM\n\n1 pint heavy whipping cream\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\n1 teaspoon honey\n\nRhubarb Crumble\n\nMakes 8 to 10 servings.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u02daF.\n\nIn a saucepan, heat rhubarb and granulated sugar and simmer for about 10 minutes, or until the rhubarb starts to become soft. Remove from heat. Transfer to a pie plate.\n\nTo make the topping, combine oats, cooked quinoa, brown sugar, and butter and mix. Spread over cooked rhubarb. Bake for 20 to 30 minutes, or until top is golden.\n\nFor a variation, add some hulled and sliced strawberries or peach slices to the rhubarb after it has cooked!\n\n3 cups chopped rhubarb\n\n1 cup granulated sugar\n\n\u00be cup gluten-free oats\n\n\u00be cup cooked quinoa\n\n\u00be cup brown sugar or coconut sugar\n\n1 stick (\u00bd cup) butter, softened\n\nBlueberry Crumble\n\nMakes 8 to 10 servings.\n\nPreheat oven to 350\u02daF.\n\nPlace blueberries in a 9-inch pie plate.\n\nTo make the topping, combine oats, cooked quinoa, almonds, sugar, and butter and mix. Spread over blueberries. Bake for 20 to 30 minutes, or until top is golden.\n\n3 cups fresh or thawed blueberries\n\n\u00be cup gluten-free oats\n\n\u00be cup cooked quinoa\n\n\u00bd cup sliced almonds\n\n\u00be cup brown sugar or coconut sugar\n\n1 stick (\u00bd cup) butter, softened\n\nApple Pear Quinoa Crumble\n\nMakes 8 servings.\n\nPreheat oven to 400\u02daF. Grease 8 six- to eight-ounce ramekins.\n\nIn a small bowl combine quinoa flour, quinoa, nuts, sugar, and cinnamon. Using a pastry cutter or the back of a fork mix in butter until coarse crumbs are formed.\n\nIn a large bowl combine pears and apples. Toss with sugar and flour. Add lemon juice and apple juice and stir until well combined. Place apple mixture in ramekins and top with streusel. Bake for 40 minutes.\n\nThis recipe comes from Gluten-Free Quintessential Desserts by Wendy Polisi.\n\n\u00bd cup toasted quinoa flour\n\n\u00bd cup cooked quinoa\n\n\u00bc cup chopped walnuts or sliced almonds\n\n\u00bc cup coconut palm sugar or brown sugar\n\n\u00bc teaspoon ground cinnamon\n\n3 tablespoons Earth Balance or butter, softened\n\n3 medium apples, peeled and chopped\n\n3 medium pears, peeled and chopped\n\n2 tablespoons coconut palm sugar\n\n1 tablespoon toasted quinoa flour\n\n2 tablespoons lemon juice\n\n\u00bc cup apple cider or apple juice\nPuddings and Other Sweet Treats\n\nLemon Coconut Pudding with Mangos\n\nMakes 2 servings.\n\nIn a small saucepan, combine the quinoa and coconut milk and bring to a boil. Reduce to a simmer, cover, and stir occasionally for about half an hour. Remove from heat and add lemon juice and maple syrup. Allow to cool and then transfer to refrigerator to chill.\n\nLayer pudding and mango chunks in a bowl or glass and sprinkle slivered almonds on top, if desired.\n\nI used tri-colored quinoa in the pudding shown here, but any color will do!\n\n\u00be cup uncooked quinoa\n\n1 (14-ounce) can coconut milk\n\n2 tablespoons lemon juice\n\n2 tablespoons pure maple syrup\n\n\u00bd cup fresh or thawed mango chunks\n\nSlivered almonds (optional)\n\nCinnamon-Vanilla Pudding\n\nMakes 4 servings.\n\nIn a small saucepan, combine the quinoa and milk and bring to a boil. Reduce to a simmer, cover, and stir occasionally for about half an hour. Add maple syrup, vanilla, and cinnamon, and stir. Serve warm or chilled.\n\n1 cup uncooked quinoa\n\n3 cups milk\n\n3 tablespoons pure maple syrup\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\n1 teaspoon cinnamon\n\nChocolate Quinoa Porridge\n\nMakes 12 servings.\n\nBring quinoa flakes or quinoa, cocoa powder, and water or milk to a simmer in a medium saucepan. Reduce heat and simmer for about 7 minutes, or until most of the liquid has absorbed. Stir occasionally to prevent sticking.\n\nAdd vanilla, dried cherries, sunflower seeds, and maple syrup and stir until heated through. Transfer to a serving bowl and garnish with cocoa nibs and strawberries.\n\nThis recipe comes from Gluten-Free Quintessential Desserts by Wendy Polisi.\n\n\u2153 cup quinoa flakes or cooked quinoa\n\n\u00bd tablespoon cocoa powder or cacao powder\n\n\u00be cup water or milk of choice\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla extract\n\n1 tablespoon dried cherries\n\n1 tablespoon sunflower seeds\n\n1 tablespoon maple syrup\n\n\u00bd tablespoon cocoa nibs or chocolate chips\n\n\u00bd cup sliced strawberries\n\nGrilled Peaches with Maple Cinnamon Yogurt\n\nMake 4 servings.\n\nHeat greased grill to medium-high.\n\nMix together the yogurt, 1 tablespoon of the maple syrup, and the cinnamon. Set aside.\n\nWash the peaches, slice them in half, and remove the pits. Brush the cut sides with the remaining maple syrup. Grill cut-side down 6\u20138 minutes or until softened. Top with a dollop of the yogurt, sprinkle with the Quinoa Cashew Crunch 'n' Munch, and serve immediately.\n\n4 peaches\n\n3 tablespoons maple syrup, divided\n\n\u00bd cup Greek-style yogurt\n\n\u00bc teaspoon ground cinnamon\n\n\u00bc Quinoa Cashew Crunch 'n' Munch (page 157)\n\nBerries & Quinoa with Vanilla Bean Syrup\n\nMakes 6 servings.\n\nUsing a sharp paring knife, split the vanilla bean lengthwise. Scrape out seeds with the back of the knife, reserving the empty pod for a garnish if desired. Put the seeds in a small saucepan along with sugar and \u00bc cup of water. Bring to simmer over medium heat, stirring until sugar dissolves. Reduce heat to low and cook for 8 minutes. Strain through a fine strainer (the one you use to drain quinoa will work well). Let cool. Refrigerate until chilled.\n\nWash the berries and dry. If using strawberries, cut into quarters. Mix berries with quinoa and toss with just enough syrup to coat.\n\nThis recipe comes from Gluten-Free Quintessential Desserts by Wendy Polisi.\n\n\u00bd vanilla bean\n\n\u00bc cup evaporated cane juice (or sugar of choice)\n\n4 cups fresh berries\n\n2 cups cooked quinoa\n\nQuinoa Cashew Crunch 'n' Munch\n\nMakes 12 servings.\n\nTo pop the quinoa, place coconut oil in a popcorn popper and allow to get warm. Add quinoa and cook about 5 minutes, until quinoa is lightly brown. Alternatively, pop the quinoa in a covered saucepan, shaking to prevent burning.\n\nIn a large heavy saucepan, bring agave nectar, butter, almond butter, sugar, sea salt, and water to a boil, stirring often. Remove from heat and stir in popcorn, cashews, apples, and quinoa.\n\nArrange mixture on rimmed baking sheets lined with parchment paper. Allow to set for at least 20 minutes.\n\nThis recipe comes from Gluten-Free Quintessential Desserts by Wendy Polisi.\n\n1 cup popped quinoa\n\n\u2153 cup agave nectar, coconut nectar, or maple syrup\n\n2 tablespoons Earth Balance or butter\n\n\u2153 cup almond butter\n\n\u00bd cup coconut palm sugar\n\n1 teaspoon sea salt\n\n2 tablespoons water\n\n10 cups popped popcorn\n\n1 cup chopped cashews\n\n\u00bd cup chopped dried apples\n\nQuinoa Fruit Salad\n\nMakes 2 servings.\n\nIn a small bowl, whisk together the lime juice and honey or maple syrup. Add the ground ginger and fresh mint and stir.\n\nCombine all fruit in a medium bowl, add the cooked quinoa, and mix. Pour the lime juice mixture over top and stir to coat.\n\nJuice from 1 lime\n\n1 teaspoon honey or maple syrup\n\n\u00bc teaspoon ground ginger\n\n1 teaspoon chopped fresh mint leaves\n\n1 cup cooked quinoa, cooled\n\n\u00bc cup favorite fresh berries, rinsed\n\n\u00bc cup mango pieces\n\n\u00bc cup peach slices or other favorite fruit\n\nQuinoa and Fruit Pudding\n\nMakes 4 servings.\n\nRinse the quinoa and then place in a saucepan with the coconut milk and bring to a boil. Reduce to a simmer, cover, and stir occasionally for about half an hour.\n\nMeanwhile, in a food processor, blend together the bananas, cherries, vanilla, and cinnamon. Add mixture to the cooked quinoa.\n\nStir in chopped apple and apricots and serve.\n\n1 cup quinoa, raw\n\n2 cups coconut milk\n\n2 bananas\n\n\u00bd cup dried cherries\n\n1 teaspoon vanilla\n\n1 teaspoon cinnamon\n\n\u00bd cup chopped apple\n\n\u00bd cup chopped dried apricots\n\nPeach Coconut Flan\n\nMakes 6 servings.\n\nRinse the quinoa thoroughly. In a medium saucepan, combine quinoa and 1 cup of coconut milk. Simmer for about half an hour, stirring occasionally. Heat the oven to 350\u02daF.\n\nUse an immersion blender or food processor to puree the quinoa, gradually adding the additional \u00be cup of coconut milk.\n\nIn a separate bowl, beat together the eggs, maple syrup, and vanilla. Add to the quinoa puree.\n\nIn a small saucepan, make caramel sauce: combine sugar with 2 tablespoons water and stir over high heat until mixture becomes light brown. Divide hot caramel between 6 greased muffin cups.\n\nDivide the quinoa mixture between 6 muffin cups (pouring over the caramel) and cover muffin tin with aluminum foil. To make a water bath, place the muffin tin in a deep pan filled with enough water to cover halfway up the muffin tin. Place in oven and bake for about 45 minutes, or until the custard is set.\n\nAllow to cool several minutes and then turn muffin tin upside down over a baking sheet to remove the custards, using a knife or spatula as necessary to loosen the edges. Garnish with fresh peach slices.\n\n\u00bd cup quinoa, raw\n\n1\u00be cups coconut milk, divided\n\n4 eggs\n\n\u00bc cup maple syrup\n\n2 teaspoons vanilla extract\n\n1 cup sugar\n\n2 peaches\n\nMini Chocolate Waffles with Marshmallow-Strawberry Dipping Sauce\n\nMakes about 2 dozen.\n\nBegin heating the waffle iron. In a large mixing bowl, whisk together the flour, cocoa powder, sugar, salt, and baking powder.\n\nIn a separate bowl, whisk together the milk, eggs, and butter. Pour the wet ingredients into the dry ingredients and stir to combine.\n\nWhen the waffle iron is hot, grease or spray the irons and then ladle on the batter. You'll be making regular-sized waffles and then cutting them into smaller pieces when they're done. Cook 3 to 5 minutes, or until waffles are golden. Repeat until all batter is used.\n\nWhile waffles are cooling, prepare the dipping sauce simply by mixing together the fluff and jam.\n\nUse a small cookie cutter in desired shape to cut the waffles into small pieces. Circles or hearts work better than intricate shapes. Waffle scraps can be used instead of cookies in a trifle.\n\nScoop dipping sauce into a small bowl, place on a larger plate, and arrange the waffles on the plate around the bowl.\n\nWAFFLES\n\n2 cups quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n2 tablespoons cocoa powder\n\n\u00bd cup sugar\n\n\u00bd teaspoon salt\n\n3 teaspoons baking powder\n\n1\u00bd cups milk\n\n2 eggs\n\n4 tablespoons butter, melted\n\nDIPPING SAUCE\n\n\u00bd cup marshmallow fluff\n\n\u00bd cup strawberry jam\nMake-Ahead Mixes\nGluten-Free Mexican Brownie Mix\n\nMakes enough mix to fill one pint jar and to make one 8\" x 8\" pan of brownies.\n\nStir together all the ingredients and pour into a glass pint jar or a sealable bag.\n\nInclude these directions with the mix: Preheat oven to 350\u02daF and grease an 8\" x 8\" pan. Combine all of the mix with \u00bd cup unsalted butter or coconut oil, softened; 2 large eggs; and 1 teaspoon vanilla. Pour batter into prepared pan and bake for about 25 minutes. Cool in the pan for several minutes before cutting.\n\nTo make a regular brownie mix (instead of Mexican brownies), just omit the cinnamon and chili powder or cayenne pepper. You can also add \u00bd cup of chocolate chips to the mix for extra chocolaty brownies (though you may need a slightly larger jar to package it in).\n\n\u00bd cup quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n\u00bd cup unsweetened cocoa powder\n\n\u00bc teaspoon baking powder\n\n\u00bc teaspoon salt\n\n\u00be cup sugar\n\n\u00bd teaspoon cinnamon\n\n\u00bd teaspoon chili powder or cayenne pepper\n\nGluten-Free Peanut Butter Cookie Mix\n\nMakes mix for a dozen cookies.\n\nCombine all ingredients and package in a glass jar or sealable bag.\n\nInclude these instructions with the mix: Preheat oven to 375\u02daF. Combine the mix with \u00bd cup butter or coconut oil, 1 egg, 1 teaspoon vanilla, and \u00bd cup salted natural peanut butter. Roll dough into small balls and place 2\" apart on a cookie sheet. Bake for about 8 minutes or until cookies hang together. Cool cookies on cookie sheet for a few minutes before transferring to a wire rack.\n\n1\u00bd cups quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n\u00bd teaspoon baking soda\n\n\u00bd cup brown sugar\n\n\u00bc cup white sugar\n\n\u00bd cup chocolate chips\n\nGluten-Free Muffin Mix\n\nMakes mix for 12 regular muffins or 6 large muffins.\n\nStir together all the ingredients and pour into a glass pint jar or a sealable bag.\n\nInclude these directions with the mix: Preheat oven to 400\u02daF and grease a 12-cup muffin tin. Combine all of the mix with 4 tablespoons unsalted butter or coconut oil, melted; 2 large eggs; 1 cup milk; and 1 teaspoon vanilla. Mix just until combined. Pour batter into prepared pan and bake for about 20 minutes, or until a toothpick inserted into the center of a muffin comes out clean.\n\n2 cups quinoa flour mix (page 9)\n\n\u00bd teaspoon xanthan gum\n\n\u00bd teaspoon salt\n\n1 tablespoon baking powder\n\n\u00bd cup brown sugar\n\n1 teaspoon cinnamon\n\n\u00bd teaspoon nutmeg\n\n\u00bd cup dried apples or berries (optional)\n\nConversion Charts\n\nOVEN TEMPERATURES\n\nFahrenheit | Celsius | Gas Mark  \n---|---|---  \n225\u00b0 | 110\u00b0 | \u00bc  \n250\u00b0 | 120\u00b0 | \u00bd  \n275\u00b0 | 140\u00b0 | 1  \n300\u00b0 | 150\u00b0 | 2  \n325\u00b0 | 160\u00b0 | 3  \n350\u00b0 | 180\u00b0 | 4  \n375\u00b0 | 190\u00b0 | 5  \n400\u00b0 | 200\u00b0 | 6  \n425\u00b0 | 220\u00b0 | 7  \n450\u00b0 | 230\u00b0 | 8\n\nMETRIC AND IMPERIAL CONVERSIONS\n\n(These conversions are rounded for convenience)\n\nAbout the Author\n\nAbigail R. Gehring has enjoyed cooking and experimenting in the kitchen since she was a child. In college, she assisted food writer and cookbook author Nina Simonds, who taught her how to properly chop ginger and garlic and filled her head with exciting notions of a life peppered with food writing and travel.\n\nNow Abigail edits cookbooks and manages the art and production departments at Skyhorse Publishing, based in New York City. She is the author of more than a dozen books on cooking and country living skills. Since going gluten-free for health reasons in 2009, she has turned her focus to healthy gluten-free cooking.\n\nFood photography is a more recent passion of Abigail's. With help from her husband, Tim Lawrence, she's had a wonderful time learning her way around a camera.\n\nAbigail can't remember a time that she's followed a recipe exactly, except when she's testing her own for a cookbook. She lives in Marlboro, Vermont.\n\nIndex\n\nA\n\nagave, \u2013\n\nalmond butter, , , , , , , ,\n\nAlmond Butter Brownies,\n\nalmond flour, ,\n\nalmonds\n\nAlmond Butter Brownies,\n\nAlmond-Orange Biscotti,\n\nApple Granola Bars, \u2013\n\nApple Pear Quinoa Crumble,\n\nBlueberry Crumble,\n\nCherry Almond Coffee Cake,\n\nCherry and Dark Chocolate Biscotti,\n\nCoconut Florentine Lace Cookies, \u2013\n\nEnglish Tea Squares,\n\nFlourless Chocolate Quinoa Cookies,\n\nGranola Bars,\n\nQuinoa Date Snowballs, \u2013\n\nSummery Strawberry Crisp,\n\napples\n\nApple Granola Bars, \u2013\n\nApple Pear Quinoa Crumble, \u2013\n\nApple Raspberry Quinoa Cake,\n\nChocolate Quinoa Apple Wedges, \u2013\n\nQuinoa Applesauce Cookies,\n\nQuinoa Cashew Crunch 'n' Munch, \u2013\n\nB\n\nbaking basics\n\ngluten-free,\n\nquinoa,\n\nsweeteners, \u2013\n\nbananas\n\nEmpanaditas,\n\nQuinoa and Almond Flour Banana Bread,\n\nQuinoa Banana Bread,\n\nBars. see also Brownies\n\nApple Granola Bars, \u2013\n\nBlondies,\n\nDate Sandwich Bars,\n\nEnglish Tea Squares,\n\nGranola Bars,\n\nLemon Bars,\n\nQuinoa Power Bars, \u2013\n\nRaspberry Bar Cookies,\n\nberries. see Fruit; specific berries\n\nBerries & Quinoa with Vanilla Bean Syrup,\n\nbiscotti, \u2013,\n\nBlondies,\n\nBlueberry Crumble,\n\nBlueberry-Peach Upside Down Cake, \u2013\n\nBoston Cream Pie,\n\nbrittle,\n\nbrown sweet rice flour,\n\nBrownies\n\nAlmond Butter Brownies,\n\nCream Cheese Brownies,\n\nGluten-Free Mexican Brownie Mix,\n\nMocha Brownies,\n\nQuinoa Brownies,\n\nVegan Pumpkin Brownies, \u2013\n\nC\n\nCakes and Cupcakes\n\nApple Raspberry Quinoa Cake,\n\nBlueberry-Peach Upside Down Cake, \u2013\n\nBoston Cream Pie,\n\nCherry Almond Coffee Cake,\n\nChocolate Bundt Cake with Sour Cream Glaze,\n\nCinnamon Coffee Cake,\n\nCranberry Pound Cake with Lemon Glaze,\n\nGinger Lemon Coffee Cake,\n\nGingerbread Pumpkin Cupcakes with Spiced Cream, \u2013\n\nPear and Pecan Coffee Cake,\n\nPumpkin Cheesecake with a Quinoa Maple Crust, \u2013\n\nRich Chocolate Cake with Chocolate Mascarpone Frosting, \u2013\n\nRich Chocolate Honey Cake,\n\nCandy\n\nCandy Coated Nuts,\n\nChocolate Quinoa Crunch,\n\nCrunchy Mocha Fudge,\n\nDried Cherry and Chocolate Balls,\n\nHazelnut Rocher Truffles,\n\nMaple Quinoa Nut Brittle,\n\nPecan Quinoa Toffee,\n\nQuinoa Chocolate Truffles, \u2013\n\nQuinoa Cracker Jacks, \u2013\n\nQuinoa Date Snowballs, \u2013\n\nQuinoa Halvah, \u2013\n\nSalted Quinoa Chocolate Bark with Pistachios, \u2013\n\nSugar Plums,\n\ncane sugar, pure,\n\ncarob, \u2013,\n\ncarrot muffins, \u2013\n\ncashews, , \u2013\n\ncheesecake, \u2013\n\ncherries. see dried cherries\n\nCherry Almond Coffee Cake,\n\nCherry and Dark Chocolate Biscotti, \u2013\n\nCherry Clafoutis, \u2013\n\nCherry Mascarpone Tartlets, \u2013\n\nchia seeds,\n\nChocolate\n\nbrownies. see Brownies\n\nCakes\n\nChocolate Bundt Cake with Sour Cream Glaze,\n\nChocolate Quinoa Apple Wedges, \u2013\n\nRich Chocolate Cake with Chocolate Mascarpone Frosting, \u2013\n\nRich Chocolate Honey Cake,\n\nCandy\n\nChocolate Peanut Butter Cups,\n\nChocolate Quinoa Crunch,\n\nCrunchy Mocha Fudge,\n\nDried Cherry and Chocolate Balls,\n\nHazelnut Rocher Truffles,\n\nPecan Quinoa Toffee,\n\nQuinoa Chocolate Truffles, \u2013\n\nSalted Quinoa Chocolate Bark with Pistachios, \u2013\n\nCherry Mascarpone Tartlets, \u2013\n\nChocolate Chip Muffins,\n\nChocolate Quinoa Porridge, \u2013\n\nCookies\n\nCherry and Dark Chocolate Biscotti, \u2013\n\nChocolate Chip Quinoa Cookies, \u2013\n\nChocolate Mint Cookies, \u2013\n\nChocolate Mint Ice Cream Sandwiches, \u2013\n\nClassic Whoopie Pies, \u2013\n\nFlourless Chocolate Quinoa Cookies, \u2013\n\nQuinoa-Flax Chocolate Chip Cookies, \u2013\n\nMini Chocolate Waffles with Marshmallow-Strawberry Dipping Sauce,\n\ncinnamon\n\nCinnamon Carrot Muffins, \u2013\n\nCinnamon Coffee Cake,\n\nCinnamon-Vanilla Pudding, \u2013\n\nClassic Whoopie Pies, \u2013\n\ncoconut\n\nApple Granola Bars, \u2013\n\nChocolate Mascarpone Frosting, \u2013\n\nCoconut Florentine Lace Cookies, \u2013\n\nLemon Coconut Pudding with Mangos, \u2013\n\nPeach Coconut Flan,\n\nQuinoa Date Snowballs, \u2013\n\ncoconut sugar,\n\ncoffee, , ,\n\nconversion charts, ,\n\nCookies\n\nbaking tips,\n\nCherry and Dark Chocolate Biscotti, \u2013\n\nChocolate Chip Quinoa Cookies, \u2013\n\nChocolate Mint Cookies, \u2013\n\nChocolate Mint Ice Cream Sandwiches, \u2013\n\nClassic Whoopie Pies, \u2013\n\nCoconut Florentine Lace Cookies, \u2013\n\nCranberry Quinoa Cookies, \u2013\n\nEnergy Cookies, \u2013\n\nFlourless Chocolate Quinoa Cookies, \u2013\n\nGluten-Free Make-Ahead Mix,\n\nNo-bake Carob Cookies, \u2013\n\nQuinoa Applesauce Cookies,\n\nQuinoa-Flax Chocolate Chip Cookies, \u2013\n\ncranberries\n\nCranberry Pound Cake with Lemon Glaze,\n\nCranberry Quinoa Cookies, \u2013\n\nCranberry Quinoa Scones, \u2013\n\ncream cheese, , , , \u2013\n\nCream Cheese Brownies,\n\nCrumbles, Cobblers, and Crisps\n\nApple Pear Quinoa Crumble, \u2013\n\nBlueberry Crumble,\n\nRaspberry Peach Cobbler, \u2013\n\nRhubarb Crumble,\n\nSummery Strawberry Crisp, \u2013\n\ncrunch 'n' munch, \u2013\n\nD\n\ndates\n\nDate Sandwich Bars,\n\nEnergy Cookies, \u2013\n\nQuinoa Date Snowballs, \u2013\n\nSugar Plums,\n\nDesserts and Sweet Treats\n\nBerries & Quinoa with Vanilla Bean Syrup,\n\nChocolate Quinoa Porridge, \u2013\n\nGrilled Peaches with Maple Cinnamon Yogurt,\n\nMini Chocolate Waffles with Marshmallow-Strawberry Dipping Sauce,\n\nPeach Coconut Flan,\n\nQuinoa Cashew Crunch 'n' Munch, \u2013\n\nQuinoa Fruit Pudding,\n\nQuinoa Fruit Salad,\n\ndried cherries\n\nCherry and Dark Chocolate Biscotti, \u2013\n\nChocolate Quinoa Crunch,\n\nDried Cherry and Chocolate Balls,\n\nFlourless Chocolate Quinoa Cookies,\n\nGranola Bars,\n\nQuinoa Cracker Jacks,\n\nQuinoa Power Bars,\n\ndried cranberries, \u2013,\n\ndulce de leche,\n\nE\n\nEmpanaditas, \u2013\n\nEnergy Cookies, \u2013\n\nEnglish Tea Squares,\n\nF\n\nflax seeds, , ,\n\nflorentines, \u2013\n\nflour, , ,\n\nFlourless Chocolate Quinoa Cookies, \u2013\n\nfrosting\n\nchocolate glaze,\n\nChocolate Mascarpone Frosting, \u2013\n\nlemon glaze,\n\nsour cream glaze,\n\nspiced cream, \u2013\n\nfructose,\n\nFruit. see also apples; dried cherries; pumpkin\n\nbananas\n\nEmpanaditas,\n\nQuinoa and Almond Flour Banana Bread,\n\nQuinoa Banana Bread,\n\nberries\n\nApple Raspberry Quinoa Cake,\n\nBerries & Quinoa with Vanilla Bean Syrup,\n\nBlueberry-Peach Upside Down Cake, \u2013\n\nChocolate Quinoa Porridge, \u2013\n\nRaspberry Bar Cookies,\n\nRaspberry Peach Cobbler, \u2013\n\nSummery Strawberry Crisp, \u2013\n\nCherry Clafoutis, \u2013\n\nCherry Mascarpone Tartlets, \u2013\n\ncitrus\n\nAlmond-Orange Biscotti,\n\nCranberry Quinoa Scones,\n\nGinger Lemon Coffee Cake,\n\nKey Lime Pie with a Quinoa Honey Crust,\n\nLemon Bars,\n\nLemon Coconut Pudding with Mangos, \u2013\n\nlemon glaze,\n\ncranberries\n\nCranberry Pound Cake with Lemon Glaze,\n\nCranberry Quinoa Cookies, \u2013\n\nCranberry Quinoa Scones, \u2013\n\ndates\n\nDate Sandwich Bars,\n\nEnergy Cookies, \u2013\n\nQuinoa Date Snowballs, \u2013\n\nSugar Plums,\n\nEnglish Tea Squares,\n\npeaches\n\nBlueberry-Peach Upside Down Cake, \u2013\n\nGrilled Peaches with Maple Cinnamon Yogurt,\n\nPeach Coconut Flan,\n\nRaspberry Peach Cobbler, \u2013\n\nQuinoa Fruit Pudding,\n\nQuinoa Fruit Salad,\n\nRustic Plum Galettes, \u2013\n\nfudge,\n\nG\n\nGingerbread Pumpkin Cupcakes with Spiced Cream, \u2013\n\ngluten-free baking\n\ndanger list: ingredients that contain gluten,\n\nmake-ahead mixes, \u2013\n\nmaybe list: ingredients that may contain gluten,\n\noverview,\n\nQuinoa Flour Mix,\n\nsafe list: grains that don't contain gluten,\n\ntips for success,\n\nGranola Bars, \u2013,\n\nH\n\nhalvah, \u2013\n\nhazelnuts,\n\nhoney, , \u2013, ,\n\nI\n\nice cream sandwiches, \u2013\n\nJ\n\njam, , , , ,\n\nK\n\nKey Lime Pie with a Quinoa Honey Crust,\n\nL\n\nlemon\n\nCherry Clafoutis, \u2013\n\nGinger Lemon Coffee Cake,\n\nLemon Bars,\n\nLemon Coconut Pudding with Mangos, \u2013\n\nlemon glaze,\n\nLemon Poppy Seed Muffins,\n\nlimes,\n\nM\n\nmacadamia nuts,\n\nMake-Ahead Mixes\n\nGluten-Free Mexican Brownie Mix,\n\nGluten-Free Muffin Mix,\n\nGluten-Free Peanut Butter Cookie Mix,\n\nmangos, \u2013,\n\nMaple Quinoa Nut Brittle,\n\nmaple syrup, , \u2013,\n\nmarshmallow fluff, ,\n\nmascarpone,\n\nmint, \u2013, \u2013,\n\nmixes. see Make-Ahead Mixes\n\nMocha Brownies,\n\nMoist Zucchini Quick Bread,\n\nMuffins\n\nChocolate Chip Muffins,\n\nCinnamon Carrot Muffins, \u2013\n\nGluten-Free Muffin Mix,\n\nLemon Poppy Seed Muffins,\n\nQuinoa Oat Pumpkin Muffins, \u2013\n\nN\n\nnuts. see also almonds; specific nuts\n\nCandy Coated Nuts,\n\nCherry Almond Coffee Cake,\n\nHazelnut Rocher Truffles,\n\nMaple Quinoa Nut Brittle,\n\nPear and Pecan Coffee Cake,\n\nPecan Quinoa Toffee,\n\nQuinoa Cashew Crunch 'n' Munch, \u2013\n\nQuinoa Halvah, \u2013\n\nQuinoa Power Bars, \u2013\n\nSalted Quinoa Chocolate Bark with Pistachios, \u2013\n\nSugar Plums,\n\nO\n\noats\n\nApple Granola Bars, \u2013\n\nCinnamon Coffee Cake,\n\nDate Sandwich Bars,\n\ngluten concerns,\n\nQuinoa Oat Pumpkin Muffins, \u2013\n\nRaspberry Bar Cookies,\n\nRaspberry Peach Cobbler,\n\nRhubarb Crumble,\n\nSummery Strawberry Crisp,\n\noranges, ,\n\nP\n\npancakes, pumpkin, \u2013\n\npeaches\n\nBlueberry-Peach Upside Down Cake, \u2013\n\nGrilled Peaches with Maple Cinnamon Yogurt,\n\nPeach Coconut Flan,\n\nQuinoa Fruit Salad,\n\nRaspberry Peach Cobbler, \u2013\n\npeanut butter\n\nChocolate Peanut Butter Cups,\n\nEnergy Cookies, \u2013\n\nGluten-Free Peanut Butter Cookie Mix,\n\nNo-bake Carob Cookies, \u2013\n\nPeanut Butter Pie with a Raspberry Quinoa Crust,\n\npears, , \u2013\n\nPear and Pecan Coffee Cake,\n\nPecan Quinoa Toffee,\n\npecans,\n\nPies and Pastries\n\nBoston Cream Pie,\n\nClassic Whoopie Pies, \u2013\n\nEmpanaditas, \u2013\n\nKey Lime Pie with a Quinoa Honey Crust,\n\nPeanut Butter Pie with a Raspberry Quinoa Crust,\n\nPop Tarts, \u2013\n\nRustic Plum Galettes, \u2013\n\npistachios, \u2013\n\nplums, \u2013\n\nPop Tarts, \u2013\n\npopcorn, ,\n\nPuddings\n\nCinnamon-Vanilla Pudding, \u2013\n\nLemon Coconut Pudding with Mangos, \u2013\n\nQuinoa Fruit Pudding,\n\npumpkin\n\nGingerbread Pumpkin Cupcakes with Spiced Cream, \u2013\n\nPumpkin Cheesecake with a Quinoa Maple Crust, \u2013\n\nPumpkin Pancakes, \u2013\n\nQuinoa Oat Pumpkin Muffins, \u2013\n\nVegan Pumpkin Brownies, \u2013\n\npure cane sugar,\n\nQ\n\nQuinoa\n\ncooked,\n\nflakes, , , , , , , ,\n\nflour,\n\noverview,\n\nQuinoa and Almond Flour Banana Bread,\n\nQuinoa Applesauce Cookies,\n\nQuinoa Banana Bread,\n\nQuinoa Cashew Crunch 'n' Munch, \u2013\n\nQuinoa Flour Mix,\n\nQuinoa Fruit Pudding,\n\nQuinoa Fruit Salad,\n\nQuinoa Oat Pumpkin Muffins, \u2013\n\nQuinoa Power Bars, \u2013\n\nQuinoa-Flax Chocolate Chip Cookies, \u2013\n\nR\n\nraspberries\n\nApple Raspberry Quinoa Cake,\n\nPeanut Butter Pie with a Raspberry Quinoa Crust,\n\nRaspberry Bar Cookies,\n\nRaspberry Peach Cobbler, \u2013\n\nRhubarb Crumble,\n\nrice syrup,\n\nRich Chocolate Cake with Chocolate Mascarpone Frosting, \u2013\n\nRustic Plum Galettes, \u2013\n\nS\n\nSalted Quinoa Chocolate Bark with Pistachios, \u2013\n\nScones\n\nCranberry Quinoa Scones, \u2013\n\nSweet Potato Scones, \u2013\n\nspelt,\n\nspiced cream, \u2013\n\nstrawberries, \u2013, ,\n\nSugar Plums,\n\nSweet Potato Scones, \u2013\n\nsweeteners, \u2013\n\nT\n\ntahini,\n\nTartlets, Cherry Mascarpone, \u2013\n\nTea Breads\n\nCherry Clafoutis, \u2013\n\nMoist Zucchini Quick Bread,\n\nPumpkin Pancakes, \u2013\n\nQuinoa and Almond Flour Banana Bread,\n\nQuinoa Banana Bread,\n\ntruffles, \u2013,\n\nV\n\nvanilla bean syrup,\n\nvanilla-cinnamon pudding, \u2013\n\nVegan Pumpkin Brownies, \u2013\n\nW\n\nwaffles,\n\nwalnuts, ,\n\nwhoopie pies, \u2013\n\nY\n\nyogurt,\n\nZ\n\nzucchini bread, \nALSO AVAILABLE\n\nThe Quintessential Quinoa Cookbook\n\nEat Great, Lose Weight, Feel Healthy\n\nby Wendy Polisi\n\nWith over two-hundred pages of quinoa-inspired cuisine, The Quintessential Quinoa Cookbook is unlike any other quinoa cookbook. Inside you'll find Wendy's exclusive, handcrafted recipes, photographs of every recipe, nutritional information for every recipe, and alternative ingredients and preparation methods. Included are vegan, gluten-free, sugar-free, fast & easy, eating clean, kid-friendly, and even dessert quinoa recipes! Let's take a quick peek at the recipes included: Strawberry Spinach Quinoa Salad, Black Bean and Quinoa Tostadas, Quinoa Burgers, Almond Fudge Quinoa Brownies, Sun-Dried Tomato and Goat Cheese Pizza, and much more!\n\n$17.95 Hardcover \u2022 ISBN 978-1-61608-535-3\n\nThe Gluten-Free Quintessential Quinoa Cookbook\n\nEat Great, Lose Weight, Feel Healthy\n\nby Wendy Polisi\n\nGet ready, get set, get gluten-free! Superfood quinoa finally gets its own gluten-free cookbook! Inside you'll find Wendy's exclusive, handcrafted recipes, photographs of every recipe, nutritional information for every recipe, and alternative ingredients and preparation methods.\n\n$17.95 Hardcover \u2022 ISBN 978-1-62087-699-2\n\nGluten-Free Miniature Desserts\n\nTartlets, Mini Pies, Cake Pops, and More\n\nby Abigail R. Gehring\n\nThe only thing better than traditional dessert is an adorably small dessert you can pick up with your fingers and devour in a few sumptuous bites. Cake pops, mini pies, and tiny tarts are everyone's favorite new treats, and it's no wonder\u2014they're cute, they're fun, and they're small enough that you can sample one of each at a party!\n\nFor the growing population with gluten allergies or sensitivity, dessert is tricky territory. Gehring, who has been gluten-free for three years, has experienced many of the pitfalls of gluten-free cooking and baking so you don't have to! Here are more than sixty recipes you'll have fun making and feel great eating:\n\n\u2022 Banana Nutella Crepes\n\n\u2022 Cherry Mascarpone Tartlets\n\n\u2022 Chocolate Cheesecake Bonbons in Raspberry Sauce\n\n\u2022 Chocolate Espresso Pots de Cr\u00e8me\n\n\u2022 Coconut Key Lime Shooters\n\n\u2022 Ginger Cream Tartlets\n\n\u2022 Lemon Coconut Petit Fours\n\n\u2022 Mini Chocolate Bundt Cakes with Sour Cream Glaze\n\n\u2022 Pumpkin Whoopie Pies with Maple Cream Filling\n\n\u2022 Raspberry Peach Cobbler\n\n$14.95 Paperback \u2022 ISBN 978-1-62636-024-2\n\nThe Healthy Gluten-Free Diet\n\nNutritious and Delicious Recipes for a Gluten-Free Lifestyle\n\nby Abigail R. Gehring\n\nFortunately for those with celiac disease or gluten-intolerance or sensitivity, gluten-free foods are becoming much more readily available at grocery stores and restaurants across the country. However, many prepackaged options are laden with sugar, unhealthy fats, and grains and starches that are devoid of nutritional value. They may be \"safe\" for those who can't eat gluten, but they're far from healthy. In The Healthy Gluten-Free Diet, Gehring provides nearly one hundred recipes that are safe for those on a gluten-free diet, healthy for anyone, and delicious for the whole family! Recipes include:\n\n\u2022 Almond Flour Banana Bread\n\n\u2022 Buckwheat Apple Pancakes\n\n\u2022 Cheddar-Herb Drop Biscuits\n\n\u2022 Cherry and Dark Chocolate Biscotti\n\n\u2022 Grilled Pear Salad with Green Tea Dressing\n\n\u2022 Moroccan Chickpea Slow Cooker Stew\n\n\u2022 Oatmeal Peppermint Chip Cookies\n\n\u2022 Polenta Feta Shrimp Bake\n\n\u2022 Pumpkin Cornbread\n\n\u2022 Quinoa Risotto with Shitake Mushrooms and Arugula\n\n\u2022 Raspberry Peach Cobbler\n\n\u2022 Sweet Potato Scones\n\n\u2022 And many more!\n\nGehring loves experimenting with exciting grains and shares that thrill with her readers. Recipes utilize a variety of grains and flours including quinoa, millet, amaranth, teff, sorghum, brown rice, almond flour, coconut flour, and more. Learn the nutritional benefits of each and even discover how to grow, thresh, and grind your own grains!\n\n$16.95 Hardcover \u2022 ISBN 978-1-62873-755-4\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}}